^1 K u K' >?|" te ?»A UK - ' ' ? If,-,: ^V ' • -.•;••£?. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ELEVENTH edition, published in three volumes,. 1768—1771. ten 1777—1)84. eighteen 1788 — 1797. twenty 1801 — 1810. twenty 1815 — 1817. twenty 1823 — 1824. twenty-one 1830 — 1842. twenty-two 1853 — 1860. twenty-five 1875 — 1889. ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE A II rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIII REFECTORY to SAINTE-BEUVE Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 E3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company A. G.* INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Ch. A. B. CHATWOOD, Ass.M.lNST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E. \ Safes, Strong-rooms and Vaults. A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. f Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist,] DO_«:I«C. w«t~,«, t;~ Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogue cf Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, 1 KePtlles- History (in part) and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. / D . . See the biographical article: DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. \ Richardson, Samuel. A. D. Mo. ANSON DANIEL MORSE, M.A., LL.D. r Emeritus Professor of History at Amherst College, Mass. Professor at Amherst -< Republican Party. College, 1877-1908. ARTHUR GAMGEE, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P., LL.D., D.Sc. (1841-1000). f .. Formerly Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution of Great Britain, and I ResPiratory System: Move- Professor of Physiology in the University of Manchester. Author of Text-Book of] ments of Respiration. the Physiological Chemistry of the Animal Body; &c. A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / Dlhadpnpira Ppdro A Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. A. H.* ALBERT HAUCK, D.Tn., D.Pn. Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig, and Director of the Museum of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Geheimer Kirchenrat of Saxony. Member of the Royal Saxon Academy of Sciences and Corresponding Member of the 4 Relics. Academies of Berlin and Munich. Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands; &c. ' Editor of the new edition of Herzog's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche. „ t A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, D.Pn. f _ . ... See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. \9 A. H.-S. SlR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f p . , General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. A. H. Sm. ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A. Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. I Ring (in part). Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue of 1 Greek Sculpture in the British Museum ; &c. A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f Rp?iomontanus See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \ Keg101 A. M. F. D. AGNES MARY FRANCES DUCLAUX. J See the biographical article: DUCLAUX, A. M. F. \ A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. f Rhea; Rifleman-bird; See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. \ Roller (Bird) ; Ruff. A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. < Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till -j Rhodesia: History (in part). 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. r Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J DoM Thmnoc <;~ j>».i\ Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. \ Reld» Tnomas (>n part). Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f DeDtiies. TJiitnrv (in barh and Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of \ * the Geological Society, London. I General Characters. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1992 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. / _ Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ KeglClue, Rienzi, Cola di. A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws "i Rent. of England. Fellow, Tutor and Librarian of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Religion of\ Roman Religion. Ancient Rome; &c. C. B. P. CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS, B.A. (Mrs W. ALISON PHILLIPS). /Robes. Associate of Bedford College, London. C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S.,-F.R.A.S. /Refraction: Refraction of Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \ Light. C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Rjfle f{n pan\ . Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal •{ D-.CCKO.,V, Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. ( "oss C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M.,. PH.D. f Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Members Rosary. of the American Historical Association. C. H. W. J. REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., Lrrr.D. f Sabbath- Babylonian and Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich. Author of \ . Da°yl° Assyrian Deeds and Documents. I Assyrian. C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor Richard II.; Richard III.; Rivers, Richard Woodville, Earl* of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. Russell, Bishop. C. Mi P. CHARLES MURRAY PITMAN. (" Sometime Scholar of New College, Oxford. Formerly Stroke of the Oxford Uni- \ Rowing. versity Eight. C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Rubruquis, William of of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. \ i^n t>ari\ Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY. f Saddlprv and Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. \ ™ D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. i Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Rum Or Roum. Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional ] Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. D. C. T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. (" Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon \ Rousseau, Pierre E. T. School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c. D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. . f Rnvthm- in music- Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The \ D j Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. )nuO. D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal \ Rigging. Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. D. H. M. DAVID HEINRICH MULLER, D.Pn. Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Vienna. Hofrat of the Austrian < Sabaeans. Empire. Knight of the Order of Leopold. Author of Die Gesetze Hammurabi; &c. [ D. LI. T. DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and ] Rhondda. Rhondda. D. M. W. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International and Officier de 1'Instruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of New Volumes (loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and Egyptian Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c. Russia: History (in part). D. R.-M. DAVID RANDALL- MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc. r Curator of Egyptian Department, LTniversity of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester \ Rhodesia: Archaeology. Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia ; &c. [ E. B. EDWARD BRECK, M.A., PH.D. r Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times. \ Sabre-fencing. Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sporting in Nova Scotia; &c. f Robert Guiscard; E. Cu. EDMUND CURTIS, M.A. » J Roppr T of S! =,'. Keble College, Oxford. Lecturer on History in the University of Sheffield. [ £°!|£ {j of Sicily E. C. B. RIGHT REV, EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., D.LITT. f Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," ~\ Sabas, St. in Cambridge Texts and Studies. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll E. F. S. E.G. E. Gr. E. Ha. E.He. E. H. B. E. H. M. E. L. B. E.G.* E. Pr. F. C. C. F. G. P. F. G. S. F. Ha. F. J. H. F. J. S. F. LI. G. F. L. L. F. P. F. R. C. F.We. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. f Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of J Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor 1 of Bell's " Cathedral Series. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. REV. EDWIN HATCH, M.A., D.D. See the biographical article: HATCH, EDWIN. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. Gonville and Cains College, Cambridge. Society, London. Librarian of the Royal Geographical -j L Repin, Ilja. Rhyme; Rhythm (in verse); Rimbaud, Jean; Rivers, Anthony Woodville, Earl; Rossetti, Christina; Runes, Runic Language and Inscriptions; Rydberg, Abraham; Saga. Rhodes (in part). Sacrifice: In the Christian Church. Rudolf (Lake); Ruwenzori; Sahara (in part). SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; \ Rhodes (in part). &c. t ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian \ Russian Language, at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. EDWARD LIVERMORE BURLINGAME, A.M., PH.D. /_ Editor of Scribner's Magazine. Formerly on the Staff of New York Tribune. \ '"P16*' George. EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. [ Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Ex- -I Respiratory System: Surgery. aminer in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A Manual of A natomy for Senior Students. EDGAR PRESTAGE. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex- aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal ' Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicles of Guinea ; &c. Resende, Andre de; Resende, Garcia de; Ribeiro, Bernardim; Sa de Miranda, Francisco de. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. r Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. I _ Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and] Sacrament. Morals; &c. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S. r Vice- President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J Reproductive System; Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, 1 Respiratory System: Anatomy. London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. F. Formerly Art Critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home ; George Cruik- J Rossetti' Dante Gabriel (in shank ;_ Memorial s_of W. Mulready; French and Flemish Pictures; Sir E. Land-~\ part). seer; T. C. Hook, R.A.; &c. FREDERIC HARRISON. See the biographical article: HARRISON, FREDERIC. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. FREDERICK JOHN SNELL, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Age of Chaucer; &c. J Ruskin, John. Roman Army. J Robin Hood (in part). FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. c Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J Rosetta. and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 German Archaeological Institute. LADY LUGARD. See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (1856-1910). Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford. Mesmerism and Christian Science; &c. J Rhodes, Cecil. Author of Modern Spiritualism ; J Retro-cognition. FRANK R. CANA. f Rhodesia: History (in part); Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Sahara (in part). FREDERICK WEDMORE. See the biographical article: WEDMORE, FREDERICK. ! Ribot, Theoduie viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. [ Rock-Crystal; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. | p. ,•,-,•:,! President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. lle> G. A.* GERTRUDE FRANKLIN ATHERTON. f Author of Rezdnov ; A ncestors ; The Tower of Ivory ; &c. \ G. Ch. GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D. Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University, -j Riemann, Georg. Hon. Fellow and formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. I G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard I „ „„.„ i-i,_ Cosway, R.A.; George Englekeart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of the New] eu> Jonn Edition of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. G. Du. GEORGE DUTHIE, M.A., F.R.S. (Edin.). /Rhodesia: Geography and Director of Education, Southern Rhodesia. I Statistics. G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Sclden -j Ridings. Society. G. R. P. GEORGE ROBERT PARKIN, LL.D., C.M.G. / Rhodes, Cecil: Rhodes See the biographical article: PARKIN, G. R. I Scholarships. _ f Retz, Cardinal de; G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. I Rom,ni>_. Rnll<;arH. See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. ( Rousseau, Jean Jacques. G. Sn. GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., Pii.D. Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological j Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author of 1 Rhea (Mythology). With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c. H. B. HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909). Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of ^ Safety-Lamp. A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. { H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. f Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British •] Riddles. Academy. Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making. of English; &c. H. B. M. THE VERY REV. CANON H. B. MACKEY, O.S.B. f ,;.,.,_.., Hooi Author of Four Essays on St Francis de Sales. \ * H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f Ron.--.,-*..*!,.,,. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the 1 1 th edition of 1 "' I. , the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the loth edition. ' Rosebery, Earl Of. H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. r pocj, g*. Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecla Bollandiana •< and Ada. Sanctorum. [ Rupert, St; Saint. H. E. KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., PH.D. Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, 1 Sa'di. London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S. , PH.D. f_ ... Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge.-! Reptiles: Anatomy and Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. [ Distribution. H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.L. f Rome: Ancient History See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. ^ (fn part) H. Go. HENRY GOUDY, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. r Regius Professor of Civil Law, Oxford, and Fellow of All Souls' College. Author -< Roman Law. of The Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland ; &c. H. H. HENRI SIMON HYMANS, PH.D. Keeper of the Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: sa •{ Rubens (in part), vie et son ceuvre. I Respiratory System: H. L. H. HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. Pathology (in part); ( Rheumatoid Arthritis. H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. Keble College, Oxford. Author of Tlie Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; \ St Davids. The Last Stuart Queen. H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. f Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. \ Rymer, Thomas. H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. / Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. \ Relativity Of Knowledge. H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. [ Roman Art; Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J Rome: Ancient City (in part), School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Author 1 Christian Rome (in part) and of The Roman Empire ; &c. Ancient History (in part). H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A. f M.P. for St Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c. \ Rlfle' INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX H. Tr. SIR HENRY TROTTER, K.C.M.G., C.B. Lieutenant-Colonel, Royal Engineers. H.B.M. Consul-General for Roumania, J Rumania* Historv (in Dart) 1894-1906, and British Delegate on the European Commission of the Danube. Victoria Medallist, Royal Geographical Society, 1878. Richard, Earl of Cornwall; H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, - 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. Richard I.; Richard of Devizes; Robert of Gloucester; Roger of Hoveden; Roger of Wendover. ICKHAM STEED. Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, 4 Ricasoli Baron. ^ H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. j?1^1' M?tte°'.11. See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. 'I Rubruquis, William of I (in part). 1. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Ritual Murder; Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. I Sabbalai Sebi; Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short I Sabbatiorr History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. I S h M'' h 1 J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of The Geology of Building Stones. J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. See the biograph' J. Bra. JOSEPH BRAUN, S.J. See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. A. { Renaissance. ;PH BRAUN, S.J. f Author of Die Lilurgische Gewandung; &c. 1 KOChet. J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J Roofs College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior 1 Engineers. J. B. B. JOHN BAGNALL BURY, D.Lrrr., D.C.L. f _ _ See the biographical article: BURY, J. B. \ Roman Empire, Later. J. B. M. JAMES BASS MULLINGER, M.A. r Lecturer in History, St John's College, Cambridge. Formerly University Lecturer in History and President of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. Birkbeck Lecturer < Richard of Cirencester. in Ecclesiastical History at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1890-1894. Author of History of the University of Cambridge ; The Schools of Charles the Great ; &c. J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. King's College, Cambridge. ; Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J R. rt h T Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 ' "ovan- Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. J. E. C. REV. JOSEPH ESTLIN CARPENTER, M.A., D.Lrrr:, D.D., D.Tn. r Principal of Manchester College, Oxford. Author of The First Three Gospels, their -! Religion. Origin and Relations ; The Bible in the Nineteenth Century ; &c. J. F. H. B. SIR JOHN FRANCIS HARPIN BROADBENT, BART., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. r Physician to Out- Patients, St Mary's Hospital, London ; Physician to the Hamp- J _. stead General Hospital ; Assistant Physician to the London Fever Hospital. ] Rheumatism. Author of Heart Disease and Aneurysm; &c. J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.HiST.S. f Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McCoIl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. •< Ruiz, Juan. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A" History of Spanish Literature; &c. J. F. M. JAMES FULLARTON MUIRHEAD, LL.D. Editor of many of Baedeker's Guide Books. Author of America, the Land »/•! Rhine (in part). Contrasts. I J. F. W. JOHN FORBES WHITE, M.A., LL.D. (d. 1004). f Rembrandt (In toarfi Joint-author of the Life and Art of G. P. Chalmers, R.S.A. ; &c. t *& J. G. His EMINENCE CARDINAL TAMES GIBBONS. f Roman Catholic Church: See the biographical article : GIBBONS, JAMES. \ United States. J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. f Rolling-mill Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c. I J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. I gadducees Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. Rietschel, Ernst; J. H. M. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lrrr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South' Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. Ring (in part) ; Rome: The Ancient City (in part) ; and Christian Rome (in part); Round Towers. J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family -! Register. History; Peerage and Pedigree. x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. H. R.* JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON, A.M., PH.D. [ Professor of History, Columbia University, New York. Author of Petrarch, lhe~\ Reformation, The. First Modern Scholar ; History of Western Europe ; &c. J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lin.D. Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Reichstadt, Duke of. University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European Na'ions ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. J. H. V. C. JOHN HENRY VERRINDER CROWE. f Lieut.-Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of I Russo-Turkish War- Canada. Formerly Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History -j , „ K\ and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78; &c. J. J. L.* REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. f Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and I Reuscn franz H Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. Author of Miracles, Science | and Prayer ; &c. J. J. T. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D., F.R.S. Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge. President of the British Association, 1909-1910. Author of A Treatise on J\ Rontgen Rays. the Motion of Vortex Rings; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism ; &c. J. L. W. JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. f Round Tahla Th* Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \ " 3le> • J. Mt. JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. f Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. -< Romans, Epistle to the. Author of Historical New Testament; &c. J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Rhyolite burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby ] Medallist of the Geological Society of London. J. S. H. JOHN SCOTT HALDANE, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. r Fellow of New College, Oxford, and University Reader in Physiology. Metro- Respiratory System: Physio- politan Gas Referee to the Board of Trade. Joint-editor and founder of the Journal < of Hygiene. Author of Blue-books on " The Causes of Death in Colliery Explo- sions ' ; &c. L J. S. R. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.M., LITT.D., LL.D. f Jj11?01}1' Friedrich W.; Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, I Kuhl ken> David; Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer, of Christ's College. | RutiliUS, Claudius Editor of Cicero's Academica; De Amicitia; &c. Namatianus. J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. r Riga (in part) ; Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical J Russia: Geography and Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. {_ Statistics (in part). J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, Pn.D. f Richelieu, Cardinal; Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. 1 Sacrilege. J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. f Roman catholi< All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln 4 „ , . College. Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Law of the Universities; &c. L English Law. J. Wai.* JAMES WALKER, M.A. r Christ Church, Oxford. Demonstrator in the Clarendon Laboratory. Formerly J Rotmntmn- n u Vice- President of the Physical Society. Author of The Analytical Theory of Light; 1 * &c. [ J.We. JULIUS WELLHAUSEN, D.D. Juoi.vo T,,*,,, See the biographical article: WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS. \ * 15Ke> Jonann Jacol)- J. W. H. JOHN WESLEY HALES, M.A. Emeritus Professor of English Literature at King's College, London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor, of Christ's College, Cambridge. Clark Lecturer in \ Robin Hood (in part). English Literature at Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Shakespeare Essays and Notes ; Folia Litteraria ; &c. I K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. r peeaj. p Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the \ ,, .. ' Orchestra. [ aaCKDUl. L. F. A. LAWRENCE F. ABBOTT. f President of The Outlook Company, New York. \ Roosevelt, Theodore. L. F. V.-H. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1839-1907). Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author j HJVPI. Ensineerin? of Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con-] Engineering. struction ; &c. [ L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of J Rutile Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor okthe Mineral- } ogtcal Magazine. L. L. S. LIONEL LANCELOT SHADWELL, M.A. J _ Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. One of H.M. Commissioners in Lunacy. \ Ke8istratlon- M. A. MATTHEW ARNOLD. f Q . , _ See the biographical article: ARNOLD, MATTHEW. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi M. Cr. M. G. M. Ha. M. H. S. M. 0. B. C. M. P.* N. W. T. 0. A. 0. Ba. 0. M.* P. A. A. P. A. K. P. C. M. P. Gi. P. G. K. P. V. R. A. N. R. C. J. R* H* C. FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD. See the biographical article : CRAWFORD, F. MARION. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. J _ „, . " Vice- President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine J ..... Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-] iumalua: Literature. President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature ; &c. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals. Author of " Protozoa," in Cam- fRhizoDoda- •< tera- MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- Relief; national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-British J RRnnii«B- Exhibition, London. Author of History of " Punch " ; British Portrait Painting ] to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British "OUblliac, LOUIS Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Rhodes (in part) ; Romanus I.-IV. (Eastern Emperors). Auxiliary of the Institute I Retz, Seigneurs and Dukes of; of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). Author of L'Industrie du sel\ Rouault Joachim. en Frenche-Comte; Francois I et le comte de Bourgogne; &c. I NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Socidte d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and Marriage in A ustralia ; &c. OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. e •« H.M. Divisional Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J n ... Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles II.; &c. 1 Russell> Lo™ William. Education. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. . OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the -I Russell (Family). Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I OCTAVE MAUS, LL.D. Advocate of the Court of Appeal at Brussels. Director of L'Art Moderne and of I the Libre Esthetique. President of the Association of Belgian writers. Officer of the -s Rops, Felicien. Legion of Honour. Author of Le Thedtre de Bayreuth; Aux Ambassadeurs ; Malta, Constantinople et la Crimee; &c. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc. JURIS. New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. of the English Constitution. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History*, Rhine (in part). PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. and . Statistics (in part). PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J Regeneration of Lost Parts; parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Author | Reproduction: of Animals. of Outlines of Biology ; &c. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lirr.D. f Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J c Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological j Society. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. fi>.mh«,n^t <•„•„ Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. -{ * Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez: Life and Work- &c. ( Rubens (in part) PASQUALE VILLARI. See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE. J Rimini; Rome: Roman Re- public in the Middle Ages. REYNOLD ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.A., Lnr.D. Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London. J Sabians. Author of Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz; A Literary History of I the Arabs ; &c. { SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of Merton College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, . Trinity College, Dublin. Author of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; Book of Jubilees ; &c. Revelation, Book of. Xll INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. J. M R. L.* R. N. B. R. R. M. R. S. C. R. W. F. H. S. A. C. stc. S. H. V.* S. N. T. As. T. A. I. T. Ba. T. B. L. T. H.* T. Wo. T. W.-D. W. A. B. C. W. A. P. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. r Richmond, Earls and Dukes of; Christ Church, Oxford. Gazette, London. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's - Richmond and Lennox, RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.p.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer of all Lands ; &c. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1000; The First Romanovs, 1613-1725: Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1706 ; &c. ROBERT RANULPH MARF.TT, M.A. Reader in Social Anthropology, Oxford University, and Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College. Formerly Dean and Sub-Rector of Exeter College. Author of " The Threshold of Religion. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A:, D.Lrrr. Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville 1 and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. Duchess of; Sacheverell, William. Reindeer; Rhinoceros(j» part}-, Rhytina; River-hog; Rocky Mountain Goat; Rodentia; Roe-buck; Rorqual. Repnin; Reuterholm, Baron; Sadolin, Jorgen. Religion: Primitive Religion; Ritual. r Rome: Ancient History (in • i part); ROBERT WILLIAM FREDERICK HARRISON. . _ . Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Assistant Secretary of the Royal Society, London. | no"dl Iel"> lne< f STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A C Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Rnnlr nf t;*, h,ri\- °° parl) ' * Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of \ T . "' °° Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes »aDDatn (t* part). on Old Testament History ; Religion of A ncient Palestine ; &c. f Roman Catholic Church (in. \ part). VISCOUNT ST CYRES. See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1st EARL OF. SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Sherardian Professor of Botany, Oxford University, and Fellow of Magdalen i r,.T , D, College. Fellow of the University of London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and J "el Lecturer, of Christ's College, Cambridge. President of the Linnean Society, 1900— I Sachs, Julius VOD. 1904. Author of A Student's Text-Book of Botany; &c. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., L.L.D. See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. Refraction: Astronomical Refraction. Regillus; Regium; Rovigo; THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LiTT. (Oxon.). Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of .• the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography I Rusellae; Ruvo; of the Roman Campagna. [ st Bernard Passes (in part). THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. | Sacrilege: English Law. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. r Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black- ' burn, 1910. THOMAS BELL LIGHTFOOT, M.lNST.C.E., M.INST.MECH.E. Author of Preservation of Foods by Cold; &c. •1 Refrigerating. THOMAS HARRIS, M.D., F.R.C.P. r Formerly Hon. Physician to Manchester Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on Diseases I Respiratory System: Pathology of the Respiratory Organs at Owens College, Manchester. Author of numerous] (in part). articles on diseases of the respiratory organs. r Rope and Rope-making; THOMAS WOODHOUSE. J gac^jng and Sack Manu- Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. 1 facture' Sailcloth WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON. See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxtord. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. -: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. f Referendum and Initiative; Reschen Scheideck; Rhine: Swiss Portion; Rhone; Rorschach; Rosa, Monte; Rovereto; St Bernard Passes (in part). r Rochet: Church of England; Roman Catholic Church (in part); Russia: Government and Ad- *• ministration. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xm W. E. A. A. W. H. F. W. J. H.* W. M.-L. W. M. R. W. P. C. W. P. P. L. W. R. D. W. R. K. W. R. M. W. R. S. WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the bardic name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c. SIR WILLIAM H. FLOWER, F.R.S. See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. WILLIAM JAMES HUGHAN. Past S.G.D. of the Grand Lodge of England. of Freemasonry. 4 Roscoe, William. | Rhinoceros (in part). Author of Origin of the English Rite -I Rosicrucianism. WlLHELM MEYER-LUBKE, PH.D. H of rat of the Austrian Empire. Professor of Romance Philology in the University of Vienna. Author of Grammalik der Romanischen Sprachen; £c. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY. See the biographical article: COURTNEY, BARON. WILLIAM PITT PREBLE LONGFELLOW. Fellow of the American Institute of Architects. Editor of the American Architect. Author of Cyclopaedia of Architecture in Italy, Greece and the Levant; &c. WYNDHAM ROLAND DUNSTAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Director of the Imperial Institute, London. Formerly Lecturer on Chemistry in its Relations to Medicine in the University of Oxford. Professor of Chemistry to - the Pharmaceutical Society and Lecturer on Chemistry at St Thomas's Hospital, London. Author of British Cotton Cultivation ; &c. RT. HON. SIR WILLIAM RANN KENNEDY, LL.D. r Lord of Appeal. Hon. Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Fellow of the ] British Academy. Judge of King's Bench Division of High Court of Justice, 1892-"! Russell Of Klllowen, Lord. 1907. WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). f Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University J of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; \ Slavonic Literature ; &c. -' Romance Languages. J Ribera, Giuseppe; I Rosa, Salvator. / Rosslyn, Earl of; I Russell, 1st Earl. f Richardson, Henry Hobson. Rubber. Russian Literature. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. I* Reuchlin; « Ruth, Book of (in part)-* [ Sabbath (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Reflection of Light. Regensburg. Regent. Reims. Renfrewshire. Rennes. Reporting. Republic. Resorcin. Retainer. Reunion. Reuss. Reynard the Fox. Rhine Province. Rhode Island. Rhodium. Rhubarb. Rice. Richmond (Surrey). Richmond (Va.). Rickets. Riding. Riesengebirge. Rinderpest. Rio de Janeiro. Rio Grande do Sul (State). Riot. Ripon. Roads and Streets. Rochester (Kent). Rochester (N.Y.). Rodney. Rodriguez. Roland, Legend of. Rome (N.Y.). Romulus. Root. Rosaceae. Roscommon, Co. Rose. Roses, Wars of the. Ross and Cromarty. Rostock. Rothschild. Rotterdam. Rouen. Roulette. Roussillon. Roxburghshire. Rubidium. Rubinstein. Rugen. Running. Russo-Japanese War. Rutebeuf. Ruthenium, Rutland. Ryazan. Sacramento (Cal.). Saffron. Saint Albans. Saint Andrews. St Augustine (Fla.)> St Denis. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIII REFECTORY (med. Lat. refectorium, from reficere, to refresh), the hall of a monastery, convent, &c., where the religious took their chief meals together. There frequently was a sort of ambo, approached by steps, from which to read the legenda sanctorum, &c., during meals. The refectory was generally situated by the side of the S. cloister, so as to be removed from the church but contiguous to the kitchen; sometimes it was divided down the centre into two aisles, as at Fountains Abbey in England, Mont St Michel in France and at Villiers in Belgium, and into three aisles as in St Mary's, York, and the Bernardines, Paris. The refectory of St Martin-des-Champs in Paris is in two aisles, and is now utilized as the library of the Ecole des Arts et Metiers. Its wall pulpit, with an arcaded staircase in the thickness of the wall, is still in perfect preservation. REFEREE, a person to whom anything is referred ; an arbitrator. The court of referees in England was a court to which the House of Commons committed the decision of all questions as to the right of petitioners to be heard in opposition to private bills. As originally constituted the referees consisted of the chairman of ways and means, and other members, the Speaker's counsel and several official referees not members of the House of Commons. In 1903 the appointment of official referees was discontinued. The court now consists of the chairman of ways and means, the deputy chairman and not less than seven other members of the House appointed by the Speaker, and its duty, as defined by a standing order, is to decide upon all petitions against private bills, or against provisional orders or provisional certificates, as to the rights of the petitioners to be heard upon such petitions. In the high court of justice, under the Judicature Act 1873, cases may be sub- mitted to three official referees, for trial, inquiry and report, or assessment of damages. Inquiry and report may be directed in any case, trial only by consent of the parties, or in any matter requiring any prolonged examination of documents or accounts, or any scientific or local investigation which cannot be tried in the ordinary way. REFERENDUM and INITIATIVE, two methods by which the wishes of the general body of electors in a constitutional xxiii. i state may be expressed with regard to proposed legislation. They are developed to the highest extent in Switzerland, and are best exemplified -in the Swiss federal and cantonal constitu- tions. By these two methods the sovereign people in Switzerland (whether in the confederation or in one of its cantons) approve or reject the bills and resolutions agreed upon by the legislative authority (Referendum), or compel that authority to introduce bills on certain specified subjects (Initiative) — in other words, exercise the rights of the people as regards their elected repre- sentatives at times other than general elections. The Referendum means " that which is referred " to the sovereign people, and prevailed (up to 1848) in the federal diet, the members of which were bound by instructions, all matters outside which being taken " ad referendum." A similar system obtained previously in the formerly independent confederations of the Grisons and of the Valais, in the former case not merely as between the Three Leagues, and even the bailiwicks of each within its respective league, but also (so far as regards the upper Engadine) the communes making up a bailiwick, though in the Valais the plan prevailed only as between the seven Zehnten or bailiwicks. The Initiative, on the other hand, is the means by which the sovereign people can compel its elected representatives to take into consideration either some specified object or a draft bill relating thereto, the final result of the deliberations of the legislature being subject by a referendum vote to the approval or rejection of the people. These two institutions therefore enable the sovereign people to control the decisions of the legislature, without having recourse to a dissolution, or waiting for the expiration of its natural term of office. As might have been expected, both had been adopted by different cantons before they found their way into the federal constitution, which naturally has to take account of the sovereign rights of the cantons of which it is composed. Further, they (at any rate the referendum) were employed in the case of con- stitutional matters relating to cantonal constitutions before being applied to all or certain specified laws and resolutions. Finally, the action of both has been distinctly conservative in the case of the confederation, though to a less marked degree in the case of the cantons. REFLECTION OF LIGHT Two forms of the Referendum should be carefully distin- guished: the facultative or optional (brought into play only on the demand of a fixed number of citizens), and the obligatory or compulsory (which obtains in all cases that lie within its sphere as defined in the constitution). The Initiative exists only in the facultative form, being exercised when a certain number of citizens demand it. Both came into common use during the Liberal reaction in Switzerland after the Paris revolution of July 1830. In 1831 St Gall first adopted the " facultative referendum " (then and for some time after called the " Veto "), and its example was followed by several cantons before 1848. The "obligatory referendum " appears first in 1852 and 1854 respectively in the Valais and the Grisons, when the older system was reformed, but in its modern form it was first adopted in 1863 by the canton of rural Basel. The Initiative was first adopted in 1845 by Vaud. Of course the cantons with Landsgemeinden, Uri, Unterwalden, Appenzell and Glarus (where the citizens appear in person) possessed both from time immemorial. Excluding these there were at the end of 1907 9$ cantons, which had the " obligatory referendum " (Aargau, rural Basel, Bern, the Grisons, Schaflhausen, Schwyz, Soleure, Thurgau, the Valais and Zurich), while 7^ cantons possess only the " facultative referendum " (Basel town, Geneva, Lucerne, Neuchatel, St Gall, Ticino, Vaud and Zug). Fribourg alone had neither, save an obligatory referendum (like all the rest) as to the revision of the cantonal constitution. As regards the Initiative, all the cantons have it as to the revision of the cantonal constitution; while all but Fribourg have it also as to bills or legislative projects. In the case both of the facultative referendum and of the Initiative each canton fixes the number of citizens who have a right to exercise this power. The con- stitution of the Swiss confederation lags behind those of the cantons. It is true that both in 1848 (art. 113) and in 1874 (art. 120) it is provided that a vote on the question whether the constitution shall be revised must take place if either house of the federal legislature or 50,000 qualified voters demand it — of course a popular vote (obligatory referendum) must take place on the finally elaborated project of revision. But as regards bills the case is quite different. The " facultative referendum " was not introduced till 1874 (art. 89) and then only as regards all bills and resolutions not being of a pressing nature, 8 cantons or 30,000 qualified voters being entitled to ask for such a popular vote. But the Initiative did not appear in the federal constitution till it was inserted in 1891 (art. 121), and then merely in the case of a partial (not a total) revision of the constitution, if 50,000 qualified voters require it, whether as regards a subject in general or a draft bill, — of course the federal legislature had an Initiative in this matter in 1848 already. The results of the working of these two institutions in federal matters up to the end of 1908 are as follows. Excluding the votes by which the two federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874 were adopted, there have been 30 (10 of them between 1848 and 1874) votes (obligatory referendum) as to amendments of the federal constitution; in 15 cases only (of which only one was before 1874) did the people accept the amendment proposed. In the case of bills there have been 30 votes (very many bills have not been attacked at all), all of course since the facultative referendum was introduced in 1874; in n cases only have the people voted in the affirmative. Finally, with regard to the Initiative, there have been 7 votes, of which two only were in the affirmative. Thus, between 1874 and 1907, of 57 votes 27 only were in the affirmative, while if we include the 10 votes between 1848 and 1874 the figures are respectively 67 and 28, one only having been favourable during that period. The result is to show that the people, voting after mature reflection, are far less radically disposed than has sometimes been imagined. The method of referendum by itself is also in use in some of the states of the American Union (see UNITED STATES) and in Australia, and under the name of plebiscite has been employed in France; but it is best studied in the Swiss con- stitution. M FIG. i. AUTHORITIES. — W. A. B. Coolidge, "The Early History of the Referendum " (article in the English Historical Review tor October 1891); T. Curti, Die schweizerischen Volksrechte, 1848 bis 1900 (Bern, 1900) (Fr. trans, by J. Roniat with additions by the author, Paris, 1905)— -Curti's earlier work, Geschichte d. schiveiz. Volks- gesetzgebung (Bern, 1882), is not entirely superseded by his later one; S. Dcploige, The Referendum in Switzerland, Engl. trans, with additional notes (London, 1898); N. Droz, "The Referendum in Switzerland " (article in the Contemporary Review, March 1895); 1. M. Vincent, Government in Switzerland, chaps, v. and xiv. (New York and London, 1900). See also, for the United States and generally, the American works on the Referendum by E. P. Ober- holtzer (1893 and 1900). (W. A. B. C.) REFLECTION OF LIGHT. When a ray of light in a homo- geneous medium falls upon the bounding surface of another medium, part of it is usually turned back or reflected and part is scattered, the remainder traversing or being absorbed by the second medium. The scattered rays (also termed the irregu- larly or diffusely reflected rays) play an important part in rendering objects visible — in fact, without diffuse reflection non-luminous objects would be invisible; they are occasioned by irregularities in the surface, but are governed by the same law as holds for regular reflection. This law is: the incident and reflected rays make equal angles with the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence, and are coplanar with the normal. This is equivalent to saying that the path of the ray is a minimum.1 In fig. i , MN represents the section of a plane mirror; OR is the in- cident ray, RP the reflected ray, and TR the normal at R. Then the law states that the angle of incidence ORT equals the angle of reflection PRT, and that OR, RT and RP are in the same plane. This natural law is capable of ready experimental proof (a simple one is to take the altitude of a star with a meridian circle, its depression in a horizontal re- flecting surface of mercury and the direction of the nadir), and the most delicate instruments have failed to detect any divergence from it. Its explanation by the Newtonian corpuscular theory is very simple, for we have only to assume that at the point of impact the perpendicular velocity of a corpuscle is reversed, whilst the horizontal velocity is unchanged (the mirror being assumed horizontal). The wave-theory explanation is more complicated, and in the simple form given by Huygens incomplete. The theory as developed by Fresnel shows that regular reflection is due to a small zone in the neighbourhood of the point R (above), there being destructive interference at all other points on the mirror; this theory also accounts for the polarization of the reflected light when incident at a certain angle (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT). The smoothness or polish of the sur- face largely controls the reflecting power, for, obviously, crests and furrows, if of sufficient magnitude, disturb the phase relations. The permissible deviation from smoothness depends on the wave-length of the light employed: it appears that surfaces smooth to within |th of a wave-length reflect regularly; hence long waves may be regularly reflected by a surface which diffuses short waves. Also the obliquity of the incidence would diminish the effect of any irregularities; this is experi- mentally confirmed by observing the images produced by matt surfaces or by smoked glass at grazing incidence. We now give some elementary constructions of reflected rays, or, what comes to the same thing, of images formed by mirrors. I. If O be a luminous point and OR a ray incident at R on the plane mirror MN (fig. i) to determine the reflected ray and the "image of O. If RP be the reflected ray and RT perpendicular 1 This principle of the minimum path, however, only holds for plane and convex surfaces; with concave surfaces it may be a maximum in certain cases. REFLECTION OF LIGHT to MN, then, by the law of reflection, angle ORT=TRP or ORM = PRN. Hence draw OQ perpendicular to MN, and produce it to S, making QS = OQ; join SR and produce to P. It is easily seen that PR and OR are equally in- clined to RT (or M N ). A point-eye at P would see a point object O at S, i.e. at a distance below the mirror equal to its height above. If the object be a solid, then the images of its cor- ners are formed by taking points at the same distances below as the corners are above the mirror, and joining these points. The eye, however, sees the image per- verted, i.e., in the same relation as the left hand to the right. Fig. 2 shows is viewed in a mirror by a natural FIG. 2. how an extended object eye. O" O:, 0' A B O 0, 0" 0,,, P +2<7. In the same way O forms an image Oi in B such that OOL = 2q; Oi has an image On in A, such that OOn =2^+25; On has an image Om in B, such that OOm = 2p+4g, and so on. Hence there are an infinite number of images at definite distances from the mirrors. This explains the vistas as seen, for example, between two parallel mirrors at the ends of a room. 3. If A, B be two plane mirrors inclined at an angle 8, and inter- secting at C, and O a luminous point between them, determine the position and number of images. Call arc OA = a, OB=/3. The image of O in A, i.e. a', is such that Oa' is perpendicular to CA, and Oa' = 2a. Also Co' = CO; and it is easily seen that all the images lie on a circle of centre C and radius CO. The image a' forms an image a" in B such that Oa" = OB + Ba"=|8+Ba'=/3+OB4-Oa'=2/3+2a = 20. Also a" forms an image a'" in A such that Oa"' = OA+AOBo, i.e. 2n8>ir — a or 2n> (v-al/e. Similarly if p2"+v be the first to fall on ab, we obtain 2n + i> (T — o)/0. Hence in both cases the number of images is the integer next greater than (ir — a)/0. In the same way it can be shown that the number of images of the b series is the integer next greater than (IT— /3)/0. If ir/8 be an integer, then the number ot images of each series is ir/9, for 0/0 and 0/0 are proper fractions. But an image of each series coincides; for if ir/0=2n, we have Oa2n+O62n = 2n0-|-2n0 = 27r i.e. o2" and 62n coincide; and if 7r/0 = 2n-t-i, we have Oo2"+1 + Oi2"~H = 4tt0+2(a+/3) = (4»+2) 0 = 2ir, i.e. a2n+l and fc2n+1 coincide. Hence the number of images, including the luminous point, is 27T/0. This principle is utilized in the kaleidoscope (q.v.), which produces five images by means of its mirrors inclined at 60° (fig. 4). Fig. 5 shows the seven images formed by mirrors inclined at 45°. 4. To determine the reflection at a spherical surface. Let APB (fig. 6) be a section of a concave spherical mirror through its centre O and luminous point U. If a ray, say UP, meet the surface, it will be reflected along PV, which is coplanar with UP and the normal PO at P, and makes the angle VPO = UPO. Hence VO/VP=OU/UP. This expression may be simplified if we assume P to be very close to A, i.e. that the ray UP is very slightly inclined to the axis. Writing A for P, we have VO/AV = OU/AU; and calling AU=w, AV=» and AO = r, this reduces to u~l+v-l = 2r~l. This formula connects the distances of the object and image formed by a spherical concave mirror with the radius of the mirror. Points satisfying this relation are called " conjugate foci," for obviously they are reciprocal, i.e. u and v can be interchanged in the formula. FIG. 4, FIG. 5. If u be infinite, as, for example, if the luminous source be a star, then v~l = 2r-lt i.e. v = &. This value is called the focal length of FIG. 6. the mirror, and the corresponding point, usually denoted by F, is called the " principal focus." This formula requires modifica- tion for a convex mirror. If M be always considered as positive (r may be either positive or negative), r must be regarded as positive with concave mirrors and negative with convex. Similarly the focal length, having the same sign as r, has different signs in the two cases. In this formula all distances are measured from the mirror; but it is sometimes more convenient to measure from the principal focus. If the distances of the object and image from the principal focus be x and y, then u = x+f and v = y+f (remembering that / is positive for concave and negative for convex mirrors). Sub- stituting these values in u~l+v~l =f~l and reducing we obtain xy=fl. Since /" is always positive, x and y must have the same sign, i.e. the object and image must lie on the same side of the principal focus. We now consider the production of the image of a small object placed symmetrically and perpendicular to the axis of a concave (fig. 7) and a convex mirror (fig. 8). Let PQ be the object and A FIG. 7. \M kP c- v^f-f A tt. Q •'.•-" ^*.j Q /N FIG. 8. the vertex of the mirror. Consider the point P. Now a ray through P and parallel to the axis after meeting the mirror at M is reflected through the focus F. The line MF must therefore contain the image of P. Also a ray through P and also through the centre of curva- ture C of the mirror is reflected along the same path ; this also con- tains the image of P. Hence the image is at P, the intersection of the lines MF and PC. Similarly the image of any other point can be found, and the final image deduced. We notice that in fig. 6 the image is inverted and real, and in fig. 7 erect and virtual. The " magnification " or ratio of the size of the image to the object' can be deduced from the figures by elementary geometry ; it equals the ratio of the distances of the image and object from the mirror or from the centre of curvature of the mirror. The positions and characters of the images for objects at varying REFORMATION, THE distances are shown in the table (F is the principal focus and C the centre of curvature of the mirror MA). CONCAVE MIRROR Position of Object. Position of Image. Character of Image. 00 Between » and C C Between C and F Between F and A A F Between F and C c Between C and » Between A and — °° A Real. Real,inverted,diminished „ „ same size „ „ magnified Virtual, erect, magnified Erect, same size CONVEX MIRROR Position of Object. Position of Image. Character of Image. 00 Between » and A A F Between F and A A Virtual Virtual, erect, diminished Erect, same size The above discussion of spherical mirrors assumes that the mirror has such a small aperture that the reflected rays from any point unite in a point. This, however, no longer holds when the mirror has a wide aperture, and in general the reflected rays envelop a caustic (q.v., see also ABERRATION). The only mirror which can sharply reproduce an object-point as an image-point has for its section an ellipse, which is so placed that the object and image are at its foci. This follows from a property of the curve, viz. the sum of the focal distances is constant, and that the focal vectores are equally inclined to the normal at the point. More important than the elliptical mirror, however, is the parabolic, which has the pro- perty of converting rays parallel to the axis into a pencil through its focus; or, inversely, rays from a source placed at the focus are con- verted into a parallel beam; hence the use of this mirror in search- lights and similar devices. REFORMATION, THE. The Reformation, as commonly understood, means the religious and political revolution of the 1 6th century, of which the immediate result was the partial dis- ruption of the Western Catholic Church and the establishment of various national and territorial churches. These agreed in repudiating certain of the doctrines, rites and practices of the medieval Church, especially the sacrifice of the Mass and the headship of the bishop of Rome, and, whatever their official designations, came generally to be known as " Pro- testant." In some cases they introduced new systems of ecclesiastical organization, and in all they sought to justify their innovations by an appeal from the Church's tradition to the Scriptures. The conflicts between Catholics and Pro- testants speedily merged into the chronic political rivalries, domestic and foreign, which distracted the European states; and religious considerations played a very important part in diplomacy and war for at least a century and a half, from the diet of Augsburg in 1530 to the English revolution and the league of Augsburg, 1688-89. The terms " Reformation " and " Protestantism " are inherited by the modern historian; they are not of his devising, and come to him laden with re- miniscences of all the exalted enthusiasms and bitter anti- pathies engendered by a period of fervid religious dissension. The unmeasured invective of Luther and Aleander has not ceased to re-echo, and the old issues are by no means dead. The heat of controversy is, however, abating, and during the past thirty or forty years both Catholic and Protestant The Re- investigators have been vying with one another in formation adding to our knowledge and in rectifying old mis- c°us**eiya ta^es! while an ever-increasing number of writers Religious pledged to neither party are aiding in developing an Revoiu- idea of the scope and nature of the Reformation which Hon. differs radically from the traditional one. We now appreciate too thoroughly the intricacy of the medieval Church; its vast range of activity, secular as well as religious; the inextricable interweaving of the civil and ecclesiastical govern- ments; the slow and painful process of their divorce as the old ideas of the proper functions of the two institutions have changed in both Protestant and Catholic lands: we perceive all"-£oo clearly the limitations of the reformers, their distrust of reason and criticism — in short, we know too much about medieval institutions and the process of their disintegration longer to see in the Reformation an abrupt break in the general history of Europe. No one will, of course, question the importance of the schism which created the distinction between Protestants and Catholics, but it must always be remembered that the religious questions at issue comprised a relatively small part of the whole compass of human aspirations and conduct, even to those to whom religion was especially vital, while a large majority of the leaders in literature, art, science and public affairs went their way seemingly almost wholly unaffected by theological problems. That the religious elements in the Reformation have been greatly overestimated from a modern point of view can hardly be questioned, and one of the most distinguished students of Church history has ventured the assertion that " The motives, both remote and proximate, which led to the Lutheran revolt were largely secular rather than spiritual." " We may," continues Mr H. C. Lea, " dismiss the religious changes incident to the Reformation with the remark that they were not the object sought, but the means for attaining the object. The existing ecclesiastical system was the practical evolution of dogma, and the overthrow of dogma was the only way to obtain permanent reh'ef from the intolerable abuses of that system " (Cambridge Modern History, i. 653). It would perhaps be nearer the truth to say that the secular and spiritual interests inter- mingled and so permeated one another that it is almost im- possible to distinguish them clearly even in thought, while in practice they were so bewilderingly confused that they were never separated, and were constantly mistaken for one another. The first step in clarifying the situation is to come to a full realization that the medieval Church was essentially an inter- national state, and that the character of the Protestant secession from it was largely determined by this fact. As Maitland suggests: " We could frame no ac- Ofthe ceptable definition of a State which would not com- medieval prehend the Church. What has it not that a State £*"£* should have ? It has laws, law givers, law courts, state. lawyers. It uses physical force to compel men to obey the laws. It keeps prisons. In the i3th century, though with squeamish phrases, it pronounced sentence of death. It is no voluntary society; if people are not born into it they are baptized into it when they cannot help them- selves. If they attempt to leave they are guilty of crimen laesae majestatis, and are likely to be burned. It is supported by involuntary contributions, by tithe and tax " (Canon Law in the Church of England, p. 100). The Church was not only organized like a modern bureaucracy, but performed many of the functions of a modern State. It dominated the intellectual and profoundly affected the social interests of western Europe. Its economic influence was multiform and incalculable, owing to its vast property, its system of taxation and its encourage- ment of monasticism. When Luther made his first great appeal to the German people in his Address to the German Nobility, he scarcely adverts to religious matters at all. He deals, on the contrary, almost exclusively with the social, financial, educational, industrial and general moral problems of the day. If Luther, who above all others had the religious issue ever before him, attacks the Church as a source of worldly disorder, it is not surprising that his contemporary Ulrich von Hutten should take a purely secular view of the issues involved. Moreover, in the fascinating collection of popular satires and ephemeral pamphlets made by Schade, one is constantly im- pressed with the absence of religious fervour, and the highly secular nature of the matters discussed. The same may be said of the various Gravamina, or lists of grievances against the papacy drafted from time to time by German diets. But not only is the character of the Reformation differently conceived from whaUit once was; our notions of the process of change are being greatly altered. Formerly, Historic writers accounted for the Lutheran movement by so coatiau- magnifying the horrors of the pre-existing regime ity of the that it appeared intolerable, and its abolition con- R«tormfm sequently inevitable. Protestant writers once con- tented themselves with a brief caricature of the Church, REFORMATION, THE a superficial account of the traffic in indulgences, and a rough and ready assumption, which even Kostlin makes, that the darkness was greatest just before the dawn. Unfortunately this crude solution of the problem proved too much; for conditions were no worse immediately before the revolt than they had been for centuries, and German complaints of papal tyranny go back to Hildegard of Bingen and Walther von der Vogelweide, who antedated Luther by more than three centuries. So a new theory is logically demanded to explain why these conditions, which were chronic, failed to produce a change long before it actually occurred. Singularly enough it is the modern Catholic scholars, Johannes Janssen above all, who, in their efforts further to discredit the Protestant revolt by rehabilitating the institutions which the reformers attacked, have done most to explain the success of the Reformation. A humble, patient Bohemian priest, Hasak, set to work toward half a century ago to bring together the devotional works published during the seventy years immediately succeeding the invention of printing. Every one knows that one at least of these older books, The German Theology, was a great favourite of Luther's; but there are many more in Hasak's collection which breathe the same spirit of piety and spiritual emulation. Building upon the founda- tions laid by Hasak and other Catholic writers who have been too much neglected by Protestant historians, Janssen pro- duced a monumental work in defence of the German Church before Luther's defection. He exhibits the great achievements of the latter part of the i$th and the early portion of the i6th centuries; the art and literature, the material prosperity of the towns and the fostering of the spiritual life of the people. It may well be that his picture is too bright, and that in his obvious anxiety to prove the needlessness of an ecclesiastical revolution he has gone to the opposite extreme from the Pro- testants. Yet this rehabilitation of pre-Reformation Germany cannot but make a strong appeal to the unbiased historical student who looks to a conscientious study of the antecedents of the revolt as furnishing the true key to the movement. Outwardly the Reformation would seem to have begun when, on the loth of December 1520, a professor in the university Revolt °^ Wittenberg invited all the friends of evangelical of the truth among his students to assemble outside the various wall at the ninth hour to witness a pious spectacle — B"vera-a the burning of the " godless book of the papal meats decrees." He committed to the flames the whole from the body of the canon law, together with an edict of papal the head of the Church which had recently been "" y' issued against his teachings. In this manner Martin Luther, with the hearty sympathy of a considerable number of his countrymen, publicly proclaimed and illustrated his repudiation of the papal government under which western Europe had lived for centuries. Within a genera- tion after this event the states of north Germany and Scandinavia, England, Scotland, the Dutch Netherlands and portions of Switzerland, had each in its particular manner permanently seceded from the papal monarchy. France, after a long period of uncertainty and disorder, remained faithful to the bishop of Rome. Poland, after a defection of years, was ultimately recovered for the papacy by the zeal and devo- tion of the Jesuit missionaries. In the Habsburg hereditary dominions the traditional policy and Catholic fervour of the ruling house resulted, after a long struggle, in the restoration of the supremacy of Rome; while in Hungary the national spirit of independence kept Calvinism alive to divide the religious allegiance of the people. In Italy and Spain, on the other hand, the rulers, who continued loyal to the pope, found little difficulty in suppressing any tendencies of revolt on the part of the few converts to the new doctrines. Individuals, often large groups, and even whole districts, had indeed earlier rejected some portions of the Roman Catholic faith, or refused obedience to the ecclesiastical government; but previously to the burning of the canon law by Luther no prince had openly and permanently cast off his allegiance to the international ecclesiastical state of which the bishop of Rome was head. Now, a prince or legislative assembly that accepted the doctrine of Luther, that the temporal power had been " ordained by God for the chastisement of the wicked and the protection of the good " and must be permitted to exercise its functions " un- hampered throughout the whole Christian body, without respect to persons, whether it strikes popes, bishops, priests, monks, nuns, or whoever else " — such a government could proceed to ratify such modifications of the Christian faith as appealed to it in a particular religious confession; it could order its subject to conform to the innovations, and could expel, persecute or tolerate dissenters, as seemed good to it. A " reformed " prince could seize the property of the monasteries, and appro- priate such ecclesiastical foundations as he desired. He could make rules for the selection of the clergy, disregarding the ancient canons of the Church and the claims of the pope to the right of ratification. He could cut off entirely all forms of papal taxation and put an end to papal jurisdiction. The personnel, revenue, jurisdiction, ritual, even the faith of the Church, were in this way placed under the complete control of the territorial governments. This is the central and sig- nificant fact of the so-called Reformation. Wholly novel and distinctive it is not, for the rulers of Catholic countries, like Spain and France, and of England (before the publication of the Act of Supremacy) could and did limit the pope's claims to unlimited jurisdiction, patronage and taxation, and they introduced the placet forbidding the publication within their realms of papal edicts, decisions and orders, without the express sanction of the government — in short, in many ways tended to approach the conditions in Protestant lands. The Reforma- tion was thus essentially a stage in the disengaging of the modern state from that medieval, international ecclesiastical state which had its beginning in the ecclesia of the Acts of the Apostles. An appreciation of the issues of the Reformation — or Protestant revolt, as it might be more exactly called — depends therefore upon an understanding of the development of the papal monarchy, the nature of its claims, the relations it established with the civil powers, the abuses which developed in it and the attempts to rectify them, the sources of friction between the Church and the government, and finally the process by which certain of the European states threw off their allegiance to the Christian commonwealth, of which they had so long formed a part. It is surprising to observe how early the Christian Church assumed the form of a state, and how speedily upon entering into its momentous alliance with the Roman imperial Character government under Constantino it acquired the chief °fthe privileges and prerogatives it was so long to retain. Monarchy In the twelfth book of the Theodosian Code we see and its the foundations of the medieval Church already laid; claims. for it was the 4th, not the I3th century that established the principle that defection from the Church was a crime in the eyes of the State, and raised the clergy to a privileged class, exempted from the ordinary taxes, permitted under restrictions to try its own members and to administer the wealth which flowed into its coffers from the gifts of the faithful. The bishop of Rome, who had from the first probably enjoyed a leading position in the Church as " the successor of the two most glorious of the apostles," elaborated his claims to be the divinely appointed head of the ecclesiastical organization. Siricius (384-389), Leo the Great (440-461), and Gelasius I. (492-496) left little for their successors to add to the arguments in favour of the papal supremacy. In short, if we recall the characteristics of the Church in the West from the times of Con- stantine to those of Theodoric — its reliance upon the civil power for favours and protection, combined with its assumption of a natural superiority over the civil power and its innate tendency to monarchical unity — it becomes clear that Gregory VII. in his effort in the latter half of the nth century to establish the papacy as the great central power of western Europe was in the main only reaffirming and developing old claims in a new world. His brief statement of the papal powers as he REFORMATION, THE conceived them is found in his Diclatus. The bishop of Rome, who enjoys a unique title, that of " pope," may annul the decrees of all other powers, since he judges all but is judged by none. He may depose emperors and absolve the subjects of the unjust from their allegiance. Gregory's position was almost inexpugnable at a time when it was conceded by practically all that spiritual concerns were incalculably more momentous than secular, that the Church was rightly one and indivisible, with one divinely revealed faith and a system of sacraments abso- lutely essential to salvation.. No one called in question the claim of the clergy to control completely all " spiritual " matters. Moreover, the mightiest secular ruler was but a poor sinner dependent for his eternal welfare en the Church and its head, the pope, who in this way necessarily exercised an indirect control over the civil government, which even the emperor Henry IV. and William the Conqueror would not have been disposed to deny. They would also have conceded the pope the right to play the role of a secular ruler in his own lands, as did the German bishops, and to dispose of such fiefs as reverted to him. This class of prerogatives, as well as the right which the pope claimed to ratify the election of the emperor, need not detain us, although they doubtless served in the long run to weaken the papal power. But the pope laid claim to a direct power over the civil governments. Nicholas II. (1058-1061) declared that Jesus had conferred on Peter the control (jura) of an earthly as well as of a heavenly empire; and this phrase was embodied in the canon law. Innocent III., a century and a half later, taught that James the brother of the Lord left to Peter not only the government of the whole Church, but that of the whole world (totum seculum gubernandum) .' So the power of the pope no longer rested upon his headship of the Church or his authority as a secular prince, but on a far more comprehensive claim to universal dominion. There was no reason why the bishop of Rome should justify such acts as Innocent himself performed in deposing King John of England and later in annulling Magna Carta; or Gregory IV. when he struck out fourteen articles from the Sachsenspiegel; or Nicholas V. when he invested Portugal with the right to sub- jugate all peoples on the Atlantic coast; or Julius II. when he threatened to transfer the kingdom of France to England; or the conduct of those later pontiffs who condemned the treaties of Westphalia, the Austrian constitution of 1867 and the establishment of the kingdom of Italy. The theory and practice of papal absolutism was successfully promulgated by Gratian in his Decrelum, completed at Bologna about 1142. This was supplemented by later collections composed mainly of papal decretals. (See CANON LAW and DECRETALS, FALSE.) As every fully equipped university had its faculty of canon law in which the Corpus juris canonici was studied, Rashdall is hardly guilty of exaggeration when he says: " By means of the happy thought of the Bolognese monk the popes were enabled to convert the new-born universities — the offspring of that intellectual new birth of Europe which might have been so formidable an enemy to the papal pretensions — into so many engines for the propagation of Ultramontane ideas." Thomas Aquinas was the first theologian to describe the Church as a divinely organized absolute monarchy, whose head con- centrated in his person the entire authority of the Church, and was the source of all the ecclesiastical law (conditor juris), issuing the decrees of general councils in his own name, and claiming the right to revoke or modify the decrees of former councils — indeed, to make exceptions or to set aside altogether anything which did not rest upon the dictates of divine or natural law. In practice the whole of western Europe was subject to the jurisdiction of one tribunal of last resort, the Roman Curia. The pope claimed the right to tax church property throughout Christendom. He was able to exact an oath of fidelity from the archbishops, named many of the bishops, and asserted the right to transfer and dispose them. The organs of this vast monarchy were the papal Curia, which first appears distinctly in the nth century (see CURIA ROMAN A), 'See further, Innocent III. and the legates, who visited the courts of Europe as haughty representatives of the central government of Christendom. It should always be remembered that the law of the Church was regarded by all lawyers in the later middle ages as the law common to all Europe (jus commune). The laws of Relations the Carolingian empire provided that one excom- ol the municated by the Church who did not make his peace ^^aT^nd within a year and a day should be outlawed, and this civil gov- general principle was not lost sight of. It was a capital eminent*. offence in the eyes of the State to disagree with the teachings of the Church, and these, it must be remembered, included a recognition of the papal supremacy. The civil authorities burnt an obstinate heretic, condemned by the Church, without a thought of a new trial. The emperor Frederick II. 's edicts and the so-called iloklissements of St Louis provide that the civil officers should search out suspected heretics and deliver them to the ecclesiastical judges. The civil government recognized monastic vows by regarding a professed monk as civilly dead and by pursuing him and returning him to his monastery if he violated his pledges of obedience and ran away. The State recognized the ecclesiastical tribunals and accorded them a wide jurisdiction that we should now deem essentially secular in its nature. The State also admitted that large classes of its citizens — the clergy, students, crusaders, widows and the miserable and helpless in general — were justiceable only by Church tribunals. By the middle of the i3th century many lawyers took the degree of doctor of both laws (J.U.D.), civil and canon, and practised both. As is well known, temporal rulers constantly selected clergymen as their most trusted advisers. The existence of this theocratic international state was of course conditioned by the weakness of the civil govern- ment. So long as feudal monarchy continued, the Church supplied to some extent the deficiencies of the turbulent and ignorant princes by endeavouring to maintain order, administer justice, protect the weak and encourage learning. So soon as the modern national state began to gain strength, the issue between secular rulers and the bishops of Rome took a new form. The clergy naturally stoutly defended the powers which they had long enjoyed and believed to be rightly theirs. On the other hand, the State, which could count upon the support of an ever-increasing number of prosperous and loyal subjects, sought to protect its own interests and showed itself less and less inclined to tolerate the extreme claims of the pope. Moreover, owing to the spread of education, the king was no longer obliged to rely mainly upon the assistance of the clergy in conducting his government. The chief sources of friction between Church and State were four in number. First, the growth of the practice of " reserva- tion " and " provision," by which the popes assumed the right to appoint their own nominees to vacant sees and other benefices, in defiance of the claims of the crown, the chapters and private patrons. In the case of wealthy bishoprics or abbacies this involved a serious menace to the secular authority. Both pope and king were naturally anxious to place their own friends and supporters in these influential positions. The pope, moreover, had come to depend to a considerable extent for his revenue upon the payments made by his nominees, which represented a corresponding drain on the resources of the secular states. Secondly, there was the great question, how far the lands and other property of the clergy should be subject to taxation. Was this vast amount of property to increase indefinitely without contribution to the maintenance of the secular government? A decretal of Innocent III. permitted the clergy to make voluntary contributions to the king when there was urgent necessity, and the resources of the laity had proved inadequate. But the pope maintained that, except in the most critical cases, his consent must be obtained for such grants. Thirdly, there was the inevitable jealousy between the secular and ecclesiastical courts and the serious problem of the exact extent of the original and appellate jurisdiction of the Roman Curia. Fourthly, and lastly, there was the most fundamental difficulty of all, the extent to which the pope, as the universally acknowledged head REFORMATION, THE of the Church, was justified in interfering in the internal affairs of particular states. Unfortunately, most matters could be viewed from both a secular and religious standpoint; and even in purely secular affairs the claims of the pope to at least indirect control were practically unlimited. The specific nature of the abuses which flourished in the papal monarchy, the unsuccessful attempts to remedy them, and the measures taken by the chief European states to protect themselves will become apparent as we hastily review the principal events of the I4th and isth centuries. As one traces the vicissitudes of the papacy during the two centuries from Boniface VIII. to Leo X. one cannot fail to be The impressed with the almost incredible strength of the papacy la ecclesiastical state which had been organized and the 14th fortified by Gregory VII., Alexander III., Innocent III. iry' and Gregory IX. In spite of the perpetuation of all the old abuses and the continual appearance of new devices for increasing the papal revenue; in spite of the jealousy of kings and princes, the attacks of legists and the preaching of the heretics; in spite of seventy years of exile from the holy city, forty years of distract- ing schism and discord, and thirty years of conflict with stately cecumenical councils deliberating in the name of the Holy Spirit and intent upon permanently limiting the papal prerogatives; in spite of the unworthy conduct of some of those who ascended the papal throne, their flagrant political ambitions, and their greed; in spite of the spread of knowledge, old and new, the development of historical criticism, and philosophical speculation; in spite, in short, of every danger which could threaten the papal monarchy, it was still intact when Leo X. died in 1521. Nevertheless, permanent if partial dissolution was at hand, for no one of the perils which the popes had seemingly so successfully overcome had failed to weaken the constitution of their empire; and it is impossible to comprehend its comparatively sudden disintegration without reckoning with the varied hostile forces which were accumulating and com- bining strength during the I4th and i5th centuries. The first serious conflict that arose between the developing modern state and the papacy centred about the pope's claim that the property of the clergy was normally exempt from royal taxation. Boniface VIII. was forced to permit Edward I. and Philip the Fair to continue to demand and receive subsidies granted by the clergy of their realms. Shortly after the bitter humiliation of Boniface by the French government and his death in 1303, the bishop of Bordeaux was elected pope as Clement V. (1305). He preferred to remain in France, and as the Italian cardinals died they were replaced by Frenchmen. The papal court was presently established at Avignon, on the confines of France, where it remained until 1377. While the successors of Clement V. were not so completely under the control of the French kings as has often been alleged, the very proximity of the curia to France served inevitably to intensify national jealousies. The claims of John XXII. (1316-1334) to control the election of the emperor called forth the first fundamental and critical attack on the papal monarchy, by Marsiglio of Padua, who declared in his Defensor pads (1324) that the assumed supremacy of the bishop of Rome was without basis, since it was very doubtful if Peter was ever in Rome, and in any case there was no evidence that he had transmitted any exceptional prerogatives to succeeding bishops. But Marsiglio's logical and elaborate justification for a revolt against the medieval Church produced no perceptible effects. The removal of the papal court from Rome to Avignon, however, not only reduced its prestige but increased the pope's chronic financial embarrassments, by cutting off the income from his own dominions, which he could no longer control, while the unsuccessful wars waged by John XXII., the palace building and the notorious luxury of some of his successors, served enormously to augment the expenses. Various devices were resorted to, old and new, to fill the treasury. The fees of the Curia were raised for the numberless favours, dispensations, absolutions, and exemptions of all kinds which were sought by clerics and laymen. The right claimed by the pope to fill benefices of all kinds was extended, and the amount contributed to the pope by his nominees amounted to from a third to a half of the first year's revenue (see ANNATES). Boni- face VIII. had discovered a rich source of revenue in the jubilee, and in the jubilee indulgences extended to those who could not come to Rome. Clement VI. reduced the period between these lucrative occasions from one hundred to fifty years, and Urban VI. determined in 1389 that they should recur at least once in a generation (every thirty-three years). Church offices, high and low, were regarded as investments from which the pope had his commission. England showed itself better able than other countries to defend itself against the papal control of church preferment. From 1343 onward, statutes were passed by parliament England forbidding any one to accept a papal provision, and and the cutting off all appeals to the papal curia or ecclesias- papacy la tical courts in cases involving benefices. Neverthe- ' less, as a statute of 1379 complains, benefices continued to be given " to divers people of another language and of strange lands and nations, and sometimes to actual enemies of the king and of his realm, which never made residence in this same, nor cannot, may not, nor will not in any wise bear and perform the charges of the same benefice in hearing confessions, preaching or teaching the people." When, in 1365, Innocent VI. demanded that the arrears of the tribute promised by King John to the pope should be paid up, parliament abrogated the whole contract on the ground that John had no right to enter into it. A species of anti-clerical movement, which found an unworthy leader in John of Gaunt, developed at this time. The Good Parliament of 1376 declared that, in spite of the laws restricting papal pro- visions, the popes at Avignon received five times as much revenue from England as the English kings themselves. Secularization was mentioned in parliament. Wycliffe began his public career in 1366 by proving that England was not bound to pay tribute to the pope. Twelve years later he was, like Marsiglio, attacking the very foundations of the papacy itself, as lacking all scriptural sanction. He denounced the papal government as utterly degraded, and urged that the vast property of the Church, which he held to be the chief cause of its degradation, should be secularized and that the clergy should consist of " poor priests," supported only by tithes and alms. They should preach the gospel and encourage the people to seek the truth in the Scriptures themselves, of which a translation into English was completed in 1382. During the later years of his life he attacked the doctrine of transubstantiation, and all the most popular institutions of the Church — indulgences, pilgrimages, invocation of the saints, relics, celibacy of the clergy, auricular confession, &c. His opinions were spread abroad by the hundreds of sermons and popular pamphlets written in English for the people (see WYCLITFE). For some years after Wycliffe's death his followers, the Lollards, continued to carry on his work; but they roused the effective opposition of the conservative clergy, and were subjected to a persecution which put an end to their public agitation. They rapidly disappeared and, except in Bohemia, Wycliffe's teachings left no clearly traceable impressions. Yet the discussions he aroused, the attacks he made upon the institutions of the medieval Church, and especially the position he assigned to the Scriptures as the exclusive source of revealed truth, serve to make the develop- ment of Protestantism under Henry VIII. more explicable than it would otherwise be. Wycliffe's later attacks upon the papacy had been given point by the return of the popes to Rome in 1377 and the opening of the Great Schism which was to endure Ttle Qreai for forty years. There had been many anti-popes in schism the past, but never before had there been such pro- (1377- longed and genuine doubt as to which of two lines ' of popes was legitimate, since in this case each was supported by a college of cardinals, the one at Rome, the other at Avignon. Italy, except Naples, took the side of the Italian pope; France, of the Avignon pope; England, in its hostility to France, 8 REFORMATION, THE sided with Urban VI. in Rome, Scotland with Clement VII., his rival; Flanders followed England; Urban secured Germany, Hungary and the northern kingdoms; while Spain, after re- maining neutral for a time, went over to Clement. Western Christendom had now two papal courts to support. The schism extended down to the bishoprics, and even to the monasteries and parishes, where partisans of the rival popes struggled to obtain possession of sees and benefices. The urgent necessity for healing the schism, the difficulty of uniting the colleges of cardinals, and the prolonged and futile negotiations carried on between the rival popes inevitably raised the whole question of the papal supremacy, and led to the search for a still higher ecclesiastical authority, which, when the normal system of choosing the head of the Church broke down, might re-establish that ecclesiastical unity to which all Europe as yet clung. The idea of the supreme power on earth of a general council of Christendom, deliberating in the name of the Holy Spirit, convoked, if necessary, independently of the popes, was de- fended by many, and advocated by the university of Paris. The futile council of Pisa in 1409, however, only served to increase to three the number of rival representatives of God on earth. The considerable pamphlet literature of the time substantiates the conclusion of an eminent modern Catholic historian, Ludwig Pastor, who declares that the crisis through which the church passed in this terrible period of the schism was the most serious in all its history. It was at just this period, when the rival popes were engaged in a life-and-death struggle, that heretical movements appeared in England, France, Italy, Germany, and especially in Bohemia, which threatened the whole ecclesiastical order. The council of Constance assembled in 1414 under auspices hopeful not only for the extinction of the schism but for the The general reform of the Church. Its members showed councils no patience with doctrinal innovations, even such of Con- moderate ones as John Huss represented. They turnec^ him over to the secular arm for execution, although they did not thereby succeed in check- ing the growth of heresy in Bohemia (see Huss). The healing of the schism proved no very difficult matter; but the council hoped not only to restore unity and suppress heresy, but to re-establish general councils as a regular element in the legislation of the Church. The decree Sacrosancla (April 1415) proclaimed that a general council assembled in the Holy Spirit and representing the Catholic Church militant had its power immediately from Christ, and was supreme over every one in the Church, not excluding the pope, in all matters pertaining to the faith and reformation of the Church of God in head and members. The decree Frequens (October 1417) provided for the regular convocation of councils in the future. As to ecclesiastical abuses the council could do very little, and finally satisfied itself with making out a list of those which the new pope was required to remedy in co-operation with the deputies chosen by the council. The list serves as an excellent summary of the evils of the papal monarchy as recognized by the unim- peachably orthodox. It included: the number, character and nationality of the cardinals, the abuse of the " reserva- tions " made by the apostolic see, the annates, the collation to benefices, expectative favours, cases to be brought before the papal Curia (including appeals), functions of the papal chancery and penitentiary, benefices in commendam, con- firmation of elections, income during vacancies, indulgences, tenths, for what reasons and how is a pope to be corrected or deposed. The pope and the representatives of the council made no serious effort to remedy the abuses suggested under these several captions; but the idea of the superiority of a council over the pope, and the right of those who felt aggrieved by papal decisions to appeal to a future council, remained a serious menace to the theory of papal absolutism. The decree Frequens was not wholly neglected; though the next council, at Siena, came to naught, the council at Basel, whose chief business was to put an end to the terrible religious war that had been raging between the Bohemians and Germans, was destined to cause Eugenius IV. much anxiety. It reaffirmed the decree Sacrosancla, and refused to recognize the validity of a bull Eugenius issued in December 1431 dissolving it. Two years later political reverses forced the pope to sanction the existence of the council, which not only concluded a treaty with the Bohemian heretics but abolished the papal fees for appointments, confirmation and consecration — above all, the annates — and greatly reduced papal reservations; it issued indulgences, imposed tenths, and established rules for the government of the papal states. France, however, withdrew its support from the council, and in 1438, under purely national auspices, by the famous Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, ad- justed the relations of the Gallican Church to the papacy; and Eugenius soon found himself in a position to repudiate the council and summoned a new one to assemble in 1438 at Ferrara under his control to take up the important question of the pending union with the Greek Church. The higher clergy deserted the council of Basel, and left matters in the hands of the lower clergy, who chose an anti-pope; but the rump council gradually lost credit and its lingering members were finally dispersed. The various nations were left to make terms with a reviving papacy. England had already taken measures to check the papal claims. France in the Pragmatic Sanction reformulated the claim of the councils to be superior to the pope, as well as the decision of the council of Basel in regard to elections, annates and other dues, limitations on ecclesi- astical jurisdiction, and appeals to the pope. While the canonical elections were re-established, the prerogatives of the crown were greatly increased, as in England. In short, the national ecclesiastical independence of the French Church was established. The German diet of Regensburg (1439) ratified in the main the decrees of the council of Basel, which clearly gratified the electors, princes and prelates; and Germany for the first time joined the ranks of the countries which subjected the decrees of the highest ecclesiastical instance to the placet or approval of the civil authorities. But there was no strong power, as in England and France, to attend to the execution of the provisions. In 1448 Eugenius's successor, Nicholas V., concluded a con- cordat with the emperor Frederick III. as representative of the German nation. This confined itself to papal appointments and the annates. In practice it restored the former range of papal reservations, and extended papacy la the papal right of appointment to all benefices (except ^j^f' h the higher offices in cathedrals and collegiate churches) which fell vacant during the odd months. It also accorded him the right to confirm all newly elected prelates and to receive the annates. Nothing was said in the concordat of a great part of the chief subjects of complaint. This gave the princes an excuse for the theory that the decrees of Constance and Basel were still in force, limiting the papal prerogatives in all respects not noticed in the concordat. It was Germany which gave the restored papacy the greatest amount of anxiety during the generation following the dissolution of the council of Basel. In the " recesses " or formal statements issued at the con- clusion of the sessions of the diet one can follow the trend of opinion among the German princes, secular and ecclesiastical. The pope is constantly accused of violating the concordat, and constant demands are made for a general council, or at least a national one, which should undertake to remedy the abuses. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks afforded a new excuse for papal taxation. In 1453 a crusading bull was issued imposing a tenth on all benefices of the earth to equip an expedition against the infidel. The diet held at Frankfort in 1456 recalled the fac£ that the council of Constance had for- bjdden the pope to impose tenths without the consent of the clergy in the region affected, and that it was clear that he proposed to " pull the German sheep's fleece over its ears." A German correspondent of Aeneas Sylvius assures him in 1457 that " thousands of tricks are devised by the Roman see which enables it to extract the money from our pockets very REFORMATION, THE neatly, as if we were mere barbarians. Our nation, once so famous, is a slave now, who must pay tribute, and has lain in the dust these many years bemoaning her fate." Aeneas Sylvius issued, immediately after his accession to the papacy as Pius II. the bull Execrabilis forbidding all appeals to a future council. This seemed to Germany to cut off its last hope. It found a spokesman in the vigorous Gregory of Heimburg, who accused the pope of issuing the bull so that he and his cardinals might conveniently pillage Germany unhampered by the threat of a council. " By forbidding appeals to a council the pope treats us like slaves, and wishes to take for his own pleasures all that we and our ancestors have accumulated by honest labour. He calls me a chatterer, although he himself is more talkative than a magpie." Heimburg's denunciations of the pope were widely circulated, and in spite of the major excom- munication he was taken into the service of the archbishop of Mainz and was his representative at the diet of Nuremberg in 1462. It is thus clear that motives which might ultimately lead to the withdrawal of a certain number of German princes from the papal ecclesiastical state were accumulat- ing and intensifying during the latter half of the isth century. It is impossible to review here the complicated political history ot the opening years of the i6th century. The Con- names of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France, oi ditions la Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, of Henry VII. and ai™e"y Henrv VIIL of England, of Maximilian the German "opening ot king, of Popes Alexander VI., Julius II. and Leo X., theioia stand for better organized civil governments, with century. growing powerful despotic heads; for a perfectly worldly papacy absorbed in the interests of an Italian prin- cipality, engaged in constant political negotiations with the European powers which are beginning to regard Italy as their chief field of rivalry, and are using its little states as convenient counters in their game of diplomacy and war. It was in Ger- many, however, seemingly the weakest and least aggressive of the European states, that the first permanent and successful revolts against the papal monarchy occurred. Nothing came of the lists of German gravamina, or of the demands for a council, so long as the incompetent Frederick III. continued to reign. His successor, Maximilian, who was elected emperor in 1493, was mainly preoccupied with his wars and attempts to reform the constitution of the empire; but the diet gave some attention to ecclesiastical reform. For instance, in 1501 it took measures to prevent money raised by the grantirig of a papal indulgence from leaving the country. After the disruption of the league of Cambray, Maximilian, like Louis XII., was thrown into a violent anti-curial reaction, and in 1510 he sent to the well-known humanist, Joseph Wimpheling, a copy of the French Pragmatic Sanction, asking his advice and stating that he had determined to free Germany from the yoke of the Curia and prevent the great sums of money from going to Rome. Wimpheling in his reply rehearsed the old grievances and complained that the contributions made to the pope by the archbishops on receiving the pallium was a great burden on the people. He stated that that of the' archbishop of Mainz had been raised from ten to twenty-five thousand gulden, and that there had been seven vacancies within a generation, and consequently the subjects of the elector had been forced to pay that amount seven times. But Wimpheling had only some timid suggestions to make, and, since Maximilian was once more on happy terms with the pope, political considerations served to cool completely his momentary ardour for ecclesiastical reform. In 1514 the archbishopric of Mainz fell vacant again, and Albert of Brandenburg, already archbishop of Magdeburg and administrator of Halberstadt, longing to add it to his possessions, was elected. After some scandalous negotiations with Leo X. it was arranged that Albert should pay 14,000 ducats for the papal confirmation and 10,000 as a " composition " for permission to continue to hold, against the rules of the Church, his two former archbishoprics. Moreover, in order to permit him to pay the sums, he was to have half the proceeds in his provinces from an indulgence granted to forward the rebuilding of St Peter's. A Dominican monk, Johann Tetzel, was selected to proclaim the indulgence (together with certain supplementary graces) in the three provinces of the elector. This suggestion came from the curia, not the elector, whose representatives could not suppress the fear that the plan would arouse opposition and perhaps worse. Tetzel's preaching and the exaggerated claims that he was re- ported to be making for the indulgences attracted the attention of an Augustinian friar, Martin Luther, who had for some years been lecturing on theology at the university of Wittenberg. He found it impossible to reconcile Tetzel's views of indulgences with his own fundamental theory ol salvation. He accordingly hastily drafted ninety-five propositions relating to indulgences, and posted an invitation to those who wished to attend a disputation in Wittenberg on the matter, under his presidency. He points out the equivocal character of the word poenitentia, which meant both "penance" and "penitence": he declared that " true contrition seeks punishment, while the ampleness of pardons relaxes it and causes men to hate it." Christians ought to be taught that he who gives to a poor man or lends to the needy does better than if he bought pardons. He concludes with certain " keen questionings of the laity," as, Why does not the pope empty purgatory forthwith for charity's sake, instead of cautiously for money ? Why does he not, since he is rich as Croesus, build St Peter's with his own money instead of taking that of poor believers ? It was probably these closing reflections which led to the translation of the theses from Latin into German, and their surprising circulation. It must not be assumed that Luther's ninety-five theses produced any con- siderable direct results. They awakened the author himself to a consciousness that his doctrines were after all incompatible with some of the Church's teachings, and led him to consider the nature of the papal power which issued the indulgence. Two or three years elapsed betore Luther began to be generally known and to exercise a perceptible influence upon aftairs. In July 1518 a diet assembled in Augsburg to consider the new danger from the Turks, who were making rapid conquests under Sultan Selim I. The pope's representative, fhe diet ot Cardinal Cajetan, made it clear that the only safety Augsburg lay in the collection of a tenth from the clergy °iisi8. and a twentieth from laymen; but the diet appointed a committee to consider the matter and explain why they pro- posed to refuse the pope's demands. Protests urging the diet not to weaken came in from all sides. There was an especially bitter denunciation of the Curia by some unknown writer. He claims that " the pope bids his collectors go into the whole world, saying, ' He that believeth, and payeth the tenths, shall be saved.' But it is not necessary to stand in such fear of the thunder of Christ's vicar, but rather to fear Christ Himself, for it is the Florentine's business, not Christ's, that is at issue." The report of the committee of the diet was completed on the 27th of August 1518. It reviews all the abuses, declares that the German people are the victims of war, devastation and dearth, and that the common man is beginning to comment on the vast amount of wealth that is collected for expeditions against the Turk through indulgences or otherwise, and yet no expedition takes place. This is the first recognition in the official gravamina of the importance of the people. Shortly after the committee submitted its report the clergy of Liege presented a memorial which, as the ambassador from Frankfort observed, set forth in the best Latin all the various forms of rascality of which the curlizanen (i.e. curiales, officials of the curia) were guilty. From this time on three new streams begin to reinforce the rather feeble current of official efforts for reform. The common man, to whom the diet of Augsburg alludes, had long been raising his voice against the "parsons" (Pfaffen); the men of letters, Brand, Erasmus, Reuchlin, and above all Ulrich von Hutten, contributed, each in their way, to discredit the Roman Curia; and lastly, a new type of theology, repre- sented chiefly by Martin Luther, threatened to sweep away the very foundations of the papal monarchy. 10 REFORMATION, THE The growing discontent of the poor people, whether in country or town, is clearly traceable in Germany during the isth century, and revolutionary agitation was chronic in southern "fth"ty Germany at least during the first two decades of the masses 1 6th. The clergy were satirized and denounced in to the popular pamphlets and songs. The tithe was an CQc7man oppressive form of taxation, as were the various fees demanded for the performance of the sacraments. The so-called " Reformation of Sigismund," drawn up in 1438, had demanded that the celibacy of the clergy should be abandoned and their excessive wealth reduced. " It is a shame which cries to heaven, this oppression by tithes, dues, penalties, excommunication, and tolls of the peasant, on whose labour all men depend for their existence." In 1476 a poor young shepherd drew thousands to Nicklashausen to hear him denounce the emperor as a rascal and the pope as a worthless fellow, and urge the division of the Church's property among the members of the community. The " parsons " must be killed, and the lords reduced to earn their bread by daily labour. An apoca- lyptic pamphlet of 1508 shows on its cover the Church upside down, with the peasant performing the services, while the priest guides the plough outside and a monk drives the horses. Doubtless the free peasants of Switzerland contributed to stimulate disorder and discontent, especially in southern Germany. The conspiracies were repeatedly betrayed and the guilty parties terribly punished. That discovered in 1517 made a deep impression on the authorities by reason of its vast extent, and doubtless led the diet of Augsburg to allude to the danger which lay in the refusal of the common man to pay the ecclesiastical taxes. " It was into this mass of seething discontent that the spark of religious protest fell — the one thing needed to fire the train and kindle the social conflagration. This was the society to which Luther spoke, and its discontent was the sounding board which made his words reverberate." ' On turning from the attitude of the peasants and poorer townspeople to that of the scholars, we find in their writings Attitude a good deal of harsh criticism of the scholastic theology, of the satirical allusions to the friars, and, in Germany, sharp human- denunciations of the practices of the Curia. But there lsts' are many reasons for believing that the older estimate of the influence of the so-called Renaissance, or " new learning," in promoting the Protestant revolt was an exaggerated one. The class of humanists which had grown up in Italy during the 1 5th century, and whose influence had been spreading into Germany, France and England during the generation immedi- ately preceding the opening of the Protestant revolt, repre- sented every phase of religious feeling from mystic piety to cynical indifference, but there were very few anti-clericals among them. The revival of Greek from the time of Chryso- loras onward, instead of begetting a Hellenistic spirit, trans- ported the more serious-minded to the nebulous shores of Neo- Platonism, while the less devout became absorbed in scholarly or literary ambitions, translations, elegantly phrased letters, clever epigrams or indiscriminate invective. It is true that Lorenzo Valla (d. 1457) showed the Donation of Constantine to be a forgery, denied that Dionysius the Areopagite wrote the works ascribed to him, and refuted the commonly accepted notion that each of the apostles had contributed a sentence to the Apostles' Creed. But such attacks were rare and isolated and were not intended to effect a breach in the solid ramparts of the medieval Church, but rather to exhibit the ingenuity of the critic. In the libraries collected under humanistic influences the patristic writers, both Latin and Greek, and the scholastic doctors are conspicuous. Then most of the humanists were clerics, and in Italy they enjoyed the patronage of the popes. They not unnaturally showed a tolerant spirit on the whole toward existing institutions, including the ecclesiastical abuses, and, in general, cared little how long the vulgar herd was left in the superstitious darkness which befitted their estate, so long as the superior man was permitted to hold discreetly any views he pleased. Of this attitude Mutian (1471-1526), 1 Lindsay. the German humanist who perhaps approached most nearly the Italian type, furnishes a good illustration. He believed that Christianity had existed from all eternity, and that the Greeks and Romans, sharing in God's truth, would share also in the celestial joys. Forms and ceremonies should only be judged as they promoted the great object of life, a clean heart and a right spirit, love to God and one's neighbour. He defined faith as commonly understood to mean " not the conformity of what we say with fact, but an opinion upon divine things founded upon credulity which seeks after profit." " With the cross," he declares, " we put our foes to flight, we extort money, we consecrate God, we shake hell, we work miracles." These reflections were, however, for his intimate friends, and like him, his much greater contemporary, Erasmus, abhorred anything suggesting open revolt or revolution. The Erasmus extraordinary popularity of Erasmus is a sufficient (.1464* indication that his attitude of mind was viewed with IS36t- sympathy by the learned, whether in France, England, Germany, Spain or Italy. »He was a firm believer in the efficacy of culture. He maintained that old prejudices would disappear with the progress of knowledge, and that superstition and mechanical devices of salvation would be insensibly abandoned. The laity should read their New Testament, and would in this way come to feel the true significance of Christ's life and teachings, which, rather than the Church, formed the centre of Erasmus's religion. The dissidence of dissent, however, filled him with uneasiness, and he abhorred Luther's denial of free will and his exaggerated notion of man's utter depravity; in short, he did nothing whatever to promote the Protestant revolt, except so far as his frank denuncia- tion and his witty arraignment of clerical and monastic weaknesses and soulless ceremonial, especially in his Praise of Folly and Col- loquies, contributed to bring the faults of the Church into strong relief, and in so far as his edition of the New Testament furnished a simple escape from innumerable theological complications. A peculiar literary feud in Germany served, about 1515, to throw into sharp contrast the humanistic party, which had been gradually developing during the previous fifty years, and the conservative, monkish, scholastic group, who found their leader among the Dominicans of the university of Cologne. Johann Reuchlin, a well-known scholar, who had been charged by the Dominicans with heresy, not only received the support of the newer type of scholars, who wrote him encouraging letters which he published under the title Epistolae darorum •airorum, but this collection suggested to Crotus Rubianus and Ulrich von Hutten one of the most successful satires of the ages, the Epistolae obscurorum virorum. As Creighton well said, the chief importance of the " Letters of Obscure Men " lay in its success in popularizing the conception of a stupid party which was opposed to the party of progress. At the same time that the Neo-Platonists, like Ficino and Pico de la Mirandola, and the pantheists, whose God was little more than a reverential conception of the universe at large, and the purely worldly humanists, like Celtes and Bebel, were widely diverging each by his own particular path from the ecclesiastical Weltanschauung of the middle ages, Ulrich von Hutten was busy attacking the Curia in his witty Dialogues, in the name of German patriotism. He, at least, among the well-known scholars eagerly espoused Luther's cause, as he understood it. A few of the humanists became Protestants — Melanchthon, Bucer, Oecolampadius and others — but the great majority of them, even if attracted for the moment by Luther's denunciation of scholasticism, speedily repudiated the movement. In Socinianism (see below) we have perhaps the only instance of humanistic antecedents leading to the formation of a religious sect. A new type of theology made its appearance at the opening of the i6th century ,s in sharp contrast with the Aristotelian scholasticism of the Thomists and Scotists. This was The new due to the renewed enthusiasm for, and appreciation of, theology St Paul with which Erasmus sympathized, and which found an able exponent in England in John Colet and in France in Lefevre of Etaples (Faber Stapulensis). Luther was reaching somewhat similar views at the same time, REFORMATION, THE ii although in a strikingly different manner and with far more momentous results for the western world. Martin Luther was beyond doubt the most important single figure in the Protestant revolt. His influence was indeed by no means so decisive and so pervasive as has commonly been supposed, and his attacks on the evils in the Church were no bolder or more comprehensive than those of Marsiglio and Wycliffe, or of several among his con- temporaries who owed nothing to his example. Had the German princes not found it to their interests to enforce his principles, he might never have been more than the leader of an obscure mystic sect. He was, moreover, no statesman. He was recklessly impetuous in his temperament, coarse and grossly superstitious according to modern standards. Yet in spite of all these allowances he remains one of the great heroes of all history. Few come in contact with his writings without feeling his deep spiritual nature and an absolute genuineness and marvellous individuality which seem never to sink into mere routine or affectation. In his more important works almost every sentence is alive with that autochthonic quality which makes it unmistakably his. His fundamental religious con- ception was his own hard-found answer to his own agonized question as to the nature and assurance of salvation. Even if others before him had reached the conviction that the Vulgate's word justitia in Romans i. 16-17 meant "righteousness" rather than " justice " in a juridical sense, Luther exhibited supreme religious genius in his interpretation of " God's righteousness " (Gerechligkeif) as over against the " good works " of man, and in the overwhelming importance he attached to the promise that the just shall live by faith. It was his anxiety to remove everything that obscured this central idea which led him to revolt against the ancient Church, and this conception of faith served, when he became leader of the German Protestants, as a touchstone to test the expediency of every innovation. But only gradually did he come to realize that his source of spiritual consolation might undermine altogether the artfully constructed fabric of the medieval Church. As late as 1516 he declared that the life of a monk was never a more enviable one than at that day. He had, however, already begun to look sourly upon Aristotle and the current scholastic theology, which he believed hid the simple truth of the gospel and the desperate state of mankind, who were taught a vain reliance upon outward works and ceremonies, when the only safety lay in throwing oneself on God's mercy. He was suddenly forced to take up the consideration of some of the most fundamental points in the orthodox theology by the appearance of Tetzel in 1517. In his hastily drafted Ninety-five Theses he sought to limit the potency of indulgences, and so indirectly raised the question as to the power of the pope. He was astonished to observe the wide circulation of the theses both in the Latin and German versions. They soon reached Rome, and a Dominican monk, Prierius, wrote a reply in defence of the papal power, in an insolent tone which first served to rouse Luther's suspicion of the theology of the papal Curia. He was summoned to Rome, but, out of consideration for his patron, the important elector of Saxony, he was permitted to appear before the papal legate during the diet of Augsburg in 1518. He boldly contradicted the legate's theological statements, refused to revoke anything and appealed to a future council. On returning to Wittenberg, he turned to the canon law, and was shocked to find it so completely at variance with his notions of Christianity. He reached the conclusion that the papacy was but four hundred years old. Yet, although of human origin, it was established by common consent and with God's sanction, so that no one might withdraw his obedience without offence. It was not, however, until 1520 that Luther became in a sense the leader of the German people by issuing his three great pamphlets, all of which were published in German as well as in Latin — his Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, his Babylonish Captivity of the Church, and his Freedom of the Christian. In the first he urged that, since the Church had failed to reform itself, the secular government should come to the rescue. " The Romanists have with great dexterity built themselves about with three walls, which have hitherto protected them against reform; and thereby is Christianity fearfully fallen. In the first place, when the temporal power has pressed them hard, they have affirmed and maintained that the temporal power has no jurisdiction over them — that, on the contrary, the spiritual is above the temporal. Secondly, when it was proposed to admonish them from the Holy Scriptures they said, ' It beseems no one but the pope to interpret the Scriptures,' and, thirdly, when they were threatened with a council, they invented the idea that no one but the pope can call a council. Thus they have secretly stolen our three rods that they may go unpunished, and have entrenched themselves safely behind these three walls in order to carry on all the rascality and wickedness that we now see." He declares that the distinction between the " spiritual estate," composed of pope, bishops, priests and monks, as over against the " temporal estate " composed of princes, lords, artisans and peasants, is a very fine hypocritical invention of which no one should be afraid. " A cobbler, a smith, a peasant, every man has his own calling and duty, just like the conse- crated priests and bishops, and every one in his calling or office must help and serve the rest, so that all may work together for the common good." After overthrowing the other two walls, Luther invites the attention of the German rulers to the old theme of the pomp of the pope and cardinals, for which the Germans must pay. " What the Romanists really mean to do, the ' drunken Germans ' are not to see until they have lost everything. ... If we rightly hang thieves a'nd behead robbers, why do we leave the greed of Rome unpunished ? for Rome is the greatest thief and robber that has ever appeared on earth, or ever will; and all in the holy names of the Church and St Peter." After proving that the secular rulers were free and in duty bound to correct the evils of the Church, Luther sketches a plan for preventing money from going to Italy, for reducing the number of idle, begging monks, harmful pilgrimages and excessive holidays. Luxury and drinking were to be sup- pressed, the universities, especially the divinity schools, re- organized, &c. Apart from fundamental rejection of the papal supremacy, there was little novel in Luther's appeal. It had all been said before in the various protests of which we have spoken, and very recently by Ulrich von Hutten in his Dialogues, but no one had put the case so strongly, or so clearly, before. In addressing the German nobility Luther had refrained from taking up theological or religious doctrines; but in Sep- tember 1520 he attacked the whole sacramental system ot the medieval Church in his Babylonish Captivity of the Church. Many reformers, like Glapion, the Franciscan confessor of Charles V., who had read the Address with equanimity if not approval, were shocked by Luther's audacity in rejecting the prevailing fundamental religious conceptions. Luther says: " I must begin by denying that there are seven sacraments, and must lay down for the time being that there are only three — baptism, penance and the bread, and that by the court of Rome all these have been brought into miserable bondage, and the Church despoiled of her liberty." It is, however, in the Freedom of the Christian that the essence of Luther's religion is to be found. Man cannot save himself, but is saved then and there so soon as he believes God's promises, and to doubt these is the supreme crime. So salvation was to him not a painful progress toward a goal to be reached by the sacraments and by right conduct, but a stale in which man found himself so soon as he despaired absolutely of his own efforts, and threw himself on God's assurances. Man's utter incapacity to do anything to please God, and his utter personal dependence on God's grace seemed to render the whole system of the Church well-nigh gratuitous even if it were purged of all the " sophistry " which to Luther seemed to bury out of sight all that was essential in religion. Luther's gospel was one of love and confidence, not of fear and trembling, and came as an overwhelming revelation to those who understood and accepted it. The old question of Church reform inevitably reappeared 12 REFORMATION, THE when the young emperor Charles V. opened his first imperial diet at Worms early in 1521, and a committee of German princes drafted a list of gravamina, longer and bitterer than The edict any preceding one. While the resolute papal nuncio of Worm*, Aleander was indefatigable in his efforts to induce the ts21' diet to condemn Luther's teachings, his curious and instructive despatches to the Roman Curia complain constantly of the ill-treatment and insults he encountered, of the readiness of the printers to issue innumerable copies of Luther's pamphlets and of their reluctance to print anything in the pope's favour. Charles apparently made up his mind immediately and once for all. He approved the gravamina, for he believed a thorough reform of the Church essential. This reform he thought should be carried out by a council, even against the pope's will; and he was destined to engage in many fruitless negotiations to this end before the council of Trent at last assembled a score of years later. But he had no patience with a single monk who, led astray by his private judgment, set himself against the faith held by all Christians for a thousand years. " What my fore- fathers established at the council of Constance and other councils it is my privilege to maintain," he exclaims. Although, to Aleander's chagrin, the emperor consented to summon Luther to Worms, where he received a species of ovation, Charles readily approved the edict drafted by the papal nuncio, in which Luther is accused of having " brought together all previous heresies in one stinking mass," rejecting all law, teaching a life wholly brutish, and urging the lay people to bathe their hands in the blood of priests. He and his adherents were outlawed; no one was to print, sell or read any of his writings, " since they are foul, harmful, suspected, and come from a notorious and stiff-necked heretic." The edict of Worms was entirely in harmony with the laws of Western Christendom, and there were few among the governing classes in Germany at that time who really understood or approved Luther's fundamental ideas; nevertheless — if we except the elector of Brandenburg, George of Saxony, the dukes of Bavaria, and Charles V.'s brother Ferdinand — the princes, including the ecclesiastical rulers and the towns, commonly neglected to publish the edict, much less to enforce it. They were glad to leave Luther unmolested in order to spite the " Curtizanen," as the adherents of the papal Curia were called. The emperor was forced to leave Germany immediately after the diet had dissolved, and was prevented by a succession of wars from returning for nearly ten years. The governing council, which had been organized to represent him in Germany, fell rapidly into disrepute, and exercised no restraining influence on those princes who might desire to act on Luther's theory that the civil government was supreme in matters of Church reform. The records of printing indicate that religious, social and economic betterment was the subject of an ever-increasing number of pamphlets. The range of opinion was wide. Men like Thomas Murner, for instance, heartily denounced " the great Lutheran fool," but at the same time bitterly attacked monks and priests, and popular- ized the conception of the simple man with the hoe (Karsthans). Hans Sachs, on the other hand, sang the praises of the " Wittenberg Nightingale," and a considerable number of prominent men of letters accepted Luther as their guide — Zell and Bucer, in Strassburg, Eberlin in Ulm, Oecolampadius in Augsburg, Osiander and others in Nuremberg, Pellicanus in Nordlingen. Moreover, there gradually developed a group of radicals who were convinced that Luther had not the courage of his convictions. They proposed to abolish the " idolatry " of the Mass and all other outward signs of what they deemed the old superstitions. Luther's colleague at Wittenberg, Carlstadt (q.v.), began denouncing the monastic life, the celi- bacy of the clergy, the veneration of images; and before the end of 1521 we find the first characteristic outward symptoms of Protestantism. Luther had meanwhile been concealed by his friends in the Wartburg, near Eisenach, where he busied himself with a new German translation of the New Testament, to be followed in a few years by the Old Testament. The Wide diverg- ence of opinion In Germany. Bible had long been available in the language of the people, and there are indications that the numerous early editions of the Scriptures were widely read. Luther, however, possessed resources of style which served to render his version far superior to the older one, and to give it an important place in the develop- ment of German literature, as well as in the history of the Protestant churches. During his absence two priests from parishes near Wittenberg married; while several monks, throwing aside their cowls, left their cloisters. Melanchthon, who was for a moment carried away by the movement, partook, with several of his students, of the communion under both kinds, and on Christmas Eve a crowd invaded the church of All Saints, broke the lamps, threatened the priests and made sport of the venerable ritual. Next day, Carlstadt, who had laid aside his clerical robes, dispensed the Lord's Supper in the " evangelical fashion." At this time three prophets arrived from Zwickau, eager to hasten the movement of emancipation. They were weavers who had been associated with Thomas Miinzer, and like him looked forward to a very radical reform of society. They rejected infant baptism, and were among the forerunners of the Anabaptists. In January 1522, Carlstadt induced the authorities of Witten- berg to publish the first evangelical church ordinance. The revenues from ecclesiastical foundations, as well as those from the industrial gilds, were to be placed in a testant ' common chest, to be in charge of the townsmen and the Revolt magistrates. The priests were to receive fixed salaries; begins in begging, even by monks and poor students, was pro- ^22"^' hibited; the poor, including the monks, were to be supported from the common chest. The service of the Mass was modified, and the laity were to receive the elements in both kinds. Reminders of the old religious usages were to be done away with, and fast days were to be no longer observed. These measures, and the excitement which followed the arrival of the radicals from Zwickau, led Luther to return to Wittenberg in March 1522, where he preached a series of sermons attacking the impatience of the radical party, and setting forth clearly his own views of what the progress of the Reformation should be. " The Word created heaven and earth and all things; the same Word will also create now, and not we poor sinners. Faith must be unconstrained and must be accepted without compulsion. To marry, to do away with images, to become monks and nuns, or for monks and nuns to leave their convent, to eat meat on Friday or not to eat it, and other like things — all these are open questions, and should not be forbidden by any man .... What we want is the heart, and to win that we must preach the gospel. Then the Word will drop into one heart to-day and to-morrow into another, and so will work that each will forsake the Mass." Luther succeeded in quieting the people both in Wittenberg and the neighbour- ing towns, and in preventing the excesses which had threatened to discredit the whole movement. In January 1522, Leo X. had been succeeded by a new pope, Adrian VI., a devout Dominican theologian, bent on reforming the Church, in which, as he injudiciously Adrian VI. confessed through his legate to the diet at Nuremberg, IS22- the Roman Curia had perhaps been the chief source 1S23' of " that corruption which had spread from the head to the members." The Lutheran heresy he held to be God's terrible judgment on the sins of the clergy. The diet refused to accede to the pope's demand that the edict of Worms should be enforced, and recommended that a Christian council should be summoned in January, to include not only ecclesiastics but laymen, who should be permitted freely to express their opinions. While the^ diet approved the list of abuses drawn up at Worms, it ordered that Luther's books should no longer be published, and that Luther himself should hold his peace, while learned men were to admonish the erring preachers. The decisions of this diet are noteworthy, since they probably give a very fair idea of the prevailing opinion of the ruling classes in Germany. They refused to regard Luther as in any way their leader, or even to recognize him as a discreet REFORMATION, THE " person. On the other hand, they did not wish to take the risk of radical measures against the new doctrines, and were glad of an excuse for refusing the demands of the pope. Adrian soon died, worn out by his futile attempts to correct the abuses at home, and was followed by Clement VII., a Medici, less gifted but not less worldly in his instincts than LeoX. Clement sent one of his ablest Italian diplomatists, Cam- peggio, to negotiate with the diet which met at Spires in 1524. He induced the diet to promise to execute the edict of Worms as far as that should be possible; but it was then- generally understood that it was impossible. The iigious diet renewed the demand for a general council to meet deft be- jn a (jerman town to settle the affairs of the Church German 'n Germany, and even proposed the convocation of states of a national council at Spires in November, to effect the north a temporary adjustment. In this precarious situation Campeggio, realizing the hopelessness of his attempt to induce all the members of the diet to co-operate with him in re-establishing the pope's control, called together at Regensburg a certain number of rulers whom he believed to be rather more favourably disposed toward the pope than their fellows. These included Ferdinand, duke of Austria, the two dukes of Bavaria, the archbishops of Salzburg and Trent, the bishops of Bamberg, Spires, Strassburg and others. He induced these to unite in opposing the Lutheran heresy on condition that the pope would issue a decree providing for some of the .most needed reforms. There was to be no more financial oppres- sion on the part of the clergy, and no unseemly payments for performing the church services. Abuses arising from the granting of indulgences were to be remedied, and the excessive number of church holidays, which seriously interfered with the industrial welfare of Germany, was to be reduced. The states in the Catholic League were permitted to retain for their own uses about one-fifth of the ecclesiastical revenue; the clergy was to be subjected to careful discipline; and only authorized preachers were to be tolerated, who based their teachings on the works of the four Latin Church fathers. Thus the agree- ment of Regensburg is of great moment in the development of the Protestant revolt in Germany. For Austria, Bavaria and the great ecclesiastical states in the south definitely sided with the pope against Luther's heresies, and to this day they still remain Roman Catholic. In the north, on the other hand, it became more and more apparent that the princes were drift- ing away from the Roman Catholic Church. Moreover, it should be noted that Campeggio's diplomacy was really the beginning of an effective betterment of the old Church, such as had been discussed for two or three centuries. He met the long-standing and general demand for reform without a revolu- tion in doctrines or institutions. A new edition of the German Bible was issued with the view of meeting the needs of Catholics, a new religious literature grew up designed to sub- stantiate the beliefs sanctioned by the Roman Church and to carry out the movement begun long before toward spiritual- izing its institutions and rites. In 1525 the conservative party, which had from the first feared that Luther's teaching would result in sedition, received The a new and terrible proof, as it seemed to them, of the Peasant noxious influence of the evangelical preachers. The Revolt, peasant movements alluded to above, which had caused B2S' so much anxiety at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, cul- minated in the fearful Peasant Revolt in which the common man, both in country and town, rose in the name of " God's justice " to avenge long-standing wrongs and establish his rights. Luther was by no means directly responsible for the civil war which followed, but he had certainly contributed to stir up the ancient discontent. He had asserted that, owing to the habit of foreclosing small mortgages, " any one with a hundred gulden could gobble up a peasant a year." The German feudal lords he pronounced hangmen, who knew only how to swindle the poor man — " such fellows were formerly called scoundrels, but now we must call them ' Christians and 13 revered princes.'" Yet in spite of this harsh talk about princes, Luther relied upon them to forward the reforms in which he was interested, and he justly claimed that he had greatly increased their powers by reducing the authority of the pope and subjecting the clergy in all things to the civil government. The best known statement of the peasants' grievances is to be found in the famous " Twelve Articles " drawn up in 1524. They certainly showed the unmistakable influence of the evangelical teaching. The peasants demanded that the gospel should be taught them as a guide in life, and that each community should be permitted to choose its pastor and depose him if he conducted himself improperly. " The pastor thus chosen should teach us the gospel pure and simple, without any addition, doctrine or ordinance of man." The old tithe on grain shall continue to be paid, since that is established by the Old Testament. It will serve to support the pastor, and what is left over shall be given to the poor. Serfdom is against God's word, "since Christ has delivered and redeemed us all without exception, by the shedding of his precious blood, the lowly as well as the great." Protests follow against hunting and fishing rights, restrictions on wood-cutting, and ex- cessive demands made on peasants. " In the twelfth place," the declaration characteristically concluded, " it is our con- clusion and final resolution that if one or more of the articles here set forth should not be in agreement with the word of God, as we think they are, such articles will we willingly retract if it be proved by a clear explanation of Scripture really to be against the word of God." More radical demands came from the working classes in the towns. The articles of Heilbronn demanded that the property of the Church should be con- fiscated and used for the community; clergy and nobility alike were to be deprived of all their privileges, so that they could no longer oppress the poor man. The more violent leaders, like Miinzer, renewed the old cry that the parsons must be slain. Hundreds of castles and monasteries were destroyed by the frantic peasantry, and some of the nobles were murdered with shocking cruelty. Luther, who believed that the peasants were trying to cloak their dreadful sins with excuses from the gospel, exhorted the government to put down the in- surrection. " Have no pity on the poor folk; stab, smite, throttle, who can!" To him the peasants' attempt to abolish serfdom was wholly unchristian, since it was a divinely sanctioned institution, and if they succeeded they would " make God a liar." The German rulers took Luther's advice with terrible literalness, and avenged themselves upon the peasants, whose lot was apparently worse afterwards than before. The terror inspired by the Peasant War led to a new alliance, the League of Dessau, formed by some of the leading rulers of central and northern Germany, to stamp out the Apaear- " accursed Lutheran sect." This included Luther's old ance Of enemy, Duke George of Saxony, the electors of Bran- "" evaa- denburg and Mainz, and two princes of Brunswick. The rumour that the emperor was planning to return to Germany in order to root out the growing heresy, led a few princes who had openly favoured Luther to unite also. Among these the chief were the new elector of Saxony, John (who, unlike his brother, Frederick the Wise, had openly espoused the new doctrines), and the energetic Philip, landgrave of Hesse. The emperor did not return, and since there was no one to settle the religious question in Germany, the diet of Spires (1526) determined that, pending the meeting of the proposed general council, each prince, and each knight and town owing immediate allegiance to the emperor, should decide individually what particular form of religion should prevail within the limits of their territories. Each prince was "so to live, reign and conduct himself as he would be willing to answer before God and His Imperial Majesty." While the evangelical party still hoped that some form of religion might be agreed upon which would prevent the disruption of the Church, the conservatives were confident that the heretics REFORMATION, THE would soon be suppressed, as they had so often been in the past. The situation tended to become more, rather than less, complicated, and there was every variety of reformer and every degree of conservatism, for there were no standards for those who had rejected the papal supremacy, and even those who continued to accept it differed widely. For example, George of Saxony viewed Aleander, the pope's nuncio, with almost as much suspicion as he did Luther himself. The religious ideas in South Germany were affected by the de- velopment of a reform party in Switzerland, under the influence Zwia II °^ Zwingli, who claimed that at Einsiedeln, near the and the 'a^e of Zurich, he had begun to preach the gospel of Reforms- Christ in the year 1516 " before any one in my locality tit, n in had so much as heard the name of Luther." Three land." years later he becamepreacherinthecathedralof Zurich. Here he began to denounce the abuses in the Church, as well as the traffic in mercenaries which had so long been a blot upon his country's honour. From the first he combined religious and political reform. In 1523 he prepared a complete statement of his beliefs, in the form of sixty-seven theses. He maintained that Christ was the only high priest and that the gospel did not gain its sanction from the authority of the Church. He denied the existence of purgatory, and rejected those practices of the Church which Luther had already set aside. Since no one presented himself to refute him, the town council ratified his conclusions, so that the city of Zurich prac- tically withdrew from the Roman Catholic Church. Next year the Mass, processions and the images of saints were abolished. The shrines were opened and the relics burned. Some other towns, including Bern, followed Zurich's example, but the Forest cantons refused to accept the innovations. In 1525 a religious and political league was arranged between Zurich and Constance, which in the following year was joined by St Gallen, Biel, Miihlhausen, Basel and Strassburg. Philip of Hesse was attracted by Zwingli's energy, and was eager that the northern reformers should be brought into closer relations with the south. But the league arranged by Zwingli was directed against the house of Habsburg, and Luther did not deem it right to oppose a prince by force of arms. Moreover, he did not believe that Zwingli, who con- i.uthcr. ceived the eucharist to be merely symbolical in its ™e character, " held the whole truth of God." Never- ' Articles! theless, Philip of Hesse finally arranged a religious conference in the castle of Marburg (1529) where Zwingli and Luther met. They were able to agree on fourteen out of the fifteen " Marburg Articles," which stated the chief points in the Christian faith as they were accepted by both. A fundamental difference as to the doctrine of the eucharist, however, stood in the way of the real union. The diet of Spires (1529) had received a letter from the emperor directing it to look to the enforcement of the edict of The diet Worms against the heretics. No one was to preach of Spires, against the Mass, and no one was to be prevented from 1529, ana attending it freely. This meant that the evangelical 'testants'" Prmces would be forced to restore the most character- istic Catholic rite. As they formed only a minority in the diet, they could only draw up a protest, which was signed by John Frederick of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and fourteen of the three towns, including Strassburg, Nuremberg and Ulm. In this they claimed that the majority had no right to abrogate the stipulations of the former diet of Spires, which permitted each prince to determine religious matters provisionally for him- self, for all had unanimously pledged themselves to observe that agreement. They therefore appealed to the emperor and to a future council against the tyranny of the majority. Those who signed this appeal were called Protestants, a name which came to be generally applied to those who rejected the supremacy of the pope, the Roman Catholic conceptions of the clergy and of the Mass, and discarded sundry practices of the older Church, without, however, repudiating the Catholic creeds. Zwingli During the period which had elapsed since the diet of Worms, the emperor had resided in Spain, busy with a series of wars, waged mainly with the king of France.1 In 1 530 the The dlet emperor found himself in a position to visit Germany and con- once more, and summoned the diet to meet at Augsburg, fessloa of with the hope of settling the religious differences and Auxsl""T[. bringing about harmonious action against the Turk. The Protestants were requested to submit a statement of their opinions, and on June 25th the " Augsburg Confession " was read to the diet. This was signed by the elector of Saxony and his son and successor, John Frederick, by George, margrave of Brandenburg, two dukes of Liineburg, Philip of Hesse and Wolfgang of Anhalt, and by the representatives of Nuremberg and Reutlingen. The confession was drafted by Melanchthon, who sought consistently to minimize the breach which separated the Lutherans from the old Church. In the first part of the confession the Protestants seek to prove that there is nothing in their doctrines at variance with those of the universal Church " or even of the Roman Church so far as that appears in the writings of the Fathers." They made it clear that they still held a great part of the beliefs of the medieval Church, especially as represented in Augustine's writings, and repudiated the radical notions of the Anabaptists and of Zwingli. In the second part, those practices of the Church are enumerated which the evangelical party rejected; the celibacy of the clergy, the Mass, as previously understood, auricular confession, and monastic vows, the objections to which are stated with much vigour. " Christian perfection is this: to fear God sincerely, to trust* assuredly that we have, for Christ's sake, a gracious and merciful God; to ask and look with confidence for help from him in all our affairs, accordingly to our calling, and outwardly to do good works diligently, and to attend to our vocation. In these things doth true perfection and a true worship of God consist. It doth not consist in going about begging, or in wearing a black or a grey cowl." The Protestant princes declared that they had no intention of depriving the bishops of their jurisdiction, but this one thing only is requested of them, " that they would suffer the gospel to be purely taught, and would relax a few observances in which we cannot adhere without sin." The confession was turned over to a committee of conserva- tive theologians, including Eck, Faber and Cochlaeus. Their refutation of the Protestant positions seemed needlessly Course ol sharp to the emperor, and five drafts were made of it. events in Charles finally reluctantly accepted it, although he Germany, would gladly have had it milder, for it made reconcilia- tion hopeless. The majority of the diet approved a recess, allowing the Protestants a brief period of immunity until the isth of April 1531, after which they were to be put down by force. Meanwhile, they were to make no further innovations, they were not to molest the conservatives, and were to aid the emperor in suppressing the doctrines of Zwingli and of the Anabaptists. The Lutheran princes protested, together with fourteen cities, and left the diet. The diet thereupon decided that the edict of Worms should at last be enforced. All Church property was to be restored, and, perhaps most important of all, the jurisdiction of the Imperial court (Reichskammergcricht), which was naturally Catholic in its sympathies, was extended to appeals involving the seizure of ecclesiastical benefices, contempt of episcopal decisions and other matters deeply affect- ing the Protestants. In November the Protestants formed the Schmalkaldic League, which, after the death of Zwingli, in 1531, was joined by a number of the South German towns. The period of immunity assigned to the Protestants passed by; but they were left unmolested, for the emperor was involved in many difficulties, and the Turks were threatening Vienna. Consequently, at the diet of Nuremberg (1532) a recess was drafted indefinitely extending the religious truce and quashing such cases in the Reichskammergericht as involved Protestant 1 In 1527 the pope's capital was sacked by Charles's army. This was, of course, but an incident in the purely political relations of the European powers with the pope, and really has no bearing upon the progress of the Protestant revolt. REFORMATION, THE innovations. The conservatives refused to ratify the recess, which was not published, but the Protestant states declared that they would accept the emperor's word of honour, and furnished him with troops for repelling the Mahommedans. The fact that the conservative princes, especially the dukes of Bavaria, were opposed to any strengthening of the emperor's power, and were in some cases hereditary enemies of the house of, Habsburg, served to protect the Protestant princes. In 1534 the Schmalkaldic League succeeded in restoring the banished duke of Wiirttemberg, who declared himself in favour of the Lutheran reformation, and thus added another to the list of German Protestant states. In 1 539 George of Saxony died, and was succeeded by his brother Henry, who also accepted the new faith, and in the same year the new elector of Brandenburg became a Protestant. Indeed, there was reason to believe at this time that the archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, as well as some other bishops, were planning the secularization of their principalities. To the north, Lutheran influence had spread into Denmark; Sweden and Norway were also brought within its sphere. Denmark, Christian II. of Denmark, a nephew of the elector of an™"* Saxony, came to the throne in 1513, bent on bringing Sweden Sweden and Norway, over which he nominally ruled in become accordance with the terms of the Union of Kalmar Protest- (1397), completely under his control. In order to do aat' this it was necessary to reduce the power of the nobility and clergy, privileged classes exempt from taxation and rivals of the royal power. Denmark had suffered from all the abuses of papal provisions, and the nuncio of Leo X. had been forced in 1518 to flee from the king's wrath. Christian II. set up a supreme court for ecclesiastical matters, and seemed about to adopt a policy similar to that later pursued by Henry VIII. of England, when his work was broken off by a revolt which compelled him to leave the country. Lutheranism continued to make rapid progress, and Christian's successor permitted the clergy to marry, appropriated the annates and protected the Lutherans. Finally Christian III., an ardent Lutheran, ascended the throne in 1536; with the sanction of the diet he Severed, in 1537, all connexion with the pope, introducing the Lutheran system of Church government and accepting the Augsburg Confession.1 Norway was included in the changes, but Sweden had won its independence of Denmark, under Gustavus Vasa, who, in 1523, was proclaimed king. He used the Lutheran theories as an excuse for overthrowing the ecclesi- astical aristocracy, which had been insolently powerful in Sweden. In 1527, supported by the diet, he carried his measures for secularizing such portion's of the Church property as he thought fit, and for subjecting the Church to the royal power (Ordinances of Vesteras); but many of the old religious cere- monies and practices were permitted to continue, and it was not until 1592 that Lutheranism was officially sanctioned by the Swedish synod.2 Charles V., finding that his efforts to check the spread of the religious schism were unsuccessful, resorted once more to The conferences between Roman Catholic and Lutheran Council theologians, but it became apparent that no permanent of Trent, compromise was possible. The emperor then succeeded in disrupting the Schmalkaldic League by winning over, on purely political grounds, Philip of Hesse and young Maurice of Saxony, whose father, Henry, had died after a very brief reign. Charles V. had always exhibited the greatest confidence in the proposed general council, the summoning of which had hitherto been frustrated by the popes, and at last, in 1545, the council was summoned to meet at Trent, which lay con- veniently upon the confines of Italy and Germany (see TRENT, COUNCIL OF). The Dominicans and, later, members of the newly born Order of Jesus, were conspicuous, among the 1 The episcopal office was retained, but the " succession " broken, the new Lutheran bishops being consecrated by Buggenhagen, who was only in priest's orders. * The episcopal system and succession were maintained, and the " Mass vestments " (i.e. alb and chasuble) remain in use to this day. Ing In the religious peace of theological deputies, while the Protestants, though invited, refused to attend. It was clear from the first that the decisions of the council would be uncompromising in character, and that the Protestants would certainly refuse to be bound by its decrees. And so it fell out. The very first anathemas of the council were directed against those innovations which the Protestants had most at heart. The emperor had now tried threats, conferences and a general council, and all had failed to unify the Church. Maurice of Saxony, without surrendering his religious beliefs, had become the political friend of the emperor, who had promised him the neighbouring electorate of Saxony. Event* John Frederick, the elector, was defeated at Muhlberg, April 1547, and taken prisoner. Philip of Hesse also surrendered, and Charles tried once more to establish a basis of agreement. Three theologians, in- "Augsburg, eluding a conservative Lutheran, were chosen to draft isss. the so-called " Augsburg Interim." This reaffirmed the seven sacraments, transubstantiation and the invocation of saints, and declared the pope head of the Church, but adopted Luther's doctrine of justification by faith in a conditional way, as well as the marriage of priests, and considerably modified the theory and practice of the Mass. For four years Charles, backed by the Spanish troops, made efforts to force the Protestant towns to observe the Interim, but with little success. He rapidly grew extremely unpopular, and in 1552 Maurice of Saxony turned upon him and attempted to capture him at Innsbruck. Charles escaped, but Maurice became for the moment leader of the German princes who gathered at Passau (August 1552) to discuss the situation. The settlement, however, was deferred for the meeting of the diet, which took place at Augsburg, 1555. There was a general anxiety to conclude a peace — " beslUndiger , behorrlicher, un- bedingter, jilr und fiir ewig wahrender." There was no other way but to legalize the new faith in Germany, but only those were to be tolerated who accepted the Augsburg Confession. This excluded, of course, not only the Zwinglians and Ana- baptists, but the ever-increasing Calvinistic or " Reformed " Church. The principle cujus regio ejus religio was adopted, according to which each secular ruler might choose between the old faith and the Lutheran. His decision was to bind all his sub- jects, but a subject professing another religion from his prince was to be permitted to leave the country. The ecclesiastical rulers, however, were to lose their possessions if they abandoned the old faith.3 Freedom of conscience was thus established for princes alone, and their power became supreme in religious as well as secular matters. The Church and the civil government had been closely associated with one another for centuries, and the old system was perpetuated in the Protestant states. Scarcely any one dreamed that individual subjects could safely be left to believe what they would, and permitted, so long as they did not violate the law of the land, freely to select and practise such religious rites as afforded them help and comfort. During the three or four years which followed the signing of the Augsburg Confession in 1530 and the formation of the Schmalkaldic League, England, while bitterly de- Religious nouncing and burning Lutheran heretics in the name sft«"»"o" of the Holy Catholic Church, was herself engaged in '^^ at the severing the bonds which had for well-nigh a thousand open/agof years bound her to the Apostolic See. An in- theKth dependent national Church was formed in IS34, >*atuTy- which continued, however, for a time to adhere to all the characteristic beliefs of the medieval Catholic Church, excepting alone the headship of the pope. The circum- stances which led to the English schism are dealt with elsewhere (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF), and need be reviewed here only in the briefest manner. There was som« heresy in England during the opening decades of the i6th century, survivals of the Lollardy which now and then brought a victim to the stake. There was also the old discontent among the orthodox in regard to the Church's exactions, bad clerics and 3 This so-called " ecclesiastical reservation " was not included in the main peace. i6 REFORMATION, THE dissolute and lazy monks. Scholars, like Colet, read the New Testament in Greek and lectured on justification by faith before they knew of Luther, and More included among the institutions of Utopia a rather more liberal and enlightened religion than that which he observed around him. Erasmus was read and approved, and his notion of reform by culture no doubt attracted many adherents among English scholars. Luther's works found their way into England, and were read and studied at both Oxford and Cambridge. In May 1521 Wolsey attended a pom- pous burning of Lutheran tracts in St Paul's churchyard, where Bishop Fisher preached ardently against the new German heresy. Henry VIII. himself stoutly maintained the headship of the pope, and, as is well known, after examining the arguments of Luther, published his Defence of the Seven Sacraments in 1521, which won for him from the pope the glorious title of " Defender of the Faith." The government and the leading men of letters and prelates appear therefore to have harboured no notions of revolt before the matter of the king's divorce became prominent in 1527. Henry's elder brother Arthur, a notoriously sickly youth of scarce fifteen, had been married to Catherine, daughter of „ Ferdinand and Isabella, but had died less than five v///. months after the marriage (April 1502), leaving and the doubts as to whether the union had ever been physi- divorce cally consummated. Political reasons dictated an case- alliance between the young widow and her brother-in- law Henry, prince of Wales, nearly five years her junior; Julius II. was induced reluctantly to grant the dispensation necessary on account of the relationship, which, according to the canon law and the current interpretation of Leviticus xviii. 16, stood in the way of the union. The wedding took place some years later (1509), and several children were born, none of whom survived except the princess Mary. By 1527 the king had become hopeless of having a male heir by Catherine. He was tired of her, and in love with the black-eyed Anne Boleyn, who refused to be his mistress. He alleged that he was beginning to have a horrible misgiving that his marriage with Catherine had been invalid, perhaps downright " incestuous. " The negotiations with Clement VII. with the hope of obtaining a divorce from Catherine, the reluctance of the pope to impeach the dispensation of his predecessor Julius II., and at the same time to alienate the English queen's nephew Charles V., the futile policy of Wolsey and his final ruin in 1529 are described elsewhere (see ENGLISH HISTORY; HENRY VIII.; CATHERINE or ARAGON). The king's agents secured the opinion of a number of prominent universities that his marriage was void, and an assembly of notables, which he summoned in June 1530, warned the pope of the dangers involved in leaving the royal succession in uncertainty, since the heir was not only a woman, but, as it seemed to many, of illegitimate birth. Henry's next move was to bring a monstrous charge against the clergy, accusing them of having violated the ancient laws Beginning of praemunire in submitting to the authority of papal of Eng- legates (although he himself had ratified the appoint- revoit ment of Wolsey as legate a later e). The clergy of the against province of Canterbury were fined £100,000 and com- papacy. pelled to declare the king " their singular protector and only supreme lord, and, as far as that is permitted by the law of Christ, the supreme head of the Church and of the clergy." This the king claimed, perhaps with truth, was only a clearer statement of the provisions of earlier English laws. The following year, 1532, parliament presented a petition to the king (which had been most carefully elaborated by the monarch's own advisers) containing twelve charges against the bishops, relating to their courts, fees, injudicious appointments and abusive treatment of heretics, which combined to cause an unprecedented and " marvellous disorder of the godly quiet, peace and tranquillity" of the realm. For the remedy of these abuses parliament turned to the king, " in whom and by whom the only and sole redress, reformation and remedy herein absolutely rests and remains." The ordinaries met these accusations with a lengthy and dignified answer; but this did not satisfy the king, and convocation was compelled on the 15th of May 1532, further to clarify the ancient laws of the land, as understood by the king, in the very brief, very humble and very pertinent document known as the " Submission of the Clergy." Herein the king's " most humble subjects daily orators, and bedesmen " of the clergy of England, in view of his goodness and fervent Christian zeal and his learning far exceeding that of all other kings that they have read of, agree never to assemble in convocation except at the king's summons, and to enact and promulgate no constitution or ordinances except they receive the royal assent and authority. Moreover, the existing canons are to be subjected to the examination of a commission appointed by the king, half its members from parliament, half from the clergy, to abrogate with the king's assent such provisions as the majority find do not stand with God's laws and the laws of the realm. This appeared to place the legislation of the clergy, whether old or new, entirely under the monarch's control. A few months later Thomas Cranmer, who had been one of those to discuss sympathetically Luther's works in the little circle at Cambridge, and who believed the royal supremacy would tend to the remedying of grave abuses and that the pope had acted ultra vires in issuing a dispensation for the king's marriage with Catherine, was induced by Henry to succeed Warham as archbishop of Canterbury. About the same time parliament passed an interesting and important statute, forbidding, unless the king should wish to suspend the operation of the law, the payment to the pope of the annates. This item alone amounted during the previous forty-six years, the parliament declared, " at the least to eight score thousand pounds, besides other great and intolerable sums which have yearly been conveyed to the said court of Rome by many other ways and means to the great impoverishment of this realm." The annates were thereafter to accrue to the king; and bishops and archbishops were thenceforth, in case the pope refused to confirm them,1 to be consecrated and invested within the realm, " in like manner as divers other archbishops and bishops have been heretofore in ancient times by sundry the king's most noble progenitors." No censures, excommunications or interdicts with which the Holy Father might vex or grieve the sovereign lord or his subjects, should be published or in any way impede the usual performance of the sacraments and the holding of the divine services. In February parliament discovered that " by divers sundry old authentic histories and chronicles " it was manifest that the realm of England was an empire governed by one supreme head, the king, to whom all sorts and degrees of people — both clergy and laity — ought to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience, and that to him God had given the authority finally to deter- mine all causes and contentions in the realm, " without restraint, or provocation to any foreign princes or potentates of the world." The ancient statutes of the praemunire and provisors are recalled and the penalties attached to their violation re-enacted. All appeals were to be tried within the realm, and suits begun before an archbishop were to be deter- mined by him without further appeal. Acting on this, Cranmer tried the divorce case before his court, which declared the marriage with Catherine void and that with Anne Boleyn, which had been solemnized privately in January, valid. The pope replied by ordering Henry under pain of excommuni- cation to put away Anne and restore Catherine, his legal wife, within ten days. This sentence the emperor, all the Christian princes and the king's own subjects were summoned to carry out by force of arms if necessary. As might have been anticipated, this caused no break in the policy of the English king and his parliament, and a series of famous acts passed in the year 1534 completed and Secession confirmed the independence of the Church of England, of Eng- which, except during five years under Queen Mary, ^"^J^ was thereafter as completely severed from the papal monarchy, monarchy as the electorate of Saxony or the duchy #•*•<• of Hesse. The payment of annates and of Peter's pence 1 Cranmer himself had taken the oath of canonical obedience t» the Holy See and duly received the pallium. REFORMATION, THE was absolutely forbidden, as well as the application to the bishop of Rome for dispensations. The bishops were thereafter to be elected by the deans and chapters upon receiving the king's conge d'eslire (q.v.). The Act of Succession provided that, should the king have no sons, Elizabeth, Anne's daughter, should succeed to the crown. The brief Act of Supremacy confirmed the king's claim to be reputed the " only supreme head in earth of the Church of England "; he was to enjoy all the honours, dignities, jurisdictions and profits thereunto appertaining, and to have full power and authority to reform and amend all such errors, heresies and abuses, as by any manner of spiritual authority might lawfully be reformed, or amended, most to the pleasure of Almighty God, and the increase of virtue in Christ's religion, " foreign authority, prescription, or any other thing or things to the contrary hereof, notwithstanding." The Treasons Act, terrible in its operation, included among capital offences that of declaring in words or writing the king to be " a heretic, schismatic, tyrant, infidel or usurper." The convocations were required to abjure the papal supremacy by declaring " that the bishop of Rome has not in Scripture any greater jurisdiction in the kingdom of England than any other foreign bishop." The king had now clarified the ancient laws of the realm to his satisfaction, and could proceed to abolish superstitious rites, remedy abuses, and seize such por- tions of the Church's possessions, especially pious and monastic foundations, as he deemed superfluous for the maintenance of religion. In spite of the fact that the separation from Rome had been carried out during the sessions of a single parliament, and The that there had been no opportunity for a general reform expression of opinion on the part of the nation, there of the js no reason to suppose that the majority of the church people, thoughtful or thoughtless, were not ready to under reconcile themselves to the abolition of the papal Henry supremacy. It seems just as clear that there was viu. no strong evangelical movement, and that Henry's pretty consistent adherence to the fundamental doctrines of the medieval Church was agreeable to the great mass of his subjects. The ten " Articles devised by the Kyng's Highnes Majestic to stablysh Christen quietness " (1536), together with the " Injunctions " of 1536. and 1538, are chiefly noteworthy for their affirmation of almost all the current doctrines of the Catholic Church, except those relating to the papal supremacy, purgatory, images, relics and pilgrimages, and the old rooted distrust of the Bible in the vernacular. The clergy were bidden to exhort their hearers to the " works of charity, mercy and faith, specially prescribed and commanded in Scripture, and not to repose their trust or affiance in any other works devised by men's phantasies beside Scripture; as in wandering to pilgrimages, offering of money, candles or tapers to images or relics, or kissing or licking the same, saying over a number of beads, not understood or minded on, or in such-like superstition." To this end a copy of the whole English Bible was to be set up in each parish church where the people could read it. During the same years the monasteries, lesser and greater, were dissolved, and the chief shrines were despoiled, notably that of St Thomas of Canter- bury. Thus one of the most important of all medieval ecclesi- astical institutions, monasticism, came to an end in England. Doubtless the king's sore financial needs had much to do with the dissolution of the abbeys and the plundering of the shrines, but there is no reason to suppose that he was not fully con- vinced that the monks had long outlived their usefulness and that the shrines were centres of abject superstition and ecclesi- astical deceit. Henry, however, stoutly refused to go further in the direction of German Protestantism, even with the prospect of forwarding the proposed union between him and the princes of the Schmalkaldic League. An insurrection of the Yorkshire peasants, which is to be ascribed in part to the distress caused by the enclosure of the commons on which they had been wont to pasture their cattle, and in part to the 17 destruction of popular shrines, may have caused the king to defend his orthodoxy by introducing into parliament in 1 539 the six questions. These parliament enacted into the terrible statute of " The Six Articles," in which a felon's death was prescribed for those who obstinately denied transubstantiation, demanded the communion under both kinds, questioned the binding character of vows of chastity, or the lawfulness of private Masses or the expediency of auricular confession. On the 3<3th of July 1540 three Lutheran clergymen were burned and three Roman Catholics beheaded, the latter for denying the king's spiritual supremacy. The king's ardent desire that diversities of minds and opinions should be done away with and unity be " charitably established " was further promoted by publishing in 1543 A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian Man, set forth by the King's Majesty of England, in which the tenets of medieval theology, except for denial of the supremacy of the bishop of Rome and the unmistakable assertion of the supremacy of the king, were once more restated. Henry VIII. died in January 1547, having chosen a council of regency for his nine-year-old son Edward, the members of which were favourable to further religious innova- England tions. Somerset, the new Protector, strove to govern become* on the basis of civil liberty and religious tolerance. '3ro'*»'«"' The first parliament of the reign swept away almost Upa"ara all the species of treasons created during the previous Vi., two centuries, the heresy acts, including the Six 1547- Articles, all limitations on printing the Scriptures in &&• English and reading and expounding the 'same — indeed " all and every act or acts of parliament concerning doctrine or matters of religion." These measures gave a great impetus to religious discussion and local innovations. Representatives of all the new creeds hastened from the Continent to England, where they hoped to find a safe and fertile field for the particular seed they had to plant. It is impossible exactly to estimate the influence which these teachers exerted on the general trend of religious opinion in England; in any case, however, it was not unimportant, and the Articles of Religion and official homilies of the Church of England show unmistakably the influence of Calvin's doctrine. There was, however, no such sudden breach with the traditions of the past as characterized the Reformation in some con- tinental countries. Under Edward VI. the changes were continued on the lines laid down by Henry VIII. The old hierarchy continued, but service books in English were sub- stituted for those in Latin, and preaching was encouraged. A royal visitation, beginning in 1547, discovered, however, such a degree of ignorance and illiteracy among the parish clergy that it became clear that preaching could only be gradually given its due place in the services of the Church. Communion under both kinds and the marriage of the clergy were sanctioned, thus gravely modifying two of the fundamental institutions of the medieval Church. A conservative Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies after the Use of the Church of England — commonly called the First Prayer Book of Edward VI. — was issued in 1549. This was based upon ancient " uses," and represented no revolutionary change in the traditions of the " old religion." It was followed, however, in 1552 by the second Prayer Book, which was destined to be, with some modifications, the permanent basis of the English service. This made it clear that the communion was no longer to be regarded as a propitiatory sacrifice, the names " Holy Communion" and " Lord's Supper " being definitively sub- stituted for " Mass " (?.».), while the word " altar " was replaced by " table." In the Forty-two Articles we have the basis of Queen Elizabeth's Thirty-nine Articles. Thus during the reign of Edward we have not only the founda- tions of the Anglican Church laid, but there appears the beginning of those evangelical and puritanical sects which were to become the " dissenters " of the following centuries. i8 REFORMATION, THE With the death of Edward there came a period of reaction lasting for five years. Queen Mary, unshaken in her attach- Cathoiic ment to the ancient faith and the papal monarchy, reaction was abie wjtjj tne sanction of a subservient parlia- "wary ment to turn back the wheels of ecclesiastical legis- 1553- lation, to restore the old religion, and to reunite the isss. English Church with the papal monarchy; the pope's legate, Cardinal Pole, was primate of all England. Then, the ancient heresy laws having been revived, came the burnings of Rogers, Hooker, Latimer, Ridley, Cranmer and many a less noteworthy champion of the new religion. It would seem as if this sharp, uncompromising reaction was what was needed to produce a popular realization of the contrast between the Ecclesia anglicana of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and the alternative of " perfect obedience to the See Apostolic." Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary in 1558, was sus- pected to be Protestant in her leanings, and her adviser, Cecil, Settle- had received his training as secretary of the Protector meat Somerset; but the general European situation as under wen as the young queen's own temperament pre- EHzabeth. c[u(jecj anv abrupt or ostentatious change in religious matters. The new sovereign's first proclamation was directed against all such preaching as might lead to contention and the breaking of the common quiet. In 1559 ten of Henry VIII. 's acts were revived. On Easter Sunday the queen ventured to display her personal preference for the Protestant conception of the eucharist by forbidding the celebrant in her chapel to elevate the host. The royal supremacy was reasserted, the title being modified into " supreme governor "; and a new edition of Edward VI. 's second Prayer Book, with a few changes, was issued. The Marian bishops who refused to recognize these changes were deposed -and imprisoned, but care was taken to preserve the " succession " by consecrating others in due form to take their places.1 Four years later the Thirty-nine Articles imposed an official creed upon the English nation. This was Protestant in its general character: in its appeal to the Scriptures as the sole rule of faith (Art. VI.), its repudiation of the authority of Rome (Art. XXXVII.), its definition of the Church (Art. XIX.), its insistence on justifica- tion by faith only (Art. XI.) and repudiation of the sacrifice of the Mass (Arts. XXVIII. and XXXI.). As supreme governor of the Church of England the sovereign strictly controlled all ecclesiastical legislation and appointed royal delegates to hear appeals from the ecclesiastical courts, to be a " papist " or to " hear Mass " (which was construed as the same thing) was to risk incurring the terrible penalties of high treason. By the Act of Uniformity (1559) a uniform ritual, the Book of Common Prayer, was imposed upon clergy and laity alike, and no liberty of public worship was permitted. Every subject was bound under penalty of a fine to attend church on Sunday. While there was in a certain sense freedom of opinion, all printers had to seek a licence from the government for every manner of book or paper, and heresy was so closely affiliated with treason that the free expression of thought, whether reactionary or revolutionary, was beset with grave danger. Attempts to estimate the width of the gulf separating the Church of England in Elizabeth's time from the corresponding institution as it existed in the early years of her father's reign are likely to be gravely affected by personal bias. There is a theory that no sweeping revolution in dogma took place, but that only a few medieval beliefs were modified or rejected owing to the practical abuses to which they had given rise. To Professor A. F. Pollard, for example, " The Reformation in England was mainly a domestic affair, a national protest against national grievances rather than part of a cosmopolitan move- ment toward doctrinal change" (Camb. Mod. Hist.ii. 478-9). This estimate appeals to persons of -widely different views and temperaments. It is as grateful to those who, like many " Anglo-Catholics," desire on religious grounds to establish the doctrinal continuity of the Anglican Church with that of the 1 Only one of the Marian bishops, Kitchin of Llandaff, was found willing to conform. middle ages, as it is obvious to those who, like W. K. Clifford, perceive in the ecclesiastical organization and its influence nothing more than a perpetuation of demoralizing medieval superstition. The nonconformists have, moreover, never wearied of denouncing the " papistical " conservatism of the Anglican establishment. On the other hand, the impartial historical student cannot compare the Thirty-nine Articles with the contemporaneous canons and decrees of the council of Trent without being impressed by striking contrasts between the two sets of dogmas. Their spirit is very different. The un- mistakable rejection on the part of the English Church of the conception of the eucharist as a sacrifice had alone many wide- reaching implications. Even although the episcopal organiza- tion was retained, the conception of " tradition," of the conciliar powers, of the "characters" of the priest, of the celibate life, of purgatory, of " good works," &c. — all these serve clearly to differentiate the teaching of the English Church before and after the Reformation. From this standpoint it is obviously un- historical to deny that England had a very important part in the cosmopolitan movement toward doctrinal change. The little backward kingdom of Scotland definitely accepted the new faith two years after Elizabeth's accession, and after having for centuries sided with France against England, Tne Ketor- she was inevitably forced by the Reformation into an matioa la alliance with her ancient enemy to the south when they Scotland, both faced a confederation of Catholic powers. The I560~ first martyr of Luther's gospel had been Patrick Hamilton, who had suffered in 1528; but in spite of a number of executions the new ideas spread, even among the nobility. John Knox, who, after a chequered career, had come under the influence of Calvin at Geneva, returned to Scotland for a few months in 1555, and shortly after (1557) that part of the Scottish nobility which had been won over to the new faith formed their first " covenant " for mutual protection. These " Lords of the Congregation " were able to force some concessions from the queen regent. Knox appeared in Scotland again in 1559, and became a sort of second Calvin. He opened negotiations with Cecil, who induced the reluctant Elizabeth to form an alliance with the Lords of the Congregation, and the English sent a fleet to drive away the French, who were endeavouring to keep their hold on Scotland. In 1560 a confession of faith was prepared by John Knox and five companions. This was adopted by the Scottish parliament, with the resolution " the bishops of Rome have no jurisdiction nor authoritie in this Realme in tymes cuming." The alliance of England and the Scottish Protestants against the French, and the common secession from the papal monarchy, was in a sense the foundation and beginning of Great Britain. Scottish Calvinism was destined to exercise no little influence, not only on the history of England, but on the form that the Protestant faith was to take in lands beyond the seas, at the time scarcely known to the Europeans. While France was deeply affected during the i6th century by the Protestant revolt, its government never undertook any thoroughgoing reform of the Church. During the Begin- latter part of the century its monarchs were en- "ings of gaged in a bloody struggle with a powerful religious- **^J" political party, the Huguenots, who finally won a movement toleration which they continued to enjoy until the '» France. revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. It was not until 1789 that the French Church of the middle ages lost its vast possessions and was subjected to a fundamental reconstruction by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (i79i).2 Yet no summary of 2 In 1795 the National Convention gruffly declared that the Republic would no longer subsidize any form of worship or furnish buildings for religious services. " The law recognizes no minister of religion, and no one is^to appear in public with costumes or orna- ments used in religious ceremonies." Bonaparte, in the Concordat which he forced upon the pope in 1801, did not provide for the return of "any of the lands of the Church which had been sold, but agreed that the government should pay the salaries of bishops and priests, whose appointment it controlled. While the Roman Catholic re- ligion was declared to be that accepted by the majority of French- men, the state subsidized the Reformed Church, those adhering to the Augsburg Confession and the Jewish community. Over a REFORMATION, THE the Protestant revolt would be complete without some allusion to the contrast between the course of affairs in France and in the neighbouring countries. The French monarchy, as we have seen, had usually succeeded in holding its own against the centralizing tendencies of the pope. By the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438) it had secured the advantages of the conciliar movement. In 1516, after Francis I. had won his victory at Marignano, Leo X. concluded a new concordat with France, in which, in view of the repudiation of the offensive Pragmatic Sanction, the patronage of the French Church was turned over, with scarce any restriction, to the French monarch, although in another agreement the annates were reserved to the pope. The encroachments — which had begun in the time of Philip the Fair — of the king's lawyers on the ancient ecclesiastical juris- diction, had reached a point where there was little cause for jealousy on the part of the State. The placet had long prevailed, so that the king had few of the reasons, so important in Germany and England, for quarrelling with the existing system, unless it were on religious grounds. France had been conspicuous in the conciliar movement. It had also furnished its due quota of heretics, although no one so conspicuous as Wycliffe or Huss. Marsiglio of Padua had had Frenchmen among his sympathizers and helpers. The first prominent French scholar to " preach Christ from the sources " was Jacques Lefebvre of Etaples, who in 1512 published a new Latin translation of the epistles of St Paul. Later he revised an existing French translation of both the New Testament (which appeared in 1523, almost con- temporaneously with Luther's German version) and, two years later, the Old Testament. He agreed with Luther in rejecting transubstantiation, and in believing that works without the grace of God could not make for salvation. The centre of Lefebvre's followers was Meaux, and they found an ardent adherent in Margaret of Angouleme, the king's sister, but had no energetic leader who was willing to face the danger of disturb- ances. Luther's works found a good many readers in France, but were condemned (1521) by both the Sorbonneand the parle- ment of Paris. The parlement appointed a commission to discover and punish heretics; the preachers of Meaux fled to Strassburg, and Lefebvre's translation of the Bible was publicly burned. A council held at Sens, 1528-29, approved all those doctrines of the old Church which the Protestants were attacking, and satisfied itself with enumerating a list of necessary conservative reforms. After a fierce attack on Protestants caused by the mutilation of a statue of the Virgin, in 1528, the king, anxious to con- Joha ciliate both the German Protestants and anti-papa) Calvin England, invited some of the reformers of Meaux and his [O preach in the Louvre. An address written by 'tutel 'of a vounS man °f twenty-four, Jean Cauvin (to the become immortal under his Latin name of Calvinus) Christian was read by the rector of the university. It was Religion." a c[efence of the new evangelical views, and so aroused the Sorbonne that Calvin was forced to flee from Paris. In October 1534, the posting of placards in Paris and other towns, containing brutal attacks on the Mass and denouncing the pope and the " vermin " of bishops, priests and monks as blasphemers and liars, produced an outburst of persecution, in which thirty-five Lutherans were burned, while many fled the country. The events called forth from Calvin, who was in Basel, the famous letter to Francis which forms the preface to his Institutes of the Christian Religion. In this address he sought to vindicate the high aims of the Protestants, and to put the king on his guard against those mad men who were disturbing his kingdom with their measures of persecution. ' The Institutes, the first great textbook of Protestant theology, was published in Latin in 1536, and soon (1541) in a French version. The original work is much shorter than in its later editions, for, as Calvin says, he wrote learning and learned century elapsed before the Concordat was abrogated by the Separa- tion Law of 1905 which suppressed all government appropriations for religious purposes and vested the control of Church property in " associations for public worship " (associations cultuelles) , to be composed of from seven to twenty-five members according to the size of the commune. writing. His address had little effect on the king. The parle- ments issued a series of edicts against the heretics, culminating in the very harsh general edict of Fontainebleau, sanctioned by the parlement of Paris in 1543. The Sorbonne issued a concise series of twenty-five articles, refuting the Institutes of Calvin. This statement, when approved by4he king and his council , was published throughout France, and formed a clear test of orthodoxy. The Sorbonne also drew up a list of prohibited books, including those of Calvin, Luther and Melanchthon; and the parlement issued a decree against all printing of Pro- testant literature. The later years of Francis's reign were noteworthy for the horrible massacre of the Waldenses and the martyrdom of fourteen from the group of Meaux, who were burnt alive in 1546. When Francis died little had been done, in spite of the government's cruelty, to check Protestantism, while a potent organ of evangelical propaganda had been developing just beyond the confines of France in the town of Geneva. In its long struggle with its bishops and with the dukes of Savoy, Geneva had turned to her neighbours for aid, especi- ally to Bern, with which an alliance was concluded Oeaeva in 1526. Two years later Bern formally sanctioned become* the innovations advocated by the Protestant preachers, » centre and although predominantly German assumed the °'/'">P»- role of protector of the reform party in the Pays *" de Vaud and Geneva. William Farel, one of the group of Meaux, who had fled to Switzerland and had been active in the conversion of Bern, went to Geneva in 1531. With the protection afforded him and his companions by Bern, and the absence of well-organized opposition on the part of the Roman Catholics, the new doctrines rapidly spread, and by 1535 Farel was preaching in St Pierre itself. After a public disputation in which the Catholics were weakly represented, and a popular demonstration in favour of the new doctrines, the council of Geneva rather reluctantly sanctioned the abolition of the Mass. Meanwhile Bern had declared war on the duke of Savoy, and had not only conquered a great part of the Pays de Vaud, including the important town of Lausanne, but had enabled Geneva to win its complete inde- pendence. In the same year (September 1536), as Calvin was passing through the town on his way back to Strassburg after a short visit in Italy, he was seized by Farel and induced most reluctantly to remain and aid him in thoroughly carrying out the Reformation in a city in which the conservative senti- ment was still very strong. As there proved to be a large number in the town councils who did not sympathize with the plans of organization recommended by Calvin and his col- leagues, the town preachers were, after a year and a half of unsatisfactory labour, forced to leave Geneva. For three years Calvin sojourned in Germany; he signed the Augsburg Con- fession, gained the friendship of Melanchthon and other leading reformers, and took part in the religious conferences of the period. In 1541 he was induced with great difficulty to sur- render once more his hopes of leading the quiet life of a scholar, and to return again to Geneva (September 1541), where he spent the remaining twenty-three years of his life. His ideal was to restore the conditions which he supposed prevailed during the first three centuries of the Church's existence; but the celebrated Ecclesiastical Ordinances adopted by the town in 1541 and revised in 1561 failed fully to realize his ideas, which find a more complete exemplification in the regulations govern- ing the French Church later. He wished for the complete independence and self-government of the Church, with the right of excommunication to be used against the ungodly. The Genevan town councils were quite ready to re-enact all the old police regulations common in that age in regard to excessive display, dancing, obscene songs, &c. It was arranged too that town government should listen to the " Consistory," made up of the " Elders," but the Small Council was to choose the members of the Consistory, two of whom should belong to the Small Council, four to the Council of Sixty, and six to the Council of Two Hundred. One of the four town syndics was to preside over its sessions. The Consistory was thus a sort of committee of 20 REFORMATION, THE the councils, and it had no power to inflict civil punishment on offenders. Thus " we ought," as Lindsay says, " to see in the disciplinary powers and punishments of the Consistory of Geneva not an exhibition of the working of the Church organ- ized on the principles of Calvin, but the ordinary procedure of the town council of a medieval city. Their petty punishments and their minute interferences with private life are only special instances of what was common to all municipal rule in the i6th century." This is true of the supreme crime of heresy, which in the notorious case of Servetus was only an expression of rules laid down over a thousand years earlier in the Theodosian Code. Geneva, however, with its most distinguished of Protestant theo- logians, became a school of Protestantism, which sent its trained men into the Netherlands, England and Scotland, and especially across the border into France. It served too as a place of refuge for thousands of the persecuted adherents of its beliefs. Calvin's book furnished the Protestants not only with a compact and admirably written handbook of theology, vigorous and clear, but with a system of Church government and a code of morals. After the death of Francis I., his successor, Henry II., set himself even more strenuously to extirpate heresy; a special OH nn of branch of the parlement of Paris — the so-called Hifgueaot Chambre ardente (q.v.) — for the trial of heresy cases party was established, and the fierce edict of Chateaubriand under (June 1551) explicitly adopted many of the expedients eary ' of the papal inquisition. While hundreds were im- prisoned or burned, Protestants seemed steadily to increase in numbers, and finally only the expostulations of the parlement of Paris prevented the king from introducing the Inquisition in France in accordance with the wishes of the pope and the cardinal of Lorraine. The civil tribunals, however, practically assumed the functions of regular inquisitorial courts, in spite of the objections urged by the ecclesiastical courts. Notwith- standing these measures for their extermination, the French Protestants were proceeding to organize a church in accordance with the conceptions of the early Christian communities as Calvin described them in his Institutes. Beginning with Paris, some fifteen communities with their consistories were established in French towns between 1555 and 1560. In spite of continued persecution a national synod was assembled in Paris in 1559, representing at least twelve Protestant churches in Normandy and central France, which drew up a confession of faith and a book of church discipline. It appears to have been from France rather than from Geneva that the Presbyterian churches of Holland, Scotland and the United States derived their form of government. A reaction against the extreme severity of the king's courts became apparent at this date. Du Bourg and others ventured warmly to defend the Protestants in the parle- ment of Paris in the very presence of the king and of the cardinal of Lorraine. The higher aristocracy began now to be attracted by the new doctrines, or at least repelled by the flagrant power enjoyed by the Guises during the brief reign of Francis II. (1550-1560). Protestantism was clearly becoming inextricably associated with politics of a very intricate sort. The leading members of the Bourbon branch of the royal family, and Gaspard de Coligny, admiral of France, were conspicuous among the converts to Calvinism. Persecution was revived by the Guises; Du Bourg, the brave defender of the Protestants, was burned as a heretic; yet Calvin could in the closing years of his life form a cheerful estimate that some three hundred thousand of his countrymen had been won over to his views. The death of Francis II. enabled Catherine de' Medici, the queen mother, to assert herself against the Guises, and become the regent of her ten-year-old son Charles IX. A meeting of the States General had already been summoned to consider the state of the realm. Michel de PH6pital, the chancellor, who opened the assembly, was an advocate of toleration; he deprecated the abusive use of the terms " Lutherans," " Papists " and " Huguenots," and advocated deferring all action until a council should have been called. The deputies of the clergy were naturally conservative, but advocated certain reforms, an abolition of the Concordat, and a re-establishment of the older Pragmatic Sanction. The noblesse were divided on the matter of toleration, but the cahiers (lists of grievances and suggestions for reform) submitted by the Third Estate demanded, besides regular meetings of the estates every five years, complete toleration and a reform of the Church. This grew a little later into the recommendation that the revenues and possessions of the French Church should be appropriated by the government, which, after properly sub- sidizing the clergy, might hope, it was estimated, that a surplus of twenty-two millions of livres would accrue to the State. Two hundred and thirty years later this plan was realized in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. The deliberations of 1561 resulted in the various reforms, the suspension of persecution and the liberation of Huguenot prisoners. These were not accorded freedom of worship, but naturally took advantage of the situation to carry on their services more publicly than ever before. An unsuccessful effort was made at the conference of Poissy to bring the two religious parties together; Beza had an opportunity to defend the Calvinistic cause, and Lainez, the general of the Order of Jesus, that of the bishop of Rome. The government remained tolerant toward the movement, and in January 1562 the Huguenots were given permission to hold public services outside the walls of fortified towns and were not forbidden to meet in private houses within the walls. Catherine, who had promoted these measures, cared nothing for the Protestants, but desired the support of the Bourbon princes. The country was Catholic, and disturbances inevitably occurred, culminating in the attack of the duke of Guise and his troops .on the Protestants at Vassy, less than two months after the issuing of the edict. It is impossible to review here the Wars of Religion which distracted France, from the " massacre of Vassy " to the publication of the edict of Nantes, thirty-six years rfte later. Religious issues became more and more domin- Preach ated by purely political and dynastic ambitions, and Wars of the whole situation was constantly affected by the ^'ifthe policy of Philip II. and the struggle going on in the edict of Netherlands. Henry IV. was admirably fitted to Nantes, reunite France once more, and, after a superficial IS62~ conversion to the Catholic faith, to meet the needs of his former co-religionists, the Huguenots. The edict of Nantes recapitulated and codified the provisions of a series of earlier edicts of toleration, which had come with each truce during the previous generation. Liberty of conscience in religious matters was secured and the right of private worship to those of the " so-called Reformed religion." Public worship was permitted everywhere where it had existed in 1596-1597, in two places within each bailliage and senechauss&e, and in the chateaux of the Protestant nobility, with slight restrictions in the case of lower nobility. Protestants were placed upon a political equality and made eligible to all public offices. To ensure these rights, they were left in military control of two hundred towns, including La Rochelle, Montauban and Montpellier. Jealous of their " sharing the State with the king," Richelieu twenty-five years later reduced the exceptional privileges of the Huguenots, and with the advent of Louis XIV. they began to suffer renewed persecution, which the king at last flattered himself had so far reduced their number that in 1685 he revoked the edict of Nantes and reduced the Protestants to the status of outlaws. It was not until 1786 that they were restored to their civil rights, and by the Declaration of the Rights of Man, in 1789, to their religious freedom. Contemporaneously with the Wars of Religion in France a long and terrible struggle between the king of Spain and his Dutch and Belgian provinces had resulted in the The formation of a Protestant state— the United Nether- lands, which was destiited to play an important role in the history of the Reformed religion. Open both their im- to German and French influences, the Netherlands had been the scene of the first executions of Lutherans; lathe history they had been a centre of Anabaptist agitation; but Cal- oftoiera- vinism finally triumphed in the Confession of Dordrecht , tioa. 1572, since Calvin's system of church government did not, like REFORMATION, THE 21 Luther's, imply the sympathy of the civil authorities. Charles V. had valiantly opposed the development of heresy in the Nether- lands, and nowhere else had there been such numbers of martyrs, for some thirty thousand are supposed to have been put to death during his reign. Under Philip II. it soon became almost impossible to distinguish clearly between the religious issues and the resistance to the manifold tyranny of Philip and his representatives. William of Orange, who had passed through several phases of religious conviction, stood first and foremost for toleration. Indeed, Holland became the home of modern religious liberty, the haven of innumerable free spirits, and the centre of activity of printers and publishers, who asked for no other imprimatur than the prospect of intelligent readers. It is impossible to offer any exhaustive classification of those who, while they rejected the teachings of the old Church, The Ana- refused at the same time to conform to the particular baptists, types of Protestantism which had found favour in the eyes of the princes and been imposed by them on their subjects. This large class of " dissenters " found themselves as little at home under a Protestant as under a Catholic regime, and have until recently been treated with scant sympathy by historians of the Church. Long before the Protestant revolt, simple, obscure people, under the influence of leaders whose names have been forgotten, lost confidence in the official clergy and their sacraments and formed secret organizations of which vague accounts are found in the reports of the 13th-century inquisitors, Rainerus Sacchoni, Bernard Gui, and the rest. Their anti-sacerdotalism appears to have been their chief offence, for the inquisitors admit that they were puritanically careful in word and conduct, and shunned all levity. Similar groups are mentioned in the town chronicles of the early i6th century, and there is reason to assume that informal evangelical movements were no new things when Luther first began to preach. His appeal to the Scriptures against the traditions of the Church encouraged a more active propaganda on the part of Balthasar Hubmaier, Carlstadt, Miinzer, Johann Denk (d. 1527) and others, some of whom were well-trained scholars capable of maintaining with vigour and effect their ideas of an apostolic life as the high road to salvation. Miinzer dreamed of an approaching millennium on earth to be heralded by violence and suffering, but Hubmaier and Denk were peaceful evangelists who believed that man's will was free and that each had within him an inner light which would, if he but followed it, guide him to God. To them persecution was an outrage upon Jesus's teachings. Luther and his sympathizers were blind to the reasonableness of the fundamental teachings of these " brethren." The idea of adult baptism, which had after 1525 become generally accepted among them, roused a bitterness which it is rather hard to understand nowadays. But it is easy to see that informal preaching to the people at large, especially after the Peasant Revolt, with which Miinzer had been identified, should have led to a general condemnation, under the name " Anabaptist " or " Catabaptist," of the heterogeneous dissenters who agreed in rejecting the State religion and associated a condemnation of infant baptism with schemes for social betterment. The terrible events in Mtinster, which was controlled for a short time (1533-34) by a group of Anabaptists under the leadership of John of Leiden, the introduction of polygamy (which appears to have been a peculiar accident rather than a general principle), the speedy capture of the town by an alliance of Catholic and Protestant princes, and the ruthless retribution inflicted by the victors, have been cherished by ecclesiastical writers as a choice and convincing instance of the natural fruits of a rejection of infant baptism. Much truer than the common estimate of the character of the Anabaptists is that given in Sebastian Franck's Chronicle: " They taught nothing but love, faith and the crucifixion of the flesh, manifesting patience and humility under many sufferings, breaking bread with one another in sign of unity and love, helping one another with true helpfulness, lending, borrowing, giving, learning to 'have all things in common, calling each other ' brother.' " Menno ' Simons (b. circ. 1500) succeeded in bringing the scattered Ana- baptist communities into a species of association; he dis- couraged the earlier apocalyptic hopes, inculcated non-resist- ance, denounced the evils of State control over religious matters, and emphasized personal conversion, and adult baptism as its appropriate seal. The English Independents and the modern Baptists, as well as the Mennonites, may be regarded as the historical continuation of lines of development going back to the Waldensians and the Bohemian Brethren, and passing down through the German, Dutch and Swiss Anabaptists. The modern scholar as he reviews the period of the Pro- testant Revolt looks naturally, but generally in vain, for those rationalistic tendencies which become so clear in the socioiaa* latter part of the 17th century. Luther found no in- orAnti- tellectual difficulties in his acceptance and interpreta- tion of the Scriptures as God's word, and in maintain- ing against the Anabaptists the legitimacy of every old custom that was not obviously contrary to the Scriptures. Indeed, he gloried in the inherent and divine unreasonableness of Christianity, and brutally denounced reason as a cunning fool, " a pretty harlot." The number of questions which Calvin failed to ask or eluded by absolutely irrational expedients frees him from any taint of modern rationalism. But in Servetus, whose execution he approved, we find an isolated, feeble revolt against assumptions which both Catholics and Protestants of all shades accepted without question. It is pretty clear that the common accounts of the Renaissance and of the revival of learning grossly exaggerate the influence of the writers of Greece and Rome, for they produced no obvious rationalistic movement, as would have been the case had Plato and Cicero, Lucretius and Lucian, been taken really seriously. Neo- Platonism, which is in some respects nearer the Christian patristic than the Hellenic spirit, was as far as the radical religious thinkers of the Italian Renaissance receded. The only religious movement that can be regarded as even rather vaguely the outcome of humanism is the Socinian. Faustus Sozzini, a native of Sienna (1539-1603), much influenced by his uncle Lelio Sozzini, after a wandering, questioning life, found his way to Poland, where he succeeded in uniting the various Anabaptist sects into a species of church, the doctrines of which are set forth in the Confession of Rakow (near Minsk), published in Polish in 1605 and speedily in German and Latin. The Latin edition declares that although this new statement of the elements of the Christian faith differs from the articles of other Christian creeds it is not to be mistaken for a challenge. It does not aim at binding the opinions of men or at condemn- ing to the tortures of hell-ire those who refuse to accept it. Absit a nobis ea mens, immo amentia. " We have, it is true, ventured to prepare a catechism, but we force it on no one; we express our opinions, but we coerce no one. It is free to every one to form his own conclusions in religious matters; and so we do no more than set forth the meaning of divine things as they appear to our minds without, however, attacking or insulting those who differ from us. This is the golden freedom of preaching which the holy words of the New Testa- ment so strictly enjoin upon us. ... Who art thou, miserable man, who would smother and extinguish in others the fire of God's Spirit which it has pleased him to kindle in them ? " The Socinian creed sprang from intellectual rather than re- ligious motives. Sufficient reasons could be assigned for accepting the New Testament as God's word and Christ as the Christian's guide. He was not God, but a divine prophet born of a virgin and raised on the third day as the first-fruits of them that slept. From the standpoint of the history of enlight- enment, as Harnack has observed, " Socinianism with its sys- tematic criticism (tentative and imperfect as it may now seem) and its rejection of all the assumptions based upon mere ecclesiastical tradition, can scarcely be rated too highly. That modern Unitarianism is all to be traced back to Sozzini and the Rakow Confession need not be assumed. The anti-Trini- tarian path was one which opened invitingly before a consider- able class of critical minds, seeming as it did to lead out into 22 REFORMATORY— REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA a sunny open, remote from the unfathomable depths of mystery and clouds of religious emotion which beset the way of the sincere Catholic and Protestant alike. The effects of the Protestant secession on the doctrines, organization and practices of the Roman Catholic Church are The difficult to estimate, still more so to substantiate. It Catholic is clear that the doctrinal conclusions of the council Keforma- of Trent were largely determined by the necessity "°"' of condemning Protestant tenets, and that the result of the council was to give the Roman Catholic faith a more precise form than it would otherwise have had. It is much less certain that the disciplinary reforms which the council, following the example of its predecessors, re-enacted, owed anything to Protestantism, unless indeed the council would have shown itself less intolerant in respect to such innovations as the use of the vernacular in the services had this not smacked of evangelicalism. In the matter of the pope's supremacy, the council followed the canon law and Thomas Aquinas, not the decrees of the council of Constance. It prepared the way for the dogmatic formulation of the plenitude of the papal power three centuries later by the council of the Vatican. The Protestants have sometimes taken credit to themselves for the indubitable reforms in the Roman Catholic Church, which by the end of the i6th century had done away with many of the crying abuses against which councils and diets had so long been protesting. But this conservative reformation had begun before Luther's preaching, and might conceivably have followed much the same course had his doctrine never found popular favour or been ratified by the princes. In conclusion, a word may be said of the place of the Re- formation in the history of progress and enlightenment. A The place "philosopher," as Gibbon long ago pointed out, of the who asks from what articles of faith above and against Keforma- reason (_ne eariy Reformers enfranchised their followers history of will bfi surprised at their timidity rather than scandal- progress. ized by their freedom. They remained severely orthodox in the doctrines of the Fathers — the Trinity, the Incarnation, the plenary inspiration of the Bible — and they condemned those who rejected their teachings to a hell whose fires they were not tempted to extenuate. Although they sur- rendered transubstantiation, the loss of one mystery was amply compensated by the stupendous doctrines of original sin, redemption, faith, grace and predestination upon which they founded their theory of salvation. They ceased to appeal to the Virgin and saints, and to venerate images and relics, procure indulgences and go on pilgrimages, they deprecated the monastic life, and no longer nourished faith by the daily repetition of miracles, but in the witch persecutions their demonology cost the lives of thousands of innocent women. They broke the chain of authority, without, however, recognizing the propriety of toleration. In any attempt to determine the relative im- portance of Protestant and Catholic countries in promoting modern progress it must not be forgotten that religion is natur- ally conservative, and that its avowed business has never been to forward scientific research or political reform. Luther and his contemporaries had not in any degree the modern idea of progress, which first becomes conspicuous with Bacon and Descartes, but believed, on the contrary, that the strangling of reason was the most precious of offerings to God. " Free- thinker " and " rationalist " have been terms of opprobrium whether used by Protestants or Catholics. The pursuit of salvation does not dominate by any means the whole life and ambition of even ardent believers; statesmen, philosophers, men of letters, scientific investigators and inventors have commonly gone their way regardless of the particular form of Christianity which prevailed in the land in which they lived. The Reformation was, fundamentally, then, but one phase, if the most conspicuous, in the gradual decline of the majestic medieval ecclesiastical State, for this decline has gone on in France, Austria, Spain and Italy, countries in which the Protestant revolt against the ancient Church ended in failure. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Reference is made here mainly to works dealing with the Reformation as a whole. Only recent books are men- tioned, since the older works have been largely superseded owing to modern critical investigations: Thomas A. Lindsay, A History of the Reformation, 2 vols. (1906-7), the best general treatment; The Cambridge Modern History, vol. i. (1902), chaps, xviii. and xix., vol. ii. (190*1), " The Reformation," and vol. iii. (1905), " The Wars of Religion, ' with very full bibliographies; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy during the Reformation, 6 vols. (new ed. 1899-1901). From a Catholic standpoint: L. Pastor, Geschichte der Papste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters (1891 sqq., especially vol. iv. in two parts, 1906-7, and vol. v., 1909). This is in course of publica- tion and is being translated into English (8 vols. have appeared, 1891-1908, covering the period 1305-1521); I. Janssen, History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages, 12 vols., 1896- 1907, corresponding to vols. i.-vi. of the German original, in 8 vols., edited by Pastor, 1897-1904. This is the standard Catholic treat- ment of the Reformation, and is being supplemented by a series of monographs, Ergdnzungen zu Janssens Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, which have been appearing since 1898 and correspond with the Protestant Schriften des Vereins fur Reformations- geschichte (1883 sqq.). F. von Bezold, Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (1890), an excellent illustrated account ; E. Troeltsch, Protestantisches Christentum und Kirche der Neuzeit, in the series " Kultur der Gegenwart," Teil i. Abt. 4, i. Halite, 1905; Charles Beard, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge (The Hibbert Lectures for 1883), and by the same, Martin Luther, vol. i. (no more published; 1889); A. Harnack, History of Dogma (trans, from the 3rd German edition, vol. vii., 1900) ; A. E. Berger, Die Kulturaufgaben der Reformation (2nd ed., 1908); Thudichum, Papsttum und Reformation (1903); " Janus," The Pope and the Council (1869), by Dollinger and others, a suggestive if not wholly accurate sketch of the papal claims; W. Maurenbrecher, Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation, vol. i. (no more published) (1880); J. Haller, Papsttum und Kirchenreform, vol. i. (1903) relates to the I4th century; J. Kostlin, Martin Luther, sein Leben und seine Schriften, new edition by Kawerau, 2 vols., 1903, the most useful life of Luther; H. Denifle, Luther und Luthertum, 2 vols. (1904-6), a bitter but learned arraignment of Luther by a distinguished Dominican scholar. H. Boehmer, Luther im Lichte der neueren Forschungen (1906), brief and sug- gestive. First Principles of the Reformation, the Three Primary Works of Dr Martin Luther, edited, by Wace and Buchheim, — an English translation of the famous pamphlets of 1520. (J. H. R.*) REFORMATORY SCHOOL, an institution for the industrial training of juvenile offenders, in which they are lodged, clothed and fed, as well as taught. They are to be distinguished from " industrial schools," which are institutions for potential and not actual delinquents. To reformatory schools in England are sent juveniles up to the age of sixteen who have been con- victed of an offence punishable with penal servitude or im- prisonment. The order is made by the court before which they are tried; the limit of detention is the age of nineteen. Reformatory schools are regulated by the Children Act 1908, which repealed the Reformatory Schools Act 1866, as amended by acts of 1872, 1874, 1891, 1893, 1899 and 1901. See further JUVENILE OFFENDERS. REFORMED CHURCHES, the name assumed by those Pro- testant bodies who adopted the tenets of Zwingli (and later of Calvin), as distinguished from those of the Lutheran or Evangeli- cal divines. They are accordingly often spoken of as the Calvin- istic Churches, Protestant being sometimes used as a synonym for Lutheran. The great difference is in the attitude towards the Lord's Supper, the Reformed or Calvinistic Churches re- pudiating not only transubstantiation but also the Lutheran consubstantiation. They also reject the use of crucifixes and other symbols and ceremonies retained by the Lutherans. Full details of these divergences are given in M.Schneckenburger, Vergleichende Darstellung des lutherischen und reformierten Lehrbe- griffs (Stuttgart, 1855); G. B. Winer, Comparative Darstellung (Berlin, 1866; Eng. tr., Edinburgh, 1873). See also REFORMATION; PRESBYTERIANISM; CAMERONIANS. REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA, until 1867 called offi- cially " The Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in North America," and still ^popularly called the Dutch Reformed Church, an American Calvinist church, originating with the settlers from Holland in New York, New Jersey and Delaware, the first permanent settlers of the Reformed faith in the New World. Their earliest settlements were at Manhattan, Walla- bout and Fort Orange (now Albany), where the West India Company formally established the Reformed Church of Holland. REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA Their first minister was Jonas Michaelius, pastor in New Amsterdam of the " church in the fort " (now the Collegiate Church of New York City). The second domine, Everardus Bogardus (d. 1647), migrated to New York in 1633 with Gover- nor Wouter van T wilier, with whom he quarrelled continually; in the same year a wooden church " in the fort " was built; and in 1642 it was succeeded by a stone building. A minister, John van Mekelenburg (Johannes Megapolensis) migrated to Rensselaerwyck manor in 1642, preached to the Indians — probably before any other Protestant minister — and after 1649 was settled in New Amsterdam. With the access of English and French settlers, Samuel Drisius, who preached in Dutch, German, English and French, was summoned, and he laboured in New Amsterdam and New York from 1652 to 1673. On Long Island John T. Polhemus preached at Flatbush in 1654-76. During Peter Stuy vesant 's governorship there was little toleration of other denominations, but the West India Company reversed his intolerant proclamations against Lutherans and Quakers. About 1659 a French and Dutch church was organized in Harlem. The first church in New Jersey, at Bergen, in 1661, was quickly followed by others at Hackensack and Passaic. After English rule in 1664 displaced Dutch in New York, the relations of the Dutch churches there were much less close with the state Church of Holland; and in 1679 (on the request of the English governor of New York, to whom the people of New Castle appealed) a classis was constituted for the ordination of a pastor for the church in New Castle, Delaware. The Dutch strongly opposed the establishment of the Church of England, and contributed largely toward the adoption (in October 1683) of the Charter of Liberties which confirmed in their privileges all churches then " in practice " in the city of New York and elsewhere in the province, but which was repealed by James II. in 1686, when he established the Church of England in New York but allowed religious liberty to the Dutch and others. The Dutch ministers stood by James's government during Leisler's rebellion. Under William III., Governors Sloughter and Fletcher worked for a law (passed in 1693 and approved in 1697) for the settling of a ministry in New York, Richmond, Westchester and Queen's counties; but the Assembly foiled Fletcher's purpose of establishing a Church of England clergy, although he attempted to construe the act as applying only to the English Church. In 1696 the first church charter in New York was granted to the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church (now the Collegiate Church) of New York City; at this time there were Dutch ministers at Albany and Kingston, on Long Island and in New Jersey; and for years the Dutch and English (Episcopalian) churches alone received charters in New York and New Jersey — the Dutch church being treated practically as an establishment — and the church of the fort and Trinity (Episcopalian; chartered 1697) were fraternally harmonious. In 170x3 there were twenty-nine Reformed Dutch churches out of a total of fifty in New York. During the administration of Governor Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, many members joined the Episcopal Church and others removed to New Jersey. The Great Awakening crowned the efforts of Theodore J. Frelinghuysen, who had come over as a Dutch pastor in 1720 and had opposed formalism and preached a revival. The Church in America in 1738 asked the Classis of Amsterdam (to whose care it had been transferred from the West India Com- pany) for the privilege of forming a Coetus or Association with power to ordain in America; the Classis, after trying to join the Dutch with the English Presbyterian churches, granted (1747) a Coetus first to the German and then to the Dutch churches, which therefore in September 1754 organized them- selves into a classis. This action was opposed by the church of New York City, and partly through this difference and partly because of quarrels over the denominational control of King's College (now Columbia), five members of the Coetus seceded, and as the president of the Coetus was one of them they took the records with them; they were called the Con- ferentie; they organized independently in 1764 and carried on a bitter warfare with the Coetus (now more properly called the American Classis), which in 1 766 (and again in 1 770) obtained a charter for Queen's (now Rutgers) College at New Brunswick. But in 1771-72 through the efforts of John H. Livingston (1746-1825), who had become pastor of the New York City church in 1770, on the basis of a plan drafted by the Classis of Amster- dam Coetus and Conferentie were reunited with a substantial independence of Amsterdam, which was made complete in 1792 when the Synod (the nomenclature of synod and classis had been adopted upon the declaration of American Independ- ence) adopted a translation of the eighty-four Articles of Dort on Church Order with seventy-three "explanatory articles."1 In 1800 there were about forty ministers and one hundred churches. In 1819 the Church was incorporated as the Re- formed Protestant Dutch Church; and in 1867 the name was changed to the Reformed Church in America. Preaching in Dutch had nearly ceased in 1820, but about 1846 a new Dutch immigration began, especially in Michigan, and fifty years later Dutch preaching was common in nearly one-third of the churches of the country, only to disappear almost entirely in the next decade. Union with other Reformed churches was planned in 1743, in 1784, in 1816-20, 1873-78 and 1886, but unsuc- cessfully; however, ministers go from one to another charge in the Dutch and German Reformed, Presbyterian, and to a less degree Congregational churches. A conservative secession " on account of Hopkinsian errors " in 1822 of six ministers (five then under suspension) organized a General Synod and the classes of Hackensack and Union (central New York) in 1824; it united with the Christian Re- formed Church, established by immigrants from Holland after 1835, to which there was added a fresh American secession in 1882 due to opposition (on the part of the seceders) to secret societies. The organization of the Church is: a General Synod (1794); the (particular) synods of New York (1800), Albany (1800), Chicago (1856) and New Brunswick (1869); classes, corresponding to the presbyteries of other Calvinistic bodies; and the churches, num- bering, in 1906, 659. The agencies of the Church are: the Board of Education, privately organized in 1828 and adopted by the General Synod in 1831 ; a Widows' Fund (1837) and a Disabled Ministers' Fund; a Board of Publication (1855); a Board of Domestic Missions (1831 ; reorganized 1849) with a Church Building Fund and a Woman's Executive Committee; a Board of Foreign Missions (1832) succeeding the United Missionary Society (1816), which included Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed and Associate Re- formed Churches, and which was merged (1826) in the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, from which the Dutch Church did not entirely separate itself until 1857; and a Woman's Board of Foreign Missions (1875). The principal missions are in India at Arcot (1854; transferred in 1902 to the Synod of S. India) and at Amoy in China (1842) ; and the work of the Church in Japan was very successful, especially under Guido Fridolin Verbeck2 (1830-1898), and 1877 native churches built up by Presby- terian and Dutch Reformed missionaries wore organized as the United Church of our Lord Jesus Christ in Japan. There is also an Arabian mission, begun privately in 1888 and transferred to the Board in 1894. The colleges and institutions of learning connected with the Church are: Rutgers, already mentioned; Union College (1795), the out- growth ofSchenectady Academy, founded in 1785 by Dirck Romeyn, a Dutch minister; Hope College (1866; coeducational) at Holland, Michigan, originally a parochial school (1850) and then (1855) Holland Academy; the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick (q.v.); and the Western Theological Seminary (1869) at Holland, Michigan. In 1906 (according to Bulletin loj (1909) of the Bureau of the U.S. Census) there were 659 organizations with 773 church edifices reported and the total membership was 12^,938. More than one- half of this total membership (63,350) was in New York state, the 'principal home of the first great Dutch immigration; more than one-quarter (32,290) was in New Jersey; and the other states were: Michigan (11,260), Illinois (4962), Iowa (4835), Wisconsin (2312), and Pennsylvania ('979)- The Church wasalso represented in Minne- sota, S. Dakota, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio, Kansas, N. Dakota, S. Carolina, Washington and Maryland — the order being that of rank in number of communicants. The Christian Reformed Church, an " old school " secession, had in 1906, 174 organizations, 181 churches and a membership of 26,669, 1 In 1832 the articles of Church government were rearranged and in 1872-74 they were amended. ' See W. E. Griffis, Verbeck of Japan (New York, 1900). REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES of which more than one-half (14,779) was in Michigan, where many of the immigrants who came after 1835 belonged to the seces- sion church in Holland. There were 2990 in Iowa, 2392 in New Jersey, 2332 in Illinois, and smaller numbers in Wisconsin, Indiana, Minnesota, S. Dakota, Ohio, New York, Washington, Kansas, Massachusetts, Montana, N. Dakota, New Mexico, Nebraska and Colorado. See D. D. Demarest, The Reformed Church in America (New York, 1889) ; E. T. Corwin, The Manual of the Reformed Church in America (ibid., 4th ed., 1902), his sketch of the history of the Church in vol. viii. (ibid., 1895) of the American Church History Series, and his Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York (Albany, 1901 sqq.), published by the State of New York. REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES, a German Calvinistic church in America, commonly called the German Reformed Church. It traces its origin to the great German immigration of the 17th century, especially to Pennsylvania, where, although the German Lutherans afterwards outnumbered them, the Reformed element was estimated in 1730 to be more than half the whole number of Germans in the colony. In 1709 more than 2000 Palatines emigrated to New York with their pastor, Johann Friedrich Hager (d. c. 1723), who laboured in the Mohawk Valley. A church in Germantown, Virginia, was founded about 1714. Johann Philip Boehm (d. 1749), a school teacher from Worms, although not ordained, preached after 1725 to congregations at Falckner's Swamp, Skippack, and White Marsh, Pennsylvania, and in 1729 he was ordained by Dutch Reformed ministers in New York. Georg Michael Weiss (c. I7oo-c. 1762), a graduate of Heidelberg, ordained and sent to America by the Upper Consistory of the Palatinate in 1727, organized a church in Philadelphia; preached at Skippack; worked in Dutchess and Schoharie counties, New York, in 1731-46; and then returned to his old field in Pennsylvania. Johann Heinrich Goetschius was pastor (c. 1731-38) of ten churches in Pennsylvania, and was ordained by the Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia in 1737. A part of his work was undertaken by Johann Conrad Wirtz, who was ordained by the New Brunswick (New Jersey) Presbytery in 1750, and in 1761-63 was pastor at York, Pennsylvania. A church was built in 1736 at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where Johann Bartholomaeus Rieger (1707-1769), who came from Germany with Weiss on his return in 1731, had preached for several years. Michael Schlatter (1716-1790), a Swiss of St Gall, sent to America in 1746 by the Synods (Dutch Reformed) of Holland, immediately convened Boehm, Weiss and Rieger in Philadelphia, and with them planned a Coetus, which first met in September 1747; in 1751 he presented the cause of the Coetus in Germany and Holland, where he gathered funds; in 1752 came back to America with six ministers, one of whom, William Stoy (1726-1801), was an active opponent of the Coetus and of clericalism after 1772. Thereafter Schlatter's work was in the charity schools of Pennsylvania, which the people thought were tinged with Episcopalianism. Many churches and pastors were independent of the Coetus, notably John Joachim Zubly (1724-1781), of St Gall, who migrated to S. Carolina in 1726, and was a delegate to the Continenta Congress from Georgia, but opposed independence and was banished from Savannah in 1777. Within the Coetus there were two parties. Of the Pietists of the second class one of the leaders was Philip William Otterbein (1726-1813), born in Dillenburg, Nassau, whose system of class-meetings was the basis of a secession from which grew the United Brethren in Christ, commonly called the "New Reformed Church," organize( in 1800. During the War of Independence the Pennsylvania members of the Church were mostly attached to the American cause, and Nicholas Herkimer and Baron von Steuben were both Reformed; but in New York and in the South there wen many German Loyalists. Franklin College was founded by Lutherans and Reformed with much outside help, notably that of Benjamin Franklin at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1787. The Coetus had actually assumed the power of ordinatior in 1772 and formally assumed it in 1791; in 1792 a synodica constitution was prepared; and in 1793 the first independen ynod met in Lancaster and adopted the constitution, thus ecoming independent of Holland. Its churches numbered 78, and there were about 15,000 communicants. The strongest hurches were those of Philadelphia, Lancaster and Germantown n Pennsylvania, and Frederick in Maryland. The German Reformed churches in Lunenburg county, Nova Scotia, became 'resbyterian in 1837; a German church in Waldoboro, Maine, fter a century, became Congregational in 1850. The New York churches became Dutch Reformed. The New Jersey hurches rapidly fell away, becoming Presbyterian, Dutch leformed, or Lutheran. In Virginia many churches became Episcopalian and others United Brethren. By 1825, 13 Re- ormed ministers were settled W. of the Alleghanies. The iynod in 1819 divided itself into eight Classes. In 1824 the Classis of Northampton, Pennsylvania (13 ministers and 80 :ongregations), became the Synod of Ohio, the parent Synod laving refused to allow the Classis to ordain. In 1825 there were 87 ministers, and in the old Synod about 23,300 com- municants. A schism over the establishment of a theological seminary resulted in the organization of a new synod of the " Free German Reformed Congregations of Pennsylvania," which returned to he parent synod in 1837. John Winebrenner (q.v.), pastor in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, eft the Church in 1828, and in 1830 organized the " Church of God "; his main doctrinal difference with the Reformed Church was on infant baptism. In 1825 the Church opened a theological seminary at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, affiliated with Dickinson College. James Ross X.eily (1788-1844) travelled in Holland and Germany, collecting money and books for the seminary. It was removed in 1829 to York, where an academy was connected with it; in 1835 the academy (which in 1836 became Marshall College) and in 1837 the seminary removed to Mercersburg, where, in 1840, John W. Nevin (q.v.) became its president, and with Philip Schaff (q.v.) founded the Mercersburg theology, which lost to the Church many who objected to Nevin's (and Schaff's) Romanizing tendencies. The seminary was removed in 1871 from Mercersburg to Lancaster, whither the college had gone in 1853 to form, with Franklin College, Franklin and Marshall College. In 1842 the Western Synod (i.e. the Synod of Ohio) adopted the constitution of the Eastern, and divided into classes. It founded in 1850 a theological school and Heidelberg University at Tiffin, Ohio. The Synods organized a General Synod in 1863. New German Synods were: that of the North-West (1867), organized at Fort Wayne, Ind.; that of the East (1875), organized at Philadelphia; and the Central Synod (1881), organized at Gallon, Ohio. New English Synods were: that of Pittsburg (1870); that of the Potomac (1873); and that of the Interior (1887), organized at Kansas City, Missouri. In 1894 there were eight district synods. After a long controversy over a liturgy (connected in part with the Mercersburg controversy) a Directory of Worship was adopted in 1887. The principal organizations of the Church are: the Board of Publication (1844); the Society for the Relief of Ministers and their Widows (founded in 1755 by the Pennsylvania Coetus; incorporated in 1810; transferred to the Synod in 1833); a Board of Domestic Missions (1826); a Board of Foreign Missions (1838; reorganized in 1873), which planted a mission in Japan (1879), now a part of the Union Church of Japan, and one in China (1900). The Church has publishing houses in Philadelphia (replacing that of Chambers- burg, Pa., founded in 1840 and destroyed in July 1864 by the Confederate army) and in Cleveland, Ohio. Colleges connected with the Church, besides the seminary at Lancaster, Franklin and Marshall College and Heidelberg University, are : Catawba College (1851) at Newton, North Carolina ; and Ursinus College (1869), founded by the Low Church wing, at Collegeville, Pennsylvania, which had, until 1908, a theological seminary, then removed to Dayton, Ohio, where it united with Heidelberg Theological Seminary (until 1908 at Tiffin) to form the Central Theological Seminary. In 1906, according to Bulletin 103 (1909) of the Bureau of the United States Census, the Church had 1736 organizations in the REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH— REFRACTION United States, 1740 churches and 292,654 communicants, of whom 177,270 were in Pennsylvania, and about one-sixth (50,732) were in Ohio. Other states in which the Church had communicants were: Maryland (13,442), Wisconsin (8386), Indiana (8289), New York (5700), North "Carolina (4718), Iowa (3692), Illinois (2652), Virginia (2288), Kentucky (2101), Michigan (1666), Nebraska (1616), and (less than 1500 in each of the following arranged in rank) S. Dakota, Missouri, New Jersey, Connecticut, Kansas, W. Virginia N. Dakota, Minnesota, District of Columbia, Oregon, Massachusetts, Tennessee, California, Colorado, Arkansas and Oklahoma. See James I. Good, History of the Reformed Church in the United States, 1725-17^2 (Reading, Pa., 1899), and Historical Handbook (Philadelphia, 1902); and the sketch by Joseph Henry Dubbs in vol. viii. (New York, 1895) of the American Church History Series. REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH, a Protestant community in the United States of America, dating from December 1873. The influence of the Tractarian movement began to be felt at an early date in the Episcopal Church of the United States, and the ordination of Arthur Carey in New York, July 1843, a clergyman who denied that there was any difference in points of faith between the Anglican and the Roman Churches and con- sidered the Reformation an unjustifiable act, brought into relief the antagonism between Low Church and High Church, a struggle which went on for a generation with increasing bitterness. The High Church party lost no opportunity of arraigning any Low Churchman who conducted services in non-episcopal churches, and as the Triennial Conference gave no heed to remonstrances on the part of these ecclesiastical offenders they came to the conclusion that they must either crush their consciences or seek relief in separation. The climax was reached when George D. Cummins (1822-1876), assistant bishop of Kentucky, was angrily attacked for officiating at the united communion service held at the meeting of the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance in New York, October 1873. This prelate resigned his charge in the Episcopal Church on November nth, and a month later, with seven other clergy- men and a score of laymen, constituted the Reformed Episcopal Church. Cummins was chosen as presiding officer of the new body, and consecrated Charles E. Cheney (b. 1836), rector of Christ Church, Chicago, to be bishop. The following Declaration of Principles (here abridged) was promulgated: — I. An. expression of belief in the Bible as the Word of God, and the sole rule of faith and practice, in the Apostles' Creed, in the divine institution of the two sacraments and in the doctrines of grace substantially as set out in the 39 Articles. II. The recognition of Episcopacy not as of divine right but as a very ancient and desirable form of church polity. III. An acceptance of the Prayer Book as revised by the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1785, with liberty to revise it as may seem most conducive to the edification of the people. IV. A condemnation of certain positions, viz. •, — (a) That the Church of God exists only in one form of ecclesi- astical polity. (b) That Christian ministers as distinct from all believers have any special priesthood. (c) That the Lord's Table is an altar on which the body and blood of Christ are offered anew to the Father. (d) That the presence of Christ is a material one. (e) That Regeneration is inseparably connected with Baptism. The Church recognizes no orders of ministry, presbyters and deacons; the Episcopate is an office, not an order, the bishop being the chief presbyter, primus inter pares. There are some 7 bishops, 85 clergy and about 9500 communicants. £1600 annually is raised for foreign missionary work in India. The Church was introduced into England in 1877, and has in that country a presiding bishop and about 20 organized congrega- tions. The Church has a theological seminary in Philadelphia. REFRACTION (Lat. refringere, to break open or apart), in physics, the change in the direction of a wave of light, heat or sound which occurs when such a wave passes from one medium into another of different density. I. REFRACTION OF LIGHT When a ray of light traversing a homogeneous medium falls on the bounding surface of another transparent homogeneous medium, it is found that the direction of the transmitted ray in the second medium is different from that of the incident ray; in other words, the ray is refracted or bent at the point of incidence. The laws governing refraction are: (i) the refracted and incident rays are coplanar with the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence, and (2) the ratio of the sines of the angles between the normal and the incident and refracted rays is constant for the two media, but depends on the nature of the light employed, i.e. on its wave length. This constant is called the relative refractive index of the second medium, and may be denoted by fiat, the suffix ab signifying that the light passes from medium a to medium b; similarly fna denotes the relative refractive index of a with regard to b. The absolute refractive index is the index when the first medium is a vacuum. Ele- mentary phenomena in refraction, such as the apparent bending of a stick when partially immersed in water, were observed in very remote times, but the laws, as stated above, were first grasped in the r/th century by W. Snell and published by Descartes, the full importance of the dependence of the refractive index on the nature of the light employed being first thoroughly realized by Newton in his famous prismatic decomposition of white light into a coloured spectrum. Newton gave a theor- etical interpretation of these laws on the basis of his corpuscular theory, as did also Huygens on the wave theory (see LIGHT, II. Theory of). In this article we only consider refractions at plane surfaces, refraction at spherical surfaces being treated under LENS. The geometrical theory will, be followed, the wave theory being treated in LIGHT, DIFFRACTION and DIS- PERSION. Refraction at a Plane Surface. — Let LM (fig. i) be the surface dividing two homogeneous media A and B; let IO be a ray in the first medium incident on LM at O, and let OR be the refracted ray. Draw the normal POQ. Then by Snell 's law we have invariably sin lOP/sin QOR =#«„(,. Hence if two of these quantities be given the third can be calculated. The commonest question is: Given the incident ray and the refractive index to construct the refracted ray. A simple construction is to take along the incident ray OI, unit distance OC, and a distance OD equal to the refractive index in the same units. Draw CE perpendicular to LM, and draw an arc with centre O and radius OD, cutting CE in E. Then EO produced downwards is the refracted ray. The proof is left to the reader. In the figure the given incident ray is assumed to be passing from a less dense to a denser medium, and it is seen by the con- struction or by examining the formula sin /9 = sin a/p that for all values of a there is a corresponding value of 0. Consider the case when the light passes from a denser to a less dense medium. In the equation sin (3 = sin O//K we have in this case /z I and there is no refraction into the second medium, the rays being totally reflected back into the first medium; this is called total internal reflection. Images produced by Refraction at Plane Surfaces. — If a luminous point be situated in a medium separated from one of less density by a plane surface, the ray normal to this surface will be unre- fracted, whilst the others will undergo_ refraction according to their angles of emergence. If the rays in the less dense medium be produced into the denser medium, they envelop a caustic, but by restricting ourselves to a small area about the normal ray it is seen that they intersect this ray in a point which is the geometrical REFRACTION image of the luminous source. The position of this point can be easily determined. If / be the distance of the source below the surface, /' the distance of the image, and n the refractive index, then I' =t//i. This theory provides a convenient method for determining the refractive index of a plate. A micrometer microscope, with vertical motion, is focused on a scratch on the surface of its stage; the plate, which has a fine scratch on its upper surface, is now introduced, and the microscope is successively focused on the scratch on the stage as viewed through the plate, and on the scratch on the plate. The difference between the first and third readings gives the thickness of the plate, corresponding to / above, and between the second and third readings the depth of the image, corresponding to /'. Refraction by a Prism. — In optics a prism is a piece of trans- parent material bounded by two plane faces which meet at a definite angle, called the refracting angle of the prism, in a straight line called the edge of the prism; a section perpendicular to the edge is called a principal section. Parallel rays, refracted succes- sively at the two faces, emerge from the prism as a system of parallel rays, but the direction is altered by an amount called the deviation. The deviation depends on the angles of incidence and emergence; but, since the course of a ray may always be reversed, there must be a stationary value, either a maximum or minimum, when the ray traverses the prism symmetrically, i.e. when the angles of incidence and emergence are equal. As a matter of fact, it is a minimum, and the position is called the angle of minimum deviation. The relation between the minimum deviation D, the angle of the prism i, and the refractive index ,u is found as follows. Let in fig. 2, PQRS be the course of the ray through the prism; the internal angles <£', $' each equal Ji, and the angles of incidence and emergence , $ are each equal and connected with ' by Snell's law, i.e. sin 4> = n sin'. Also the deviation D is 2 (—'). Hence M = sin <£/sin ' = sin% (D+z')/sin|i. Refractometers. — Instruments for determining the refractive indices of media are termed refractometers. The simplest are really spectrometers, consisting of a glass prism, usually hollow and fitted with accurately parallel glass sides, mounted on a table which carries a fixed collimation tube and a movable observing tube, the motion of the latter being recorded on a graduated circle. The collimation tube has a narrow adjustable flit at its outer end and a lens at the nearer end, so that the light leaves the tube as a parallel beam. The refracting angle of the prism, i in our previous notation, is deter- mined by placing the prism with its refracting edge towards the collimator, and observing when the reflections of the slit in the two prism faces coincide with the cross-wires in the observing telescope; half the angle between these two positions gives i. To determine the position of minimum deviation, or D, the prism is removed, and the observing telescope is brought into line with the slit; in this position the graduation is read. The prism is replaced, and the telescope moved until it catches the refracted rays. The prism is now turned about a vertical axis until a position is found when the telescope has to be moved towards the collimator in order to catch the rays; this operation sets the prism at the angle of minimum deviation. The refractive index /j. is calculated from the formula given above. More readily manipulated and of superior accuracy are refracto- meters depending on total reflection. The Abbe refractometer (fig. 3) essentially consists of a double Abbe prism AB to contain the substance to be experimented with ; and a telescope F to ob- serve the border line of the total reflection. The prisms, which are right-angled and made of the same flint glass, are mounted in a hinged frame such that the lower prism, which is used for purposes of illumination, can be locked so that the hypothenuse faces are distant by about 0-15 mm., or rotated away from the upper prism. The double prism is used in examining liquids, a few drops being placed between the prisms; the single prism is used when solids or plastic bodies are employed. The mount is capable of rotation about a horizontal axis by an alidade /. The telescope is provided with a reticule, which can be brought into exact coincidence with the observed border line, and is rigidly fastened to a sector S graduated directly in refractive indices. The reading is effected by a lens L. Beneath the prisms is a mirror for reflecting light FIG. 3. into the apparatus. To use the apparatus, the liquid having been inserted between the prisms, or the solid attached by its own adhesiveness or by a drop of monobromnaphthalene to the upper prism, the prism case is rotated until the field of view consists of a light and dark portion, and the border line is now brought into coincidence with the reticule of the telescope. In using a lamp or daylight this border is coloured, and hence a compensator, consisting of two equal Amici prisms, is placed between the objective and the prisms. These Amici prisms can be rotated, in opposite directions, until they produce a dispersion opposite in sign to that originally seen, and hence the border line now appears perfectly sharp and colourless. When at zero the alidade corresponds to a refractive index of 1-3, and any other reading gives the corresponding index correct to about 2 units in the 4th decimal place. Since temperature markedly affects the refractive index, this apparatus is provided with a device for heating the prisms. Figs. 4 and 5 show the course of the rays when a solid and liquid FIG. 4- FIG. 5- are being experimented with. Dr R. Wollny's butter refracto- meter, also made by Zeiss, is constructed similarly to Abbe's form, with the exception that the prism casing is rigidly attached to the telescope, and the observation made by noting the point where the border line intersects an appropriately graduated scale in the focal plane of the tele'scope objective, fractions being read by a micrometer screw attached to the objective. This apparatus is afso provided with an arrangement for heating. This method of reading is also employed in Zeiss's " dipping refractometer " (fig. 6). This instrument consists of a telescope R having at its lower end a prism P with a refracting angle of 63°, above which and below the objective is a movable compensator A for purposes of annulling the dispersion about the border line. In REFRACTION the focal plane of the objective O there is a scale Sc, exact reading being made by a micrometer Z. If a large quantity of liquid be FIG. 6. — Zeiss's Dipping Refractometer. available it is sufficient to dip the refractometer perpendicularly into a beaker containing the liquid and to transmit light into the instrument by means of a mirror. If only a smaller quantity be available, it is enclosed in a metal beaker M, which forms an exten- sion of the instrument, and the liquid is retained there by a plate D. The instrument is now placed in a trough B, containing water and having one side of ground glass G; light is reflected into the refractometer by means of a mirror S outside this trough. An accuracy of 3-7 units in the 5th decimal place is obtainable. The Pulfrich refractometer is also largely used, especially for liquids. It consists essentially of a right-angled glass prism placed on a metal foundation with the faces at right angles horizontal and vertical, the hypothenuse face being on the support. The horizontal face is fitted with a small cylindrical vessel to hold the liquid. Light is led to the prism at grazing incidence by means of a collimator, and is refracted through the vertical face, the deviation being observed by a telescope rotating about a graduated circle. From this the refractive index is readily calculated if the refractive index of the prism for the light used be known: a fact supplied by the maker. The instrument is also available for determining the refractive index of isotropic solids. A little of the solid is placed in the vessel and a mixture of monobrpmnaph- thalene and acetone (in which the solid must be insoluble) is added, and adjustment made by adding either one or other liquid until the border line appears sharp, i.e. until the liquid has the same index as the solid. The Herbert Smith refractometer (fig. 7) is especially suitable for determining the refractive index of gems, a constant which is •= J.30 = 135 m i-w = '"*s = ISO == 155 if ISO If us 1 1-70 =1 I-TS FIG. most valuable in distinguishing the precious stones. It consists of a hemisphere of very dense glass, having its plane surface fixed at a certain angle to the axis of the instrument. Light is admitted by a window on the under side, which is inclined at the same angle, but in the opposite sense, to the axis. The light on emerging from the hemisphere is received by a convex lens, in the focal plane of which is a scale graduated to read directly in refractive indices. The light then traverses a positive eye-piece. To use the instru- ment for a gem, a few drops of methylene iodide (the refractive index of which may be raised to 1-800 by dissolving sulphur in it) are placed on the plane surface of the hemisphere and a facet of the stone then brought into contact with the surface. If mono- chromatic light be used (i.e. the D line of the sodium flame) the field is sharply divided into a light and a dark portion, and the posi- tion of the line of demarcation on the scale immediately gives the refractive index. It is necessary for the liquid to have a higher refractive index than the crystal, and also that there is close con- tact between the facet and the lens. The range of the instrument is between 1-400 and 1-760, the results being correct to two units in the third decimal place if sodium light be used. (C. E.*) II. DOUBLE REFRACTION That a stream of light on entry into certain media can give rise to two refracted pencils was discovered in the case of Iceland spar by Erasmus Bartholinus, who found that one pencil had a direction given by the ordinary law of refraction, but that the other was bent in accordance with a new law that he was unable to determine. This law was discovered about eight years later by Christian Huygens. According to Huygens' fundamental principle, the law of refraction is determined by the form and orientation of the wave-surface in the crystal — the locus of points to which a disturbance emanating from a luminous point travels in unit time. In the. case of a doubly refracting medium the wave-surface must have two sheets, one of which is spherical, if one of the pencils obey in all cases the ordinary law of refraction. Now Huygens observed that a natural crystal of spar behaves in precisely the same way which- ever pair of faces the light passes through, and inferred from this fact that the second sheet of the wave-surface must be a surface of revolution round a line equally inclined to the faces of the rhomb, i.e. round the axis of the crystal. He accordingly assumed it to be a spheroid, and finding that refraction in the direction of the axis was the same for both streams, he concluded that the sphere and the spheroid touched one another in the axis. So far as his experimental means permitted, Huygens veri- fied the law of refraction deduced from this hypothesis, but its correctness remained unrecognized until the measures of W. H. Wollaston in 1802 and of E. T. Malus in 1810. More recently its truth has been established with far more perfect optical appliances by R. T. Glazebrook, Ch. S. Hastings and others. In the case of Iceland spar and several other crystals the extraordinarily refracted stream is refracted away from the axis, but Jean Baptiste Biot in 1814 discovered that in many cases the reverse occurs, and attributing the extraordinary refractions to forces that act as if they emanated from the axis, he called crystals of the latter kind " attractive," those of the former " repulsive." They are now termed " positive " and " negative " respectively: and Huygens' law applies to both classes, the spheroid being prolate in the case of positive, and oblate in the case of negative crystals. It was at first supposed that Huygens' law applied to all doubly refracting media. Sir David Brewster, however, in 1815, while examining the rings that are seen round the optic axis in polarized light, discovered a number of crystals that possess two optic axes. He showed, moreover, that such crystals belong to the rhombic, monoclinic and anorthic (triclinic) systems, those of the tetragonal and hexagonal systems being uniaial, and those of the cubic system being optically isotropic. Huygens found in the course of his researches that the streams that had traversed a rhomb of Iceland spar had acquired new properties with respect to transmission through a second crystal. This phenomenon is called polarization (g.v.), and the waves are said to be polarized — the ordinary in its principal plane and the extraordinary in a plane perpendicular to its principal plane, the principal plane of a wave being the plane containing its normal and the axis of the crystal. From the facts of polarization Augustin Jean Fresnel deduced that the 28 REFRACTION vibrations in plane polarized light are rectilinear and in the plane of the wave, and arguing from the symmetry of uniaxal crystals that vibrations perpendicular to the axis are propa- gated with the same speed in all directions, he pointed out that this would explain the existence of an ordinary wave, and the relation between its speed and that of the extraordinary wave. From these ideas Fresnel was forced to the conclusion, that he at once verified experimentally, that in biaxal crystals there is no spherical wave, since there is no single direction round which such crystals are symmetrical; and, recognizing the difficulty of a direct determination of the wave-surface, he attempted to represent the laws of double refraction by the aid of a simpler surface. The essential problem is the determination of the propaga- tional speeds of plane waves as dependent upon the directions of their normals. These being known, the deduction of the wave-surface follows at once, since it is to be regarded as the envelope at any subsequent time of all the plane waves that at a given instant may be supposed to pass through a given point, the ray corresponding to any tangent plane or the direction of transport of energy being by Huygens' principle the radius- vector from the centre to the point of contact. Now Fresnel perceived that in uniaxal crystals the speeds of plane waves in any direction are by Huygens' law the reciprocals of the semi- axes of the central section, parallel to the wave-fronts, of a spheroid, whose polar and equatorial axes are the reciprocals of the equatorial and polar axes of the spheroidal sheet of Huygens' wave-surface, and that the plane of polarization of a wave is perpendicular to the axis that determines its speed. Hence it occurred to him that similar relations with respect to an ellipsoid with three unequal axes would give the speeds and polarizations of the waves in a biaxal crystal, and the results thus deduced he found to be in accordance with all known facts. This ellipsoid is called the ellipsoid of polarization, the index ellipsoid and the indicatrix. , We may go a step further; for by considering the intersection of a wave-front with two waves, whose normals are indefinitely near that of the first and lie in planes perpendicular and parallel respectively to its plane of polarization, it is easy to show that the ray corresponding to the wave is parallel to the line in which the former of the two planes intersects the tangent plane to the ellipsoid at the end of the semi-diameter that determines the wave- velocity; and it follows by similar triangles that the ray-velocity is the reciprocal of the length of the perpendicular from the centre on this tangent plane. The laws of double refraction are thus contained in the following proposition. The propagational speed of a plane wave in any direction is given by the reciprocal of one of the semi-axes of the central section of the ellipsoid of polarization parallel to the wave; the plane of polarization of the wave is perpendicular to this axis; the corresponding ray is parallel to the line of intersection of the tangent plane at the end of the axis and the plane containing the axis and the wave-normal; the ray- velocity is the reciprocal of the length of the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent plane. By reciprocating with respect to a sphere of unit radius concentric with the ellipsoid, we obtain a similar proposition in which the ray takes the place of the wave-normal, the ray- velocity that of the wave-slowness (the reciprocal of the velocity) and vice versa. The wave-surface is thus the apsidal surface of the reciprocal ellipsoid; this gives the simplest means of obtain- ing its equation, and it is readily seen that its section by each plane of optical symmetry consists of an ellipse and a circle, and that in the plane of greatest and least wave-velocity these curves intersect in four points. The radii-vectors to these points are called the ray-axes. When the wave-front is parallel to either system of circular sections of the ellipsoid of polarization, the problem of finding the axes of the parallel central section becomes indeterminate, and all waves in this direction are propagated with the same speed, whatever may be their polarization. The normals to the circular sections are thus the optic axes. To determine the rays corresponding to an optic axis, we may note that the ray and the perpendiculars to it through the centre, in planes perpendicular and parallel to that of the ray and the optic axis, are three lines intersecting at right angles of which the two latter are confined to given planes, viz. the central circular section of the ellipsoid and the normal section of the cylinder touching the ellipsoid along this section: whence by a known proposition the ray describes a cone whose sections parallel to the given planes are circles. Thus a plane perpendicular to the optic axis touches the wave-surface along a circle. Similarly the normals to the circular sections of the reciprocal ellipsoid, or the axes of the tangent cylinders to the polarization-ellipsoid that have circular normal sections, are directions of single-ray velocity or ray-axes, and it may be shown as above that corre- sponding to a ray-axis there is a cone of wave-normals with circular sections parallel to the normal section of the corre- sponding tangent cylinder, and its plane of contact with the ellipsoid. Hence the extremities of the ray-axes are conical points on the wave-surface. These peculiarities of the wave- surface are the cause of the celebrated conical refractions discovered by Sir William Rowan Hamilton and H. Lloyd, which afford a decisive proof of the general correctness of Fresnel's wave-surface, though they cannot, as Sir G. Gabriel Stokes (Math, and Phys. Papers, iv. 184) has pointed out, be employed to decide between theories that lead to this surface as a near approximation. In general, both the direction and the magnitude of the axes of the polarization-ellipsoid depend upon the frequency of the light and upon the temperature, but in many cases the possible variations are limited by considerations of symmetry. Thus the optic axis of a uniaxal crystal is invariable, being deter- mined by the principal axis of the system to which it belongs: most crystals are of the same sign for all colours, the refractive indices and their difference both increasing with the frequency, but a few crystals are of opposite sign for the extreme spectral colours, becoming isotropic for some intermediate wave-length. In crystals of the rhombic system the axes of the ellipsoid coincide in all cases with the crystallographic axes, but in a few cases their order of magnitude changes so that the plane of the optic axes for red light is at right angles to that for blue light, the crystal being uniaxal for an intermediate colour. In the case of the monoclinic system one axis is in the direction of the axis of the system, and this is generally, though there are notable exceptions, either the' greatest, the least, or the intermediate axis of the ellipsoid for all colours and temperatures. In the latter case the optic axes are in the plane of symmetry, and a variation of their acute bisectrix occasions the phenomenon known as " inclined dispersion ": in the two former cases the plane of the optic axes is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry, and if it vary with the colour of the light, the crystals exhibit " crossed " or " horizontal dispersion " according as it is the acute or the obtuse bisectrix that is in the fixed direction. The optical constants of a crystal may be determined either with a prism or by observations of total reflection. In the latter case the phenomenon is characterized by two angles — the critical angle and the angle between the plane of incidence and the line limiting the region of total reflection in the field of view. With any crystalline surface there are four cases in which this latter angle is 90°, and the principal refractive indices of the crystal are obtained from those calculated from the correspond- ing critical angles, by excluding that one of the mean values for which the plane of polarization of the limiting rays is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. A difficulty, however, may arise when the crystalline surface is very nearly the plane of the optic axes, as the plane of polarization in the second mean case is then also very nearly perpendicular to the plane of incidence; but since the two mean refractive indices will be very different, the ambiguity can be removed by making, as may easily be done, an approximate measure of the angle between the optic axes and comparing it with the values calculated by using in turn each of these indices (C. M. Viola, Zeit. fiir Kryst., 1002, 36, p. 245). A substance originally isotropic can acquire the optical REFRESHER 29 properties of a crystal under the influence of homogeneous strain, the principal axes of the wave-surface being parallel to those of the strain, and the medium being uniaxal, if the strain be symmetrical. John Kerr also found that a dielectric under electric stress behaves as an uniaxal crystal with its optic axis parallel to the electric force, glass acting as a negative and b''sulphide of carbon as a positive crystal (Phil. Mag., 1875 (4), Not content with determining the laws of double refraction, Fresnel also attempted to give their mechanical explanation. He supposed that the aether consists of a system of distinct material points symmetrically arranged and acting on one another by forces that depend for a given pair only on their distance. If in such a system a single molecule be displaced, the projection of the force of restitution on the direction of dis- placement is proportional to the inverse square of the parallel radius- vector of an ellipsoid; and of all displacements that can occur in a given plane, only those in the direction of the axes of the parallel central section of the quadric develop forces whose projection on the plane is along the displacement. In undula- tions, however, we are concerned with the elastic forces due to relative displacements, and, accordingly, Fresnel assumed that the forces called into play during the propagation of a system of plane waves (of rectilinear transverse vibrations) differ from those developed by the parallel displacement of a single molecule only by a constant factor, independent of the plane of the wave. Next, regarding the aether as incompressible, he assumed that the components of the elastic forces parallel to the wave-front are alone operative, and finally, on the analogy of a stretched string, that the propagational speed of a plane wave of permanent type is proportional to the square root of the effective force developed by the vibrations. With these hypotheses we immediately obtain the laws of double refraction, as given by the ellipsoid of polarization, with the result that the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of polarization. In its dynamical foundations Fresnel's theory, though of considerable historical interest, is clearly defective in rigour, and a strict treatment of the aether as a crystalline elastic solid does not lead naturally to Fresnel's laws of double refraction. On the other hand, Lord Kelvin's rotational aether (Math, and Phys. Papers, iii. 442) — a medium that has no true rigidity but possesses a quasi-rigidity due to elastic resistance to absolute rotation — gives these laws at once, if we abolish the resistance to compression and, regarding it as gyrostatically isotropic, attribute to it aeolotropic inertia. The equations then obtained are the same as those deduced in the electro-magnetic theory from the circuital laws of A. M. Ampere and Michael Faraday, when the specific inductive capacity is supposed aeolotropic. In order to account for dispersion, it is necessary to take into account the interaction with the radiation oi tne intra-molecular vibrations of the crystalline substance: thus the total current on the electro-magnetic theory must be regarded as made up of the current of displacement and that due to the osculations of the electrons within the molecules of the crystal. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — An interesting and instructive account of Fresnel's work on double refraction has been given by Emile Verdet in his introduction to Fresnel's works: (Euvres d'Augustin Fresnel, i. 75 (Paris, 1866); (Euvres de E. Verdet, i. 360 (Paris, 1872) For an account of theories of double refraction see the reports of H. Lloyd, Sir G. G. Stokes and R. T. Glazebrook in the Brit. Ass. Reports for 1834, 1862 and 1885, and Lord Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures (1904). An exposition of the rotational theory of the aether has been given by H. Chipart, Theorie gyrostatique de la lumiere (Paris, 1904); and P. Drude's Lehrbuch der Optik, 2" Auf. (1906), the first German edition of which was translated by C. Riborg Mann and R. A. Milliken in 1902, treats the subject from the standpoint of the electro-magnetic theory. The methods of determining the optical constants of crystals will be found in Th. Liebisch's Physikalische Krystallographie (1891); F. Pocket's Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik (1906); and J. Walker's Analytical Theory of Light (1904). A detailed list of papers on the geometry of the wave-surface has been published by E. Wollfing, Bibl Math., 1902 (3), iii. 361; and a general account of the subject will be found in the following treatises: L. Fletcher, The Optical Indicatrix (1892); Th. Preston, The Theory of Light, 3rd ed. by C. J. Joly (1901); A. Schuster, An Introduction to the Theory oj Optics (1904); R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1005); E. Mascart, Traite d'optique (1889) ; A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik. (J. WAL.*) III. ASTRONOMICAL REFRACTION The refraction of a ray of light by the atmosphere as it passes 'rom a heavenly body to an observer on the earth's surface, is called " astronomical." A knowledge of its amount is a necessary datum in the exact determination of the direction of the body. [n its investigation the fundamental hypothesis is that the strata of the air are in equilibrium, which implies that the surfaces of equal density are horizontal. But this condition is being continually disturbed by aerial currents, which produce con- tinual slight fluctuations in the actual refraction, and commonly give to the image of a star a tremulous motion. Except for this slight motion the refraction is always in the vertical direction; that is, the actual zenith distance of the star is always greater than its apparent distance. The refracting power of the air is nearly proportional to its density. Consequently the amount of the refraction varies with the temperature and barometric pressure, being greater the higher the barometer and the lower the temperature. At moderate zenith distances, the amount of the refraction varies nearly as the tangent of the zenith distance. Under ordinary conditions of pressure and temperature it is, near the zenith, about i " for each degree of zenith distance. As the tangent increases at a greater rate than the angle, the increase of the refraction soon exceeds i" for each degree. At 45° from the zenith the tangent is i and the mean refraction is about 58*. As the horizon is approached the tangent increases more and more rapidly, becoming infinite at the horizon; but the re- fraction now increases at a less rate, and, when the observed ray is horizontal, or when the object appears on the horizon, the refraction is about 34', or a little greater than the diameter of the sun or moon. It follows that when either of these objects is seen on the horizon their actual direction is entirely below it. One result is that the length of the day is increased by refraction to the extent of about five minutes in low latitudes, and still more in higher latitudes. At 60° the increase is about nine minutes. The atmosphere, like every other transparent substance, refracts the blue rays of the spectrum more than the red; conse- quently, when the image of a star near the horizon is observed with a telescope, it presents somewhat the appearance of a spectrum. The edge which is really highest, but seems lowest in the telescope, is blue, and the opposite one red. When the atmosphere is steady this atmospheric spectrum is very marked and renders an exact observation of the star difficult. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Refraction has been a favourite subject of research. See Dr. C. Bruhns, Die astronomische Strahlenbrechung (Leipzig, 1861), gives a resume of the various formulae of refraction which had been developed by the leading investigators up to the date 1861. Since then developments of the theory are found in: W. Chauvenet, Spherical and Practical Astronomy, \. ; F. Brunnow, Sphdrischen Astronomic; S. Newcomb, Spherical Astronomy; R. Radau, "Recherches sur la the'orie des refractions astronomiques" (Annales de I'observatoire de Paris, xvi., 1882), " Essai sur les r6frac- tions astronomiques " (ibid., xix., 1889). Among the tables of refraction which have been most used are Bessel's, derived from the observations of Bradley in Bessel's Fundamenta Astronomiae; and Bessel's revised tables in his Tabulae Regiomontanae, in which, however, the constant is too large, but which in an expanded form were mostly used at the observatories until 1870. The constant use of the Poulkova tables, Tabulae re- fraclionum, which is reduced to nearly its true value, has gradually replaced that of Bessel. Later tables are those of L. de Ball, published at Leipzig in 1906. REFRESHER, in English legal phraseology, a further or additional fee paid to counsel where a case is adjourned from one term or sittings to another, or where it extends over more than one day and occupies, either on the first day or partly on the first and partly on a subsequent day or days, more than five hours without being concluded. The refresher allowed for every clear day subsequent to that on which the five hours have expired is five to ten guineas for a leading counsel and from three to seven guineas for other counsel, but the taxing REFRIGERATING master is at liberty to allow larger fees in special circumstances. See Rules of the Supreme Court, O. 65, r. 48. REFRIGERATING and ICE-MAKING. " Refrigeration " (from Lat. frigus, frost) is the cooling of a body by the transfer of a portion of its heat to another and therefore a cooler body. For ordinary temperatures it is performed directly with water as the cooling agent, especially when well water, which usually has a temperature of from 52° to 55° F., can be obtained. There are, however, an increasingly large number of cases in which temperatures below that of any available natural cooling agent are required, and in these it is necessary to resort to machines which are capable of producing the required cooling effect by taking in heat at low temperatures and rejecting it at tempera- tures somewhat above that of the natural cooling agent, which for obvious reasons is generally water. The function of a refrigerating machine, therefore, is to take in heat at a low temperature and reject it at a higher one. This involves the expenditure of a quantity of work W, the amount in any particular case being found by the equation W = Qj — Qi .where W is the work, expressed by its equivalent in British thermal units; Q2 the quantity of heat, also in B.Ther.U., given out at the higher temperature T2; and Qi the heat taken in at the lower temperature TI. It is evident that the discharged heat Q2 is equal to the abstracted heat Qi, plus the work expended, seeing that the work W, which causes the rise in temperature from Ti to Tz, is the thermal equivalent of the energy actually expended in raising the temperature to the level at which it is rejected. The relation then between the work expended and the actual cooling work performed denotes the efficiency of the process, and this is expressed by QiKQt— Qi); but as in a perfect refrigerating machine it is understood that the whole of the heat Qi is taken in at the absolute temperature TI, and the whole of the heat Q2, is rejected at the absolute temperature T2, the heat quantities are proportional to the temperatures, and the expression Ti/(T2— Ti) gives the ideal coefficient of performance for any stated temperature range, whatever working substance is used. These coefficients for a number of cases met with in practice are given in the following table. They TABLE I. Ti. Temperature at which Heat is extracted in Degrees Fahr. T,.. Temperature at which Heat is rejected in Degrees Fahr. 5°° 60° 7&° 80° 90° loo" -10° 7-5 6-4 5-6 5-o 4-5 4-1 0° 9-2 7-7 6-6 5"« 5-i 4-6 10° II-7 9'4 7-8 6-7 5'9 5-2 20° 16-0 I2-O 9-6 8-0 6-8 6-0 30° 24-5 16-3 12-2 9-8 8-2 7-0 40° 50-0 25-0 16-7 12-5 IO-O 8-3 show that in all cases the heat abstracted exceeds by many times the heat expended. As an instance, when heat is taken in at o° and rejected at 70°, a perfect refrigerating machine would abstract 6-6 times as much heat as the equivalent of the energy to be applied. If, however, the heat is to be rejected at 100°, then the coefficient is reduced to 4-6. By examining Table I. it will be seen how important it is to reduce the temperature range as much as possible, in order to obtain the most economical results. No actual refrigerating machine does, in fact, take in heat at the exact temperature of the body to be cooled, and reject it at the exact temperature of the cooling water, but, for economy in working, it is of great importance that the differences should be as small as possible. There are two distinct classes of machines used for refrigerat- ing and ice-making. In the first refrigeration is produced by the expansion of atmospheric air, and in the second by the evaporation of a more or less volatile liquid. Compressed-air Machines. — A compressed-air refrigerating machine consists in its simplest form of three essential parts — a compressor, a compressed-air cooler, and an expansion cylinder. It is shown diagrammatically in fig. i in connexion with a chamber which it is keeping cool. The compressor draws in air from the room and compresses it, the work expended in compression being almost entirely converted into heat. The compressed air, leaving the compressor at the temperature Tz, passes through the cooler, where it is cooled by means of water, and is then admitted to the expansion cylinder, where it is expanded to atmospheric pressure, performing work on the piston. The heat equivalent of the mechanical work per- formed on the piston is abstracted from the air, which is dis- charged at the temperature Ti. This temperature Tj is neces- Compression Cylinder Expansion Cylinder FIG. i. — Compressed-Air Refrigerating Machine. sarily very much below the temperature to be maintained in the room, because the cooling effect is produced by transferring heat from the room or its contents to the air, which is thereby heated. The rise in temperature of the air is, in fact, the measure of the cooling effect produced. If such a machine could be constructed with reasonable mechanical efficiency to compress the air to a temperature but slightly above that of the cooling water, and to expand the air to a temperature but slightly below that required to be maintained in the room, we should of course get a result approximating in efficiency somewhat nearly to the figures given in Table I. Unfortunately, however, such results cannot be obtained in practice, because the extreme lightness of the air and its very small heat capacity (which at constant pressure is -2379) would necessitate the employment of a great volume, with extremely large and mechanically in- efficient cylinders and apparatus. A pound of air, represent- ing about 12 cub. ft., if raised 10° F. will only take up about 2-4 B.T.U. Consequently, to make such a machine mechani- cally successful a comparatively small weight of air must be used, and the temperature difference increased; in other words, the air must be discharged at a temperature very much below that to be maintained in the room. This theory of working is founded on the Carnot cycle for a perfect heat motor, a perfect refrigerating machine being simply a reversed heat motor. Another theory involves the use of the Stirling regenerator, which was proposed in connexion with the Stirling heat engine (see AIR ENGINES). The air machine invented by Dr. A. Kirk in 1862, and described by him in a paper on the " Mechanical Production of Cold " (Proc. Inst. C.E., xxxyii., 1874, 244), is simply a reversed Stirling air engine, the air working in a closed cycle instead of being actually discharged into the room to be copied, as is the usual practice with ordinary compressed- air machines. Kirk's machine was used commercially with success on a fairly large scale, chiefly for ice-making, and it is recorded that it produced about 4 Ib of ice for I Ib of coal. In 1868 J. Davy Postle read a paper before the Royal Society of Victoria, suggesting the conveyance of meat on board ship in a frozen state by means of refrigerated air, and in 1869 he showed by experiment how it could be done; but his apparatus was not commercially developed. In 1877 a compressed-air machine was designed by J. J. Coleman of Glasgow, and in the early part of 1879 one of his machines was fitted on board the Anchor liner " Circassia," which successfully brought a cargo of chilled beef from America — the first imported by the aid of refrigerating machinery, ice having been previously used. The first successful cargo of frozen mutton from Australia was also brought by a Bell-Coleman machine in 1879. In the Bell-Coleman machine the air was cooled during compression by means of an injection of water, and further by being brought into contact with a shower of water. Another, perhaps the principal, feature was the interchanger, an apparatus whereby the compressed air was further cooled before expansion by means of the com- paratively cold air from the room in its passage to the compressor, the same air being used over and over again. The object of this interchanger was not only to cool the compressed air before expansion, but to condense part of the moisture in it, so reducing the quantity of ice or snow produced during expansion. A full description of the machine may be found in a paper on " Air- Refrigerating Machinery " by J. J. Coleman (Proc. Inst. C.E. Ixviii., 1882). At the present time the Bell-Coleman machine has practically ceased to exist. In such compressed-air machines REFRIGERATING as are now made there is no injection of water during compression, and the compressed air is cooled in a surface cooler, not by actual mixture with a shower of cold water. Further, though the inter- changer is still used by some makers, it has been found by experience that, with properly constructed valves and passages in the expansion cylinder, tnere is no trouble from the formation of snow, when, as is the general practice, the same air is used over and over again, the compressor taking its supply from the insulated room. So far as the air discharged from the expansion cylinder is concerned, its humidity is precisely the same so long as its temperature and pressure are the same, inasmuch as when discharged from the expansion cylinder it is always in a saturated condition for that temperature and pressure. The ideal coefficient of performance is about i, but the actual coefficient will be about f, after allowing for the losses incidental to working. In practice the air is compressed to about 50 tb per square inch above the atmosphere, its temperature rising to about 300° F. The compressed air then passes through coolers in which it is cooled to within about 5° of the initial temperature of the cooling water, and is deprived of a portion of its moisture, after which it is admitted into the expansion cylinder and expanded nearly to atmospheric pressure. The thermal equi- _valent of the power exerted on the piston is taken from the air, which, with cooling water at 60° F. and after allowing for friction and other losses, is discharged at a temperature of 60° to 80° below zero F. according to the size of the machine. The pistons of the compression and expansion cylinders are connected to the same crankshaft, and the difference between the power expended in compression and that restored in expansion, plus the friction of the machine, is supplied by means of a steam engine coupled to the crankshaft, or by any other source of power. For marine purposes two complete machines are frequently mounted on one bed-plate and worked either together or separately. In some machines used in the United States the cold air is not discharged into the rooms but is worked in a closed cycle, the rooms being cooled by means of overhead pipes through which the cold expanded air passes on its way back to the compressor. Liquid Machines. — Machines of the second class may con- veniently be divided into three types: (a) Those in which there is no recovery of the refrigerating agent, water being the agent employed; they will be dealt with as " Vacuum machines." (b) Those in which the agent is recovered by means of mechan- ical compression; they are termed " Compression machines." (c) Those in which the agent is recovered by means of absorption by a liquid; they are known as " Absorption machines." In the first class, since the refrigerating liquid is itself rejected, the only agent cheap enough to be employed is water. The Vacuum boiling point of water varies with pressure; thus at machines. one atmosphere or 14-7 Ib per square inch it is 212° F., whereas at a pressure of -085 Ib per square inch it is 32°, and at lower pressures there is a still further fall in temperature. This property is made use of in vacuum machines. Water at ordinary temperature, say 60°, is placed in an air-tight glass or insulated vessel, and when the pressure is reduced by means of a vacuum pump it begins to boil, the heat necessary for evapor- ation being taken from the water itself. The pressure being still further reduced, the temperature is gradually lowered until the freezing-point is reached and ice formed, when about one-sixth of the original volume has been evaporated. The earliest machine of this kind appears to have been made in '755 by Dr. William Cullen, who produced the vacuum by means of a pump alone. In 1810 Sir John Leslie combined with the air pump a vessel containing strong sulphuric acid for absorbing the vapour from the air, and is said to have succeeded in producing I to l J tb of ice in a single operation. E. C. Carre later adopted the same principle. In 1878 F. Windhausen patented a vacuum machine for producing ice in large quantities, and in 1881 one of these machines, said to be capable of making about 12 tons of ice per day, was put to work in London. The installation was fully described by Carl Pieper (Trans. Soc. of Engineers, 1882, p. 145) and by Dr. John Hopkinson (Journal of Soc. of Arts, 1882, vol. xxxi. p. 20). The process, however, not being successful from a commercial point of view, was abandoned. At the present time vacuum machines are only employed for domestic purposes. The hand apparatus invented by H. A. Fleuss consists of a vacuum pump capable of reducing the air pressure to a fraction of a milli- metre, the suction pipe of which is connected first with a vessel containing sulphuric acid, and second with the vessel containing the water to be frozen. Both these vessels are mounted on a rocking base, so that the acid can be thoroughly agitated while the machine is being worked. As soon as the pump has sufficiently exhausted the air from the vessel containing the water, vapour is rapidly given off and is absorbed by the acid until sufficient heat has been abstracted to bring about the desired reduction in temperature, the acid becoming heated by the absorption of water vapour, while the water freezes. The small Fleuss machine will produce about ij Ib of ice in one operation of 20 minutes. Iced water in a carafe for drinking purposes can be produced in about three minutes. The acid vessel holds 9 Ib of acid, and nearly 3 Ib of ice can be made for each I Ib of acid before the acid has become too weak to do further duty. Another machine, which can be easily worked by a boy, will produce 20 to 30 Ib of ice in one hour, and is perhaps the largest size practicable with this method of freezing. The temperature attainable depends on the strength and condition of the sulphuric acid; ordinarily it can be reduced to zero F., and temperatures 20° lower have frequently been obtained. Though prior to 1834 several suggestions had been made with regard to the production of ice and the cooling of liquids by the evaporation of a more volatile liquid than water, the Compres- first machine actually constructed and put to work *i°a was made by John Hague in that year from the designs macl>la"- of Jacob Perkins (Journal of Soc. of Arts, 1882, vol. xxxi. p. 77). This machine, though never used commercially, is the parent of all modern compression machines. Perkins in his patent specification states that the volatile fluid is by preference ether. In 1856 and 1857 James Harrison of Geelong, Victoria, patented a machine embodying the same principle as that of Perkins, but worked out in a much more complete and practical manner. It is stated that these machines were first made in New South Wales in 1859, but the first Harrison machine adopted success- fully for industrial purposes in England was applied in the year 1861 for cooling oil in order to extract the paraffin. In Harrison's machine the agent used was ether (C2H5)2O. Improvements were made by Siebe & Company of London, and a considerable number of ether machines both for ice-making and refrigerating purposes were supplied by that firm and others up to the year 1880. In 1870 the subject of refrigeration was investigated by Professor Carl Linde of Munich, who was the first to consider the question from a thermodynamic point of view. He dealt with the coefficient of performance as a common basis of com- parison for all machines, and showed that the compression vapour machine more nearly reached the theoretic maximum than any other (Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatt, 1870 and 1871). Linde also examined the physical properties of various liquids, and, after making trials with methylic ether in 1872, built his first ammonia compression machine in 1873. Since then the ammonia compression machine has been most widely adopted, though the carbonic acid machine, also compression, which was first made in 1880 from Linde's designs, is now used to a considerable extent, especially on board ship. Condenser Refrigerator Regulating Valve FIG. 2. — Vapour Compression Machine. A diagram of a vapour compression machine is shown in tig. 2. There are three principal parts, a refrigerator or evaporator, a compression pump, and a condenser. The refrigerator, which REFRIGERATING consists of a coil or series of coils, is connected to the suction side TABLE III.— Ledoux's Table for Saturated Sulphur Dioxide >f the pump, and the delivery from the pump is connected to the Vapour (SO2). :ondenser, which is generally of somewhat similar construction to he refrigerator. The condenser and refrigerator are connected by i pipe in which is a valve named the regulator. Outside the re- Temp, of Vapour- tension in Pounds per Heat of Liquid r Latent Heat of Volume of one Pound rigerator coils is the air, brine or other substance to be cooled, and Ebullition. sq. in. from 32° Fahr. Evaporation. of Saturated >utside the condenser is the cooling medium, which, as previously Degs. Fahr. Absolute. B.T.U. B.T.U. Vapour. Cub ft .tated, is generally water. The refrigerating liquid (ether, sulphur iioxide, anhydrous ammonia, or carbonic acid) passes from the x>ttom of the condenser through the regulating valve into the •efrigerator in a continuous stream. The pressure in the refrigerator aeing reduced by the pump and maintained at such a degree as to jive the required boiling-point, which is of course always lower than .he temperature outside the coils, heat passes from the substance jutside, through the coil surfaces, and is taken up by the entering iquid, which is converted into vapour at the temperature TI. The /apours thus generated are drawn into the pump, compressed, and discharged into the condenser at the temperature T2, which is some- ivhat above that of the cooling water. Heat is transferred from the :ompressed vapour to the cooling water and the vapour is converted nto a liquid, which collects at the bottom and returns by the re- gulating valve into the refrigerator. As heat is both taken in and discharged at constant temperature during the change in physical state of the agent, a vapour compression machine must approach —22 -13 - 4 5 H 23 32 5° 59 68 77 86 95 104 5-546 7-252 9-303 11-803 14-789 18-544 22-468 27-445 33-275 39-958 47-637 56-3II 66-407 77-641 90-297 -19-55 -16-31 -I3-05 - 9-79 - 6-85 - 3-26 o-oo 3-27 6-55 9-83 13-10 16-38 19-69 22-99 26-28 176-98 174-94 I72-9I 170-82 168-75 166-63 164-47 162-39 160-24 158-08 I55-89 I53-67 I5I-49 149-27 147-02 13-168 10-268 8-122 6-504 5-254 4-293 3-540 2-931 2-451 2-O66 I-746 1-490 1-266 1-089 0-9I3 the ideal much more nearly than a compressed-air machine, in which there is no such change. TABLE IV. — Mollier's Table for Saturated Anhydrous Ammonia , 17 x /'XTU \ This will be seen by taking as an example a case in which the cold Vapour (NHa). room is to be kept at IO° F., the cooling water being at 60°. Under :hese conditions, the actual evaporating temperature Ti, in a well- t Vapour- tension V r Volume of instructed ammonia compression machine, after allowing for the Temp, of in Pounds per Heat of Liquid Latent Heat of one Pound differences necessary for the exchange of heat, would be about 5° jelow zero, and the discharge temperature T would be about 75°. Ebullition. Degs. Fahr. sq. in. Absolute. from 32° Fahr. B.T.U. Evaporation. B.T.U. of Saturated Vapour. Cub. ft. \n ideal machine workintr between S below zero and 7S° above las a coefficient of about 5-7, or nearly six times that of an ideal :ompressed-air machine of usual construction performing the same -40 -31 10-238 I3-324 —60-048 -53-064 60O-00 597-24 25-630 2O- 1 2O A vapour compression machine does not, however, work precisely n the reversed Carnot cycle, inasmuch as the fall in temperature — 22 -13 16-920 21-472 -45-918 -38-646 595-08 593-00 I5-97I 12-783 jetween the condenser and the refrigerator is not produced, nor is — 4 27-OOO — 3I-2I2 590-00 cQ^.Qo 10-316 8-1C\A t attempted to be produced, by the adiabatic expansion of the igent, but results from the evaporation of a portion of the liquid tself. In other words, the liquid-refrigerating agent enters the refrigerator at the condenser temperature and introduces heat which has to be taken up by the evaporating liquid before any useful refrigerating effect can be performed. The extent of this loss s determined by the relation between the liquid heat and the latent leat of vaporization at the refrigerator temperature. If r represents the latent heat of the vapour, and q2 and gi the amounts of heat contained in the liquid at the respective temperatures of T2 and Ti, then the loss from the heat carried from the condenser into the 5 H 23 32 41 50 59 68 77 86 95 33"7GI 41-522 50-908 61-857 74-5I3 89-159 105-939 124-994 146-908 170-782 197-800 -15-894 - 8-028 o-ooo 8-172 16-506 24-966 33-588 42-354 51-282 60-336 ^OU O^ 58I-OO 576-00 571-00 562-50 555-48 550-00 541-00 531-00 523-00 5I2-50 394 6-888 5-703 4-742 3-973 2-851 2-435 2-098 1-810 1-570 refrigerator is shown by (qi-q^/r and the useful refrigerating effect 104 227-662 69-552 5OI-5° 1-361 produced in the refrigerator is r — (q? — qi). Assuming, as in the previous example, that T2 is 75° F., and that TI is 5° below zero, the results for various refrigerating agents are as follows: — TABLE V. — Mollier's Table for Saturated Carbon Dioxide Vapour (CO2). TABLE II. 1 Vapour- tension t r Volume of Temp, of in Pounds per Heat of Liquid Latent Heat of one Pound Latent Liquid Net Proportion Ebullition. Degs. Fahr. sq. in. Absolute. from 32° Fahr. B.T.U. Evaporation. B.T.U. of Saturated Vapour. C,iK ft Heat. Heat. Refrigeration, of Loss. UD. It. «-41 r-(n-gi) (52-,,)/r — 22 213-345 — 24-80 126-72 •4330 1 3 248-903 — 2 1 -06 123-25 •367O Anhydrous ammonia 590-33 72-556 517-774 0-1225 — 4 288-727 — I7-I9 II9-43 •3I3O Sulphurous acid . 173-13 29-062 144-068 0-168 5 334-240 -I3-I7 II5-25 •2680 Carbonic acid . 119-85 47'35 72-50 0-395 H 385-443 — 9-OO 110-65 •2295 23 440-913 — 4-63 105-53 •1955 32 503-497 0-00 99-81 •I67O The results show that the loss is least in the case of anhydrous 41 573-I87 4-93 93-35 •1430 ammonia and greatest in the case of carbonic acid. At higher con- 5° 649-991 10-28 85-93 •1202 denser temperatures the results are even much more favourable to 59 733-906 16-22 77-40 •IOIO ammonia. As the critical temperature (88-4° F.) of carbonic acid 68 826-356 23-08 66-47 •0833 is approached, the value of r becomes less and less and the refrigerat- 77 930-184 31-63 51-80 •0673 ing effect is much reduced. When the critical point is reached 86 1039-70! 45-45 27-00 •0481 the value of r disappears altogether, and a carbonic-acid machine is 87-8 1062-458 51-61 15-12 •0416 then dependent for its refrigerating effect on the reduction in tem- 88-43 1070-99! 59-24 o-oo •0352 perature produced by the internal work performed in expanding the gaseous carbonic acid from the condenser pressure to that in The action of a vapour compression machine is shown in fig. 3- the refrigerator. The abstraction of heat does not then take place Liquid at the condenser temperature being introduced into the re- at constant temperature. The expanded vapour enters the re- frigerator at a temperature below that of the substance to be frigerator through the regulating valve, a small portion evaporates and reduces the remaining liquid to the temperature Ti. This is cooled, and whatever cooling effect is produced is brought about shown by the curve AB, and is the useless work represented by the by the superheating of the vapour, the result being that above expression (32— ?i)/r. v Evaporation then continues at the constant the critical point of carbonic acid the difference T2— T2 is in- temperature T, abstracting heat from the substance outside the creased and the efficiency of the machine is reduced. The critical temperature of anhydrous ammonia is about 266° F., which is •refrigerator as shoyn by the line BC. The vapour is then compressed along the line CD to the temperature T2, when, by the action of the never approached in the ordinary working of refrigerating machines. cooling water in the condenser, heat is abstracted at constant Some of the principal physical properties of sulphurous acid, anhydrous ammonia, and carbonic acid are given in Tables III., temperature and the vapour condensed along the line DA. In a compression machine the refrigerator is usually a series of IV. and V. iron or steel coils surrounded by the air, brine or other substance it REFRIGERATING 33 is desired to cool. One end (generally the bottom) of the coils is connected to the liquid pipe from the condenser and the other end to the suction of the compressor. Liquid from the condenser is ad- mitted to the coils through an ad- justable regulating valve, and by taking heat from the substance out- side is evaporated, the vapour being continually drawn off by the com- pressorand discharged under increased pressure into the condenser. The condenser is constructed of coils like FIG. 3. — Action of Vapour Compression Machine. the refrigerator, the cooling water being contained in a tank; fre- quently, however, a series of open coils is employed, the cooling water falling over the coils into a collecting tray below, and this form is perhaps the most convenient for ordinary use as it affords great facilities for inspection and painting. The compressor may be driven by a steam engine or in any other convenient manner. The pressure in the condenser varies according to the temperature of the cooling water, and that in the refrigerator is dependent upon the temperature to which the outside substance is cooled. In an ammonia machine copper and copper alloys must be avoided, but for carbonic acid they are not objectionable. The compression of ammonia is sometimes carried out on what is known as the Linde or " wet " system, and sometimes on the " dry " system. When wet compression is used the regulating valve is opened to such an extent that a little more liquid is passed than can be evaporated in the refrigerator. This liquid enters the compressor with the vapour, and is evaporated there, the heat taken up preventing the rise in temperature during compression which would otherwise take place. The compressed vapour is dis- charged at a temperature but little above that of the cooling water. With dry compression, vapour alone is drawn into the compressor, and the temperature rises to as much as 180 or 200 degrees. Wet compression theoretically is not quite so efficient as dry compression, but it possesses practical advantages in keeping the working parts of the compressor cool, and it also greatly facilitates the regulation of the liquid, and ensures the full duty of the machine being continu- ously performed. Very exact comparative trials have been made by Professor M. Schroeter and others with compression machines using sulphur dioxide and ammonia. The results are published in Vergleichende Versuche an Kaltemaschinen, by Schroeter, Munich, 1890, and in Nos. 32 and 51 of Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatt, 1892. Some of the results obtained by Schroeter in 1893 with an ordinary brine cooling machine on the Linde ammonia system are given in Table VI. : — TABLE VI. Temperature reduction in refriger- 14 to 8-6 I.H. P. in steam cylinder .... IS'79 16-48 15-29 I4-2S 11*98 Pressure in refrigerator in pounds per sq. in. above atmosphere . . Pressure in condenser in pounds per sq. in. above atmosphere . Heat abstracted in refrigerator. B.T.U. per hour Heat rejected in condenser. B.T.U. per hour 45-2 116-0 342192 377567 32 '6 II 5 'o 263400 301200 IQ'8 iio-o 171515 214347 0'9 108-0 121218 158504 The principle of the absorption process is chemical or physical rather than mechanical; it depends on the fact that many Absorp- vapours of low boiling-point are readily absorbed in tion water, and can be separated again by the application machines. of heat. jn ;ts simplest form an absorption machine consists of two iron vessels connected together by a bent pipe. One of these contains a mixture of ammonia and water, which on the application of heat gives off a mixed vapour containing a large proportion of ammonia, a liquid containing but little ammonia being left behind. In the second vessel, which is placed in cold water, the vapour rich in ammonia is condensed under pressure. To produce refrigeration the operation is reversed. On allowing the weak liquor to cool to normal temperature, it becomes greedy of ammonia (at 60° F. at atmospheric pressure water will absorb about 760 times its own volume of ammonia vapour) , and this produces an evaporation from the liquid in the vessel previously used as a condenser. This liquid, containing a large proportion of ammonia, gives off vapour at a low temperature, and therefore becomes a refrigerator abstracting heat from water or any surrounding body. When the ammonia is evaporated the operation as described must be again commenced. Such an apparatus is not much used now. Larger and more elaborate machines were made by F. P. E. Carre in France; but no very high degree of perfection was XXIII. 2 arrived at, owing to the impossibility of getting an anhydrous product of distillation. In 1867 Rees Reece, taking advantage of the fact that two vapours of different boiling-points, when mixed, can be separated by means of fractional condensation, brought out an absorption machine in which the distillate was very nearly anhydrous. By means of vessels termed the analyser and the rectifier, the bulk of the water was condensed at a comparatively high temperature and run back to the generator, while the ammonia passed into a condenser, and there assumed the liquid form under the pressure produced by the heat in the generator and the cooling action of water circulating outside the condenser tubes. Fig. 4 is a diagram of an absorption apparatus. The ammonia vapour given off in the refrigerator is absorbed by a cold weak solution of ammonia and water in the absorber, and the strong liquor is pumped back into the generator <.•«.„•, r through an intorchanger through which also the weak hot liquor from the generator passes on its way to the absorber. In this way the strong liquor is heated before it enters the generator, and the weak liquor is cooled c«r,«r»i«r before it enters the absorber.8Utilr The generator being heated by means of a steam coil, ammonia vapour is driven off at such a pressure as to cause its condensation in the FIG. 4. condenser. From the con- denser it passes into the refrigerator through a regulating valve in the usual manner. The process is continuous, and is identical with that of the compression machine, with the exception of the return from the temperature T; to the temperature T2, which is brought about by the direct application of heat instead of by means of mechan- ical compression. With the same temperature range, however, the same amount of heat has to be acquired in both cases, though from the nature of the process the actual amount of heat demanded from the steam is much greater in the absorption system than in the compression. This is chiefly due to the fact that in the former the neat of vaporization acquired in the refrigerator is rejected in the absorber, so that the whole heat of vaporization has to be supplied again by the steam in the generator. In the latter the vapour passes direct from the refrigerator to the pump, and power has to be expended merely in raising the temperature to a sufficient degree to enable condensation to occur at the temperature of the cooling water. On the other hand, a great advantage is gained in the absorption machine by using the direct heat of the steam, without first converting it into mechanical work, for in this way its latent _heat of vaporization can be utilized by condensing the steam in the coils and letting it escape in the form of water. Each pound of steam can thus be made to give up some 950 units of heat; while in a good steam engine only about 200 units are utilized in the steam cylinder per pound of steam, and in addition allowance has to be made for mechanical inefficiency. In the absorption machine the cooling water has to take up about twice as much heat as in the compression system, owing to the ammonia being twice liquefied — namely, once in the absorber and cnce in the condenser. It is usual to pass the cooling water first through the condenser and then through the absorber. The absorption machine is not so economical as the compres- sion ; but an actual comparison between the two systems is difficult to make. Information on this head is given in papers read by Dr. Linde and by Professor J. A. Ewing before the Society of Arts (Journal of the Society of Arts, vol. xlu., 1894, p. 322, and Howard Lectures, January, February and March 1897). An absorption apparatus as_ applied to the cooling of liquids consists of a generator containing coils to which steam is supplied at suitable pressure, an analyser, a rectifier, a condenser either of the submerged or open type, a refrigerator in which the nearly anhydrous ammonia obtained in the condenser is allowed to eva- porate, an absorber through which the weak liquor from the gener- ator continually flows and absorbs the anhydrous vapour produced in the refrigerator, and a pump for forcing the strong liquor produced in the absorber back through an economizer into the analyser where, meeting with steam from the generator, the ammonia gas is again driven off, the process being uius carried on continuously. Sometimes an additional vessel is employed for heating liquor by means of the exhaust steam from the engine driving the ammonia pump. Absorption machines are also made without a pump for returning the strong liquor to the generator. In these cases they work intermittently. In some machines the same vessel is used alternately as a generator and absorber, while in others, in order 34 REFRIGERATING to minimize the loss of time, two vessels are provided which can be used alternately as generators and absorbers. Applications. — Apart from the economical working of the machine itself, whatever system may be adopted, it is of importance that cold once produced should not be wasted, and it is therefore necessary to use some form of insulation to protect the vessels in which liquids are being cooled, or the rooms of ships' holds in which the freezing or storage processes are being carried on. This insulation generally consists of materials such as charcoal, silicate cotton, granulated cork, small pumice, hair-felt, sawdust, &c., held between layers of wood or brick, and forming a more or less heat-tight box. There is no recognized standard of insulation. For a cold store to be erected inside a brick or stone building, and to be maintained at an internal temperature of from 18° to, 20° F., a usual plan is snown in fig. 5. The same insulation is used for the floors and FIG. 5. — Insulation of a Cold Store. ceilings, except that the wearing surface of the floor is generally made thicker than the inside lining of the sides. Should the walls or floor be damp, waterproof paper is added. Granulated cork has practically the same insulating properties as silicate cotton, and the same thicknesses may be used. About 10 in. of flake charcoal and vegetable silica, or n of small pumice, are required to give the same protection as 7 in. of good silicate cotton. Cork bricks made of compressed granulated cork are frequently used, a thickness of about 5 in. giving the same protection as 7 in. of silicate cotton. The walls and ceilings are finished off with a smooth coating of hard cement and the floors are protected by cement or asphalt, according to the nature of the traffic on them. For lager-beer cellars and fermenting rooms, for bacon-curing cellars, and for similar purposes, brick walls with single or double air spaces are used, and sometimes a space filled with silicate cotton or other in- sulating material. In Australia and New Zealand pumice, jvhich is found in enormous quantities in the latter country, takes the place of charcoal and silicate cotton. In Canada air spaces are largely used either alone or in combination with silicate cotton or planer shavings. The air spaces, two or three in number, are formed between two layers of tongued and grooved wood, and the total thickness of the insulation is about the same as when silicate cotton alone is used. On board ship charcoal has been almost entirely employed, but silicate cotton and granulated cork are sometimes used. The material is either placed directly up to the skin of the vessel, and kept in place by a double lining of wood inside, in which case a thickness of about 10 in. is used depending upon the depth of the frames, or it is placed between two layers of wood, with an air space next the skin, in which case about 6 in. of flake charcoal is generally sufficient for the insulation of the holds, though for deck-houses and other parts exposed to the sun the thickness must be greater. A layer of sheet zinc or tin has frequently to be used as pro- tection from rats. Given a certain allowable heat transmission, the principal points to be considered in connexion with insulation are, first cost, durability, weight and space occupied, the two last named being specially important factors on board ship. No exact rules can be laid down, as the conditions vary so greatly; and though experiments have been made to determine the actual heat conduction of various materials per unit of surface, thickness and temperature difference, the experience of actual practice is at present the only accepted guide. With compressed-air machines which discharge the cold air direct into the insulated room or hold, a snow box is provided close to the outlet of the expansion cylinder to catch the snow and congealed oil. The air is distributed by means of wood air trunks with openings controlled bv slides, and similar trunks are pro- vided in connexion with the suction of the compressor to conduct the air back to the machine. With liquid machines of the compres- sion and absorption system, the rooms are either cooled by means of cold pipes or surfaces placed in them, or by a circulation of air cooled in an apparatus separated from the rooms. The cold pipes may be direct-expansion pipes in which the liquid evaporates, or they may be pipes or walls through which circulates an un- congealable brine previously copied to the desired temperature. The pipes are placed on the ceilings or sides according to circum- stances, but they must be arranged so as to induce a circulation of air throughout the compartment and ensure every part being cooled. With what is termed the air circulation system the air is generally circulated by means of a fan, being drawn from the rooms through ducts, passed over a cooler, and returned again to the rooms by other ducts. In some coolers the cooling surfaces consist of direct-expansion pipes placed in clusters of convenient form ; in others brine pipes are used ; in others there is a shower of cold brine, and in some cases combinations of cold pipes and brine showers. Whether pipes in the rooms or air circulation give the best results is to some extent a matter of opinion, but at the present time the tendencyis decidedly in favour of air circulation, at any rate for general cold storage purposes. Whichever system be adopted, it is important for economical reasons that ample cooling surface be allowed, and that all surfaces be kept clean and active, to make the difference between the temperature of the evaporating liquid and the rooms as small as possible. Small surfaces reduce first cost, but involve higher working expenses by decreasing the value of Tj/(Tj— TI), and thus demanding more energy, and consequently more fuel, to effect the given result than if larger surfaces were employed. The general arrangement of an ice factory for producing can ice is shown in fig. 6. The water to be frozen is contained in galvanized a. j T^ . FIG. 6. — General Arrangement of an Ice Factory. or terned steel moulds suspended in a tank filled to the proper level with brine maintained at the desired temperature. The moulds are frequently arranged in frames, so that by means of an overhead crane one complete row is lifted at a time. When the water is frozen the moulds are dipped in a tank containing warm water, and on being tipped the blocks of ice fall out. Ordinary water contains air, and ice made from it is generally opaque, due to the inclusion of numerous small air-bubbles. To produce clear ice the water must be agitated during the freezing process, or previously boiled to get rid of the air. Distilled water is frequently used, as well as^the water produced by the condensation of the steam from the engine, which of course must be thoroughly purified and filtered. It should be noted, however, that with an ice- making plant of moderate size and a steam-engine of good con- struction the weight of steam used will not nearly equal the weight of ice produced, so that the difference must be made up either by distillation, which is a costly process, or by ordinary water. Can ice is usually made in blocks weighing 56, 1 12 of 224 ft, and from 4 to 8 in. thick. For cell ice ordinary water is used, agitated REGAL 35 during freezing. The cells are flat and constructed of galvanized iron, so as to form a hollow space of about 2 in. in width, through which cold brine is circulated by a pump. They are placed vertically in a tank, the distance between them being from 8 to 14 in., according to the thickness of the ice to be produced. The tank is filled with water, which is kept in agitation by means of a reciprocating paddle or piston; in this way the air escapes, and with proper care a block of great transparency is produced. To thaw it off, warm brine is circulated through the cells. A usual size for cell ice is 4 ft. by 3 ft. by i ft. mean thickness, the weight being about 6 cwt. If perfectly transparent ice is required, the two sides of the block are not allowed to join up, and it is then called plate ice, which is often made in very large blocks, afterwards divided by saws or steam cutters. In such cases the evaporation of the ammonia or other refrigerating liquid frequently takes place in the cells themselves, brine being dispensed with. With a well- constructed can ice-plant of say 25 tons capacity per day, from 15 to 16 tons of ice should be made in Great Britain to a ton of best steam coal. For cell and plate ice the production is considerably below this, and the first cost of the plant is much greater than that for can ice. Fig. 7 shows an arrangement of cold storage on land, refrigerated on the air circulation system. The insulated rooms, on two floors, FIG. 7.— Cold Stores. are approached by corridors, so as to exclude external air, which if allowed to enter would deposit moisture upon the cold goods. The air cooler is placed at the end, and the air is distributed by means of wood ducts furnished with slides for regulating the temperature of the rooms, which are insulated according to the method shown in fig. 5. In some cases, instead of the entrance being at the sides or ends, it is at the top, all goods being raised to the top floor in lifts and lowered by lifts into the rooms. With good machinery the cost of raising is not great, and is probably equalled by the saving in refrigeration, since the rooms hold the heavy cold air as a glass holds water. Large passenger vessels and yachts are now generally Ptted with refrigerating machinery for preserving provisions, cooling water and wine, and making ice. Usually two insulated compartments are provided, one for frozen meats at about 20° F., and one for vegetables, &c., at about 40°. They have a capacity of from 1500 to 3000 cub. ft. or more, according to the number of passen- gers carried, and they are generally cooled by means of brine pipes, though direct expansion and air circulation are sometimes adopted. A passenger vessel requires from 2 to 4 cwt. of ice per day. On battleships and cruisers the British Admiralty use small compressed- air machines for ice-making, and larger machines, generally on the carbonic-acid system, for cooling the magazines. A modern frozen- meat-carrying vessel will accommodate as much as 120,000 carcases, partly sheep and partly lambs, requiring a hold capacity of about 300,000 cub. ft. In some vessels both fore and aft holds and 'tween decks are insulated. Lloyd's Committee now issue certificates for refrigerating installations, if constructed according to their rules, and most modern cargo-carrying vessels have their refrigerating machinery classed at Lloyd's. In the meat trade between the River Plate, the United States, Canada and Great Britain, ammonia or carbonic acid machines are now exclusively used, but for the Australian and New Zealand frozen- meat trade compressed-air machines are still employed to a small extent. The holds of meat-carrying vessels are refrigerated eit/ier by cold air circulation or by brine pipes. Though the adoption of refrigerating and ice-making machinery for industrial purposes practically dates from the year 1880, the manufacture of these machines has already assumed very great proportions; indeed, in no branch of mechanical engineering, with the exception of electrical machinery, has there been so re- markable a development in recent years. The sphere of application is extending year by year. The cooling of residential and public buildings in hot countries, though attempted in a few cases in the United States and elsewhere, is yet practically untouched, the manufacture of ice and the preservation of perishable foods (apart from the frozen and chilled meat trades) have in many countries hardly received serious consideration, but in breweries, dairies, margarine works and many other industries there is a large and increasing field for refrigerating and ice-making machinery. A recent application is in the cooling and drying 01 the air blast for blast furnaces. Though this matter had been discussed for some years, it was only in 1904 that the first plant was put to work at Pittsburg. For further information reference may be made to the following: Siebel, Compend. of Mechanical Refrigeration (Chicago); Red- wood, Theoretical and Practical Ammonia Refrigeration (New York) ; Stephansky, Practical Running of an Ice and Refriger- ating Plant (Boston) ; Lcdoux, Ice-Making Machines (New York) ; Wallis-Taylor, Refrigerating and Ice-Making- Machines (London) ; Ritchie Leask, Refrigerating Machinery (London) ; De Volson Wood, Thermodynamics, Heat Motors and Refrigerating Machinery (New York); Linde, Kalteerzeugungsmaschine Lexikon der gesamten Technik; Behrend, Eis und Kdlteerzeugungs- Maschinen (Halle); De Marchena, Kompressions Kdltemaschinen (Halle) ; Theodore Roller, Die Kalteindustrie (Vienna) ; Voorhees, Indicating the Refrigerating Machine (Chicago) ; Norman Selfe, Machinery for Refrigeration (Chicago) ; Hans Lorenz, Modern Re- frigerating Machinery (London); Lehnert, Moderne Kaltetechnik (Leipzig) ; L. _ Marchis, Production et utilisation du froid (Paris); C. Heinel, Bau und Betrieb von Kdltemaschinen Anlagen (Oldenburg); R. Stetefeld, Eis und Kdlteerzeugungs-Maschinen (Stuttgart). (T. B. L.) REGAL, a small late-medieval portable organ, furnished with beating-reeds and having two bellows like a positive organ; also in Germany the name given to the reed-stops (beating-reeds) of a large organ, and more especially the " vox humana " stop. The name was not at first applied to the small table instrument, but to certain small brass pipes in the organ, sounded by means of beating-reeds, the longest of the 8-ft. tone being but sJ in. long. Praetorius (1618) mentions a larger regal used in the court orchestras of some of the German princes, more like a positive, containing 4-ft., 8-ft. and even sometimes i6-ft. tone reeds, and having behind the case two bellows. These regals were used not only at banquets but often to replace positives in small and large churches. The very small regal, sometimes called Bible-regal, because -it can be taken to pieces and folded up like a book, is also mentioned by the same writer, who states that these little instruments, first made in Nuremberg and Augsburg, have an unpleasantly harsh tone, due to their tiny pipes, not quite an inch long. The pipes in this case were not intended to reinforce the vibrations of the beating-reed or of its overtones as in the reed pipes of the organ, but merely to form an attachment for keeping the reed in its place without inter- fering with its functions. The beating-reed itself in the older organs of the early middle ages, many of which undoubtedly were reed organs, was made of wood; those of the regal were mostly of brass (hence their " brazen voices "). The length of the vibrating portion of the beating-reed governed the pitch of the pipe and was regulated by means of a wire passing through the socket, the other end pressing on the reed at the proper distance. Drawings of the reeds of regals and other reed-pipes, as well as of the instrument itself, are given by Praetorius (pi. iv., xxxviii.). There is evidence to show that in England, and France also, the word " regal " was applied to reed-stops on the organ; Mersenne (1636) states that " now the word is applied to the vox humana stop on the organ." In England, as late as the reign of George III., there was the appointment of " tuner of the regals " to the Chapel Royal. The reed-stops required constant tuning, according to Prae- torius, who lays special emphasis on the fact that the pitch of the reed-pipes alone falls in summer and rises in winter. During the i6th and 17th centuries the regal was a very great favourite, and although, owing to the civil wars and the ravages REGALIA— REGENERATION OF LOST PARTS of time, very few specimens now remain, the regals are often men- tioned in old wills and inventories, such as the list of Henry VIII. 's musical instruments made after his death by Sir Philip Wilder (Brit. Mus. Harleian MS. 1415, fol. 200 seq.), in which no fewer than thirteen pairs of single and five pairs of double regals are mentioned. Monteverde scored for the regals in his operas, and the instrument is described and figured by S. Virdung in 1511, Martin Agricola in 1528, and Ottmar Luscinius in 1536, as well as by Michael Praetorius in 1618. (K. S.) REQALIA (Lat. regalis, royal, from rex, king), the ensigns of royalty. The crown (see CROWN and CORONET) and sceptre (see SCEPTRE) are dealt with separately. Other ancient symbols of royal authority are bracelets, the sword, a robe or mantle, and, in Christian times, a ring. Bracelets, as royal emblems, are mentioned in the Bible in connexion with Saul (2 Sam. i. 10), and they have been commonly used by Eastern monarchs. In Europe their later use seems to have been fitfully confined to England, although they were a very ancient ornament for kings among the Teutonic races. Two coronation bracelets are mentioned among the articles of the regalia ordered to be destroyed at the time of the Commonwealth, and two new ones were made at the Restoration. These are of gold, i| in. in width, and ornamented with the rose, thistle, harp and fleur-de-lis in enamel round them. They have not been used for modern coronations. The sword is one of the usual regalia of most countries, and is girded on to the sovereign during the coronation. In England the one sword has been developed into five. The Sword of State is borne before the sovereign on certain state occasions, and at the coronation is exchanged for a smaller sword, with which the king is ceremonially girded. The three other swords of the regalia are the " Curtana," the Sword of Justice to the Spirituality, and the Sword of Justice to the Temporality. The Curtana has a blade cut off short and square, indicating thereby the quality of mercy. The mantle, as a symbol of royalty, is almost universal, but in the middle ages other quasi-priestly robes were added to it (see CORONATION). The English mantle was formerly made of silk; latterly cloth of gold has been used. The ring, by which the sovereign is wedded to his kingdom, is not of so wide a range of usage. That of the English kings held a large ruby with a cross engraved on it. Recently a sapphire has been substituted for the ruby. Golden spurs, though included among the regalia, are merely used to touch the king's feet, and are not worn. The orb and cross was not anciently placed in the king's hands during the coronation ceremony, but was carried by him in the left hand on leaving the church. It is emblematical of monarchical rule, and is only used by a reigning sovereign. The idea is undoubtedly derived from the globe with the figure of Victory with which the Roman emperors are depicted. The larger orb of the English regalia is a magnificent ball of gold, 6 in. in diameter, with a band round the centre edged with gems and pearls. A similar band arches the globe, on the top of which is a remarkably fine amethyst i| in. in height, upon which rests the cross of gold outlined with diamonds. There is a smaller orb made for Mary II., who reigned jointly with King William III. The English regalia, with one or two exceptions, were made for the coronation of Charles II. by Sir Robert Vyner. The Scottish regalia preserved at Edinburgh comprise the crown, dating, in part, from Robert the Bruce, the sword of state given to James IV. by Pope Julius II., and two sceptres. Besides regalia proper, certain other articles are sometimes included under the name, such as the ampulla for the holy oil, and the coronation spoon. The ampulla is of solid gold in the form of an eagle with outspread wings. It weighs 10 oz., and holds 6 oz. of oil. The spoon was not originally used for its present purpose. It is of the I2th or I3th century, with a long handle and egg- shaped bowl. Its history is quite unknown. See Cyril Davenport, The English Regalia, with illustrations in colour of all the regalia; Leopold Wickham Legg, English Corona- tion Records; The Ancestor, Nos. I and 2 (1902); Menin, The Form, &c., of Coronations (translated from French, 1727). REGENERATION OF LOST PARTS. A loss and renewal of living material, either continual or periodical, is a familiar occurrence in the tissues of higher animals. The surface of the human skin, the inner lining of the mouth and respiratory organs, the blood corpuscles, the ends of the nails, and many other portions of tissues are continuously being destroyed and replaced. The hair of many mammals, the feathers of birds, the epidermis of reptiles, and the antlers of stags are shed and replaced periodically. In these normal cases the regeneration depends on the existence of special formative layers or groups of cells, and must be regarded in each case as a special adapta- tion, with individual limitations and peculiarities, rather than as a mere exhibition of the fundamental power of growth and reproduction displayed by living substance. Many tissues, even in the highest animals, are capable of replacing an ab- normal loss of substance. Thus in mammals, portions of muscular tissue, of epithelium, of bone, and of nerve, after accidental destruction or removal, may be renewed. The characteristic feature of such cases appears to be, in the higher animals at any rate, that lost cells are replaced only from cells of the same morphological order — epiblastic cells from the epiblast, mesoblastic from the mesoblast, and so forth. It is also becoming clear that, at least in the higher animals, regenera- tion is in intimate relation with the central nervous system. The process is in direct relation to the general power of growth and reproduction possessed by protoplasm, and is regarded by pathologists as the consequence of " removal of resistances to growth." It is much less common in the tissues of higher plants, in which the adult cells have usually lost the power of reproduction, and in which the regeneration of lost parts is replaced by a very extended capacity for budding. Still, more complicated reproductions of lost parts occur in many cases, and are more difficult to understand. In Amphibia the entire epidermis, together with the slime-glands and the integumentary sense-organs, is regenerated by the epidermic cells in the vicinity of the defect. The whole limb of a Salamander or a Triton will grow again and again after amputation. Similar renewal is either rarer or more difficult in the case of Siren and Pro- teus. In frogs regeneration of amputated limbs does not usually take place, but instances have been recorded. Chelonians, croco- diles and snakes are unable to regenerate lost parts to any extent, while lizards and geckoes possess the capacity in a high degree. The capacity is absent almost completely in birds and mammals. In coelenterates, worms, and tunicates the power is exhibited in a very varying extent. In Hydra, Nais, and Lumbriculus, after transverse section, each part may complete the whole animal. In most worms the greater, and in particular the anterior part, will grow a new posterior part, but the separated posterior portion dies. In Hydra, sagittal and horizontal amputations result in the completion of the separated parts. In worms such operations result in death, which no doubt may be a mere consequence of the more severe wound. Extremely interesting instances of regenera- tion are what are called " Heteromorphoses," where the removed part is replaced by a dissimilar structure. The tail of a lizard, grown after amputation, differs in structure from the normal tail: the spinal cord is replaced by an epithelial tube which gives off no nerves; the vertebrae are replaced by an unsegmented carti- laginous tube; very frequently " super-regeneration " occurs, the amputated limb or tail being replaced by double or multiple new structures. J. Loeb produced many heteromorphoses on lower animals. He lopped off the polyp head and the pedal disc of a Tubularia, and supported the lopped stem in an inverted position in the sand ; the original pedal end, now superior, gave rise to a new po'VP head, while the neck-end, on regeneration, formed a pedal disc. _In Cerianthus, a sea-anemone, and in done, an ascidian, regeneration after his operations resulted in the formation of new mouth-openings in abnormal places, surrounded by elaborate structures character- istic of normal mouths. Other observers have recorded hetero- morphoses in Crustacea, where antennulae have been regenerated in place of eyes. It appears that, in the same fashion as more simply organized animals display a capacity for reproduction of lost parts greater than that of higher animals, so embryos and embryonic structures generally have a higher power of renewal than that displayed by the corresponding adult organs or organisms. Moreover, experimental work on the young stages of organisms has revealed a very striking series of phenomena, similar to the hetero- morphoses in adult tissues, but more extended in range. H. Driesch, O. Hertwig and others, by separating the segmentation spheres, by destroying some of them, by compressing young embryos by glass plates, and by many olher means, have caused cells to develop REGALIA PLATE I I. — ST EDWARD'S CROWN. The ancient crown was destroyed at the •Commonwealth, and a model made for Charles II's coronation. z.— THE IMPERIAL STATE CROWN, as worn by Queen Victoria. The Black Prince's ruby is in the centre. Modifications in the cap were made for the coronation of King Edward VII. and the smaller "Cullinan" diamond substituted for the sapphire below the ruby. 3-— QUEEN ALEXANDRA'S CORONATION CROWN, with the Koh-i-Noor in centre. 4.— THE CORONET OF THE PRINCE OF WALES. The illustrations on these plates are, except where otherwise stated, repro- duced by permission from the unique collection of photographs in the pos- session of SIR BENJAMM STONE, formerly M. P. for East Birmingham. XXIII. 36. 5.— THE LARGER OR KING'S ORB. 6.— THE LESSER OR QUEEN'S ORB. PLATE II. REGALIA 2.— THE CORONATION SPOON. a b c d e i.— THE SCEPTRES: (a) The Sceptre with the Dove; (V) The Royal Sceptre with the Cross (c/.Fig. 3); (c) The Queen's Sceptre with the Cross; (d) The Queen's Ivory Rod; (e) The Queen's Sceptre with the Dove. 4.— THE SWORDS: (a) The Spiritual Sword of Justice; (i) The Sword of State; (c) The Temporal Sword of Justice. Photo, W. E. Gray. 3.— THE HEAD OF THE ROYAL SCEPTRE with the largest of the "Star of Africa" (Cullinan) Diamonds. pkola, W. E. Gray. 5.— THE BRACELETS. 6.— THE AMPULLA. ^— THE ST. GEORGE'S SPURS. REGALIA PLATE HI. i.— THE SILVER-GILT CHRISTENING FONT, made for Charles II. 2 — QUEEN ELIZABETH'S SALT-CELLAR. 3.— SILVER-GILT ALTAR DISH, used at Christmas and Easter in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula, Tower of London. 4.— THE GOLD SALT-CELLAR presented to tne Crown by the City of Exeter. PLATE IV. REGALIA I t; !-d < f-t w 5 REGENSBURG— REGENT 37 so as to give rise to structures which in normal development they would not have formed. It is clear that there are at least three kinds of factors in- volved in regeneration. There are: (i) Regenerations due to the presence of undifferentiated, or little differentiated, cells, which have retained the normal capacity of multiplication when conditions are favourable. (2) Regenerations due to the presence of special complicated rudiments, the stimulus to the development of which is the removal of the fully formed structure. (3) Regeneration involving the general capacity of protoplasm to respond to changes in the surroundings by changes of growth. The most general view is to regard re- generations as special adaptations; and A. Weismann, following in this matter Arnold Lang, has developed the idea at con- siderable length, and has found a place for regenerations in his system of the germ-plasm (see HEREDITY) by the conception of the existence of " accessory determinants." Hertwig, on the other hand, attaches great importance to the facts of regeneration as evidence for his view that every cell of a body contains a similar essential plasm. In E. Schwalbe's Morphologic der Minbildungen (1904), part i. chap, v., an attempt is made to associate the facts of regeneration with those of embryology and pathology. Our knowledge of the facts, however, is not yet systematic enough to allow of important general conclusions. The power of regeneration appears to be in some cases a special adaptation, but more often simply an expression of the general power of protoplasm to grow and to reproduce its kind. It has been suggested that regenerated parts always repre- sent ancestral stages, but there is no conclusive evidence for this view. (P. C. M.) REGENSBURG (RATISBON), a city and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, and the capital of the government district of the Upper Palatinate. Pop. (1905) 48,41 2. It is situated on the right bank of the Danube, opposite the influx of the Regen, 86 m. by rail N.E. from Munich, and 60 m. S.E. of Nuremberg. On the other side of the river is the suburb Stadt-am-Hof, connected with Regensburg by a long stone bridge of the I2th century, above and below which -are the islands of Oberer and Unterer Worth. In appearance the town is quaint and romantic, presenting almost as faithful a picture of a town of the early middle ages as Nuremberg does of the later. One of the most characteristic features in its architecture is the number of strong loopholed towers attached to the more ancient dwellings. The interesting " street of the envoys " (Gesandtenstrasse) is so called because it contained the residences of most of the envoys to the German diet, whose coats-of-arms may still be seen on many of the houses. The cathedral, though small, is a very interesting example of pure German Gothic. It was founded in 1275, and completed in 1634, with the exception of the towers, which were finished in 1869. The interior con tains numerous interesting monuments, including one of Peter Vischer's masterpieces. Adjoining the cloisters are two chapels of earlier date than the cathedral itself, one of which, known as the "old cathedral," goes back perhaps to the 8th century. The church of St James — also called Schottenkirche — a plain Romanesque basilica of the 1 2th century, derives its name from the monastery of Irish Benedictines (" Scoti ") to which it was attached; the principal doorway is covered with very singular grotesque carvings. The old parish church of St Ulrich is a good example of the Transition style of the i3th century, and contains a valu- able antiquarian collection. Examples of the Romanesque basilica style are the church of Obermunster, dating from 1010, and the abbey church of St Emmeran, built in the I3th century, and remarkable as one of the few German churches with a detached belfry. The beautiful cloisters of the ancient abbey, one of the oldest in Germany, are still in fair preservation. In 1809 the conventual buildings were converted into a palace for the prince of Thurn and Taxis, hereditary postmaster-general of the Holy Roman Empire. The town hall, dating in part from the I4th century, contains the rooms occupied by the imperial diet from 1663 to 1806. An historical interest also attaches to the Gasthof zum Goldenen Kreuz (Golden Cross Inn), where Charles V. made the acquaintance of Barbara Blomberg, the mother of Don John of Austria (b. 1547). The house is also shown where Kepler died in 1630. Perhaps the most pleasing modern building in the city is the Gothic villa of the king of Bavaria on the bank of the Danube. At Kumpfmuhl, in the immediate neighbourhood of the city, was discovered, in 1885, the remains of a Roman camp with an arched gateway; the latter, known as the Porta Praetoria, was cleared in 1887. Among the public institutions of the city should be mentioned the public library, picture gallery, botanical garden, and the institute for the making of stained glass. The educational establishments include two gymnasia, an episcopal clerical seminary, a seminary for boys and a school of church music. Among the chief manufactures are iron and steel wares, pottery, parquet flooring, tobacco, and lead pencils. Boat-building is also prosecuted, and a brisk transit trade is carried on in salt, grain and timber. Near Regensburg are two very handsome classical buildings, erected by Louis I. of Bavaria as national monuments of German patriotism and greatness. The more imposing of the two is the Walhalla, a costly reproduction of the Parthenon, erected as a Teutonic temple of fame on a hill rising from the Danube at Donau- stauf, 6 m. to the east. The interior, which is as rich as coloured marbles, gilding, and sculptures can make it, contains the busts of more than a hundred German worthies. The second of King Louis's buildings is the Befreiungshalle at Kelheim, 14 m. above Regensburg, a large circular building which has for its aim the glorification of the neroes of the war of liberation in 1813. The early Celtic settleipent of Radespona (L. 'Lat. Ralisbona) was chosen by the Romans, who named it Castra Regina, as the centre of their power on the upper Danube. It is mentioned as a trade centre as early as the 2nd century. It afterwards became the seat of the dukes of Bavaria, and one of the main bulwarks of the East Frankish monarchy; and it was also the focus from which Christianity spread over southern Germany. St Emmeran founded an abbey here in the middle of the 7th century, and St Boniface established the bishopric about a hundred years later. Regensburg acquired the freedom of the empire in the I3th century, and was for a time the most flourishing city in southern Germany. It became the chief seat of the trade with India and the Levant, and the boat- men of Regensburg are frequently heard of as expediting the journeys of the Crusaders. The city was loyally Ghibelline in its sympathies, and was a favourite residence of the emperors. Numerous diets were held here from time to time, and after 1663 it became the regular place of meeting of the German diet. The Reformation found only temporary acceptance at Regensburg, and was met by a counter-reformation inspired by the Jesuits. Before this period the city had almost wholly lost its commercial importance owing to the changes in the great highways of trade. Regensburg had its due share in the Thirty Years' and other wars, and is said to have suffered in all no fewer than seventeen sieges. In 1807 the town and Wfehopric were assigned to the prince primate Dalberg, and in 1810 they were ceded to Bavaria. After the battle of Eggmiihl in 1809 the Austrians retired upon Regensburg, and the pursuing French defeated them again beneath its walls and reduced a great part of the city to ashes. See Gemeiner, Chronik der Sladt und des Hochsiifts Regensburg (4 vols., Regensburg, 1800-24) ; Chroniken der deutschen Stadte,vo\. xv. (Leipzig, 1878) ; Count v.Waldersdorf, Regensburg in i einer Vergangen- heit und Gegenwart (4th ed., Regensburg, 1896) ; Fink, Regensburg in seiner Vorzeit und Gegenwart (6th ed., Regensburg, 1903) ; and Schratz, Fiihrer durch Regensburg (sth ed., G. Dengler, Regensburg, 1904). REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule), one who rules or governs, especially one who acts temporarily as an administrator of the realm during the minority or incapacity of the king. This latter function, however, is one unknown to the English common law. " In judgment of law the king, as king, cannot be said to be a minor, for when the royal body politic of the king doth meet with the natural capacity in one person the whole body shall have the quality of the royal politic, which is the greater and more worthy and wherein is no minority. For omne majus continet inseminus " (Coke upon Littleton, 433). Butforreasons of necessity a regency, however anomalous it may be in strict law, has frequently been constituted both in England and Scotland. The earliest instance in English history is the appointment of the earl of Pembroke with the assent of the loyal barons on the accession of Henry III. Whether or not the sanction of parliament is necessary for the appointment is a question which has been much discussed. Lord Coke recommends that the office should depend on the will of 38 REGGIO CALABRIA— REGICIDE parliament (Inst., vol. iv. p. 58), and in modern times provision for a regency has always been made by act of parliament. In Scotland the appointment of regents was always either by the assent of a council or of parliament. Thus in 1315 the earl of Moray was ap- pointed regent by Robert I. in a council. At a later period appoint- ment by statute was the universal form. Thus by an act of 1542 the earl of Arran was declared regent during the minority of Mary. By an act of 1567 the appointment by Mary of the earl of Moray as regent was confirmed. As late as 1704 provision was made for a regency after the death of Anne. The earliest regency in England resting upon an express statute was that created by 28 Hen. VIII. c. 7, under which the king appointed his executors to exercise the authority of the crown till the successor to the crown should attain the age of eighteen if a male or sixteen if a female. They delegated their rights to the protector Somerset, with the assent of the lords spiritual and temporal. No other example of a statutory provision for a regency occurs till 1751. In that year the act of 24 Geo. II. c. 24 constituted the princess-dowager of Wales regent of the kingdom in case the crown should descend to any of her children before such child attained the age of eighteen. A council, called the council of regency, was appointed to assist the princess. A prescribed oath was to be taken by the regent and members of the council. Their consent was necessary for the marriage of a successor to the crown during minority. It was declared to be unlawful for the regent to make war or peace, or ratify any treaty with any foreign power, or prorogue, adjourn or dissolve any parliament without the consent of the majority of the council of regency, or give her assent to any bill for repealing or varying the Act of Settlement, the Act of Uniformity, or the Act of the Scottish parliament for securing the Protestant religion and Presbyterian church government in Scotland (1707, c. 6). The last is an invariable provision, and occurs in all subsequent Regency Acts. The reign of George III. affords examples of pro- vision for a regency during both the infancy and incapacity of a king. The act of 5 Geo. III. c. 27 vested in the king power to ap- point a regent under the sign manual, such regent to be one of certain named members of the royal family. The remaining pro- visions closely followed those of the act of George II. In 1788 the insanity of the king led to the introduction of a Regency bill. In the course of the debate in the House of Lords the duke of York disclaimed on behalf of the prince of Wales any right to assume the regency without the consent of parliament. Owing to the king's recovery the bill ultimately dropped. On a return of the malady in 1810 the act of 51 Geo. III. c. I was passed, appointing the prince of Wales regent during the king's incapacity. The royal assent was given by commission authorized by resolution of both Houses. By this act no council of regency was appointed. There was no restriction on the regent's authority over treaties, peace and war, or parliament, as in the previous acts, but his power of granting peerages, offices and pensions was limited. At the accession of William IV. the duchess of Kent was, by I Will. IV. c. 2, appointed regent, if necessary, until the Princess Victoria should attain the age of eighteen. No council of regency was appointed. By I Viet, c. 72 lords justices were nominated as a kind of regency council without a regent in case the successor to the crown should be out of the realm at the queen's death. They were restricted from granting peerages, and from dissolving parliament without direc- tions from the successor. By 3 & 4 Viet. c. 52 Prince Albert was appointed regent in case any of Queen Victoria's children should succeed to the crown under the age of eighteen. The only restraint on his authority was the usual prohibition to assent to any bill repealing the Act of Settlement, &c. When George V. came to the throne a Regency Bill was again required, as his eldest son was under age, and Queen Mary was appointed. By 10 Geo. IV. c. 7 the office of regent of the United Kingdom cannot be held by a Roman Catholic. A similar disability is imposed in most, if not all, Regency Acts. REGGIO CALABRIA (anc. Regium, q.v.), a town and archi- episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, capital of the province of Reggio, on the Strait of Messina, 248 in. S.S.E. from Naples by rail. Pop. (1906) 39,041 (town); 48,362 (commune). It is the terminus of the railways from Naples along the west coast, and from Metaponto along the east coast of Calabria. The straits are here about 7 m. wide, and the distance to Messina nearly 10 m. The ferryboats to Messina therefore cross by preference from Villa S. Giovanni, 8 m. N. of Reggio, whence the distance is only 5 m. In 1894 the town suffered from an earthquake, though less severely, than in 1783. It was totally destroyed, however, by the great earthquake of December 1908; in the centre of the town about 35,000 out of 40,000 persons perished. The cathedral, which dated from the I7th century, and the ancient castle which rose above it, were wrecked. Great damage was done by a seismic wave following the shock. The sea front was swept away, and the level of the land here- abouts was lowered. (See further MESSINA.) REGGIO NELL' EMILIA, a city and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, the capital of the province of Reggio nelT Emilia (till 1859 part of the duchy of Modena), 38 m. by rail N.W. of Bologna. Pop. (1906) 19,681 (town); 64,548 (commune). The cathe- dral, originally erected in the i2th century, was reconstructed in the 15th and i6th; the facade shows traces of both periods, the Renaissance work being complete only in the lower portion. S. Prospero, close by, has a facade of 1504, in which are incor- porated six marble lions belonging to the original Romanesque edifice. The Madonna della Ghiara, built in 1597 in the form of a Greek cross, and restored in 1900, is beautifully proportioned and finely decorated in stucco and with frescoes of the Bolognese school of the early 1 7th century. There are several good palaces of the early Renaissance, a fine theatre (1857) and a museum containing important palaeo-ethnological collections, ancient and medieval sculptures, and the natural history collection of Spallanzani. Lodovico Ariosto, the poet (1474-1533), was born in Reggio, and his father's house is still preserved. The industries embrace the making of cheese, objects in cement, matches, and brushes, the production of silkworms, and printing; and the town is the centre of a rich agricultural district. It lies on the main line between Bologna and Milan, and is con- nected by branch lines with Guastalla and Sassuolo (hence a line to Modena). Regium Lepidi or Regium Lepidum was probably founded by M. Aemilius Lepidus at the time of the construction of the Via Aemilia (187 B.C.). It lay upon this road, half-way between Mutina and Parma. It was during the Roman period a nourishing munici- pium, but perhaps never became a colony; and it is associated with no event more interesting than the assassination of M. Brutus, the father of Caesar's friend and foe. The bishopric dates perhaps from the 4th century A.D. Under the Lombards the town was the seat of dukes and counts; in the I2th and I3th centuries it formed a flourishing republic, busied in surrounding itself with walls (1229), controlling the Crostolo and constructing navigable canals to the Po, coining money of its own, and establishing prosperous schools. About 1290 it first passed into the hands of Obizzo d'Este, and the authority of the Este family was after many vicissitudes more formally recognized in 1409. In the contest for liberty which began in 1796 and closed with annexation to Piedmont in 1859, Reggio took vigorous part. REGICIDE (Lat. rex, a king, and caedere, to kill), the name given to any one who kills a sovereign. Regicides is the name given in English history at the Restoration of 1660 to those persons who were responsible for the execution of Charles I. On the 4th of April 1660 Charles II. in the Declaration of Breda promised a free pardon to all his subjects " excepting only such persons as shall hereafter be excepted by parliament," and on the i4th of May the House of Commons ordered the immediate arrest of " all those persons who sat in judgment upon the late king's majesty when sentence was pronounced." The number of regicides was estimated at 84, this number being composed of the 67 present at the last sitting of the court of justice, ii others who had attended earlier sittings, 4 officers of the court and the 2 executioners. Many of them were arrested or surrendered themselves, and the House of Commons in con- sidering the proposed bill of indemnity suggested that only twelve of the regicides, who were named, should forfeit their lives; but the House of Lords urged that all the king's judges, with three exceptions, and some others, should be treated in this way. Eventually a compromise was agreed upon, and the bill as passed on the 2gth of August 1660 divided the regicides into six classes for punishment: (l) Four of them, although dead — Cromwell, Ireton, Bradshaw and Pride — were to be attainted for high treason. (2) The estates of twenty others, also dead, were to be subjected to fine or forfeiture. (3) Thirty living regicides were excepted from all indemnity. (4) Nineteen living regicides were also excepted, but with a saving clause that their execution was to be suspended until a special act of parliament was passed for this purpose. (5) Six others were to be punished, but not capitally. (6) Two, Colonels Hutchinson and Thomas Lister, were simply declared incapable of holding any office. Two regicides — Ingoldsby, who declared he had only signed the warrant under compulsion, and Colonel Matthew Thomlinson — escaped without punishment. A court of thirty-four commissioners was then appointed to try the regicides, and the trial took place in October 1660. Twenty-nine were condemned to death, but only ten were actually executed, the remaining nineteen REGILLUS— REGIOMONTANUS 39 with six others being imprisoned for life. The ten who were exe- cuted at Charing Cross or Tyburn, London, in October 1660, were Thomas Harrison, John Jones, Adrian Scrppc, John Carew, Thomas Scot, and Gregory Clement, who had signed the death-warrant; the preacher Hugh Peters; Francis Hacker and Daniel Axtel, who commanded the soldiers at the trial and the execution of the king; and John Cook, the solicitor who directed the prosecution. In January 1661 the bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw were exhumed and hanged at Tyburn, but Pride's does not appear to have been treated in this way. Of the nineteen or twenty regicides who had escaped and were living abroad, three, Sir John Barkstead, John Okcy and Miles Corbet, were arrested in Holland and executed in London in April 1662; and one, John Lisle, was murdered at Lausanne. The last survivor of the regicides was probably Edmund Ludlow, who died at Vevey in 1692. Ludlow's Memoirs, edited by C. H. Firth (Oxford, 1894), give interesting details about the regicides in exile. See also D. Masson, Life of Milton, vol. vi. (1880), and M. Noble, Lilies of the English Regicides (1798). (A. W. H.*) REGILLUS, an ancient lake of Latium, Italy, famous in the legendary history of Rome as the lake in the neighbourhood of which occurred (496 B.C.) the battle which finally decided the hegemony of Rome in Latium. During the battle, so runs the story, the dictator Postumius vowed a temple to Castor and Pollux, who were specially venerated in Tusculum, the chief city of the Latins (it being a Roman usage to invoke the aid of the gods of the enemy), who appeared during the battle, and brought the news of the victory to Rome, watering their horses at the spring of Juturna, close to which their temple in the Forum was erected. There can be little doubt that the lake actually existed. Of the various identifications proposed, the best is that of Nibby, who finds it in a now dry crater lake (Pantano Secco), drained by an emissarium, the date of which is uncertain, some 2 m. N. of Frascati. Along the south bank of the lake, at some 30 or 40 ft. above the present bottom, ran the aqueducts of the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus. Most of the other sites proposed are not, as Regillus should be, within the limits of the territory of Tusculum. See T. Ashby in Rendiconti dei Lincei (1898), 103 sqq., andClassical Review, 1898. (T. As.) REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct), originally government, command or authority exercised over others, or the office of a ruler or sovereign; in this sense the word was common in the i6th century. The most familiar instance is the title of the tract of John Knox, the First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women. The term as applied to a large body of troops dates from the French army of the i6th century. In the first instance it implied " command," as nowadays we speak of " General A's command," meaning the whole number of troops under his command. The early regiments had no similarity in strength or organization, except that each was under one commander. With the regularization of armies the commands of all such superior officers were gradually reduced to uniformity, and a regiment came to be definitely a colonel's command. In the British infantry the term has no tactical significance, as the number of battalions in a regiment is variable, and one at least is theoretically abroad at all times, while the reserve or terri- torial battalions serve under a different code to that governing the regular battalions. The whole corps of Royal Artillery is called " the Royal Regiment of Artillery." In the cavalry a regiment is tactically as well as administratively a unit of four squadrons. On the continent of Europe the regiment of infantry is always together under the command of its colonel, and consists of three or four battalions under majors or lieutenant-colonels. REGINA, the capital city of the province of Saskatchewan, Canada, situated at 104° 36' W. and 50° 27' N., and 357 m. W. of Winnipeg. Pop. (1907) 9804. After the Canadian Pacific railway was completed in 1885, the necessity for a place of government on the railway line pressed itself upon the Dominion government. The North-West Territories were but little settled then, but a central position on the prairies was necessary, where the mounted police might be stationed and where the numerous Indian bands might be easily reached. The minister of the interior at Ottawa, afterwards Governor Dewdney, chose this spot, and for a number of years Regina was the seat of the Territorial government. The governor took up his abode on the adjoining plain, and the North-West Council met each year, with a show of constitutional government about it. On the formation of the province of Saskatchewan in 1905 the choice of capital was left to the first legislature of the province. Prince Albert, Moose Jaw and Saskatoon all advanced claims, but Regina was decided on as the capital. It probably doubled in population between 1905 and 1907. Its public buildings, churches and residences are worthy of a place of greater pre- tensions. It is the centre for a rich agricultural district, and for legislation, education, law and other public benefits. It remains the headquarters of the mounted police for the western provinces, and near it is an Indian industrial school of some note. REGINON, or REGINO OF PR^M, medieval chronicler, was born at Altripp near Spires, and was educated in the monastery of Priim. Here he became a monk, and in 892, just after the monastery had been sacked by the Danes, he was chosen abbot. In 899, however, he was deprived of this position and he went to Trier, where he was appointed abbot of St Martin's, a house which he reformed. He died in 91 5, and was buried in the abbey of St Maximin at Trier, his tomb being discovered there in 1581. Reginon wrote a Chronicon, dedicated to Adalberon, bishop of Augsburg (d. 909), which deals with the history of the world from the commencement of the Christian era to 906, especially the history of affairs in Lorraine and the neighbourhood. The first book (to 741) consists mainly of extracts from Bede, Paulus Diaconus and other writers; of the second book (741-906) the latter part is original and valuable, although the chronology is at fault and the author relied chiefly upon tradition and hearsay for his informa- tion. The work was continued to 967 by a monk of Trier, possibly Adalbert, archbishop of Magdeburg (d. 981). The chronicle was first published at Mainz in 1521; another edition is in Band I. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores (1826); the best is the one edited by F. Kurze (Hanover, 1890). It has been translated into German by W. Wattenbach (Leipzig, 1890). Reginon also drew up at the request of his friend and patron Radbod, archbishop of Trier (d. 915), a collection of canons, Libri duo de synodalibus causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis, dedicated to Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz; this is published in Tome 132 of J. P. Migne's Palrologia Lalina. To Radbod he wrote a letter on music, Epistpla de harmonica institutione, with a Tonarius, the object of this being to improve the singing in the churches of the diocese. The letter is published in Tome I. of Gerbert's Scriptores ecclesiastic! de musica sacra (1784), and the Tonarius in Tome II. of Coussemaker's Scriptores de musica medii aevi. See also H. Ermisch, Die Chronik des Regino bis 813 (Gottingen, 1872); P. Schulz, Die Glaubwurdig- keit des Abtes Regino} von Prum (Hamburg, 1894); C. Wawra, De Reginone Prumensis (Breslau, 1901); A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, Tome I. (1901); and W. Wattenbach, DeutschlandsGeschichtsquellen, Band I. (1904). REGIOMONTANUS (1436-1476), German astronomer, was born at Konigsberg in Franconia on the 6th of June 1436. The son of a miller, his name originally was Johann Mu'ller, but he called himself, from his birthplace, Joh. de Monteregio, an appellation which became gradually modified into Regiomontanus. At Vienna, from 1452, he was the pupil and associate of George Purbach (1423-1461), and they jointly undertook a reform of astronomy rendered necessary by the errors they detected in the Alphonsine Tables. In this they were much hindered by the lack of correct translations of Ptolemy's works; and in 1462 Regiomontanus accompanied Cardinal Bessarion to Italy in search of authentic manuscripts. He rapidly mastered Greek at Rome and Ferrara, lectured on Alfraganus at Padua, and completed at Venice in 1463 Purbach's Epitome in Cl. Ptolemaei magnam compositionem (printed at Venice in 1496), and his own De Triangulis (Nuremberg, 1533), the earliest work treating of trigonometry as a substantive science. A quarrel with George of Trebizond, the blunders in whose translation of the Almagest he had pointed out, obliged him to quit Rome pre- cipitately in 1468. He repaired to Vienna, and was thence summoned to Buda by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, for the purpose of collating Greek manuscripts at a handsome salary. He also finished his Tabulae Directionum (Nuremberg, 1475), essentially an astrological work, but containing a valuable table of tangents. An outbreak of war, meanwhile, diverted REGISTER the king's attention from learning, and in 1471 Regiomontanus settled at Nuremberg. Bernhard Walther, a rich patrician, became his pupil and patron; and they together equipped the first European observatory, for which Regiomontanus himself constructed instruments of an improved type (described in his posthumous Scripta, Nuremberg, 1544). His observations of the great comet of January 1672 supplied the basis of modern cometary astronomy. At a printing-press established in Walther's house by Regiomontanus, Purbach's Theoricae planetarum novae was published in 1472 or 1473; a series of popular calendars issued from it, and in 1474 a volume of Ephemerides calculated by Regiomontanus for thirty-two years (1474-1506), in which the method of "lunar distances," for determining the longitude at sea, was recommended and explained. In 1472 Regiomontanus was summoned to Rome by Pope Sixtus IV. to aid in the reform of the calendar; and there he died, most likely of the plague, on the 6th of July 1476. AUTHORITIES. — P. Gassendi, Vita Jo. Regiomontani (Parisiis, !654) ; J. G. Doppelmayr, Historische Nachricht von den Nurn- bergischen Mathematicis, pp. 1-23 (1730); G. A. Will, Nurnber- gisckes Gelehrten-Lexikon, lii. 273 (1757); P. Niceron, Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des hommes Ulustres, xxxviii. 337 (1737); J. F. Weidler, Hist. Astronomiae, p. 313; A. G. Kastner, Geschichte der Mathematik, i. 556, 572; J. F. Montucla, Hist, des mathe- matiques, i. 541 ; E. F. Apelt, Die Reformation der Sternkunde, p. 34; M. Cantor, Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Math., ii. 254- 264; M. Curtze, Urkunden zur Gesch. der Math., i. 187 (1902); Corr. Astr. vii. 21 (1822); G. H. Schubert, Peurbach und Regio- montan (Erlangen, 1828); A. Ziegler, Regiomontanus ein geistiger Vorldufer des Columbus (1874) ; J. B. J. Delambre, Hist, de Vastrono- mie au moyen age, p. 284; J. S. Bailly, Hist., de I'astr. moderne, i. 311; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Aslronomie, p. 87; S. Giinther, AUg. Deutsche Biog., Bd. xxii. p. 564; C. G. Tocher's Gelehrten- Lexikon, iii. 1959, and Fortsetzung, vi. 1551 (H. W. Rotermund, Bremen, 1819); Ersch-Gruber's Encyklopaedie, ii. th. xx. p. 205; C. T. von Murr, Memorabilia Bibliothecarum Norimbergensium, 1.74(1786). (A. M. C.) REGISTER, a record of facts, proceedings, acts, events, names, &c., entered regularly for reference in a volume kept for that purpose, also the volume in which the entries are made. The Fr. registre is taken from the Med. Lat. registrum for regisium, Late Lat. regesta, things recorded, hence list, catalogue, from regerere, to carry or bear back, to transcribe, enter on a roll. For the keeping of public registers dealing with various subjects see REGISTRATION and the articles there referred to, and for the records of baptisms, marriages and burials made by a parish clergyman, see section Parish Registers below. The keeper of a register was, until the beginning of the igth century, usually known as a " register," but that title has in Great Britain now been superseded by "registrar"; it still survives in the Lord Clerk Register, an officer of state in Scotland, nominally the official keeper of the national records, whose duties are per- formed by the Deputy Clerk Register. In the United States the title is still " register." The term " register " has also been applied to mechanical contrivances for the automatic registration or recording of figures, &c. (see CASH REGISTER), to a stop in an organ, to the compass of a voice or musical instrument, and also to an apparatus for regulating the in- and outflow of air, heat, steam, smoke or the like. Some of these instances of the application of the term are apparently due to a confusion in etymology, with Lat. regere, to rule, regulate. PARISH REGISTERS were instituted in England by an order of Thomas Cromwell, as vicegerent to Henry VIII., " supreme hedd undre Christ of the Church of Englande," in September 1538. The idea appears to have been of Spanish origin, Cardinal Ximenes having instituted, as archbishop of Toledo, registers of baptisms in 1497. They included, under the above order, baptisms, marriages and burials, which were to be recorded weekly. In 1597 it was ordered by the Convocation of Canterbury that parchment books should be provided for the registers and that transcripts should be made on parch- ment of existing registers on paper, and this order was repeated in the 7Oth canon of 1603. The transcripts then made now usually represent the earliest registers. It was further pro- vided at both these dates that an annual transcript of the register should be sent to the bishop for preservation in the diocesan registry, which was the origin of the " bishop's tran- scripts." The " Directory for the publique worship of God," passed by parliament in 1645, provided for the date of birth being also registered, and in August 1653, an Act of " Bare- bones' Parliament " made a greater change, substituting civil " parish registers " (sic) for the clergy, and ordering them to record births, banns, marriages and burials. The " register " was also to publish the banns and a justice to per- form the marriage. The register books were well kept under this civil system, but at the Restoration the old system was resumed. A tax upon births, marriages and burials imposed in 1694 led to the clergy being ordered to register all births, apart from baptisms, but the act soon expired and births were not again registered till 1836. Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act (1754), by its rigid provisions, increased the registration of marriages by the parochial clergy and prescribed a form of entry. In 1812 parish registers became the subject of parlia- mentary enactment, owing to the discovery of their deficiencies. Rose's Act provided for their safer custody, for efficient bishops, transcripts, and for uniformity of system. This act continued to regulate the registers till their supersession for practical purposes, in 1837, by civil registration under the act of 1836. In age, completeness and condition they vary much. A blue book on the subject was published in 1833, but the returns it contains are often inaccurate. A few begin even earlier than Cromwell's order, the oldest being that of Tipton, Staffs, (1513). Between 800 and 900, apparently, begin in 1538 or 1539. The entries were originally made in Latin, but this usage died out early in the i7th century: decay and the crabbed handwriting of the time render the earlier registers extremely difficult to read. There is general agreement as to the shocking neglect of these valuable records in the past, and the loss of volumes appears to have continued even through the i gth century. Their custody is legally vested in the parochial clergy and their wardens, but several proposals have been made for their removal to central depositories. The fees for searching them are determined by the act of 1836, which prescribes half a crown for each certified extract, and sixpence a year for searching, with a shilling for the first year. The condition of the " bishops' transcripts " was, through- out, much worse than that of the parish registers, there being no funds provided for their custody. The report on Public Records in 1800 drew attention to their neglect, but, in spite of the provisions in Rose's Act (1812), little or nothing was done, and, in spite of their importance as checking, and even some- times supplementing deficient parish registers, they remained " unarranged, unindexed and unconsultable." Of recent years, however, some improvement has been made. It has also been discovered that transcripts from " peculiars " exist in other than episcopal registries. Outside the parochial registers, which alone were official in character, there were, till 1754, irregular marriage registers, of which those of the Fleet prison are the most famous, and also registers of private chapels in London. Those of the Fleet and of Mayfair chapel were deposited with the registrar- general, but not authenticated. The registers of dissenting chapels remained unofficial till an act of 1840 validated a number which had been authenticated, and was extended to many others in 1858. Useful information on these registers, now mostly deposited with the registrar-general, will be found in Sims' Manual, which also deals with those of private chapels, of English settlements abroad preserved in London, and with English Roman Catholic registers. These last, however, begin only under George II. and are restricted to certain London chapels. The printing of parish registers has of late made much progress, but the field is so vast that the rate is relatively slow. There is a Parish Register Society, and a section of the Harleian Society engaged on the same work, as well as some county societies and also one for Dublin. But REGISTRATION so many have been issued privately or by individuals that reference should be made to the lists in Marshall's Genealogist's Guide (1893) and Dr Cox's Parish Registers (1910), and even this last is not perfect. The Huguenot Society has printed several registers of the Protestant Refugees, and Mr Moens that of the London Dutch church. There are also several registers of marriages alone now in print, such as that of St Dunstan's, Stepney, in 3 vols. Colonel Chester's extensive MS. collection of extracts from parish registers is now in the College of Arms, London, and the parishes are indexed in Dr Marshall's book. MS. extracts in the British Museum are dealt with in Sims' Manual. In Scotland registers of baptisms and marriages were insti- tuted by the clergy in 1551, and burials were added by order of the Privy Council in 1616; but these were very imperfectly kept, especially in rural parishes. Yet it was not till 1854 that civil registration was introduced, by act of parliament, in their stead. Some 900 parish registers, beginning about 1563, have been deposited in the Register House, Edinburgh, under acts of parliament which apply to all those prior to 1819. Mr Hallen has printed the register of baptisms of Muthill Episcopal Church. In Ireland, parish registers were confined to the now dis- established church, which was that of a small minority, and were, as in Scotland, badly kept. Although great inconvenience was caused by this system, civil registration of marriages, when introduced in 1844, was only extended to Protestants, nor was it till 1864 that universal civil registration was intro- duced, great difficulty under the Old Age Pensions Act being now the result. No provision was made, as in Scotland, for central custody of the registers, which, both Anglican and Nonconformist, remain in their former repositories. Roman Catholic registers in Ireland only began, apparently, to be kept in the igth century. In France registers, but only of baptism, were first instituted in 1539. The Council of Trent, however, made registers both of baptisms and of marriages a law of the Catholic Church in 1563, and Louis XIV. imposed a tax on registered baptisms and marriages in 1707. See Burn, The History of Parish Registers (1829, 1862); Sims, Manual for the Genealogist (1856, 1888); Chester Waters, Parish Registers in England (1870, 1882, 1887); Marshall, Genealogist's Guide (1893); A. M. Burke, Key to the Ancient Parish Registers (1908) ; J. C. Cox, Parish Registers of England (1910) ; W. D. Bruce, Account . . . of the Ecclesiastical Courts of Record (1854); Bigland, Observations on Parochial Registers (1764); Report of the Commis- sioners on the state of Registers of Births, &c. (1838); Lists of Non- parochial Registers and Records in the custody of the Registrar- General (1841); Report on Non-parochial Registers (1857); Detailed List of the old Parochial Registers of Scotland (1872). (j. H. R.) REGISTRATION. In all systems of law the registration of certain legal facts has been regarded as necessary, chiefly for the purpose of ensuring publicity and simplifying evidence. Registers, when made in performance of a public duty, are as a general rule admissible in evidence merely on the production from the proper custody of the registers themselves or (in most cases) of examined or certified copies. The extent to which registration is carried varies very much in different countries. For obvious reasons, judicial decisions are registered in all countries alike. In other matters no general rule can be laid down, except perhaps that on the whole registration is not as fully enforced in the United Kingdom and the United States as in continental states. The most important uses of registra- tion occur in the case of judicial proceedings, land, ships, bills of sale, births, marriages and deaths, companies, friendly and other societies, newspapers, copyrights, patents, designs, trade marks and professions and occupations. In England registrars are attached to the privy council, the Supreme Court and the county courts. In the king's bench division (except in its bankruptcy jurisdiction) the duty of registrars is performed by the masters. Besides exercising limited judicial authority, registrars are responsible for the drawing up and recording of various stages of the proceedings from the petition, writ or plaint to the final decision.1 With them are filed affidavits, depositions, pleadings, &c., when such filing is necessary. The difference between filing and registration is that the documents filed are filed without alteration, while only an epitome is usually registered. The Judicature Act 1873 created district registries in the chief towns, the district registrar having an authority similar to that of a registrar of the Supreme Court. In the admiralty division cases of account are usually referred to the registrar and merchants. The registration in the central office of the supreme court of judgments affecting lands, writs of execution, recognizances and lites pendentes in England, and the registration in Scotland of abbreviates of adjudications and of inhibitions, are governed by special legislation. All these are among the incumbrances for which search is made on investigating a title. Decisions of criminal courts are said to be recorded, not registered, except in the case of courts of summary jurisdiction, in which, by the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879, a register of convictions is kept. Probates of wills and letters of administration, which are really judicial decisions, are registered in the principal or district registries of the probate division. In Scotland registration is used for giving a summary remedy on obligations without action by means of the fiction of a judicial decision having been given establishing the obligation. See also the separate articles LAND REGISTRATION; SHIPPING; BILL OF SALE; COMPANIES; FRIENDLY SOCIETIES; BUILDING SOCIETIES; PRESS LAWS; COPYRIGHT; TRADE MARKS; PATENTS, &c. Registration of Voters. — Prior to 1832 Jhe right of parlia- mentary electors in England was determined at the moment of the tender of the vote at the election, or, in the event of a petition against the return, by a scrutiny, a committee of the House of Commons striking off those whose qualification was held to be insufficient, and, on the other hand, adding those who, having tendered their votes at the poll, with a good title to do so, were rejected at the time. A conspicuous feature of the Reform Act of that year was the introduction of a new mode of ascertaining the rights of electors by means of an entirely new system of pubb'shed lists, subject to claims and objections, and after due inquiry and revision forming a register of voters. Registration was not altogether unknown in Great Britain in connexion with the parliamentary franchise before the Reform Acts of 1832. Thus in the Scottish counties the right to vote depended on the voter's name being upon the roll of freeholders established by an act of Charles II.; a similar register existed in Ireland of freeholders whose free- holds were under £20 annual value; and in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge the rolls of members of Convocation and of the Senate were, as they still are, the registers of par- liamentary voters. But except in such cases as the above, the right of a voter had to be determined by the returning officer upon the evidence produced before him when the vote was tendered at a poll. This necessarily took time, and the result was that a contested election in a large constituency might last for weeks. The celebrated Westminster election of 1784, in which the poll began on the ist of April and ended on the 1 7th of May, may be mentioned as an illustration. More- over, the decision of the returning officer was not conclusive; the title of every one who claimed to vote was liable to be reconsidered on an election petition, or, in the case of a rejected vote, in an action for damages by the voter against the returning officer. The inconvenience of such a state of things would have been greatly aggravated had the old practice continued after the enlargement of the franchise in 1832. The establishment of a general system of registration was therefore a necessary and important part of the reform then effected. It has enabled an election in the most populous constituency to be completed in a single day. It has also been instrumental in the extinction 1 The antiquity of registration of this kind is proved by the age of the Registrum Brevium, or register of writs, called by Lord Coke " a most ancient book of the Common La\y " ,(Coke -upon -Littleton, c REGISTRATION of the " occasional voter," who formerly gave so much trouble to returning officers and election committees — the person, namely, who acquired a qualifying tenement with the view of using it for a particular election and then disposing of it. The period of qualification now required in all cases, being fixed with reference to the formation of the register, is neces- sarily so long anterior to any election which it could effect, that the purpose or intention of the voter in acquiring the qualifying tenement has ceased to be material, and is not inves- tigated. England. — The reform of parliamentary representation in 1832 was followed in 1835 by that of the constitution of municipal corporations, which included the -creation of a uniform quali- fication (now known as the old burgess qualification) for the municipal franchise. In 1888 the municipal franchise was enlarged, and was at the same time extended to the whole country for the formation of constituencies to elect county councils; and in 1894 parochial electors were called into existence for the election of parish councils and for other pur- poses. Inasmuch as provision was made for the registering of persons entitled to votes for the above purposes, there are now three registers of voters, namely, the parliamentary register, the local government register (i.e. in boroughs under the Municipal Corporation Acts, the burgess rolls, and elsewhere the county registers) and the register of parochial electors. Under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 the registration of burgesses, though on similar lines to that of parliamentary voters, was entirely separate from it. Since, however, the qualification for the municipal franchise covered to a great extent the same ground as that for the parliamentary franchise in boroughs which sent members to parliament, a considerable number of voters in such boroughs were entitled in respect of the same tenement to be upon both parliamentary register and burgess roll. The waste of labour involved in settling their rights twice over was put an end to in 1878, when the system of parliamentary registration was extended to the boroughs in question for municipal purposes, and the lists were directed to be made out in such a shape that the portion common to the two registers could be detached and combined with the portion peculiar to each, so as to form the parliamentary register and the burgess roll respectively. This system of registration was extended to the non-parliamentary boroughs and to the whole country in 1888, the separate municipal registration being completely abolished. The procedure of parliamentary registration is to be found in its main lines in the Parliamentary Registration Act 1843, which Pro_ superseded that provided by the Reform Act of 1832, j" and has itself been considerably amended by later legis- lation. The acts applying and adapting the system to local government and parochial registration are the Parliamentary and Municipal Registration Act 1878, the County Electors Act 1888, and the Local Government Act 1894. Registration is carried out by local machinery, the common-law parish being taken as the registration unit; and the work of preparing and publishing the lists, which when revised are to form the register, is committed to the overseers. The selection of these officers was no doubt due to their position as the rating authority, and to their consequent opportunities for knowing the ownership and occupation of tene- ments within their parish. They do not always perform the duties themselves, other persons being empowered to act for them in many parishes by general or local acts of parliament ; but in all or almost all cases they are entitled to act personally if they think fit, they sign the lists, and the proceedings are conducted in their name. In order to render intelligible the following summary of the procedure, it will be necessary to divide the voters to be regis- tered into classes based on the nature of their qualification, since the practice differs in regard to each class. The classes are as follows: (i) Owners, including the old forty-shilling freeholders, and the copyholders, long leaseholders and others entitled under the Reform Act of 1832 to vote at parliamentary elections for counties; (2) occupiers, including those entitled to (a) the £10 occupation qualification, (b) the household qualification and (c) the old burgess qualification; (3) lodgers, subdivided into (a) old, i.e. those on the previous register for the same lodgings, and (6) new ; (4) those entitled to reserved rights, i.e. in addition to those (if .any stUl remain), who were entitled to votes before the Reform Act of 1832 in respect of qualifications abolished by that act, (a) free- hold and burgage tenants in Bristol, Exeter, Norwich, and Notting- ham, and (b) liverymen of the City of London and freemen of certain old cities and boroughs, whose right to the parliamentary franchise was permanently retained by the same act. In regard to these classes it may be said that the general scheme is that owners must make a claim in the first instance before they can get their names upon the register, but that, once entered on the register, the names will be retained from year to year until removed by the revising barrister; that the lists of occupiers and of freehold and burgage tenants are made out afresh every year by the over- seers from their own information and inquiries, without any act being required on the part of the voters, who need only make claims in case their names are omitted; that lodgers must make claims every year; and that liverymen and freemen are in the same posi- tion as occupiers, except that the lists of liverymen are made out by the clerks of the several companies, and those of freemen by the town clerks, the overseers having nothing to do with these voters, whose qualifications are personal and not locally connected with any parish. The overseers and other officers concerned are required to perform their duties in connexion with registration in accordance with the instructions and precepts, and to use the notices and forms pre- scribed by Order in Council from time to time. The Registration Order, 1895, directs the clerk of every county council, on or within seven days before the i;jth of April in every year, to send to the overseers of each parish in his county a precept with regard to the registration of ownership electors, and to every parish not within a parliamentary or municipal borough a precept with regard to the registration of occupation electors (which expression for this purpose includes lodgers as well as occupiers proper). The town clerk of every borough, municipal or parliamentary, is to send to the overseers of every parish in his borough a precept with regard to the registration of occupation electors. These precepts are set out in the Registration Order, and those issued by the town clerks differ according as the borough is parliamentary only, or municipal only, or both parliamentary and municipal; in the cases of Bristol, Exeter, Norwich and Nottingham they contain direc- tions as to freehold and burgage tenants. The duties of the over- seers in regard to registration are set out in detail in the precepts. Along with the precepts are forwarded forms of the various lists and notices required to be used, and with the ownership precept a certain number of copies of that portion of the parliamentary register of the county at the time in force which contains the ownership voters for the parish, the register being so printed that the portion relating to each parish can be detached. It is the duty of the overseers to publish on the 2Oth of June, in manner hereinafter described, the portion of the register so received, together with a notice to owners not already registered to send in claims by the 2oth of July. Mean- while the overseers are making the inquiries necessary for the preparation of the occupier list. For this purpose they may require returns to be furnished by owners of houses let out in separate tenements, and by employers who have servants entitled to the service franchise. The registrars of births, deaths and marriages are required to furnish the overseers with returns of deaths, as must the assessed tax collectors with returns of defaulters; the relieving officers are to give information as to recipients of parochial relief. On or before the 3ist of July the overseers are to make out and sign the lists of voters. These are the following: the list of ownership electors, consisting of the portion of the register previously published with a supplemental list of those who have sent in claims by the 2Oth of July; the occupier list; and the old lodger list, the last being formed from claims sent in by the 25th of July. The overseers do not select the names in the first and last of these lists ; they take them as supplied in the register and claims. It is, however, their duty to write dead " or " objected " in the margin against the names of persons whom they have reason to believe to be dead or not entitled to vote in respect of the qualifica- tion described. The ownership and old lodger lists will be divided into two parts, if the register contains names of owners entitled to a parochial vote only, or if claims by owners or old lodgers have been made limited to that franchise. The occupier list contains the names of persons whom the overseers believe to be qualified, and no others, and therefore will be free from marginal objections. Except in the administrative county of London, it is made out in three divisions — division I giving the names of occupiers of pro- perty qualifying for both parliamentary and local government votes, divisions 2 and 3 those of occupiers of property qualifying only for parliamentary and only for local government votes respec- tively. It happens so frequently that a tenement, if not of sufficient value to qualify for the £10 occupation franchise (parliamentary and local government), qualifies both for the household franchise (parliamentary) and for the old burgess franchise (local govern- ment), that division I would in most cases be the whole list, but for two circumstances. The service franchise is a special modification of the household franchise only; and the service occupants, being therefore restricted to the parliamentary vote, form the bulk of division 2; while peers and women, being excluded from the parliamentary vote, are consequently relegated to division 3. In the administrative county of London the local government register, being coextensive with the register of parochial electors, includes REGISTRATION 43 the whole of the parliamentary register. The occupier lists are consequently there made out in two divisions only, the names which would elsewhere appear in division 2 being placed in division I. The lists of freehold and burgage tenants in Bristol, Exeter, Norwich and Nottingham are to be made out and signed by the same date. The overseers have also to make out and sign a list of persons qualified as occupiers to be elected aldermen or councillors, but as non-residents disqualified from being on the local government register. By the same date also the clerks of the livery companies are to make out, sign and deliver to the secondary (who performs in the City of London the registration duties which elsewhere fall on the town clerk) the lists of liverymen entitled as such to the parliamentary vote; and the town clerks are to make out and sign the lists of freemen so entitled in towns where this franchise exists. On the ist of August all the above lists are to be published, the livery lists by the secondary, lists of freemen by the town clerks and the rest by the overseers. In addition the overseers may have to publish a list of persons disqualified by having been found guilty of corrupt or illegal practices; this list they will receive, when it exists, from the clerk of the county council or town clerk with the precept. Publication of lists and notices by overseers is made by affixing copies on the doors of the church and other places of worship of the parish (or, if there be none, in some public or conspicuous situation in the parish), and also, with the exception to be men- tioned, in the case of a parish wholly or partly within a municipal borough or urban district, in or near every public or municipal or parochial office and every post and telegraph office in the parish. The exception is that lists and notices relating to ownership electors need not be published at the offices mentioned when the parish is within a parliamentary borough. Publication by the secondary is made by affixing copies outside the Guildhall and Royal Exchange ; publication by town clerks is made by affixing copies outside their town hall, or, where there is none, in some public or conspicuous place in their borough. From the ist to the 2Oth of August inclusive is allowed for the sending in of claims and objections. Those whose names have been omitted from the occupier or reserved rights lists, or the non-resident list, or whose names, place of abode or particu- lars of qualification have been incorrectly stated in such lists, may send in claims to have their names registered; lodgers who are not qualified as old lodgers, or who have omitted to claim as such, may claim as new lodgers; persons whose names are on the corrupt and illegal practices list may claim to have them omitted. Any person whose name is on the list of parliamentary, local government or parochial electors for the same parliamentary county, administrative county, borough or parish, may object to names on the same lists. Notices of claim and objection in the case of liverymen and freemen are to be sent to the secondary and town clerk, and in other cases to the overseers ; and notices of objection must also in all cases be sent to the person objected to. All notices must be sent inby the 2Oth of August, and on or before the 25th of August the overseers, secondary and town clerks are to make out, sign and publish lists of the claimants and persons objected to. It remains to be added that any person on a fist of voters (i.e. on one of the lists published on the 1st of August) may make a declaration before a magistrate or commissioner for oaths correcting the entry relating to him. In the case of ownership electors the correction can only deal with the place of abode ; in the case of other lists it extends to all particulars stated, and is useful inasmuch as it enables the revising barrister to make corrections as to the qualification which he could not make in the absence of a declaration. The declarations must be delivered to the clerk of the county council or town clerk on or before the 5th of September. The next stage is the revision of the lists. For this purpose revising barristers are appointed yearly. The period within which revision courts can be held is from the 8th of September Revising to tne J2J.JJ 0{ October, both days inclusive. The clerk of the county council attends the first court held for each ers' parliamentary division of his county, and the town clerk the first court held for his city or borough; and they respectively produce all lists, notices and declarations in their custody, and answer any questions put to them by the revising barrister. The overseers also attend the courts held for their parish, produce the rate books, original notices of claim and objection, &c., and answer questions. The claimants, objectors and persons objected to appear personally or by representative to support their several conten- • tions. Any person qualified to be an objector may also appear to oppose any claims, upon giving notice to the barrister before such claims are reached. The powers of the revising barristers are as follows: As regards persons whose names are on the lists of voters published on the ist of August, he is to expunge the names, whether objected to or not, of those who are dead or subject to personal in- capacity, such as infants and aliens, and for parliamentary purposes peers and women. If an entry is imperfect, the name must be removed, unless the particulars necessary for completing it are supplied to the barrister. All names marginally objected to by over- seers must be expunged, unless the voters prove to the barrister that they ought to be retained. Objections made by other objectors must be supported by prima facie proof, and if this is not rebutted the name is struck out. Claimants must be ready to support their claims. The declaration attached to a lodger claim is indeed prima facie proof of the Tacts stated in it, but other claimants require evidence to make out even a prima facie case, and if they fail to produce it their claims will be disallowed. The barrister is required to correct errors in the lists of voters, and has a discretion to rectify mistakes in claims and objections upon evidence produced to him, although his power in this respect is limited. Lastly, the barrister has to deal with duplicates, as a voter is entitled to be on the register once, but not more than once, as a parliamentary voter for each parliamentary county or borough, as a burgess for each municipal borough, as a county elector for each electoral division, and as a parochial elector for each parish in which he holds a qualification. Consequently, he deals with duplicate entries by expunging or trans- ferring them to separate parochial lists. The decision of the re- vising barrister is final and conclusive on all questions of fact ; but an appeal lies from him on questions of law at the instance of any person aggrieved by the removal of his name from a list of voters, by the rejection of his claim or objection or by the allowance of a claim which he has opposed. Notice of the intention to appeal must be given to the barrister in writing on the day when his decision is given. The barrister may refuse to state a case for appeal; but if he does so without due cause he may be ordered by the High Court to state a case. The appeal is heard by a divisional court, from whose decision an appeal lies (by leave either of the divisional court or of the court of appeal) to the court of appeal, whose decision is final. On the completion of the revision the barrister hands the county and borough lists (every page signed and every alteration initialled by him) to the clerk of the county council and the town clerk re- spectively, to be printed. With the following exceptions the revised lists are to be made up and printed by the 2Oth of December, and come into force as the register for all purposes on the ist of January. In the boroughs created by the London Government Act 1899, the whole register is to be made up and printed by the 2Oth of October, and to come into force for the purpose of borough elections under the act on the 1st of November. In boroughs subject to the Muni- cipal Corporations Acts, divisions I and 3 of the occupiers' list are to be made up and printed by the 2Oth of October, and come into force for the purpose of municipal and county council elections on the ist of November. Corrections ordered in consequence of a successful appeal from a revising barrister are to be made by the officers having the custody of the registers, but a pending appeal does not affect any right of voting. The register in its final form will consist of the lists published on the 1st of August as corrected, with the claims which have been allowed on revision incorporated with them. It is printed in such form that each list and each division of a list for every parish can be separated from the rest for the purpose of making up the parliamentary, local government and parochial registers respectively. The alphabetical order is followed, except in London and some other large towns, where street order is adopted for all except the ownership lists and lists of liverymen and freemen. The parliamentary register for a parliamentary county will consist of the ownership lists for all parishes in the county, and of the lodger lists and divisions I and 2 of the occupier lists for parishes within the county and not within a parliamentary borough. The parliamentary register for a parliamentary borough will consist of the lodger lists, of the lists of freehold and burgage tenants (if any), and of divisions I and 2 of the occupier lists for all parishes within the borough, and also of the borough lists (if any) of liverymen or freemen. The local government register for an administrative county will consist of divisions I and 3 of the occupier lists for all parishes in the county, and the burgess roll for a municipal borough of divisions I and 3 of the occupier lists for all parishes in the borough. It will be seen, therefore, that, except in county boroughs, the burgess roll is also a part of the local government register of the administrative county within which the borough is situate. The register of parochial electors consists of the complete set of lists for each parish; but this does not include the lists of liverymen and freemen, which, as has been stated, are not parish lists. No one whose name is not on the register can vote at an election. The fact that a man's name is on the register is now so far con- clusive of his right that the returning officer is bound to receive his vote. Only two questions may be asked of him when he tenders his vote, namely, whether he is the person whose name is on the register, and whether he has voted before at the election. The Reform Act 1832 allowed him to be asked at parliamentary elections whether he retained the qualification for which he had been registered; but the Registration Act 1843 disallowed the question, and made the register conclusive as to the retention of the qualification. When, however, a petition is presented against an election, the register, although conclusive as to the retention of the qualification, does not prevent the court from inquiring into the existence of personal incapacities, arising in connexion with the election or otherwise, and striking off on scrutiny the votes of persons subject thereto, e.g. aliens, infants, or in parliamen- tary elections peers, &c. The City of London is not within the Municipal Corporations Acts, and is not subject to the general registration law in the formation of its roll of citizens for municipal purposes. But a register of parliamentary, county and parochial electors is made in 44 REGIUM the "ordinary way.' The universities are also exempt from the general law of registration. At Oxford and Cambridge the members of Convocation and the Senate respectively have always formed the parliamentary constituencies; and, as has been already stated, the registers of those members were before 1832, and still are, the parliamentary registers. Similarly, the Reform Act of 1867, which gave parliamentary representation to the university of London, simply enacted that the register of graduates constituting the Convocation should be the parliamentary register of that body. Scotland. — In Scotland the qualifications for local government and parish electors are the same as those for parliamentary voters, the only difference in the registers being in respect of personal incapacities for the parliamentary franchise, incapacity for the other franchises by reason of non-payment of rates, and duplicates. The principal act regulating registration in burghs is 19 & 20 Viet, c. 58, amended in some particulars as to dates by 31 & 32 Viet. c. 48, § 20. County registration, formerly regulated by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 83, has been assimilated to burgh registration by 48 & 49 Viet. c. 3, § 8 (6). The procedure consists, as in England, of the making and publication of lists of voters, the making of claims and objections and the holding of revision courts; but there are im- portant differences of detail. Though the parish is the registration unit, parochial machinery is not used for the formation of the register. The parliamentary lists for a county are made up yearly by one or more of the assessors of the county, and those for a burgh by one or more of the assessors for the burgh, or by the clerk of the commissioners. They are published on the 1 5th of September; and claims and objections must be sent in by the 2 1st and are published on the 25th of the same month. Publication is made in burghs by posting on or near the town hall, or in some other conspicuous place, in counties by posting the part relating to each parish on the parish church door, and in both cases giving notice by newspaper advertisement of a place where the lists may be perused. The revision is conducted by the sheriff, the time within which bis courts may be held being from the 25th of September to the i6th of October, both days inclusive. An appeal lies to three 1'udges of the Court of Session, one taken from each division of the nner House, and one from the Lords Ordinary of the Outer House. The revised lists are delivered in counties to the sheriff clerk, in burghs to the town clerk, or person to whom the registration duties of town clerk are assigned. The register comes into force for all purposes on the 1st of November. The municipal register of a royal burgh which is coextensive, or of that part of a royal burgh which is coextensive with a parlia- mentary burgh, consists of the parliamentary register with a supple- mental list of women who but for their sex would be qualified for the parliamentary vote. The municipal register for a burgh, or for that part of one which is not within a parliamentary burgh, consists of persons possessed of qualifications within the burgh which, if within a parliamentary burgh, would entitle them, or but for their sex would entitle them, to the parliamentary vote. The register of county electors consists of the parliamentary register for a county with the supplemental list hereafter mentioned; but inasmuch as exemption from or 'failure to pay the consolidated county rate is a disqualification for the county electors' franchise, the names of persons so disqualified are to be marked with a dis- tinctive mark on the register; as are also the names of persons whose qualifications are situated within a burgh, such marks indi- cating that the persons to whose names they are attached are not entitled to vote as county electors. Every third year, in prepara- tion for the triennial elections of county and parish councils (casual vacancies being filled up by co-optation), a supplemental list is to be made of peers and women possessed of qualifications which but for their rank and sex would entitle them to parlia- mentary votes. The register of county electors in a county and the municipal register in a burgh form the registers of parish electors for the parishes comprised in each respectively. Inasmuch, how- ever, as a man is entitled to be registered as a parish elector in every parish where he is qualified, duplicate entries are, when required, to be made in the register, with distinctive marks to all but one, to indicate that they confer the parish vote only. These dis- tinctive marks and those previously mentioned are to be made in the lists by the assessors, subject to revision by the sheriff. The register is conclusive to the same extent as in England, except that the vote of a parish elector who is one year in arrear in payment of a parish rate is not to be received. The clerk of the parish council is_to furnish the returning o_fficer one week before an election with the names of persons so in arrear; and the returning officer is to reject their votes except upon the production of a written receipt. Provision is made by 31 & 32 Viet. c. 48, §§ 27-41, for the formation of registers of parliamentary electors for the universities. The register for each university is to be made annually by the university registrar, with the assistance of two members of. the council, from whose decisions an appeal lies to the university court. Ireland. — There are no parish councils in Ireland, and no par- ochial electors. There are therefore but two registers of voters, the parliamentary and the local government registers, the latter of which consists of the former with a local government supplement containing the names of those excluded from the parliamentary register by reason of their being peers or women, and duplicate entries relating to those whose names are registered elsewhere for the same parliamentary constituency. The principal acts regula- ting registration are 13 & 14 Viet. c. 69, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 1 12, 48 & 49 Viet. c. 17, and 61 & 62 Viet. c. 2. The lord lieutenant is empowered to make by Order in Council rules for registration, and to prescribe forms; and under this power has made the Regis- tration (Ireland) Rules 1899, now in force. The registration unit is not the parish, but the district electoral division, except where such division is subdivided into wards, or is partly within and partly without any town or ward of a borough or town, in which cases each ward of the division or part of a division is a separate registration unit. The procedure is as follows, subject to variation in cases where there are clerks of unions who held office on the 3ist of March 1898, and have not agreed to transfer their registration duties. The clerk of the peace sends out on the 1st of June a precept in the form prescribed for county registration to the secretary of the county council and clerks of urban district councils, together with a copy of the existing register for their county or district; and a precept in the form prescribed for borough registration to town clerks of boroughs. As regards registration units not in a parliamentary or municipal borough, the secretary of the county council or clerk of the urban district council is to put marginal objections, " dead " or " objected," where required, to £10 occupiers and householders in the copy of the register, both in the parliamentary list and in the local government supplement. He is also to make out supple- mental parliamentary and local government lists of £10 occupiers and householders not on the existing register, and to put marginal objections where required to these. He is to verify on oath before a magistrate the copy of the register and supplemental lists, and to return them to the clerk of the peace by the 8th of July. As regards registration units in a parliamentary borough, but outside a municipal borough, the secretary of the county council or clerk of the urban district council is to make out lists of £10 occupiers and householders with local government supplement, and transmit them to the town clerk of the municipal borough or town. The clerk of the peace is to publish the copy of the register, after himself placing marginal objections where required to voters other than £10 occupiers and householders, and the supplemental lists as re- ceived, and also the corrupt and illegal practices list, if any, on the 22nd of July. On the same day the town clerk will publish the lists received as aforesaid for registration units outside the muni- cipal borough, and the lists, which he will have made out himself for the municipal borough, including the freemen's list and corrupt and illegal practices list. Freemen being entitled to the local government vote will, if resident, be placed on the list of the regis- tration unit where they reside, and will, if non-resident, be allotted by the revising barrister among the registration units of the borough for local government purposes in proportion to the number of electors in each registration unit. Claims are to be sent in to the clerk of the peace and town clerk by the 4th of August, including old lodger claims and, in the case of the clerk of the peace, owner- ship claims. Lists of claimants with marginal objections, where required, are to be published by the clerk of the peace and town clerk by the nth of August. Notices of objection to voters or claimants may be given by the 2Oth of August ; and lists of persons objected to are to be published by the clerk of the peace and town clerk by the 24th of the same month. Publication of lists and notices by a clerk of the peace is made by posting copies of those relating to each registration unit outside every court-house, petty sessions court, and other public offices in the unit; publication by a town clerk is made by posting copies outside the town hall, or, if there be none, in some public and conspicuous place in the borough. Revising barristers are specially appointed for the county and city of Dublin by the lord lieutenant; elsewhere the county court judges and chairmen of quarter sessions act as such ex officio, assisted, when necessary, by additional barristers appointed by the lord lieutenant. The time for the holding of revision courts is from the 8th of September to the 25th of October inclusive. An appeal lies to the court of appeal, whose decision is final. The revised lists are handed to the clerk of the peace; they are to be made up by him by the 3ist of December, and come into force on the 1st of January. The registrar of the university of Dublin is to make out in December a list of the persons entitled to the parliamentary vote for the university, and to print the same in January, and to publish a copy in the university calendar, or in one or more public journals circulating in Ireland. He is to revise the list annually, and ex- punge the names of those dead or disqualified; but an elector whose name has been expunged because he was supposed to be dead is entitled, if alive, to have his name immediately restored and to vote at any election. (L. L. S.) REGIUM (Gr. 'Priyiov. in Latin the aspirate is omitted) , a city of the territory of the Bruttii in South Italy, on the east side of the strait between Italy and Sicily (Strait of Messina). REGIUM DONUM— REGNARD 45 A colony, mainly of Chalcidians, partly of Messenians from the Peloponnesus, settled at Regium in the 8th century B.C. About 494 B.C. Anaxilas, a member of the Messenian party, made him- self master of Regium (apparently — from numismatic evidence, for the coins assignable to this period are modelled on Samian types — with the help of the Samians: see MESSINA) and about 488 joined with them in occupying Zancle (Messina). Here they remained. (See C. H. Dodd in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxviii. (1908) 56 sqq.) This coinage was resumed after the establishment of the democracy about 461 B.C., when Anaxilas' sons were driven out. In 433 Regium made a treaty with Athens, and in 427 joined the Athenians against Syracuse, but in 415 it remained neutral. An attack which it made on Dionysius I. of Syracuse in 399 was the beginning of a great struggle which in 387 resulted in its complete destruction and the dispersion of its inhabitants as slaves. Restored by the younger Dionysius under the name of Phoebias, the colony soon recovered its prosperity and resumed its original designation. In 280, when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, the Regines admitted within their walls a Roman garrison of Campanian troops; these mercenaries revolted, massacred the male citizens, and held the city till in 270 they were besieged and put to death by the Roman consul Genucius. The city remained faithful to Rome throughout the Punic wars, and Hannibal never succeeded in taking it. Up till the Social War it struck coins of its own, with Greek legends. Though one of the cities promised by the triumvirs to the veterans, Regium escaped through the favour of Octavius (hence it took the name Regium Julium). It continued, however, to be a Greek city even under the Empire, and never became a colony. Towards the end of the Empire it was made the chief city of the Bruttii. Of ancient buildings hardly anything remains at Regium, and nothing of the archaic Greek period is in situ, except possibly the remains of a temple of Artemis Phacelitis, which have not yet been explored, though various inscriptions relative to it have been found. The museum, however, contains a number of terra-cottas, vases, inscriptions, &c., and a number of Byzantine lead seals. Several baths of the Greek period, modified by the Romans, have been found, and the remains of one of these may still be seen. A large mosaic of the 3rd or 4th century A.D. with representations of wild animals and the figure of a warrior in the centre was found in 1904 and covered up again. The aqueduct and various cisterns connected with it have been traced, and some tombs of the 5th or 4th century B.C. (or even later) were found in 1907. See Noli-ie degli scavi, passim; P. Larizza, Rhegium Chalcidense (Rome, 1905). (T As ) REGIUM DONUM, or ROYAL GIFT, an annual grant formerly made from the public funds to Presbyterian and other Non- conformist ministers in Great Britain and Ireland. It dates from the reign of Charles II., who, according to Bishop Burnet, after the declaration of indulgence of 1672 ordered sums of money to be paid to Presbyterian ministers. These gifts or pensions were soon discontinued, but in 1690 William III. made a grant of £i 200 a year to the Presbyterian ministers in Ireland as a reward for their services during his struggle with James II. Owing to the opposition of the Irish House of Lords the money was not paid in 1711 and some subsequent years, but it was revived in 1715 by George I., who increased the amount to £2000 a year. Further additions were made in 1784 and in 1792, and in 1868 the sum granted to the Irish Presbyterian ministers was £45,000. The Regium Donum was withdrawn by the act of 1869 which disestablished the Irish church. Pro- vision was made, however, for existing interests therein, and many Presbyterian ministers commuted these on the same terms as the clergy of the church of Ireland. In England the Regium Donum proper dates from 1721, when Dr Edmund Calamy (1671-1732) received £500 from the royal bounty " for the use and behalf of the poor widows of dissenting ministers." Afterwards this sum was increased to £1000 and was made an annual payment " for the assisting either ministers or their widows," and later it amounted to £1695 per annum. It was given to distributors who represented the three denomina- tions, Presbyterians, Baptists and Independents, enjoying the grant. Among the Nonconformists themselves, however, or at least among the Baptists and the Independents, there was some objection to this form of state aid, and in 1851 the chancellor of the exchequer announced that it would be withdrawn. This was done six years later. See J. Stoughton, History of Religion in England (1901) ; J. S. Reid, History of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland (Belfast, 1867) ; and E. Calamy, Historical Account of my own Life, edited by J. T. Rutt (1829-30). REGLA, formerly an important suburb of Havana, Cuba, opposite that city, on the bay; now a part of Havana. Pop. (1899) 11,363. It was formerly the scene of the Havana bull- fights. The church is one of the best in Cuba; the building dates substantially from 1805, but the church settlement goes back to a hermitage established in 1690. Regla is the shipping- point of the Havana sugar trade. It has enormous sugar and tobacco warehouses, fine wharves, a dry dock, foundries and an electric railway plant. It is the western terminus of the eastern line of the United Railways of Havana, and is connected with the main city of Havana by ferry. A fishing village was estab- lished here about 1733. At the end of the i8th century Regla was a principal centre of the smuggling trade, and about 1820 was notorious as a resort of pirates. It first secured an ayuntamiento (city council) in 1872, and after 1899 was annexed to Havana. REGNARD, JEAN FRANCOIS (1655-1709), French comic dramatist, was born in Paris on the 7th of February 1655. His father, a rich shopkeeper, died when Regnard was about twenty, leaving him master of a considerable fortune. He set off at once for Italy, and, after a series of romantic adventures, he journeyed by Holland, Denmark and Sweden to Lapland, and thence by Poland, Turkey, Hungary and Germany back to France. He returned to Paris at the end of 1683, and bought the place of treasurer of France in the Paris district; he had a house at Paris in the Rue Richelieu; and he acquired the small estate of Grillon near Dourdan in the department of Seine-et-Oise, where he hunted, feasted and wrote comedies. This latter amusement he began in 1688 with a piece called Le Divorce, which was performed at the Theatre Italien. In four slight pieces of the same nature he collaborated with Charles Riviere Dufresny. He gained access to the Theatre Francais on the 1 9th of May 1694 with a piece called Attendez-moi sous I'orme, and two years later, on the I9th of December 1696, he produced there the masterly comedy of Le Joueur. The idea of the play was evolved in collaboration with Dufresny, but the authors disagreed in carrying it out. Finally they each produced a comedy on the subject, Dufresny in prose, and Regnard in verse. Each accused the other of plagiarism. The plot of Regnard's piece turns on the love of two sisters for Valere, the gambler, who loves one and pretends to love the other, really deceiving them both, because there is no room for any other passion in his character except the love of play. Other of his plays were La Serenade (1694), Le Bourgeois de Falaise (1696), Le Distrait (1697), DSmocrite (1700), Le Retour imprevu (1700), Les Folies amoureuses (1704), Les Menechmes (1705), a clever following of Plautus, and his masterpiece, Le Lfgataire universel (1708). Regnard's death on the 4th of September 1709 renews the doubtful and romantic circumstances of his earlier life. Some hint at poison, but the truth seems to be that his death was hastened by the rate at which he lived. Besides the plays noticed above and others, Regnard wrote miscellaneous poems, the autobiographical romance of La Provenyde, and several short accounts in prose of his travels, published pos- thumously under the title of Voyages. Regnard had written a reply to the tenth satire of Boileau, Contre les femmes, and Boileau had retorted by putting Regnard among the poets depreciated in his epistle Sur mes vers. After the appearance of Le Joueur the poet altered his opinion and cut out the allusion. The saying attributed to Boileau when some one, thinking to curry favour, remarked that Regnard was only a mediocre poet, " // n'est pas mediocrement gai," is both true and very appropriate. His French style, especially in his purely prose works, is not considered faultless. He is often un- original in his plots, and, whether Dufresny was or was not justified in his complaint about Le Joueur, it seems likely that Regnard owed not a little to him and to others; but he had a thorough grasp of 46 REGNAULT, H.— REGNAULT DE SAINT JEAN D'ANGELY comic situation and incident, and a most amusing faculty of dia- logue. The first edition of Regnard's works was published in 1731 (5 vols., Rouen and Paris). There is a good selection of almost every- thing important in the Collection Didot (4 vols., 1819), but there is no absolutely complete edition. The best is that published by Crapelet (6 vols., Paris, 1822). A selection by L. Moland appeared in 1893. See also a Bibliographic et iconographie des ceuvres de J. F. Regnard (Paris, Rouquette, 1878); Le Poete J. F. Regnard en son chasteau de Grillon, by J. Guyot (Paris, 1907). REGNAULT, HENRI (1843-1871), French painter, born at Paris on the 3ist October 1843, was the son of Henri Victor Regnault (pi]v, the midriff), or the place where the kidneys are situated, hence the loins, also, figuratively, the seat of the emotions or affections, must be distinguished. REINACH, JOSEPH (1856- ), French author and politician, was born in Paris on the soth of September 1856. After leaving the Lycee Condorcet he studied for the bar, being called in 1887. He attracted the attention of Gambetta by articles on Balkan politics published in the Revue bleue, and joined the staff of the Republique franQaise. In Gambetta's grand ministere M. Reinach was his secretary, and drew up the case for a partial revision of the constitution and for the electoral method known as the scrutin de lisle. In the Republique franc,aise he waged a steady war against General Boulanger which brought him three duels, one with Edmond Magnier and two with Paul Deroulede. Between 1889 and 1898 he sat for the Chamber of Deputies for Digne. As member of the army commission, reporter of the budgets of the ministries of the interior and of agriculture he brought forward bills for the better treatment of the insane, for the establishment of a colonial ministry, for the taxation of alcohol, and for the repara- tion of judicial errors. He advocated complete freedom of the theatre and the press, the abolition of public executions, and denounced political corruption of all kinds. He was indirectly implicated in the Panama scandals through his father-in-law, Baron de Reinach, though he made restitution as soon as he learned that he was benefiting by fraud. But he is best known as the champion of Captain Dreyfus. At the time of the original trial he attempted to secure a public hearing of the case, and in 1897 he allied himself with Scheurer-Kestner to demand its revision. He denounced in the Siecle the Henry forgery, and Esterhazy's complicity. His articles in the Siecle aroused the fury of the anti-Dreyfusard party, especially as he was himself a Jew and therefore open to the charge of having undertaken to defend the innocence of Dreyfus on racial grounds. He lost his seat in the Chamber of Deputies, and, having refused to fight Henri Rochefort, eventually brought an action for libel against him. Finally, the " affaire " being terminated and Dreyfus pardoned, he undertook to write the history of the case, the first four volumes of which appeared in 1901. This was completed in 1905. In 1906 M. Reinach was re-elected for Digne. In that year he became member of the commission of the national archives, and next year of the council on prisons. Reinach was a voluminous writer on political subjects. On Gambetta he published three volumes in 1884, and he also edited his speeches. For the criticisms of the anti-Dreyfusard press see Henri Dutrait-Croyon, Joseph Reinach, historien (Paris, 1905), a violent criticism in detail of Reinach's history of the " affaire." His brother, the well-known savant, SALOMON REINACH (1858- ), born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 2gth of August 1858, was educated at the Ecole normale superieure, and joined the French school at Athens in 1879. He made valuable archaeological discoveries at Myrina near Smyrna in 1880-82, at Cyme in 1881, at Thasos, Imbros and Lesbos (1882), at Carthage and Meninx (1883-84), at Odessa (1893) and else- where. He received honours from the chief learned societies of Europe, and in 1886 received an appointment at the National Museum of Antiquities at St Germain; in 1893 he became assistant keeper, and in 1902 keeper of the national museums. In 1903 he became joint editor of the Revue archeologique, and in the same year officer of the Legion of Honour. The lectures he delivered on art at the Ecole du Louvre in 1902-3 were pub- lished by him under the title of Apollo. This book has been translated into most European languages, and is one of the most compact handbooks of the subject. His first published work was a translation of Schopenhauer's Essay on Free Will (1877), which passed through many editions. This was followed by many works and articles in the learned re- views of which a list — up to 1903 — is available in Bibliographic de S. R. (Angers, 1003). His Manuel de philologie classique (1880- 1884) was crowned by the French association for the study of Greek; his Grammaire latine (1886) received a prize from the Society of Secondary Education; La Necropole de Myrina (1887), written with E. Pottier, and Antiquites nationales were crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions. He compiled an important Re- pertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine (3 vols., 1897-98); also Repertoire de peintures du ntoyen age et de la Renaissance 1280-1580 (1905, &c.); Repertoire des vases feints grecs et etrusques (190°)- In 1905 he began his Cultes, mythes et religions; and in 1009 he published a general sketch of the history of religions under the title of Orpheus. He also translated from the English H. C. Lea's History of the Inquisition. A younger brother, THEODORE REINACH (1860- ), also had a brilliant career as a scholar. He pleaded at the Parisian bar in 1881-86, but eventually gave himself up to the study of numismatics. He wrote important works on the ancient kingdoms of Asia Minor — Trois royaumes de I'Asie Mineure, Cappadoce, Bithynie, Pont (1888), Mithridate Eupator (1890); also a critical edition and translation with H. Weil of Plutarch's Treatise on Music; and an Histoire des Israelites depuis la ruine de lew independance nalionale jusqu'a nos jours (2nd ed., 1901). From 1888 to 1897 he edited the Revue des etudes grecques. REINAUD, JOSEPH TOUSSAINT (1793-1867), French orien- talist, was born on the 4th of December 1795 at Lambesc, Bouches du Rhone. He came to Paris in 1815, and became a pupil of Silvestre de Sacy. In 1818-19 ne was at Rome as an attache to the French minister, and studied under the Maronites of the Propaganda, but gave special attention to Mahommedan coins. In 1824 he entered the department of oriental MSS. in the Royal Library at Paris, and in 1838, on the death of De Sacy, he succeeded to his chair in the: school of living oriental languages. In 1847 he became president of the Societe Asiatique, and in 1858 conservator of oriental MSS. in the Imperial Library. His first important work was his classical description of the collections of the due de Blacas (1828). To history he contributed an essay on the Arab in- vasions of France, Savoy, Piedmont and Switzerland (1836), and various collections for the period of the crusades; he edited (1840) and in part translated (1848) the geography of Abulfeda; to him too is due a useful edition of the very curious records of early Arab intercourse with China of which Eusebe Renaudot had given but an imperfect translation (Re- lation des voyages, &c., 1845), and various other essays illus- trating the ancient and medieval geography of the East. Reinaud died in Paris on the I4th of May 1867. REINDEER, in its strict sense the title of a European deer distinguished from all other members of the family Cervidae (see DEER), save those of the same genus, by the presence of antlers in both sexes; but, in the wider sense, including Asiatic and North American deer of the same general type, the latter of which are locally designated caribou. Reindeer, or caribou, constitute the genus -Rangifer, and are large clumsily built deer, inhabiting the sub- Arctic and Arctic regions of both hemispheres. As regards their distinctive features, the antlers are of a complex type and situated close to the occipital ridge of the skull, and thus far away from the sockets of the eyes, with the brow-tines in adult males palmated, laterally compressed, deflected towards the middle of the face, and often unsymmetrically developed. Above the brow-tine is developed a second palmated tine, REINECKE— REINHOLD which appears to represent the bez-tine of the red-deer; there is no trez-tine, but some distance above the bez the beam is suddenly bent forward to form an " elbow," on the posterior side of which is usually a short back-tine; above the back-tine the beam is continued for some distance to terminate in a*large expansion or palmation. The antlers of females are simple and generally smaller. The muzzle is entirely hairy; the ears and tail are short; and the throat is maned. The coat is unspotted at all ages, with a whitish area in the region of the tail. The main hoofs are short and rounded and the lateral hoofs very large. There is a tarsal, but no metatarsal gland and tuft. In the skull the gland-pit is shallow, and the vacuity of moderate size; the nasal bones are well developed, and much expanded at the upper end. Upper canines are wanting; the cheek-teeth are small and low-crowned, with the third lobe of the last molar in the lower jaw minute. The lateral metacarpal bones are represented only by their lower extremities; the importance of this feature being noticed in the article DEER. In spite of the existence of a number of more or less well-marked geographical forms, reindeer from all parts of the northern hemi- sphere present such a marked similarity that it seems preferable to regard them as all belonging to a single widespread species, of which most of the characters will be the same as those of the genus. American naturalists, however, generally regard these as distinct species. The coat is remarkable for its density and compactness; the general colour of the head and upper parts being clove-brown, with more or less white or whitish grey on the under parts and inner surfaces of the limbs, while there is also some white above the hoofs and on the muzzle, and there may be whitish rings round the eyes; there is a white area in the region of the tail, which includes the sides but not the upper surface of the latter ; and the tarsal tuft is gener- ally white. The antlers are smooth, and brownish white in colour, but the hoofs jet black. Albino varieties occasionally occur in the wild state. A height of 4 ft. 10 in. at the shoulder has been re- corded in the case o4 one race. The wild Scandinavian reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) may be re- garded as the typical form of the species. It is a smaller animal than the American woodland race, with antlers approximating to those of the barren-ground race, but less elongated, and with a distinct back-tine in the male, the brow-tines moderately palmated and frequently nearly symmetrical, and the bez-tine not exces- sively expanded. Female antlers are generally much smaller than those of males, although occasionally as large, but with much fewer points. The antlers make their appearance at an unusually early age. Mr Madison Grant considers that American reindeer, or caribou, may be grouped under two types, one represented by the barren- ground caribou R. tarandus arctir.us, which is a small animal with immense antlers characterized by the length of the beam, and the consequent wide separation of the terminal palmation from the brow-tine; and the other by the woodland-caribou (R. t. caribou), which is a larger animal with shorter and more massive antlers, in which the great terminal expansions are in approximation to the brow-tine owing to the shortness of the beam. Up to 1902 seven other American races had been described, four of which are grouped by Grant with the first and three with the second type. Some of these forms are, however, more or less intermediate between the two main types, as is a pair of antlers from Novaia Zemlia described by the present writer as R. t. pearsoni. The Scandinavian reindeer is identified by Mr Grant with the barren-ground type. Reindeer are domesticated by the Lapps and other nationalities of northern Europe and Asia, to whom these animals are all-im- portant. Domesticated reindeer have also been introduced into Alaska. See Madison Grant, " The Caribou," ?th Annual Report, New York Zoological Society (1902); J. G. Millais, Newfoundland and its Untrodden Ways (1908). (R. L.*) REINECKE, CARL HEINRICH CARSTEN (1824-1910), German composer and pianist, was born at Altona on the 23rd of June 1824; his father, Peter Reinecke (who was also his teacher), being an accomplished musician. At the age of eleven he made his first appearance as a pianist, and when scarcely eighteen he went on a successful tour through Denmark and Sweden. After a stay in Leipzig, where he studied under Mendelssohn and under Schumann, Reinecke went on tour with Konigslow and Wasielewski, Schumann's biographer, in North Germany and Denmark. From 1846 to 1848 Reinecke was court pianist to Christian VIII. of Denmark. After resigning this post he went first to Paris, and next to Cologne, as professor in the Con- servatorium. From 1854 to 1859 he was music director at Barmen, in the latter year filling this post at Breslau University; in 1860 he became conductor of the famous Leipzig Gewandhaus, a post which (together with that of professor at the Conserva- torium) he held with honour and distinction for thirty-five years. He finally retired into private life in 1902 and died in March 1910. During this time Reinecke continually made concert tours to England and elsewhere. His pianoforte playing belonged to a school now almost extinct. Grace and neatness were its characteristics, and at one time Reinecke was probably unrivalled as a Mozart player and an accompanist. His grand opera Konig Manfred, and the comic opera Auf hohen Befehl, were at one time frequently played in Germany; and his cantata Hakon Jarl is melodiously beautiful, as are many of his songs; while his Friedensfeier overture was once quite hack- neyed. By far his most valuable works are those written for educational purposes. His sonatinas, his " Kinder- garten " and much that he has ably edited will keep his name alive. REINHART, CHARLES STANLEY (1844-1896), American painter and illustrator, was born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and after having been employed in railway work and at a steel factory, studied art in Paris and at the Munich Academy under Straehuber and Otto. He afterwards settled in New York, but spent the years 1882-1886 in Paris. He was a regular exhibitor at the National Academy in New York, and contri- buted illustrations in black and white and in colours to the leading American periodicals. He died in 1896. Among his best-known pictures are: " Reconnoitring," " Caught Napping," " September Morning," " Mussel Fisherwoman," " At the Ferry," " Normandy Coast," " Gathering Wood," " The Old Life Boat," " Sunday," and " English Garden "; but it is as an illustrator that he is best known. REINHART, JOACHIM CHRISTIAN (1761-1847), German painter and etcher, was born at Hof in Bavaria in 1761, and studied under Oeser at Leipzig and under Klingel at Dresden. In 1789 he went to Rome, where he became a follower of the classicist German painters Carstens and Koch. He devoted himself more particularly to landscape painting and to aquatint engraving. Examples of his landscapes are to be found at most of the important German galleries, notably at Frankfort, Munich, Leipzig and Gotha. In Rome he executed a series of landscape frescoes for the Villa Massimi. He died in Rome in 1847. REINHOLD, KARL LEONHARD (1758-1823), German philosopher, was born at Vienna. At the age of fourteen he entered the Jesuit college of St Anna, on the dissolution of which (1774) he joined a similar college of the order of St Barnabas. Finding himself out of sympathy with monastic life, he fled in 1783 to North Germany, and settled in Weimar, where he became Wieland's collaborates on the German Mercury, and eventually his son-in-law. In the German Mercury he published, in the years 1786-87, his Briefe iiber die Kantische Philosophie, which were most important in making Kant known to a wider circle of readers. As a result of the Letters, Reinhold received a call to the university of Jena, where he taught from 1787 to 1794. In 1789 he published his chief work, the Versuch einer neuen Theorie des menschlichen Vorstellungsvermogens, in which he attempted to simplify the Kantian theory and make it more of a unity. In 1794 he accepted a call to Kiel, where he taught till his death in 1823, but his independent activity was at an end. In later life he was powerfully influenced by Fichte, and subsequently, on grounds of religious feeling, by Jacobi and Bardili. His historical importance belongs entirely to his earlier activity. The development of the Kantian standpoint contained in the " New Theory of Human Understanding " (1789), and in the Fundament des philosophischen Wissens (1791), was called by its author Elementarphilosophie. . " Reinhold lays greater emphasis than Kant upon the unity and activity of consciousness. The principle of consciousness tells us that every idea is related both to an object and a subject, and is partly to be distinguished, partly united to both. Since form cannot produce matter nor subject object, we are forced to assume a thing-in-itself. But this is a notion which is self-contradictory if consciousness be essentially a relating activity. There is there- REINKENS— REISKE 57 fore something which must bethought and yet cannot be thought" (Hoffding, History of Modern Philosophy, Eng. trans., vol. ii.). See R. Keil, Wieland und Reinhold (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1890); J. E. Erdmann, Grundriss der Geschichle der Philosophic (Berlin, 1866); histories of philosophy by R. Folckenberg and W. Windel- band. REINKENS, JOSEPH HUBERT (1821-1896), German Old Catholic bishop, was born at Burtscheid, near Aix-la-Chapelle, on the ist of March 1821, his father being a gardener. In 1836, on the death of his mother, he took to manual work in order to support his numerous brothers and sisters, but in 1840 he was able to go to the gymnasium at Aix, and he after- wards studied theology at the universities of Bonn and Munich. He was ordained priest in 1848, and in 1849 graduated as doctor in theology. He was soon appointed professor of ecclesi- astical history at Breslau, and in 1865 he was made rector of the university. During this period he wrote, among other treatises, monographs on Clement of Alexandria, Hilary of Poitiers and Martin of Tours. In consequence of an essay on art, especially in tragedy, after Aristotle, he was made doctor in philosophy in the university of Leipzig. When, in 1870, the question of papal infallibility was raised, Reinkens attached himself to the party opposed to the proclamation of the dogma. He wrote several pamphlets on church tradition relative to infallibility and on the procedure of the Council. When the dogma of infallibility was proclaimed, Reinkens joined the band of influential theologians, headed by Dollinger, who resolved to organize resistance to the decree. He was one of those who signed the Declaration of Nuremberg in 1871, and at the Bonn conferences with Orientals and Anglicans in 1874 and 1875 he was conspicuous. The Old Catholics having decided to separate themselves from the Church of Rome, Reinkens was chosen their bishop in Germany at an enthusiastic meeting at Cologne in 1873 (see OLD CATHOLICS). On the nth of August of that year he was consecrated by Dr Heykamp, bishop of Deventer. Reinkens devoted himself zealously to his office, and it was due to his efforts that the Old Catholic movement crystallized into an organized church, with a definite status in the various German states. He wrote a number of theological works after his consecration, but none of them so important as his treatise on Cyprian and the Unity of the Church (1873). The chief act of his episcopal career was his consecration in 1876 of Dr Edward Herzog to preside as bishop over the Old Catholic Church in Switzerland. In 1881 Reinkens visited England, and received Holy Communion more than once with bishops, clergy and laity of the Church of England, and in 1894 he defended the validity of Anglican orders against his co-religionists, the Old Catholics of Holland. He died at Bonn on the 4th of January 1896. See Joseph Hubert Reinkens, by his nephew, J. M. Reinkens (Gotha, 1906). REISKE, JOHANN JACOB (1716-1774), German scholar and physician, was born on the 25th of December 1716 at Zorbig in Electoral Saxony. From the Waisenhaus at Halle he passed in 1733 to the university of Leipzig, and there spent five years. He tried to find his own way in Greek literature, to which German schools then gave little attention; but, as he had not mastered the grammar, he soon found this a sore task and took up Arabic. He was very poor, having almost nothing beyond his allowance, which for the five years was only two hundred thalers. But everything of which he could cheat his appetite was spent on Arabic books, and when he had read all that was then printed he thirsted for manuscripts, and in March 1738 started on foot for Hamburg, joyous though totally unprovided, on his way to Leiden and the treasures of the Warnerianum. At Hamburg he got some money and letters of recommendation from the Hebraist Wolf, and took ship to Amsterdam. Here d'Orville, to whom he had an intro- duction, proposed to retain him as his amanuensis at a salary of six hundred guilders. Reiske refused, though he thought the offer very generous; he did not want money, he wanted manuscripts. When he reached Leiden (June 6, 1738) he found that the lectures were over for the term and that the MSS. were not open to him. But d'Orville and A. Schultens helped him to private teaching and reading for the press, by which he was able to live. He heard the lectures of A. Schultens, and practised himself in Arabic with his son J. J. Schultens. Through Schultens too he got at Arabic MSS., and was even allowed sub rosa to take them home with him. Ultimately he seems to have got free access to the collection, which he re-catalogued — the work of almost a whole summer, for which the curators rewarded him with nine guilders. Reiske's first years in Leiden were not unhappy, till he got into serious trouble by introducing emendations of his own into the second edition of Burmann's Petronius, which he had to see through the press. His patrons withdrew from him, and his chance of perhaps becoming professor was gone; d'Orville indeed soon came round, for he could not do without Reiske, who did work of which his patron, after dressing it up in his own style, took the credit. But A. Schultens was*iever the same as before to him; Reiske indeed was too independent, and hurt him by his open criticisms of his master's way of making Arabic mainly a handmaid of Hebrew. Reiske, however, himself admits that Schultens always behaved honourably to him. In 1742 by Schultens's advice Reiske took up medicine as a study by which he might hope to live if he could not do so by philology. In 1746 he graduated as M.D., the fees being remitted at Schultens's intercession. It was Schultens too who conquered the difficulties opposed to his graduation at the last moment by the faculty of theology on the ground that some of his theses had a materialistic ring. ' On the icth of June 1746 he left Holland and settled in Leipzig, where he hoped to get medical practice. But his shy, proud nature was not fitted to gain patients, and the Leipzig doctors would not recommend one who was not a Leipzig graduate. In 1747 an Arabic dedication to the electoral prince of Saxony got him the title of professor, but neither the faculty of arts nor that of medicine was willing to admit him among them, and he never delivered a course of lectures. He had still to go on doing literary task-work, but his labour was much worse paid in Leipzig than in Leiden. Still he could have lived and sent his old mother, as his custom was, a yearly present of a piece of leather to be sold in retail if he had been a better manager. But, careless for the morrow, he was always printing at his own cost great books which found no buyers. His academical colleagues were hostile; and Ernesti, under a show of friendship, secretly hindered his promotion. His unsparing reviews made bad blood with the pillars of the university. At length in 1758 the magistrates of Leipzig rescued him from his misery by giving him the rectorate of St Nicolai, and, though he still made no way with the leading men of the university and suffered from the hostility of men like Ruhnken and J. D. Michaelis, he was compensated for this by the esteem of Frederick the Great, of Lessing, Karsten Niebuhr, and many foreign scholars. The last decade of his life was made cheerful by his marriage with Ernestine Mtiller, who shared all his interests and learned Greek to help him with collations. In proof of his gratitude her portrait stands beside his in the first volume of the Oratores Graeci. Reiske died on the I4th of August 1774, and his MS. remains passed, through Lessing's mediation, to the Danish minister Suhm, and are now in the Copenhagen library. Reiske certainly surpassed all his predecessors in the range and quality of his knowledge of Arabic literature. It was the history, the realia of the literature, that always interested him; he did not care for Arabic poetry as such, and the then much praised Hariri seemed to him a grammatical pedant. He read the poets less for their verses than for such scholia as supplied historical notices. Thus for example the scholia on Jarir furnished him with a remarkable notice of the prevalence of Buddhist doctrine and asceticism in 'Irak under the Omayyads. In the Adnotationes historicae to his Abulfeda (Abulf. Annales Moslemici, 5 vols., Copenhagen, 1789-91), he collected a veritable treasure of sound and original research ; he knew the Byzantine writers as thoroughly as the Arabic authors, and was alike at home in modern works of travel in all languages and in ancient and medieval authorities. He was interested too in REJANE— RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE numismatics, and his jetters on Arabic coinage (in Eichhorn]s Repertorium, vols. ix.-xi.) form, according to De Sacy, the basis of that branch of study. To comprehensive knowledge and very wide reading he added a sound historical judgment. He was not, like Schultens, deceived by the pretended antiquity of the Yemenite Kasidas.1 Errors no doubt he made, as in the attempt to ascertain the date of the breach of the dam of Marib. Though Abulfeda as a late epitomator did not afford a starting- point for methodical study of the sources, Reiske's edition with his version and notes certainly laid the foundation for research in Arabic history. The foundation of Arabic philology, however, was laid not by him but by De Sacy. Reiske's linguistic knowledge was great, but he used it only to understand his authors; he had no feeling for form, for language as language, or for metre. In Leipzig Reiske worked mainly at Greek, though he continued to draw on his Arabic stores accumulated in Leiden. Yet his merit as an Arabist was sooner recognized than the value of his Greek work. Reiske the Greek scholar has been rightly valued only in recent years, and it is now recognized that he was the first German since Sylburg who had a living knowledge of the Greek tongue. His reputation, does not rest on his numerous editions, often hasty or even made to booksellers' orders, but in his remarks, especially his conjectures. He himself designates the Animadversationes in Scriptores Graecos as ftps ingenii sui, and in truth these thin booklets outweigh his big editions. Closely following the author's thought he removes obstacles whenever he meets them, but he is so steeped in the language and thinks so truly like a Greek that the difficulties he feels often seem to us to lie in mere points of style. His criticism is empirical and unmethodic, based on immense and careful reading, and applied only when he feels a difficulty ; and he is most successful when he has a large mass of tolerably homogeneous^literature to lean on, whilst on isolated points he is often at a loss. His corrections are often hasty and false, but a surprisingly large proportion of them have since received confirmation from MSS. And, though his merits as a Grecian lie mainly in his conjectures, his realism is felt in this sphere also ; his German translations especially show more freedom and practical insight, more feeling for actual life, than is common with the scholars of that age.2 For a list of Reiske's writings see Meusel, xi. 192 seq. His chief Arabic works (all posthumous) have been mentioned above. In Greek letters his chief works are Constantini Porphyrogeniti libri II. de ceremoniis aulae Byzant., vols. i. ii. (Leipzig, 1751-66), vol. iii. (Bonn, 1829) ; A nimadv. ad Graecos auctores (5 vols., Leipzig, 1751-66) (the rest lies unprinted at Copenhagen) ; Oratorum Grace, quae supersunt (8 vols., Leipzig, 1770-73); App. crit. ad Demosthenem (3 vols., ib., 1774-75) ; Maximus Tyr. (ib., 1774) ; Plutarchus (i I vols., ib., 1774-79) ; Dionys Italic. (6 vols., ib., 1774-77) ; Libanius (4 vols., Altenburg, 1784-97). Various reviews in the Ada eruditorum and Zuverl. Nachrichten are characteristic and worth reading. Compare D. Johann Jacob Reiskens von ihm selbst aufgesetzte Lebensbe- schreibung (Leipzig, 1783). (J. WE.) REJANE, GABRIELLE [CHARLOTTE REJU] (1857- ), French actress, was born in Paris, the daughter of an actor. She was a pupil of Regnier at the Conservatoire, and took the second prize for comedy in 1874. Her debut was made the next year, during which she played attractively a number of light — especially soubrette — parts. Her first great success was in Henri Meilhac's Ma camarade (1883), and she soon became known as an emotional actress of rare gifts, notably in Decore, Germinie Lacerteux, Ma cousine, Amour euse and Lysistrata . In 1892 she married M. Porel, the director of the Vaudeville theatre, but the marriage was dissolved in 1905. Her per- formances in Madame Sans Gene (1893) made her as well known in England and America as in Paris, and in later years she appeared in characteristic parts in both countries, being particularly successful in Zaza and La Passerelle. She opened the Theatre Rejane in Paris in 1906. The essence of French vivacity and animated expression appeared to be concentrated in Madame ^Rejane's acting, and made her unrivalled in the parts which she had made her own. RELAND, ADRIAN (1676-1718), Dutch Orientalist, was born at Ryp, studied at Utrecht and Leiden, and was professor of Oriental languages successively at Harderwijk (1699) and Utrecht (1701). His most important works were Palaestina ex veteribus monumentis illustrata (Utrecht, 17 14), and Anliquitates sacrae velerum Hebraeorum. (See also Burman, Traj. Erud., p. 296 seq.). 1 " Animadvers. criticae in Hamzae hist, regni Joctanidarum," in Eichhorn's Man. Ant. Hist. Ar.*iTj$. * For this estimate of Reiske as a Greek scholar the writer is in- debted to Prof. U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff. RELAPSING FEVER (Febris recurrens), the name given to a specific infectious disease occasionally appearing as an epidemic in communities suffering from scarcity or famine. It is char- acterized mainly by its sudden invasion, with violent febrile symptoms, which continue for about a week and end in a crisis, but are followed, after another week, by a return of the fever. This disease has received many other names, the best known of which are famine fever, seven-day, bilious relapsing fever, and spirillum fever. As in the case of typhoid, relapsing fever was long believed to be simply a form of typhus. The distinction between them appears to have been first clearly established in 1826, in connexion with an epidemic in Ireland. Relapsing fever is highly contagious. With respect to the nature of the contagion, certain important observations have been made (see also PARASITIC DISEASES). In 1873 Obermeier discovered in the blood of persons suffering from relapsing fever minute organisms in the form of spiral filaments of the genus Spirochaele, measuring in length ffa to -^3 inch and in breadth nitre to snips inch, and possessed of rotatory or twisting movements. This organism received the name of Spirillum obermeieri. Fritz Schaudinn has brought forward evidence that it is an animal parasite. The most constantly recognized factor in the origin and spread of relapsing fever is destitution; but this cannot be regarded as more than a predisposing cause, since in many lands widespread and destructive famines have prevailed without any outbreak of this fever. In- stances, too, have been recorded where epidemics were distinctly associated with overcrowding rather than with privation. Relapsing fever is most commonly met with in the young. One attack does not appear to protect from others, but rather, according to some authorities, engenders liability. The incubation of the disease is about one week. The symptoms of the fever then show themselves with great abruptness and violence by a rigor, accompanied with pains in the limbs and severe head- ache. The febrile phenomena are very marked, and the tempera- ture quickly rises to a high point (iO5°-iO7° Fahr.), at which it con- tinues with little variation, while the pulse is rapid (100-140), full and strong. There is intense thirst, a dry brown tongue, bilious vomiting, tenderness over the liver and spleen, and occa- sionally jaundice. Sometimes a peculiar bronzy appearance of the skin is noticed, but there is no characteristic rash as in typhus. There is much prostration of strength. After the continuance of these symptoms for a period of from five to seven days, the tem- perature suddenly falls to the normal point or below it, the pulse becomes correspondingly slow, and a profuse perspiration occurs, while the severe headache disappears and the appetite returns. Except for a sense of weakness, the patient feels well and may even return to work, but in some cases there remains a condition of great debility, accompanied with rheumatic pains in the limbs. This state of freedom from fever continues for about a week, when there occurs a well-marked relapse with scarcely less abruptness and severity than in the first attack, and the whole symptoms are of the same character, but they do not, as a rule, continue so long, and they terminate in a crisis in three or four days, after which convalescence proceeds satisfactorily. Second, third and even fourth relapses, however, may occur in exceptional cases. The mortality in relapsing fever is comparatively small, about 5% being the average death-rate in epidemics (Murchison). The fatal cases occur mostly from the complications common to continued fevers. The treatment is essentially the same as that for typhus fever. Lowenthal and Gabritochewsky by using the serum of an immune horse succeeded in averting the relapse in 40 % of cases. RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE, a philosophic term which was much used by the philosophers of the middle of the igth century, and has since fallen largely into disuse. It deserves explanation, however, not only because it has occupied so large a space in the writings of some great British thinkers, but also because the main question for which it stands is still matter of eager debate. We get at the meaning of the term most easily by considering what it is that " relativity " is opposed to. " Relativity " of knowledge is opposed to absoluteness or positiveness of knowledge. Now there are two senses in which knowledge may claim to be absolute. The knower may say, " I know this absolutely ,y> or he may say, "I know this absolutely." With the emphasis upon the " know " he asserts that his know- ledge of the matter in question cannot be affected by anything whatever. " I know absolutely that two and two are four " makes an assertion about the knower's intellectual state: he is convinced that his certain knowledge of the result of adding two to two is independent of any other piece of knowledge. With RELEASE— RELICS 59 the emphasis upon the object of knowledge, " I know this ," we have the other sense of absoluteness of knowledge: it is an assertion that the knower knows the " this," whatever it may be, in its essence or as it truly is in itself. The phrase " relativity of knowledge " has therefore two meanings: (a) that no portion of knowledge is absolute, but is always affected by its relations to other portions of knowledge; (b) that what we know are not absolute things in themselves, but things conditioned in their quality by our channels of knowledge. Each of these two propositions must command assent as soon as uncritical ignorance gives place to philosophic reflection; but each may be exaggerated, indeed has currently been exaggerated, into falsity. The simplest experience — a single note struck upon the piano — would not be what it is to us but for its relation by contrast or comparison with other experiences. This is true; but we may easily exaggerate it into a falsehood by saying that a piece of experience is entirely constituted by its relation to other experiences. Such an extreme relativity, as advocated by T. H. Green in the first chapter of his Prolegomena to Ethics, involves the absurdity that our whole experience is a tissue of relatioas with no points of attachment on which the relations depend. The only motive for advocating it is the prejudice of absolute idealism which would deny that sensation has any part whatever in the constitution of experience. As soon as we recognize the part of sensation, we have no reason to deny the common-sense position that each piece of experience has its own quality, which is modified indefinitely by the relations in which it stands. The second sense of relativity, that which asserts the impossi- bility of knowing things except as conditioned by our perceptive faculties, is more important philosophically and has had a more interesting history. To apprehend it is really the first great step in philosophical education. The unphilosophical person assumes that a tree as he sees it is identical with the tree as it is in itself and as it is for other percipient minds. Reflection shows that our apprehension of the tree is conditioned by the sense-organs with which we have been endowed, and that the apprehension of a blind man, and still more the apprehension of a dog or horse, is quite different from ours. What the tree is in itself — that is, for a perfect intelligence — we cannot, know, any more than a dog or horse can know what the tree is for a human intelligence. So far the relativist is on sure ground; but from this truth is developed the paradox that the tree has no objective existence at all and consists entirely of the conscious states of the perceiver. Observe the parallelism of the two paradoxical forms of relativity: one says that things are relations with nothing that is related; the other says that things are perceptive conditions with nothing objective to which the conditions apply. Both make the given nothing and the work of the mind everything. To see the absurdity of the second paradox of relativity is easier than to refute it. If nothing exists but the conscious states of the perceiver, how does he come to think that there is an objective tree at all ? Why does he regard his conscious states as produced by an object ? And how does he come to imagine that there are other minds than his own ? In short, this kind of relativity leads straight to what is generally known as " the abyss of solipsism." But, like all the great paradoxes of philosophy, it has its value in directing our attention to a vital, yet much neglected, element of experience. We cannot avoid solipsism (q.v.) so long as we neglect the element of force or power. If, as Hegel asserted, our experience is all knowledge, and if knowledge is indefinitely transformed by the conditions of knowing, then we are tempted to regard the object as super- fluous, and to treat our innate conviction that knowledge has reference to objects as a delusion which philosophical reflection is destined to dispel. The remedy for the paradox is to recognize that the foundation for our belief in the existence of objects is the force which they exercise upon us and the resistance which they offer to our will. What the tree is in regard to its specific qualities depends on what faculties we have for perceiving it. But, whatever specific qualities it may have, it will still exist as an object, so long as it comes into dynamic relations with our minds. In the history of thought the relativity of knowledge as just described begins with Descartes, the founder of modern philosophy: the characteristic of modern philosophy is that it lays more stress upon the subjective than upon the objective side of experience. It is a mistake to refer it back to the Greeks. The maxim of Protagoras, for example, " Man is the measure of all things," has a different purpose; it was meant to point to the truth that man rather than nature is the primary object of human study: it -is a doctrine of humanism rather than of relativism. To appreciate the relativistic doctrines we find in various thinkers we must take account of the use to which they were put. By Descartes the principle was used as an instrument of scepticism, the beneficent scepticism of pulling down medieval philosophy to make room for modern science; by Berkeley it was used to combat the materialists; by Hume in the cause of scepticism once more against the intellectual dogmatists; by Kant to prepare a justification for a noumenal sphere to be apprehended by faith; by J. S. Mill and Herbert Spencer to support their derivation ol all pur experience from sensation. It is in Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy that the classical statement of the Relativity of Knowledge is to be found. The second chapter of that book sets forth the various forms of the , doctrine with admirable lucidity and precision, and gives many references to other writers. For the sake of clearness it seems desirable to keep for the future the term " relativity of knowledge " to the first meaning explained above: for the second meaning it has been superseded in contem- porary philosophizing by the terms " subjectivism," " subjective idealism," and, for its extreme form, " solipsism " (q.v.). (H. ST.) RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare), freedom or deliverance from trouble, pain or sorrow, the freeing or discharge from some obligation or debt, the action of letting go or releasing something fixed or set in position. In law, the term is applied to the discharge of some obligation, by which it is extinguished (see DEBT), and to the conveyance of an estate or interest in real or personal property to one who has already some estate or interest therein. For the special form of conveyancing known as " lease and release," see CONVEYANCING. RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body), the name given in the Catholic Church to,(i) the bodies of the saints, or portions of them,(2) such objects as the saints made use of during their lives, or as were used at their martyrdom. These objects are held by the Church in religious veneration, and by their means it hopes to obtain divine grace and miraculous benefits (Cone. Trid. sess. 24). These ideas had taken shape, in all essentials, during the early days of the Church, underwent further development in the middle ages, and were maintained by the Catholic Church in the face of the opposition of the Reformers, while all the Protestant Churches rejected them. The origins of the veneration of relics lie in the anxiety for the preservation of the bodies of the martyrs. Nothing is more natural than that the pious solicitude felt by all men for the bodies of their loved ones should in the primitive Christian Churches have been turned most strongly towards the bodies of those who had met with death in confessing their faith. The account given by the church at Smyrna of the death of their bishop Polycarp (155) gives us an insight into these feelings. The church collected and buried the remains of the martyr, who had been burnt, in order duly to celebrate the anniversary of the martyrdom at the place of burial. The possession of the relics seemed to assure the continuation of the common life of the church with their bishop, of the living with the dead (Mart. Polyc. c. 17). The custom of which we have here for the first time an account had become universal by the $rd century. In all parts the Christians assembled on the anniversary of the martyrs' death at their graves, to celebrate the Agape and the Eucharist at this spot. It was a favourite custom to bury the dead near the graves of the martyrs; and it was the highest wish of many to " rest with the saints." It was the body lying in the tomb which was venerated (see Euseb. Hist. ecd. vii. n, 24; viii. 6, 7). But these customs soon underwent a further development. About the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century 6o RELICS it became customary for the bodies of the martyrs not to be buried, but preserved for the purpose of veneration. Already individual Christians began to possess themselves of portions of the bodies of martyrs, and to carry them about with them. Both these practices met with criticism and opposition, especially from the leading men of the Church. According to the testi- mony of Athanasius of Alexandria, the hermit Anthony decided that it should be held to be unlawful and impious to leave the bodies of the martyrs unburied (Vita Ant. 90). In Carthage the archdeacon and later the bishop Caecilianus severely blamed a certain Lucilla for carrying about with her a relic which she used to kiss before receiving the Eucharist (Optatus, De schism, Donat. i. 1 6). The compiler of the Ada S. Fructuosi, a Spanish ecclesi- astic, represents the martyred bishop as himself requesting the burial of his relics. But energetic as the opposition was, it was unsuccessful, and died out. For in the meantime opinion as to the efficacy of relics had undergone a transformation, parallel with the growth of the theory, which soon predominated in the Church, that material instruments are the vehicles of divine grace. When the Christians of Smyrna decided that the bones of the martyrs were of more worth than gold or gems, and when Origen (Exh. ad mart. 50) spoke of the precious blood of the martyrs, they were thinking of the act of faith which the martyrs had accomplished by the sacrifice of their life. Now, on the other hand, the relic came to be looked upon as in itself a thing of value as the channel of miraculous divine powers. These ideas are set forth by Cyril of Jerusalem. He taught that a certain power dwelt in the body of the saint, even when the soul had departed from it; just as it was the instrument of the soul during life, so the power passed permanently into it (Cat. xviii. 16). This was coming very near to a belief that objects which the saints had used during their life had also a share in their miraculous powers. And this conclusion Cyril had already come to (loc. cit.). We can see how early this estimate of relics became general from the fact that the former hesitation as to whether they should be venerated as sacred died out during the 4th century. The Fathers of the Greek Church especially were united in recommending the veneration of relics. All the great theologians of the 4th and sth centuries may be quoted as evidence of this: Eusebius of Caesarea (Praep. Ev. xiii.n), Gregory of Nazianzus (Oral, in Cypr. 17), Gregory of Nyssa (Oral, de S. Theod. mart.), Basil of Caesarea (Ep. ii. 197), Chrysostom (Laud. Drosidis), Theodoret of Cyrus (Inps. 67, n), &c. John of Damascus, the great exponent of dogma in the Sth century, gave expression to the result of a uniform development which had been going on for centuries when he taught that Christ offers the relics to Christians as means of salvation. They must not be looked upon as something that is dead; for through them all good things come to those who pray with faith. Why should it seem impossible to believe in this power of the relics, when water could be made to gush from a rock in the desert? (De fide orlhod. iv. 15). Such was the theory; and the practice was in harmony with it. Throughout the whole of the Eastern Church the veneration of relics prevailed. Nobody hesitated to divide up the bodies of the saints in order to afford as many portions of them as possible. They were shared among the inhabitants of cities and villages, Theodoret tells us, and cherished by everybody as healers and physicians for both body and soul (Decur.Graec. off. 8). The transition from the true relic to the hallowed object was especially common. Jerusalem, as early as the time of Eusebius, rejoiced in the possession of the .episcopal chair of James the Just (Hist. eccl. vii. 19) ; and as late as the 4th century was discovered the most important of the relics of Christ, the cross which was alleged to have been His. Cyril of Jerusalem already remarks that the whole world was filled with portions of the wood of the cross (Cat. iv. 10). The development which the veneration of relics underwent in the West did not differ essentially from that in the East. Here also the idea came to prevail that the body of the saint, or a portion of it^was possessed of healing and protective power (Paulinus of Nola, Poem. xix. 14 et seq., xxvii. 443). The objection raised by the Aquitanian presbyter Vigilantius (c. 400) to the belief that the souls of the martyrs to a certain extent clung to their ashes, and heard the prayers of those who ap- proached them, appeared to his contemporaries to be frivolous; and he nowhere met with any support. The only doubt which was felt was as to whether the bodies of the saints should be divided, and removed from their original resting-place. Both practices were forbidden by law under the emperor Theodosius I. (Cod. Theodos. ix. 17, 7), and the division of the bodies of martyrs into pieces was prohibited for centuries. Even Pope Gregory I., in a letter to the empress Constantia, disapproved it (Ep. iv. 30). Ambrose of Milan, by the discovery of the relics of Protasius and Gervasius (cf. Ep. 22 and Augustine, Confess, ix. 7), started in the West the long series of discoveries and translations of hitherto unknown relics. His example was followed, to name only the best known instances, by Bishop Theodore of Octodurum (now Martigny in the Vaud), who discovered the relics of the Theban legion which was alleged to have been destroyed by the emperor Maximian on account of its belief in the Christian faith (see Passio Acaun. Mart. 16), and by Clematius, a citizen of Cologne, to whom the virgin martyrs of this city revealed themselves (Kraus, Inschriften der Rheinlande, No. 294), after- wards to be known as St Ursula and her eleven thousand virgins. The West was much poorer in relics than the East. Rome, it is true, possessed in the bodies of Peter and Paul a treasure the virtue of which outshone all the sacred treasures of the East. But many other places were entirely wanting in relics. By the discoveries which we have mentioned their number was notably increased. But the longing for these pledges of the divine assistance was insatiable. In order to satisfy it relics were made by placing pieces of cloth on the graves of the saints, which were afterwards taken to their homes and venerated by the pilgrims. The same purpose was served by oil taken from the lamps burning at the graves, flowers from the altars, water from some holy well, pieces of the garments of saints, earth from Jerusalem, and especially keys which had been laid on the grave of St Peter at Rome. All these things were not looked upon as mementoes, but the conviction pre- vailed that they were informed by a miraculous power, which had passed into them through contact with that which was originally sacred (cf. Greg. Tur. De Glor. mart. i. 25; Greg. I. Ep. iv. 29, No. 30). A dishonest means of satisfying the craving for relics was that of forging them, and how common this became can be gathered from the many complaints about spurious reh'cs (Sulp. Sev. Vita Mart. 8; Aug. De op. man. 28; Greg. I. Ep. iv. 30, &c.). But in the long run these substitutes for relics did not satisfy the Christians of the West, and, following the example of the Eastern Church, they took to dividing the bodies of the saints. Medieval relics in the West also were mostly portions of the bodies of saints or of things which they had used during their lives. The veneration of relics also received a strong impulse from the fact that the Church required that a relic should be deposited in every altar. Among the first of those whom we know to have attached importance to the placing of relics in churches is Ambrose of Milan (Ep. 22), and the 7th general council of Nicaea (787) forbade the consecration of churches in which relics were not present, under pain of ex- communication. This has remained part of the law of the Roman Catholic Church. The most famous relics discovered during the middle ages were those of the apostle James at St Jago de Compostella in Spain (see PILGRIMAGE), the bodies of the three kings, which were brought from Milan to Cologne in 1164 by the emperor Frederick I. (Chron. reg. Colon, for the year 1164), the so- called sudarium of St Veronica, which from the i2th century onwards was preserved in the Capella Santa Maria ad praesepe of St Peter's in Rome (see Dobschiitz, Chrislusbilder,p. 218 seq.), and the seamless robe of Christ, the possession of which lent RELIEF— RELIGION 61 renown to the cathedral of Trier since the beginning of the I2th century (Gesta Trevir., Man. Germ. Scr. viii. p. 152). The number of relics increased to a fabulous extent dur- ing the middle ages. There were churches which possessed hundreds, even thousands, of relics. In the cathedral of Eichstatt were to be found, as early as 1071, 683 relics (Gundech, Lib. pont. Eist., Man. Germ. Scr. vii. p. 246 seq.); the monastery of Hirschau had 222 in the year 1091 (De cons. mai. mon., Man. Germ. Scr. xiv. p. 261); the monastery of Stedernburg 515 in the year 1166 (Ann. Sled. Scr. xvi. p. 212 seq.). But these figures are trifling compared with those at the end of the middle ages. In the year 1520 could be counted 19,013 in the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg, and 21,483 in the Schlosskirche at Halle in 1521 (Kostlin, Friedrich der W., und die Schlosskirche zu Wittenberg, p. 58 seq. ; Redlich, Cardinal Albrecht und das Neue Stifl zu Halle, p. 260). There were also collections on the same scale belonging to individuals; a patrician of Nuremberg named Muffel was able to gain pos- session of 308 relics (Chroniken der deutschen Stddte, xi. p. 745). It is curious that while the popular craving for relics had passed all bounds, medieval theology was very cautious in its declarations on the subject of the veneration of relics. Thomas Aquinas based his justification of them on the idea of reverent commemoration; since we venerate the saints, we must also show reverence for their relics, for whoever loves another does honour to that which remains of him after death. On this account it is our duty, in memory of the saints, to pay due honour to their relics and especially to their bodies, which were the temples and dwellings of the Holy Ghost in which He dwelt and worked, and which in the resurrection are to be made like to the body of Christ; and in likewise because God honours them, in that He works wonders in their presence (Summa theol. iii. qu. 25, art. 6). The great scholastic philo- sopher abandoned the theory that the relics in themselves are vessels and instruments of the divine grace and miraculous power. But these ideas were revived, on the other hand, by the Catholicism of the counter-Reformation, which again taught and teaches that God grants many benefits to mankind through the sacred bodies of the martyrs (Cone. Trid. sess. xxv.). The doctrine has adapted itself to the popular belief. (A. H.*) RELIEF (through Fr. from Lat. relevare, to lift up), an act of raising or lifting off or up. Apart from the general sense of a mitigation, cessation or removal of pain, sorrow, discomfort, &c., and the artistic use (It. relievo) of the projection of a figure or design in sculpture from the ground on which it is formed, which is treated below, the term " relief " is used in the following senses; it was one of the feudal incidents between lord and vassal, and consisted of a payment to the lord in kind or money made by the heir on the death of the ancestor for the privilege of succession, for, fiefs not being hereditary, the estate had lapsed to the lord; by this payment the heir caducum praedium relevabat (Du Cange, Gloss, s.v. Relevare). The word is also generally used, in law, for any exemption granted by a court from the strict legal consequences of an act, &c., e.g. to a parlia- mentary candidate from the penal consequences ensuing from breaches of the regulations of the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Acts. Relief is also the term used in English law for the assist- ance given to the indigent poor by the Poor Law authorities (see POOR LAW). RELIEF, a term in sculpture signifying ornament, a figure or figures raised from the ground of a flat surface of which the sculptured portion forms an inherent part of the body of the whole. The design may be in high relief — "alto-relievo"^.!'.), or low relief — " bas-relief" or "basso-relievo" (K. aheyovrfs (Homer, //. xvi. 388), heeding not the visitation of the gods, or ov yap KwcXonrts Aids . . . dXe'yowrij' (Od. ix. 275). The alternative derivation, from religare, to fasten, bind, is that adopted by Lactantius (Inst. iv. 28), " Vinculo pietatis obstricti, Deo religati sumus unde ipsa religio nomen cepit. " He quotes in support the line from Lucretius (i. 931), " religionum nodis animos exsolvere." Servius (on Virgil, Aen. viii. 349) and St Augustine (Retract, i. 13) also take religare as the source of the word. It is one that has certainly coloured the meaning of the word, particularly in that use which restricts 62 RELIGION [PRIMITIVE it to the monastic life with its binding rules. It also has appealed to Christian thought. Liddon (Some Elements of Religion, Lecture I. 19) says: " Lactantius may be wrong in his etymology, but he has certainly seized the broad popular sense of the word when he connects it with the idea of an obligation by which man is bound to an invisible God." Archbishop Trench (Study of Words) supposed that when " religion " became equivalent to the monastic life, and " religious " to a monk, the words lost their original meaning, but the Ancren Riwle, ante 1225, and the Cursor Mundi use the words both in the general and the more particular sense (see quotations in the New English Dictionary), and both meanings can be found in the Imitatio Christi and in Erasmus's Colloquia. (X.) The study of the forms of belief and worship belonging to different tribes, nations or religious communities has only recently acquired a scientific foundation. The Greek historians early directed their attention to the ideas and customs of the peoples with whom they were brought into contact; and Herodotus has been called the " first anthropologist of reli- gion." Theopompus described the Persian dualism in the 4th century B.C., and when Megasthenes was ambassador to the court of Chandragupta, 302 B.C., he noted the religious usages of the middle Ganges valley. The early Christian Fathers recorded many a valuable observation of the Gentile faiths around them from varying points of view, sympathetic or hostile; and Eusebius and Epiphanius, in the 4th century A.D., attributed to the librarian of Ptolemy Philadelphus the design of collecting the sacred books of the Ethiopians, Indians, Persians, Elamites, Babylonians, Assyrians, Romans, Phoenicians, Syrians and Greeks. The Mahommedan Biruni (b. A.D. 973) compared the doctrines of the Greeks, Christians, Jews, Manichaeans and Sufis with the philosophies and reli- gions of India. Akbar (1542-1605) gathered Brahmans and Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians and Mahommedans at his court, and endeavoured to get translations of their scriptures. In the next century the Persian author of the Dabistan exhibited the doctrines of no less than twelve religions and their various sects. Meanwhile the scholars of the West had begun to work. Thomas Hyde (1636-1703) studied the religion of the ancient Persians; John Spencer (1630-1693) analysed the laws of the Hebrews; and Lord Herbert of Cherbury (De Religione Gentilium, 1645) endeavoured to trace all religions back to five " truly Catholic truths " of primitive faith, the first being the existence of God. The doctrine of a primeval revelation survived in various forms for two centuries, and appeared as late as the Juventus Mundi of W. E. Gladstone (1868, p. 207 ff.). David Hume, on the other hand, based his essay on The Natural History of Religion (1757) on the conception of the development of human society from rude beginnings, and all modern study is frankly founded on the general idea of Evolution.1 The materials at Hume's command, however, were destined to vast and speedy expansion. The Jesuit missionaries had already been at work in India and China, and a brilliant band of English students, led by Sir William Jones and H. T. Colebrooke, began to make known the treasures of Sanskrit literature, which the great scholars of Germany and France proteeded to develop. In Egypt the discovery of the Rosetta stone placed the key to the hieroglyphics within Western reach; and the decipherment of the cuneiform character enabled the patient scholars of Europe tq recover the clues to the contents of the ancient libraries of Babylonia and Assyria. With the aid of inscriptions the cults of Greece and Rome have been largely reconstructed. Travellers and missionaries reported the beliefs and usages of uncivilized tribes in every part of the world, with the result that " ethnography knows no race devoid of religion, but only differences in the degree to which religious ideas have developed " (Ratzel, History of Mankind, i. 40). Meanwhile philosophy was at work on the problem of the religious consciousness. The great series of German thinkers, Lessing, Herder, Kant, Hegel, Fichte, Schleiermacher and their 1 This does not, of course, preclude the possibility of degeneration in particular instances. successors, sought to explain religion by means of the phenomena of mind, and to track it to its roots in the processes of thought and feeling. While ethnography was gathering up the facts from every part of the globe, psychology began to analyse the forms of belief, of action and emotion, to discover if possible the ' key to the multitudinous variety which history revealed. From the historical and linguistic side attention was first fixed upon the myth, and the publication of the ancient hymns of the Rig Veda led Max Miiller to seek in the common elements of Aryan thought for the secrets of primitive religion (essay on Comparative Mythology, 1856). The phenomena of day and night, of sunshine and storm, and other aspects of nature, were invoked by different interpreters to explain the conceptions of the gods, their origins and their relations. Fresh materials were gathered at the same time out of European folk-lore; the work begun by the brothers Grimm was continued by J. W. E. Mannhardt, and a lower stratum of beliefs and rites began to emerge into view beneath the poetic forms of the more developed mythologies. By such preliminary labours the way was prepared for the new science of anthropology. Since the appearance of Dr E. B. Tylor's classical treatise on Primitive Culture (1871), the study of the origins of religion has been pursued with the utmost zeal. Comte had already described the primitive form of the religious consciousness as that in which man conceives of all external bodies as animated by a life analogous to his own (Philos. Positive, tome v., 1841, p. 30). This has been since designated as polyzoism or panthelism or panviialism,2 and represents the obscure undifferentiated groundwork out of which Tylor's Animism arises. Many are the clues by which it has been sought to explain the secret of primitive religion. Hegel, before the anthropological stage, found it in magic. Max Miiller, building on philosophy and mythology, affirmed that " Religion consists in the perception of the infinite under such manifestations as are able to influence the moral character of man " (Natural Religion, 1899, p. 188). Herbert Spencer derived all religion from the worship of the dead (Principles of Sociology, i.), like Grant Allen, and Lippert in Germany. Mr Andrew Lang, on the other hand, supposes that belief in a supreme being came first in order of evolution, but was afterwards thrust into the background by belief in ghosts and lesser divinities (Magic and Religion, 1901, p. 224).' Dr Jevons finds the primitive form in totemism (Inlrod. to the History of Religion, 1896, chap. ix.). Mr J. G. Frazer regards religion (see his definition quoted below) as superposed on an antecedent stage of magic. In The Tree of Life (1905), Mr E. Crawley interprets it by the vital instinct, and connects its first manifestations with the processes of the organic life. The veteran Wilhelm Wundt (Mythus und Religion, ii. 1906, p. 177) recurs to the primitive conceptions of the soul as the source of all subsequent development. The origin of religion, however, can never be determined archaeologically or historically; it must be sought conjecturally through psychology. (J. E. C.) A . PRIMITIVE RELIGION There is a point at which the History of Religion becomes in its predominant aspect a History of Religions. The conditions that we describe by the comprehensive term " civilization " occasion a specification and corresponding differentiation of the life of societies; whence there result competing types of culture, each instinct with the spirit of propagandism and, one might almost say, of empire. It is an age of conscious selection as between ideal systems. Instead of necessitating a wasteful and precarious elimination of inadequate customs by the actual destruction of those who practise them — this being the method of natural selection, which, like some Spanish Inquisition, abolishes the heresy by wiping out the heretics one and all — progress now becomes possible along the more direct and less 2 Comte's own term " fetishism " was most unfortunately mis- leading (see FETISHISM). Marett proposed the term " Animalism," Folk Lore (1900), xi. p. 171. 3 See his treatise on The Making of Religion (1898), and Hartland's article on " The ' High Gods ' of Australia," Folk Lore (1898), ix. p. 290. PRIMITIVE] RELIGION painful path of conversion. The heretic, having developed powers of rational choice, perceives his heresy, to wit, his want of adaptation to the moral environment, and turning round embraces the new faith that is the passport to survival. Far otherwise is it with man at the stage of savagery — the stage of petty groups pursuing a self-centred life of inveterate custom, in an isolation almost as complete as if they were marooned on separate atolls of the ocean. Progress, or at all events change, does indeed take place, though very slowly, since the most primitive savage we know of has his portion of human intelligence, looks after and before, nay, in regard to the pressing needs of every day shows a quite remarkable shrewdness and resource. Speaking generally, however, we must pronounce him unprogressive, since, on the whole, unreflective in regard to his ends. It is the price that must be paid for social discreteness and incoherency. And the consequence of this atomism is not what a careless thinker might be led to assume, extreme diversity, but, on the contrary, extreme homogeneity of culture. It has been found unworkable, for instance, to classify the religions of really primitive peoples under a plurality of heads, as becomes necessary the moment that the presence of a dis- tinctive basis of linked ideas testifies to the individuality of this or that type of higher creed. Primitive religions are like so many similar beads on a string; and the concern of the student of comparative religion is at this stage mainly with the nature of the string, to wit, the common conditions of soul and society that make, say, totemism, or taboo, very much the same thing all the savage world over, when we seek to penetrate to its essence. This fundamental homogeneity of primitive culture, however, must not be made the excuse for a treatment at the hands of psychology and sociology that dispenses with the study of details and trusts to an a priori method. By all means let universal characterization be attempted — we are about to attempt one here, though well aware of the difficulty in the present state of our knowledge — but they must at least model themselves on the composite photograph rather than the impressionist sketch. An enormous mass of material, mostly quite in the raw, awaits reduction to order on the part of anthropological theorists, as yet a small and ill-supported body of enthusiasts. Under these circumstances it would be premature to expect agreement as to results. In regard to method, however, there is little difference of opinion. Thus, whereas the popular writer abounds in wide generalizations on the subject of primitive humanity, the expert has hitherto for the most part deliberately restricted himself to departmental investigations. Religion, for example, seems altogether too vast a theme for him to embark on, and he usually prefers to deal with some single element or aspect. Again, origins attract the litterateur; he revels in describing the transition from the pre-religious to the religious era. But the expert, confining his attention to the known savage, finds him already religious, nay, encumbered with religious survivals of all kinds; for him, then, it suffices to describe things as they now are, or as they were in the comparatively recent fore-time. Lastly, there are many who, being competent in some other branch of science, but having small acquaintance with the scientific study of human culture, are inclined to explain primitive ideas and institutions from without, namely by reference to various external conditions of the mental life of peoples, such as race, climate, food-supply and so on. The anthropological expert, on the other hand, insists on making the primitive point of view itself the be-all and end-all of his investi- gations. The inwardness of savage religion — the meaning it has for those who practise it — constitutes its essence and meaning likewise for him, who after all is a man and a brother, not one who stands really outside. In what follows, then, we shall, indeed, venture to present a wholesale appreciation of the religious idea as it is for primitive man in general; but our account will respect the modern anthropological method that bids the student keep closely to the actualities of the religious experience of savages, as it can with reasonable accuracy be gathered from what they do and say. We have sought to render only the spirit of primitive religion, keeping clear both of technicalities and of departmental investi- gations. These are left to the separate articles bearing on the subject. There the reader will find the most solid results of recent anthropological research. Here is he merely offered a flimsy thread that, we hope, may guide him through the maze of facts, but alas! is only too likely to break off short in his hand. Definition of Primitive Religion. — In dealing with a develop- ment of culture that has no immutable essence, but is intrinsically fluid and changing, definition must consist either in a 'definition of type, which indicates prevalence of relevant resemblance as between specimens more or less divergent, or in exterior defini- tion, which delimits the field of inquiry by laying down within what extreme limits this divergence holds. Amongst the numberless definitions of religion that have been suggested, those that have been most frequently adopted for working purposes by anthropologists are Tylor's and Frazer's. Dr E. B. Tylor in Primitive Culture (i), i. 424, proposes as a " minimum definition" of religion " the belief in spiritual beings." Objec- tions to this definition on the score of incompleteness are, firstly, that, besides belief, practice must be reckoned with (since, as Dr W. Robertson Smith has made clear in his Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, 18 sqq., ritual is in fact primary for primitive religion, whilst dogma and myth are secondary); secondly, that the outlook of such belief and practice is not exclusively towards the spiritual, unless this term be widened until it mean next to nothing, but is likewise towards the quasi- material, as will be shown presently. The merit of this defini- tion, on the other hand, lies in its bilateral form, which calls attention to the need of characterizing both the religious attitude and the religious object to which the former has refer- ence. The same form appears in Dr J. G. Frazer's definition in The Golden Bough (2nd ed.), i. 63. He understands by religion " a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life." He goes on to explain that by " powers" he means " conscious or personal agents." It is also to be noted that he is here definitely opposing religion to magic, which he holds to be based on the (implicit) assumption " that the course of nature is determined, not by the passions or caprice of personal beings, but by the operation of immutable laws acting mechani- cally." His definition improves'on Tylor's in so far as it makes worship integral to the religious attitude. By regarding the object of religion as necessarily personal, however, he is led to exclude much that the primitive man undoubtedly treats with awe and respect as exerting a mystic effect on his life. Further, in maintaining that the powers recognized by religion are always superior to man, he leaves unclassed a host of practices that display a bargaining, or even a hectoring, spirit on the part of those addressing them (see PRAYER). Threatening or beating a fetish cannot be brought under the head of magic, even if we adopt Frazer's principle {op. cit. i. 64) that to constrain or coerce a personal being is to treat him as an inanimate agent; for such a principle is quite inapplicable to cases of mere terrorism, whilst it may be doubted if it even renders the sense of the savage magician's typical notion of his modus operandi, viz. as the bringing to bear of a greater mana or psychic influence (see below) on what has less, and must therefore do as it is bidden. Such definitions, then, are to be accepted; if at all, as definitions of type, selective designations of leading but not strictly universal features. An encyclopaedic account, however, should rest rather on an exterior definition which can serve as it were to pigeon-hole the whole mass of significant facts. Such an exterior definition is suggested by Mr E. Crawley in The Tree of Life, 209, where he points out that " neither the Greek nor the Latin language has any comprehensive term for religion, except in the one Up&, and in the other sacra, words which are equivalent to 'sacred.' No other term covers the whole of religious phenojnena, and a survey of the complex details of various worships results in showing that no other conception will comprise the whole body of religious facts." It may be added that we have here no generalization imported from a RELIGION [PRIMITIVE higher level of culture, but an idea or blend of ideas familiar to primitive thought. An important consequence of thus giving the study of primitive religion the wide scope of a comparative hierology is that magic is no longer divorced from religion, since the sacred will now be found to be coextensive with the magico- religious, that largely undifferentiated plasm out of which religion and magic slowly take separate shape as society comes more and more to contrast legitimate with illicit modes of dealing with the sacred. We may define, then, the religious object as the sacred, and the corresponding religious attitude as con- sisting in such manifestation of feeling, thought and action in regard to the sacred as is held to conduce to the welfare of the community or to that of individuals considered as members of the community. Aspects of the Nature of the Sacred. — To exhibit the general character of the sacred as it exists for primitive religion it is simplest to take stock of various aspects recognized by primitive thought as expressed in language. If some, and not the least essential, of these aspects are quasi-negative, it must be remembered that negations — witness the Unseen, the Unknown, the Infinite of a more advanced theology — are well adapted to supply that mystery on which the religious consciousness feeds with the slight basis of conceptual support it needs, (i) The sacred as the forbidden. The primitive notion that perhaps comes nearest to our " sacred," whilst it immediately underlies the meanings of the Latin sacer and sanctus, is that of a taboo, a Polynesian term for which equiva- lents can be quoted from most savage vocabularies. The root idea seems to be that something is marked off as to be shunned, with the added hint of a mystic sanction or penalty enforcing the avoidance. Two derivative senses of a more positive import call for special notice. On the one hand, since that which is tabooed is held to punish the taboo-breaker by a sort of mystic infection, taboo comes to stand for un- cleanness and sin. On the other hand, since the isolation of the sacred, even when originally conceived in the interest of the profane, may be interpreted as self-protection on the part of the sacred as against defiling contact, taboo takes on the connotation of ascetic virtue, purity, devotion, dignity and blessedness. Primary and secondary senses of the term between them cover so much ground that it is not surprising to find taboo used in Polynesia as a name for the whole system of religion, founded as it largely is on prohibitions and abstin- ences. (2) The sacred as the mysterious. Another quasi- negative notion of more restricted distribution is that of the mysterious or strange, as we have it expressed, for example, in the Siouan wakan, though possibly this is a derivative meaning. Meanwhile, it is certain that what is strange, new or por- tentous is regularly treated by all savages as sacred. (3) The sacred as the secret. The literal sense of the term churinga, applied by the Central Australians to their sacred objects, and likewise used more abstractly to denote mystic power, as when a man is said to be " full of churinga," is " secret," and is symptomatic of the esotericism that is a striking mark of Australian, and indeed of all primitive, religion, with its insistence on initiation, its exclusion of women, and its strictly enforced reticence concerning traditional lore and proceedings. (4) The sacred as the potent. Passing on to positive conceptions of the sacred, perhaps the most fundamental is that which identifies the efficacy of sacredness with such mystic or magical power as is signified by the mana of the Pacific or orenda of the Hurons, terms for which analogies are forthcoming on all sides. Of mana Dr R. H. Codrington in The Melanesians, 119 «., writes: " It essentially belongs to personal beings to originate it, though it may act through the medium of water, or a stone, or a bone. All Melanesian religion consists . . . in getting this mana for oneself, or getting it used for one's benefit." E. Tregear's Maori- Polynesian Comparative Dic- tionary shows how the word and its derivatives are used to express thought, memory, emotion, desire, will — in short, psychic energy of all kinds. It also stands for the vehicle of the magician's energy — the spell; which would seem like- wise to be a meaning, perhaps the root-meaning, of orenda (cf. J. N. B. Hewitt, American Anthropologist, N.S., iv. 40). Whereas everything, perhaps, has some share of indwelling potency, whatever is sacred manifests this potency in an extra- ordinary degree, as typically the wonder-working leader of society, whose mana consists in his cunning and luck together. Altogether, in mana we have what is par excellence the primitive religious idea in its positive aspect, taboo representing its negative side, since whatever has mana is taboo, and what- ever is taboo has mana. (5) The sacred as the animate. The term " animism," which embodies Tylor's classical theory of primitive religion, is unfortunately somewhat ambiguous. If we take it strictly to mean the belief in ghosts or spirits having the " vaporous materiality " proper to the objects of dream or hallucination, it is certain that the agency of such phantasms is not the sole cause to which all mystic happenings are referred (though ghosts and spirits are everywhere believed in, and appear to be endowed with greater predominance as religious synthesis advances amongst primitive peoples). Thus there is good evidence to show that many of the early gods, notably those that are held to be especially well disposed to man, are conceived rather in the shape of magnified non- natural men dwelling somewhere apart, such as the Mungan- ngaur of the Kurnai of S.E. Australia (cf. A. Lang, The Making of Religion1, x. sqq.). Such anthropomorphism is with difficulty reduced to the Tylorian animism. The term, however, will have to be used still more vaguely, if it is to cover all attribution of personality, will or vitality. This can be more simply brought under the notion of mana. Mean- while, since quasi-mechanical means are freely resorted to in dealing with the sacred, as when a Maori chief snuffs up the sanctity his fingers have acquired by touching his own sacred head that he may restore the virtue to the part whence it was taken (R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, 165), or when un- cleanness is removed as if it were a physical secretion by washing, wiping and so forth, it is hard to say whether what we should now call a " material " nature is not ascribed to the sacred, more especially when its transmissibility after the manner of a contagion is the trait that holds the attention. It is possible, however, that the savage always distinguishes in a dim way between the material medium and the indwelling principle of vital energy, examples of a pure fetishism, in the sense of the cult of the purely material, recognized as such, being hard to find. (6) The sacred as the ancient. The prominence of the notion of the Alcheringa " dreamtime," or sacred past, in Central Australian religion illustrates the essential con- nexion perceived by the savage to lie between the sacred and the traditional. Ritualistic conservatism may be instanced as a practical outcome of this feeling. Another development is ancestor-worship, the organized cult of ancestors marking, however, a certain stage of advance beyond the very primitive, though the dead are always sacred and have mana which the living may exploit for their own advantage. The Activity of the Sacred. — The foregoing views of the sacred, though starting from distinct conceptions, converge in a single complex notion, as may be seen from the many-sided sense borne by such a term as wakan, which may stand not only for " mystery," but also for " power, sacred, ancient, grandeur, animate, immortal " (W J McGee, i^th Report of U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, 182). The reason for this convergence is that, whereas there is found great difficulty in characterizing the elusive nature of the sacred, its mode of manifesting itself is recognized to be much the same in all its phases. Uniform characteristics are the fecundity, ambiguity, relativity and transmissibility of its activity, (i) Fecundity. The mystic potency of the sacred is no fixed quantity, but is big with possibilities of all sorts. The same sacred person, object, act, will suffice for a variety of purposes. Even where a piece of sympathetic magic appears to promise definite results, or when a departmental god is recognized, there would seem to be room left for a more or less indefinite expectancy. It must be re- membered that the meaning of a rite is for the most part obscure PRIMITIVE] RELIGION to the participants, being overlaid by its traditional character, which but guarantees a general efficacy. " Blessings come, •evils go," may be said to be the magico-religious formula implicit in all socially approved dealings with the sacred, however specialized in semblance. (2) Ambiguity. Mystic potency, however, because of the very indefiniteness of its action, is a two-edged sword. The sacred is not to be approached lightly. It will heal or blast, according as it is handled with or without due circumspection. That which is taboo, for instance, the person of the king, or woman's blood, is poison or medicine according as it is manipulated, being inherently just a potentiality for wonder-working in any direction. Not but what primitive thought shows a tendency to mark off a certain kind of mystic power as wholly bad by a special name, e.g. the arungquiltha of Central Australia; and here, we may note, we come nearest to a conception of magic as something other than religion, the trafficker in arungquiltha being socially suspect, nay, liable to persecution, and even death (as amongst the Arunta tribe, see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of C. Australia, 536), at the hands of his fellows. On the other hand, wholly beneficent powers seem hardly to be recognized, unless we find them in beings such as Mungan-ngaur (" father-our" ), who derive an ethical character from their association with the initiation cere- monies and the moral instruction given thereat (cf. Lang, I.e.). (3) Relativity. So far we have tended to represent the activity of the sacred as that of a universal force, somewhat in the style of our " electricity" or " mind. " It remains to add that this activity manifests itself at numberless independent centres. These differ amongst themselves in the degree of their energy. One spell is stronger than another, one taboo more inviolable than another. Dr W. H. R. Rivers ( The Todas, 448) gives an interest- ing analysis of the grades of sanctity apparent in Toda religion. The gods of the hill-tops come first. The sacred buffaloes, their milk, their bells, the dairies and their vessels are on a lower plane; whilst we may note that there are several grades amongst the dairies, increase of sanctity going with elaboration of dairy ritual (cf. ibid. 232). Still lower is the dairyman, who is in no way divine, yet has sanctity as one who maintains a condition of ceremonial purity. (4) Transmissibility. If, however, this activity originates at certain centres, it tends to spread therefrom in all directions. Dr F. B. Jevons (in An Introduction to the History of Religion, vii.) distinguishes between " things taboo," which have the mystic contagion inherent in them, and " things tabooed," to which the taboo-infection has been transmitted. In the former class he places supernatural beings (including men with mana as well as ghosts and spirits), blood, new-born children with their mothers, and corpses; which list might be considerably extended, for instance, by the inclusion of natural portents, and animals and plants such as are strikingly odd, dangerous or useful. Any one of these can pass on its sacred quality to other persons and objects (as a corpse defiles the mourner and his clothes), nay to actions, places and times as well (as a corpse will likewise cause work to be tabooed, ground to be set apart, a holy season to be observed). Such transmissibility is commonly explained by the association of ideas, that becoming sacred which as it were reminds one of the sacred; though it is important to add, firstly, that such association takes place under the influence of a selective interest generated by strong religious feeling, and, secondly, that this interest is primarily a collective product, being governed by a social tradition which causes certain possibilities of ideal com- bination alone to be realized, whilst it is the chief guarantee of the objectivity of what they suggest. The Exploitation of the Sacred. A. Methods. — It is hard to find terms general enough to cover dealings with the sacred that range from the manipulation of an almost inanimate type of power to intercourse modelled on that between man and man. Primitive religion, however, resorts to either way of approach so indifferently as to prove that there is little or no awareness of an inconsistency of attitude. The radical contrast between mechanical and spiritual religion, though fundamental for modern theology, is alien to the primitive point of view, and is therefore inappropriate to the purposes of anthropological description, (i) Acquisition. Mystic power may be regarded as innate so far as skill, luck or queerness are signs and con- ditions of its presence. On the whole, however, savage society tends to regard it as something acquired, the product of acts and abstinences having a traditional character for imparting magico- religious virtue. An external symbol in the shape of a ceremony or cult-object is of great assistance to the dim eye of primitive faith. Again, the savage universe is no preserve of man, but is an open field wherein human and non-human activities of all sorts compete on more or less equal terms, yet so that a certain measure of predominance may be secured by a judicious combination of forces. (2) Concentration. Hence the magico- religious society or individual practitioner piles ceremony on ceremony, name of power on name of power, relic on relic, to consolidate the forces within reach and assume direction thereof. The transmissibility of the sacred ensures the fusion of powers drawn from all sources, however disparate. (3) Induction. It is necessary, however, as it were to bring this force to a head. This would appear to be the essential significance of sacrifice, where a number of sacred operations and instruments are made to discharge their efficacy into the victim as into a vat, so that a blessing-yielding, evil-neutralizing force of highest attainable potency is obtained (see H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice" in L' Annie sociologique, ii.). (4) Renovation. An important motif in magico-religious ritual, which may not have been without effect on the development of sacrifice, is, as Dr Frazer's main thesis in The Golden Bough asserts, the imparting of reproductive energy to animals, plants and man himself, its cessation being suggested by such phenomena as old age and the fall of the year. To concentrate, induce and renovate are, however, but aspects of one process of acquisition by the transfusion of a transmissible energy. (5) Demission. Hubert and Mauss show in their penetrating analysis of sacrifice that after the rite has been brought to its culminating point there follows as a pendant a ceremony of re-entry into ordinary life, the idea of which is preserved in the Christian formula lie, missa est. (6) Insulation. Such deposition of sacredness is but an aspect of the wider method that causes a ring-fence to be erected round the sacred to ward off casual trespassers at once in their own interest and to prevent contamination. We see here a natural outcome of religious awe supported by the spirit of esotericism, and by a sense of the need for an expert handling of that which is so potent for good or ill. (7) Direction. This last consideration brings to notice the fact that throughout magico-religious practice of all kinds the human operator retains a certain control over the issue. In the numberless transitions that, whilst connecting, separate the spell and the prayer we observe as the accompaniment of every mood from extreme imperiousness to extreme humility an abiding will and desire to help the action out. Even " Thy will be done " preserves the echo of a direction, and, needless to say, this is hardly a form of primitive address. At the bottom is the vague feeling that it is man's own self-directed mysterious energy that is at work, however much it needs to be reinforced from without. Meanwhile, tradition strictly prescribes the ways and means of such reinforcement, so that religion becomes largely a matter of sacred lore; and the expert director of rites, who is likewise usually at this stage the leader of society, comes more and more to be needed as an intermediary between the lay portion of the community and the sacred powers. B. Results. — Hitherto our account of primitive religion has had to move on somewhat abstract lines. His religion is, however, anything but an abstraction to the savage, and stands rather for the whole of his concrete life so far as it is penetrated by a spirit of earnest endeavour. The end and result of primitive religion is, in a word, the consecration of life, the stimulation of the will to live and to do. This bracing of the vital feeling takes place by means of imaginative appeal to the great forces man perceives stirring within him and about him, such appeal proving effective doubtless by reason of the psychological law that to conceive strongly is xxm. 3 66 RELIGION [PRIMITIVE to imitate. Meanwhile, that there shall be no clashing of conceptions to inhibit the tendency of the idea of an acquired " grace " to realize itself in action, is secured by the complete unanimity of public opinion, dominated as it is by an inveterate custom. To appreciate the consecrating effect of religion on primitive life we have only to look to the cAwwiga-worship of the Central Australians (as described by Spencer and Gillen in The Native Tribes of Central Australia and The Northern Tribes of Central Australia). Contact with these repositories of mystic influence " makes them glad " (Nat. Tr. 165) ; it likewise makes them " good," so that they are no longer greedy or selfish (North. Tr. 266); it endows them with second sight (ibid.) ; it gives them confidence and success in war (Nat. Tr. 135) ; in fact, there is no end to its "strengthening" effects (ibid. «.). Or, again, we may note the earnestness and solemnity that characterize all their sacred ceremonies. The inwardness of primitive religion is, however, non-existent for those who observe it as uninitiated strangers; whilst, again, it evaporates as soon as native custom breaks down under pressure of civilization, when only fragments of meaningless superstition survive: wherefore do travesties of primitive religion abound. It remains to consider shortly the consecration of life in relation to particular categories and departments, (i) Educa- tion. Almost every tribe has its initiation ceremonies, and in many tribes adult life may almost be described as a continuous initiation. The object of these rites is primarily to impart mystic virtue to the novice, such virtue, in the eyes of the primitive man, being always something more than social use- fulness, amounting as it does to a share in the tribal luck by means of association with all it holds sacred. Incidentally the candidate is trained to perform his duties as a tribesman, but religion presides over the course, demanding earnest endeavour of an impressionable age. (2) Government. Where society is most primitive it is most democratic, as in Australia, and magico-religious powers are possessed by the whole body of fully initiated males, age, however, conferring increase of sacred lore and consequently of authority; whilst even at this stage the experts tend to form an inner circle of rulers. The man with mana is bound to come to the top, both because his gifts give him a start and because his success is taken as a sign that he has the gift. A decisive " moment " in the evolu- tion of chiefship is the recognition of hereditary mana, bound up as this is with the handing on of ceremonies and cult-objects. Invested, as society grows more complex, with a sanctity in- creasingly superior to that of the layman, the priest-king becomes the representative of the community as repository of its luck, whilst, as controller of all sacred forces that bear thereon, he is, as Dr Frazer puts it, " dynamical centre of the universe" (The Golden Bough (2nd ed.), i. 233). Only when the holy man's duty to preserve his holiness binds him hand and foot in a network of taboos does his temporal power tend to devolve on a deputy. (3) Food-supply. In accordance with the principle of Renovation (see above), the root-idea of the appli- cation of religion to economics is not the extorting of boons from an unwilling nature, but rather the stimulation of the sources of life, so that all beings alike may increase and multiply. (4) Food-taking. Meanwhile, the primitive meal is always more or less of a sacrament, and there are many food-taboos, the significance of which is, however, not so much that certain foods are unclean and poisonous as that they are of special virtue and must be partaken of solemnly and with circum- spection. (5) Kinship. It is hard to say whether the unit of primitive society is the tribe or the group of kinsmen. Both are forms of union that are consolidated by means of religious usages. Thus in Australia the initiation ceremonies, concerned as they partly are with marriage, always an affair between the kin-groups, are tribal, whilst the totemic rites are the prime concern of the members of the totem clans. The significance of a common name and a common blood is immensely enhanced by its association with mystic rights and duties, and the pulse of brotherhood beats faster. (6) The Family. Side by side with the kin there is always found the domestic group, but the latter institution develops fully only as the former weakens, so that the one comes largely to inherit the functions of the other, whilst the tribe too in its turn hands over certain interests. Thus in process of time birth-rites, marriage-rites, funeral- rites, not to mention subordinate ceremonies such as those of name-giving and food-taking, become domestic sacraments. (7) Sex. Woman, for certain physiological reasons, is always for primitive peoples hedged round with sanctity, whilst man does all he can to inspire awe of his powers in woman by keep- ing religion largely in his own hands. The result, so far as woman is concerned, is that, in company with those males who are endowed with sacredness in a more than ordinary degree, she tends as a sex to lose in freedom as much as she gains in respect. (8) Personality. Every one has his modicum of innate mana, or at least may develop it in himself by com- municating with powers that can be brought into answering relation by the proper means. Nagualism, or the acquisition of a mystic guardian, is a widely distributed custom, the essence of which probably consists in the procuring of a personal name having potency. The exceptional man is recognized as having mana in a special degree, and a belief thus held at once by others and by himself is bound to stimulate his individuality. The primitive community is not so custom-bound that per- sonality has no chance to make itself felt, and the leader of men possessed of an inner fund of inspiration is the wonder- worker who encourages all forms of social advance. Psychology of the Primitive Attitude towards the Sacred. — We are on firmer ground when simply describing the phenomena of primitive religion than when seeking to account for these in terms of natural law — in whatever sense the conception of natural law be applicable to the facts of the mental life of man. One thing is certain, namely, that savages stand on virtually one footing with the civilized as regards the type of explanation appropriate to their beliefs and practices. We have no right to refer to " instincts " in the case of primitive man, any more at any rate than we have in our own case. A child of civilized parents brought up from the first amongst savages is a savage, neither more nor less. Though race may count for something in the matter of mental endowment — and at least it would seem to involve differences in weight of brain — it clearly counts for much less than does milieu, to wit, that social environment of ideas and institutions which depends so largely for its effectiveness on mechanical means of tradition, such as the art of writing. The outstanding feature of the mental life of savages known to psychologists as " primitive creduh'ty " is doubtless chiefly due to sheer want of diversity of suggestiveness in their intellectual surroundings. Their notions stick fast because there are no competing notions to dislodge them. Society suffers a sort of perpetual obsession, and remains self-hypnotized as it were within a magic circle of traditional views. A rigid orthodoxy is sustained by means of purblind imitation assisted by no little persecution. Such changes as occur come about, not in conse- quence of a new direction taken by conscious policy, but rather in the way that fashions in dress alter amongst ourselves, by subconscious, hardly purposive drifting. The crowd rather than the individual is the thinking unit. A proof is the mysterious rapid extinction of savages the moment that their group-life is broken up; they are individually so many lost sheep, without self-reliance or initiative. And the thinking power of a crowd — that is, a mob, not a deliberative assembly — is of a very low order, emotion of a " panicky " type driving it hither and thither like a rudderless ship. However, as the students of mob-psychology have shown, every crowd tends to have its meneur, its mob-leader, the man who sets the cheering or starts the running-away. So too, then, with the primitive society. Grossly ignorant of all that falls outside " the daily round, the common task," they are full of panicky fears in regard to this unknown, and the primary attitude of society towards it is sheer avoidance, taboo. But the mysterious has another face. To the mob the mob-leader is mysterious in his power of bringing luck and salvation; to himself also he is a wonder, since he wills, and lo ! things happen accordingly. He has HIGHER RELIGIONS] RELIGION 67 mana, power, and by means of this mana, felt inwardly by himself, acknowledged by his fellows, he stems the social impulse to run away from a mystery. Not without nervous dread — witness the special taboo to which the leader of society is subject — he draws near and strives to constrain, conciliate or cajole the awful forces with which the life of the group is set about. He enters the Holy of Holies; the rest remain without, and are more than half afraid of their mediator. In short, from the standpoint of lay society, the manipulator of the sacred is himself sacred, and shares in all the associations of sacred- ness. An anthropomorphism which is specifically a " mago- morphism " renders the sacred powers increasingly one with the governing element in society, and religion assumes an ethico- political character, whilst correspondingly authority and law are invested with a deeper meaning. The Abuse of the Sacred. — Lest our picture of primitive religion appear too brightly coloured, a word must be said on the perversions to which the exploitation of the sacred is liable. Envy, malice and uncharitableness are found in primitive society, as elsewhere, and in their behoof the mystic forces are not unfrequently unloosed by those who know how to do so. To use the sacred to the detriment of the community, as does, for instance, the expert who casts a spell, or utters a prayer, to his neighbour's hurt, is what primitive society understands by magic (cf. arungquillha, above), and anthropology has no business to attach any other meaning to the word if it under- takes to interpret the primitive point of view. On the other hand, if those in authority perpetrate in the name of what their society holds sacred, and therefore with its full approval, acts that to the modern mind are cruel, silly or revolting, it is bad science and bad ethics to speak of vice and degradation, unless it can be shown that the community in which these things occur is thereby brought nearer to elimination in the struggle for existence. As a matter of fact, the earlier and more demo- cratic types of primitive society, uncontaminated by our civilization, do not present many features to which the modern conscience can take exception, but display rather the edifying spectacle of religious brotherhoods encouraging themselves by mystical communion to common effort. With the evolution of rank, however, and the concentration of magico-religious power in the hands of certain orders, there is less solidarity and more individualism, or at all events more opportunity for sectional interests to be pursued at other than critical times; whereupon fraud and violence are apt to infect religion. Indeed, as the history of the higher religions shows, religion tends in the end to break away from secular government with its aristocratic traditions, and to revert to the more democratic spirit of the primitive age, having by now obtained a clearer consciousness of its purpose, yet nevertheless clinging to the inveterate forms of human ritual as still adequate to symbolize the consecration of life — the quickening of the will to face life earnestly. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The number of works dealing with primitive religion is endless. The English reader who is more or less new to the subject is recommended to begin with E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (4th ed., Lond. 1903), and then to proceed to J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (2nd ed., Lond. 1900). The latter author's Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (Lond. 1905) may also be consulted. Only second in importance to the above are W. Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (2nd ed., Lond. 1904); A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion (2nd ed., Lond. 1899), and Magic and Religion (Lond. 1902); E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (Lond. 1894-1896) ; F. B. Jevons, An Introduction to the History of Religion (2nd ed., 1902); E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose (Lond. 1902), and The Tree of Life (Lond. 1905). The two last- mentioned works perhaps most nearly represent the views taken in the text, which are also developed by the present writer in " Pre- Animistic Religion," Folk-Lore xi. (1900), " From Spell to Prayer," Folk-Lore, xv. (1904), and " Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" Anthropo- logical Essays presented to E. B. Tylor (1907); L. R. Farnell, The Evolution of Religion (1905), follows similar lines. The present writer owes something to Goblet d'Alviella, Hibbert Lectures (Lond. 1891), and more to H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice," L'Annee sociologique, ii. ; and " Esquisse d'unc th6orie g6ne>ale de la magie," ibid. vii. If the reader wish to keep pace with the output of literature on this vast subject, he will find L'Annee sociologique (1896 onwards) a wonderfully complete bibliographical guide. Side by side with works of general theory, first-hand authorities should be freely used. To make a selection from these is not easy, but the following at least are very important: R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891); W. B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia (Lond. 1899); The Northern Tribes of Central Australia (Lond. 1904); A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-Eastern Australia (Lond. 1904); A. C. Haddon, Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits (Cambridge, 1904, vol. v.); A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-Speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (Lond. 1897); The Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (Lond. 1890); The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (Lond. 1894); Miss M. H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa (Lond. 1898), and West African Studies (Lond. 1899); A. C. Hollis, The Masai (1905); W. Crooke, The North-West Pro- vinces of India (Lond. 1897); W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas (1906). An immense amount of valuable evidence is to be obtained in the Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington. See Nos. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, n, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, and specially J. O. Dorsey, A Study of Siouan Cults, in No. n ; A. C. Fletcher, The Hako, in No. 22; and M. C. Stevenson, The Zuni Indians, in No. 23. Though dealing primarily with a more advanced culture, J. J. M.deGroot, The Religious System of China (1892-1901), will be found to throw much light on primitive ideas. Finally let it be repeated that there is offered here no more than an introduc- tory course of standard authorities suitable for the English reader. (R. R. M.) B. THE HIGHER RELIGIONS Various phenomena associated with the religions of the lower culture will be found discussed in the articles on ANIMISM; FETISHISM; MAGIC; MYTHOLOGY; PRAYER; RITUAL; SACRIFICE; and TOTEMISM. In this article religions .are treated from the point of view of morphology, and no attempt can be made in the allotted limits to connect them with the phases of ritual, sociological or ethical development. See the separate articles on each religious system, and the separate headings for different forms of ritual. i. Developments oj Animism. — Animism is not, indeed, itself a religion; it is rather a primitive kind of philosophy which provides the intellectual form for the interpretation alike of Man and of Nature. It implies that the first great step has been taken for distinguishing between the material objects — whether the conscious body, or the rocks, trees and animals — and the powers that act in or through them. The Zunis of New Mexico, U.S.A., supposed " the sun, moon and stars, the sky, earth and sea, in all their phenomena and elements, and all inanimate objects as well as plants, animals and men, to belong to one great system of all-conscious and interrelated life, in which the degrees of relationship seem to be deter- mined largely, if not wholly, by the degrees of resemblance."1 If the earliest conception is that of an obscure undifferentiated animation (panvitalism) , the analysis of the human person into body and spirit with the corresponding doctrine of " object- souls " (e.g. the tornait or " invisible rulers " of every object among the Eskimo)2 constitutes an important development. Matter is no longer animated or self-acting; it is subject to the will of an agent which can enter or quit it, perhaps at its own pleasure, perhaps at the compulsion of another. The transition has usually been effected ages before the higher religions come into view; but it has left innumerable traces in language and custom. Thus the Vedic hymns, which ex- hibit the deposits of so many stages of thought, are founded ultimately on the conception of the animation of nature. The objects of the visible world are themselves mighty to hurt or help. The springs and rivers, the wind, the sun, fire, the Earth-Mother, the Sky-Father, are all active powers. The animals, domesticated or wild, like the horse or cow, the guardian dog, the bird of omen, naturally share the same life, and are approached with the same invocation. The sacred energy is also discerned in the ritual implements, in the stones for squeezing the soma-juice, and the sacrificial post to which animals were bound; nay, it was even recognized in fabricated products like the plough (the " tearer " or " divider "), the 1 F. H. Gushing, on " Zuni Fetiches " in Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1883, p. 9. 2 Dr. Franz Boas, in the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1888, p. 591. 68 RELIGION [HIGHER RELIGIONS war-car, the drum, quiver, bow and axe. The Earth-Mother and Sky-Father are to be found again and again in religions, at various stages of development, as co-ordinating conceptions which comprehend the universe.1 Sometimes one is more prominent, sometimes the other. In many cases the Sky has been already resolved into the visible firmament and its lord and owner, like the Yoruban Olorun or the Finnic Ukko. The consort of Ukko is Maan-emo, " mother of the earth," or maan emantii, " mistress of the earth." But the rare expression maan-emS, " Mother-earth," still used in the ancient lays,2 points to the older type of belief in the animation of the pro- ductive soil. So the Peruvians designated the Earth as Pacha- mama, " mother of (all) things." In Egypt the relation was curiously reversed; the earth-god Keb was the husband of Nut, the sky, represented sometimes as a woman, overarching the earth and supported on hands and feet, sometimes as a gigantic cow, upheld on the outstretched hands of Shu, the atmosphere.3 When earth and sky were still unseparated, Shu thrust himself between them and raised Nut to the heights. So in the New Zealand myth, Rangi and Papa, Sky and Earth, who once clave together in the darkness, were rent asunder by the forest-god Tane-mahuta, who forced up the sky far above him.4 The most elaborate presentment of this mode of thought is to be seen in the organized animism of the ancient state religion of China, where the supreme power is lodged in the living sky (Tien).6 Tien was originally the actual firma- ment. In the Shi-King it is addressed in prayer as " great and wide," as " vast and distant "; it is even " blue " (Pt. II. v. 6, 5). So it is the ancestor of all things; and Heaven and Earth are the father and mother of the world. From the imperial point of view the sky bore the name of Ti, " ruler," or Shang Ti, "supreme ruler" (emperor); and later com- mentators readily took advantage of this to discriminate between the visible expanse and the indwelling spirit, producing a kind of Theism. But the older conception still holds its own. " Why " (says Edkins, Religion in China, 95), " they have been often asked, should you speak of those things which are dead matter, fashioned from nothing by the hand of God, as living beings? And why not? they have replied. The Sky pours down rain and sunshine; the Earth produces corn and grass. We see them in perpetual movement, and we therefore say that they are living." Tien Ti, Fu Mu, " Heaven and Earth, Father and Mother," are conjoined in common speech, and are the supreme objects of imperial worship. The great altar to Heaven, round in shape like the circuit of the sky, and white as the symbol of the light principle (Yang), stands in the southern suburb of Peking in the direction of light and heat. The altar to the Earth is dark and square, on the north side of the city, the region of yin, the principle of cold and gloom. Associated with the Sky are tablets to the sun and moon, the seven stars of the Great Bear, the five planets, the twenty-eight constellations, and all the stars of heaven; tablets to clouds, rain, wind and thunder being placed next to that of the moon. With the Earth are grouped the tablets to the five lofty Mountains, the three Hills of perpetual peace and the four Seas, the five celebrated Mountains and the four great Rivers.6 The ancient ritual (Chow Li) carefully graded the right of sacrifice from the viceroys of provinces down to the humblest district-superintendent who offered to the spirits of his district, the hills, lakes and grains. With these spirits ranged in feudal order in two vast groups beneath Heaven and Earth is associated a third class, those of human beings. They are designated by the same name, shin; and they are in- 1 The Japanese name is Ame-tsuchi, " heaven and earth," a trans- lation of the Chinese ten-chi, Aston, Shinto (1905), p. 35. 2 Castren, Finnische Mythologie, p. 86. 8 Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion (1907), pp. 8, 12. 4 Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology (1855), pp. 1-4. 6 The English " Heaven " has acquired a quasi-personal mean- ing, and is usually employed as its equivalent, but, like the Jewish use (e.g. Luke xv. 18), tends to carry too definite religious associa- tions with it. • Blodget, on " The Chinese Worship of Heaven and Earth," Journ. of the American Oriental Society, xx. p. 58 ff. extricably mingled with the operations of nature. So in the Vedic hymns the departed " Fathers " inhabit the three zones of earth, air and sky; they are invoked with the streams and mountains of this lower earth, as well as with the dawns and the sky itself; even cosmic functions are ascribed to them; and they adorn the heaven with stars. The Chinese concep- tion of the Shin under the name of Shin-to (Chinese too) or " spirits'-way " profoundly influenced Japanese thought from the 6th century A.D. onwards; and the great Shinto revival of the i8th century brought the doctrine again into prominence. The Japanese Kami are the " higher " powers, the superi, conceived as acting through nature on the one hand and govern- ment on the other. Just as the emperor is kami , and provincial officers of rank, so also mountains, rivers, the sea, thunder, winds, and even animals like the tiger, wolf or fox, are all kami.1 The spirits of the dead also become kami, of varying character and position; some reside in the temples built in their honour; some hover near their tombs; but they are constantly active,. mingling in the vast multitude of agencies which makes every event in the universe, in the language of Motowori (1730-1801), the act of the Kami. They direct the changing seasons, the wind and the rain; and the good and bad fortunes of individuals, families and states are due to them.8 Everywhere from birth to death the entire life of man is encompassed and guided by the Kami, which are sometimes reckoned at 8,000,000 in number. 2. Transition to Polytheism. — In such ways does the Poly- daemonism of early faith survive in the modern practice of religion. The process of enrolling the spirits of the dead in the ranks of what may be more or less definitely called " gods " may be seen in the popular usages of India at the present day, or traced in the pages of the Peking Gazette under the direction of the Board of Rites, one of the most ancient branches of Chinese administration. Whether the higher polytheisms were produced in this fashion out of the cultus of the dead, may, however, be doubted. Many influences have doubtless contri- buted,' and different races have followed different lines of development. No definite succession like the series of ages marked by the use of stone, bronze and iron can be clearly marked. But there must always have been some correspondence between the stages of social advance (or, in certain cases, of degeneration) and the religious interpretation of the world. The formation of clans and tribes, the transitions from the hunting to the pastoral life, and from the pastoral to the agricultural— the struggle with forest and swamp, the clearings for settlement, the protection of the dwelling-place, the safety of flocks and herds, the production of corn, — the migration of peoples, the founding of colonies, the processes of conquest, fusion, and political union — have all reacted on the elaboration of the higher polytheisms, before bards and poets, priesthoods and theological speculators, began to systematize and regulate the relations of the gods. Certain phases of thought may be more or less clearly indicated ; certain elements of race, of local condition, of foreign contact, may be distinguished with more or less historic probability; but no single key can explain , all the wide diversity of phenomena. Broadly speaking it may be said that a distinction may be drawn between " spirits " and " gods," but it is a distinction of degree rather than of kind,. obvious enough at the upper end, yet shading off into manifold varieties of resemblance in the lower forms. Some writers. only recognize friendly agencies as gods; but destructive powers like the volcano, or the lords of the underworld, cannot be regarded as the protectors of the life of man, yet they seem in many mythologies to attain the full personalised stature of gods with definite names. Early Greek religion recognized a class of gods of Aversion and Riddance, ATrorpoirotot and ioi. Neither the spirit nor the god is conceived as ' So the epithet 'el might be applied in Hebrew to men of might, to lofty cedars, or mountains of unusual height, as well as to the Supreme Being. 8 See E. M. Satow, " Revival of Pure Shinto, Trans. As. 6oc. of Japan, vol. iii. pt. I (1875), Appendix, p. 26. HIGHER RELIGIONS] RELIGION 69 immaterial. They can take food, though the crudest form of this belief soon passes into the more refined notion that they consume the impalpable essence of the meals provided for them. The ancient Indian ritual for the sacrifice to the Fathers required the officiating priest to turn away with bated breath that he might not see the spirits engaged upon the rice-balls laid out for them. The elastic impalpable stufi of the spirit-body is apparently capable of compression or expansion, just as Athena can transform herself into a bird. The spirits can pass swiftly through the air or the water; they can enter the stone or the tree, the animal or the man. The spirit-land of the Ibo on the Lower Niger had its rivers, forests or hills, its towns and roads, as upon earth:1 the spirits of the Mordvinian mythology, created by Chkai, not only resembled men, they even possessed the faculty of reproduction by multiplication.2 The Finns ascribed a haltia or genius to each object, which could, how- ever, guard other individuals of the same species. This is the beginning of the species-god, and implies a step of thought comparable to the production in language of general terms. These protecting spirits were free beings, having form and shape, but not individualized; while above them rose the higher deities like the forest-god Tapio and his maiden Hillervo, protectress of herds, or Ahto the water-god who gradually took the place of Vesi, the actual element originally conceived as itself divine, and ruled over the spirits of lakes and rivers, wells and springs.3 The Finns came to apply to the upper gods the term Yumala which originally denoted the living sky; the Samoyedes made the same use of Num, and the Mongols of Tengri.4 Above the innumerable wongs of the Gold Coast rose Nyongmo, the Sky-god, giver of the sunshine and the rain. The Yoruba-speaking peoples generalized the spirits of mountain and hill into Oke, god of heights; and the multitude of local sea-gods on the western half of the slave coast was fused into one god of the Ocean, Olokun. 6 The Babylonian theology recognized a Zi or " spirit " in both men and gods, somewhat resembling the Egyptian " double " or ka; spirits are classed as spirits of heaven and spirits of earth; but the original identity of gods and spirits may be inferred from the fact that the same sign stands before the names of both.6 Out of the vast mass of undifferentiated powers certain functional deities appear; and the Kami of Japan to-day who preside over the gilds and crafts of industry and agriculture, over the trees and grasses of the field, the operations of the household, and even the kitchen- range, the saucepan, the rice-pot, the well, the garden, the scarecrow and the privy, have their counterparts in the lists of ancient Rome, the indigitamenta over whose contents Tertullian and Augustine made merry. The child was reared under the superintendence of Educa and Potina. Abeona and Adeona taught him to go out and in. Cuba guarded him when he was old enough to exchange a cradle for a bed. Ossipaga strengthened his bones; Levana helped him to get up, and Statina to stand.7 There were 'powers protecting the threshold, the door and the hinge: and the duties of the house, the farm, the mill, had each its appointed guardian. But such powers were hardly persons. The settler who went into the woods might know neither the name nor the sex -of the indwelling numen; "si deus si dea," " sive mas sive femina," ran the old formulae.8 So the Baals 1 Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes (1906), p. 186. 2 Mainof, " Les Restes de la mythologie mordvine," Journal de la Soc. Finno-Ougrienne, v. (1889), p. 102. 3 Castrdn, Finn. Mythol. pp. 92 ff., 72. 4 Ibid. pp. 7, 14, 17, 24. 6 A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (1894), P- 289. 6 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), p. 181. The Zufiis applied the term a-h&i " All-Life " or " the Beings " to all supernatural beings, men, animals, plants, and many objects in nature regarded as personal existences, as well as to the higher anthropomorphic powers known as " Finishers or Makers of the Paths of Life," Report of Bureau of Ethnol. (1883), p. II. On the distinction between " gods " and " spirits," cf. Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Alterlhums, 2nd ed. Band i. erste Haelfte (1907), p. 97 ff. 7 Tert. DeAnima, 39 Aug. De Civ. Dei, iv. n, &c. 8 On the Dei Certi and the Dei Incerti, see von Domaszewski in the Archivfur Religionswiss., x. (1907), pp. 1-17. of the Semitic peoples constituted a group of powers fertilizing the land with water-springs, the givers of corn and wine and oil, out of which under £onditions of superior political development a high-god like the Tyrian Baal, the majestic City-King, might be evolved. The Celts who saw the world peopled with the spirits of trees and animals, rocks, mountains, springs and rivers, grouped them in classes like the Dervonnae (oak-spirits), the Niskai (water-spirits), the Proximae, the Matronae (earth- goddesses)' and the like. Below the small band of Teutonic divinities were the elves of forest and field, the water-elves or nixes and spirits of house and home. The Vedic deities of the nobler sort, the shining devas, the asuras (the " breathers " or living, perhaps to be identified with the Scandinavian asir) rose above a vast multitude of demonic powers, many of them doubtless derived from the local customs and beliefs of the native races whom the immigrant Aryans subdued. In the earliest literary record of Greek religion Homer distinguishes between the 0£os and the Saiftuv, the personalized god and the numen or divine power. In Homer the element of time is definitely recognized. The gods are the " Immortals." They are born, and their parentage is known, but they do not die. Zeus is not self-existent in the sense in which the Indian Brahma, is svayambhu, but certain questions have been by implication asked and answered, which the demonology of the savage has not yet raised. But behind Homer stretches the dim scene of pre-Hellenic religion, and the conflict of elements " Pelasgic," oriental and Hellenic, out of which the Homeric religion emerged;- and beneath the Homeric religion how many features of the religion of ghosts and nature-spirits survived in popular usage and the lower cults!10 When Herodotus (ii. 53) tried to trace the origin of the beliefs around him, he found his way back to an age before Hesiod or Homer, when the gods were nameless. To that age the traditions preserved at Dodona bore witness; and the designations of special groups like the 0eoi lieyiaroi, 6toi (iti\ixioi, dtol irpat-ioiKai, or, possibly, the Venerable Goddesses (6eai atnvai) of Athens, point to a mode of thought when the divine Powers were not definitely in- dividualized. They are just at the point of transition from the ranks of spirits to the higher classes of the gods. As they had no names, they had no relations. Nor had any images yet been made of them. They were associated with hallowed trees, with sacred stones and pillars, out of which came the square rough-hewn Hermae which were anointed with oil like the sacred stone attributed by legend to Jacob at Bethel.11 By what processes the Hellenic immigration introduced new deities and the Greek pantheon was slowly formed, can only be conjecturally traced with the help of archaeology. But Herodotus and Aeschylus were well aware that the religion of Greece had not been uniformly the same; and the gods whom they knew had been developed out of intercourse with other peoples and the succession of races in the obscure and distant past. 3. Polytheism. — The lower and unprogressive religions practically remain in the polydaemonistic stage, though not without occasionally feeling the stimulus of contact with higher faiths, like some of the West African peoples in the presence of the Mahommedan advance. Among the more progressive races, on the other hand, continual processes of elevation and decline may be observed, and the activities of the greater gods are constantly being enriched with new functions. Personal or social experiences of the satisfaction of some desire or escape from some danger are referred to some particular deity. Ele- ments of race-consciousness help to shape the outlook on nature or life: and slight differences of linguistic use in the coining of descriptive terms sometimes lead to the multiplication of divine forms. Exacter observation of nature; closer attention to its contrasts of life and death, or light and darkness, or male and 9 Cf . the groups of " Mothers " in modern India, of various origins, Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore (2), i. in. 10 Cf . Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion ; and Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion. 11 Cf. A. J. Evans, on The Mycenean Tree and Pillar Cult (1901), and Sir W. M. Ramsay, " Religion of Greece and Asia Minor," in Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, extra vol. RELIGION [HIGHER RELIGIONS female; the distinction between its permanent objects, and its occasional or recurring operations; the recognition that behind sudden manifestations of power, like the thunder-storm, there are steady forces and continuous cosmic agencies at work — lead to the gradual rise of the higher deities. And from the social side the development of law, the influence of city life, the formation of priesthoods, the connexion of particular deities with the fortunes of dynasties or the vicissitudes of nations, the processes of migration, of conquest and political fusion, the deportations of vanquished peoples, even the sale of slaves to distant lands and the growth of trade and travel, all contribute to the processes which expand and modify different pantheons, and determine the importance of particular deities. In the midst of the bewildering variety, where all types co-exist together and act and react on each other, it is impossible to do more than point out some obvious groups receiving their special forms chiefly from the side (i) of nature, (2) of human life, and (3) from moral or theological speculation. Divine persons, objects or powers, connected with ritual, are not here considered, such as the Brahman priests who claimed to be manushyadevah (human-gods), or the sacred soma-juice which grew by strange analogies into a mysterious element, linking together heaven and earth. I. On the side of Nature the lowest rank (i) seems to belong to what Usener has designated " momentary " or " occasional " gods.1 They embody for the time being a vague consciousness of the divine, which is concentrated for some single act into an outward object, like a warrior's spear or the thunderbolt,2 or the last sheaf of corn into which the Corn-Mother has been driven.3 (2) Above these, to use again Usener's nomenclature,4 are the " special " or *• functional " gods, " departmental gods," as Mr Lang has called them. Such were some of the deities of the Indigitamenta already compared with the Japanese Kami. Among them, for example, were twelve deities of ploughing and harvest operations, who were invoked with Tellus and Ceres. (3) Another class may be seen in the species- deities previously named; the Samoan gods which could become incarnate as a heron or an owl, did not die with particular birds. A dead owl was not a dead god; he yet lived in all other owls.5 (4) The worship of trees, plants and animals is a particular phase of the wider series of nature-cults, only named here because of its frequency and its obvious survivals in some of the higher polytheisms, where, as in Egypt, the Apis bulls were. worshipped; or where, as in Mesopotamia, the great gods are partly symbolized by animal forms; or where, as in Israel, Yahweh might be represented as a bull; or where, as in Greece, such epithets as Dendrites and Endendros preserved traces of the association of Dionysus and Zeus with vegetation; while sacred animals like the serpents of Aesculapius were preserved in the temples.6 (s) The higher elemental gods sometimes, like the sun, as the Indian Surya, the Egyptian Re, the Babylonian Shamash (Samas), the Greek Helios, retain their distinct connexion with the visible object. It was naturally more easy for a relatively spiritual worship to gather round a god whose name did not immediately suggest a familiar body. No one ever thought of confessing sin, for instance, to a river. But the dally survey of the sun (occasionally also the function of the moon as measurer of time), together with his importance for life, secured him a high moral rank; and R6, united with the Theban Ammon, became (under the New Empire) the leading god of Egypt for a thousand years, " He who hath made all, the sole One with many hands." Other deities, like Zeus, rise to the head of a monarchical polytheism, in which their physical base is almost, 1 Gotternamen, Bonn, 1896, p. 279 ff. But cp. Dr Farnell's essay " On the Place of the Sonder-Gottcr in Greek Polytheism," in Anthropological Essays presented to Edward Burnett Tylor (1907), p. 81. * Ibid. pp. 285, 286. * Frazer, The Golden Bough (2), ii. 170-1. 4 Gotternamen, p. 75. 'Turner, Samoa, 1884, p. 21. 6 Cf. de Visser, Die nicht Menschen-Gestaltigen Cotter der Griechen (Leiden, 1903). if not quite, forgotten in cosmic and moral grandeur. The gods are often arranged in groups, three, seven and twelve Being frequent numbers. Egyptian summaries recognized gods in the sky, on earth and in the water; gods of the north and south, the east and west, gods of the field and the cities. Indian theologians classified them in three zones, earth, air and sky. Babylonian speculation embraced the world in a triad of divine powers, Anu the god of heaven, Bel of earth and Ea of the deep; and these became the symbols of the order of nature, the divine embodiments of physical law.7 Sometimes the number three is reached by the distribution of the universe into sky, earth and underworld, and the gods of death claim their place as the rulers of the world to come. Among these deities all kinds of relationships are displayed; consorts must be provided for the unwedded, and the family conception, as distinct from the regal, presents a divine father, mother and child. The Ibani in Southern Nigeria recognized Adum the father-god, Okoba the mother-god and Eberebo the son-god.8 In Egypt, Osiris, Isis and Horus proved an influential type. Perhaps at a relatively earlier stage maternity alone is emphatically asserted, as in the figure of the Cretan Mother, productive without distinctly sexual character.9 Or, again, maternity disappears, while parenthood survives, and causation is embodied in a universal " Father of all that are and are to be," like the Indian Brahma in the days of Gotama the Buddha."10 II. On the human side polytheism receives fresh groups in connexion with the development of social institutions and national feeling, (i) In the family the hearth-fire is the scene of the protecting care of deity; the gods of the household watch over its welfare. Each Roman householder had his Genius, the women their Junones. These stood at a higher level than the " occasional gods," having permanent functions of supervision. (2) From the household a series of steps embodied the divine power in higher forms for social and political ends. Hestia presided over cities; there was even a common Hestia for all Greece. The frmashi or ideal type, the genius of both men and gods in the Zend Avesta (possibly connected originally with the cultus of the dead u) , rises in successive ranks from the worshipper's own person through the household, the village, the district and the province, up to the throne of Ahura himself.12 The Chinese Shin were similarly organized; so (less elaborately) were the Japanese Kami;13 and the Roman lares, the old local land-gods, found their highest co-ordinating term in the Lares Augusti, just as the Genius was extended to the legion and the colony, and finally to Rome itself. (3) In the case of national deities the tie between god and people is peculiarly close, as when Yahweh of Israel is pitted against Chemosh of Ammon (Judges xi. 24) . The great gods of Greece, in their functions as " saviours " and city-guardians, acquire new moral characters, and become really different gods, though they retain the old names. Ashur rises into majestic sovereignty as the " Ruler of all the gods," the supreme religious form of Assyrian sway: when the empire falls beneath the revived power of Babylon, he fades away and disappears. (4) The earthly counterpart of the heavenly monarch is the divine king, who may be traced back in Egypt, for example, to the remotest antiquity,14 and who survives to-day among the civilized powers in the emperor of Japan (anciently Arahito-gami, " incarnate Kami "). " To the end of time," 7 Jastrow, Rel. of Babylonia, p. 432. 8 Leonard , The Lower Niger and its Tribes, p. 354. 9 Cf. Farnell, Cults of Greece, iii. 295. wDigha Nikaya, i. 18. 11 This is denied by Tiele, Religion im Altertum, tr. Gehrich, ii. (1898), p. 259. 12 Cf. Yasna, Jxxi. iSfS.B.E. xxxi. p. 331; and Soderblom's essay in the Rev. de I'hist. des religions, xxxix. (1899), pp. 229, 373. 13 Hirata's morning prayer in the last century included 800 myriads of celestial kami, 800 myriads of ancestral kami, the 1500 myriads to whom are consecrated the great and small temples in all provinces, all islands, and all places of the great land of eight islands, &c. 14 Moret, Du caractere religieux de la royaute pharaonique (1902). For instances in the lower culture see Frazer, Golden Bough (2), i. 140 ff. HIGHER RELIGIONS] RELIGION 71 said Motowori (i8th century), " the Mikado is the child of the Sun-goddess." (5) The dead hero (historical or mythic) signalizes his power by gracious saving acts; and Heracles, Asclepius, Amphiaraus, and others pass into the ranks of the gods, which are thus continually recruited from below. III. A third great group rises out of the sentiments and affections of man, or the moral energies which he sees working in human life, (i) The Vedic Craddha, " faith," the Greek Metameleia, " repentance," 1 the Latin Spes, and a band of other figures, represent the dispositions of the heart; Nemesis and Nike and Concordia and their kin belong to a somewhat different sphere, the divine powers avenging, conquering, harmonizing the counterparts of the " departmental " gods in the field of moral agencies. (2) Over these theological speculation erects a few lofty and impressive forms; sometimes below the highest, like Vohu Mano, " the Good Mind " of Ahura Mazda; or the Bodhisattva Avalokitec. vara, who vowed not to enter into final peace till every creature had received the saving truth; some- times supreme, like Brahma or Prajapati (" lord of creatures ") in the early Brahmanic theology; or Adi Buddha, or the Zervan Akarana, " boundless time," of a kind of Persian gnosticism; or the Qe& ity-ioros whose worship appears among other syncretistic cults of the Roman empire. 4. The Order of N attire. —Polytheism is here on the way to monotheism, and this tendency receives significant support from the recognition of an order in nature which is the ground and framework of social ethics. Not only does a sky-god like Varuna, or a sun-god like the Babylonian Shamash, survey all human things, and take cognizance of the evil-doer, but the daily course of the world is itself the expression of an intellectual and moral power. In the Chinese combination of Heaven and Earth as the parents and nourishers of all things, the energy and action lie with Tien, Earth being docile and receptive. Tien is intelligent and all-observing, and its " sincerity " or stead- fastness, displayed in the courses of the sun and moon and the succession of the seasons, becomes the basis of right human conduct, personal and social. The " way " of Heaven, the " course " of Heaven, the " lessons " of Heaven, the law or " decree " (ming) of Heaven, are constantly cited as the pattern for the emperor and his subjects. This conception is even reflected in human nature: " Heaven in giving birth to the multitude of the people, to every faculty and relationship affixed its laws " (Shi King, III. iii. 6; cf. IV. iii. 2, tr. Legge), and the " Grand Unity " forms the source of all moral order (Li Ki, in Sacred Books of the East, xxvii. p. 387). Indian thought pre- sented this Order in a semi-personal form. The great elemental gods imposed their laws (dhaman, dharman, vrata) on the visible objects of nature, the flow of rivers, the march of the heavenly bodies across the sky. But the idea of Law was generalized in the figure of Rita (what is " fitted " or " fixed "; or the " course " or " path " which is traversed), whose Zend equivalent asha shows that the conception had been reached before the separation of the Eastern Aryans produced the migrations into India and Iran.2 In the Rig Veda the gods (even those of storm) are again and again described as " born from the Rita," or born in it, according to it, or of it. Even Heaven and Earth rejoice in the womb or lap of the Rita. In virtue of the mystic identity between the cosmic phenomena and sacrifice, Rita may be also viewed as the principle of the cultus; and from that sphere it passes into conduct and acquires the meaning of morality and is equated with what is " true." The fundamental idea remains the same in the Zend Asha, its philological counterpart, but it is applied with a difference. Its form is more personal, for Asha is one of the six Holy Immortals round the throne of Ahura Mazda (Auramazda). In the primeval conflict between the powers of good and evil, the Bounteous Spirit chose Asha, the Righteous Order which 1 Worshipped at Argos. Usener, Gdtternamen, p. 366. 2 Cf. Max Miiller, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion (Hibbert Lect., 1878), v., and the Vedic treatises of Ludwig, Ber- gaigne and Wallis. knit the world together and maintained the stars.* The im- mediacy of the relation between Ahura and Asha is implied in the statements that Ahura created Asha and that he dwells in the paths which proceed from Asha; and when he created the inspired word of Reason, Asha consented with him in his deed. In its ritual form Asha becomes the principle of sacrifice, and hence of holiness, first ritual and then moral. Like Rita, it rises into an object of worship, and in its most exalted aspect (Asha vahisla, the " best " Asha, most excellent righteousness) it is identified with Ahura himself, being fourth among his sacred names (Ormazd Yasht, § 7; S.B.E. xxiii. p. 25). Egyptian speculation, in like manner, impersonated the con- ceptions of physical and moral order as two sides of a funda- mental unity in the goddess Maat. Derived from the verb ma, " to stretch out," her name denoted the ideas of right and rule, and covered the notions of order, law, justice and truth, which remained steadfast and unalterable. Mythologically she was the daughter (or the eye) of the sun-god Re; but she became Lady of Heaven and Queen of Earth, and even Lady of the land of the West, the mysterious habitation of the dead. Each of the great gods was said to be lord or master of Maat; but from another point of view she " knew no lord or master," and the particular quality of deity was expressed in the phrase anx em maat, " living by Maat," which was applied to the gods of the physical world, the sun and moon, the days and hours, as well as to the divine king. She was solemnly offered by the sovereign to his god; and the deity replied by laying her within the heart of his worshipper "to manifest her everlastingly before the gods." So in the famous scene of the weighing of the soul, which first appears pictorially under the New Empire, she introduces the deceased before the forty-two assessors of the heavenly judge, Osiris, and presides over the scale in which his actions and life are weighed. From the zenith to the realm of the departed she is the "queen of all gods and goddesses."4 The Hellenic polytheism of Homer and Hesiod is already at work upon similar ideas, and a whole group of mythic per- sonifications slowly rises into view representing different phases of the same fundamental conception. Themis (root 0e=Sanskr. dha, as in dhaman) appears in Homer as the embodiment of what is fit or right;6 she convenes or dismisses assemblies, she even keeps order at the banquet of the gods. Next, Hesiod supplies a significant biography. She is the daughter of Ouranos and Gaia; and after Metis she becomes the bride of Zeus.' Pindar describes her as born in a golden car from the primeval Oceanus, source of all things, to the sacred height of Olympus to be the consort of Zeus the saviour; and she bears the same august epithet, as the symbol of social justice and the refuge for the oppressed.7 Law was thus the spouse of the sovereign of the sky, but Aeschylus identified her with the Earth (worshipped at Athens as Ge-Themis), not only the kindly Mother, but the goddess who bound herself by fixed rules or laws of nature and life.8 For the cultus of the earth as the source of fertility was associated with the maintenance of the family, with the operations of agriculture and the social order of marriage. So Themis became the mother of the seasons; the regular sequence of blossom and fruit was her work; and Good Order, Justice and Peace were her offspring.9 By such conceptions the Hellenic polytheism was moralized; the physical character of the greater gods fell into the background, and the sculptor's art came to the aid of the poet by completely enduing them with personality. 8 Yasna, xxx. 5; Sacred Books of the East, xxxi. p. 30; cf. pp. 44, 51, 248. 4Cf. Renouf, Hibbert Lectures, p. 119; Brugsch, Rel. und Mythol., p. 477; Wiedemann, Ann. du Music Guimet, x. p. 561; Budge, Gods of Egypt, i. p. 416. 6 Cf. Aids e Contributions to the Science of Mythology (2 vols., 1897); cf. A. Lang, Modern Mythology (1897). Earlier Anthropology, Bastian, Der Mensch in der Gesch. (3 vols., Leipzig, 1860); Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie* (6 vols., Leipzig, 1877). 2. Translations from the Scriptures of various religions. — Sacred Books of the East (49 vols., 1879 and onwards); Annales du Musee Guimet (1880 and onwards). 3. Manuals, treatises and series in single or collective authorship. — C. P. Tiele, Outlines of the History of Religion, tr. Carpenter (London, 1877); Gesch. der Religion im Alterthum, tr. Gehric'h (2 vols., Gotha, 1895-98) ; Kompendium der Religionsgesch., tr. Weber (Breslau, 1903) ; G. Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World (London, 1882); Religious Systems of the World, by various authors (London, 1890); Menzies, Hist, of Religion (1895); Orelli, Allgemeine Religionsgesch. (Bonn, 1899); Great Religions of the World, by various authors (1901); Bousset, Das Wesen der Religion (Halle, 1903); Eng. trans., What is Religion? (London, 1907); Chantepie de la Saussaye, Religionsgesch.3 (2 vols., 1905); Achelis, Abriss der Vergleichenaen Religionswissenschaft (Sammlung Goschen) ; " Die Orientalischen Re- ligionen " (in Die Kultur der Gegenwart), by various authors (1906); Pfleiderer, Religion und Religionen (Berlin, 1906) ; Eng. trans., Religion and Historic Faiths (London, 1907) ; Haarlem Series, Die Voornaamste Godsdiensten, beginning with Islam, by Dozy (1863 onwards); Soc. for Promotion of Christian Knowledge, Non-Christian Religions ; Hibbert Lectures on The Origin and Growth of Religion (15 vols., beginning with F. Max Muller, 1878); Aschendorff's series, Darstel- lungen aus dem Gebiete der Nichtchristl. Religionsgesch. (14 vols.. Munster i.w., beginning 1890); Handbooks on the History of Religions, ed. Jastrow, beginning with Hopkins on India (1895); American Lectures on the History of Religions, beginning with Rhys Davids on Buddhism (1896); Constables series, Religions, Ancient and Modern (London, beginning 1905), brief and popular; J. Freeman Clarke, Ten Great Religions (Boston, 1871); S. Johnson, Oriental Religions, &c. (3 vols.); India;1 (London, 1873); China (Boston, 1877); Persia (1885); Lippert, Die Religionen der Euro- pdischen Cultur-Vplker (Berlin, 1881); A. ReVille, Prolegom. de I'hist. des rel. (Paris, 1881; Engl. trans., 1884); Les Rel. des peuples non-civilises (2 vols., Paris, 1883); Rel. du Mexique (1885); Rel. chinoise (1889); Letourneau, L'Evolution religieuse2 (Paris, 1898); Publications of the Ecole des hautes etudes, section des sciences religieuses; and Annales du Musee Guimet, " Biblioth£que de Vulgarisation." 4. Works bearing on history. — Fustel de Coulanges, La Citi antique (Paris, 1864); Lubbock, Origin of Civilization (1870); Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies (New York, 1872 and 1874) ; Brinton, The Religious Sentiment (1876); Myths of the New World1 (New York, 1876); Essays of an Americanist (1890); Religions of Primitive Peoples (1897); Keary, Outlines of Primitive Belief (London, 1882) ; Leblois, Les Bibles et les initialeurs de l'humanit& (4 vols. in 7 parts, Paris, 1883); Goblet d'Alviella, Introd. a I'hist. generate des religions (Brussels, 1887); La Migration des symboles (Paris, 1891); Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (3 vols., London, 1894); Ratzel, The History of Mankind, tr. Butler (3 vols., London, 1896); Usener, Gotternamen (Bonn, 1896); Grant Allen, The Evolution of the Idea of God (London, 1897); Forlong, Short Studies in the Science of Comp. Religions (London, 1897); Lang, The Making of Religion (1898); Lyall, Asiatic Studies'* (2 vols., London, 1899); Baissac, Les Origines de la religion* (Paris, 1899); Marillicr, " Religion," Grande Encyclop. xxviii. (Paris, 1900) ; Maculloch, Comparative Theol. (1902); Dieterich, Mutter Erde (Leipzig, 1905); S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes el religions (2 vols., Pans, 1905-6); Frazer, Adonis, Attis and Osiris (1906); Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Alterthums2, I. i. " Einleitung: Elementeder Anthropologie " (1907). 5. Psychology, Philosophy and History. — Hegel, Philosophy of 76 REMAGEN— REMAINDER Religion (Eng. trans., 3 vols., 1895) ; Pfleiderer, Die Religion (2 vols., Berlin, 1869); Philos. of Religion, vol. iii. (Engl. trans., London, 1888); Religionsphilosofhie' (Berlin, 1896); F. Max Muller, Introd. to the Science of Religion (1873); Hibbert Lectures (1878); Gifford Lectures (4 vols., 1889-93) < Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. (1876) ; Fairbairn, Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and History (1876); E. von Hartmann, Das Relig. Bewusstsein der Menschheit (Berlin, 1882) ; Rauwenhoff, Weisbegeerte van den Godsdienst (Leiden, 1887); E. Caird, The Evolution of Religion (2 vols., 1893); Siebeck, Lehrbuch der Religionsphilosophie (Freiburg i. B., 1893); Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion (2 vols., 1897); Raoul de la Grasserie, Des religions comparees au point de vue sociologique, and De la psycholo- fie des religions (Paris, 1899); Starbuck, Psychology of Religion London, 1900); Jastrow, The Study of Religion (London, 1901); W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1903); Corner, Grundriss der Religionsphilosophie (Leipzig, 1903) ; Girgensohn, Die Religion, ihre Psychischen Formen und ihre Zentralidee (Leipzig, 1903); Wundt, Volkerpsychologie, Bd. ii. Mythus und Religion (1905-6); Ladd, The Philosophy of Religion (2 vols., London, 1906); Hoffding, The Philosophy of Religion (Engl. trans., 1906) ; Wester- maarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i. (London, 1906) ; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (2 vols., London, 1906). 6. Periodicals, &c. — Revue de I'hist. des religions (Paris, 1880 on- wards); Folk-Lore (London, 1890 onwards); Archiv. fur Religions- wissenschaft (Freiburg i. B., 1898 onwards); L'Annee sociologique (Paris, 1898 onwards) ; Actes du premier congres international d'histoire des religions (Paris, 1900); Verhandlungen des II. Inter- nationalen Kongresses fur Allgemeine Religionsgeschichte in Basel (1904). Much information on the growth and present condition of the study has been collected by Jordan, Comparative Religion, its Genesis and Growth (Edinburgh, 1905). (J. E. C.) REMAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the left bank of the Rhine, 1 2 m. above Bonn, by the railway from Cologne to Coblenz, and at the junction of the Ahr valley railway to Adenau. Pop. (1900) 3534. The (Roman Catholic) parish church is remarkable for a gate (Romertor) with grotesque sculptures of animals, dating from the i2th century. Archaeologists have variously interpreted its original purpose, whether as church door, city gate or palace gate. The industry of the place is almost wholly concerned with the preparation of wine, in which a large export trade is done. Just below the town, on a height overlooking the Rhine, stands the Apollinaris church, built 1839-53 °n the site of a chapel formerly dedicated to St Martin, and containing the relics of St Apollinaris. It is a frequent place of pilgrimage from all parts of the lower Rhine. According to legend, the ship con- veying the relics of the three kings and of Bishop Apollinaris from Milan to Cologne in 1164 could not be got to move away from the spot until the bones of St Apollinaris had been interred in St Martin's chapel. Remagen (the Rigomagus of the Romans) originally belonged to the duchy of Julich. Many Roman antiquities have been discovered here. In 1857 a votive altar dedicated to Jupiter, Mars and Mercury was unearthed, and is now in the Provincial Museum at Bonn. See Kinkel, Der Fiihrer durch das Ahrthal nebst Beschreibung der Stadt Remagen (2nd ed., Bonn, 1854). REMAINDER, REVERSION. In the view of English law a remainder or reversion is classed either as an incorporeal hereditament or, -with greater correctness, as an estate in expectancy. That is to say, it is a present interest subject to an existing estate in possession called the particular estate, which must determine before the estate in expectancy can become an estate in possession. A remainder or reversion is in strictness confined to real estate, whether legal or equitable, though a similar interest may exist in personalty. The par- ticular estate and the remainder or reversion together make up the whole estate over which the grantor has power of disposition.1 Accordingly a remainder or reversion limited on an estate in fee simple is void. The difference between a remainder and a reversion, stated as simply as possible, is that the latter is that undisposed-of part of the estate which after the determination of the particular estate will fall into the possession of the original grantor or his representative, while a remainder is that part of the estate which under the same circumstances will fall into the possession of a person other than the original grantor or his 1 Compare the life-rent and fee of Scots law. representative. A reversion, in fact, is a special instance of a remainder, distinguishable from it in two important respects: (i) a reversion arises by operation of law on every grant of an estate where the whole interest is not parted with, whereas a remainder is created by express words; (2) tenure exists between the reversioner and the tenant of the particular estate, but not between the latter and the remainderman. Accordingly rent service is said to be an incident of a reversion but not of a remainder, and a reversioner could distrain for it at common law. A reversion may be limited upon any number of remainders, each of them as it falls into possession becoming itself a particular estate. A remainder or reversion may be alienated either by deed or by will. A conveyance by the tenant of a particular estate to the remainderman or reversioner is called a surrender; a conveyance by the remainderman or reversioner to the tenant is a release. Remainder, — Remainders are either vested or contingent. " An estate is vested in interest when there is a present fixed right of future enjoyment. An estate is contingent when a right of enjoy- ment is to accrue on an event which is dubious and uncertain. A contingent remainder is a remainder limited so as to depend on an event or condition which may never happen or be performed, or which may not happen or be performed till after the determination of the preceding estate " (Fearne, Contingent Remainders, 2, 3). Contingent remainders are of two kinds, those limited to uncertain persons and those limited on uncertain events. A grant by A to B for life, followed by a remainder in fee to the heir of C is an example of a contingent remainder.2 Until the death of C he can have no heir. If C die during the lifetime of B, the contingent remainder of his heir becomes vested; if C survive B, the remainder is at common law destroyed owing to the determination of the par- ticular estate, for every remainder must have a particular estate to support it. In the case of a contingent remainder, it must become vested during the continuance of the particular estate or at the instant of its determination. This rule of law no doubt arose from the disfavour shown by the law to contingent remainders on their first introduction. They were not firmly established even when Littleton wrote in the reign of Edward IV. (see Williams, Real Property). The inconveniences resulting from this liability of contingent remainders to destruction were formerly overcome by the device of appointing trustees to preserve contingent remainders at law. Equitable contingent remainders, it should be noticed, were indestructible, for they were supported by the legal estate. In modern times the matter has been dealt with by act of Parlia- ment. By the Real Property Act 1845, § 8, a contingent remainder is rendered capable of taking effect notwithstanding the deter- mination by forfeiture, surrender or merger of any preceding estate of freehold in the same manner as if such determination had not happened. The case of determination by any other means is met by the Contingent Remainders Act 1877. The act provides that a contingent remainder which would have been valid as a springing or shifting use or executory devise or other limitation had it not had a sufficient estate to support it as a contingent re- mainder is, in the event of the particular estate determining before the contingent remainder vests, to be capable of taking effect as though the contingent remainder had originally been created as a springing or shifting use or executory devise or other executory limitation. It will accordingly only be good if the springing use, &c. (for which see TRUST), would be good. If the springing use be void as a breach of the rule against perpetuities (see PERPETUITY), the remainder will likewise be void. Apart from this act, there is some un- certainty as to the application of the rule against perpetuities to remainders. The better opinion is that it applies to equitable remainders and to legal remainders expectant upon an estate for life limited to an unborn person. In the latter case the rule as applied to contingent remainders is somewhat different from that affecting executory interests. The period is different, the remainder allowing the tying up of property for a longer time than the execu- tory interest. There is also the further difference that the rule does not affect a contingent remainder if it become vested before the determination of the particular estate. An executory interest is void if it may transgress the rule, even though it do not actually do so. For the rule in Shelley's case, important in connexion with remainders, see that title. The state laws of the United States affecting remainders will be found in Washburn, Real Property, ii. bk. ii. As a general rule contingent remainders have been rendered of little practical importance by enactments that they shall take effect as executory devises or shall not determine on determination of the particular estate. Reversion. — Unlike remainders, all reversions are present or vested estates. The law of reversion, like that of remainder, has been considerably modified by statute. It was formerly considered * A contingent remainder amounting to a freehold cannot be limited on a particular estate less than a freehold. REMAND— REMBRANDT 77 that on the grant of the reversion the tenant should have the opportunity of objecting to the substitution of a new landlord. It was therefore necessary that he should attorn tenant to the purchaser. Without such attornment the grant was void, unless indeed attornment were compelled by levying a fine. The neces- sity of attornment was abolished by 4 & 5 Anne c. 16. Its only use at present seems to be in the case of mortgage. A mortgagor in possession sometimes attorns tenant to the mortgagee in order that the latter may treat him as his tenant and distrain for his interest as rent. The legal view that rent was incident to the reversion led at common law to a destruction of .the rent by de- struction of the reversion. This would chiefly happen in the case of an under-tenant and his immediate reversioner, if the inter- mediate became merged in the superior reversion. To obviate this difficulty it was provided by the Real Property Act 1845, § 9, that, on surrender or merger of a reversion expectant on a lease, the rights under it should subsist to the reversion conferring the next vested right. The question as to what covenants run with the reversion is one of the most difficult 'in law. The rule of common law seems to have been that covenants ran with the land but not with the reversion, that is to say, the benefit of them survived to a new tenant but not to a new landlord. The effect of the act of 32 Hen. VIII. c. 34, and of the Conveyancing Act 1881, has been to annex to the reversion as a general rule the benefit _ of the rent and the lessee's covenants and the burden of the lessor's covenant. Merely collateral covenants, however, do not run with the reversion, but are regarded as personal contracts between lessor and lessee. At common law on the severance of a reversion a grantee of part of the reversion could not take advantage of any condition for re-entry, on the ground that the condition was entire and not severable. This doctrine was abolished by one of Lord St Leonard's Acts in 1859. The Conveyancing Act 1881, § 12, now provides in wider terms than those of the act of 1859 that on severance of the reversion every condition capable of apportionment is to be apportioned. In order to guard against fraudulent concealment of the death of a cestui que vie, or person for whose life any lands are held by another, it was provided by 6 Anne c. 18 that on applica- tion to the court of chancery by the person entitled in remainder, reversion or expectancy, the cestui que vie should be produced to the court or its commissioners, or in default should be taken to be dead. In Scotland reversion is generally used in a sense approaching that of the equity of redemption of English law. A reversion is either legal, as in an adjudication, or conventional, as in a wadset; Reversions are registered under the system established by the Act 1617 c. 16. In the United States the act of 32 Hen. VIII. c. 34 " is held to be in force in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Connecti- cut, but was never in force in New York till re-enacted " (Wash- burn, Real Property, i.). REMAND (Lat. remandare) , a term of English law meaning the return of a prisoner by order of a court to the custody from which he came to the court. Thus where an application for release is unsuccessfully made by means of habeas corpus, the applicant is remanded to the custody which he has challenged as illegal. Where trials or indictments are not concluded at a single sitting the court of trial has power to remand the accused into proper custody during any necessary adjournment. Where a preliminary inquiry into an indictable offence is not completed at a single sitting, the prisoner, if not released on bail, may be remanded to prison or some other lawful place of custody for a period not exceeding eight days, and so on by further remands till the inquiry is completed and the accused is discharged, or committed to prison to await his trial, or released on bail to take his trial. If the remand is for more than three days the order must be in writing (Indictable Offences Act 1848, n & 12 Viet. c. 42, s. 21). Similar powers of remand or committal to prison during adjournments are given to justices in the exercise of their summary criminal jurisdiction, whether as to offences punishable only on summary conviction, or as to indictable offences with which it is proposed to deal summarily (Summary Jurisdiction Acts 1848, s. 16, and 1879, s. 24). In the case of charges against children or young persons, where the justices commit for trial or order a remand pending inquiry, or with a view to sending a child to an industrial school or a reformatory, they may remand to the workhouse or to some fit custody instead of remanding to prison (Youthful Offenders Act 1901, s. 4). For this purpose remand homes have been established. REMBRANDT (1606-1660). REMBRANDT HARMENS VAN RIJN, Dutch painter, was born in Leiden on the isth of July 1606. It is only within the past fifty years that we have come to know anything of his real history. A tissue of fables formerly represented him as ignorant, boorish and avaricious. These fictions, resting on the loose assertions of Houbraken (De Creole Schouburgh, 1718), have been cleared away by the untiring researches of Scheltema and other Dutchmen, notably by C. Vosmaer, whose elaborate work (Rembrandt, sa vie et ses ceuvres, 1868, 2nd ed., 1877) is the basis of our knowledge of the man and of the chronological development of the artist.1 Rembrandt's high position in European art rests on the originality of his mind, the power of his imagination, his profound sympathy with his subjects, the boldness of his system of light and shade, the thoroughness of his modelling, his subtle colour, and above all on his intense humanity. He was great in conception and in execution, a poet as well as a painter, an idealist and also a realist; and this rare union is the secret of his power. From his dramatic action and mastery of expression Rembrandt has been well called " the Shakespeare of Holland." In the beginning of the i7th century Holland had entered on her grand career of national enterprise. Science and literature flourished in her universities, poetry and the stage were favoured by her citizens, and art found a home not only in the capital but in the provincial towns. It was a time also of new ideas. Old conventional forms in religion, philosophy and art had fallen away, and liberty was inspiring new conceptions. There were no church influences at work to fetter the painter in the choice and treatment of his subject, no academies to prescribe rules. Left to himself, therefore, the artist painted the life of the people among whom he lived and the subjects which inter- ested them. It was thus a living history that he painted — scenes from the everyday life and amusements of the people, as well as the civic rulers, the " regents " or governors of the hospitals and the heads of the guilds, and the civic guards who defended their towns. So also with religious pictures. The dogmas and legends of the Church of Rome were no longer of interest to such a nation; but the Bible was read and studied with avidity, and from its page the artist drew directly the scenes of the simple narrative. Perhaps the earliest trace of this new aspect of Bible story is to be found in the pictures painted in Rome about the beginning of the I7th century by Adam Elsheimer of Frankfort, who had undoubtedly a great influence on the Dutch painters studying in Italy. These in their turn carried back to Holland the simplicity and the picturesque effect which they found in Elsheimer's work. Among these, the precursors of Rembrandt, may be mentioned Moeyaert, Ravesteyn, Lastman, Pinas, Honthorst and Bramer. Influenced doubtless by these painters, Rembrandt determined to work out his own ideas of art on Dutch soil, resisting apparently every inducement to visit Italy. Though an admirer of the great Italian masters, he yet maintained his own individuality. Rembrandt was born at No. 3 Weddesteg, on the rampart at Leiden overlooking the Rhine. He was the fourth son of Gerrit Harmens van Rijn, a well-to-do miller. As the older boys had been sent to trade, his parents resolved that he should enter a learned profession. With this view he was sent to the High School at Leiden; but the boy soon manifested his dislike of the prospect, and determined to be a painter. Accordingly he was placed for three years under Swanenburch, a painter of no great merit, who enjoyed some reputation from his having studied in Italy. His next master was Lastman of Amsterdam, a painter of very considerable power. In Lastman's works we can trace the germs of the colour and sentiment of his greater pupil, though his direct influence cannot have been great, as it is said by Orlers that Rembrandt remained with him only six months, after which time he returned to Leiden, about 1623. During the early years of his life at Leiden Rembrandt seems to have devoted himself entirely to studies, painting and etching the people around him, the beggars and cripples, every pic- turesque face and form he could get hold of. Life, character, 1 Vosmaer's first volume, on the precursors and apprenticeship of Rembrandt, was published in 1863. New light has since been thrown on important points by Dr Bode (Holldndische Malerei, 1883), De Roever, De Vries and others. REMBRANDT and above all light were the aims of these studies. His mother was a frequent model, and we can trace in her features the strong likeness to her son, especially in the portraits of himself at an advanced age. In the collection of Rembrandt's works at Amsterdam in 1898 were shown three portraits of his father, who •died about 1632; nine are catalogued altogether. The last portrait of his mother is that of the Vienna Museum, painted the year before her death in 1640. One of his sisters also frequently sat to him, and Bode suggests that she must have accompanied him to Amsterdam and kept house for him till he married. This conjecture rests on the number of portraits of the same young woman painted in the early years of his stay in Amsterdam and before he met his bride. Then, again, in the many portraits of himself painted in his early life we can see with what zeal he set himself to master every form of expression, now grave, now gay — how thoroughly he learned to model the human face not from the outside but from the inner man. Dr Bode gives fifty as the number of the portraits of himself (perhaps sixty is nearer the actual number), most of them painted in youth and in old age, the times when he had leisure for such work. Rembrandt's earliest pictures were painted at Leiden, from 1627 to 1631. Bode mentions about nine pictures as known to belong to these years, chiefly paintings of single figures, as " St Paul in Prison" and " St Jerome"; but now and then compositions of several, as " Samson in Prison " and " Presenta- tion in the Temple." The prevailing tone of all these pictures is a greenish grey, the effect being somewhat cold and heavy. The gallery at Cassel gives us a typical example of his studies •of the heads of old men, firm and hard in workmanship and full of detail, the effects of light and shade being carefully thought out. His work was now attracting the attention of lovers of art in the great city of Amsterdam; and, urged by their calls, he removed about 1631 to live and die there. At one bound he leaped into the position of the first portrait painter of the city, and received numerous commissions. During the early years of his residence there are at least forty known portraits from his hand, firm and solid in manner and staid in expression. It has been remarked that the fantasy in which he indulged through life was reserved only for the portraits of himself and his immediate connexions. The excellent painter Thomas de Keyser was then in the height of his power, and his influence is to be traced in some of Rembrandt's smaller portraits. Pupils also now flocked to his house in the Bloemgracht, among them Gerard Douw, who was nearly of his own age. The first important work executed by Rembrandt in Amsterdam is " Simeon in the Temple," of the Hague Museum, a fine early example of his treatment of light and shade and of his subtle colour. The concentrated light falls on the principal figure, while the background is full of mystery. The surface is smooth and enamel-like, and all the details are carefully wrought out, while the action of light on the mantle of Simeon shows how soon he had felt the magical effect of the play of colour. In the life-sized " Lesson in Anatomy " of 1632 we have the first of the great portrait subjects — Tulp the anatomist, the early friend of Rembrandt, discoursing to his seven associates, who are ranged with eager heads round the foreshortened body. The subject had been treated in former years by the Mierevelts, A. Pietersen and others, for the Hall of the Surgeons. But it was reserved for Rembrandt to make it a great picture by the grouping of the expressive portraits and by the completeness of the conception. The colour is quiet and the handling of the brush timid and precise, while the light and shade are somewhat harsh and abrupt. But it is a marvellous picture for a young man of twenty-five, and it is generally accepted as marking a new departure in the career of the painter. About 700 pictures are known to have come from Rembrandt's own hand. _ It is impossible to notice more than the prominent works. Besides the Pellicorne family portraits of 1632 now in the' Wallace Collection, we have the caligraphist Coppenol of the Cassel Gallery, interesting in the first place as an early example of Rembrandt's method of giving permanent interest to a portrait by converting it into a picture. He invests it with a sense of life by a momentary expression as Coppenol raises his head towards the spectator while he is mending a quill. The same motive is to be found in the " Shipbuilder," 1633 (Buckingham Palace), who looks up from his work with a sense of interruption at the approach of his wife. Coppenol was painted thrice and etched twice by the artist, the last of whose portrait etchings (1661) was the Coppenol of large size. The two small pictures of " The Philosopher " of the Louvre date from 1633, delicate in execution and full of mysterious effect. The year 1634 is especially remarkable as that of Rembrandt's marriage with Saskia van Uylenborch, a beautiful, fair-haired Frisian maiden of good connexions. Till her death in 1642 she was the centre of his life and art, and lives for us in many a canvas as well as in her own portraits. On her the painter lavished his magical power, painting her as the Queen of Artemisia or Bath- sheba, and as the wife of Samson — always proud of her long fair locks, and covering her with pearls and gold as precious in their play of colour as those of the Indies. A joyous pair we see them in the Dresden Gallery, Saskia sitting on his knee while he laughs gaily, or promenading together in a fine picture of 1636, or putting the last touches of ornament to her toilette, for thus Bode interprets the so-called " Burgomaster Pancras and his Wife." These were his happy days when he painted himself in his exuberant fantasy, and adorned himself, at least in his portraits, in scarfs and feathers and gold chains. Saskia brought him a marriage portion of forty thousand guilders, a large sum for those times, and she brought him also a large circle of good friends in Amsterdam. She bore him four children, Rumbartus and two girls, successively named Cornelia after his beloved mother, all of whom died in infancy, and Titus, named after Titia a sister of Saskia. We have several noble portraits of Saskia, a good type of the beauty of Holland, all painted with the utmost love and care, at Cassel (1633), at Dresden (1641), and a posthumous one (1643) at Berlin. But the greatest in workmanship and most pathetic in expression seems to us, though it is decried by Bode, that of Antwerp (1641), in which it is impossible not to trace declining health and to find a melan- choly presage of her death. One of Rembrandt's greatest portraits of 1634 is the superb full- length of Martin Daey, which, with that of Madame Daey, painted according to Vosmaer some years later, formed one of the ornaments of the Van Loon collection at Amsterdam. Both now belong to Baron Gustaye de Rothschild. From the firm detailed execution of this portrait one turns with wonder to the broader handling of the " Old Woman " (Frangoise van Wasserhoven) , aged eighty-three, in the National Gallery, of the same year, remarkable for the effect of reflected light and still more for the sympathetic rendering of character. The life of Samson supplied many subjects in these early days. The so-called " Count of Gueldres threatening his Father-in-law " of the Berlin Gallery has been restored to its proper signification by M. Kolloff, who finds it to be Samson. It is forced and violent in its action. The greatest of this series, and one of the pro- minent pictures of Rembrandt's work, is the " Marriage of Samson," of the Dresden Gallery, painted in 1638. Here Rembrandt gives the rein to his imagination and makes the scene live before us. Except the bride (Saskia), who sits calm and grand on a dais in the centre of the feast, with the full light again playing on her flowing locks and wealth of jewels, all is animated and full of bustle. Sam- son, evidently a Rembrandt of fantasy, leans over a chair pro- pounding his riddle to the Philistine lords. In execution it is a great advance on former subject pictures; it is bolder in manner, and we have here signs of his approaching love of warmer tones of red and yellow. The story of Susannah also occupied him in these early years, and he returned to the subject in 1641 and 1653. " The Bather " of the National Gallery may be another interpretation of the same theme. In all of these pictures the woman :s coarse in type and lumpy in form, though the modelling is soft and round, the effect which Rembrandt always strove to gain. Beauty of form was outside his art. But the so-called " Danae " (1636) at St Peters- burg is a sufficient reply to those who deny his ability ever to ap- preciate the beauty of the nude female form. It glows with colour and life, and the blood seems to pulsate under the warm skin. In the picturesque story of Tobit Rembrandt found much to interest him, as we see in the beautiful small picture of the d'Arenberg Collection at Brussels. Sight is being restored to the aged Tobias, while with infinite tenderness his wife holds the old man's hand caressingly. The momentary action is complete, and the picture goes straight to the heart. In the Berlin Gallery he paints the anxiety of the parents as they wait the return of their son. In 1637 he painted the fine picture now in the Louvre of the " Flight of the Angel "; and the same subject is grandly treated by him, REMBRANDT 79 apparently about 1645, in the picture exhibited in the winter exhibi- tion at Burlington House in 1885. Reverence and awe are shown in every attitude of the Tobit family. A similar lofty treatment is to be found in the " Christ as the Gardener," appearing to Mary, of 1638 (Buckingham Palace). We have now arrived at the year 1640, the threshold of his second manner, which extended to 1654, the middle age of Rembrandt. During the latter part of the previous decade we find the shadows more transparent and the blending of light and shade more perfect. There is a growing power in every part of his art. The coldness of his first manner had disappeared, -and the tones were gradually changing into golden-brown. He had passed through what Bode calls his " Sturm-und-Drang " period of exaggerated expression, as in the Berlin Samson, and had attained to a truer, calmer form of dramatic expression, of which the " Manoah " of Dresden is a good example (1641). The portraits painted " to order " became more rare about this time, and those which we have are chiefly friends of his circle, such as the " Mennonite Preacher " (C. C. Ansloo) and the " Gilder," a fine example of his golden tone, formerly in the Morny collection and now in America. His own splendid portrait (1640) in the National Gallery illustrates the change in his work. It describes the man well — strong and robust, with powerful head, firm and compressed lips and determined chin, with heavy eyebrows, separated by a deep vertical furrow, and with eyes of keen penetrating glance — altogether a self-reliant man that would carry out his own ideas, careless whether his popularity waxed or waned. The fantastic rendering of himself has disappeared; he seems more conscious of his dignity and position. He has now many friends and pupils, and numerous commissions, even from the stadtholder; he has bought a large house in the Breedstraat, in which during the next sixteen years of his life he gathers his large collection of paintings, engravings, armour and costume which figure afterwards in his inventory. His taste was wide and his purchases large, for he was joint owner with picture-dealers of paintings by Giorgione and Palma Vecchio, while for a high-priced Marcantonio Raimondi print he gave in exchange a fine impression of his " Christ Healing the Sick," which has since been known as the " Hundred Guilder Print." The stadtholder was not a prompt payer, and an interesting correspondence took place between Rembrandt and Constantin Huygens, the poet and secretary of the prince. The Rembrandt letters which have come down to us are few, and these are therefore of importance. Rembrandt puts a high value on the picture, which he says had been painted " with much care and zeal," but he is willing to take what the prince thinks proper; while to Huygens he sends a large picture as a present for his trouble in carrying through the business. There is here no sign of the grasping greed with which he has been charged, while his unselfish conduct is seen in the settlement of the family affairs at the death of his mother in 1640. The year 1642 is remarkable for the great picture formerly known as the " Night Watch," but now more correctly as the " Sortie of the Banning Cock Company," another of the landmarks of Rem- brandt's career, in which twenty-nine life-sized civic guards are introduced issuing pell-mell from their club house. Such gilds of arquebusiers had been painted admirably before by Ravesteyn and notably by Frans Hals, but Rembrandt determined to throw life and animation into the scene, which is full of bustle and move- ment. The dominant colour is the citron yellow uniform of the lieutenant, wearing a blue sash, while a Titian-like red dress of a musketeer, the black velvet dress of the captain, and the varied green of the girl and drummer, all produce a rich and harmonious effect. The background has become dark and heavy by accident or neglect, and the scutcheon on which the names are painted is scarcely to be seen. It is to be observed that, as proved by the copy by Gerrit Lundens in the National Gallery, it represents not a " night watch," except in name, but a day watch. But this year of great achievement was also the year of his great loss, for Saskia died in 1642, leaving Rembrandt her sole trustee for her son Titus, but with full use of the money till he should marry again or till the marriage of Titus. The words of the will express her love for her husband and her confidence in him. With her death his life was changed. Bode has remarked that there is a pathetic sadness in his pictures of the Holy Family — a favourite subject at this period of his life. All of these he treats with the na'ive simplicity of Reformed Holland, giving us the real carpenter's shop and the mother watching over the Infant reverently and lovingly, with a fine union of realism and idealism. The street in which he lived was full of Dutch and Portuguese Jews, and many a Jewish rabbi sat to him. He accepted or invented their turbans and local dress as characteristic of the people. But in his religious pictures it is not the costume we look at; what strikes us is the profound perception of the sentiment of the story, making them true to all time and independent of local circumstance. A notable example of this feeling is to be found in the " Woman Taken in Adultery " of the National Gallery, painted in 1644 in the manner of the " Simeon " of the Hague. Beyond the ordinary claims of art, it commands our attention from the grand conception of the painter who here, as in other pictures and etchings, has invested Christ with a majestic dignity which recalls Lionardo and no other. A similar lofty ideal is to be found in his various renderings of the " Pilgrims at Emmaus," notably in the Louvre picture of 1648, in which, as Mrs Jameson says, " he returns to those first spiritual principles which were always the dowry of ancient art." From the same year we have the " Good Samaritan " of the Louvre, the story of which is told with intense pathos. The helpless suffering of the wounded man, the curiosity of the boy on tiptoe, the excited faces at the upper window, are all conveyed with masterly skill. In these last two pictures we find a broader touch and freer handling, while the tones pass into a dull yellow and brown with a marked pre- dilection for deep rich red. Whether it was that this scheme of colour found no favour with the Amsterdamers, who, as Hoog- straten tells us, could not understand the " Sortie," it seems certain that Rembrandt was not invited to take any leading part in the celebration of the congress of Westphalia (1648). Rembrandt touched no side of art without setting his mark on it, whether in still life, as in his dead birds or the " Slaughtered Ox " of the Louvre (with its repetitions at Glasgow and Budapest), or in his drawings of elephants and lions, all of which are instinct with life. But at this period of his career we come upon a branch of his art on which he left, both in etching and in-painting, the stamp of his genius, viz. landscape. Roeland Roghman, but ten years his senior, evidently influenced his style, for the resemblance between their works is so great that, as at Cassel, there has been confusion of authorship. Hercules Sieghers also was much appreciated by Rembrandt, for at his sale eight pictures by this master figure in the inventory, and Vosmaer discovered that Rembrandt had worked on a plate by Seghers and had added figures to an etched " Flight into Egypt.' The earliest pure landscape known to us from Rem- brandt's hand is that at the Ryks Museum (1637-38), followed in the latter year by those at Brunswick, Cracow and Boston (U.S.A.), and that dated 1638 and belonging to Mr G. Rath in Budapest. Better known is the " Winter Scene " of Cassel (1646), silvery and delicate. As a rule in his painted landscape he aims at grandeur and poetical effect, as in the " Repose of the Holy Family " of 1647 (formerly called the " Gipsies "), a moonlight effect, clear even in the shadows. The " Canal " of Lord Lansdowne, and the " Mountain Landscape with Approaching Storm," the sun shining out behind the heavy clouds, are both conceived and executed in this spirit. A similar poetical vein runs through the " Castle on the Hill " of Cassel, in which the beams of the setting sun strike on the castle while the valley is sunk in the shades of approaching night. More powerful still is the weird effect of Lord Lansdowne's " Windmill," with its glow of light and darkening shadows. In all these pictures light with its magical influences is the theme of the poet-painter. From the number of landscapes by himself in the inventory of his sale, it would appear that these grand works were not . appreciated by his contemporaries. The last of the landscape series dates from 1655 or 1656, the close of the middle age or manhood of Rembrandt, a period of splendid power. In the " Joseph Accused by Potiphar's Wife " of 1654 we have great dramatic vigour and perfect mastery of expression, while the brilliant colour and glowing effect of light and shade attest his strength. To this period also belongs the great portrait of himself in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge. But evil days were at hand. The long-continued wars and civil troubles had worn out the country, and money was scarce. Rembrandt's and doubtless Saskia's means were tied up in his house and in his large collection of valuable pictures, and we find Rembrandt borrowing considerable sums of money on the security of his house to keep things going. Perhaps, as Bode suggests, this was the reason of his extraordinary activity at this time. Then, unfortunately, in this year of 1654, we find Rembrandt involved in the scandal of having a child by his servant Hendrickje Jaghers or Stoffels, as appears by the books of the Reformed Church at Amsterdam. He recognized the child and gave it the name of Cornelia, after his much-loved mother, but there is no proof that he married the mother, and the probability is against such a marriage, as the provisions of Saskia's will would in that case have come into force, and her fortune would have passed at once to her son Titus. Hendrickje- seems to have continued 8o REMBRANDT to live with him, for we find her claiming a chest as her property at his sale in 1658. Doubtless she is the peasant girl of Rasdorf to whom Houbraken says Rembrandt was married. Sad as the story is, Hendrickje has an interest for us. Bode asserts that in his art there was always a woman in close relationship to Rem- brandt and appearing in his work — his mother, his sister and then Saskia. He also suggests that the beautiful portrait of the " Lady " in the Salon Carre of the Louvre and the " Venus and Cupid " of the same gallery may represent Hendrickje and her child. Both pictures belong to this date, and by their treatment are removed from the category of Rembrandt's usual portraits. But if this is conjecture, we get nearer to fact when we look at the picture exhibited at Burlington House in 1883 to which tradition has attached the name of " Rembrandt's Mistress," now in the Edinburgh National Gallery. At a glance one can see that it is not the mere head of a model, as she lies in bed raising herself to put aside a curtain as if she heard a well-known footstep. It is clearly a woman in whom Rembrandt had a personal interest. The date is clearly 165 — the fourth figure being illegible; but the brilliant carnations and masterly touch connect it with the " Potiphar's Wife " of 1654 and the Jaghers period. In 1656 Rembrandt's financial affairs became more involved, and the Orphans' Chamber transferred the house and ground to Titus, though Rembrandt was still allowed to take charge of Saskia's estate. Nothing, however, could avert the ruin of the painter, who was declared bankrupt in July 1656, an inventory of all his property being ordered by the Insolvency Chamber. The first sale took place in 1657 in the Keizerskroon hotel; and the second in 1658, when the larger part of the etchings and drawings were disposed of — " collected by Rembrandt himself with much love and care," says the catalogue. The sum realized, under 5000 guilders, was but a fraction of their value. The time was unfavourable over the whole of Europe for such sales, the renowned collection of Charles I. of England having brought but a comparatively small sum in 1653. Driven thus from his house, stripped of everything he possessed, even to his table linen, Rembrandt took a modest lodging in the same Keizerskroon hostelry (the amounts of his bills are on record), apparently without friends and thrown entirely on himself. But this dark year of 1656 stands out prominently as one in which some of his greatest works were produced, as, for example, " John the Baptist preaching in the Wilderness," of the Berlin Gallery, and " Jacob blessing the Sons of Joseph," of the Cassel Gallery. It is impossible not to respect the man who, amid the utter ruin of his affairs, could calmly conceive and carry out such noble work. Yet even in his art one can see that the tone of his mind was sombre. Instead of the brilliancy of 1654 we have for two or three years a preference for dull yellows, reds and greys, with a certain uni- formity of tone. The handling is broad and rapid, as if to give utterance to the ideas which crowded on his mind. There is less caressing of colour for its own sake, even less straining after vigorous effect of light and shade. Still the two pictures just named are among the greatest works of the master. To the same year belongs the " Lesson in Anatomy of Johann Deyman." The sub- ject is similar to the great Tulp of 1632, but his manner and power of colour had advanced so much that Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his visit to Holland in 1781, was reminded by it of Michelangelo and Titian.1 Vosmaer ascribes to the same year, though Bode places it later, the famous " Portrait of Jan Six," the future burgo- master, consummate in its ease and character, as Six descends the steps of his house drawing on his glove. The connexion between Rembrandt and the great family of Six was long and close. In 1641, the mother of Six, Anna Wymer, had been painted with con- summate skill by Rembrandt, who also executed in 1647 the beauti- ful etching of Six standing by a window reading his tragedy of Medea, afterwards illustrated by his friend. Now he paints his portrait in the prime of manhood, and in the same year of gloom paints for him the masterly " John the Baptist." Six, if he could not avert the disaster of Rembrandt's life, at least stood by him in the darkest hour, when certainly the creative energy of Rembrandt 1 This picture has had a strange history. It had suffered by fire and was sold to a Mr Chaplin of London in 1841, was exhibited in Leeds in 1868, and again disappeared, ultimately to be found in the storeroom of the South Kensington Museum as a doubtful Rem- brandt. The patriotism of some Dutch lovers of art restored it to its native country; and it now hangs, a magnificent fragment, in the museum of Amsterdam. was in full play. The same period gives us the " Master of the Vineyard," and the " Adoration of the Magi " of Buckingham Palace. After the sale of the house in the Breedstraat, Rembrandt retired to the Rosengracht, an obscure quarter at the west end of the city. We are now drawing to the splendid close of his career in his third manner, in which his touch became broader, his impasto more solid and his knowledge more complete. We may mention the " Old Man with the Grey Beard " of the National Gallery (1657) and the " Bruyningh, the Secretary of the Insolvents' Chamber," of Cassel (1658), both leading up to the great portraits of the " Syndics of the Cloth Hall " of 1661. Nearly thirty years separate us from the " Lesson in Anatomy," years of long-continued observation and labour. The knowledge thus gathered, the problems solved, the mastery attained, are shown here in abundance. Rembrandt returns to the simplest gamut of colour, but shows his skill in the use of it, leaving on the spectator an impression of absolute enjoy- ment of the result, unconscious of the means. The plain burghers dealing with the simple concerns of their gild arrest our attention as if they were the makers of history. They live for ever; and we close our eyes to the strange perspective of the table. In his old age Rembrandt continued to paint his own portrait as assiduously as in his youthful and happy days. About twenty of these portraits are known; a typical one is to be found in the National Gallery. All show the same self-reliant expres- sion, though broken down indeed by age and the cares of a hard life. About the year 1663 Rembrandt painted the (so-called) " Jewish Bride " of the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the " Family Group " of Brunswick, the last and perhaps the most brilliant works of his life, bold and rapid in execution and marvellous in the subtle mixture and play of colours in which he seems to revel. The woman and children are painted with such love that the impression is conveyed that they represent a fancy family group of the painter in his old age. This idea received some confirmation from the supposed discovery that he left a widow Catherine Van Wyck and two children, but this theory falls to the ground, for de Roever has shown (Oud Holland, 1883) that Catherine was the widow of a marine painter Theunisz Blanckerhoff, who died about the same time as Rem- brandt. The mistake arose from a miscopying of the register. The subject of these pictures is thus more mysterious than ever. In 1668 Titus, the only son of Rembrandt, died, leaving one child, and on the 8th of October 1669 the great painter himself passed away, leaving two children, and was buried in the Wester Kerk. He had outlived his popularity, for his manner of paint- ing, as we know from contemporaries, was no longer in favour with a people who preferred the smooth trivialities of Van der Werff and the younger Mieris, the leaders of an expiring school. We must give but a short notice of Rembrandt's achievements in etching. Here he stands out by universal confession as first, excel- ling by his unrivalled technical skill, his mastery of expression and the lofty conceptions of many of his great pieces, as in the " Death of the Virgin," the " Christ Preaching," the " Christ Healing the Sick " (the " Hundred Guilder Print ), the " Presentation to the People," the " Crucifixion " and others. So great is his skill simply as an etcher that one is apt to overlook the nobleness of the etcher s ideas and the depth of his nature, and this tendency has been doubt- less confirmed by the enormous difference in money value between " states " of the same plate, rarity giving in many cases a factitious worth in the eyes of collectors. A single impression of one of his etchings — " Rembrandt with a Sabre " — realized £2000 at the Holford sale in 1893, when " Ephraim Bonus, with black ring " fetched £1950, and the " Hundred Guilder Print," £1750. The points of difference between these states arise from the additions and changes made by Rembrandt on the plate; and the prints taken off by him have been subjected to the closest inspection by Bartsch, Gersaint, Wilson, Daulby, De Claussin, C. Blanc, Willshire, Seymour Haden, Middleton and others, who have described them at great length, and to whom the reader is referred. The classifica- tion of Rembrandt's etchings adopted till lately was according to the subject, as Biblical, portrait, landscape, and so on; until Vosmaer attempted the more scientific and interesting line of chronology. This method has been developed by Sir F. Seymour Haden and Middleton.v But even in 1873 C. Blanc, in his fine work L'CEuvre complet de Rembrandt, still adheres to the older and less intelligent arrangement, resting his preference on the frequent absence of dates on the etchings and more strangely still on the equality of the work. Sir Seymour Haden's reply is " that the more important etchings which may be taken as types are dated, and that, the style of the etchings at different periods of Rembrandt's career being fully as marked as that of his paintings, no more REMEDIOS— REMIREMONT 81 difficulty attends the classification of one than of the other." In- deed Vosmaer points out in his Life of Rembrandt that there is a marked parallelism between Rembrandt's painted and etched work, his early work in both cases being timid and tentative, while he gradually gains strength and character both with the brush and the graver's tools. In his L'CEuvre complet de Rembrandt (Paris, 1885), Eugene Dutuit rejects the classification of C. Blanc as dubious and unwarranted, dismisses the chronological arrangement proposed by Vosmaer and adopted by Seymour Haden and Middleton as open to discussion and lacking in possibility of proof, and reverts to the order estab- lished by Gersaint, ranging his materials under twelve heads: Portraits (real and supposed), Old Testament and New Testament subjects, histories, landscapes, &c. Sir Seymour Haden originated the theory that many of the etchings ascribed to Rembrandt up to 1640 were the work of his pupils, and seems to make out his case, though it may be carried too far. He argues (in his monograph on the Etched Work of Rembrandt, 1877) that Rembrandt's real work in etching began after Saskia's death, when he assumes that Rembrandt betook himself to Elsbrqek, the country house of his " powerful friend " Jan Six. But it must be remembered that the future burgomaster was then but a student of twenty-four, a member of a great family it is true, but unmarried and taking as yet no share in public life. That Rembrandt was a frequent visitor at Elsbroek, and that the " Three Trees " and other etchings may have been pro- duced there, may be admitted without requiring us to believe that he had left Amsterdam as his place of abode. The great period of his etching lies between 1639 and 1661, after which the old painter seems to nave renounced the needle. In these twenty years were produced his greatest works in portraiture, landscape and Bible story. They bear the impress of the genius of the man. In addition to the authors named, the reader is referred to W. Burger, (the nom de plume of T. Thor6), Musees de la Hollands (1858-60); E. Fromentin, Mattres d'autrefois; H. Havard, L'Ecole Hollandaise; Scheltema, Rembrandt, discours sur sa vie (1866); Ath. Cocquerel fils, Rembrandt, son individualisme dans I' art (Paris, 1869) ; Dr Langbehn, Rembrandt als Erzieher (Leipzig, 1890); Emile Michel, Rembrandt, sa vie, son ceuvre, et son temps (Paris, 1893) ; P. G. Hamerton, Rembrandt's Etchings (London, 1894); Malcolm Bell, Rembrandt van Rijn and his Work (London, 1899); Adolf Rosenberg, Rembrandt, des Meisters Gemalde (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1906), a useful work, admirably reproducing 565 of the artist s pictures, and its companion volume, Hans Wolfgang Singer, Rem- brandt, des Meisters Radierungen (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1906), reproducing 402 etchings. The chronological, geographical and classifying indexes in both books are of particular utility. (J. F. W.; P. G. K.) REMEDIOS, or SAN JUAN DE Los REMEDIOS, town of Santa Clara province, Cuba, in the municipality of San Juan de Los Remedies. Pop. of the town (1907), 6988; of the munici- pality, 21,573. The town is served by a branch of the Cuban Central railway, extending from Caibarien to Camajuani, where it connects with the main line. The site is low and flat, and unhealthily wet in the rainy season. The port of Remedies is Caibarien (pop. in 1907, 8333), on the N. coast, about 5 m. E. Both are in the sugar country, and sugar is the base of their economic interests. The first settlement on the site of the present town was made in 1515-16, and in 1545 Remedies was created a villa with an ayuntamiento (council). REMEMBRANCER, the name originally of certain subordinate officers of the English Exchequer. The office itself is of great antiquity, the holder having been termed remembrancer, memorator, rememorator, registrar, keeper of the register, despatcher of business (Maddox, History of the Exchequer). There were at one time three clerks of the remembrance, styled king's remembrancer, lord treasurer's remembrancer and re- membrancer of first-fruits. The latter two offices have become extinct, that of remembrancer of first-fruits by the diversion of the fund (Queen Anne's Bounty Act 1838), and that of lord treasurer's remembrancer on being merged in the office of king's remembrancer (1833). By the Queen's Remembrancer Act 1859 the office ceased to exist separately, and the queen's remembrancer was required to be a master of the court of exchequer. The Judicature Act 1873, s. 77, attached the office to the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Court of Judicature (Officers) Act 1879 transferred it to the central office of the Supreme Court. By s. 8 the king's remembrancer is a master of the Supreme Court, and the office is usually filled by the senior master. The king's remembrancer department of the central office is now amalgamated with the judgments and married women's acknowledgments department. The king's remembrancer still assists at certain ceremonial functions — relics of the former importance of the office — such as the nomina- tion of sheriffs, the swearing-in of the lord mayor of London, the trial of the pyx and the acknowledgments of homage for crown lands. Other duties are set out in the Second Report of the Legal Departments Commission, 1874. " Remembrancer " is also the title of an official of the cor- poration of the city of London, whose principal duty is to represent that body before parliamentary committees and at council and treasury boards. REMIGIUS, ST (c. 437-533), bishop of Reims and the friend of Clovis, whom he converted to Christianity. According to Gregory of Tours, 3000 Franks were baptized with Clovis by Remigius on Christmas Day, 496, after the defeat of the Ala- manni. With the growing power of the papacy a good many fictions grew up around his name, e.g. that he anointed Clovis. with oil from the sacred ampulla, and that Pope Hormisdas had recognized him as primate of France. The Commentary on the Pauline Epistles (ed. Villalpandus, 1699) is not his work, but that of Remigius of Auxerre. For authorities see H. Jadart, Bibliographie des ouvrages cone. la vie et le culte de S. Remi . . . (Reims, 1891), which contains 126 references. REMINGTON, FREDERICK (1861-1909), American artist, was born at Canton, New York, on the 4th of October 1861. He was a pupil of the Yale Art School, and of the Art Students' League, New York, and became known as an illustrator, painter and sculptor. Having spent much time in the West, whither he went for his health, and having been with the United States troops in actual warfare, he made a specialty of rendering the North American Indian and the United States soldier as seen on the western plains. In the Spanish-American War he was with the army under General Shatter as war corre- spondent. He died on the 26th of December 1909, near Ridge- field, Connecticut. His statuettes of soldiers, Indians, cowboys and trappers are full of character, while his paintings have been largely reproduced. He wrote several volumes of stories, including Pony Tracks (1895), Crooked Trails (1898), Sundown Leflare (1899), and John Ermine of the Yellowstone (1902). REMINISCENCE (from Lat. reminisci, to remember), the recognized translation of the Greek dj'd/wtyo'w, which is used technically by Plato in his doctrine that the soul recovers knowledge of which it had direct intuition in a former incorporeal existence. The doctrine may be regarded as the poetical precursor of modern a priori theories of knowledge and of " race-memory " and the like. In common language " remi- niscence " is synonymous with " recollection." REMIREMONT, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Vosges, 17 m. S.S.E. of Epinal by rail, on the Moselle, a mile below its confluence with the Moselotte. Pop. town, 8782; commune, 10,548. Remire- mont is surrounded by forest-clad mountains, and commanded by Fort Parmont, one of the Moselle line of defensive works. The abbey church, consecrated in 1051, has a crypt of the nth century in which are the tombs of some of the abbesses, but as a whole belongs to the late I3th century. The abbatial residence (which now contains the mairie, the court-house and the public library) has been twice rebuilt in modern times (in 1750 and again after a fire in 1871), but the original plan and style have been preserved in the imposing front, the vestibule and the grand staircase. Some of the houses of the canonesses dating from the i7th and i8th centuries also remain. Remiremont is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college, a board of trade-arbitration and a chamber of arts and manufactures. Its industries include cotton-spinning and weaving, the manufacture of hosiery and embroidery, iron and copper founding and the manufacture of boots and shoes and brushes. Remiremont (Romarici Mans) derives its name from St Romaric, one of the companions of St Columban of Luxeuil, who in the 7th century founded a monastery and a convent on the hills above the present town. In 910 the nuns, menaced REMONSTRANTS— REMUSAT, COMTE DE by the invasion of the Hungarians, took refuge at Remiremont, which had grown up round a villa of the Prankish kings, and in the nth century they permanently settled there. Enriched by dukes of Lorraine, kings of France and emperors of Germany, the ladies of Remiremont attained great power. The abbess was a princess of the empire, and received consecration at the hands of the pope. The fifty canonesses were selected from those who could give proof of noble descent. On Whit-Monday the neighbouring parishes paid homage to the chapter in a ceremony called the "Kyrioles"; and on their accession the dukes of Lorraine, the immediate suzerains of the abbey, had to come to Remiremont to swear to continue their protection. The " War of the Scutcheons " (Panonceaux) in 1566 between the duke and the abbess ended in favour of the duke; and the abbess never recovered her former position. In the I7th century the ladies of Remiremont fell away so much from the original monastic rule as to take the title of countesses, renounce their vows and marry. The town was attacked by the French in 1638 and ruined by the earthquake of 1682. With the rest of Lorraine it was joined to France in 1766. The monastery on the hill and the nunnery in the town were both suppressed in the Revolution. REMONSTRANTS, the name given to those Dutch Protestants who, after the death of Arminius (a, 'Ptfufrav, 'Ptfjujta./*, 'PaLav, 'P«f>av. It is part of a quotation from Amos v. 26, where the Septuagint 'Pai<£di> or 'Ptav stands for the Hebrew P'? Chuin or Kewan. The Greek forms are probably simple mistakes for the Hebrew, k (3) having been replaced by r 0) and ph () substituted for v ('). Kewan is probably the old Babylonian Ka(y)awanu, the planet Saturn, another (the Akkadian) name for which is Sakkut, which appears as Siccuth in the earlier part of the verse. REMSCHEID, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, situated on an elevated plateau, noo ft. above sea- level, 6 m. by rail S. of Barmen and 20 m. N.E. of Cologne. Pop. (1905) 64,340. Remscheid is a centre of the hardware industry, and large quantities of tools, scythes, skates and other small articles in iron, steel and brass are made for export to all parts of Europe, the East, and North and South America. The name of Remscheid occurs in a document of 1132, and the town received the first impulse to its industrial importance through the immigration of Protestant refugees from France and Holland. R6MUSAT, CHARLES FRANCOIS MARIE, COMTE DE (1797- 1875), French politician and man of letters, was born in Paris on the i3th of March 1797. His father, Auguste Laurent, Comte de Remusat, of a good family of Toulouse, was chamber- lain to Napoleon, but acquiesced in the restoration and became prefect first of Haute Garonne, and then of Nord. His mother's maiden name was Claire Elisabeth Jeanne Gravier de Ver- gennes, born in 1780. She married at sixteen, and was attached to Josephine as dame du palais in 1802. Talleyrand was among her admirers, and she was generally recognized as a woman of great intellectual capacity and personal grace. After her death (1824) an Essai sur I' education des femmes was published and received an academic couronne. But it was not until her grandson Paul de Remusat published her Memoires (3 vols., Paris, 1879-80), which have since been followed by some corre- spondence with her son (2 vols., 1881), that justice could be done to her literary talent. Much light was thrown on the Napoleonic court by this book, and on the youth and education of her son Charles. He early developed political views more liberal than those of his parents, and, being bred to the bar, published in 1820 a pamphlet on trial by jury. He was an active journalist, showing in philosophy and literature the influence of Cousin, and is said to have furnished to no small extent the original of Balzac's brilliant egoist Henri de Marsay. He signed the journalists' protest against the Ordinances of July 1830, and in the following October wa's elected deputy for Haute Garonne. He then ranked himself with the doctrin- aires, and supported most of those measures of restriction on popular liberty which made the July monarchy unpopular with French Radicals. In 1836 he became for a short time under- secretary of state for the interior. He then became an ally of Thiers, and in 1840 held the ministry of the interior for a brief period. In the same year he became an Academician. For the rest of Louis Philippe's reign he was in opposition till he joined Thiers in his attempt at a ministry in the spring of 1848. During this time Remusat constantly spoke in the chamber, but was still more active in literature, especially on philosophical subjects, the most remarkable of his works being his book on Abelard (2 vols., 1845). In 1848 he was elected, and in 1849 re-elected, for Haute Garonne, and voted with the Conservative side. He had to leave France after the coup d'etat; nor did he re-enter political life during the Second Empire until 1869, when he founded a moderate opposition journal at Toulouse. In 1871 he refused the Vienna embassy offered him by Thiers, but in August he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in succession to M. Jules Favre. Although minister he was not a deputy, and on standing for Paris in September 1873 he was beaten by Desire Barodet. A month later he was elected (having already resigned with Thiers) for Haute Garonne by a great majority. He died in Paris on the 6th of January 1875. During his abstention from politics Remusat continued to write on philosophical history, especially English. Saint Anselme de Cantorbery appeared in 1854; L'Anglcterre an XVIIIeme siecle in 1856 (2nd ed. enlarged, 1865); Bacon, sa vie, REMUSAT, J. P. A.— RENAISSANCE son temps, &c., in 1858; Channing, sa vie et ses atwires, in 1862; John Wesley in 1870; Lord Herbert de Cherbury in 1874; His- toire de la philosophic, en Anglelerre depuis Bacon jusqu'd Locke in 1875; besides other and minor works. He wrote well, was a forcible speaker and an acute critic; but his adoption of the indeterminate eclecticism of Cousin in philosophy and of the somewhat similarly indeterminate liberalism of Thiers in politics probably limited his powers, though both no doubt accorded with his critical and unenthusiastic turn of mind. His son PAUL DE REMUSAT (1831-1897) became a distin- guished journalist and writer. He was for many years a regular contributor to the Revue des deux mond.es. He stood for election in Haute-Garonne in 1869 in opposition to the imperial policy and failed, but was elected to the National Assembly in 1871 and later. In 1890 he entered the Acaddmie des sciences morales et politiques. REMUSAT, JEAN PIERRE ABEL (1788-1832), French Chinese scholar, was born in Paris on the 5th of September 1788. He was educated for the medical profession, but a Chinese herbal in the collection of the Abbe Tersan attracted his atten- tion, and he taught himself to read it by great perseverance and with imperfect help. At the end of five years' study he produced in 1811 an Essai sur la langue et la litter ature chinoises, and a paper on foreign languages among the Chinese, which procured him the patronage of Silvestre de Sacy. In 1814 a chair of Chinese was founded at the College de France, and Remusat was placed in it. From this time he gave himself wholly to the languages of the Far East, and published a series of useful works, among which his contributions from Chinese sources to the history of the Tatar nations claim special notice. Remusat became an editor of the Journal de savants in 1818, and founder and first secretary of the Paris Asiatic Society in 1822; he also held various Government appointments. He died at Paris on the 4th of June 1832. A list of his works is given in Querard's France litteraire s.v. Remusat. RENAISSANCE, THE.— The " Renaissance " or " Renascence " is a term used to indicate a well-known but indefinite space of time and a certain phase in the development of Europe.1 On the one hand it denotes the transition from that period of his- tory which we call the middle ages (q.v.) to that which we call modern. On the other hand it implies those changes in the intellectual and moral attitude of the Western nations by which the transition was characterized. If we insist upon the literal and etymological meaning of the word, the Renaissance was a re-birth; and it is needful to inquire of what it was the re-birth. The metaphor of Renaissance may signify the entrance of the European nations upon a fresh stage of vital energy in general, implying a fuller consciousness and a freer exercise of faculties than had belonged to the medieval period. Or it may mean the resuscitation of simply intellectual activities, stimulated by the revival of antique learning and its application to the arts and literatures of modern peoples. Upon our choice between these two interpretations of the word depend important differences in any treatment of the subject. The former has the disadvantage of making it difficult to separate the Renaissance from other historical phases — the Reformation, for example — with which it ought not to be confounded. The latter has the merit of assigning a specific name to a limited series of events and group of facts, which can be distinguished for the purpose of analysis from other events and facts with which they are intimately but not indissolubly connected. In other words, the one definition of Renaissance makes it denote the whole change which came over Europe at the close of the middle ages. The other confines it to what was known by our ancestors as the Revival of Learning. Yet, when we concentrate attention on the recovery of antique culture, we become aware that this was only one phenomenon or symptom of a far wider and more comprehensive alteration in the conditions of the European races. We find it needful to retain both terms, Renaissance and Revival of Learning, and 1 For a somewhat different view of the parcelling out into such periods, see the article MIDDLE AGES. to show the relations between the series of events and facts which they severally imply. .The Revival of Learning must be regarded as a function of that vital energy, an organ of that mental evolution, which brought into existence the modern world, with its new conceptions of philosophy and religion, its reawakened arts and sciences, its firmer grasp on the realities of human nature and the world, its manifold inventions and discoveries, its altered political systems, its expansive and progressive forces. Im- portant as the Revival of Learning undoubtedly was, there are essential factors in the complex called the Renaissance with which it can but remotely be connected. When we analyse the whole group of phenomena which have to be considered, we perceive that some of the most essential have nothing or little to do with the recovery of the classics. These are, briefly speaking, the decay of those great fabrics, church and empire, which ruled the middle ages both as ideas and as realities; the development of nationalities and languages; the enfeeblement of the feudal system throughout Europe; the invention and application of paper, the mariner's compass, gunpowder, and printing; the exploration of continents beyond the ocean; and the substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. Europe in fact had been prepared for a thorough- going metamorphosis before that new ideal of human life and culture which the Revival of Learning brought to light had been made manifest. It had recovered from the confusion conse- quent upon the dissolution of the ancient Roman empire. The Teutonic tribes had been Christianized, civilized and assimilated to the previously Latinized races over whom they exercised the authority of conquerors. Comparative tranquillity and material comfort had succeeded to discord and rough living. Modern nationalities, defined as separate factors in a common system, were ready to co-operate upon the basis of European federation. The ideas of universal monarchy and of indivisible Christendom, incorporated in the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Church, had so far lost their hold that scope was offered for the introduction of new theories both of state and church which would have seemed visionary or impious to the medieval mind. It is therefore obvious that some term, wider than Revival of Learn- ing, descriptive of the change which began to pass over Europe in the I4th and isth centuries, has to be adopted. That of Renaissance, Rinascimento, or Renascence is sufficient for the purpose, though we have to guard against the tyranny of what is after all a metaphor. We must not suffer it to lead us into rhetoric about the deadness and the darkness of the middle ages, or hamper our inquiry with preconceived assumptions that the re-birth in question was in any true sense a return to the irrecoverable pagan past. Nor must we imagine that there was any abrupt break with the middle ages. On the contrary, the Renaissance was rather the last stage of the middle ages, emerging from ecclesi- astical and feudal despotism, developing what was original in medieval ideas by the light of classic arts and letters, holding in itself the promise of the modern world. It was therefore a period and a process of transition, fusion, preparation, tentative endeavour. And just at this point the real importance of the Revival of Learning may be indicated. That rediscovery of the classic past restored the confidence in their own faculties to men striving after spiritual freedom; revealed the continuity of history and the identity of human nature in spite of diverse creeds and different customs; held up for emulation master- works of literature, philosophy and art; provoked inquiry; encouraged criticism; shattered the narrow mental barriers imposed by medieval orthodoxy. Humanism, a word which will often recur in the ensuing paragraphs, denotes a specific bias which the forces liberated in the Renaissance took from contact with the ancient world, — the particular form assumed by human self-esteem at that epoch, — the ideal of life and civilization evolved by the modern nations. It indicates the endeavour of man to reconstitute himself as a free being, not as the thrall of theological despotism, and the peculiar assistance he derived in this effort from Greek and Roman literature, the litterae humaniores, letters leaning rather to the side of man than of divinity. RENAISSANCE In this article the Renaissance will be considered as implying a comprehensive movement of the European intellect and will Method toward self-emancipation, toward reassertion of the of treat- natural rights of the reason and the senses, toward ment- .the" conquest of this planet as a place of human occu- pation, and toward the formation of regulative theories both for states and individuals differing from those of medieval times. The Revival of Learning will be treated as a decisive factor in this process of evolution on a new plan. To exclude the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation wholly from the survey is impossible. These terms indicate moments in the whole process of modern history which were opposed, each to the other, and both to the Renaissance; and it is needful to bear in mind that they have, scientifically speaking, a quite separate existence. Yet if the history of Europe in the i6th century of our era came to be written with the brevity with which we write the history of Europe in the 6th century B.C., it would be difficult at the distance of time implied by that supposition to distinguish the Italian movement of the Renaissance in its origin from the German movement of the Reformation. Both would be seen to have a common starting- point in the reaction against long dominant ideas which were becoming obsolete, and also in the excitation of faculties which had during the same period been accumulating energy. The Renaissance, if we try to regard it as a period, was essentially the transition from one historical stage to another. It cannot therefore be confined within strict chronological limits. Chrono- Xhere is one date, however, which may be remembered with advantage as the starting-point in time of the Re- naissance, after the departure from the middle ages had been definitely and consciously made by the Italians. This is the year 1453, when Constantinople, chosen for his capital by the first Christian emperor of Rome, fell into the hands of the Turk. One of the survivals of the old world, the shadow of what had been the Eastern Empire, now passed suddenly away. Almost at the same date that visionary revival of the Western Empire, which had im- posed for six centuries upon the imagination of medieval Europe, hampering Italy and impeding the consolidation of Germany, ceased to reckon among political actualities; while its more robust rival, the Roman Church, seemed likely to sink into the rank of a petty Italian principality. It was demonstrated by the destruction of the Eastern and the dotage of the Western Empire, and by the new papal policy which Nicholas V. inaugurated, that the old order of society was about to be superseded. Nothing remained to check those centrifugal forces in state and church which substituted a confederation of rival European powers for the earlier ideal of universal monarchy, and separate religious constitutions for the previous Catholic unity. At the same time the new learning introduced by the earlier humanists awakened free thought, encour- aged curiosity, and prepared the best minds of Europe for specula- tive audacities from which the schoolmen would have shrunk, and which soon expressed themselves in acts of cosmopolitan importance. If we look a little forward to the years 1492-1500, we obtain a second date of great importance. In these years the expedition of Charles VIII. to Naples opened Italy to French, Spanish and German interference. The leading nations of Europe began to compete for the prize of the peninsula, and learned meanwhile that culture which the Italians had perfected. In these years the secular- ization of the papacy was carried to its final point by Alexander VI., and the Reformation became inevitable. The same period was marked by the discovery of America, the exploration of the Indian seas, and the consolidation of the Spanish nationality. It also witnessed the application of printing to the diffusion of knowledge. Thus, speaking roughly, the half-century between 1450 and 1500 may be termed the culminating point of the Renaissance. The transition from the medieval to the modern order was now secured if not accomplished, and a Rubicon had been crossed from which no retrogression to the past was possible. Looking yet a little farther, to the years 1527 and 1530, a third decisive date is reached. In the first of these years happened the sack of Rome, in the second the pacification of Italy by Charles V. under a Spanish hegemony. The age of the Renaissance was now closed for the land which gave it birth. The Reformation had taken firm hold on northern Europe. The Counter-Reformation was already imminent. It must not be imagined that so great a change as that implied by the Renaissance was accomplished without premonitory Precur- symptoms and previous endeavours. In the main son of we mean by it the recovery of freedom for the human the Re- spirit after a long period of bondage to oppressive aalssaace. , . ,. , , .... , ecclesiastical and political orthodoxy — a return to the liberal and practical conceptions of the world which the nations of antiquity had enjoyed, but upon a new and enlarged platform. This being so, it was inevitable that the finally successful efforts after self-emancipation should have been anticipated from time to time by strivings within the ages that are known as dark and medieval. It is therefore part of the present inquiry to pass in review some of the claimants to be considered precursors of the Renaissance. First of all must be named the Frank in whose lifetime the dual conception of universal empire and universal church, divinely ap- pointed, sacred and inviolable, began to control the order of Euro- pean society. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) lent his forces to the plan of resuscitating the Roman empire at a moment when his own power made him the arbiter of western Europe, when the papacy needed his alliance, and when the Eastern Empire had passed under the usurped regency of a female. He modelled an empire, Roman in name but essentially Teutonic, since it owed such substance as its fabric possessed to Prankish armies and the sinews of the German people. As a structure composed of diyerf ill-connected parts it fell to pieces at its builder's death, leaving little but the incubus of a memory, the fascination of a mighty name, to dominate the mind of medieval Europe. As an idea, the empire grew in visionary power, and remained one of the chief obstacles in the way of both Italian and German national coherence. Real force was not in it, but rather in that counterpart to its unlimited pretensions, the church, which had evolved it from barbarian night, and which used her own more vital energies for'undermining the rival of her creation. Charles the Great, having proclaimed himself successor of the Caesars, was obscurely ambitious of imitating the Augusti also in the sphere of letters. He caused a scheme of humanistic education to be formulated, and gave employment at his court to rhetoricians, of whom Alcuin was the most considerable. But very little came of the revival of learning which Charles is supposed to have encouraged ; and the empire he restored was accepted by the medieval intellect in a crudely theological and vaguely mystical spirit. We should, however, here remember that the study of Roman law, which was one important precursory symptom of the Renaissance, owed much to medieval respect for the empire as a divine institution. This, together with the municipal Italian intolerance of the Lombard and Prankish codes, kept alive the practice and revived the science of Latin jurisprudence at an early period. Philosophy had attempted to free itself from the trammels of theological orthodoxy in the hardy speculations of some schoolmen, notably of Scotus Engena and Abelard. These innovators found, however, small support, and were defeated by opponents who used the same logical weapons with auth- ority to back them. Nor were the rationalistic opinions of the Averroists without their value, though the church condemned these deviators from her discipline as heretics. Such medieval materialists, moreover, had but feeble hold upon the substance of real knowledge. Imperfect acquaintance with authors whom they studied in Latin translations made by Jews from Arabic commentaries on Greek texts, together with almost total ignorance of natural laws, condemned them to sterility. Like the other schiomachists of their epoch, they fought with phantoms in a visionary realm. A similar judgment may be passed upon those Paulician, Albigensian, Paterme and Epicurean dissenters from the Catholic creed who opposed the phalanxes of orthodoxy with frail imaginative weapons, and alarmed established orders in the state by the audacity of their communistic opinions. Physical science struggled into feeble life in the cells of Gerbert and Roger Bacon. But these men were accounted magicians by the vulgar; and, while the one eventually assumed the tiara, the other was incarcer- ated in a dungeon. The schools meanwhile resounded still to the interminable dispute upon abstractions. Are only universals real, or has each name a corresponding entity? From the midst of the Franciscans who had persecuted Roger Bacon because he presumed to know more than was consistent with human humility arose John of Parma, adopting and popularizing the mystic prophecy of Joachim of Flora. The reign of the Father is past ; the reign of the Son is passing; the reign of the Spirit is at hand. Such was the formula of the Eternal Gospel, which, as an unconscious forecast of the Renaissance, has attracted retrospective students by its felicity of adaptation to their historical method. Yet we must remember that this bold intuition of the abbot Joachim indicated a monastic reaction against the tyrannies and corruptions of the church, rather than a fertile philosophical conception. The Fraticelli spiritualists, and similar sects who fed their imagination with his doctrine, ex- pired in the flames to which Fra Dolcino Longino and Margharita were consigned. To what extent the accusations of profligate morals brought agaihst these reforming sectarians were justified remains doubtful; and the same uncertainty rests upon the alleged •iniquities of the Templars. It is only certain that at this epoch the fabric of Catholic faith was threatened with various forms of pro- phetic and Oriental mysticism, symptomatic of a widespread desire to grasp at something simpler, purer and less rigid than Latin theology afforded. Devoid of criticism, devoid of sound learning, devoid of a firm hold on the realities of life, these heresies passed away without solid results and were forgotten. P*6 ** RENAISSANCE We are too apt to take for granted that the men of the middle ages were immersed in meditations on the other world, and that their Natural- intellectual exercises were confined to abstractions of the schools, hallucinations of the fancy, allegories, visions. "" . This assumption applies indeed in a broad sense to that mea evai pg,.;^ which was dominated by intolerant theology and lit *t deprived of positive knowledge. Yet there are abundant ' signs that the native human instincts, the natural human appetites, remained unaltered and alive beneath the crust of ortho- doxy. In the person of a pope like Boniface VIII. those ineradicable forces of the natural man assumed, if we may trust the depositions of ecclesiastics well acquainted with his life, a form of brutal atheistic cynicism. In the person of an emperor, Frederick II., they emerged under the more agreeable garb of liberal culture and Epicurean scepticism. Frederick dreamed of remodelling society upon a mundane type, which anticipated the large toleration and cosmopolitan enlightenment of the actual Renaissance. But his efforts were defeated by the unrelenting hostility of the church, and by the incapacity of his contemporaries to understand his aims. After being forced in his lifetime to submit to authority, he was consigned by Dante to hell. Frederick's ideal of civilization was derived in a large measure from Provence, where a beautiful culture had prematurely bloomed, filling southern Europe with the perfume of poetry and gentle living. Here, if anywhere, it seemed as though the ecclesiastical and feudal fetters of the middle ages might be broken, and humanity might enter on a new stage of joyous unim- peded evolution. This was, however, not to be. The church preached Simon de Mpntfort's crusade, and organized Dominic's Inquisition; what Quinet calls the " Renaissance sociale par 1'Amour " was extirpated by sword, fire, famine and pestilence. Meanwhile the Provencal poets had developed their modern language with incomparable richness and dexterity, creating forms of verse and modes of emotional expression which determined the latest medieval phase of literature in Europe. The naturalism of which we have been speaking found free utterance now in the fabliaux of jongleurs, lyrics of minnesingers, tales of trouveres, romances of Arthur and his knights — compositions varied in type and tone, but in all of which sincere passion and real enjoyment of life pierce through the thin veil of chivalrous mysticism or of allegory with •which they were sometimes conventionally draped. The tales of Lancelot and Tristram, the lives of the troubadours and the Wacht- lieder of the minnesingers, sufficiently prove with what sensual freedom a knight loved the lady whom custom and art made him profess to worship as a saint. We do not need to be reminded that Beatrice's adorer had a wife and children, or that Laura's poet owned a son and daughter by a concubine, in order to perceive that the mystic passion of chivalry was compatible in the middle ages with commonplace matrimony or vulgar illegitimate connexions. But perhaps the most convincing testimony to the presence of this ineradicable naturalism is afforded by the Latin songs of wandering students, known as Curmina Burana, written by the self-styled Goliardi. In these compositions, remarkable for their iacile handling of medieval Latin rhymes and rhythms, the allegorizing mysticism which envelops chivalrous poetry is discarded. Love is treated from a frankly carnal point of view. Bacchus and Venus go hand in hand, as in the ancient ante- Christian age. The open-air enjoyments of the wood, the field, the dance upon the village green, are sung with juvenile lighthearted- ness. No grave note, warning us that the pleasures of this earth are fleeting, that the visible world is but a symbol of the invisible, that human life is a probation for the life beyond, interrupts the tinkling music as of castanets and tripping feet which gives a novel charm to these unique relics of the 1 3th century. Goliardic poetry is further curious as showing how the classics even at that early period were a fountain-head of pagan inspiration. In the taverns and low places of amusement haunted by those lettered songsters, on the open road and in the forests trodden by their vagrant feet, the deities of Greece and Rome were not in exile, but at home within the hearts of living men. Thus, while Christendom was still preoccupied with the Crusades, two main forces of the Renaissance, naturalism and enthusiasm for antique modes of feeling, already brought their latent potency to light, prematurely indeed and precociously, yet with a promise that was destined to be kept. When due regard is paid to these miscellaneous evidences of intellectual and sensual freedom during the middle ages, it will be „ . . seen that there were by no means lacking elements of attitude nat've vigour ready to burst forth. What was wanting of m lad was not vi^'ity and licence, not audacity of speculation, not lawless instinct or rebellious impulse. It was rather the right touch on life, the right feeling for human independence, the right way of approaching the materials of philosophy, religion, scholarship and literature, that failed. The courage that is born of knowledge, the calm strength begotten by a positive attitude of mind, face to face with the dominant over-shadowing Sphinx of theology, were lacking. We may fairly say that natural and untaught people had more of the just intuition that was needed than learned folk trained in the schools. But these people were rendered licentious in revolt or impotent for salutary action by ignorance, by terror, by uneasy dread of the doom declared for heretics and rebels. The aollardk poetry. massive vengeance of the church hung over them, like a heavy sword suspended in the cloudy air. Superstition and stupidity hedged them in on every side, so that sorcery and magic seemed the only means of winning power over nature or insight into mysteries surrounding human life. The path from darkness to light was lost; thought was involved in allegory; the study of nature had been perverted into an inept system of grotesque and pious parable- mongering; the pursuit of truth had become a game of wordy dialectics. The other world, with its imagined heaven and hell, haunted the conscience like a nightmare. However sweet this world seemed, however fair the flesh, both world and flesh were theoretically given over to the devil. It was not worth while to master and economize the resources of this earth, to utilize the good and ameliorate the evils of this life, while every one agreed, in theory at any rate, that the present was but a bad prelude to an infinitely worse or infinitely better future. To escape from these preoccupa- tions and prejudices except upon the path of conscious and deliber- ate sin was impossible for all but minds of rarest quality and courage; and these were too often reduced to the recantation of their supposed errors no less by some secret clinging sense of guilt than by the church's iron hand. Man and the actual universe kept on reasserting their rights and claims, announcing their goodliness and delightfulness, in one way or another; but they were always being thrust back again into Cimmerian regions of abstractions, fictions, visions, spectral hopes and fears, in the midst of which the intellect somnambulistically moved upon an unknown way. At this point the Revival of Learning intervened to determine the course of the Renaissance. Medieval students possessed a considerable portion of the Latin classics, though Italy—the Greek had become in the fullest sense of the phrase Revival of a dead language. But what they retained of ancient l-e*ralax- literature they could not comprehend in the right spirit. Between them and the text of poet or historian hung a veil of mysticism, a vapour of misapprehension. The odour of unsanctity clung around those relics of the pagan past. Men bred in the cloister and the lecture-room of the logicians, trained in scholastic disputations, versed in allegorical interpretations of the plainest words and most apparent facts, could not find the key which might unlock those stores of wisdom and of beauty. Petrarch first opened a new method in scholarship, and revealed what we denote as humanism. In his teaching lay the twofold discovery of man and of the world. For humanism, which was the vital element in the Revival of Learning, consists mainly of a just perception of the dignity of man as a rational, volitional and sentient being, born upon this earth with a right to use it and enjoy it. Humanism implied the rejection of those visions of a future and imagined state of souls as the only absolute reality, which had fascinated the imagination of the middle ages. It involved a vivid recognition of the goodliness of man and nature, displayed in the great monuments of human power recovered from the past. It stimulated the curiosity of latent sensibilities, provoked fresh inquisition into the groundwork of existence, and strengthened man's self-esteem by knowledge of what men had thought and felt and done in ages when Christianity was not. It roused a desire to reappropriate the whole abandoned provinces of mundane energy, and a hope to emulate antiquity in works of living loveliness and vigour. The Italians of the I4th century, more precocious than the other European races, were ripe for this emancipation of enslaved intelligence. In the classics they found the food which was required to nourish the new spirit ; and a variety of circumstances, among which must be reckoned the pride of a nation boasting of its descent from the Populus Romanus, rendered them apt to fling aside the obstacles that had impeded the free action of the mind through many centuries. Petrarch not only set his countrymen upon the right method of studying the Latin classics, but he also divined the importance of recovering a knowledge of Greek literature. To this task Boccaccio addressed himself; and he was followed by numerous Italian enthusiasts, who visited Byzantium before its fall as the sacred city of a new revelation. The next step was to collect MSS., to hunt out, copy and preserve the precious relics of the past. In this work of accumulation Guarino and Filelfo, Aurispa and Poggio, took the chief part, aided by the wealth of Italian patricians, merchant-princes and despots, who were inspired by the sacred thirst for learning. Learning was then 86 RENAISSANCE no mere pursuit of a special and recluse class. It was fashionable and it was passionate, pervading all society with the fervour of romance. For a generation nursed in decadent scholasticism and stereotyped theological formulae it was the fountain of renascent youth, beauty and freedom, the shape in which the Helen of art and poetry appeared to the ravished eyes of medieval Faustus. It was the resurrection of the mightiest spirits of the past. " I go," said Cyriac of Ancona, the inde- fatigable though uncritical explorer of antiquities, " I go to awake the dead ! " This was the enthusiasm, this the vitalizing faith, which made the work of scholarship in the isth century so highly strung and ardent. The men who followed it knew that they were restoring humanity to its birthright after the expatriation of ten centuries. They were instinctively aware that the effort was for liberty of action, thought and conscience in the future. This conviction made young men leave their loves and pleasures, grave men quit their counting-houses, churchmen desert their missals, to crowd the lecture-rooms of philologers and rhetoricians. When Greek had been acquired, MSS. accumulated, libraries and museums formed, came the age of printers and expositors. Aldus Manutius in Italy, Froben in Basel, the Etiennes in Paris, committed to the press what the investigators had recovered. Nor were there wanting men who dedicated their powers to Hebrew and Oriental erudition, laying, together with the Grecians, a basis for those Biblical studies which advanced the Reformation. Meanwhile the languages of Greece and Rome had been so thoroughly appro- priated that a final race of scholars, headed by Politian, Pontano, Valla, handled once again in verse and prose both antique dialects, and thrilled the ears of Europe with new-made pagan melodies. The church itself at this epoch lent its influence to the prevalent enthusiasm. Nicholas V. and Leo X., not to mention intervening popes who showed themselves tolerant of humanistic culture, were heroes of the classical revival. Scholar- ship became the surest path of advancement to ecclesiastical and political honours. Italy was one great school of the new learning at the moment when the German, French and Spanish nations were invited to her feast. It will be well to describe briefly, but in detail, what this meeting of the modern with the ancient mind effected over the Nature of whole field of intellectual interests. In doing so, we Italian must be careful to remember that the study of the human- classics did but give a special impulse to pent-up energies which were bound in one way or another to assert their independence. Without the Revival of Learning the direction of those forces would have been different; but that novel intuition into the nature of the world and man which constitutes what we describe as Renaissance must have emerged. As the facts, however, stand before us, it is impossible to dis- sociate the rejection of the other world as the sole reality, the joyous acceptance of this world as a place to live and act in, the conviction that " the proper study of mankind is man," from humanism. Humanism, as it actually appeared in Italy, was positive in its conception of the problems to be solved, pagan in its contempt for medieval mysticism, invigorated for sensuous enjoyment by contact with antiquity, yet holding in itself the germ of new religious aspirations, profounder science and sterner probings of the mysteries of life than had been attempted even by the ancients. The operation of this humanistic spirit has now to be traced. It is obvious that Italian literature owed little at the outset to the Revival of Learning. The Divine Comedy, the Canzoniere and the Decameron were works of monumental art, flit deriving neither form nor inspiration immediately from °p * f' the classics, but applying the originality of Italian genius .' to matter drawn from previous medieval sources. Dante and Villanl snowed both in his epic poem and in his lyrics that he to the had not abandoned the sphere of contemporary thought. Revivalol Allegory and theology, the vision and the symbol, still Learning, determine the form of masterpieces which for perfection of workmanship and for emancipated force of intellect rank among the highest products of the human mind. Yet they are not medieval in the same sense as the song of Roland or the Arthurian cycle. They proved that, though Italy came late into the realm of literature, her action was destined to be decisive and alterative by the introduction of a new spirit, a firmer and more positive grasp on life and art. These qualities she owed to her material prosperity, to her freedom from feudalism, to her secular- ized church, her commercial nobility, her political independence in a federation of small states. Petrarch and Boccaccio, though they both held the medieval doctrine that literature should teach some abstruse truth beneath a veil of fiction, differed from Dante in this that their poetry and prose in the vernacular abandoned both allegory and symbol. In their practice they ignored their theory. Petrarch's lyrics continue the Provencal tradition as it had been reformed in Tuscany, with a subtler and more modern analysis of emotion, a purer and more chastened style, than his masters could boast. Boccaccio's tales, in like manner, continue the tradition of the fabliaux, raising that literary species to the rank of finished art, enriching it with humour and strengthening its substance by keen insight into all varieties of character. The Canzoniere and the Decameron distinguish themselves from medieval literature, not by any return to classical precedents, but by free self-conscious handling of human nature. So much had to be premised in order to make it clear in what relation humanism stood to the Renais- sance, since the Italian work of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio is sufficient to indicate the re-birth of the spirit after ages of ap- parent deadness. Had the Revival of Learning not intervened it is probable that the vigorous efforts of these writers alone would have inaugurated a new age of European culture. Yet, while noting this reservation of judgment, it must also be remarked that all three felt themselves under some peculiar obligation to the classics. Dante, medieval as his temper seems to us, chose Virgil for his guide, and ascribed his mastery of style to the study of Virgilian poetry. Petrarch and Boccaccio were, as we have seen, the pioneers of the new learning. They held their writings in the vernacular cheap, and initiated that contempt for the mother tongue which was a note of the earlier Renaissance. Giovanni Villani, the first chroni- cler who used Italian for the compilation of a methodical history, tells us how he was impelled to write by musing on the ruins of Rome and thinking of the vanished greatness of the Latin race. We have therefore to recognize that the four greatest writers of the I4th century, while the Revival of Learning was yet in its cradle, each after his own fashion acknowledged the vivifying touch upon their spirit of the antique genius. They seem to have been conscious that they could not give the desired impulse to modern literature and art without contact with the classics; and, in spite of the splendour of their achievements in Italian, they found no immediate followers upon that path. The fascination of pure study was so powerful, the Italians at that epoch were so eager to recover the past, that during the I5th century we have before our eyes the spectacle of this great Delation nation deviating from the course of development begun , r-* j r> L • L r> • Of human- m poetry by Dante and retrarch, in prose by Boccaccio ^sm t and Villani, into the channels of scholarship and anti- gcag/gf. quarian research. The language of the Canzoniere and §/,/„ aaij Decameron was abandoned for revived Latin and dis- literature. covered Greek. Acquisition supplanted invention; imitation of classical authors suppressed originality of style. The energies of the Italian people were devoted to transcrib- ing codices, settling texts, translating Greek books into Latin, compiling grammars, commentaries, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, epitomes and ephemerides. During this century the best histories — Bruno's and Poggio's annals of Florence, for example — were composed in Latin after the manner of Livy. The best disserta- tions, Landino's Camaldunenses, Valla's De Voluptate, were laboured imitations of Cicero's Tusculans. The best verses, Pontano's elegies, Politian's hexameters, were in like manner Latin; public orations upon ceremonial occasions were delivered in the Latin tongue; correspondence, official and familiar, was carried on in the same language; even the fabliaux received, in Poggio's Facetiae. a dress of elegant Latinity. The noticeable barrenness of Italian literature at this period is referable to the fact that men of genius and talent devoted themselves to erudition and struggled to express their thoughts and feelings in a speech which was not natural. Yet they were engaged in a work of incalculable importance. At the close of the century the knowledge of Greece and Rome had been reappropriated and placed beyond the possibility of destruction; the chasm between the old and new world had been bridged ; medieval modes of thinking and discussing had been superseded ; the staple of education, the common culture which has brought all Europe into intellectual agreement, was already in existence. Humanism was now an actuality. Owing to the uncritical venera- tion for antiquity which then prevailed, it had received a strong tincture of pedantry. s Its professors, in their revolt against the middle ages, made light of Christianity and paraded paganism. What was even worse from an artistic point of view, they had con- tracted puerilities of style, vanities of rhetoric, stupidities of weari- some citation. Still, at the opening of the i6th century, it became manifest what fruits of noble quality the Revival of Letters was about to bring forth for modern literature. Two great scholars, Lorenzo de' Medici and Politian, had already returned to the RENAISSANCE practice of Italian poetry. |Their work is the first absolutely modern work, — modern in the sense of having absorbed the stores of classic learning and reproduced those treasures in forms of simple, natural, native beauty. Boiardo occupies a similar position by the fusion of classic mythology with chivalrous romance in his Orlando Innamorato. But the victor's laurels were reserved for Ariosto, whose Orlando Furioso is the purest and most perfect extant example of Renaissance poetry. It was not merely in what they had acquired and assimilated from the classics that these poets showed the transformation effected in the field of literature by humanism. The whole method and spirit of medieval art had been abandoned. That of the Cinque Cento is positive, defined, mundane. The deity, if deity there be, that rules in it, is beauty. Interest is confined to the actions, passions, sufferings and joys of human life, to its pathetic, tragic, humorous and sentimental incidents. Of the state of souls beyond the grave we hear and are supposed to care nothing. In the drama the pedantry of the Revival, which had not injured romantic literature, made itself perniciously felt. Rules were collected from Horace and Aristotle. Seneca was chosen as the model of tragedy; Plautus and Terence supplied the groundwork of comedy. Thus in the plays of Rucellai, Trissino, Sperone and other tragic poets the nobler elements of humanism, considered as a revelation of the world and man, ob- tained no free development. Even the comedies of the best authors are too observant of Latin precedents, although some pieces of Machiavelli, Ariosto, Aretino, Cecchi and Gelli are admirable for vivid delineation of contemporary manners. The relation of the plastic arts to the revival of learning is similar to that which has been sketched in the case of poetry. Cimabue started with work which owed nothing directly to anti- "*' quity. At about the same time Niccola Pisano (d. 1278) studied the style of sculpture in fragments of Graecp-Roman marbles. His manner influenced Giotto, who set painting on a forward path. Fortunately for the unimpeded expansion of Italian art, little was brought to light of antique workmanship during the I4th and I5th centuries. The classical stimulus came to painters, sculptors and architects chiefly through literature. Therefore there was narrow scope for imitation, and the right spirit of humanism displayed itself in a passionate study of perspective, nature and the nude. Yet we find in the writings of Gniberti and Alberti, we notice in the masterpieces of these men and their compeers Brunelleschi and Donatello, how even in the I5th century the minds of artists were fascinated by what survived of classic grace and science. Gradually, as the race became penetrated with antique thought, the earlier Christian motives of the arts yielded to pagan subjects. Gothic architecture, which had always flourished feebly on Italian soil, was supplanted by a hybrid Roman style. The study of Vitruvius gave strong support to that pseudo-classic manner which, when it had reached its final point in Palladio's work, overspread the whole of Europe and dominated taste during two centuries. But the perfect plastic art of Italy, the pure art of the Cinque Cento, the painting of Raphael, Da Vinci, Titian and Cprreggio, the sculpture of Donatello, Michelangelo and Sansovinp, the architecture of Bramante, Omodeo and the Venetian Lombard!, however much imbued with the spirit of the classical revival, takes rank beside the poetry of Ariosto as a free intelligent product of the Renaissance. That is to say, it is not so much an outcome of studies in antiquity as an exhibition of emancipated modern genius fired and illuminated by the masterpieces of the past. It indicates a separation from the middle ages, inasmuch as it is permanently natural. Its religion is joyous, sensuous, dramatic, terrible, but in each and all of its many-sided manifestations strictly human. Its touch on classical mythology is original, rarely imitative or pedantic. The art of the Renaissance was an apocalypse of the beauty of the world and man in unaffected spontaneity, without side thoughts for piety or erudition, inspired by pure delight in loveliness ana harmony for their own sakes. In the fields of science and philosophy humanism wrought similar important changes. Petrarch began by waging relentless war against the logicians and materialists of his own day. be regarded only as a period of transition the Italian *n wn'cn much of the good of the past was sacrificed while K oals- some °f the evil was retained, and neither the bad nor the good of the future was brought clearly into fact. Beneath the surface of brilliant socialculture lurked gross appetites and savage passions, unrestrained by medieval piety, untutored by modern experience. Italian society exhibited an almost un- exampled spectacle of literary, artistic and courtly refinement crossed by brutalities of lust, treasons, poisonings, assassinations, violence. A succession of worldly pontiffs brought the church into flagrant discord with the principles of Christianity. Steeped in pagan learning, emulous of imitating the manners of the ancients, used to think and feel in harmony with Ovid and Theocritus, and at the same time rendered cynical by the corruption of papal Rome, the educated classes lost their grasp upon morality. Political honesty ceased almost to have a name in Italy. The Christian virtues were scorned by the foremost actors and the ablest thinkers of the time, while the antique virtues were themes for rhetoric rather than moving-springs of conduct. This is apparent to all students of Machiavelli and Guicciardini, the profoundest analysts of their age, the bitterest satirists of its vices, but themselves in- fected with its incapacity for moral goodness. Not only were the Italians vitiated; but they had also become impotent for action and resistance. At the height of the Renaissance the five great powers in the peninsula formed a confederation of independent but mutually attractive and repellent states. Equilibrium was maintained by diplomacy, in which the humanists played a fore- most part, casting a network of intrigue over the nation which helped in no small measure to stimulate intelligence and create a common medium of culture, but which accustomed statesmen to believe that everything could be achieved by wire-pulling. Wars were conducted on a showy system by means of mercenaries, who played a safe game in the field and developed a system of blood- less campaigns. Meanwhile the people grew up unused to arms. When Italy between the years 1494 and 1530 became the battle- field of French, German and Spanish forces, it was seen to what a point of helplessness the political, moral and social conditions of the Renaissance had brought the nation. It was needful to study at some length the main phenomena of the Renaissance in Italy, because the history of that phase of evolution in the other Western races turns almost Diffusion entirely upon points in which they either adhered of the to or diverged from the type established there. Speak- ^w ing broadly, what France, Germany, Spain and j"^, England assimilated from Italy at this epoch was in the through- first place the new learning, as it was then called, out This implied the new conception of human life, Europe. the new interest in the material universe, the new method of education, and the new manners, which we have seen to be inseparable from Italian humanism. Under these forms of intellectual enlightenment and polite culture the renascence of the human spirit had appeared in Italy, where it was more than elsewhere connected with the study of classical antiquity. But that audacious exploratory energy which formed the motive force of the Renaissance as distinguished from the Revival of Learning took, as we shall see, very different directions in the several nations who now were sending the flower of their youth to study at the feet of Italian rhetoricians. The Renaissance ran its course in Italy with strange indiffer- ence to consequences. The five great powers, held in equilibrium by Lorenzo de' Medici, dreamed that the peninsula could be maintained in statu quo by diplomacy. The church saw no danger in encouraging a pseudo-pagan ideal of life, violating its own principle of existence by assuming the policy of an aggrandizing secular state, and outraging Christendom openly by its acts and utterances. Society at large was hardly aware that an intellectual force of stupendous magnitude and in- calculable explosive power had been created by the new learning. Why should not established institutions proceed upon the customary and convenient methods of routine, while the delights of existence were augmented, manners polished, arts developed, and a golden age of epicurean ease made decent by a state religion which no one cared to break with because no one was left to regard it seriously? This was the attitude of the Italians when the Renaissance, which they had initiated as a thing of beauty, began to operate as a thing of power beyond the Alps. Germany was already provided with universities, seven of which had been founded between 1348 and 1409. In these haunts of learning the new studies took root after the year 1440, D.I* chiefly through the influence of travelling professors, Peter *"**" v . Luder and Samuel Karoch. German scholars made their way to Lombard and Tuscan lecture-rooms, bringing back the methods of the humanists. Greek, Latin and Hebrew " erudition soon found itself at home on Teutonic soil. Like Italian men of letters, these pioneers of humanism gave a classic turn to their patronymics; unfamiliar names, Crotus Rubeanusand Pierius Graecus, Capnion and Lupambulus Ganymedes, Oecolampadius and Melanchthon, resounded on the Rhine. A few of the German princes, among whom Maximilian, the prince cardinal Albert of Mainz, Frederick the Wise of Saxony, and Eberhard of Wurttem- berg deserve mention, exercised a not insignificant influence on letters by the foundation of new universities and the patronage of learned men. The cities of Strassburg, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Basel, became centres of learned coteries, which gathered round scholars like Wimpheling, Brant, Peutinger, Schedel, and Pirckheimer, artists like purer and Holbein, printers of the eminence of Froben. Academies in imitation of- Italian institutions came into existence, the two most conspicuous, named after the Rhine and the Danube, holding their headquarters respectively at Heidelberg and Vienna. Crowned poets, of whom the most eminent was Conrad Celtes Pro- tucius (Picket!), emulated the fame of Politian and Pontano. Yet, though the Renaissance was thus widely communicated to the centres of German intelligence, it displayed a different character from that which it assumed in Italy. Gothic art,_ which was indi- genous in Germany, yielded but little to southern influences. Such RENAISSANCE 89 work as that of Dttrer, Vischer, Cranach, Schongauer, Holbein, con- summate as it was in technical excellence, did not assume Italian forms of loveliness, did not display the paganism of the Latin races. The modification of Gothic architecture by pseudo-Roman elements of style was incomplete. What Germany afterwards took of the Palladian manner was destined to reach it on a circuitous route from France. In like manner the new learning failed to penetrate all classes of society with the rapidity of its expansion in Italy, nor was the new ideal of life and customs so easily substituted for the medieval. The German aristocracy, as Aeneas Sylvius had noticed, remained for the most part barbarous, addicted to gross pleasures, contemptuous of culture. The German dialects were too rough to receive that artistic elaboration under antique influences which had been so facile in Tuscany. The doctors of the universities were too wedded to their antiquated manuals and methods, too satisfied with dullness, too proud of titles and diplomas, too anxious to preserve ecclesiastical discipline and to repress mental activity, for a genial spirit of humanism to spread freely. Not in Cologne or Tubingen but in Padua and Florence did the German pioneers of the Renais- sance acquire their sense of liberal studies. And when they returned home they found themselves encumbered with stupidities, jealousies and rancours. Moreover, the temper of these more enlightened men was itself opposed to Italian indifference and immorality; it was pugnacious and polemical, eager to beat down the arrogance of monks and theologians rather than to pursue an ideal of aesthetical self-culture. To a student of the origins of German humanism it is clear that something very different from the Renaissance of Lorenzo ie' Medici and Leo X. was in preparation from the first upon Teutonic soil. Far less plastic and form-loving than the Italian, the German intelligence was more penetrative, earnest, disputative, occupied with substantial problems. Starting with theological criticism, proceeding to the stage of solid studies in the three learned languages, German humanism occupied the attention of a widely scattered sect of erudite scholars; but it did not arouse the interest of the whole nation until it was forced into a violently militant attitude by Pfefferkorn's attack on Reuchlin. That attempt to extinguish honest thought prepared the Reformation; and humanism after 1518 was absorbed in politico-religious warfare. The point of contact between humanism and the Reformation in Germany has to be insisted on; for it is just here that the relation of the Reformation to the Renaissance in general makes Relai itself apparent. As the Renaissance had its precur- of human- sorv movements in the medieval period, so the German Reformation was preceded by Wickliffe and Huss, by the uerman discontents of the Great Schism and by the councils of Con- stance and Basel. These two main streams of modern progress had been proceeding upon different tracks to diverse issues, but they touched in the studies stimulated by the Revival, and they had a common origin in the struggle of the spirit after self-emancipation. Johann Reuchlin, who entered the lecture-room of Argyropoulos at Rome in 1482, Erasmus of Rotter- dam, who once dwelt at Venice as the house guest of the Aldi, applied their critical knowledge of Hebrew and of Greek to the elucidation and diffusion of the Bible. To the Germans, as to all nations of that epoch, the Bible came as a new book, because they now read it for the first time with eyes opened by humanism. The touch of the new spirit which had evolved literature, art and culture in Italy sufficed in Germany to recreate Christianity. This new spirit in Italy emancipated human intelligence by the classics; in Germany it emancipated the human conscience by the Bible. The indigna- tion excited by Leo X.'s sale of indulgences, the moral rage stirred in Northern hearts by papal abominations in Rome, were external causes which precipitated the schism between Teutonic and Latin Christianity. The Reformation, inspired by the same energy of resuscitated life as the Renaissance, assisted by the same engines of the printing-press and paper, using the same apparatus of scholar- ship, criticism, literary skill, being in truth another manifestation of the same world-movement under a diverse form, now posed itself as an irreconcilable antagonist to Renaissance Italy. It would be difficult to draw any comparison between German and Italian humanists to the disparagement of the former. Reuchlin was no less learned than Pico; Melanchthon no less humane than Ficino; Erasmus no less witty, and far more trenchant, than Petrarch; Ulrich von Hutten no less humorous than Folengo; Paracelsus no less fantastically learned than Cardano. But the cause in which Cerman intellect and will were enlisted was so different that it is difficult not to make a formal separation between that movement which evolved culture in Italy and that which restored religion in Germany, establishing the freedom of intelligence in the one sphere and the freedom of the conscience in the other. The truth is that the Reformation was the Teutonic Renaissance. It was the emanci- pation of the reason on a line neglected by the Italians, more impor- tant indeed in its political consequences, more weighty in its bearing on rationalistic developments than the Italian Renaissance, but none the less an outcome of the same ground-influences. We have already in this century reached a point at which, in spite of stubborn Protestant dogmatism and bitter Catholic reaction, we can perceive how the ultimate affranchisement of man will be the work of both. The German Reformation was incapable of propagating itself in Italy, chiefly for the reason that the intellectual forces which it represented and employed had already found specific _. outlet in that country. It was not in the nature of the catholk Italians, sceptical and paganized by the Revival, to be . keenly interested about questions which seemed to revive la ^. the scholastic disputes of the middle ages. It was not in their external conditions, suffering as they were from invasions, enthralled by despots, to use the Reformation as a lever for political revolution. Yet when a tumultuary army of so-called Lutherans sacked Rome in 1527 no sober thinker doubted that a new agent had appeared in Europe which would alter the destinies of the peninsula. The Renaissance was virtually closed, so far as it concerned Italy, when Clement VII. and Charles V. struck their compact at Bologna in 1530. This compact proclaimed the principle of monarchical absolutism, supported by papal authority, itself monarchically absolute, which influenced Europe until the outbreak of the Revolu- tion. A reaction immediately set in both against the Renaissance and the Reformation. The council of Trent, opened in 1545 and closed in 1563, decreed a formal purgation of the church, affirmed the fundamental doctrines of Catholicism, strengthened the papal supremacy, and inaugurated that movement of resistance which is known as the Counter-Reformation. The complex onward effort of the modern nations, expressing itself in Italy as Renaissance, in Germany as Reformation, had aroused the forces of conservatism. The four main instruments of the reaction were the papacy, which had done so much by its sympathy with the revival to promote the humanistic spirit it now dreaded, the strength of Spain, and two Spanish institutions planted on Roman soil — the Inquisition and the Order of Jesus. The principle contended for and established by this reaction was absolutism as opposed to freedom — monarchical absolutism, papal absolutism, the suppression of energies liberated by the Renaissance and the Reformation. The partial triumph of this principle was secure, inasmuch as the majority of established powers in church and state felt threatened by the' revolutionary opinions afloat in Europe. Renaissance and Reformation were, moreover, already at strife. Both, too, were spiritual and elastic tendencies toward progress, ideals rather than solid organisms. The part played by Spain in this period of history was deter- mined in large measure by external circumstance. The Spaniards became one nation by the conquest of Granada and the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon. The war of fP"1^ la national aggrandizement, being in its nature a crusade, " inflamed the religious enthusiasm of the people. It * was followed by the expulsion of Jews and Moors, and by gfts aga the establishment of the Inquisition on a solid basis, with ietters powers formidable to the freedom of all Spaniards from the peasant to the throne. These facts explain the decisive action of the Spanish nation on the side of Catholic conservatism, and help us to understand why their brilliant achievements in the field of culture during the l6th century were speedily followed by stag- nation. It will be well, in dealing with the Renaissance in Spain, to touch first upon the arts and literature, and then to consider those qualities of character in action whereby the nation most distinguished itself from the rest of Europe. Architecture in Spain, emerging from the Gothic stage, developed an Early Renaissance style of bewildering richness by adopting elements of Arabic and Moorish decoration. Sculpture exhibited realistic vigour of indubitably native stamp; and the minor plastic crafts were cultivated with success on lines of striking originality. Painting grew from a homely stock, until the work of Velazquez showed that Spanish masters in this branch were fully abreast of their Italian compeers and contemporaries. To dwell here upon the Italianizing versifiers, moralists and pastoral romancers who attempted to refine the vernacular of the Romancero would be superfluous. They are mainly noticeable as proving that certain coteries in Spain were willing to accept the Italian Renaissance. But the real force of the people was not in this courtly literary style. It expressed itself at last in the monumental work of Don Quixote, which places Cervantes beside Rabelais, Ariosto and Shakespeare as one of the four supreme exponents of the Renaissance. The affectations of decadent chivalry disappeared before its humour; the lineaments of a noble nation, animated by the youth of modern Europe emerging from the middle ages, were portrayed in its enduring pictures of human experience. The Spanish drama, meanwhile, untram- melled by those false canons of pseudo-classic taste which fettered the theatre in Italy and afterwards in France, rose to an eminence in the hands of Lope de Vega and Calderon which only the English, and the English only in the masterpieces of three or four playwrights, can rival. Camoens, in the Lusiad, if we may here group Portugal with Spain, was the first modern poet to compose an epic on a purely modern theme, vying with Virgil, but not bending to pedantic rules, and breathing the spirit of the age of heroic adventures and almost fabulous discoveries into his melodious numbers. What has chiefly to be noted regarding the achievements of the Spanish race in arts and letters at this epoch is their potent national origin- ality. The revival of learning produced in Spain no slavish imitation as it did in Italy, no formal humanism, and, it may be added, very little of fruitful scholarship. The Renaissance here, as in England, 9o RENAISSANCE displayed essential qualities of intellectual freedom, delight in life, exultation over rediscovered earth and man. The note of Renais- sance work in Germany was still Gothic. This we feel in the penetrative earnestness of Durer, in the homeliness of Hans Sachs, in the grotesque humour of Eulenspiegel and the Narrenschiff, the sombre pregnancy of the Faust legend, the almost stolid mastery of Holbein. It lay not in the German genius to escape from the preoccupations and the limitations of the middle ages, for this reason mainly that what we call medieval was to a very large extent Teutonic. But on the Spanish peninsula, in the master- pieces of Velazquez, Cervantes, Camoens, Calderon, we emerge into an atmosphere of art, definitely national, distinctly modern, where solid natural forms stand before us realistically modelled, with light and shadow on their rounded outlines, and where the airiest creatures of the fancy take shape and weave a dance of rhythmic, light, incomparable intricacy. The Spanish Renaissance would in itself suffice, if other witnesses were wanting, to prove how inaccurate is the theory that limits this movement to the revival of learning. Touched by Italian influences, enriched and fortified by the new learning, Spanish genius walked firmly forward on its own path. It was only crushed by forces generated in the nation that produced it, by the Inquisition and by despotic Catholic absolutism. In the history of the Renaissance, Spain and Portugal represent the exploration of the ocean and the colonization of the other B 1 ra- hemisphere. The voyages of Columbus and Vespucci tioa of ' *•? America, the rounding of the Cape by Diaz and the the ocean, discovery of the sea road to India by Vasco da Gama, Cortes's conquest of Mexico and Pizarro's conquest of Peru, marked a new era for the human race and inaugurated the modern age more decisively than any other series of events has done. It has recently been maintained that modern European history is chiefly an affair of competition" between confederated states for the possession of lands revealed by Columbus and Da Gama. Without challenging or adopting this speculation, it may be safely affirmed that nothing so pregnant of results has happened as this exploration of the globe. To say that it displaced the centre of gravity in politics and commerce, substituting the ocean for the Mediterranean, dethroning Italy from her seat of central importance in traffic, depressing the eastern and elevating the western powers of Europe, opening a path for Anglo-Saxon expansiveness, forcing philosophers and statesmen to regard the Occidental nations as a single group in counterpoise to other groups of nations, the European community as one unit correlated to other units of humanity upon this planet, is truth enough to vindicate the vast significance of these discoveries. The Renaissance, far from being the re-birth of antiquity with its civilization confined to the Mediterranean, with its Hercules' Pillars beyond which lay Cimmerian darkness, was thus effectively the entrance upon a quite incalculably wider stage of life, on which mankind at large has since enacted one great drama. While Spanish navies were exploring the ocean, and Spanish paladins were overturning empires, Charles V. headed the reaction Dogmatic °^ Catholicism against reform. Stronger as king of Spain Catholl- than as emperor, for the Empire was little but a name, cism. ne lent the weight of his authority to that system of coercion and repression which enslaved Italy, desolated Germany with war, and drowned the Low Countries in blood. Philip II., with full approval of the Spanish nation, pursued the same policy in an even stricter spirit. He was powerfully assisted by two institutions, in which the national character of Spain expressed itself, the Inquisition and the Society of Jesus. Of the former it is not needful to speak here. But we have to observe that the last great phenomenon of the Spanish Renaissance was Ignatius Loyola, who organized the militia by means of which the church worked her Counter-Reformation. His motto, Perinde ac cadaver, expressed that recognition of absolutism which papacy and monarchy demanded for their consolidation (see JESUITS and LOYOLA). The logical order of an essay which attempts to show how Renaissance was correlated to Reformation and Counter- France la Reformation has necessitated the treatment of Italy, the Re- Germany and Spain in succession; for these three naissaoce natjons were tne three main agents in the triple period. . _ process to be analysed. It was due to their specific qualities, and to the diverse circumstances of their external development, that the re-birth of Europe took this form of duplex action on the lines of intellectual and moral progress, followed by reaction against mental freedom. We have now to speak of France, which earliest absorbed the influence of the Italian revival, and of England, which received it latest. The Renaissance may be said to have begun in France with Charles VIII. 's expedition to Naples, and to have continued until the extinction of the house of Valois. Louis XII. and Francis I. spent a considerable portion of their reigns in the attempt to secure possession of the Italian provinces they claimed. Henry II. 's queen was Catherine of the Medicean family; and her children, Charles IX. and Henry III., were Italianated French- men. Thus the connexion between France and Italy during the period 1494-1589 was continuous. The French passed to and fro across the Alps on military and peaceful expeditions. Italians came to France as courtiers, ambassadors, men of business, captains and artists. French society assumed a strong Italian colouring, nor were the manners of the court very different from those of an Italian city, except that externally they remained ruder and less polished. The relation between the crown and its great feudatories, the military bias of the aristocracy, and the marked distinction between classes which survived from the middle ages, rendered France in many vital points unlike Italy. Yet the annals of that age, and the anecdotes retailed by Brant6me, prove that the royalty and nobility of France had been largely Italianized. It is said that Louis XII. brought Fra Giocondo of Verona back with him to France, and founded a school of architects. But we need not have recourse to this legend for the explanation preach of such Italian influences as were already noticeable architec- in the Renaissance buildings on the Loire. Without ture. determining the French style, Italian intercourse helped to stimulate its formation and development. There are students of the I5th century in France who resent this intrusion of the Italian Renaissance. But they forget that France was bound by inexorable laws of human evolution to obey the impulse which communicated itself to every form of art in Europe. In the school of Fontainebleau, under the patronage of Francis I., that Italian influence made itself distinctly felt; yet a true French manner had been already formed, which, when it was subsequently applied at Paris, preserved a marked national quality. The characteristic of the style developed by Bullant, De I'Orme and Lescot, in the royal or princely palaces of Chenonceaux, Chambord, Anet, Ecouen, Fontainebleau, the Louvre and elsewhere, is a blending of capricious fancy and inventive richness of decoration with purity of outline and a large sense of the beauty of extended masses. Beginning with the older castles of Touraine, and passing onward to the Tuilerics, we trace the passage from the medieval fortress to the modern pleasure-house, and note how architecture obeyed the special demands of that new phenomenon of Renaissance civiliza- tion, the court. In the general distribution of parts these monu- mental buildings express the peculiar conditions which French society assumed under the influence of Francis I. and Diane de Poitiers. In details of execution and harmonic combinations they illustrate the precision, logic, lucidity and cheerful spirit of the national genius. Here, as in Lombardy, a feeling for serene beauty derived from study of the antique has not interrupted the evolution of a style indigenous to France and eminently characteristic of the French temperament. During the reign of Francis I. several Italian painters of eminence visited France. Among these, Del Rosso, Primaticcio, Del Sarto and Da Vinci are the most famous. But their example pff^i, was not productive of a really great school of French paint- oalntinv ing. It was left for the Poussins and Claude Lorraine ' in the next century, acting under mingled Italian and sculpture. Flemish influences, to embody the still active spirit of the classical revival. These three masters were the contemporaries of Corneille, and do not belong to the Renaissance period. Sculp- ture, on the contrary, in which art, as in architecture, the medieval French had been surpassed by no other people of Europe, was practised with originality and power in the reigns of Henry II. and Francis I. Ponzio and Cellini, who quitted Italy for France, found themselves outrivalled in their own sphere by Jean Goujon, Cousin and Pilon. The decorative sculpture of this epoch, whether combined with architecture or isolated in monumental statuary, ranks for grace and suavity with the best of Sansovino's. At the same time it is unmistakably inspired by a sense of beauty different from the Italian — more piquant and pointed, less languorous, more mannered perhaps, but with less of empty rhythmical effect. All this while, the minor arts of enamelling, miniature, glass-paint- ing, goldsmith's work, jewellery, engraving, tapestry, wood-carving, pottery, &c., were cultivated with a spontaneity and freedom which proved that France, in the middle point between Flanders and Italy, was able to use both influences without a sacrifice of native taste. It may indeed be said in general that what is true of France is likewise true of all countries which felt the artistic impulses of the Renaissance. Whether we regard Spain, the Netherlands, or Germany at this epoch, we find a national impress stamped upon the products of the plastic and the decorative arts, notwithstanding the prevalence of certain forms derived from the antique and Italy. It was only at a later period that the formalism of pseudo-classic pedantry reduced natural and national originality to a dead unanimity. RENAISSANCE 91 French literature was quick to respond to Renaissance influences. DC Comincs, the historian of Charles VIII. 's expedition to Naples, P . differs from the earlier French chroniclers in his way of f-rencn regarding the world of men and affairs. He has the ' perspicuity and analytical penetration of a Venetian ambassador. Villon, his contemporary, may rather be ranked, so far as artistic form and use of knowledge are concerned, with rts of the middle ages, and in particular with the Goliardi. But is essentially modern in the vividness of his self-portraiture, and in what we are wont to call realism. Both De Comines and Villon indicate the entrance of a new quality into literature. The Rhetoriqueurs, while protracting medieval traditions by their use of allegory and complicated metrical systems, sought to improve the French language by introducing Latinisms. Thus the Revival of Learning began to affect the vernacular in the last years of the I5th century. Marot and his school reacted against this pedantry. The Renaissance displayed itself in their effort to purify the form and diction of poetry. But the decisive revolution was effected by Ronsard and his comrades of the Pleiade. It was their professed object to raise French to a level with the classics, and to acclimatize Italian species of verse. The humanistic movement led these learned writers to engraft the graces of the antique upon their native literature, and to refine it by emulating the lucidity of Petrarch. The result of their endeavour was immediately apparent in the new force added to French rhythm, the new pomp, richness, colouring and polish conferred upon poetic diction. French style gradually attained to fixity, and the alexandrine came to be recog- nized as the standard line in poetry. D'Aubigne's invective and Regnier's satire, at the close of the l6th century, are as modern as Voltaire's. Meanwhile the drama was emerging from the medieval mysteries; and the classical type, made popular by Garnier's genius, was elaborated, as in Italy, upon the model of Seneca and the canons of the three unities. The tradition thus formed was continued and fortified by the illustrious playwrights of the I7th century. Translation from Greek and Latin into French progressed rapidly at the commencement of this period. It was a marked characteristic of the Renaissance in France to appropriate the spoils of Greece and Rome for the profit of the mother tongue. Amyot's Plutarch and his Daphnis and Chloe rank among the most exquisite examples of beautiful French prose. Prose had now the charm of simplicity combined with grace. To mention Bran- t&me is to mention the most entertaining of gossips. To speak of Montaigne is to speak of the best as well as the first of essayists. In all the literary work which has been mentioned, the originality and freshness of the French genius are no less conspicuous than its saturation with the new learning and with Italian studies. But the greatest name of the epoch, the name which is synonymous with the Renaissance in France, has yet to be uttered. That, of course, is Rabelais. His incommensurable and indescribable masterpiece of mingled humour, wisdom, satire, erudition, indecency, profundity, levity, imagina- tion, realism, reflects the' whole age in its mirror of hyper- Aristophanic farce. What Ariosto is for Italy, Cervantes for Spain, Erasmus for Holland, Luther for Germany, Shakespeare for England, that is Rabelais for France. The Renaissance can- not be comprehended in its true character without familiarity with these six representatives of its manifold and many-sided inspiration. The French Renaissance, so rich on the side of arts and letters, was hardly less rich on the side of classical studies. The revival of learning has a noble muster-roll of names in France: Turnebus, the patriarch of Hellenistic studies; the „. Etiennes of Paris, equalling in numbers, industry and e learning their Venetian rivals; the two Scaligers; impas- ' sioned Dolet; eloquent Muret; learned Cujas; terrible Calvin; Ramus, the intrepid antagonist of Aristotle; De Thou and De Beze i\ponderous Casaubon; brilliant young Saumaise. The distinguishing characteristics of French humanism are vivid intelligence, critical audacity and polemical acumen, perspicuity of exposition, learning directed in its appli- cations by logical sense rather than by artistic ideals of taste. Some of the names just mentioned remind us that in France, as in Germany and Holland, the Reformation was closely connected with the revival of learning. Humanism has never been in the narrow sense of that term Protestant; still less has it been strictly Catholic. In Italy it fostered a temper of mind decidedly averse to theological speculation and religious earnestness. In Holland and Germany, with Erasmus, Reuchlin and Melanchthon, it de- veloped types of character, urbane, reflective, pointedly or gently critical, which, left to themselves, would not have plunged the north of Europe into the whirlpool of belligerent reform. Yet none the less was the new learning, through the open spirit of inquiry it nourished, its vindication of the private reason, its enthusiasm for republican antiquity, and its proud assertion of the rights of human independence, linked by a strong and subtle chain to that turbid revolt of the individual consciousness against spiritual despotism draped in fallacies and throned upon abuses. To this rebellion we give the name of Reformation. But, while the necessities of •antagonism to papal Rome made it assume at first the form of French scholar- tioa In France. narrow and sectarian opposition, it marked in fact a vital struggle of the intellect towards truth and freedom, involving future results of scepticism and rationalistic audacity from which its earlier champions would have shrunk. It marked, moreover, in the con- dition of armed resistance against established authority which was forced upon it by the Counter-Reformation, a firm resolve to assert political liberty, leading in the course of time to a revolution with which the rebellious spirit of the Revival was sympathetic. This being the relation of humanism in general to reform, French learn- ing in particular displayed such innovating boldness as threw many of its most conspicuous professors into the camp at war with Rome. Calvin, a French student of Picard origin, created the type of Protestantism to which the majority of French Huguenots adhered. This too was a moment at which philosophical seclusion was hardly possible. In a nation so tumultuously agitated one side or the other had to be adopted. Those of the French humanists who did not proclaim Huguenot opinions found themselves obliged with Muretus to lend their talents to the Counter-Reformation, or to surfer persecution for heterodoxy, like Dolet. The church, terrified and infuriated by the progress of reform, suspected learning on its own account. To be an eminent scholar was to be accused of immorality, heresy and atheism in a single indictment; and the defence of weaker minds lay in joining the Jesuits, as Heinsius was fain to do. France had already absorbed the earlier Renaissance in an Italianizing spirit before the Reformation made itself felt as a political actuality. This fact, together with the strong Italian bias of the Valois, serves to explain in some degree the reason why the Counter-Reformation entailed those fierce entangled civil wars, massacres of St Bartholomew, murders of the Guises, regicides, treasons and empoisonments that ter- minated with the compromise of Henry IV. It is no part of the present subject to analyse the political, religious and social interests of that struggle. The upshot was the triumph of the Counter- Reformation, and the establishment of its principle, absolutism, as the basis of French government. It was a French king who, when the nation had been reduced to order, uttered the famous word of absolutism, " L'Etat, c'est moi." The Renaissance in the Low Countries, as elsewhere, had its brilliant age of arts and letters. During the middle ages the wealthy free towns of Flanders flourished under conditions not _. dissimilar to those of the Italian republics. They raised Tf* miracles of architectural beauty, which were modified in 0* the isth and 1 6th centuries by characteristic elements ?." . . of the new style. The Van Eycks, followed by Memling, ^™ * Metsys, Mabuse, Lucas van Leyden, struck out a new path rjutch in the revival of painting and taught Europe the secret painting of oil-colouring. But it was reserved for the 1 7th century to witness the flower and fruit time of this powerful art in the work of Porbus, Rubens and Vandyck, in the Dutch schools of landscape and home-life, and in the unique masterpieces of Rembrandt. We have a right to connect this later period with the Renaissance, because the distracted state of the Netherlands during the l6th century suspended, while it could not extinguish, their aesthetic development. The various schools of the tyth century, moreover, are animated with the Renaissance spirit no less surely than the Florentine school of the l§th or the Venetian of the l6th. The animal vigour and carnal enjoyment of Rubens, the refined Italianizing beauty of Vandyck, the mystery of light and gloom on Rembrandt's panels, the love of nature in Ruysdael, Cuyp and Van Hooghe, with their luminously misty skies, silvery daylight and broad expanse of landscape, the interest in common life displayed by Ter Borch, Van Steen, Douw, Ostade and Teniers, the instinct for the beauty of animals in Potter, the vast sea spaces of Vanderveldt, the grasp on reality, the acute intuition into char- acter in portraits, the scientific study of the world and man, the robust sympathy with natural appetites, which distinguish the whole art of the Low Countries, are a direct emanation from the Renaissance. The vernacular in the Netherlands profited at first but little by the impulse which raised Italian, Spanish, French and English to the rank of classic languages. But humanism, first of „. . . all in its protagonist Erasmus, afterwards in the long *™^ . list of critical scholars and editors, Lipsius, Heinsius scfto/a^. and Grotius, in the printers Elzevir and Plantin, developed w itself from the centre of the Leiden university with massive energy, and proved that it was still a motive force of intellectual progress. In the fields of classical learning the students of the Low Countries broke new ground chiefly by methodical collection, classification and comprehensive criticism of previously accumulated stores. Their works were solid and sub- stantial edifices, forming the substratum for future scholarship. In addition to this they brought philosophy and scientific thorough- ness to bear on studies which had been pursued in a more literary spirit. It would, however, be uncritical to pursue this subject further; for the encyclopaedic labours of the Dutch philologers belong to a period when tte Renaissance was overpast. For the same reason it is inadmissible to do more than mention the name of Spinoza here. RENAISSANCE The Netherlands became the battlefield of Reformation and Counter-Reformation in even a stricter sense than France. Here Dutch t'ie antagonistic principles were plainly posed in the wars of course of struggle against foreign despotism. The Indeoead- con^'ct ended in the assertion of political independence as opposed to absolute dominion. Europe in large measure owes the modern ideal of political liberty to that spirit of stubborn resistance which broke the power of Spain. Recent history, and in particular the history of democracy, claims for its province the several stages whereby this principle was developed in England and America, and its outburst in the frenzy of the French Revolution. It is enough here to have alluded to the part played by the Low Countries in the genesis of a motive force which may be described as the last manifestation of the Renaissance striving after self -emancipation. The insular position of England, combined with the nature of the English people, has allowed us to feel the vibration of England European movements later and with less of shock in the Re- than any of the continental nations. Before a 'wave naissance of progress has reached our shores we have had the opportunity of watching it as spectators, and of con- period. sidering how we shall receive it. Revolutions have passed from the tumultuous stages of their origin into some settled and recognizable state before we have been called upon to cope with them. It was thus that England took the influences of the Renaissance and Reformation simultaneously, and almost at the same time found herself engaged in that struggle with the Counter-Reformation which, crowned by the defeat of the Spanish Armada, stimulated the sense of nationality and developed the naval forces of the race. Both Renaissance and Reformation had been anticipated by at least a century in England. Chaucer's poetry, which owed so much to Italian examples, gave an early foretaste of the former. Wickliffe's teaching was a vital moment in the latter. But the French wars, the Wars of the Roses and the persecution of the .Lollards deferred the coming of the new age; and the year 1536, when Henry VIII. passed the Act of Supremacy through parliament, may be fixed as the date when England entered definitively upon a career of intellectual development abreast with the foremost nations of the continent. The circumstances just now insisted on explain the specific character of the English Renaissance. The Reformation had been adopted by consent of the king, lords and commons; and this change in the state religion, though it was not confirmed without reaction, agitation and bloodshed, cost the nation comparatively Combined little disturbance. Humanism, before it affected the 'ot'senals- bulk °f the English People, had already permeated sanceand Italian and French literature. Classical erudition Retorma- had been adapted to the needs of modern thought. tion. The hard work of collecting, printing, annotating and translating Greek and Latin authors had been accomplished. The masterpieces of antiquity had been interpreted and made intelligible. Much of the learning popularized by our poets and dramatists was derived at second hand from modern literature. This does not mean that England was deficient in ripe and sound scholars. More, Colet, Ascham, Cheke, Camden were men whose familiarity with the classics was both intimate and easy. Public schools and universities conformed to the modern methods of study; nor were there wanting opportunities for youths of humble origin to obtain an education which placed them on a level with Italian scholars. The single case of Ben Jonson sufficiently proves this. Yet learning did not at this epoch become a marked speciality in England. There was no class corresponding to the humanists. It should also be remembered that the best works of Italian literature were introduced into Great Britain together with the classics. Phaer's Virgil, Chapman's Homer, Harrington's Orlando, Marlowe's Hero and Leander, Fairfax's Jerusalem Delivered, North's Plutarch, Hoby's Courtier— to mention only a few examples— placed English readers simultaneously in posses- sion of the most eminent and representative works of Greece, Rome and Italy. At the same time "Spanish influences reached them through the imitators of Guevara and the dramatists; French influences in the versions of romances; German in- Arts, letters and the drama. fluences in popular translations of the Faust legend, Eultn- spiegel and similar productions. The authorized version of the Bible had also been recently given to the people — so that almost at the same period of time England obtained in the vernacular an extensive library of ancient and modern authors. This was a privilege enjoyed in like measure by no other nation. It sufficiently accounts for the richness and variety of Elizabethan literature, and for the enthusiasm with which the English language was cultivated. Speaking strictly, England borrowed little in the region of the arts from other nations, and developed still less that was original. What is called Jacobean architecture marks indeed an interesting stage in the transition from the Gothic style. But, compared with Italian, French, Spanish, German and Flemish work of a like period, it is both timid and dry. Sculpture was represented in London for a brief space by Torrigiani; painting by Holbein and Antonio More; music by Italians and Frenchmen of the Chapel Royal. But no Englishmen rose to European eminence in these departments. With literature the case was very different. Wyat and Surrey began by engrafting the forms and graces of Italian poetry upon the native stock. They introduced the sonnet and blank verse. Sidney followed with the sestine and terza rima and with various experiments in classic metres, none of which took root on English soil. The translators handled the octave stanza. Marlowe gave new vigour to the couplet. The first period of the English Renaissance was one of imitation and assimilation. Academies after the Italian type were founded. Tragedies in the style of Seneca, rivalling Italian and French dramas of the epoch, were produced. Attempts to Latinize ancestral rhythms, similar to those which had failed in Italy and France, were made. Tentative essays in criticism and dissertations on the art of poetry abounded. It seemed as though the Renaissance ran a risk of being throttled in its cradle by superfluity of foreign and pedantic nutriment. But the natural vigour of the English genius resisted influences alien to itself, and showed a robust capacity for digesting the varied diet offered to it. As there was nothing despotic in the temper of the ruling classes, nothing oppressive in English culture, the literature of that age evolved itself freely from the people. It was under these conditions that Spenser gave his romantic epic to the world, a poem which derived its allegory from the middle ages, its decorative richness from the Italian Renaissance, its sweetness, purity, harmony and imaginative splendour from the most poetic nation of the modern world. Under the same conditions the Elizabethan drama, which in its totality is the real exponent of the English Renaissance, came into existence. This drama very early freed itself from the pseudo-classic mannerism which imposed on taste in Italy and France. Depicting feudalism in the vivid colours of an age at war with feudal institutions, breathing into antique histories the breath of actual life, embracing the romance of Italy and Spain, the mysteries of German legend, the fictions of poetic fancy and the facts of daily life, humours of the moment and abstrac- tions of philosophical speculation, in one homogeneous amalgam instinct with intense vitality, this extraordinary birth of time, with Shakespeare for the master of all ages, left a monument of the Re- naissance unrivalled for pure creative power by any other product of that epoch. To complete the sketch, we must set Bacon, the expositor of modern scientific method, beside Spenser and Shake- speare, as the third representative of the Renaissance in England. Nor should Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins, the semi-buccaneer explorers of the ocean, be omitted. They, following the lead of Envliih Portuguese and Spaniards, combating the Counter-Re- * formation on the seas, opened for England her career of colonization and plantation. All this while the political cthii policy of Tudors and Stewarts tended towards monarchical . absolutism, while the Reformation in England, modified ' by contact with the Low Countries during their struggles, f°\ was narrowing into strict reactionary intolerance. Puri- , . tanism indicated a revolt of the religious conscience of f™' the nation against the arts and manners of the Renais- ao< sance, against theencroachmentsof belligerentCatholicism, nalssattce against the corrupt and Italianated court of James I., cu"ure- against the absolutist pretensions of his son Charles. In its final manifestation during the Commonwealth, Puritanism won a tran- sient victory over the mundane forces of both Reformation and Renaissance, as these had taken shape in England. It also secured the eventual triumph of constitutional independence. Milton, the greatest humanistic poet of the English race, lent his pen and moral energies during the best: years of his life to securing that principle on which modern political systems at present rest. Thus the geo- graphical isolation of England, and the comparatively late adoption by the English of matured Italian and German influences, give peculiar complexity to the phenomena of Reformation and Re- naissance simultaneously developed on our island. The period of our history between 1536 and 1642 shows how difficult it is to separate these two factors in the re-birth of Europe, both of which contributed so powerfully to the formation of modern English nationality. RENAIX— RENAN 93 It has been impossible to avoid an air of superficiality, and the repetition of facts known to every schoolboy, in this sketch New °f so complicated a subject as the Renaissance, — em- poiitical bracing many nations, a great variety of topics and relations an indefinite period of time. Yet no other treatment dating'1'6 was possible upon the lines laid down at the outset, from the where it was explained why the term Renaissance Renais- cannot now be confined to the Revival of Learning and the effect of antique studies upon literary and artistic ideals. The purpose of this article has been to show that, while the Renaissance implied a new way of regarding the material world and human nature, a new concep- tion of man's destiny and duties on this planet, a new culture and new intellectual perceptions penetrating every sphere of thought and energy, it also involved new reciprocal relations between the members of the European group of nations. The Renaissance closed the middle ages and opened the modern era, — not merely because the mental and moral ideas which then sprang into activity and owed their force in large measure to the revival of classical learning were opposed to medieval modes of thinking and feeling, but also because the political and international relations specific to it as an age were at variance with fundamental theories of the past. Instead of empire and church, the sun and moon of the medieval system, a federation of peoples, separate in type and divergent in interests, yet bound together by common tendencies, common culture and common efforts, came into existence. For obedi- ence to central authority was substituted balance of power. Henceforth the hegemony of Europe attached to no crown, imperial or papal, but to the nation which was capable of winning it, in the spiritual region by mental ascendancy, and in the temporal by force. That this is the right way of regarding the subject appears from the events of the first two decades of the i6th century, Conserva- those years in which the humanistic revival attained its tive and highest point in Italy. Luther published his theses in 1517, sixty-four years after the fall of Constantinople, parties la twenty-three years after the expedition of Charles modern VIII. to Naples, ten years before the sack of Europe. Rome, at a moment when France, Spain and England had only felt the influences of Italian culture but feebly. From that date forward two parties wrestled for supremacy in Europe, to which may be given the familiar names of Liberalism and Conservatism, the party of pro- gress and the party of established institutions. The triumph of the former was most signal among the Teutonic peoples. The Latin races, championed by Spain and supported by the papacy, fought the battle of the latter, and succeeded for a time in rolling back the tide of revolutionary conquest. Mean- while that liberal culture which had been created for Europe by the Italians before the contest of the Reformation began continued to spread, although it was stifled in Italy and Spain, retarded in France and the Low Countries, well-nigh extirpated by wars in Germany, and diverted from its course in England by the counter-movement of Puritanism. The aulos da ft of Seville and Madrid, the flames to which Bruno, Dolet and Paleario were flung, the dungeon of Campanella and the seclu- sion of Galileo, the massacre of St Bartholomew and the faggots of Smithfield, the desolated plains of Germany and the cruelties of Alva in the Netherlands, disillusioned Europe of those golden dreams which had arisen in the earlier days of humanism, and which had been so pleasantly indulged by Rabelais. In truth the Renaissance was ruled by no Astraea redux, but rather by a severe spirit which brought no peace but a sword, reminding men of sternest duties, testing what of moral force and tenacity was in them, compelling them to strike for the old order or the new, suffering no lukewarm halting between two opinions. That, in spite of retardation and retrogression, the old order of ideas should have yielded to the new all over Europe, — that science should have won firm standing-ground, and political liberty should have struggled through those birth-throes of its origin, — was in the nature of things. Had this not been, the Renaissance or re-birth of Europe would be a term without a meaning. (J. A. S.) LITERATURE. — The special articles on the several arts and the literatures of modern Europe, and on the biographies of great men mentioned in this essay, will give details of necessity here omitted. Of works on the Renaissance in general may be mentioned Jacob Burckhardt, Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien (Eng. trans., 1878) ; G. Voigt, Wiederbelebung des Classischen Alterthums (2 vols. 3rd ed., by M. Lehnerdt, 1893); J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy; Marc Monnier, Renaissance de Dante a Luther; Eugene Miintz, Precur- seurs de la Renaissance (1882), Renaissance en Italie et en France (1885), and Hist, de I'art pendant la Renaissance (1889-95); Ludwie Geiger, Humanismus und Renaissance in Italien und Deutschland (1882), and Cambridge Modern History, vol. i., " The Renaissance " (Cambridge, 1903), where full bibliographies will be found. RENAIX, a town of Belgium in the province of East Flanders, 8 m. S. of Oudenarde. It has extensive dyeworks, bleaching grounds and manufactories for linen and woollen goods. Pop. (1904) 20,760. RENAN, ERNEST (1823-1892), French philosopher and Orientalist, was born on the 27th of February 1823 at Treguier. His father's people were of the fisher-clan of Renans or Ronans; his grandfather, having made a small fortune by his fishing smack, bought a house at Treguier and settled there, and his father, captain of a small cutter and an ardent Republican, married the daughter of Royalist trading-folk from the neigh- bouring town of Lannion. All his life Renan was divided between his father's and his mother's political beliefs. He was only five years old when his father died, and hjs sister Henriette, twelve years older than Ernest, a girl of remarkable character, was henceforth morally the head of the household. Having in vain attempted to keep a school for girls at Treguier, she left her native place and went to Paris as teacher in a young ladies' boarding-school. Ernest meanwhile was educated in the ecclesiastical seminary of his native place. His good-conduct notes for this period describe him as " docile, patient, diligent, painstaking, thorough." We do not hear that he was brilliant, but the priests cared little for such qualities. While the priests were grounding him in mathematics and Latin, his mother completed his education. She was only half a Breton. Her paternal ancestors came from Bordeaux, and Renan used to say that in his own nature the Gascon and the Breton were con- stantly at odds. In the summer of 1838 Renan carried off all the prizes at the college of Treguier. His sister in Paris told the doctor of the school in which she taught about the success of her brother, and he carried the news to F. A. P. Dupanloup, then engaged in organizing the ecclesiastical college of St Nicholas du Char- donnet, a school in which the young Catholic nobility and the most gifted pupils of the Catholic seminaries were to be educated together, with a view to cementing the bond between the aristocracy and the priesthood. Dupanloup sent for Renan at once. He was fifteen and a half. He had never been outside his Breton province. " I learned with stupor that knowledge was not a privilege of the church ... I awoke to the meaning of the words talent, fame, celebrity." Above all, religion seemed to him wholly different in Treguier and in Paris. The super- ficial, brilliant, pseudo-scientific Catholicism of the capital did not satisfy Renan, who had accepted the austere faith of his Breton masters. In 1840 Renan left St Nicholas to study philosophy at the seminary of Issy. He entered with a passion for Catholic scholasticism. The rhetoric of St Nicholas had wearied him, and his serious intelligence hoped to satisfy itself with the vast and solid material of Catholic theology. Reid and Malebranche first attracted him among the philosophers, and after these he turned to Hegel, Kant and Herder. Renan began to perceive the essential contradiction between the metaphysics which he studied and the faith that he professed, but an appetite for truths that can be verified restrained his scepticism. " Philo- sophy excites and only half satisfies the appetite for truth; I am eager for mathematics," he wrote to his sister Henriette. Henriette had accepted in the family of Count Zamoyski an en- gagement more lucrative than her former place. She exercised 94 RENAN the strongest influence over her brother, and her published letters reveal a mind almost equal, a moral nature superior, to his own. It was not mathematics but philology which was to settle the gathering doubts of Ernest Renan. His course completed at Issy, he entered the college of St Sulpice in order to take his degree in philology prior to entering the church; and here he began the study of Hebrew. He saw that the second part of Isaiah differs from the first not only in style but in date; that the grammar and the history of the Pentateuch are posterior to the time of Moses; that the book of Daniel is clearly apocryphal. It followed from his training that, if you admit one error in a revealed text, you incriminate the whole. Secretly, Renan felt himself cut off from the communion of saints, and yet with his whole heart he desired to live the life of a Catholic priest Hence a struggle between vocation and conviction; owing to Henriette, conviction gained the day. In October 1845 Renan left the seminary of St Sulpice for Stavistas, a lay college of the Oratorians. Finding himself even there too much under the domination of the church, a few weeks later he reluctantly broke the last tie which bound him to the religious life and entered M. Crouzet's school for boys as an usher. It is always dangerous to educate a really great mind in only one order of truth. Renan, brought up by priests in a world ruled by authority and curious only of feeling and opinion, was to accept the scientific ideal with an extraordinary expansion of all his faculties. He was henceforth ravished by the splendour of the cosmos. At the end of his life he wrote of Amiel, " The man who has time to keep a private diary has never understood the immensity of the universe." The certitudes of physical and natural science were revealed to Renan in 1846 by the chemist Marcellin Berthelot, then a boy of eighteen, his pupil at M. Crouzet's school. To the day of Renan's death their friendship continued. Renan was occupied as usher only in the evenings. In the daytime he continued his researches in Semitic philology. In 1847 he obtained the Prix Volney — one of the principal dis- tinctions awarded by the Academy of Inscriptions — for the manuscript of his " General History of Semitic Languages." In 1847 he took his degree as Agrege de Philosophic; that is to say, fellow of the university, and was offered a place as master in the lycee of Vend6me. In 1848 a small temporary appoint- ment to the lycee of Versailles permitted him to return to the capital and resume his studies. The revolution of 1848 aroused in Renan that side of him which loved the priesthood because " the priest lives for his fellows." He for the first time confronted the problems of Democracy. The result was an immense volume, The Future of Science, which remained in manuscript until 1890. L'Avenir de la science is an attempt to conciliate the privileges of a necessary elite with the diffusion of the greatest good of the greatest number. The difficulty haunted Renan throughout his life. By the time he had finished his elaborate scheme for regenerating society by means of a devoted aristocracy of knowledge, and the diffusion of culture, the year 1848 was past, and with it his fever of Democracy. In 1849 the French government sent him to Italy on a scientific mission. He remained eight months abroad, during which he forgot his anxiety about the toilers' lot. Hitherto he had known nothing of art. In Italy the artist in him awoke and triumphed over the savant and the reformer. On his return to Paris Renan lived with his sister Henriette. A small post at the National Library, .together with his sister's savings, furnished him with the means of livelihood. In the evenings he wrote for the Revue des deux mondes and the Debats the exquisite essays which appeared in 1857 and 1859 under the titles Etudes d'histoire religieuse and Essais de morale et de critique. In 1852 his book on Averroes had brought him not only his doctor's degree, but his first reputation as a thinker. In his two volumes of essays Renan shows himself a Liberal, but no longer a Democrat. Nothing, according to his philosophy, is less important than prosperity. The greatest good of the greatest number is a theory as dangerous as it is illusory. Man is not born to be prosperous, but to realize, in a little vanguard of chosen spirits, an ideal superior to the ideal of yesterday. Only the few can attain a complete development. Yet there is a solidarity between the chosen few and the masses which produce them; each has a duty to the other. The acceptance of this duty is the only foundation for a moral and just society The aristocratic idea has seldom been better stated. The success of the Etudes d'histoire religieuse and the Essais de morale had made the name of Renan known to a cultivated public. While Mademoiselle Renan remained shut up at home copying her brother's manuscripts or compiling material for his work, the young philosopher began to frequent more than one Parisian salon, and especially the studio of Ary Scheffer, at that time a noted social centre. In 1856 he proposed to marry Cornelie Scheffer, the niece and adopted daughter of the great Dutch painter. Not without a struggle Henriette consented not only to the marriage, but to make her home with the young couple, whose housekeeping depended on the sum that she could contribute. The history of this romance has been told by Renan in the memorial essay which he wrote some six years later, entitled Ma Sceur Henriette, His marriage brought much brightness into his life, a naturalness into his style and a greater attention to the picturesque. He did not forsake his studies in Semitic philology, and in 1859 appeared his translation of the' Book of Job with an introductory essay, followed in 1859 by the Song of Songs. Renan was now a candidate for the chair of Hebrew and Chaldaic languages at the College de France, which he had desired since first he studied Hebrew at the seminary of St Sulpice. The death of the scholar Quatremere had left this post vacant in 1857. No one in France save Renan was capable of filling it. The Catholic party, upheld by the empress, would not appoint an unfrocked seminarist, a notorious heretic, to a chair of Biblical exegesis. Yet the emperor wished to conciliate Ernest Renan. He offered to send the young scholar on an archaeological mission to Phoenicia. Renan immediately accepted. Leaving his wife at home with their baby son, Renan left France, accompanied by his sister, in the summer of 1860. Madame Renan joined them in January 1861, returning to France in July. The mission proved fruitful in Phoenician inscriptions which Renan published in his Mission de Phenicie. They form the base of that Corpus Inscription-urn Semiticarum on which he used in later years to declare that he founded his claim to re- membrance. He wished to complete his exploration of the upper range of Lebanon; he remained, therefore, with Henriette to affront the dangerous miasma of a Syrian autumn. At Amshit, near Byblos, Henriette Renan died of intermittent fever on the 24th of September 1861. Her brother, himself at death's door, was carried unconscious on board a ship waiting in harbour and bound for France. The sea air revived him, but he reached France broken apparently in heart and health. His sister in her last days had entreated him not to give up his candidature for the chair of Hebrew, and on the nth of January 1862 the Minister of Public Instruction ratified Renan's election to the post. But his opening lecture, in which, amid the applause of the students, Renan declared Jesus Christ " an incomparable Man," alarmed the Catholic party. Renan's lectures were pronounced a disturbance of the public peace, and he was suspended. On the 2nd of June 1864, on opening the newspaper, Renan saw that he had been transferred from the chair of Hebrew at the College of France to the post of sub- librarian at the National Library. He wrote to the Minister of Public Instruction: " Pecunia tua tecum sit!" He refused the new position, was deprived of his chair, and henceforth depended solely upon his pen. Henriette had told him to write the life of Jesus. They had begun it together ih Syria, she copying the pages as he wrote them, with a New Testament and a Josephus for all his library. The book bears the mark of its origin — it is filled with the atmosphere of the East. It is the work of a man familiar with the Bible and theology, and no less acquainted with the inscrip- tions, monuments, types and landscapes of Syria. But it is scarcely the work of a great scholar: Renan's debt to the school RENARD 95 of Tubingen has been exaggerated, in so far as regards the Life of Jesus. The book appeared on the 2$rd of June 1863; before November sixty thousand copies of it were in circulation. Renan still used his literary gifts to pursue a scientific ideal. In the days when he had composed his huge, immature treatise on the Future of Science, he had written: " I envy the man who shall evoke from the past the origins of Christianity. Such a writer would compose the most important book of the century." He set to work to realize this project, and produced the Apostles in 1866, and Si Paul in 1869, after having visited Asia Minor with his wife, where he studied the scenes of the labours of St Paul as minutely as in 1861 he had observed the material surroundings of the life of Jesus. Renan was not only a scholar. In St Paul, as in the Apostles, he shows his concern with the larger social life, his sense of fraternity, and a revival of the democratic sentiment which had inspired L'Avenir de la science. In 1869 he presented himself as the candidate of the liberal opposition at the parlia- mentary election for Meaux. While his temper had become less aristocratic, his Liberalism had grown more tolerant. On the eve of its dissolution Renan was half prepared to accept the Empire, and, had he been elected to the Chamber of Deputies, he would have joined the group of ['Empire liberal. But he was not elected. A year later war was declared with Germany, the Empire fell, and Napoleon III. went into exile. The Franco-German War was a turning-point in Renan's history. Germany had always been to him the asylum of thought and disinterested science. Now he saw the land of his ideal destroy and ruin the land of his birth; he beheld the German no longer as a priest, but as an invader. His heart turned to France. In La Rejorme intellectuellc et morale (1871) he endeavoured at least to bind her wounds, to safeguard her future. Yet he was still under the influence of Germany. The ideal and the discipline which he proposed to his defeated country were those of her conqueror — a feudal society, a monarchical government, an elite, which the rest of the nation exists merely to support and nourish; an ideal of honour and duty imposed by a chosen few on the recalcitrant and subject multitude. The errors of the Commune confirmed Renan in this reaction. At the same time the irony always perceptible in his work grows more bitter. His Dialogues philosophiques, written in 1871, his Ecclesiastes (1882) and his Antichrist (1876) (the fourth volume of the Origins of Christianity, dealing with the reign of Nero) are incomparable in their literary genius, but they are examples of a disenchanted and sceptical temper. He had vainly tried to make his country follow his precepts. He resigned himself to watch her drift towards perdition. The progress of events showed him, on the contrary, a France which every day left a little stronger, and he aroused himself from his disbelieving, disillusioned mood, and observed with genuine interest the struggle for justice and liberty of a democratic society. For his mind was the broadest of the age. The fifth and sixth volumes of the Origins of Christianity Hhe Christian Church and Marcus Aurelius) show him reconciled with democracy, confident in the gradual ascent of man, aware that the greatest catastrophes do not really interrupt the sure if imperceptible progress of the world — reconciled also in some measure, if not with the truths, at least with the moral beauties of Catholicism, and with the remembrance of his pious youth. On the threshold of old age the philosopher cast a glance at the days of his childhood. He was nearly sixty when, in 1883, he published those Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse which, after the Life of Jesus, are the work by which he is chiefly known. They possess that lyric note of personal utterance which the public prizes in a man already famous. They showed the blase modern reader that a world no less poetic, no less primitive than that of the Origins of Christianity exists, or still existed within living memory, on the north-western coast of France. They have the Celtic magic of ancient romance and the simplicity, the naturalness, the veracity which the igth century prized so highly. But his Ecclesiastes, published a few months earlier, his Dramcs philosophiques, collected in 1888, give a more adequate image of his fastidious critical, disen- chanted, yet not unhopeful spirit. These books are often bitter and melancholy, yet not destitute of optimism. They show the attitude towards uncultured Socialism of a philosopher liberal by conviction, by temperament an aristocrat. We learn in them how Caliban (democracy), the mindless brute, educated to his own responsibility, makes after all an adequate ruler; how Prospero (the aristocratic principle, or, if we will, the mind) accepts his dethronement for the sake of greater liberty in the intellectual world, since Caliban proves an effective policeman, and leaves his superiors a free hand in the laboratory; how Ariel (the religious principle) acquires a firmer hold on life, and no longer gives up the ghost at the faintest hint of change. Indeed, Ariel flourishes in the service of Prospero under the external government of the many-headed brute. For the one thing needful is not destined to succumb. Religion and knowledge are as imperishable as the world they dignify. Thus out of the depths rises unvanquished the essential idealism of Ernest Renan. Renan was a great worker. At sixty years of age, having finished the Origins of Christianity, he began his History of Israel, based on a lifelong study of the Old Testament and on the Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, published by the Academic des Inscriptions under Renan's direction from the year 1881 till the end of his life. The first volume of the History of Israel appeared in 1887, the third and finest volume in 1891, the last two only after the historian's decease. As a history of facts and theories the book has many faults; as an essay on the evolution of the religious idea it is (despite some passages of frivolity, irony, or incoherence) of extraordinary importance; as a reflec- tion of the mind of Ernest Renan it is the most lifelike of images. In a volume of collected essays, Feuilles delachees, published also in 1891, we find the same mental attitude, an affirmation of the necessity of piety independent of dogma. On the i2th of October 1892 he died after a few days' illness. In his last years he received many marks of honour, being made an administrator of the College de France and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. Two volumes of the History of Israel, his correspondence with his sister Henriette, his Letters to M. Berthelot, and the History of the Religious Policy of Philippe-le- Bel, which he wrote in the years immediately before his marriage, all appeared during the last eight years of the igth century See Desportesand Bournand, E. Renan, savieet son auvre (1892); E. Grant Duff, Ernest Renan, in memoriam (1893); Seailles, E. Renan, essai de biographie psychologique (1894); G. Monod, Les maitres de I'histoire (1894) ; Allier, La Philosophic d'E. Renan (1895) ; M. J. Darmesteter, La vie de E. R. (1898); Platzhoff, E. Renan, ein Lebensbild (1900); Brauer, Philosophy of Ernest Renan (1904); W. Barry, Renan (1905) ; Sorel, Le Systeme historique de R. (1905-1906). (A. M. F. D.;X.) RENARD, ALPHONSE FRANCOIS (1842-1903), Belgian geolo- gist and petrographer, was born at Renaix, in Eastern Flanders, on the 27th of September 1842. He was educated for the church of Rome, and from 1866 to 1869 he was superintendent at the College de la Paix, Namur. In 1870 he entered the Jesuit Train- ing College at the old abbey of Maria Laach in the Eifel, and there, while engaged in studying philosophy and science, he became interested in the geology of the district, and especially in the volcanic rocks. Thenceforth he worked at chemistry and mineralogy, and qualified himself for those petrographical researches for which he was distinguished. In 1874 he became professor of chemistry and geology in the college of the Belgian Jesuits at Louvain, a few years later he was appointed one of the curators of the Royal Natural History Museum at Brussels, and in 1882 he relinquished his post at Louvain. In 1888 he was chosen professor of geology at the university of Ghent, and retained the post until the close of his life. Meanwhile he had been ordained priest in 1877, and had intended to enter the Society of Jesus. He was known as the Abbe Renard; but, as remarked by Sir A. Geikie, " As years passed, the longing for •nental freedom grew ever stronger, until at last it overmastered all the traditions and associations of a lifetime, and he finally separated himself from the church of Rome." His first work, 96 RENAUD DE MONTAUBAN— RENAUDOT, T. written in conjunction with Charles de la VaI16e-Poussin (1827- 1904), was the Memoir e sur les caracteres miner alogiques el stratigraphiques des roches dites plutoniennes de la Belgique et de I'Ardenne franqaise (1876). In later essays and papers he dealt with the structure and mineral composition of many igneous and sedimentary rocks, and with the phenomena of metamorphism in Belgium and other countries. In acknow- ledgment of his work the Bigsby Medal was in 1885 awarded to him by the Geological Society of London. Still more important were his later researches connected with the Challenger Expedi- tion. The various rock specimens and oceanic deposits were submitted to him for examination in association with Sir John Murray, and their detailed observations were embodied in the Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S, " Chal- lenger." Deep Sea Deposits (1891) The more striking additions to our knowledge included " the detection and description of cosmic dust, which as fine rain slowly accumulates on the ocean floor; the development of zeolitic crystals on the sea-bottom at temperatures of 3 2° and under ; and the distribution and mode of occurrence of manganiferous concretions and of phos- phatic and glauconite deposits on the bed of the ocean " (Geikie). Renard died at Brussels on the 9th of July 1903. Obituaries by Sir A. Geikie in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Ix. 1904, and in Geol. Mag,, Nov. 1903. RENAUD DE MONTAUBAN (Rinaldo di Montalbano), one of the most famous figures of French and Italian romance. His story was attached to the geste of Boon of Mayence by the 13th- century trouvere who wrote the chanson de geste of Renaus de Montauban, better known perhaps as Les quatre fils Aymon. The four sons of Aymon give their name to inns and streets in nearly every town of France, and the numerous prose versions show what a hold the story gained on the popular imagination. Renaud's sword Floberge, and his horse Bayard passed with him into popular legend. The poem of Renaus de Montauban opens with the story of the dissensions between Charlemagne and the sons of Boon of Mayence, Beuves d'Aigremont, Boon •de Nanteuil and Aymon de Bordone. The rebellious vassals are defeated by the imperial army near Troyes, and, peace established, Aymon rises in favour at court, and supports the emperor, even in his persecution of his four sons, Renaud, Alard, Guichard and Richard. A second feud arises from a quarrel between Renaud and Bertolai, Charlemagne's nephew, over a game of chess, in the course of which Renaud kills Ber- tolai with the chess-board. The hero then mounts his steed Bayard, and escapes with his brothers to the Ardennes, where they build the castle of Montessor overlooking the Meuse. At Chateau Renaud, near Sedan, there existed in the 1 8th century a ruined castle with a tower called the " tour Maugis " and the reputed stable of Bayard. The outlaws are eventually persuaded to seek their fortune outside Charlemagne's kingdom, and cross the Loire to take service with King Yon of Gascony against the Saracens, accompanied by their cousin, the enchanter Maugis. Yon, however, is compelled by Charlemagne to withdraw his protection, and the castle of Montauban, which the brothers have built on the Bordogne, is besieged by the emperor. They next seek refuge beyond the Rhine, and sustain a third siege at Tremoigne (Bortmund), after which the emperor is per- suaded by the barons to make peace. Bayard is abandoned to Charlemagne, and thrown into the Meuse, only to rise again. He still gallops over the hills of the Ardennes on St John's Eve. Renaud, who throughout the story is a type of the Christian and chivalric virtues, makes a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and is invested with some of the exploits of Godfrey de Bouillon. On his return he gives himself up to religion, working as a mason on the church of St Peter at Cologne, where he receives martyrdom at the hands of his jealous fellow-labourers. The story is closely connected with the legend of Girard de Roussillon. The chanson de geste of Renaus de Montauban falls into sections which had probably been originally the subject of separate recitals. These may have arisen at different dates, and were not necessarily told in the first instance of the same person, the account of Renaud on the crusade being obviously a late interpolation. The outlaw life of the brothers in the Ardennes bears the marks of trustworthy popular tradition, and it was even at one time suggested that the Gascon and Rhenish episodes were reduplications of the story of Montessor. The connexion of the four brothers with Montessor, Bortmund, Mayence and Cologne, and the abundant local tradition, mark the heroes as originating from the region between the Rhine and the Meuse. Nevertheless, their adventures in Gascony are corroborated by historical evidence, and this section of the poem is the oldest. The enemy of Renaud was Charles Martel, not Charlemagne; Yon was Odo of Gascony, known indifferently as duke, prince, or king; the victory over the Saracens at Toulouse, in which the brothers are alleged to have taken part, was won by him in 721, and in 719 he sheltered refugees from the dominions of Charles Martel, Chil- peric II., king of Neustria, and his mayor of the palace, Ragin- fred, whom he was compelled to abandon. In a local chronicle of Cologne it is stated that Saint Reinoldus died in 697, and in the Latin rhythmical Vita his martyrdom is said to have taken place under Bishop Agilolf (d. 717). Thus the romance was evidently composite before it took its place in the Carolingian cycle. In Italy Renaud had his greatest vogue. His connexion with the treacherous family of Mayence was thrust into the back- ground, and many episodes were added, as well as the personage of the hero's sister, Bradamante. Rinaldo di Montalbano had been the subject of many Italian poems before // Rinaldo of Tasso. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chanson of Maugis d'Aigremont and the prose romance of the Conqueste de Trebizonde belong to the same cycle. The prose Ystoire de Regnault de Montauban (Lyons, c. 1480) had a great vogue. It was generally printed as Les quatre fils Aymon, and was published in English, The Foure Sonnes of Aymon, by William Caxton, and subsequently by Wynkyn de Worde and William Copland. See Hist. litt. de la France, xxii., analysis by Paulin Paris; Renaus de Montauban (Stuttgart, 1862), edited by H. Michelant; F. Wulff, Recherches sur les sagas de Maeus et de Geirard (Lund, 1873) ; Magus saga, ed. G. Cederschiold (Lund, 1876); Renout von Montalbaen, ed. J. C. Matthis (Groningen, 1873); A. .Longnon, in Revue des questions historiques (1879); R. Z wick, Vber die Sprache des Renaut von Montauban (Halle, 1 884) ; F. Pfaff, Das deutsche Volksbuch von den Heymonskindern (Freiburg in Breisgau, 1887), with a general introduction to the study of the saga; The Four Sonnes of Aimon (E. E. Text. Soc., ed. Octavia Richardson, 1884); a special bibliography of the printed editions of the prose romance in L. Gautier's Bibl. des chansons de geste (1897); rejuvenations of the story by Karl Simrock (Frankfort, 1845), and by Richard Steel (London, 1897); Storia di Rinaldino, ed. C. Minutoli (Bologna, 1865). Stage versions are: Renaud de Montauban, a play translated from Lope de Vega was played at the Th6citre italien, Paris, in 1717; Les quatre fils Aymon, op6ra comique by MM. de Leuven and Brunswick, music by Balfe, in 1884. RENAUDOT, EUSEBE (1646-1720), French theologian and Orientalist, was born in Paris in 1646, and educated for the church. Notwithstanding his taste for theology and his title of abbe, much of his life was spent at the French court, where he attracted the notice of Colbert and was often employed in confidential affairs. The unusual learning in Eastern tongues which he acquired in his youth and maintained amid the dis- tractions of court life did not bear fruit till he was sixty-two. His best-known books are HistoriaPatriarcharutn Alexandrinorum (Paris, 1713) and Liturgiarum orientalium collectio (2 vols., 1715-16). The latter was designed to supply proofs of the " perpetuity of the faith " of the church on the subject of the sacraments, the topic on which most of his theological writings turned, and which was then, in consequence of the controversies attaching to Arnauld's Perpetuite de lafoi, a burning one between French Catholics and Protestants. Renaudot was not a fair controversialist, but his learning and industry are unquestion- able. He died in 1720. RENAUDOT, TH60PHRASTE (1586-1653), French physician and philanthropist, was born at Loudun (Vienna), and studied surgery in Paris. He was only nineteen when he received, by favour apparently, the degree of doctor at Mont- pellier. After some time spent in travel he began to practise in his native town. In 1612 he was summoned to Paris by RENDEZVOUS— RENE I. 97 Richelieu, partly because of his medical reputation, but more because of his philanthropy. He received the titles of physician and councillor to the king, and was desired to organize a scheme of public assistance. Many difficulties were put in his way, however, and he therefore returned until 1624 to Poitou, where Richelieu made him " commissary general of the poor." It was six years before he was able to begin his work in Paris by opening an information bureau at the sign of the Grand Coq near the Pont Saint-Michel. This bureau d'adresse was labour bureau, intelligence department, exchange and charity organiza- tion in one; and the sick were directed to doctors prepared to give them free treatment. Presently he established a free dispensary in the teeth of the opposition of the faculty in Paris. The Paris faculty refused to accept the new medicaments pro- posed by the heretic from Montpellier, restricting themselves to the old prescriptions of blood-letting and purgation. In addition to his bureau d'adresse Renaud established a system of lectures and debates on scientific subjects, the reports of which from 1633 to 1642 were published in 1651 with the title Recueil des conferences publiques. Under the protection of Richelieu he started the first French newspaper, the Gazette (1631), which appeared weekly and contained political and foreign news. He also edited the Mercure franc,ais and published all manner of reports and pamphlets. In 1637 he opened in Paris the first Mont de Piete, an institution of which he had seen the advantages in Italy. In 1640 the medical faculty, headed by Guy Patin, started a campaign against the innovator of the Grand Coq. After the death of Richelieu and of Louis XIII. the victory of Renaudot's enemies was practically certain. The parlement of Paris ordered him to return the letters patent for the establish- ment of his bureau and his Mont de Piete, and refused to allow him to practise medicine in Paris. The Gazette remained, and in 1646 Renaudot was appointed by Mazarin historiographer to the king. During the first Fronde he had his printing presses at Saint-Germain. He died on the 25th of October 1653. His difficulties had been increased by his Protestant opinions. His sons Isaac (d. 1688) and Eusebe (d. 1679) were students for ten years before they could obtain their doctorates from the faculty. They carried on their father's work, and defended the virtues •of antimony, laudanum and quinine against the schools. See E. Hatin, Theodore Renaudot (Poitiers, 1883), and La Maison du Coq (Paris, 1885) ; Michel Emery, Renaudot el I' introduction de la medication chimique (Paris, 1889); and G. Bonnefont, Un Oublie. Theophraste Renaudot (Limoges, n.d.). RENDEZVOUS, a place of meeting appointed or arranged for the assembling of troops, ships or persons. The word was adopted in English at the end of the i6th century from the French substantival use of the imperative rendez vous, i.e. " render or betake yourselves." RENDSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, situated on the Eider and on the Kaiser Wilhelm canal, in a flat and sandy districts 20 m. W. of Kiel, on the Altona-Vamdrup railway. Pop. (1905) 15,577. It consists of three parts — the crowded Altstadt, on an island in the Eider; the Neuwerk, on the south bank of the river; and the Kronwerk, on the north bank. Rendsburg is the chief place in the basin of the Eider, and when in the possession of Denmark was main- tained as a fortress. Its present importance, however, rests on the commercial facilities afforded by its connexion with the North Sea and the Baltic through the Kaiser Wilhelm canal, by which transit trade is carried on in grain, timber, Swedish iron and coals. The principal industries are cotton-weaving, tanning and the manufacture of artificial manures. Rendsburg came into existence under the shelter of a castle founded by the Danes about the year noo on an island of the Eider, and was an object of dispute between the Danish kings and the counts of Holstein. In 1252 it was adjudged to the latter. The town was surrounded with ramparts in 1539, but the fortifications of the Kronwerk were not constructed till the end of the i7th century. During the Thirty Years' War Rendsburg was taken both by the Imperialists and the Swedes, but in 1645 it successfully resisted a second siege by the latter. The war of 1848-50 began with the capture of Rendsburg by the Holsteiners by a coup de main, and it formed the centre of the German operations. On the departure of the German troops in 1852 the Danes demolished the fortifications on the north side. Immediately after the death of King Frederick VII. (iSth of November 1863) the town was occupied by the Saxon troops acting as the executive of the German Confederation, and it was the base of the operations of the Austrians and Prussians against Schleswig in the spring of the following year. On the termination of the Danish war in 1864 Rendsburg was jointly occupied by Austrian and Prussian military until 1866, when it fell to Prussia. See Warmstedt, Rendsburg (Kiel, 1850). RENE I. (1400-1480), duke of Anjou, of Lorraine and Bar, count of Provence and of Piedmont, king of Naples, Sicily and Jerusalem, was born at Angers on the i6th of January 1409, the second son of Louis II., king of Sicily, duke of Anjou, count of Provence, and of Yolande of Aragon. Louis II. died in 1417, and his sons, together with their brother-in-law, after- wards Charles VII. of France, were brought up under the guardianship of their mother. The elder, Louis III., succeeded to the crown of Sicily and to the duchy of Anjou, Rene being known as the count of Guise. By his marriage treaty (1419) with Isabel, elder daughter of Charles II., duke of Lorraine, he became heir to the duchy of Bar, which was claimed as the inheritance of his mother Yolande, and, in right of his wife, heir to the duchy of Lorraine. Rene, then only ten, wa"s'to be brought up in Lorraine under the guardianship of Charles II. and Louis, cardinal of Bar, both of whom were attached to the Burgundian party, but he retained the right to bear the arms of Anjou. He was far from sympathizing with the Burgundians, and, joining the French army at Reims in 1429, was present at the coronation of Charles VII. When Louis of Bar died in 1430 Rene came into sole possession of his duchy, and in the next year, on his father-in-law's death, he succeeded to the duchy of Lorraine. But the inheritance was claimed by the heir-male, Antoine de Vaudemont, who with Burgundian help defeated Rene at Bulgneville in July 1431. The Duchess Isabel effected a truce with Antoine de Vaudemont, but the duke remained a prisoner of the Burgundians until April 1432, when he recovered his liberty on parole on yielding up as hostages his two sons, Jean and Louis of Anjou. His title as duke of Lorraine was confirmed by his suzerain, the Emperor Sigismund, at Basel in 1434. This proceeding roused the anger of the Burgundian duke, Philip the Good, who required him early in the next year to return to his prison, from which he was released two years later on payment of a heavy ransom. He had succeeded to the kingdom of Naples through the deaths of his brother Louis III. and of Jeanne II. de Duras, queen of Naples, the last heir of the earlier dynasty. Louis had been adopted by her in 1431, and she now left her inheritance to Rene. The marriage of Marie de Bourbon, niece of Philip of Burgundy, with John, duke of Calabria, Rene's eldest son, cemented peace between the two princes. After appointing a regency in Bar and Lorraine, he visited his provinces of Anjou and Provence, and in 1438 set sail for Naples, which had been held for him by the Duchess Isabel. Rent's captivity, and the poverty of the Angevin resources due to his ransom, enabled Alphonso of Aragon, who had been first adopted and then repudiated by Jeanne II., to make some headway in the kingdom of Naples, especially as he was already in possession of the island of Sicily. In 1441 Alphonso laid siege to Naples, which he sacked after a six months' siege. Rene returned to France in the same year, and though he retained the title of king of Naples his effective rule was never recovered. Later efforts to recover his rights in Italy failed. His mother Yolande, who had governed Anjou in his absence, died in 1442. Ren6 took part in the negotiations with the English at Tours in 1444, and peace was consolidated by the marriage of his younger daughter, Margaret, with Henry VI. at Nancy. Rene now made over the government of Lorraine to John, duke of Calabria, who was, however, only formally installed as duke of Lorraine on the death of Queen Isabel in xxm. 4 98 RENEE OF FRANCE— RENFREWSHIRE 1453. Ren4 had the confidence of Charles VII., and is said to have initiated the reduction of the men-at-arms set on foot by the king, with whose military operations against the English he was closely associated. He entered Rouen with him in November 1449, and was also with him at Formigny and Caen. After his second marriage with Jeanne de Laval, daughter of Guy XIV., count of Laval, and Isabel of Brittany, Rene took a less active part in public affairs, and devoted himself more to artistic and literary pursuits. The fortunes of his house declined in his old age. The duke of Calabria, after repeated misfortunes in Italy, was offered the crown of Aragon in 1467, but died, apparently by poison, at Barcelona on the i6th of December 1470; the duke's eldest son Nicholas perished in 1473, also under suspicion of poisoning; Rene's daughter Margaret was a refugee from England, her son Prince Edward was murdered in 1471, and she herself became a prisoner, to be rescued by Louis XI. in 1476. His only surviving male descendant was then Rene II., duke of Lorraine, son of his daughter Yolande, comtesse de Vaudemont, who was gained over to the party of Louis XL, who suspected the king of Sicily of complicity with his enemies, the duke of Brittany and the Constable Saint- Pol. Rene retired to Provence, and in 1474 made a will by which he left Bar to his grandson Rene II., duke of Lorraine; Anjou and Provence to his nephew Charles, count of Le Maine. Louis seized Anjou and Bar, and two years later sought to compel the king of Sicily to exchange the two duchies for a pension. The offer was rejected, but further negotiations assured the lapse to the crown of the duchy of Anjou, and the annexation of Provence was only postponed until the death of the count of Le Maine. Rene died on the loth of July 1480, his charities having earned for him the title of " the good." He founded an order of chivalry, the Ordre du Croissant, which was anterior to the royal foundation of St Michael, but did not survive Rene. The king of Sicily's fame as an amateur of painting has led to the attribution to him of many old paintings in Anjou and Provence, in many cases simply because they bear his arms. These works are generally in the Flemish style, and were probably executed under his patronage and direction, so that he may be said to have formed a school of the fine arts in sculpture, painting, gold work and tapestry. Two of the most famous works formerly attributed to Rene are the triptych, the " Burning Bush," in the cathedral of Aix, showing portraits of Rene and his second wife, Jeanne de Laval, and an illumin- ated Book of Hours in the Bibliotheque nationale, Paris. The " Burning Bush " was in fact the work of Nicolas Froment, a painter of Avignon. Among the men of letters attached to his court was Antoine de la Sale, whom he made tutor to his son, the duke of Calabria. He encouraged the performance of mystery plays; on the performance of a mystery of the Passion at Saumur in 1462 he remitted four years of taxes to the town, and the representations of the Passion at Angers were carried out under his auspices. He exchanged verses with his kinsman, the poet Charles of Orleans. The best of his poems is the idyl of Regnault and Jeanneton, representing his own courtship of Jeanne de Laval. Le Livre des lournois, a book of ceremonial, and the allegorical romance, Conqueste qu'un chevalier nomme le Cuer d'amour espris feist d'une dame appelie Doulce Mercy, with other works ascribed to him, were perhaps dictated to his secretaries, or at least compiled under his direc- tion. His (Euvres were published by the comte de Quatrebarbes (4 vols., Paris and Angers, 1845-46). See A. Lecoy de la Marche, Le Roi Rene (2 vols., 1875) ; A. Vallet de Viriville, in the Nouvelle Biographie generate, where there is some account of the MSS. of his works; and J. Renouvier, Les Peinlres et enlumineurs du roi Rene (Montpellier, 1857). RENEE OF FRANCE (1510-1575), second daughter 'of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany, was born at Blois on the 25th of October 1510. After being betrothed successively to Gaston de Foix, Charles of Austria (the future emperor Charles V.), his brother Ferdinand, Henry VIII. of England, and the elector Joachim II. of Brandenburg, she married in 1528 Hercules of Este, son of the duke of Ferrara, who succeeded his father six years later. Renee's court became a rendezvous of men of letters and a refuge for the persecuted French Calvinists. She received Clement Marot and Calvin at her court, and finally embraced the reformed religion. Her husband, however, who viewed these proceedings with disfavour, banished her friends, took her children from her, threw her into prison, and eventually made her abandon at any rate the outward forms of Calvinism. After his death in 1559, Renee returned to France and turned her duchy of Montargis into a centre of Protestant propaganda. During the wars of religion she was several times molested by the Catholic troops, and in 1562 her chateau was besieged by her son-in-law, the duke of Guise. She died at Montargis. See B. Fontana, Renata di Francia (Rome, 1889 seq.); and E. Rodocanachi, Renee de France (Paris, 1896). RENEVIER, EUGENE (1831- ), Swiss geologist, was born at Lausanne on the 26th of March 1831. In 1857 he became professor of geology and palaeontology in the university at Lausanne. He is distinguished for his researches on the geology and palaeontology of the Alps, on which subjects he published numerous papers in the proceedings of the scientific societies in Switzerland and France. With F. J. Pictet he wrote a memoir on the Fossiles du terrain aptien de la Perte-du- Rhone (1854). In 1894 he was appointed president of the Swiss Geological Commission, and also of the International Geological Congress held^hat year at Zurich, in the previous meetings of which he had taken a prominent part. He published a noteworthy Tableau des terrains sedimentaires (1874); and a second more elaborate edition, accompanied by an explanatory article Chronographe geologique, was issued in 1897 as a supplement to the Report of the Zurich Congress. This new table was printed on coloured sheets, the colours for each geological system corresponding with those adopted on the International geological map of Europe. RENFREW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of Renfrewshire, Scotland, near the southern bank of the Clyde, 7 m. W. by N. of Glasgow, via Cardonald, by the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian railways (5 m. by road). Pop. (1891) 6777; (1901) 9296. Industries include ship- building (the construction of dredgers and floating docks is a speciality), engineering, dyeing, weaving, chemicals and cabinet- making. The Clyde trust has constructed a large dock here. Renfrew belongs to the Kilmarnock district group of parlia- mentary burghs (with Kilmarnock, Dumbarton, Rutherglen and Port Glasgow). Robert III. gave a charter in 1396, but it was a burgh (Renifry) at least 250 years earlier. About 1160 Walter Fitzalan, the first high steward of Scotland, built a castle on an eminence by the side of the Clyde (still called Castle Hill), the original seat of the royal house of Stewart. Close to the town, on the site of Elderslie House, Somerled, lord of the Isles, was defeated and slain in 1 164 by the forces of Malcolm IV., against whom he had rebelled. In 1464 Robert II. bestowed upon his son James (afterwards James I.) the title of Baron of Renfrew, still borne by the prince of Wales. RENFREWSHIRE, a south-western county of Scotland, bounded N. by the river and firth of Clyde, E. by Lanarkshire, S. and S.W. by Ayrshire and W. by the firth of Clyde. A small detached portion of the parish of Renfrew, situated on the northern bank of the Clyde, is surrounded on the landward side by Dumbartonshire. The county has an area of 153,332 acres, or 239-6 sq. m. Excepting towards the Ayrshire border on the south-west, where the principal heights are Hill of Stake (171 1 ft.), East Girt Hill (1673), Misty Law (1663) and Creuch Hill (1446), and the confines^ of Lanarkshire on the south-east, where a few points attain an altitude of 1200 ft. — the surface is undulating rather than rugged. Much of the higher land in the centre is well wooded. The Clyde forms part of the northern boundary of the shire. In the N.W. Loch Thorn and Gryfe Reservoir provide Greenock with water, and Balgray Reservoir and Glen Reservoir reinforce the water-supply of a portion of the Glasgow area. The other lakes are situated in the S. and S.E. and RENFREWSHIRE 99 include Castle Semple Loch, Long Loch, Brother Loch, Black Loch, Binend Loch and Dunwan Dam. The Glasgow, Paisley and Johnstone canal has been converted since 1882 into the track of the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Strathgryfe is the only considerable vale in the shire. It extends from the reservoir to below Bridge of Weir, a distance of 10 m. The scenery at its head is somewhat wild and bleak, but the lower reaches are pasture land. The wooded ravine of Glenkillock, to the south of Paisley, is watered by Killock Burn, on which are three falls. Geology. — Carboniferous rocks form the substratum of this county. The hilly ground from the neighbourhood of Eaglesham north- westward is formed of volcanic rocks, basalts, porphyrites, tuffs and agglomerates of the age of the Cementstone group of the Cal- ciferous Sandstone series. Here and there the sites of the volcanic cones are distinguishable, the best being those between Misty Law and Queenside Muir. Beneath the volcanic rocks are some red sandstones and conglomerates which occupy a small tract between Loch Thorn and the neighbourhood of Inverkip. Resting upon the volcanic rocks is the Carboniferous Limestone series which at the base consists of ashy sandstones and grits followed by the three subdivisions prevalent in southern Scotland. With unimportant exceptions, all the area north of the volcanic rocks is occupied by the Carboniferous Limestone series. The beds lie in a faulted basin around Linwood, and the following strata may be distinguished from below upwards: the Hurlet coal and limestone, Lillies oil shale, Hosie limestone, Johnstone clay ironstone and Cowglass lime- stone along with other beds of ironstone and coal. The sandstone of Giffnock, used for building; the limestone and coal of Orchard with a very fossiliferous shale bed; and the limestone and coal of Arden all belong to the same series. Besides the contemporaneous volcanic rocks numerous intrusive sheets are found in the Carbon- iferous rocks such as the large mass of basalt south of Johnstone; and doleritic sheet of Quarrelton and the similar sheets N.E. of Paisley. In the eastern part of the county, near the border the coals and ironstones of this series near Shawlands and Crossmyloof are faulted directly against the coal measures of Rutherglen. Tertiary basalt dikes cut the older rocks in a S.E.-N.W. direction, for example those on Misty Law. Glacial striae abound on the hilly ground, those in the north indicating that the ice took a south-easterly direction which farther south became south-westerly. Boulder clays, gravels and sands also cover considerable areas. Copper ore has been worked in the volcanic rocks near Lochwinnoch and in the grey sandstones near Gourock. Climate and Agriculture. — The climate is variable. As the prevailing west and south-west winds come in from the Atlantic warm and full of moisture, contact with the land causes heavy rains, and the western area of the shire is one of the wettest districts in Scotland, the mean annual rainfall exceeding 60 in. The temperature for the year averages about 48° F., for January 38°-5 F., and for July 58°-5 F. The hilly tract contains much peat-moss and moorland, but over those areas which are not thus covered the soil, which is a light earth on a substratum of gravel, is deep enough to produce good pasture. In the undulating central region the soil is better, particularly in the basins of the streams, while on the flat lands adjoining the Clyde there is a rich alluvium which, except when soured by excessive rain, yields heavy crops. Of the total area three-fifths is under cultivation, more than half of this being permanent pasture. Oats are grown extensively, and wheat and barley are also cultivated. Potatoes, turnips and swedes, and beans are the leading green crops. Near the populous centres orchards and market gardens are found, and an increasing acreage is under wood. Horses are kept mostly for farming operations, and the bulk of the cattle are maintained in connexion with dairying. Sheep-farming, though on the increase, is not prosecuted so vigor- ously as in the other southern counties of Scotland, and pig-rearing is on the decline. Other Industries. — Coal, iron, oil-shale and fireclay are the prin- cipal minerals. Limestone is largely quarried for smelting purposes, and for the manufacture of lime. Sandstone is also quarried. The thread industry at Paisley is the most important in the world. Cotton spinning, printing, bleaching and dyeing are carried on at Paisley, Pollokshaws, Renfrew, Barrhead and elsewhere; woollens and worsteds are produced at Paisley, Greenock and Renfrew. Engineering works and iron and brass foundries are found at Greenock, Port-Glasgow, Paisley, Renfrew, Barrhead and Johnstone. Sugar is a staple article of trade in Greenock and there are chemical works at Hurlet, Nltshill and Renfrew. Brewing and distilling are carried on at Greenock, Paisley and other places. Shipbuilding is especially important at Greenock and Port-Glasgow. Paper mills are established in Greenock, Cathcart and Johnstone, and tanneries in Paisley and Kilbarchan. Numerous miscellaneous industries — such as the making of starch, cornflour and preserves — • have also grown up in Paisley and elsewhere. The sea and river ports are Greenock, Port-Glasgow and Renfrew. Railway communication is ample in the north, the centre and towards the south-west. The Caledonian railway runs westwards from Glasgow by Paisley to Greenock, Gourock and Wemyss Bay ; south-westwards to Barrhead and other stations; and southwards to Busby. The Glasgow & South-Western railway runs to Greenock by Paisley, Johnstone and Kilmalcolm ; to Nitshill and other places south-westwards; by Lochwinnoch (for Dairy and Ardrossan in Ayrshire); and to Renfrew jointly with the Cale- donian. The Clyde and the railway steamers call at Renfrew, Prince's Pier (Greenock), Gourock and Wemyss Bay. Population and Administration. — In 1891 the population numbered 230,812, and in 1901 it was 268,980, or 1123 to the sq. m. In 1901 there were 40 persons who spoke Gaelic only and 5585 Gaelic and English. Thus though the shire is but twenty-seventh in point of size of the 33 Scottish counties, it is fifth in respect of population, and only Lanarkshire and Mid Lothian are more densely populated. The county is divided into the upper ward, embracing the easterly two-thirds, with Paisley as district centre, and the lower ward, consisting of the parishes of Inverkip, Greenock, Port-Glasgow and Kil- malcolm, with Greenock as district centre. The chief towns are Paisley (pop. 79,363), Greenock (68,142), Port-Glasgow (16,857), Pollokshaws (11,369), Johnstone (11,331), Barrhead (9855), Renfrew (9296), Gourock (5261), Cathcart (5808). The shire returns one member to parliament for the eastern, and another for the western division. Paisley and Greenock return each one member, and Renfrew and Port-Glasgow belong to the Kilmarnock district, group of parliamentary burghs. Renfrew- shire forms a sheriffdom with Bute, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Paisley and one at Greenock-. The county is under school-board jurisdiction. For secondary and special- ized education there are an academy at Greenock and a grammar school and technical school at Paisley, while some of the schools in the county earn grants for higher education. The county secondary committee also makes provision for the free educa- tion of Renfrewshire children in Glasgow High School and the Spier School at Beith. The Paisley Technical School and the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College are subsidized out of the " residue " grant, part of which also defrays the travelling expenses of students and supports science and art and technological classes in the burghs and towns in the county. History. — At the time of the Roman advance from the Solway the land was peopled by the British tribe of Damnonii. To hold the natives in check the conquerors built in 84 the fort of Vanduara on high ground now covered by houses and streets in Paisley; but after the Romans retired (410) the territory was overrun by Cumbrian Britons and formed part of the kingdom of Strathclyde, the capital of which was situated at Alclyde, the modern Dumbarton. In the 7th and 8th cen- turies the region practically passed under the supremacy of Northumbria, but in the reign of Malcolm Canmore became incorporated with the rest of Scotland. During the first half of the 1 2th century, Walter Fitzalan, high steward of Scotland, ancestor of the royal house of Stuart, settled in Renfrewshire on an estate granted to him by David I. Till their accession to the throne the Stuarts identified themselves with the district, which, however, was only disjoined from Lanarkshire in 1404. In that year Robert III. erected the barony of Renfrew and the Stuart estates into a separate county, which, along with the earldom of Carrick and the barony of King's Kyle (both in Ayrshire), was bestowed upon his son, afterwards James I. From their grant are derived the titles of earl of Carrick and baron of Renfrew, borne by the eldest son of the sovereign. Apart from such isolated incidents as the defeat of Somerled near Renfrew in 1164, the battle of Langside in 1568 and the capture of the 9th earl of Argyll at Inchinnan in 1685, the history of the shire is scarcely separable from that of Paisley or the neighbouring county of Lanark. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Description of the Sheriffdom of Lanark and Renfrew (Maitland Club, 1831); W. Hector, Lichens from an Old Abbey (Paisley, 1876); Vanduara (Paisley, 1881); Gilmour, Paisley, Weavers of Other Days (Paisley, 1879); D. Campbell, His- torical Sketches of the Town and Harbours of Greenock (1879-81); Old Greenock (Greenock, 1888); Craig, Historical Notes on Paisley (Paisley, 1881); A. H. Millar, Castles and Mansions of Renfrew (Glasgow, 1889). IOO RENNELL— RENNEVILLE RENNELL, JAMES (1742-1830), British geographer, was born on the 3rd of December 1742, near Chudleigh in Devonshire. His father, an officer in the Artillery, was killed in action shortly after the birth of his son. He entered the navy as a mid- shipman in 1756, and was present at the attack on Cherbourg (1758), and the disastrous action of St Cast in the same year. At the end of the Seven Years' War, seeing no chance of pro- motion, he entered the service of the East India Company, and was appointed surveyor of the Company's dominions in Bengal (1764), with the rank of captain in the Bengal Engineers. To this work he devoted the next thirteen years. In 1766 he received a severe wound in an encounter with some Sannyasis, or religious fanatics, from which he never thoroughly recovered; and in 1777 he retired as major on a pension of £600 a year. The remaining fifty-three years of his life were spent in London, and were devoted to geographical research chiefly among the materials in the East India House. His most valuable works include the Bengal Atlas (1779), the first approximately correct map of India (1783), the Geographical System of Herodotus (1800), the Comparative Geography of Western Asia (1831), and im- portant studies on the geography of northern Africa — in intro- ductions to the Travels of Mungo Park and Hornemann — and the currents of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. He also contributed papers to Archaeologia on the site of Babylon, the island of St Paul's shipwreck, and the landing-place of Caesar in Britain. He was elected F.R.S. in 1781; and he received the Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1791, and the gold medal of the Royal Society of Literature in 1825. While in India he had married (1772) Jane Thackeray, a great-aunt of the novelist. He died on the zgth of March 1830, and was buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey. See Sir Clements Markham, Major James Rennell and the Rise of Modern English Geography (London, 1895). RENNES, a town of western France, formerly the capital of Brittany and now the chief town of the department of Ille-et- Vilaine. Pop. town, 62,024; commune, 75,640. Rennes is situated at the meeting of the Ille and the Vilaine and at the junction of several lines of railway connecting it with Paris (232 m. E.N.E.), St Malo (51 m. N.N.W.), Brest (155 m. W.N.W.). A few narrow winding streets with old houses are left in the vicinity of the cathedral, but the town was for the most part rebuilt on a regular plan after the seven days' fire of 1720. Dark granite was used as building material. The old town or Ville-Haute, where the chief buildings are situated, occupies a hill bounded on the south by the Vilaine, on the west by the canalized Ille. The Vilaine flows in a deep hollow bordered with quays and crossed by six bridges leading to the new town or Ville-Basse on its left bank. The cathedral of Rennes was rebuilt in a pseudo-Ionic style between 1787 and 1844 on the site of two churches dating originally from the 4th century. The west facade with its twin towers was finished in 1700 and is in the Renaissance style. The interior is richly decorated, a German altar-piece of the isth century being conspicuous for its carving and gilding. The archbishop's palace occupies in part the site of the abbey dedicated to St Melaine, whose church is the sole specimen of n-i3th cen- tury architecture among the numerous churches in the town. A colossal statue of the Virgin was placed above its dome in 1867. The Mordelaise Gate, by which the dukes and bishops used to make their state entry into the town, is a curious example of isth-century architecture, and preserves a Latin inscription of the 3rd century, a dedication by the Redones to the emperor Gordianus. The finest building in Rennes is the old parliament house (now the law-court), designed by Jacques Debrosse in the 1 7th century, and decorated with statues of legal celebrities, carving, and paintings by Jean Jouvenet and other well-known artists. The town hall was erected in the first half of the i8th century. It contains the library and the municipal archives, which are of great importance for the history of Brittany. In the Palais Universitaire, a modern building occupied by the university, there are scientific collections and important galleries of painting and sculpture, the chief work being the " Perseus delivering Andromeda " of Paul Veronese. About 2 m. from the town is the castle (i6th century) of La Prevalaye, a hamlet famous for its butter. Rennes is the seat of an archbishop and a prefect, head- quarters of the X. army corps and centre of an acadimie (educa- tional division). Its university has faculties of law, science and letters, and a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, and there are training colleges, a Iyc6e and schools of agriculture, dairying, music, art, architecture and industry (£cole pratique). The town is also the seat of a court of appeal, of a court of assizes, of tribunals of first instance and commerce, and of a chamber of commerce, and has a branch of the Bank of France. Tanning, iron-founding, timber-sawing and the production of furniture and wooden goods, flour-milling, flax-spinning and the manufacture of tenting and other coarse fabrics, bleaching and various smaller industries are carried on. Trade is chiefly in butter made in the neighbourhood, and in grain, flour, leather, poultry, eggs and honey. Rennes, the chief c.ty of the Redones, was formerly (like some other places in Gaul) called Condate (hence Condat, Conde), probably from its position at the confluence of two streams. Under the Roman empire it was included in Lugdunensis Tertia, and became the centre of various Roman roads still recognizable in the vicinity The name Urbs Rubra given to it on the oldest chronicles is explained by the bands of red brick in the founda- tions of its first circuit of walls. About the close of the loth century Conan le Tort, count of Rennes, subdued the whole province, and his son and successor Geoffrey first took the title duke of Brittany. The dukes were crowned at Rennes, and before entering the city by the Mordelaise Gate they had to swear to preserve the privileges of the church, the nobles and the commons of Brittany. During the War of Succession the city more than once suffered siege, notably in 1356-57, when Bertrand du Gu'esclin saved it from capture by the English under Henry, first duke of Lancaster. The parlement of Brittany, founded in 1551, held its sessions at Rennes from 1561, they having been previously shared with Nantes. During the troubles of the League Philip Emmanuel, duke of Mercosur, attempted to make himself independent at Rennes (1589), but his scheme was defeated by the loyalty of the parlement. Henry IV. entered the city in state on the 9th of May 1598. In 1675 an insurrection at Rennes, caused by the taxes imposed by Louis XIV. in spite of the advice of the parlement, was cruelly suppressed by Charles, duke of Chaulnes, governor of the province. The parlement was banished to Vannes till 1689, and the inhabitants crushed with forfeits and put to death in great numbers. The fire of 1720, which destroyed eight hundred houses, completed the ruin of the town. At the beginning of the Revolution Rennes was again the scene of bloodshed, caused by the discussion about doubling the third estate for the con- vocation of the states-general. In January 1789, Jean Victor Moreau (afterwards general) led the law-students in their demonstrations on behalf of the parlement against the royal government. During the Reign of Terror Rennes suffered less than Nantes, partly through the courage and uprightness of the mayor, Jean Leperdit. It was soon afterwards the centre of the operations of the Republican army against the Vendeans. The bishopric, founded in the 5th century, in 1859 became an arch- bishopric, a rank to which it had previously been raised from 1790 to 1802. In 1899 the revision of the sentence of Captain Alfred Dreyfus was carried out at Rennes. See Grain, Rennes et ses environs (Reims, 1904). RENNEVILLE, RENE AUGUSTE CONSTANTIN DE (1650- 1723), French writer, was born at Caen in 1650. In consequence of his Protestant principles, he left France for Holland in 1699, and on his return three years later he was denounced as a spy and imprisoned in the Bastille, where he remained until 1713. During his imprisonment he wrote on the margins of a copy of Auteurs deguises (Paris, 1690) poems which he called Olia bastiliaca. These were rediscovered by Mr James Tregaski in 1906. Renneville was set at liberty through the intercession of Queen Anne, and made his way to England, where he published RENNIE— RENOUF 101 his Histoiredela Bastille (7 vols., 1713-24), dedicated to George I. At the time of his death in 1723 he was a major of artillery in the " service of the elector of Hesse. His other important work is a Recueil des voyages qui ont servi A I'etablissement de la Compagnie des Indes Orientals aux Provinces Unies (10 vols., new ed., Rouen, 1725). RENNIE, JOHN (i 761-1821), British engineer, was the youngest son of James Rennie, a farmer at Phantassie, Haddingtonshire, where he was born on the 7th of June 1761. On his way to the parish school at East Linton he used to pass the workshop of Andrew Meikle (1710-1800), the inventor of the threshing machine, and its attractions were such that he spent there much of the time that was supposed to be spent at school. In his twelfth year he was placed under Meikle, but after two years he was sent to Dunbar High School, where he showed marked aptitude for mathematics. On his return to Phantassie he occasionally assisted Meikle, and soon began to erect corn mills on his own account. In 1780, while continuing his millwright's business, he began to attend the classes on physical science at Edinburgh University. Four years later he was commissioned by Boulton and Watt, to whom he was introduced by Professor John Robison (1739-1805), his teacher at Edinburgh, to super- intend the construction of the machinery for the Albion flour mills, which they were building at the south end of Blackfriars Bridge, London, and a feature of his work there was the use of iron for many portions of the machines which had formerly been made of wood. The completion of these mills established his reputation as a mechanical engineer, and soon secured him a large business as a maker of millwork of all descriptions. But his fame chiefly rests on his achievements in civil engineering. As a canal engineer his services began to be in request about 1790, and the Avon and Kennet, the Rochdale and the Lancaster canals may be mentioned among his numerous works in England. His skill solved the problem of draining and'reclaiming extensive tracts of marsh in the eastern counties and on the Sol way Firth. As a bridge engineer he was responsible for many structures in England and Scotland, among the most conspicuous being three over the Thames — Waterloo Bridge, Southwark Bridge and London Bridge — the last of which he did not live to see com- pleted. A noteworthy feature in many of his designs was the flat roadway. Among the harbours and docks in the construction of which he was concerned may be mentioned those at Wick, Torquay, Grimsby, Holyhead, Howth, Kingstown and Hull, together with the London dock and the East India dock on the Thames, and he was consulted by the government in respect of improvements at the dockyards of Portsmouth, Sheerness, Chatham and Plymouth, where the breakwater was built from his plans. He died in London on the 4th of October 1821, and was buried in St Paul's. In person he was of great stature and strength, and a bust of him by Chantrey (now in the National Gallery), when exhibited at Somerset House, obtained the name of Jupiter Tonans. Of his family, the eldest son George, who was born in London on the 3rd of September 1791 and died there on the 3oth of March 1866, carried on his father's business in partnership with the second son John, who was born in London on the 30th of August 1794 and died near Hertford on the 3rd of September 1874. George devoted himself especially to the mechanical side of the business. John completed the con- struction of London Bridge, and at its opening in 1831 was made a knight. He succeeded his father as engineer to the Admiralty, and finished the Plymouth breakwater, of which he published an account in 1848. He was also the author of a book on the Theory, Formation and Construction of British and Foreign Harbours (1851-54), and his Autobiography appeared in 1875. He was elected president of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1845, and held the office for three years. RENO, a city and the county-seat of Washoe county, Nevada, U.S.A., in the W. part of the state, on the Truckee river, and about 244 m. E. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890) 3563; (1900) 4500 (915 foreign-born); (1910 census) 10,867. It is served by the Southern Pacific, the Virginia & Truckee and the Nevada- California-Oregon railways. The city lies near the foot of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 4484 ft. above the sea, and is in the most humid district of a state which has little rainfall. Among the public institutions are the university of Nevada (see NEVADA), a United States Agricultural Experiment Station, a public library (1903), the Nevada Hospital for Mental Diseases (1882), the City and County Hospital and the People's Hospital. At Reno are railway shops (of the Nevada-California-Oregon railway) and re- duction works, and the manufactures include flour, foundry and machine-shop products, lumber, beer, plaster and packed meats. Farming and stock-raising are carried on extensively in the vicinity. On the site of the present city a road house was erected in 1859 for the accommodation of travellers and freight teams on their way to and from California. By 1863 this place had become known as Lake's Crossing, and five years later it was chosen as a site for a station by the Central (now the Southern) Pacific railway, then building through the Truckee Valley. The new station was then named Reno, in honour of Gen. Jesse Lee Reno (1823-1862), a Federal officer during the Civil War, who was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in November 1861 and major-general of volunteers in July 1862, and led the Ninth Corps at South Mountain, where he was killed. The city twice suffered from destructive fires, in 1873 and 1879. Reno was incorporated as a town in 1879 and chartered as a city in 1899. Its city charter was withdrawn in 1901, but it was rechartered in 1903. RENOIR, FIRMIN AUGUSTE (1841- ), French painter, was born at Limoges in 1841. In his early work he followed, with pronounced modern modifications, certain traditions of the French 18th-century school, more particularly of Boucher, of whom we are reminded by the decorative tendency, the pink and ivory flesh tints and the facile technique of Renoir. In the 'seventies he threw himself into the impressionist movement and became one of its leaders. In some of his paintings he carried the new principle of the division of tones to its extreme, but in his best work, notably in some of his paintings of the nude, he retained much of the refined sense of beauty of colour of the 1 8th century. Renoir has tried his skill almost in every genre — in portraiture, landscape, flower-painting, scenes of modern life and figure subject; and though he is perhaps the most un- equal of the great impressionists, his finest works rank among the masterpieces of the modern French school. Among these are some of his nude " Bathers," the " Rowers' Luncheon," the " Ball at the Moulin de la Galette," " The Box," " The Terrace," " La Pensee," and the portrait of " Jeanne Samary." He is represented in the Caillebotte toom at the Luxembourg, in the collection of M. Durand-Ruel, and in most of the collections of impressionist paintings in France and in the United States. Comparatively few of his works have come to England, but the full range of his capacity was seen at the exhibition of impres- sionist art held at the Grafton Galleries in London in 1905. At the Viau sale in Paris in 1907, a garden scene by Renoir, " La Tonnelle," realized 26,000 frs., and a little head, " Ingenue," 25,100 frs. RENOUF, SIR PETER LE PAGE (1822-1897), Egyptologist, was born in Guernsey, on the 23rd of August 1822. He was educated at Elizabeth College there, and proceeded to Oxford, which, upon his becoming a Roman Catholic, under the influence of Dr Newman, he quitted without taking a degree. Like many other Anglican converts, he proved a thorn in the side of the Ultramontane party in the Roman Church, though he did not, like some of them, return to the communion of the Church of England. He opposed the promulgation of the dogma of Papal Infallibility, and his treatise (1868) upon the condemnation of Pope Honorius for heresy by the council of Constantinople in A.D. 680 was placed upon the index of prohibited books. He had been from 1855 to 1864 professor of ancient history and Oriental languages in the Roman Catholic university which Newman vainly strove to establish in Dublin, and during part of this period edited the Atlantis and the Home and Foreign Review, which latter had to be discontinued on account of the hostility of the Roman Catholic hierarchy. In 1864 he was appointed a government inspector of schools, which position he 102 RENOUVIER— RENT held until 1886, when his growing celebrity as an Egyptologist procured him the appointment of Keeper of Oriental Antiquities in the British Museum, in succession to Dr Samuel Birch. He was also elected in 1887 president of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, to whose Proceedings he was a constant contri- butor. The most important of his contributions to Egyptology are his Hibbert Lectures on " The Religion of the Egyptians," delivered in 1879; and the translation of The Book of the Dead, with an ample commentary, published in the Transactions of the society over which he presided. He retired from the Museum under the superannuation rule in 1891, and died in London on the 1 4th of October 1897. He had been knighted the year before his death. He married in 1857 Ludovica von Brentano, member of a well-known German literary family. RENOUVIER, CHARLES BERNARD (1815-1903), French philosopher, was born at Montpellier on the ist of January 1818, and educated in Paris at the Ecole Polytechnique. In early life he took an interest in politics, and the approval extended by Hippolyte Carnot to his Manuel republicain de I'homme et du citoyen (1848) was the occasion of that minister's fall. He never held public employment, but spent his life writing, retired from the world. He died on the ist of September 1903. Ren- ouvier was the first Frenchman after Malebranche to formulate a complete idealistic system, and had a vast influence on the development of French thought. His system is based on Kant's, as his chosen term " Neo-criticisme " indicates; but it is a trans- formation rather than a continuation of Kantianism. The two leading ideas are a dislike to the Unknowable in all its forms, and a reliance on the validity of our personal experience. The former accounts for his acceptance of Kant's phenomenalism, combined with rejection of the thing in itself. It accounts, too, for his polemic on the one hand against a Substantial Soul, a Buddhistic Absolute, an Infinite Spiritual Substance; on the other hand against the no less mysterious material or dynamic substratum by which naturalistic Monism explains the world. He holds that nothing exists except presentations, which are not merely sensational, and have an objective aspect no less than a subjective. To explain the formal organization of our experience he adopts a modified version of the Kantian categories. The insistence on the validity of personal experience leads Renouvier to a yet more important divergence from Kant in his treatment of volition. Liberty, he says, in a much wider sense than Kant, is man's fundamental characteristic. Human freedom acts in the phenomenal, not in an imaginary noiimenal sphere. Belief is not intellectual merely, but is determined by an act of will affirming what we hold to be morally good. In his religious views Renouvier makes a considerable approxima- tion to Leibnitz. He holds that we are rationally justified in affirming human immortality and the existence of a finite God who is to be a constitutional ruler, but not a despot, over the souls of men. He would, however, regard atheism as preferable to a belief in an infinite Deity. His chief works are: Essais de critique generate (1854-64), Science de la morale (1869), Uchronie (1876), Esquisse d'une classification systematique des doctrines philosophiqu.es (1885-86), Philosophie analytique de I'histoire (1896-97), Histoire et solution des problemes metaphysiques (1901); Victor Hugo: Le Polite (1893), Le Philo- sophe (1900); Les Dilemmes de la metaphysique pure (1901); Le Personnalisme (1903) ; Critique de la doctrine de Kant (J9O6, pub- lished by L. Prat). See L. Prat, Les Verniers entreiiens de Charles Renouvier (1904) ; M. Ascher, Renouvier und der franzosische Neu-Kriticismus (1900) ; E. Janssens, Le Neocriticisme de C. R. (1904); A. Darlu, La Morale de Renouvier (1904); G. Seailles, La Philosophie de C. R. (1905); A. Arnal, La Philosophie religieuse de C. R. (1907). RENSSELAER, a city of Rensselaer county, New York, U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, on the E. bank of the Hudson river, opposite Albany. Pop. (1900) 7466, of whom 1089 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,711. It is served by the New York Central and the Boston & Albany rail- ways, which have shops here, and is connected with Albany by three bridges across the Hudson. Rensselaer, originally called Greenbush, was first settled in 1631, and the site formed part of the large tract bought from the Indians by the agents of Killian van Rensselaer and known as Rensselaerwyck. In 1810 a square mile of land within the present city limits was acquired by a land speculator, was divided into lots and offered for sale. Development followed, and five years later the village was incorporated. In 1897 Greenbush was chartered as a city, and its name was changed to Rensselaer. Its limits were extended in 1902 by the annexation of the village of Bath (pop. in 1900, 2504) and the western part of the township of East Greenbush. Rensselaer manufactures knit-goods, wool shoddy, felt, &c. RENT. Various species of rent appear in Roman Law: rent (canon) under the long leasehold tenure of Emphyteusis; rent (reditus) of a farm; ground-rent (solarium); rent of state lands (wctigal); and the annual rent (prensio) payable for the jus superficiarum or right to the perpetual enjoy- ment of anything built on the surface of land. (See ROMAN LAW.) ENGLISH LAW. (As to the rent of apartments, &c., see LODGER AND LODGINGS.) — Rent is a certain and periodical payment or service made or rendered by the tenant of a corporeal hereditament and issuing out of (the property of) such heredita- ment. Its characteristics, therefore, are (i) certainty in amount; (2) periodicity in payment or rendering; (3) the fact that rent is yielded and is, therefore, said " to lie in render," as distinguished from profits d prendre in general, which are taken, and are, therefore, said to lie in prendre; (4) that it must issue out of (the profits of) a corporeal hereditament. A rent cannot be reserved out of incorporeal hereditaments such as advowsons (Co. Litt. 473, I42a). But rent may be reserved out of estates in reversion or remainder (see REAL PROPERTY) which are not purely incorporeal. It is not essential that rent should consist in a payment of money. Apart from the rendering of services, the delivery of hens, horses, wheat, &c., may constitute a rent. But, at the present day, rent is generally a sum of money paid for the occupation of land. It is important to notice that this conception of rent was attained at a comparatively late period in the history of the law. The earliest rent seems to have been a form of personal service, generally labour on land, and was fixed by custom. The exaction of a competition or rack rent beyond that limited by custom was, if one may judge from the old Brehon law of Ireland, due to the presence upon the land of strangers in blood, probably at first outcasts from some other group.1 The strict feudal theory of rent admitted labour on the lord's land as a lower form, and developed the military service due to the crown or a lord as a higher form. Rent service is the oldest and most dignified kind of existing rent. It is the only one to which the power of distress attaches at common law, giving the landlord a preferential right over other creditors exercisable without the intervention of judicial authority (see DISTRESS). The increasing importance of socage tenure, arising in part from the convenience of paying a certain amount, whether in money or kind, rather than comparatively uncertain services, led to the gradual evolution of the modern view of rent as a sum due by contract between two independent persons. At the same time the primitive feeling which regarded the position of landlord and tenant from a social rather than a commercial point of view is still of importance. Rents, as they now exist in England, are divided passes / of Keats. into two great classes — rent service and rent charge. Rent Service. — A rent service is so called because by it a tenure by means of service is created between the landlord and the tenant. The service is now represented by fealty, and is nothing more than nominal. Rent service is said to be incident to the reversion — that is, a grant of the reversion carries the rent with it (see REMAINDER) . A power of distress is incident '"The three rents are: rack rent from a person of a strange tribe, a fair rent from one of the tribe, and the stipulated rent which is paid equally by the tribe and the strange tribe." — Senchus Mor, p. 159, cited by Maine, Village Communities, p. 187. See also Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892), pp. 181, 188, 215; The Growth of the Manor (by the same author) (London, 1905), pp. 230, 328; Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law (Cambridge, 1895), ii. 128-134. RENT 103 at common law to this form of rent. Copyhold rents and rents reserved on lease fall into this class. Rent Charge. — A rent charge is a grant of an annual sum payable out of lands in which the grantor has an estate. It may be in fee, in tail, for life — the most common form — or for years. It must be created by deed or will, and may be either at common law or under the Statute of Uses (1536). The grantor has no reversion, and the grantee has at common law no power of distress, though such power may be given him by the instrument creating the rent charge. The Statute of Uses (1536) gave a power of distress for a rent charge created under the statute. The Conveyancing Act 1881, § 44, has given a power of distress for a sum due on any rent charge which is twenty-one days in arrear. By § 45 a power of redemption of certain per- petual rents in the nature of rent charges is given to the owner of the land out of which the rent issues. Rent charges granted since April 26th, 1855, otherwise than by marriage settlement or will for a life or lives or for any estate determinable on a life or lives must, in order to bind lands against purchasers, mort- gagees or creditors, be registered in the Land Registry in Lincoln's Inn Fields (Judgments Act 1855 and Land Charges Act 1900). In certain other cases it is also necessary to register rent charges, for instance, under the Improvement of Land Act 1864 and the Land Transfer Acts 1875 and 1897. Rent charges are barred by non-payment or non-acknowledgment for twelve years. The period of limitation for the arrears of such rent is six years. Various Forms of Rent Charge. — Forms of rent charge of special interest are tithe rent charge (see TITHES), and the rent charges formerly used for the purpose of creating " faggot votes." The device was adopted of creating parliamentary voters by splitting up freehold interests into a number of rent-charges of the annual value of 405., so as to satisfy the freeholders' franchise. But such rent charges are now rendered ineffective by the Repre- sentation of the People Act 1884, § 4, which enacts (subject to a saving for existing rights and an exception in favour of owners of tithe rent charge) that a man shall not be entitled to be registered as a voter in respect of the ownership of any rent charge. A rent charge reserved without power of distress is termed a rent-seek (reditus siccus) or " dry rent," from the absence of the power of distress. But, as power of distress for rents-seek was given by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1736, the legal effect of such rents has been since the act the same as that of a rent charge. Other Varieties of Rent. — Rents of assize or Quit rents are a relic of the old customary rents. They are presumed to have been established by usage, and cannot be increased or diminished. A Quit rent (quietus reditus) is a yearly payment made from time immemorial by freeholders or copyholders of a manor to the lord. The term implies that the tenant thereby becomes free and quit from all other services. Owing to the change in the value of money, these rents are now of little value. Under the Conveyancing Act 1 88 1 (s. 45) they may be compulsorily redeemed by the freehold tenant; and the Copyhold Act 1894 provides similarly for their extinction in the case of manors. Quit rents, like ordinary rent charges, are barred by non-payment, or non-acknowledgment, for twelve years. Those paid by freeholders are called chief rents. Fee farm rents are rents reserved on grants in fee. According to some authorities, they must be at least one-fourth of the value of the lands. They, like quit rents, now occur only in manors, unless existing before the Statute of Quia Emptores or created by the crown (see REAL PROPERTY). A rent which is equivalent or nearly equivalent in amount to the full annual value of the land is a rack rent. A rent which falls appreciably short of a rack rent is usually styled a ground rent (q.v.). It is generally reserved on land which the lessee agrees to cover with buildings, and is calculated on the value of the land, though the buildings to be erected increase the security for the rent and revert to the Tessor at the end of the term. A dead rent is a fixed annual sum paid by a person working a mine or quarry, in addition to royalties varying according to the amount of minerals taken. The object of a dead rent is twofold — first, to provide a specified income on which the lessor can rely; secondly (and this is the more important reason), as a security that the mine will be worked, and worked with reasonable rapidity. Rents in kind still exist to a limited extent; thus the corporation of London is tenant of some lands in Shropshire by payment to the crown of an annual rent of a fagot. All peppercorn, or nominal, rents seem to fall under this head.1 The object of the peppercorn rent is to secure the acknowledgment by the tenant ot the landlord's right. In modern building leases a peppercorn rent is sometimes reserved as the rent for the first few years. Services rendered in lieu of payment by tenants in grand and petit serjeanty may also be regarded as examples of rents in kind. Grand serjeanty is a form of tenure in chivalry under which the king's tenants (servientes) in chief owed special military or personal services to the king; e.g. carrying his banner. Petit serjeanty — a form of tenure in socage — was usually applied to tenure of the king or a mcsne lord by some fixed service of trivial value, e.g. feeding his hounds. These forms of tenure were abolished in 1660. Labour rents are represented by those cases, not unfrequent in agricultural leases, where the tenant is bound to render the landlord a certain amount of team work or other labour as a part of his rent. It was held in the court of queen's bench in 1845 that tenants who occupied houses on the terms of sweeping the parish church and of ringing the church belt paid rent within the meaning of the Limitation Act of 1833 (see Doe v. Benham (1845), 7 Q.B. 976). As to the apportionment of rents, see APPORTIONMENT. Payment of Rent. — Rent is due in the morning of the day appointed for payment, but a tenant is not in arrears until after midnight on that day. Rent made payable in advance by agreement between a landlord and his tenant is called forehand rent. It is not uncommon in letting payment. a furnished house, or as to the last quarter of the term of a lease of unfurnished premises, to stipulate that the rent shall be paid in advance. As soon as such rent is payable under the agreement the landlord has the same rights in regard to it as he has in the case of ordinary rent. If' a tenant pays his rent before the day on which it is due, he runs the risk of being called upon in certain circumstances to pay it over again. Such a 'payment is an advance to the landlord, subject to an agreement that, when the rent becomes due, the advance shall be treated as a fulfilment of the tenant's obligation to pay rent. The payment is, therefore, generally speaking, a defence to an action by the landlord or his heirs. But if the landlord mortgages his reversion, either before or after the advance, the assignee will, by giving notice to the tenant, before the proper rent-day, to pay rent to him, become entitled to the rent then falling due. Pay- ment by cheque is conditional payment only, and if the cheque is dishonoured the original obligation revives. Where a cheque in payment of rent is lost in the course of transmission through the post, the loss falls on the tenant, unless the landlord has expressly or impliedly authorized it to be forwarded in that way: and the landlord's consent to take the risk of such trans- mission will not be inferred from the fact that payments were ordinarily made in this manner in the dealings between the parties. A tenant may deduct from his rent (i) the " land- lord's property tax " (on the annual value of the premises for income tax purposes), which is paid by the tenant, if the statute imposing the tax authorizes the deduction (which should be made from the rent next due after the payment); (ii) taxes or rates which the landlord had undertaken to pay but had not paid, payment having thereupon been made by the tenant; (iii) payments made by the tenant which ought to have been made by the landlord, e.g. rent due to a superior landlord; (iv) com- pensation under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900. Remedies for Non-payment of Rent. — A landlord's main remedy for non-payment of rent is distress (Lat. distringere, to draw asunder, detain, occupy), i.e. the right to seize all goods found upon the demised premises, whether those of the tenant or of a stranger, except goods specially privileged, and to detain and, if need be, to sell them, in satisfaction of his claim. The requisites of a valid distress are these: (a) There must be " a certain and proper rent," i.e. rent due in respect of an actual tenancy of corporeal hereditaments: (b) the rent must be in arrear; (c) there must be a reversion in the person distrain- ing; and (d) there must be goods on the premises liable to be distrained. 1 When peppercorn rents were instituted, in the middle ages, they were not, however, nominal, the cost of spices being then very great. A peppercorn rent, generally an obligation to pay I ft of pepper at the usual rent flays, constituted a substantial impost even as late as the i8th century. IO4 RENT All personal chattels are distrainable with the following excep tions: (i) Goods absolutely privileged — (a) fixtures (q.v.); (b) goods sent to the tenant in the way of trade; (c) things which cannot be restored, e.g. meat and milk; growing corn and corn in sheaves formerly fell within this category, but the Distress for Rent Act !737 (s- 8) abolished this exemption in the case of the former, and a statute of 1690 abolished it in that of the latter; (d) things in actual use, e.g. a horse while it is drawing a cart ; (e) animals ferae naturae (dogs and tame deer or deer in an enclosed park may be distrained) ; (/) things in the custody of the law, e.g. in the possession of a sheriff under an execution (q.v.) ; (g) straying cattle; (h) in the case of agricultural holdings under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900 hired agricultural machinery and breeding stock; (i) the wearing apparel and " bedding " — a term which includes " bedstead " — of tenant and his family, and the tools and implements of his trade to the value of £5 (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888) ; (j) the goods of ambassadors and their suites (Diplomatic Privileges Act 1708). (ii) Goods conditionally privileged, i.e. privileged if there are sufficient goods of other kinds on the premises to satisfy the distress — (a) implements of trade not in actual use; (b) beasts of the plough and sheep; (c) agisted cattle; (d) growing crops sold under an execution (Landlord and Tenant Act 1851, s. 2); (e) lodgers' goods. The Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 1871 provides that where a lodger's goods have been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him with a notice stating that the intermediate landlord had no interest in the property seized, but that it is the property, or in the lawful possession, of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of the rent due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On payment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the distress against the goods in question. In general, a landlord cannot distrain except upon the premises demised, but he has a statutory right to follow things clandestinely or fraudulently removed from the premises within 30 days after their removal, unless they have been in the meantime sold bona fide and for valuable consideration. A landlord may, by statute (Landlord and Tenant Act 1709, s. 6), distrain within six months after the determination of the lease provided that the tenant has remained in possession. A distress must be made in the daytime, i.e. not before sunrise or after sunset. Six years' arrears of rent only are recoverable by distress (Real Property Limitation Act 1833, s. 12): the Real Property Limitation Act 1874 (s. i), which bars distress for rent after twelve years, applies to rent-charges and not to rent under a lease, and the six years' arrears may be recovered in spite of the lapse of time. In the case of agricultural tenancies falling within the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900, the right of distress is confined to one year's arrears of rent. Where the tenant is bankrupt, a distress levied after the bankruptcy is limited to six months' rent accrued due prior to the date of adjudica- tion; see Bankruptcy Act 1883 (s. 42) and 1890 (s. 28). Where a company is being wound up, the landlord may not distrain without the leave of the court. An extension of time is allowed in cases where in the ordinary course of dealing between landlord and tenant the payment of rent has been allowed to be deferred for a quarter or half year after the rent became legally due (act of 1883, s. 4). The landlord may distrain in person or may employ a certificated bailiff (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, s. 7). An uncerti- ficated person levying a distress is liable to a fine of £10, without prejudice to his civil liability (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895, s. 2). The seizure must not be excessive (statute of Henry III., 1267); but enough must be taken to satisfy the claim, for the landlord cannot distrain twice for the same rent where he could have taken sufficient in the first instance. After being seized, the goods must be impounded (Distress for Rent Act 1707, s. 10; and see the statute of 1690, s. 3, on impounding of corn, straw, hay; the Distress for Rent Act 1737, s. 8, on impounding of growing crops; and the statute of 1554 and the Cruelty to Animals Act 1849, s. 5, on impounding of cattle) ; and the landlord has a statutory power of sale (statute of 1690, s. 5). It is illegal to proceed with a distress if the tenant tenders the rent before the impounding; and a tenant has, by statute (1690, c. 5), five clear days' grace, excluding the date of seizure, between impounding and sale. On the written request of the tenant, this period will be extended to fifteen days (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, s. 6). A tenant may, before sale, recover goods illegally distrained by an action of replevin (L. Lat. replegiare, to redeem a thing taken by another). Where no rent was due to the distrainer the tenant may recover by action double the value of the goods sold (statute 1690, s. 5); and summary remedies for the recovery of the property have been created by modern enactments (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895, s. 4, on distress of privileged goods; Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, s. 46). Where rent was due, but the distress was irregular, the tenant can only recover special damage (Distress for Rent Act 1737, s. 19). Goods taken under an execution (q.v.) are not removable till one year's rent has been paid to the landlord (Landlord and Tenant Act 1709). The landlord has, besides distress, his ordinary remedy by action. In addition, special statutory remedies are given in the case of tenants holding over after the expiration of their tenancy. By the Distress for Rent Act 1737 any tenant giving notice to quit, and holding over, is liable to pay double rent for such time as he continues in possession (see further under EJECTMENT). Ireland. — The main differences between Irish and English law have been caused by legislation (see EJECTMENT; LAND- LORD AND TENANT). Scotland. — Rent is properly the payment made by tenant to landlord for the use of lands held under lease (see LANDLORD AND TENANT). In agricultural tenancies the legal terms for the payment of rent are at Whitsunday after the crop has been shown, and at Martinmas after it has been reaped. But a landlord and tenant may substitute conventional terms of payment, either anticipating (fore, or forehand rent) or post- poning (back, or backhand rent) the legal term. The rent paid by vassal to superior is called feu-duty (see FEU). Its nearest English equivalent is the fee farm rent. The remedy of dis- tress does not exist in Scots law. Rents are recovered (i) by summary diligence, proceeding on a clause, in the lease, of consent to registration for execution; (ii) by an ordinary peti- tory action; (iii) by an action of " maills and duties " (the rents of an estate in money or grain: " maills " was a coin at one time current in Scotland) in the Sheriff Court or the Court of Session; and (iv) in non-agricultural tenancies by procedure under the right of hypothec, where that still exists; the right of hypothec over land exceeding 2 acres in extent let for agri- culture or pasture was abolished as from November ii, 1881 (see HYPOTHEC); (v) by action of removing (see EJECTMENT). Arrears of rent prescribe in five years from the time of the tenant's removal from the land. Labour or service rents were at one time very frequent in Scot- land. The events of 1715 and 1745 showed the vast influence over the tenantry that the great proprietors acquired by such means. Accordingly acts of 1716 and 1746 provided for the commutation of services into money rents. Such services may still be created by agreement, subject to the summary power of commutation by the sheriff given by the Conveyancing Act 1874 (§§ 20, 21). " In the more remote parts of Scotland it is understood that there still exist customary returns in produce of various kinds, which being regulated by the usage of the district or of the barony or estate cannot be comprehended under any general rule " (Hunter, Landlord and Tenant, ii. 298). Up to 1848 or 1850 there existed in Scot- land " steelbow " leases — analogous to the chetel de fer of French law (see LANDLORD AND TENANT)— by which the landlord stocked the farm with corn, cattle, implements, &c., the tenant returning similar articles at the expiration of his tenancy and paying in addition to the ordinary rent a steelbow rent of 5 % on the value of the stock. As to the rent of apartments, &c., see LODGER AND LODGINGS. United Stales. — The law is in general accordance with that of England. The tendency of modern state legislation is unfavourable to the continuance of distress as a remedy. In the New England states, attachment on mesne process has, to a- large extent, superseded it. In New York and Missouri it has been abolished by statute; in Mississippi the landlord has a claim for one year's rent on goods seized under an execution and a lien on the growing crop. In Ohio, Tennessee and Alabama it is not recognized, but in Ohio the landlord has a share in the growing crops in preference to the execution creditor. The legislatures of nearly all the states agree with the law of England as to the exemption from distress of household goods, wearing apparel, &c. (see Dillon's Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America, pp. 360, 361; also HOMESTEAD). As to the rent of apartments, &c., see LODGER AND LODGINGS. Fee farm rents exist in some states, like Pennsylvania, which have not adopted the statute of Quia Emptores as a part of their common law (Washburn's Real Property, ii. 252). Other Laws. — Under the French Code Civil (art. 2102) the land- lord is a privileged creditor for his rent. If the lease is by authentic act, or under private signature for a fixed term, he has a right over the year's harvest and produce, the furniture of the house and everything employed to keep it up, and (if a farm) to work it, in order to satisfy all rent due up to the end of the term. If the lease is not by authentic act nor for a specified term, the landlord's claim is limited to the current year and the year next following (see law of I2th Feb.' 1872). The goods of a sub-lessee are protected : and goods bailed or deposited with the tenant are in general not RENTON— REPLEVIN 105 liable to be seized. The French law is in force in Mauritius, and has been reproduced in substance in the Civil Codes of Quebec (arts. 2005 et seq.) and St Lucia (arts. 1888 et seq.). There are analogous provisions in the Spanish Civil Code (art. 1922). The subject of privileges and hypothecs is regulated in Belgium by a special law of the i6th Dec. 1851; and in Germany by ss. 1113 et seq. of the Civil Code. The law of British India as to rent (Transfer and Property Act 1882) and distress (cf., e.g., Act 15 of 1882) is similar to English law. The British dominions generally tend in the same direction. See, e.g.. New South Wales (the consolidating Landlord and Tenant Act 1899); Newfoundland (Act 4 of 1899); Ontario (Act I of 1902, s. 22, giving a tenant five days for tender of rent and expenses after distress); Jamaica (Law 17 of 1900, certification of landlord's bailiffs) ; Queensland (Act 15 of 1904). AUTHORITIES. — English Law: Woodfall, Landlord and Tenant (i8th ed., London, 1907) ; Foa, Landlord and Tenant (Ath ed., London, 1907); Fawcett, Landlord and Tenant (yd ed., London, 1905); Gilbert on Distress and Replevin (London, 1823); Sullen, Law of Distress (2nd ed., London, 1899) ; Oldham and Foster, Law of Distress (2nd ed., London, 1889). Scots Law: Hunter on Landlord and Tenant (4th ed., Edin., 1876) ; Erskine's Principles (2Oth ed., by Rankine, Edin., 1903); Rankine's Law of Landownership in Scot- land (3rd ed., Edin., 1891); Rankine's Law of Leases in Scotland (2nd ed., Edin., 1893). American Law: McAdam, Law of Landlord and Tenant (New York, 1900) ; Bouvier's Law Dictionary (ed. G. Rawle) (London and Boston, 1897), tit. " Distress " in " Ruling Cases"; Landlord and Tenant (American Notes) (London and Boston, 1894-1901). (A. W. R.) RENTON, a manufacturing town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 5067. It is situated on the Leven, 2 m. N.N.W. of Dumbarton by the North British and Caledonian railways. The leading industry is Turkey red dyeing, and calico-printing and bleaching are also carried on. A parish church stands on the site of Dalquhurn House, the birthplace of Tobias Smollett the novelist, to whose memory a- Tuscan column was erected in 1774, the inscription for which was revised by Dr Johnson when he visited Bonhill in that year with Boswell. The town was founded in ^782 by Mrs Smollett — previously Mrs Telfer — of Bonhill (sister of Tobias Smollett), who resumed her maiden name when she succeeded to the Smollett estates; it was named after Cecilia Renton, daughter of John Renton of Blackadder, who had married Mrs Smollett's son, Alexander Telfer. RENWICK, JAMES (1662-1688), Scottish covenanting leader, was born at Moniaive in Dumfriesshire on the isth of February 1662, being the son of a weaver, Andrew Renwick. Educated at Edinburgh University, he joined the section of the Covenanters known as the Cameronians about 1681 and soon became pro- minent among them. Afterwards he studied theology at the university of Groningen and was ordained a minister in 1683. Returning to Scotland " full of zeal and breathing forth threats of organized assassination," says Mr Andrew Lang, he became one of the field-preachers and was declared a rebel by the privy council. He was largely responsible for the " apologetical declaration " of 1684 by which he and his followers disowned the authority of Charles II.; the privy council replied by ordering every one to abjure this declaration on pain of death. Unlike some of his associates, Renwick refused to join the rising under the earl of Argyll in 1685; in 1687, when the declarations of indulgence allowed some liberty of worship to the Presbyterians, he and his followers, often called Renwickites, continued to hold meetings in the fields, which were still illegal. A reward was offered for his capture, and early in 1688 he was seized in Edinburgh. Tried and found guilty of disowning the royal authority and other offences, he refused to apply for a pardon and was hanged on the I7th of February 1688. Ren- wick was the last of the convenanting martyrs. See R. Wodrow, History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scot- land, vol. iv. (Glasgow, 1838); and A. Smellie, Men of the Covenant (1904) ; also Renwick's life by Alexander Shields in the Biographia Presbyteriana (1827). REP, REPP, or REPS, a cloth made of silk, wool or cotton. The name is said to have been adapted from the French reps, a word of unknown origin; it has also been suggested that it is a corruption of " rib." It is woven in fine cords or ribs across the width of the piece. In silk it is used for dresses, and to some extent for ecclesiastical vestments, &c. In wool and cotton it is used for various upholstery purposes. REPAIRS (from Lat. reparare, to make ready again), acts necessary to restore things to a sound state after damage; the question of repairs is important in the relations between landlord and tenant. (See the articles FLAT; LANDLORD AND TENANT.) REPEAL (O.F. rapel, modern rappel, from rapder, rappeler, revoke, re and appeler, appeal), the abrogation, revocation or annulling of a law (see ABROGATION and STATUTE). The word is particularly used in English history of the movement led by Daniel O'Connell (q.v.) for the repeal of the act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland hi 1830 and 1841-46, which in its later development became known as the Nationalist or Home Rule movement (see IRELAND, History). REPIN, ILJA JEFIMOVICH (1844- ), Russian painter, was born in 1844 at Tschuguev in the department of Charkov, the son of parents in straitened circumstances. He learned the rudiments of art under a painter of saints named Bunakov, for three years gaining his living at this humble craft. In 1863 he obtained a studentship at the Academy of Fine Arts of St Petersburg, where he remained for six years, winning the gold medal and a travelling scholarship which enabled him to visit France and Italy. He returned to Russia after a short absence, and devoted himself exclusively to subjects having strong national characteristics. In 1894 he became professor of historical painting at the St Petersburg Academy. Repin's paintings are powerfully drawn, with not a little imagination and with strong dramatic force and characterization. A brilliant colourist, and a portrait-painter of the 'first rank, he also became known as a sculptor and etcher of ability. His chief pictures are " Procession in the Government of Kiev," " Home-coming," " The Arrest," " Ivan the Terrible's murder of his Son," and, best known of all, " The Reply of the Cossacks to Sultan Mahmoud IV." The portraits of the Baroness V. I. Ulskiil, of Anton Rubinstein and of Count Leo Tolstoy are among his best achievements in this class. The Tretiakov gallery at Moscow contains a very large collection of his work. See " Professor Repin," by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevich, in the Magazine of Art, xxiii. p. 783 (1899) ; " Russian Art," a paper by E. Bray ley Hodgetts in the Proceedings of the Anglo-Russian Literary Society (jjjth of May 1896); " Ilja Jefimovich Repin," by Julius Norden, in Velhagen and Klasing's Monatshefte, xx. p. I (1905) ; also R. Muther, History of Modern Painting (ed. 1907), iv. 272. (E. F. S.) REPINGTON (or REPYNGDON), PHILIP (d. 1424), English bishop and cardinal, was educated at Oxford and became an Augustinian canon at Leicester before 1382. A man of some learning, he came to the front as a defender of the doctrines taught by John Wycliffe; for this he Was suspended and after- wards excommunicated, but in a short time he was pardoned and restored by Archbishop William Courtenay, and he appears to have completely abandoned his unorthodox opinions. In 1394 he was made abbot of St Mary de Pre at Leicester, and after the accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399 he became chaplain and confessor to this king, being described as " clericus specialissimus domini regis Henrici." In 1404 he was chosen bishop of Lincoln, and in 1408 Pope Gregory XII. made him a cardinal. He resigned his bishopric in 1419. Some of Repington's sermons are in manuscript at Oxford and at Cambridge. REPLEVIN, an Anglo-French law term (derived from replevir, to replevy; see PLEDGE for further etymology) signifying the recovery by a person of goods unlawfully taken out of his possession by means of a special form of legal process; this falls into two divisions — (i) the " replevy," the steps which the owner takes to secure the physical possession of the goods, by giving security for prosecuting the action and for the return of the goods if the case goes against him, and (2) the " action of replevin " itself. The jurisdiction in the first case is in the County Court; in the second case the Supreme Court has also jurisdiction in certain circumstances. The proceedings are now regulated by the County Courts Act 1888. At common law, the ordinary action for the recovery of goods wrongfully taken would be one of detinue; but no means of immediate recovery xxin. 4 a io6 REPNIN— REPORTING was possible till the action was tried, and until the Common Law Procedure Act 1854 the defendant might exercise an option of paying damages instead of restoring the actual goods. The earliest regulations with regard to the action of replevin are to be found in the Statute of Marlborough (Marlebridge), 1267, cap. 21. For the early history, see Blackstone's Com- mentaries, iii. 145 seq. Only goods and cattle can be the subjects of an action for replevin. Although the action can be brought for the wrongful taking of goods generally, as long as the initial taking was wrongful and it was from the possession of the owner; it is practically confined to goods taken by an illegal as opposed to an excessive distress (see DISTRESS and RENT, § Legal). REPNIN, the name of an old Russian princely family, the first of whom to gain distinction was PRINCE ANIKITA IVANOVICH REPNIN (1668-1726), Russian general, and one of the collaborators of Peter the Great, with whom he grew up. On the occasion of the Sophian insurrection of 1689, he carefully guarded Peter in the Troitsa monastery, and subsequently took part in the Azov expedition, during which he was raised to the grade of general. He took part in all the principal engagements of the Great Northern War. Defeated by Charles XII. at Holowczyn, he was degraded to the ranks, but was pardoned as a reward for his valour at Lyesna and recovered all his lost dignities. At Poltava he commanded the centre. From the Ukraine he was transferred to the Baltic Provinces and was made the first governor-general of Riga after its capture in 1710. In 1724 he succeeded the temporarily disgraced favourite, Menshikov, as war minister. Catherine I. created him a field-marshal. See A. Bauman, Russian Statesmen of the Olden Time (Rus.), vol. i. (Petersburg, 1877). His grandson, PRINCE NIKOLAI VASILEVICH REPNIN (1734- 1801), Russian statesman and general, served under his father, Prince Vasily Anikitovich, during the Rhenish campaign of 1748' and subsequently resided for some time abroad, where he acquired " a thoroughly sound German education." He also participated in the Seven Years' War in a subordinate capacity. Peter III. sent him as ambassador in 1 763 to Berlin. The same year Catherine transferred him to Warsaw as minister pleni- potentiary, with especial instructions to form a Russian party in Poland from among the dissidents, who were to receive equal rights with the Catholics. Repnin convinced himself that the dissidents were too poor and insignificant to be of any real support to Russia, and that the whole agitation in their favour was factitious. At last, indeed, the dissidents themselves even petitioned the empress to leave them alone. It is clear from his correspondence that Repnin, a singularly proud and high- spirited man, much disliked the very dirty work he was called upon to do. -Nevertheless he faithfully obeyed his instructions, and, by means more or less violent or discreditable, forced the diet of 1 768 to concede everything. The immediate result was the Confederation of Bar, which practically destroyed the ambas- sador's handiwork. Repnin resigned his post for the more congenial occupation of fighting the Turks. At the head of an independent command in Moldavia and Walachia, he prevented a large Turkish army from crossing the Pruth (1770); distin- guished himself at the actions of Larga and Kagula; and captured Izmail and Kilia. In 1771 he received the supreme command in Walachia and routed the Turks at Bucharest. A quarrel with the commander-in-chief , Rumyantsev, then induced him to send in his resignation, but in 1774 he participated in the capture of Silistria and in the negotiations which led to the peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji. In 1775-76 he was ambassador at the Porte. On the outbreak of the war of the Bavarian Suc- cession he led 30,000 men to Breslau, and at the subsequent congress of Teschen, where he was Russian plenipotentiary, compelled Austria to make peace with Prussia. During the second Turkish war (1787-92) Repnin was, after Suvarov, the most successful of the Russian commanders. He defeated the Turks at Sakha, captured the whole camp of the seraskier, Hassan Pasha, shut him up in Izmail, and was preparing to reduce the place when he was forbidden to do so by Potemkin (1789^. On the retirement of Potemkin (- employed to express it. The simple idea of the substi- tution of one person for another, in some connexion, e.g. hostage, pledge, victim, is so old as to be only describable as primitive; it is found in the proxy system, e.g. in marriage, and in diplo- macy, the legate or ambassador being the alter ego of his sovereign; but, so far as general political legislative action, by one man in an assembly on behalf of others, is concerned, no systematic employment of a " deputy " (the word still used both in a general sense and in politics as a synonym for "repre- sentative ") is known among the ancients. So long as political power rests in a small privileged class, such an idea must be slow to develop; and the primitive notion of a law-making body is that of all the members present in person, as in ancient Greece. But, as Stubbs (Const. Hist. i. 586) points out, the early English jury system (see JURY) shows the germ of the true idea of representation in England; it was the established practice of electing or selecting juries to present criminal matters before the king's judges, and assessors to levy taxes on the county, that suggested the introduction of popular representation in the English political system, and thus brought " the commons " into play in addition to the Crown and the nobles. Under Henry III., in 1254, we have the writ (see PARLIAMENT) requir- ing the sheriff of each county to " cause to come3 before the King's Council two good and discreet Knights of the Shire, whom the men of the county shall have chosen for this purpose in the stead of all and of each of them, to consider along with knights of other shires what aid they will grant the king." But the definite establishment of the principle of political representa- tion, in a shape from which the later English system of repre- sentation lineally descended, may be traced rather to the year 1295, in Edward I.'s famous writ of summons to parliament, of which the following is the important part. In the volume of Select Documents of English Constitutional History (1901), selected by G. B. Adams and H. M. Stephens, whose version from the Latin we quote, the section is headed (ante-dating the use of the vital word), " Summons of representatives of the counties and boroughs ": — " The king to the sheriff of Northamptonshire. Since we intend to have a consultation and meeting with the earls, barons and other principal men of our kingdom with regard to providing remedies 1 The New English Dictionary, for its first citation of " repre- sentation " in an assembly, quotes Burke, Late St Nat., Works, ii. 138, i.e. in 1769. * No tallage or aid shall be laid or levied by us or our heirs in our realm, without the goodwill and assent of the archbishops, bishops, earls, barons, knights, burgesses and other freemen of our realm.' 1 " Venire facias," not " elegi facias." no REPRESENTATION against the dangers which are in these days threatening the same kingdom: and on that account have commanded them to be with us on the Lord's Day next after the feast of St Martin in the ap- proaching winter, at Westminster, to consider, ordain and dp as may be necessary for the avoidance of these dangers: we strictly require you to cause two knights from the aforesaid county, two citizens from each city in the same county and two burgesses from each borough, of those who are especially discreet and capable of labouring, to be elected without delay, and to cause them to come to us at the aforesaid time and place. Moreover, the said knights are to have full and sufficient power for themselves and for the com- munity of the aforesaid county, and the said citizens and burgesses for themselves and the communities of the aforesaid cities and boroughs separately, then and there, for doing what shall then be ordained according to the Common Council in the premises, so that the aforesaid business shall not remain unfinished in any way for defect of this power. And you shall have there the names of the knights, citizens and burgesses, and this writ." The words " Elegi facias," instead of " venire facias " (which were retained in 1275; see PARLIAMENT), still appear to make the parliament of 1295 the model, rather than that of 1275, though in other respects the latter appears now to have established the summoning of county and borough representatives. In this summoning by the king of the two knights and two burgesses with full and sufficient power for themselves and for Growth ^te communtiy> we find therefore the origin of political ofrepre- representation of the commons, as opposed to the seatatioa actual presence and personal attendance of the peers. '" The older English national assemblies had consisted of the privileged class fully summoned as individuals. The change involved has been well explained by E. A. Freeman (Ency. Brit., gth ed., viii. 297), when he says: " The national assemblies changed their character ... by no cause so much as by the growth of the practice of summons. ... In the great assembly at Salisbury (1086), where all the land- owners of England became the men of the king (William the Conqueror), we see the first germs of Lords and Commons. The Witan are distinguished from the ' land-sitting men.' By the Witan, so called long after the Conquest, we are doubtless to understand those great men of the realm who were usually summoned to every assembly. The vast multitude who came to do their homage to the king were summoned only for that particular occasion. The personal right of summons is the essence of the peerage. . . . The earls and bishops of England, by never losing their right to the personal summons, have kept that right to personal attendance in the national assembly which was once common to ah1 freemen, but which other free- men have lost. The House of Lords represents1 by unbroken succession the Witan of the assembly of Salisbury; that is, it represents by unbroken succession the old assemblies of the Teutonic democracy. . . . The ' land-sitting men,' on the other hand, not summoned personally or regularly, but summoned in a mass when their attendance was specially needed, gradually lost the right of personal attendance, till in the end they gained the more practical right of appearing by their representatives." From the same authority the account of the intermediate stages in the adoption of the representative principle may be further quoted: — " By the time of Henry II. the force of circumstances, especially the working of the practice of summons, had gradually changed the ancient assembly of the whole nation into a mere gathering of the great men of the realm. ... It is in the reign of Richard I. that we begin to see the first faint glimmerings of parliamentary represen- tation. . . . The object of his wise ministers, of Archbishop Hubert among the first, was to gain the greatest amount of money for their master with the least amount of oppression towards the nation. Under Hubert's administration, chosen bodies of knights or other lawful men, acting in characters which became more and more dis- tinctly representative, were summoned for every kind of purpose. How far they were nominated, how far freely elected, is not always clear. It seems most likely that in one stage they were nominated by the sheriff in the county court, while at a later stage they were chosen by the county court itself. In other words, the principle of representation was first established, and then the next stage naturally 'The inevitable use of the word " represent " in its wider sense (" corresponds to "), is worth noting in this passage from Freeman, side by side with the more technical one in " representative " (" chosen delegate "). was that the representatives should be freely chosen. Summoned bodies of knights appear in characters which are the forerunners of grand jurors and of justices of the peace. They appear also in a character which makes them distinctly forerunners of the knights of the shire which were soon to come. A chosen body of knights have to assess the imposts on each shire. From assessing the taxes the next stage was to vote or to refuse them. In 1213 the sheriffs are called on to summon four discreet men from each shire, to come and speak with the king about the affairs of the realm. When we have reached this stage, we have come very near to a parliament, name and thing. The reign of John, in short, is marked by common consent as the time from which Englishmen date the birth of their national freedom in its later form. . , The (Great) Charter (1215) is the first solemn act of the united English nation after Norman conquerors and Norman settlers had become naturalized Englishmen. . . . Representation was already fast growing up; but it had hardly yet reached such a stage that it could be ordained in legal form. But rules are laid down out of which, even if it had not begun already, representation in the strictest sense could not fail shortly to arise. The distinction which had been growing up ever since the Conquest, and indeed before, between the Witan and the land-sitting men, now receives a legal sanction. The practice of summons makes the distinction. Certain great men, prelates, earls and greater barons, are to receive the personal summons. The rest of the king's tenants-in-chief are to be summoned only in a body. Here we have almost come to a separation of Lords and Commons. But in modern ideas those names imply two distinct houses; and it was not yet settled, it had not yet come into men's minds to consider, whether the national council should consist of one house or a dozen. But it is decreed in so many words that the acts of those who came would bind those who stayed away. On such a provision, representation, and not only representation but election of the representatives, follows almost as a matter of course. The mass stay away: a few appear, specially commissioned to act in the name of the rest. The Charter mentions only the king's tenants-in-chief; so far had things been marred or feudalized by the influence of the Conquest. But as the election could only be made in the ancient county court, every freeholder at least, if not every freeman, won back his ancient right. If he could not come himself to say Yea or Nay, he at least had a voice in choosing those who could do so with greater effect." (Ibid. pp. 307, 308.) " The constitution of the (national) assembly, as defined in the Great Charter, did not absolutely imply representation ; but it showed that the full establishment of representation could not be long delayed. The work of the period 1217-1340 was to call up, alongside of the gathering of prelates, earls and other great men specially summoned, into which the ancient Witanagemot had shrunk up, another assembly directly representing all other classes of the nation which enjoyed political rights. This assembly, chosen by various local bodies, communitates or universitates, having a quasi corporate being, came gradually to bear the name of the commons. The knights of the shire, the barons, citizens and burgesses of the towns, were severally chosen by the communa or communitas of that part of the people which they represented." ! " The notion of local representation, by which shires and boroughs chose representatives of their own communities, had to some extent to strive with another doctrine, that of the representation of estates or classes of men. The I3th century was the age when the national assemblies, not only of England but of most other Euro- pean countries, were putting on their definite shape. And in most of them the system of estates prevailed. These in most countries were three, — clergy, nobles and commons. By these last were commonly meant only the communities of the chartered towns, while the noblesse of foreign countries answered to the lesser barons and knights, who in England were reckoned among the commons. The English system thus went far to take in the whole free popula- tion, while the estates of other countries, the commons no less than the clergy and nobles, must be looked on as privileged bodies. In England we had in truth no estates: we had no nobility in the foreign sense. . . . Yet the continental theory of estates so far worked in the development of our parliamentary system that the ' Three Estates of England ' became a familiar phrase. It was meant to denote the lords, the commons and the clergy in their parliamentary character. For it is plain that it was the intention of Edward I. to organize the clergy as a parliamentary estate, alongside of the lords and commons. This scheme failed, mainly through the unwillingness of the clergy themselves to attend in a secular assembly. This left, so far as there were any estates at all, two estates only, — lords and commons. This led to the common 2 Professor Maste/man, lecturing (1908) on the House of Commons, has pointed out how fortunate it was that this beginning of the organization of the communes into a central body did not come earlier than it did. Had there been one assembly representing the local communitates at any earlier time it would have been far too sectional in character and far too little conscious of any common interest. The organization did not begin till England had become a self-conscious body, realizing its common interests and the common destiny that belonged to it as a nation. REPRESENTATION in mistake of fancying the three estates to be king, lords and commons. The ecclesiastical members of the House of Lords kept their seats there; but the parliamentary representation of the clergy as an estate came to nothing. So far as the clergy kept any parliamentary powers, they exercised them in the two provincial convocations. These anomalous assemblies, fluctuating between the character of an ecclesiastical synod and of a parliamentary estate, kept, from Edward I. to Charles II., the parliamentary power of self-taxation. For a long time lords and commons taxed themselves separately. So did the clergy ; so sometimes did other bodies. . . . " During the reign of Henry III. assemblies were constantly held, and their constitution is often vaguely described. But in a great many cases phrases are used which, however vague, imply a popular element. We read of knights, of tenants in chief, of freemen, sometimes even of freemen and villeins, sometimes, more vaguely still, of ' univcrsi,' ' universitas Angliae,' and the like. In some cases we are able better to interpret these vague phrases. For instance, in 1224 each shire sends four knights chosen by the 4 milites et probi homines.' Whether these knights were or were not to vote along with the magnates, they were at all events to transact business with them. We must always remember that in these times formal voting in the modern sense is not to be looked for." l (Ibid. pp. 314, 315.) This summary shows clearly how the idea of " representa- tion " as opposed to " presence in person " was applied to the The English parliament, so as to give the commons a Theory of proper voice in it as well as the lords. It is unnecessary Repre- here to trace further the gradual increase in power of seatation. ^e House of Commons till it became the predominant partner in the English bicameral constitution (see PARLIAMENT). But from the point of view of historical theory it is important to note that its representative character does not essentially depend upon the particular method (election by vole) by which its members have for so long been chosen. It is a common error to regard the House of Commons as having a national authority higher than that of the House of Lords merely on the ground that it is composed of elected members, and to stigmatize the House of Lords as "unrepresentative" because it is not elected. But in strictness the question of election, as such, has nothing to do with the matter.2 The proper distinction (ignoring for the moment the later inclusion in the House of Lords of a certain representative element — strictly so regarded — in the Scotch and Irish peers) is that the House of Lords, as still constituted in 1910, remained a presentative chamber, while the House of Commons was essentially a representative one; in the former the members, summoned personally as individuals, were entitled to speak in the great council of the nation, while in the latter the members were returned as the mouthpieces of whole communi- tates, to whom, in the person of the sheriffs, the summons had been directed to send persons to speak for them.3 The pre- ponderant authority of the House of Commons is due not to its members being elected — that is only one way of settling who the mouthpieces of the commons shall be — but to the progress of 1 " Election " in these early times has its simple meaning of " choice." " We must guard ourselves from supposing that the citizens and burgesses, who were summoned to Parliament, were absolutely elected by the inhabitants of the towns as their repre- sentatives. Their presence in Parliament is another instance of representation without election. They were often nominated by the sheriff of the county, and even when that great officer, from negli- gence or favour, permitted the return to be made by those interested in the transaction, the nomination was confined to the small govern- ing body, who returned two of their members, in general very un- willing missionaries, to the great council " (Disraeli, Vindication of the British Constitution, 1835). 2 In the American federal system the bicameral legislature is divided into a " House of Representatives," composed of members elected by popular vote in each state, and a " Senate," composed of members elected by the legislature in each state. In spite of the nomenclature, both houses are really composed of " representatives." But under a republican system there is no room for a purely pre- sentative assembly, and the term " representative " comes to imply a more direct choice by the " commons." 3 There was at one time, it may be noted, a sort of " representative " element even in the case of the House of Lords, in so far as peers (including peeresses in their own right, abbesses, &c.) could send deputies or proxies. But it must be remembered that the privilege flowed directly from the personal and presentative character of the summons to a peer, who as such could name a deputy. It is quite illegitimate to strain from it an analogy with the election of a repre- sentative by the commons, who had no personal right to a summons. popular government. The two British houses have historically existed as assemblies of the separate estates of the realm— the House of Lords of the two estates of lords spiritual and temporal, and the House of Commons of the commons. The third estate has so increased in power as to become predominant in the country; but the authority of its own assembly simply depends on the powers of those it represents. If the balance of political power had not been shifted in the country itself, the authority and competence of the peers, speaking for themselves in a primary assembly, would in theory actually appear higher, so far as their order is concerned, than that of members of the House of Commons, who can only " represent " the popular constituencies. Moreover, the fact that most members of the House of Commons are elected by a party vote is apt to make them very often even less authoritative spokesmen of their constituencies — the communitates — than if they were selected by some method which would indicate that they had the full confidence of the whole body they " represent." It is notorious that many members of a modern House of Commons, or of any other " representative " assembly, have only been elected by the votes of a minority of their constituency, or (where there have been more than two candidates) a minority even of those who voted; and there always comes a time when it is certain that if a representative has to come again before the electorate for their votes he will be defeated; he, in fact, no longer reflects their views, while he still sits and legislates. The real desires of the commons in a certain British constituency may even be more faithfully, even if only accidentally, reflected by a local peer whose only right to speak in parliament is technically presentative. In his Vindication of the British Constitution (1835), Disraeli, writing of the Reform Bill of 1832, observed that " in the effort to get rid of representation without election, it will be well if eventually we do not discover that we have only obtained election without representation." A truer word was never spoken. A man may be representative, practically consensu omnium, although no vote, resulting from a division of opinion, has been taken for the purpose of selecting him. The vote is merely a method of selection when there is a definite division of opinion involving an uncertainty; and even in the modern House of Commons many members are returned " un- opposed," no actual voting taking place. A well-recognized representative character (as regards the functions involved) attaches, for instance, in British public life to other persons in whose selection the method of popular voting has had no place; such as the king himself, the Cabinet (in relation to the political party in power), or the bishops (as regards the Church of England). The question of remodelling the constitution of the British House of Lords was prominently before the country in 1910 ; and a large number even of those who were prepared to Thf defend its actions in the past were ready to accept British changes which would make it in form and composi- Houses tion a Second Chamber representative of the nation ofPariia- rather than presentative of its historic order. But it is important to remember, in connexion with the House of Lords question, that, in a country like England, where the con- stitution has provided for a Second Chamber which is composed of members of an estate or estates distinct in the nation from the estate of the commons, these persons may to a predominant degree nevertheless be really representative men by common consent; while their being so, though not theoretically the reason for their legislative power, is substantially the reason why it has so long persisted. In the absence of a written constitution, theoretical considerations have in England always been second to the force of circumstances. Most people regarded the House of Lords, as still unreformed in 1910, as purely a hereditary body; its members had been summoned to parliament as peers (the important question of their right to a summons need not here be discussed), and most peers enjoyed their titles by hereditary succession. But the constant creation of peers by both political parties had in fact introduced even into the constitution of the House of Lords 112 REPRESENTATION an essentially representative element (though not resulting from direct election), apart altogether from the fact that heredity maintained there a number of persons whose title had des- cended from men who were originally representative Englishmen, and whose successors, on the whole, were no less so. In the days when kings really governed in England, the most powerful check on the king, in the interest of the nation at large, was the peerage; the earls and barons, in parliament, were the chief bulwark of the people against tyranny. It was they who stood for the nation in extorting Magna Carta from King John; and as time went on, the representation of the commons in parliament was largely due, not to any direct popular pressure, but to the desire of the kings to influence the lower ranks of society independently of the nobles. Up to the reign of Charles I., at all events, the House of Lords was actually the predominant partner in parliament; the House of Commons was recruited from and returned by only a smaE section of the commons as now understood; and Oliver Cromwell — certainly a " popular " leader in the ordinary sense — made as short work of it as he did of the king himself. Up to 1832, when the first modern Reform Act was passed, the House of Commons was an oli- garchical body, and the electors themselves were a small and privileged class. It is only since then — except in the granting of supplies — that first equality, and then predominance, in respect of the House of Lords, has been asserted by the House of Commons, owing to the fact that an extended suffrage has made the estate of the commons more adequately coincident with the nation as a whole. Prior to 1832 it was the king who directly made and unmade ministries; in 1835 for the first time the result of a general election caused a change of ministry; and the modern view of the House of Lords as purely a revising chamber dates only from then. But the very fact that the responsibility for creating new peerages now passed to ministers dependent on popular suffrage may well justify the contention that hence- forth it indirectly included a select number of representative men of the nation, holding their seats in virtue of authoritative nomination and not by heredity. In the sixty years preceding 1906 no fewer than 419 new peerages were created, 238 by the Liberal party, 1 8 1 by the Conservative, or a balance of 5 7 creations on the Liberal side.1 It is fair to assume that all these new peers were created as being representative men in the nation for one reason or another. And an analysis of the composition of the House of Lords in 1906 would have led an unprejudiced outside observer to suppose that its competence to speak on national affairs had not been ' weakened by any dependence on the hereditary title. It included 166 men who had been M.P.'s (i.e. had been elected by popular vote to the House of Commons) , 172 who had held government office, 140 who had been mayors of county councils, 207 who had served in the army or navy, 40 who had been judges or lawyers, 7 ex- viceroys, 16 ex- governors of colonies, 50 who had been eminent in art, letters, manufactures or trade, and 21 archbishops or bishops (appointed by ministerial recommendation, but only after they had worked up to eminence from being curates, and therefore had wide experience of the social life of the people). It is possible to compare a chamber so composed some- what favourably with a modern House of Commons, if the point at issue — the provision of " representative men " (i.e. men generally accepted as national spokesmen) — be strictly considered, apart from the method of selecting them by direct popular vote.2 In the House of Lords the method is heredity plus selection by the political party which the popular vote has put in power; while in the election of members of the House ' l Between January 1906 and January 1910 thirty-five more new peers were created by Liberal premiers, and seven more in June 1910. 'Speaking at Oldham on December 15, 1909, Lord Curzon said: I have taken out the figures of the past 200 years, and I tell you this, that during that time 41 of our prime ministers have sat in the Lords and only 17 in the Commons; of our foreign secretaries, 56 in the Lords and only 8 in the Commons; of our colonial secretaries, 46 in the Lords and 25 in the Commons; of our war ministers, 29 in the Lords and 31 in the Commons; of first lords of the Admiralty, 48 in the Lords and_28 in the Commons." of Commons the popular choice is doubly limited — first, by the fact that only the enfranchised commons can vote (in 1910 about 7^ millions out of 43); and secondly, because the choice must be made from among candidates who are themselves not disqualified for various reasons (for instance they must not be clergymen, nor entitled to seats in the House of Lords). Now, to carry out the real " will of the nation " in parliament must require (i) a reasonable knowledge of the wishes of the nation, and (2) an understanding of the best ways of expressing those wishes in legislation and adminis- tration. In the case of the peers, those who sit as having been originally created and therefore selected for the purpose — a considerable section of those actively attending — the quali- fications are obvious: and it is only necessary to deal with those qualified by inheritance of title. Here too, in a number of cases, preceding experience in the House of Commons, to which the popular vote has returned them while they were only in the succession to a peerage, is a frequent factor; but, apart from that, the art of legislation is one which may well be con- sidered to require a certain special disposition and mental equipment. Though allowance must be made for exceptional cases, it is obvious that the son of a man who has been respon- sible for legislating, who has himself been brought up as one who will have to take his part in legislating, is most likely, .hi any society, to have qualified himself for the business, as in the case of any profession or trade. He has been accustomed to breathe the parliamentary atmosphere, and as one of a leisured class has had the opportunity to study the subject of legislation, and to obtain experience of its conditions. This is so generally accepted that, hi fact, the same theory is com- monly applied to candidates for the House of Commons, and predominantly to members of that House who are given office. The names of more than one generation are writ large in English history in the case of the Pitts, Foxes, Grenvilles, Cannings, Cecils, Stanleys and Cavendishes. The sons of famous political commoners, a Gladstone, a Harcourt, a Churchill, a Primrose, a Chamberlain, have by consent a superior claim, even within the radical or popular party, by no means resting originally- or primarily on known personal merit or proved experience, for selection as candidates and then for preferment to office; and it is a very common occurrence for younger sons of peers to be selected as candidates (liberal as much as conservative) for parliament, even though from general intellectual considera- tions they may appear in no way the equals of other men. They have been brought up to the business; and they are therefore adapted for it by heredity. If the House of Commons were deprived of those members who obtained their seats or their offices primarily for reasons of heredity, it would lose many of its best men — as indeed it occasionally does, to its disadvantage and possibly to the chagrin of the individuals themselves, when succession to a peerage forces a prominent parliamentarian to relinquish his seat in the Lower House and to take his place in the " unrepresentative " chamber. It remains nevertheless the fact that, in politics, " repre- sentative " government means not so much government by men really representative of the nation as government in Expres. the name of the whole body of citizens (and predomi- s/oa of nantly the estate of the commons) through a chamber the " will or chambers composed of elected deputies. The £^*£ „ object in view is the expression of the " will of the people " — the people, that is, who are sovereign. Clearly the only pure case of such government can be in a republic, where there is only one " estate," the free citizens. The home and historical type of representative government, the United Kingdom, is strictly no such case, since the monarchy and the House of Lords exist and work on lines constitutionally independent of any direct contact with the electorate. British practice, however, is of vital importance for the theory of repre- sentative institutions, and it is worth while to point out that the " will of the people " may even so be effectively expressed — some people may think even more effectively expressed than in a pure republic. The king and the House of Lords, quA REPRESENTATION estates of the realm, are just as much part of " the people," in the widest sense, as " the commons " are; they are an integral part of the nation. In a republic they would as individuals be equal citizens, able to become candidates for the representative chamber or chambers; but as it is, since they are expressly debarred from taking part in elections to the House of Commons, they remain entitled and expected to use their historic method of playing a part in the government of the state. They assist to constitute " the people " in the wider sense, and in the narrower sense " the people " (i.e. the commons) know it and rely on it. • Under the British constitution the commons have habitually relied on the monarchy and the House of Lords to play their part in the state, and on many occasions it has been proved, by various methods by which it is open to the commons themselves to show their real feeling, that action on the part of the monarch (e.g. in foreign affairs) or the House of Lords (in rejecting or modifying bills sent up by the House of Commons), in which a popular vote has played no initiating or controlling part, is welcomed and ratified, by consent of a large majority, on the part of the nation at large. So much is this so that it is notorious, in the case of the House of Lords, that elected members of the House of Commons, tied by purely party allegiance and pledges, have constantly voted for a measure they did not want to see passed, relying on the House of Lords to throw it out. Ultimately, no doubt, the reconciliation of this " presentative " element in the British form of constitution with the -growth of democracy and the predominance of the " representative " system depends purely on the waiving of historical theory both by king and peers, and its adaptation to the fact of popular government through the recognition that their action rests for its efficient authority upon conformity with the " will of the people." Thus it has become an established maxim in England that while it is the proper function of the House of Lords to reject a measure which in their opinion is not in accordance with the wishes of the nation, they could not repeat such a rejection after a general election had shown that its authors in the House of Commons were supported by the country. The experience of politics from 183210 1910 gave abundant justification to the House of Lords for supposing that in such cases they were interpreting the desire of the country better than the House of Commons; the case of the Irish Home Rule bill of 1893 is, of course, the classical example.1 So that in practice the House of Lords only acts in opposition to the House of Commons, subject to the remedy of a dissolution of parliament (which depends strictly on the prerogative of the Crown, but in practice on the advice of the leader of the majority in the House of Commons) , at which the view of the House of Commons might be confirmed and reasserted, and in that case would prevail. The violent attacks made on the House of Lords by the Liberal party, on occasions when that party has had a majority in the commons and has had its measures rejected or distastefully amended, have always been open to the criticism that if the majority in the House of Commons were really supported by the electorate in the country they had the remedy in their own hands. If it were shown by the result of a general election that their defeated measure were the " will of the people," the House of Lords, as was generally understood, must give way. Such a position, though naturally objectionable to a party in power in the House of Commons (because general elections are uncertain things in every respect but that of trouble and expense), could clearly be strong only in view of the confidence of the House of Lords in its action being more truly representative of public opinion. It therefore must be said to have acted, however clumsily and indirectly — and no direct way would be feasible except that of the Referendum — as a " representative " body, i.e. as carrying out what it judged to be the national will and not merely the will of the peers, although not constituted as 1 The result of the general election of January 1910, following on the rejection of the Budget by the House of Lords, cannot properly be said to show anything to the contrary. It was notorious that there was no genuine majority in the new House of Commons for the Budget, and that the Irish Nationalists only voted for it as part of an arrangement for ulterior purposes. such in the narrower sense. In practice, and in accordance with this view, it has on more than one occasion (e.g. in the case of the Trades Disputes Act of 1906) accepted and passed measures which it was notorious, and indeed avowed, that the peers themselves regarded as bad. The immense extension of the " representative principle " in government, by means of popular election, and its adaptation to municipal as well as national councils, has in recent times resulted in attracting much attention to the ^/ multicellular plant the products of division remain coherent, and add to the number of the cells of which the plant consists, in a unicellular plant they separate and constitute new individuals. In more highly organized plants vegetative propagation may be effected by the separation of the different parts of the body from each other, each such part developing the missing members and thus constituting a new individual. This takes place spontaneously in rhizomatous plants, in which the main stem gradually dies away from behind forwards; the lateral branches thus become isolated and constitute new individuals. The remarkable regenerative capacity of plant-members is largely made use of for the artificial propagation of plants. A branch removed from a parent-plant will, under appropriate conditions, develop roots, and so constitute a new plant; this is the theory of propagation by " cuttings." A portion of a root will similarly develop one or more shoots, and thus give rise to a new plant. An isolated leaf will, in many cases, produce a shoot and a root, that is, a new plant; it is in this way that new begonias, for instance, are propagated. The production of plants from leaves occurs also in nature, as, for instance, in certain so-called " viviparous " plants, of which Bryophyllum calycinum (Crassulaceae) and many ferns [Nephrodium (Laslraea) Filix-mas, Asplenium (Athyrium) Filix-foemina and other species of Asplenium] are examples. But it is in the mosses, Of all plants, that the capacity for vegetative propagation is most widely diffused. Any part of a moss, whether it be the stem, the leaves, the rhizoids, or the sporogonium, is capable, under appropriate conditions, of giving rise to filamentous protonema, on which new moss-plants are then developed as lateral buds. In a large number of plants provision is made for vegetative propagation by the development of more or less highly specialized organs. In lichens, for instance, there are the soredia, which are minute buds of the thallus containing both algal and fungal elements; these are set free on the surface in large numbers, and each grows into a thallus. In the Characeae there are the bulbils or " starch-stars " of Char a stelligera, which are under- ground nodes, and the branches with naked base and the pro- embryonic branches found by Pringsheim on old nodes of Chara fragilis. In the mosses small tuberous bulbils frequently occur •on the rhizoids, and in many instances (Bryum annotinum, Aulacomnion androgynum, Tetraphis pellucida, &c.) stalked fusiform or lenticular multicellular bodies containing chlorophyll, termed gemmae, are produced on the shoots, either in the axils of the leaves or in special receptacles at the summit of the stem. "Gemmae of this kind are produced in vast numbers in Marchantia and Lumdaria among the liverworts. Similar gemmae are also produced by the prothallia of ferns. In some ferns (e.g. Nephro- lepis tuberosa and undulata) the buds borne on the leaves or in their axils become swollen and filled with nutritive materials, constituting bulbils which fall off and give rise to new plants. This conversion of buds into bulbils, which subserve vegetative multiplication, occurs also occasionally among Phanerogams, as for instance in Lilium bulbiferum, species of Poa, Polygonum viviparum, &c. But many other adaptations of the same kind occur among Phanerogams. Bulbous plants, for instance, produce each year at least one bulb or corm from which a new plant is produced in the succeeding year. In the potato, tubers are developed from subterranean snoots, each of which in the following year gives rise to a new individual. In the dahlia, Thladiantha dubia, &c., tuberous swellings are found on the roots, from each of which a new individual may spring. II. True Reproduction. This is effected by cells formed by the proper reproductive organs. These cells are of two principal kinds. There are, first, those cells each of which is capable of developing by itself into a new organism: these are the asexual reproductive cells, known generally as spores. Secondly, there are the cells which are incapable of independent germination; it is not until these cells have fused together in pairs that a new organism can be developed: these are the sexual reproductive cells or gametes. In some exceptional cases the normal mode of reproduction, sexual or asexual, does not take place: instead, the new organism is developed vegetatively from the parent. When sexual reproduction is suppressed the case is one of apogamy; when asexual reproduction by spores is suppressed the case is one of apospory. (Apogamy and apospory are discussed below in the section on Abnormalities of Reproduction.) Asexual Reproduction. — Reproduction by means of some kind of spore (using the term in its widest sense, so as to include all asexually produced reproductive cells) is common to nearly all families of plants; it is wanting in certain Algae (Conjugatae, Fucaceae, Characeae), and in certain fungi (e.g. some Perono- sporeae). The structure of a spore is essentially this: it consists of a nucleated mass of protoplasm, enclosing, starch or oil as re- serve nutritive material, usually invested by a cell-wall. In those cases in which the spore is capable of germinating immediately on its development the cell-wall is a single delicate membrane consisting of cellulose; but in those cases in which the spore may or must pass through a period of quiescence before germina- tion the wall becomes thickened and may consist of two layers, an inner, the endospore, which is delicate and consists of cellulose, and an outer, the exospore, which is thick and rigid, frequently darkly coloured and beset externally with spines or bosses, and which consists of cutin. In some few cases among the fungi, multicellular or septate spores are produced; these approximate somewhat to the gemmae mentioned above as highly specialized organs for vegetative propagation. In some cases, particularly among the algae, and also in some fungi (Peronosporeae, Saprolegnieae, Chytridiaceae, and the Myxomycetes), spores are produced which are usually destitute of any cell-wall, and are further peculiar in that they are motile, and are therefore termed zoospores; they move sometimes in an amoeboid manner by the protrusion of pseudopodia, but more frequently they are provided with one, two, or many delicate vibratile protoplasmic filaments, termed cilia, by the lashing of which the spore is propelled through the water. The zoospore eventually comes to rest, withdraws its cilia, surrounds itself with a cell-wall, and then germinates. In the simplest case a single spore is developed from the cell of the unicellular plant, the protoplasm of which surrounds itself with the characteristic thick wall. This occurs only in plants of low organization such as the Schizophyta. In other cases the contents of the cell undergo division, each portion of the protoplasm constituting a spore. Examples of this are afforded, among unicellular plants, by yeast and the Protococcaceae; and in multicellular plants by the Pandorineae, Confervaceae, Ulvaceae, &c., where any cell of the body may produce spores. In such cases the spore-producing cell may be regarded as a rudimentary reproductive organ of the nature of a sporangium. In more highly organized plants special organs are differentiated for the production of spores. In the majority of cases the special organ is a sporangium, that is, a capsule in the interior of which the spores are developed; but in many fungi the spores are formed by abstriction from an organ termed a sporophore. In the Thallophyta the sporangium is commonly a single cell. In the Bryophyta it is a multicellular capsule. In the Pteridophyta the sporangium is mullicellular, but simple in structure, and this is true also of the Phanerogams. 122 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS It is important to note that in all the Bryophyta and in some of the Pteridophyta (most of the Filicinae, all existing Equisetinae, and the Lycopodiaceae and Psilotaceae) there is but one kind of sporangium and spore, the plants being homo- sporous or isosporous, whereas the rest of the Pteridophyta (Hydropterideae, Selaginellaceae) and the Phanerogams are heterosporous, having sporangia of two kinds; some produce one or a few large spores (megaspores), and are hence termed mega- sporangia, while others give rise to a larger number of small spores (microspores) and are hence termed microsporangia. In the Phanerogams the two kinds of sporangia have received special names: the megasporangium, which produces as a rule only one mature spore (embryo-sac), is termed the ovule; the microsporangium, which produces a large number of micro- spores (pollen-grains), is termed the pollen-sac. The development of spores, except in the simpler Thallophyta, is more or less restricted to definite parts of the body. Thus in the Red Algae (Florideae) there are the organs known as stichidia, nemathecia. In the fungi the number and variety of such organs is very great; they may be described generally as simple and compound sporophorcs: but for a description the article FUNGI should be consulted. In the higher plants the organs are less various. In the Bryophyta the production of spores is restricted to the sporogonium. In the vascular plants (Pteridophyta, Phanerogams) the development of sporangia, speaking generally, is confined to the leaves. In most ferns the sporangiferous leaves (sporophylls) do not differ in appearance from the foliage leaves; but in other Pteridophyta (Equisetaceae, Marsiliaceae, some species of Lycopodium and Selaginella) they present considerable adaptation, and notably in the Phanero- gams. In the Phanerogams the specialization is so great that the sporophylls have received special names; those which bear the microsporangia (pollen-sacs) are termed the stamens, and those which bear the megasporangia (ovules) are termed the carpels. The sporophylls are usually aggregated together on a short stem, forming a shoot that constitutes a flower. Many terms are employed to indicate the nature of the various kinds of spores, especially among the fungi, but the endless varieties of asexual (and asexually produced) reproductive cells may be grouped under two heads — (i) Gonidia, (2) Spores proper. The distinction between these two kinds of asexual repro- ductive cells is as fellows. The gonidium is a reproductive cell that gives rise, on germina- tion, to an organism resembling the parent. For instance, among the algae, the " zoospore " of Vaucheria develops into a Vaucheria-plant. There is thus a close connexion between vegetative multiplication and multiplication by means of gonida. The production of gonida is entirely limited to the Thallophyta, and is especially marked in the fungi, though the nature of all the many kinds of reproductive cells formed in this group has not yet been fully investigated. It is, however, wanting in certain algae (Conjugatae, Fucaceae, Characeae) and fungi (some Peronosporeae and Ascomycetes). The spore proper is a reproductive cell that as a rule gives rise, on germination, to an organism unlike that which produced it. For instance, the spore of a fern when it germinates gives rise, not to a fern-plant, but to a prothallium. The apparent exceptions to this rule occur only among the Thallophyta, and are explained below in the section on Life-history. The true spore is developed, usually in a sporangium, after a process of division which presents certain features that call for special notice. Observation of the process of division of the nucleus (karyo- kinesis) in plants generally has shown (for details see CYTOLOGY) that the linin-reticulum of the resting nucleus breaks up into a definite number of segments, the chromosomes, each of which bears a series of minute bodies, the chromalin-disks or chroma- meres, consisting largely of a substance termed chromatin. In the ordinary homotype divisions of the nuclei the characteristic number of chromosomes is always observable: but when the spore-mother-cells are being formed the number of chromosomes is reduced to one-half. This, if the number of chromosomes of the parent plant be expressed as 2X the number in the spore will be x. To take a concrete case: it has been observed by Guignard and others that in the early divisions taking place in the developing anther and ovule of the lily the number of chromosomes is 24; whereas in the later divisions which give rise to the pollen-mother-cells in the one case and to the mother- cell of the embryo-sac in the other, the number of chromosomes is only 12. Thus the development of a spore (as distinguished from a gonidium) is always preceded by a reducing- or heterotype- division, a process now more generally termed meiosis (Farmer). The reduced number of chromosomes in the nucleus of the spore-mother-cell persists in the spore, and in all the cells of the organism to which the spore may give rise. (Meiosis is discussed below in the section on Sexual Reproduction.) It should be explained that cells, to which the name " spore " has also been applied, are formed as the result of a sexual act: such are zygospores, oospores, and some carpospores. But these cells differ from spores proper not only in their mode of origin but also in that their nuclei contain the full double number (2*) of chromosomes; hence they may be distinguished as diplospores. Sexual Reproduction. — Sexual reproduction involves the development of sexual organs (gametangia) and sexual cells (gametes). When the organism is unicellular, as in the lower Green Algae (e.g. Protococcaceae, Conjugatae), the cell becomes a sexual organ and its whole protoplasm gives rise to one or more sexual cells: in the higher forms certain parts of the body are specialized as sexual organs. In many of the lower plants the organs present no external distinction of sex (e.g. lower Green Algae: the Chytridiaceae, Mucorinae, and some Ascomycetes among the fungi): it is impossible to distinguish between the male and female organs, although it cannot be doubted that the essential physiological difference exists; consequently the organs are merely described as gametangia. The gap between these plants and those with differentiated sexual organs is, however, bridged over by intermediate forms, as explained in the article ALGAE. When the sexual organs are more or less obviously differ- entiated into male and female, they present considerable variety of form in different groups of plants, and accordingly bear different names. Thus the male organ is a pollinodium in most of the fungi, a spermogonium in others (certain Ascomycetes, Uredineae) ; in all other plants it is an antheridium. Similarly the female organ is an oogonium in various Thallophyta (Green and Brown Algae: Oomycetous Fungi); a procarp in the Red Algae; an archicarp in certain Ascomycetous Fungi and in the Uredineae; an archegonium in all the higher plants. It is generally the case that the protoplasm of the sexual organ is differentiated into one or more sexual cells. Thus the game- tangium usually gives rise to cells which, as they are externally similar, are termed isogametes or simply gametes. Certain forms of the male organ, the spermogonium and the antheridium, give rise to male cells which are termed spermatia when they are non- ciliate, spermatozoids when they are ciliated and free-swimming. Again, the female organs termed oogonia and archegonia produce one or more female cells called oospheres. But there are im- portant exceptions to this rule. Thus the protoplasm is not differentiated into cells in the gametangium of the Mucorinae; in the male organ (pollinodium), of fungi generally; and in the female organ (procarp) of the Red Algae and (archicarp) of the Ascomycetes and Uredineae. The immediate product of the fusion of cells, or of undifferenti- ated protoplasm, derived from sexual organs of opposite sex may be generally termed the zygote; but it is not always of the same kind. Thus when two isogametes, or the undifferentiated contents of two gametangia, fuse together, the process is desig- nated conjugation, and the product is usually a single cell termed zygospore. When an oosphere fuses with a male cell, or with the undifferentiated contents of a male organ, the process is fertilization, and the product is a single cell termed oospore. When, finally, a female organ with undifferentiated contents receives a male cell, the process again is fertilization; here the PLANTS] REPRODUCTION 123 product is not a single cell, but a fructification termed cystocarp (Red Algae), or ascocarp (Ascomycetes) or aecidium (Uredineae), containing many spores (carpospores). As a consequence of the diversity in the sexual organs and cells, in the details of the sexual act, and in the product of it, several modes of the sexual process have to be distinguished, which may be conveniently summarized as follows: — I. Isogamy: the sexual process consists in the fusion of either two similar sexual cells (isogametes) , or two similar sexual organs (gametangia) : it is termed conjugation, and the product is a zygospore. Its varieties are: — (a) Gametes ciliated and free-swimming (planogametes), set free into the water where they meet and fuse: lower Green Algae (Protococcaceae, Pandorineae, most Siphonaceae and Confervaceae) ; some Brown Algae (Phaeo- sporeae) : (b) Gametangia fuse in pairs, and a gamete is differentiated in each: the gametes of each pair fuse, but are not set free and are not ciliated (the Conjugate Green Algae) : or, no gametes are differentiated, the undifferentiated con- tents of the gametangia fusing (Mucorinae among the Fungi). II. Ooeamy: male and female organs distinct: the protoplasm of the female organ is differentiated into one or (rarely) more oospheres which usually remain enclosed in the female organ: the contents of the male organ are usually differentiated into one or more male cells: the process is fertilization, the product is an oospore. (A) The sexual organs arc unicellular (or coenocytic as in certain Siphonaceous Green Algae and in the Oomycetous Fungi) ; the female organ is an oogonium. (a) The male organ is an antheridium giving rise to one or more free-swimming ciliated spermatozoids : (1) The oogonium contains a single oosphere which is fertilized in situ: higher Green Algae (Volvox, Vaucheria, Oedogonium, Coleochaete, Characeae) ; some Brown Algae (Tilopteris); among the Fungi, Monoblepharis, the only fungus known to have spermatozoids : (2) The oogonium produces a single oosphere which is extruded and is fertilized in the water : Dictyota and some Fucaceae (Brown Algae) : (3) The oogonium contains several oospheres which are fertilized in situ : Sphaeroplea (Siphonaceous Green Alga) : (4) The oogonium produces more than one oosphere (2-8) which are extruded and are fertilized in the water: certain Brown Algae (Pelvetia, Ascophyllum, Fucus): (0) The male organ is a pollinodium which applies itself closely to the oogonium: the amorphous male cell is not ciliated and is not set free: (1) The oogonium contains a single oosphere which is fertilized in situ : Peronosporaceae (Oomycetes) : (2) The oogonium contains several oospheres; Saprolegnia- ceae: but it is debated whether or not fertilization actually takes place. (B) The male and female organs are (as a rule) multicellular; the male organ is an antheridium, the female an archegonium: the archegonium always contains a single oosphere which is fertilized in situ. (a) The male cell is a free-swimming ciliated spermatozoid : the antheridium produces more than one (usually very many) spermatozoids, each of which is developed in a single cell: all Bryophyta (mosses, &c.) and Pterido- phyta (ferns, &c.): the only Phanerogams in which spermatozoids have been observed are the gymno- spermpus species Ginkgo biloba, Cycas revoluta, Zamia integrifolia. 03) The male cell is amorphous and passes directly from the pollen-tube into the oosphere (siphonogamy) : all Phanero- gams except the species just mentioned. It must be explained that in the angiospermous Phanerogams, the male and female organs are so reduced that each is represented by only a single cell: the male, by the generative cell, formed in the pollen-grain, which usually divides into two male cells: the female, by the oosphere. The gradual reduction can be traced through the Gymnosperms. Attention may here be drawn to the fact (see ANGIOSPERMS) that, in several cases, the second male cell has been seen to enter the embryo-sac from the pollen-tube, and its nucleus to fuse with the definitive nucleus (endosperm-nucleus) or with one of the polar nuclei. The significance of this remarkable observation is dis- cussed in the section on the Physiology of Reproduction. III. Carpogamy: the sexual organs are (as a rule) differentiated into male and female: the protoplasm of the unicellular or multi- cellular female organ (archicarp, procarp) is never differentiated into an oosphere: in many cases definite male cells, spermatia, are produced and are set free, but they are not ciliated, and fre- quently have a cell-wall : the process is fertilization : the product is a fructification derived essentially from the female organ con- taining several (sometimes very many) spores (carpospores): characteristic of the Red Algae and of the Ascomycetous Fungi. (A) There are definite male cells (spermatia) : (a) The female organ is a procarp, consisting of an elongated, closed, receptive filament, the trichogyne, and of a basal fertile portion, the carpogonium: on fertilization the latter grows and gives rise directly or indirectly to a cysto- carp: the spermatia are each formed in a unicellular antheridium and have no cell-wall at first : they fuse with the tip of the trichogyne : Red Algae (Rhodopnyceac or Florideae) : 03) The female organ (archicarp) resembles the preceding : in fertilization the fertile portion (ascogonium) develops into an ascocarp containing one or more asci (sporangia) each containing usually eight ascospores: the spermatia are formed by abstriction from the filaments (sterigmata) lining special receptacles, the spermogonia, which are the male organs: certain Ascomycetous Fungi (e.g. Laboul- beniaceae, some Lichen-Fungi, Polystigma). For the Uredineae, see Abnormalities of Reproduction, below). (B) There are no definite male cells: the more or less distinct male and female organs come into contact, and their undiffer- entiated contents fuse: the product is an ascocarp: (a) The male and female organs are obviously different : the female organ is an ascogonium, the male a pollinodium: e.g. Pyronema, Sphaerotheca (Ascomycetes) : 03) The male and female organs are quite similar : e.g. Eremas- cus, Dipodascus (Ascomycetes). It may be explained that carpogamy is the expression of sexual degeneration. In the cases last mentioned, when the sexual organs are quite similar, they have reverted to the condition of gametangia. Still further reduction is observable in other Ascomycetes in which one of the sexual organs, presumably the male, is either much reduced or is altogether wanting. Again in the 'rusts (Uredineae), there are spermatia, but they are functionless (see section on Abnormalities of Reproduction). In the highest Fungi, the Auto- basidiomycetes, no sexual organs have been discovered. Details of the Sexual Act. — It has been already stated that the sexual act consists in the fusion of two masses of protoplasm, commonly cells, derived from two organs of opposite sex:" but this is only the first stage in the process. The second stage is the fusion of the nuclei, which usually follows quickly upon the fusion of the cells; but nuclear fusion may be postponed so that the two sexual nuclei may be observed in the zygote, as " conjugate " nuclei, and even in the cells of the organism developed from the zygote (e.g. Uredineae). The result of nuclear fusion is that the nucleus of the zygote contains the double number of chromo- somes— that is, if the number of chromosomes in each of the fusing sexual nuclei be x, the number in the nucleus of the zygote will be 2X. Moreover, this double number persists in all the cells of the organism developed from the zygote, until it is reduced to one-half by meiosis preceding either the development of the spores, or, less commonly, the development of the sexual cells. But there is yet a third stage, which consists in the temporary fusion of the chromosomes belonging to the two sexual nuclei. This always takes place as a preliminary to meiosis; it may be in the germinating zygote, or after many generations of cells have been formed from it. At the onset of meiosis the (2*) chromosomes are seen to be double, one of each pair having been derived from the male and the female cell respectively: the chromosomes of each pair then fuse so that their chromomeres unite along their length, constituting the pseudo-chromosomes. The paired chromosomes separate and eventually go to form the two daughter-nuclei, one to each, which thus have half (x) the original number of chromosomes. The daughter-nuclei at once divide homotypically, retaining the reduced (x) number of chromosomes to form the four nuclei of a tetrad of spores (more rarely, e.g. Fucus, of sexual cells). III. Life-history. It will have been gathered from the foregoing sections that plants generally are capable of both sexual and asexual repro- duction; and, further, that in different stages of their life-history they possess the diploid (2*) number of chromosomes in their nuclei, or the haploid (x) number. It may be at once stated that, in all plants in which sexual reproduction and true meiotic spore-formation exist, these two modes of reproduction are restricted to distinct forms of the plant; the sexual form bears only the sexual organs and is haploid; the asexual form only 124 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS produces spores and is diploid. Hence all such plants are to this extent polymorphic — that is, the plant assumes these two forms in the course of its life-history. When, as in many Thallophyta, one or other of these forms can reproduce itself by means of gonidia, additional forms may be introduced into the life; history, which becomes the more complicated the more pro- nounced the polymorphism. The most straightforward life-histories are those presented by the Bryophyta and the Pteridophyta, where there are but the two forms, the sexual and the asexual. In the life-history of a moss, the plant itself bears only sexual organs: it is the sexual form, and is distinguished as the gametophyte. The zygote (oospore) formed in the sexual act develops into an organism, the sporogonium, which is entirely asexual, producing only spores: it is distinguished as the sporophyte. When these spores germ- inate, they give rise to moss-plants. Thus the two forms, the sexual and the asexual, regularly alternate with each other — that is, the life-history presents that simple form of poly- morphism which is known as alternation of generations. Simi- larly, in the life-history of a fern, there is a regular alternation of a sporophyte, which is the fern-plant itself, with a gametophyte, which is the fern-prothallium. It is pointed out in the preceding section that, as the result of the sexual act, the nucleus of the zygote contains twice as many chromosomes as those of the fusing sexual cells. This 2X number of chromosomes persists throughout all the cell- generations derived from the zygote, that is, in the cells constituting the sporophyte, up to the time that it begins to produce spores, when meiosis takes place. Again, the cell- generations derived from the spore, that is, the cells constituting the gametophyte, all have the reduced x number of chromosomes in their nuclei up to the sexual act. Hence the sporophyte may also be designated the diplophyte and the gametophyte the haplophyte (Strasburger) : in other words, the sporo- phyte is the pre-meiotic, the gametophyte the post-meiotic generation. Twice in its life-history the plant is represented by a single cell: by the spore and by the zygote. The turning- points in the life-history, the transitions from the one genera- tion to the other, are (i) meiosis, (2) the sexual act. The course of the life-history in Phanerogams and in those Thallophyta which have been adequately investigated is essenti- ally the same as that of the Bryophyta and of the Pteridophyta as described above, though it is less easy to trace on account of the peculiar relation of the two generations to each other in the Phanerogams and on account of various irregularities that present themselves in the Thallophyta. In the Phanerogams, as in the Pteridophyta, the pre- ponderating generation is the sporophyte, the plant itself. Inasmuch as they are heterosporous, the gametophyte is represented by a male and a female organism or prothallium, both rudimentary. The male prothallium consists of the few cells formed by the germinating pollen-grain (microspore) ; and though it is quite independent, since the microspores are shed, it grows parasitically in the tissues upon which the microspore has been deposited in pollination. The female prothallium may consist of many cells with well-developed archegonia, as in the Gymnosperms, or of only a few cells with the female organ reduced to the oosphere, as in the Angiosperms. In either case it is the product of the germination of a megaspore (embryo-sac) which is not shed from its sporangium (ovule): hence it never becomes an independent plant, and was long regarded as merely a part of the sporophyte until its true nature was ascertained, chiefly by the researches of Hofmeister, who first explained the alternation of generations in plants. This intimate and persistent connexion between the two generations affords the explanation of the characteristic features of the Phanerogams, the seed and the flower. The ovule containing the embryo-sac, which eventually contains the embryo, per- sists as the seed— a structure that is distinctive of Phanero- gams, which have, in fact, on this account been also termed Spermatophyta. With regard to the flower, it has been already mentioned that it is, like the cone of an Equisetum or a Lyco- podium, a shoot adapted to the production of spores. But it is something more than this: for whereas in Equisetum or Lycopodium the function of the cone comes to an end when the spores are shed, the flower of the Phanerogam has still various functions to perform after the maturation of the spores. It is the seat of the process of pollination — that is, the bringing of the pollen-grain by one of various agencies into such a posi- tion that a part (the pollen-tube) of the male prothallium developed from it may reach and fertilize the oosphere in the embryo-sac. Thus the flower of Phanerogams is a reproductive shoot adapted not only for spore-production, but also for pollination, for fertilization, and for the consequences of fertiliza- tion, the production of seed and fruit. However, in spite of these complications, it is possible to determine accurately the limits of the two generations by the observation of the nuclei. The meiosis preceding the formation of the spores marks the beginning of the (haploid) gametophyte, male and female; and the sexual act marks that of the (diploid) sporophyte. The difficult task of elucidating the life-histories of the Thallophyta has been successfully performed in certain cases by the application of the method of chromosome-counting, with the result that alternation of generations has been found to be of general occurrence. To begin with the Algae. In the Dictyotaceae (Brown Algae) there are two very similar forms in the life-history, the one bearing asexual reproductive organs (tetrasporangia), the other bearing sexual organs (oogonia and antheridia). It has been shown (Lloyd Williams) that the former is undoubtedly the sporophyte and the latter the gametophyte, since the nuclei of the former contain 32 chromo- somes, and those of the latter 16. Meiosis takes place in the mother-cell of the tetraspores, which, on germination, give rise to the sexual form. Quite a different life-history has been traced in Fucus, another Brown Alga. Here no spores are produced: there is but one form in the life-history, the Fucus- plant, which bears sexual organs and has, • on that account, been regarded as a gametophyte. The investigation of the nuclei has, however, shown (Farmer) that the Fwcws-plant is actually diploid, that it is, in fact, a sporophyte; but since there is no spore-formation, meiosis immediately precedes the development of the sexual cells, which alone represent the gametophyte (see below, Apospory). Similarly, two types of life-history have been discovered in the Red Algae. In Polysiphonia violacea, a species in which the tetraspores and the sexual organs are borne by similar but distinct individuals, it has been ascertained (Yamanouchi) that, as in Dictyota, meiosis takes place in the mother-cell of the tetraspores, so that the nuclei of these spores, as also those of the sexual plants to which they give rise, contain 20 chromo- somes: and further, that the nuclei of the carpospores (diplo- spores) produced in the cystocarp as the result of fertilization, contain 40 chromosomes, as do also those of the asexual plant to which the carpospores give rise. Hence the sporophyte is represented by the cystocarp and the resulting tetraspor- angiate plants: the gametophyte, by the sexual plants. Though it is the rule in the Red Algae that the tetrasporangia and the sexual organs are borne on distinct individuals, yet cases are known in which both kinds of reproductive organs are borne upon the same plant; and to those the above conclusions obviously cannot apply. They have yet to be investigated. The second type of life-history has been traced in Nemalion. Here there is no tetrasporangiate form, consequently meiosis takes place at a different stage in the life-history. It has been observed (Wolfe) that the nuclei of the sexual plant contain 8 chromosomes; those of the gonimoblast-filaments of the developing cystocarp contain 16, whilst those of the carpospores contain 8: hence meiosis takes place in the carpo- sporangia. Here the plant is the gametophyte; the sporophyte is only represented by the cystocarp. The carpospores here are true spores (haplospores). Among the Green Algae, Coleochaete is the only form that has been fully investigated (Allen). Here meiosis takes place in the germinating oospore: consequently the plant is the PLANTS] REPRODUCTION 125 gametophyte, and the sporophyte is represented only by the oospore, so that the life-history resembles that of Nemalion. It is probable that this conclusion is generally true of the whole group; at any rate of those forms (Desmids, Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Chara) which have been more or less investi- gated. Turning to the Fungi, somewhat similar results have been obtained in the few forms that have been studied from this point of view. In the sexual Ascomycetes it appears (Harper) that meiosis takes place in the ascocarp just before the develop- ment of the spores, so that the life-history essentially resembles that of Nemalion. Again, in certain Uredineae, having an aecidium-stage and a teleutospore-stage, which is apparently a sexual process has been observed (Blackman, Christman) which is described in the section on Abnormalities of Reproduction, and the life-history is as follows. The sexual act having taken place, a row of aecidiospores is developed in the aecidium, each of which contains two conjugate nuclei derived from the sexual nuclei. The mycelium developed from the aecidiospore, as well as the uredospores and the teleutospores that it bears, shows two conjugate nuclei. When, however, the teleuto- spore is about to germinate, the two nuclei fuse (thus completing the sexual act) and meiosis takes place. As a result the promy- celium developed from the teleutospore, and the sporidia that it produces, are uninucleate: so are also the mycelium developed from the sporidium, and the female organs (archicarps) borne upon it. Hence the limits of the sporophyte are the aecidio- spore and the teleutospore: those of the gametophyte, the teleutospore and the aecidiospore. Similar observations have been made upon other Uredineae with a more contracted life-history. Phragmidium Potentillae- canadensis is a rust that has no aecidium-stage: consequently the primary uredospores are borne by the mycelium produced on infection of the host by a sporidium. It has been observed (Christman) that the sporogenous hyphae fuse in pairs, suggest- ing a sexual act; then the primary uredospores are developed in rows from the fused pairs of hyphae which thus behave as sexual organs (archicarps), and each such uredospore contains two conjugate nuclei. Although the research has not been carried beyond this point, it may be inferred that in this case, as in the preceding, nuclear fusion and meiosis take place in the teleutospore. Here the sporophyte is represented by the uredo-form. Finally, in some of the fungi in which no sexual organs have yet been discovered, this method of investigation has made it probable that some kind of sexual act takes place nevertheless. Thus in the Uredine Puccinia malvacearum, which has only teleutospore- and sporidium-stages, it has been observed (Black- man) that the formation of the teleutospores is preceded by a binucleate condition of the hyphae. The same idea is suggested by the binucleate basidia of the Basidiomycetes, which corre- spond to the teleutospores of the Uredineae. The life-histories sketched in the preceding paragraphs show that one of the complexities met with in the Thallophyta is that meiosis does not always take place at the same point in the life-history. In the higher plants the incidence of meiosis is generally, though not absolutely, constant: it may be stated as a rule that in the Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogams it takes place in the spore-mother-cells. In the Thallophyta this rule does not hold. In some of them, it is true, meiosis immediately precedes, as in the higher plants, the formation of certain spores, the tetraspores (Dictyotaceae, Polysiphonia), the teleutospores (Uredineae): but in others it immediately precedes the development of the sexual organs (Fucaceae), or follows more or less directly upon the sexual act (Green Algae, Nemalion, Ascomycetes). The life-history of most Thallophyta is further complicated by the capacity of the gametophyte of the sporophyte to repro- duce themselves by cells termed gonidia, a capacity that is wholly lacking in the higher plants. The karyology of gonidia has not yet been sufficiently investigated: but when, as in the Green Algae and the Oomycetous Fungi, the gonidia are developed by and reproduce the gametophyte, it may be inferred that they, like the gametophyte, are haploid. One case, at any rate, of the reproduction of the sporophyte by gonidia is fully known, that of the Uredineae just described, in which the uredo- form, which is a phase of the sporophyte, is reproduced by the uredo-spores which are binucleate, that is diploid, and may be distinguished as dlplogonidia. In any case the result is that whereas in the higher plants each of the alternating generations occurs but once in the life-history, in these Thallophyta the life- history may include a succession of gametophytic or of sporo- phytic forms This is, in fact, a distinguishing feature of the group. The higher plants present a regular alternation of generations: whereas, in the Thallophyta, though they probably all present some kind of alternation of generations, yet it is irregular hi the various ways and for the various reasons mentioned above. Sufficient information has been given in the preceding pages to render possible the consideration of the origin of alternation of generations. To begin quite at the beginning, it may be assumed that the primitive form of reproduction was purely vegetative, merely division of the unicellular organism when it had attained the limits of its own growth. Following on this came reproduction by a gonidium: that is, the protoplasm of the cell, at the end of its vegetative life, became quiescent, surrounded itself with a proper wall, or was set free as a motile ciliated cell, having in some unexplained way become capable of originating a new course of life (rejuvenescence) on germination. Then, as can be well traced in the Brown and" Green Algae (see ALGAE), these primitive reproductive cells (gonidia) began to fuse in pairs: in other words, they gradually became sexual. This stage can still be observed in some of these Algae (e.g. Ulothrix, Ectocarpus) where the zoospores (gonidia) may either germinate independently, or fuse in pairs to form a zygote. Gradually the sexuality of these cells became more pronounced : losing the capacity for independent germination, they acquired the external characters of more or less differentiated sexual cells, and the gametangia producing them developed into male and female sexual organs. But this advancing sexual differenti- ation did not necessarily deprive the plant of the primitive mode of propagation: the sexual organism still retained the faculty of reproduction by gonidia. The loss- of this faculty only came with higher development: it is entirely wanting in some of the higher Thallophyta (e.g. Fucaceae, Characeae), and hi all plants above them in the evolutionary series. With the introduction of the sexual act, a new kind of repro- ductive cell made its appearance, the zygote. This cell, as already explained, differs from other kinds of spores and from the sexual cells, in that its necleus is diploid; and with it the sporophyte (diplophyte) was introduced into the life-history. It has been mentioned that in some plants (e.g. Green Algae) the zygote is all that there is to represent the sporophyte, giving rise, or germination and after meiosis, to one or more spores. Passing to the Bryophyta, in the simpler forms (e.g. Riccia), the zygote develops into a multicellular capsule (sporogonium) ; and in the higher forms into a more elaborate sporogonium, producing many spores. In the Pteridophyta and the Phanerogams, the zygote gives rise to the highly developed sporophytic plant. Thus the evolution of the sporophyte can be traced from the unicellular zygote, gradually increasing in bulk and in in- dependence until it becomes the equal of the gametophyte (e.g. in Dictyota and Polysiphonia), and eventually far surpasses it (Pteridophyta, Phanerogams) . Moreover, the increase in size was attended by the gradual limitation of spore-production to certain parts only, the rest of the tissues being vegetative, assuming the form of stems, leaves, &c. These facts have been formulated in the theory of " progressive sterilization " (Bower), which states that the sporophytic form of the higher plants has been evolved from the simple, entirely fertile, sporophyte of the lower, by the gradually increasing development of the sterile vegetative tissue at the expense of the sporogenous, accompanied by increase in total bulk and in morphological and histological differentiation. In connexion with the study of the evolution of the sporophyte. 126 REPRODUCTION IPLANTS the question arose as to its morphological significance; whether it is to be regarded as a modified form of the gametophyte, or as an altogether new form intercalated in the life-history: in other words, whether the alternation is " homologous "or" antithetic." In certain plants there is a succession of forms which are un- doubtedly homologous: for instance, in Coleochaete where a succession of individuals without sexual organs is produced by zoospores (gonidia). The main fact that has been established is that the sporophyte, from the simple zygote of the Thallophyta to the spore-bearing plant of the Phanerogams, is character- ized by its diploid nuclei; that it is a diplophyte, in contrast to the haplophytic gametophyte. Were these nuclear characters absolutely universal, there could be no question but that the sporophyte is an altogether new antithetic form, and not an homologous generation. But certain exceptions to the rule have been detected, which are described under Abnormalities of Repro- duction: at present it will suffice to say that such things as a diploid gametophyte and a haploid sporophyte have been ob- served in certain ferns. It can only be inferred that alternation of generations is not absolutely dependent upon the periodic halving in meiosis and the subsequent doubling by a sexual act, of the number of chromosomes in the nuclei, though the two sets of phenomena usually coincide. It must not, however, be overlooked that these exceptional cases occur in plants presenting an abnormal life-history: the fact remains that where there is both normal spore-formation with meiosis, and a sub- sequent sexual act, the haploid form is the gametophyte, the diploid the sporophyte. But the actual observation of a haploid sporophyte and of a diploid gametophyte makes it clear that however generally useful the nuclear characters may be in the distinction of sporophyte and gametophyte, they do not afford an absolute criterion, and therefore their value in determining homologies is debatable. IV. Abnormalities of Reproduction. In what may be regarded as the type of normal life-history, the transition from the one generation to the other is marked by definite processes: there is the meiotic development of spores by the sporophyte, and the sexual production of a zygote, or something analogous to it, by the gametophyte. But it has been mentioned in the preceding pages that the transition may, in certain cases, be effected in other ways, which may be regarded as abnormal, though they are constant enough in the plants in which they occur, in fact as manifestations of reproductive degeneration. In the first place, the sporophyte may be developed either after an abnormal sexual act, or without any preceding sexual act at all, a condition known as apogamy. In the second, the gametophyte may be developed otherwise than from a post- meiotic spore, a condition known as apospory. • APOGAMY. — The cases to be considered under this head may be arranged in two groups: — " i. Pseudapogamy: sexual act abnormal. — The following abnor- malities have been observed : — (a) Fusion of two female organs: observed (Christman) in cer- tain Uredineae (Caeoma nitens, Phragmidium speciosum, Uromyces Caladii) where adjacent archicarps fuse: male cells (spermatia) are present but functionless. (ft) Fusion between nuclei of the same female organ : observed in the ascogonium of certain Ascomycetes, Humaria granu- lata (Blackman), where there is no male organ; Lachnea stercorea (Fraser), where the male organ (pollinodium) is present but is apparently functionless. (c) Fusion of a female organ with an adjacent tissue-cell: ob- served (Blackman) in the archicarp of some Uredineae (Phragmidium violaceum, Uromyces Poae, Puccinia Poarum) : male cells (spermatia) present but functionless. (d) There is no female organ: fusion takes place between two adjacent tissue-cells of the gametophyte; the sporophyte is developed from diploid cells thus produced, but there is no proper zygote as there is in a, 5 and c : observed (Farmer) in the prothallium of certain ferns (Lastraea pseudo-mas, var. polydactyla): male organs (and sometimes female) present but functionless. Another such case is that_ of Humaria rutilans (Ascomycete), in which nuclear fusion has been observed (Fraser) in hyphae of the hypothecium : the asci are developed from these hyphae, and in them meiosis takes place ; there are no sexual organs. 2. Eu-apogamy: no kind of sexual act — (a) The gametophyte is haploid : (o) The sporophyte is developed from the unfertilized oosphere: no such case of true parthenogenesis has yet been observed. 03) The sporophyte is developed vegetatively from the gameto- phyte and is haploid : observed in the prothallia of certain ferns, Lastraea pseudo-mas, var. cristata-apospora(Farmer and Digby), and Nephrodium molle (Yamanouchi). (6) The gametophyte is diploid (see under Apospory): (a) The sporophyte is developed from the diploid oosphere : observed in some Pteridophyta, viz. certain ferns (Farmer), Athyrium Filix-foemina, var. clarissima, Scolopendrium vulgare, var. crispum-Drummondae, and Marsilia (Strasburger) ; also in some Phanerogams, viz. Compositae (Taraxacum, Murbeck; Antennaria alpina, Juel; sp. of Hieracium (Rosenberg): Rosaceae (Eu- Alchemilla sp., Murbeck, Strasburger): Ranunculaceae (Thalictrum purpurascens, Overton). 09) The sporophyte is developed vegetatively from the game- tophyte: observed (Farmer) in the fern Athyrium Filix- foemina, var. clarissima. In all the cases enumerated under Eu-apogamy, apogamy is associated with some form of apospory except Nephrodium molle, full details of which have not yet been published. Many other ferns are known to be apogamous, but they are not included here because the details of their nuclear structure have not been investigated. APOSPORY. — The known modes of apospory may be arranged as follows: — 1. Pseudapospory: a spore is formed but without meiosis, so thai it is diploid- — observed only in heterosporous plants, viz. certain species of Marsilia (e.g. Marsilia Drummondii) where the megaspore has a diploid nucleus (32 chromosomes) and the resulting prothallium and female organs are also diploid (Strasburger); and in various Phanerogams, some Compositae (Taraxacum and Antennaria alpina, Juel), some Rosaceae (Eu-Alchemilla, Strasburger), and occasionally in Thalictrum purpurascens (Overton), where the megaspore (embryo- sac) is diploid; in some species of Hieracium it has been found (Rosenberg) that adventitious diploid embryo-sacs are developed in the nucellus: these plants are also apogamous. 2. Eu-apospory: no spore is formed — of this there are two varieties : (a) With meiosis: this occurs in some Thallophyta which form no spores; the sporophyte of the Fucaceae bears no spores, consequently meiosis takes place in the developing sexual organs; the Conjugate Green Algae also have no spores, meiosis taking place in the germinating zygospore . which develops directly into the sexual plant. (6) Without meiosis: the gametophyte is developed upon the sporophyte by budding; that is, spore-reproduction is replaced by a vegetative process: for instance, in mosses it has been found possible to induce the development of protonema, the first stage of the gametophyte, from tissue- cells of the sporogonium: similarly, in certain ferns (varieties of Athyrium Filix-foemina, Scolopendrium vulgare, Lastraea pseudo-mas, Polystichum angulare, and in the species Pteris aquilina and Asplenium dimorphum), the gametophyte (prothallium) is developed by budding on the leaf of the sporophyte, and in some of these cases it has been ascertained that the gametophyte so developed has the same number (2x) of chromosomes in its nuclei as the sporophyte that bears it — that is, it is diploid. Apospory has been found to be frequently associated with apogamy; in fact, in the absence of meiosis, this association would appear to be inevitable. Combined Apospory and Apogamy. — Instances have been given of the occurrence of both apospory and apogamy in the same life-history; but in all of them there is a regular succession of sporophyte and gametophyte. The cases now to be con- sidered are those in which one or other of the generations gives rise directly to its like, sporophyte to sporophyte, gametophyte to gametophyte, the normally intervening generation being omitted. It is possible to conceive of this abbreviation of the life-history taking place in various ways. Thus, a sporophyte might be developed from a haploid spore instead of a gametophyte as is the normal case, but this has not been observed: again, a sporophyte might be developed from a diploid spore (as dis- tinguished from a zygote or a diploid oosphere), a possibility that is to some extent realized in the life-history of some Uredineae in which successive forms of the polymorphic sporo- phyte are developed from diplogonidia. Similarly a gameto- phyte might be developed from a fertilized or an unfertilized PLANTS] REPRODUCTION 127 female cell: the latter possibility is to some extent realized in those Algae (e.g. Ulothrix, Ectocarpus) in which the sexual cells (isogametes), if they fail to conjugate, germinate inde- pendently as gonidia, giving rise to gametophytes. The more familiar mode is that of vegetative budding, as already mentioned. When a " viviparous " fern or Phanerogam reproduces itself by a bud or a bulbil, both spore-formation and the sexual act are passed over: sporophyte springs from sporo- phyte. Remarkable cases of this have been observed in certain Phanerogams (Coelebogyne ilicifolia, Funkia ovata, Nothoscordum fragrans, Citrus, sp. of Euonymus, Opuntia vulgaris) in the ovule of which adventitious embryos are formed by budding from cells of the nucellus: with the exception of Coelebogyne, it appears that this only takes place after the oosphere has been fertilized. In other plants it is the gametophyte that reproduces itself by means of gemmae or bulbils, as commonly in the Bryophyta, the prothallia of ferns, &c. The abnormalities described are all traceable to reproductive degeneration; the final result of which is that true reproduction is replaced more or less completely by vegetative propagation. It may be inquired whether degeneration may have proceeded so far in any plant of sufficiently high organization to present spore-formation, or sexual reproduction, or both, as to cause the plant to reproduce itself entirely and exclusively by the vege- tative method. The only such case that suggests itself is that of Caulerpa and possibly some other Siphonaceous Green Algae. In this plant no special reproductive organs have yet been discovered, and it certainly reproduces itself by the breaking off of portions of the body which become complete plants: but it is quite possible that reproductive organs may yet be dis- covered. V. Physiology of Reproduction. The reproductive capacity of plants, as of animals, depends upon the fact that the whole or part of the protoplasm of the individual can develop into one or more new organisms in one or other of several possible ways. Thus, in the case of unicellular plants, the whole of the protoplasm of the parent gives rise, whether by simple division or otherwise, to one or more new plants. Reproduction necessarily closes the life of the individual : here, as August Weismann long ago pointed out, there is no natural death, for the whole of the protoplasm of the parent continues to live in the progeny. In multicellular plants, on the contrary,' the reproductive function is mainly discharged by certain parts of the body, the reproductive organs, the remainder of the body being essentially vegetative — that is, concerned with the maintenance of the individual. In these plants it is only a part of the protoplasm that continues to live in their progeny; the remainder, the vegetative part, eventually dies. It is therefore possible to distinguish in them, on the one hand, the essentially reproductive protoplasm, which may be designated by Weismann's term germ-plasm, though without necessarily adopting all that his use of it implies, and the essentially vegetative, mortal protoplasm, the somato -plasm, on the other. In the unicellular plant no such distinction can be drawn, for the whole of the protoplasm is concerned in repro- duction. But even in the most highly organized multicellular plant this distinction is not absolute: for, as already explained, plants can, in general, be propagated by the isolation of almost any part of the body, that is vegetatively, and this implies the presence of germ-plasm elsewhere than in the special repro- ductive organs. If the attempt be made to distinguish between the organs of vegetative propagation and those of true reproduction, the nearest approach would be the statement that the former contain both germ-plasm and somatoplasm, whereas the latter, or at least the reproductive cells, consist entirely of germ-plasm. The question now arises as to the exact seat of the germ-plasm, and the answer is to be looked for in the results of the numerous researches into the structure and development of the reproductive cells that form so large a part of the biological work of recent years. The various facts already mentioned suffice to prove that the nucleus plays the leading part in the reproductive processes of whatever kind: the general conclusion is justified that no reproductive cell can develop into a new organism if deprived of its nucleus. It may be inferred that the nucleus either actually contains the germ-plasm, or that it controls and directs the activities of the germ-plasm present in the cell. It is not improbable that both these inferences may be true. At any rate there is no sufficient ground for excluding the co- operation of the cytoplasm, especially of that part of it dis- tinguished as kinoplasm, in the reproductive processes. Pursuing the ascertained facts with regard to the nucleus, it is established that the part of it especially concerned is the linin-network which consists of the chromosomes. The be- haviour, as already described, of the chromosomes in the various reproductive processes has led to the conclusion that the hereditary characters of the parent or parents are transmitted in and by them to the progeny: that they constitute, in fact, the material basis of heredity (see HEREDITY). They can hardly, however, be regarded as the ultimate structural units, for the simple reason that their number is far too small in relation to the transmissible characters. It has been suggested (Farmer) that the chromomeres are the units, but the number of these would seem to be hardly sufficient. It seems necessary to fall back upon hypothetical ultimate particles, as suggested by Darwin, de Vries and Weismann, which may be generally termed pangens. The chromomeres may be regarded as aggregates of such particles, the " ids " of Weismann. The foregoing considerations make it possible to attempt an explanation of the various reproductive processes. Vegetative Propagation. — It is easily intelligible that the two individuals produced by the division of a unicellular plant should resemble the parent and each other; for, the division of the parent-nucleus being homotypic, the chromosomes which go to constitute the nucleus of each daughter-cell are alike both in number and in nature, and exactly repeat the constitution of the parent-nucleus. In the more complicated cases of propagation by bulbils, cuttings, &c., the development of the new individual, or of the missing parts of the individual (roots, &c.), may be ascribed to the presence in the bulbil or cutting of the necessary pangens. Reproduction by Gonidia. — In this case a single cell gives rise to a complete new organism resembling the parent. The inference is that the gonidium is a portion of the parental germ- plasm, in which all the necessary pangens have been accumulated. Reproduction by Spores. — In this case, also, an entire organism is developed from a single cell, but with this peculiarity that the resulting organism is unlike that which bore the spore, a peculiarity which has not yet been explained. It has been already stated that the development of true spores involves meiosis, and this process is no doubt related to the behaviour of the spore on germination; but the nature of this relation remains obscure. It might be assumed that, as the result of meiosis, the nucleus of the spore receives only gametophytic pangens. But the assumption is rendered impossible by the fact that the spore gives rise to a sexual organism, the repro- ductive cells of which, after the sexual act, produce a sporo- phyte. Clearly sporophytic pangens must be present as well in the spore as in the gametophyte and in its sexual cells. It can only be surmised that they exist there in a latent condition, dominated, as it were, by the gametophytic pangens. Sexual Reproduction. — Here, again, as yet unanswered questions present themselves. The essence of a sexual cell is that it cannot give rise by itself to a new organism, it is only truly reproductive after the sexual act: this peculiarity is just what constitutes its sexuality. Minute investigation has not yet detected any essential structural difference between a sexual cell and a spore; on the contrary, the results so far obtained have established that they essentially agree in being post-meiotic (haploid). Why then do they differ so fundamentally in their reproductive capacities? Again, sexual cells differ in sex; but there are as yet no facts to demonstrate any essential structural difference between male 128 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS and female cells. What is known about them tends to prove their structural similarity rather than their difference. But it is possible that their difference may be chemical, and so not to be detected by the microscope. The normal sexual act has been described as consisting in the fusion, first, of two cells, then of their nuclei, and finally, often after a long interval, of their chromosomes and of their chromomeres in meiosis. What causes determined these fusions is a question that is only partly answered. It is known in certain cases (e.g. ferns and mosses) that the male cell is attracted to the female by chemical substances secreted for the purpose by the female organ; that it is a case of chemio- taxis. Probably this is more common than experiment has yet shown it to be. It is quite conceivable that the consequent cell-fusion, as also the subsequent fusions of nuclei and of chromosomes, are likewise cases of chemiotaxis, depending upon chemical differences between the fusing structures. The sexual process can only take place between cells which are related to each other in a certain degree (see HYBRIDISM); that is, it depends upon sexual affinity. It is the general rule that it takes place between cells derived from different individuals of the same species; that is, cross-fertilization is the rule. This is necessarily the case when the male and female organs are developed upon different individuals, when the plant is said to be dioecious. When both kinds of organs are developed upon the same individual (monoecious), self-fertiliza- tion may and often does occur; but it is commonly hindered by various special arrangements, of which dichogamy is the most common; that is, that the male and female organs are not mature at the same time. But though these arrangements favour cross-fertilization, they do not absolutely prevent self- fertilization. In some cases, cleistogamic flowers, for instance, self-fertilization alone is possible (see ANGIOSPERMS). The general conclusion is that though cross-fertilization is the more advantageous form of sexual reproduction, still self-fertilization is more advantageous to the species than no fertilization at all. In considering this subject, it must be borne in mind that the terms used have different meanings when applied to certain heterosporous plants from those which they convey when applied to isosporus plants. In the latter cases their meaning is direct and simple: in the former it is indirect and somewhat complicated. In heterosporous plants generally the actual sexual organs are never borne upon the same individual, there is always necessarily a male and a female gametophyte; so that, strictly speaking, self-fertilization is impossible. But in the Phanerogams, where there is a process preliminary to fertiliza- tion, that of pollination, which is unknown in other plants, the terms and the conceptions expressed by them are applied, not to the real sexual organs, but to the spores. Thus a dioe- cious Phanerogam is one in which the microspores are developed by one individual, the megaspores by another; and again, self-fertilization is said to occur when the microspores (pollen) fall upon the stigma of the same flower (see ANGIOSPERMS); but this is really only self-pollination. To return to the sexual process itself. Whatever its nature, two sets of results follow upon the sexual act — (i) a zygote is formed, which is capable of developing into a new organism, from two cells, neither of which could so develop; (2) the hereditary sporophytic characters of the two parents are pos- sessed by the organism so developed. These two results will now be considered in some detail. (i) The Relation between the Sexual Act and Reproductive Capacity. — In the early days of the discovery of the sexual process, it was thought that the capacity for development imparted to the female cell was to be attributed to the doubling of its nuclear substance by the fusion with the male cell. Reproductive capacity does not, however, depend upon the bulk of the nuclear' substance, for a spore, like an unfertilized female cell, contains but the x number of chromosomes, and yet it can give rise to a new organism. Again, it has been observed (Winkler) that a non-nucleated fragment of an oosphere of Cystoseira (Fucaceae) can be " fertilized " by a spermatozoid and will then grow and divide to form a small embryo, though it necessarily contains only the x number of chromosomes. From this it would appear that some stimulating influence had been exerted by the male cell, and it is probably in this direction that the desired explanation is to be sought. Some important confirmatory facts have been recorded with regard to certain animals (sea-urchins). It has been observed (Loeb) that treatment with magnesium chloride will cause the ova to grow and segment; and similar results have been obtained (Winkler) by treating the ova with a watery extract of the male cells. Hence it may be inferred that the male cell carries with it, either in its cytoplasm (kinoplasm), or in its nucleus, extractable substances, perhaps of the nature of enzymes, that stimulate the female cell to growth. It may be mentioned that the stimulating effect of fertilization is not necessarily confined to the female cell; very frequently adjacent tissues are stimulated to growth and structural change. In a Phanerogam, for instance, the whole ovule grows and develops into the seed: the development of endosperm in the embryo-sac is initiated by another nuclear fusion, taking place between the second male nucleus and the endosperm-nucleus: the ovary, too, grows to form the fruit, which may be dry and hard or more or less succulent: the stimulating effect may extend to other parts of the flower; to the perianth, as in the mulberry; to the receptacle, as in the strawberry and the apple: or even beyond the flower to the axis of the inflorescence, as in the fig and the pine-apple. Analogous developments in other groups are the calyptra of the Bryophyta, the cystocarps of the Red Algae, the ascocarps of the Ascomycetes, the aecidia of the Uredineae, &c. (2) The Relation o] the Sexual Act to Heredity. — The product of the sexual act is essentially a diploid cell, the zygote, which actually is or gives rise to a sporophyte. The sexual heredity of plants consequently presents the peculiar feature that the organism resulting^ from the sexual act is quite unlike its imme- diate parents, which are both gametophytes. But it is clear that the sporophytic characters must have persisted, though in a latent condition, through the gametophyte, to manifest them- selves in the organism developed from the zygote. The real question at issue is as to the exact means by which these characters are transmitted and combined in the sexual act. There is a considerable amount of evidence that the hereditary characters are associated with the chromomeres, and that it is rather their linin-constituent than their chromatin which is functional (Strasburger) : that they constitute, in fact, the material basis of heredity. From this point of view it is probable that the last phase of the sexual act, the fusion of the chromomeres in meiosis, represents the combination of the two sets of parental characters. What exactly happens in the pseudo-chromosome stage is not known; at any rate this stage offers an opportunity for a complete redistribution of the substance of the chromomeres — in other words, of the parental pangens. It is a striking fact that, in the subsequent nuclear division, the distribution of the chromosomes derived from the male and female parents (when they can be distinguished) seems to be a matter of indifference: they are not equally distributed to the two daughter-nuclei. The explanation would appear to be this, that they are not any longer male and female as they were before meiotic fusion; and that it is because they now contain both male and female nuclear substance that their equal distribution to the daughter-nuclei is unimportant. The nature of this redistribution of the substance of the chromomeres is still under discussion. Some regard it as essentially a chemical process, resulting in the formation of new compounds: others consider it to be rather a physical process, a new material system being formed in the rearrangement of the pangens; here it must be left for the present. The various ways in which the parental characters manifest themselves in the progeny are fully dealt with in the articles HEREDITY, HYBRIDISM, MENDELISM. It will suffice to say that the progeny, though maintaining generally the characters of the species, do not necessarily exactly resemble either of the parents, nor do they necessarily present exactly intermediate characters: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 129 they may vary more or less from the type. It is an interesting fact, the full significance of which has not yet been worked out, that, as a rule, plants that vary profusely are those in which the characteristic 2x number of chromosomes is high (60-100). Brief reference may be made to the cases of abnormal sexual or pseudo-sexual reproduction described above under Apogamy. Taking first the cases of true apogamy, there is clearly no need for any sexual process, for, since no meiotic division has taken place, the gametophyte is diploid; its cells, whether vegetative or contained in female organs, possess the capacity for both development and the transmission of the sporophytic characters. It is not remarkable that such a gametophyte should be able to give rise directly to a sporophyte; but it is remarkable, in the converse case of apospory, that a sporophyte should give rise to a diploid gametophyte rather than to another sporophyte. In the latter case the tendency to the regular development of the alternate form appears to override the influence of the diploid nucleus. Turning to the various forms of pseudo-apogamy, there are first those in which fusion takes place between two apparently female organs (some Uredineae; Christman), and those in which it takes place between nuclei within the same female organ (Humaria; Blackman). If these are to be regarded physiologically as sexual acts, it must be inferred that the fusing organs or nuclei have come to differ from each other to some extent; for it is unthinkable that equivalent female organs or cells should be able to fertilize, or to be fertilized by, one another. There are finally those cases in which apparently vegetative cells take part in the sexual act, as in Phragmidium (Blackman), where the female organ fuses with an adjacent vegetative cell, and in the fern-prothallium (Farmer), where the nuclei of two vegetative cells fuse. They would seem to indicate that vege- tative cells may, in certain circumstances, contain sufficient germ-plasm to act as sexual organs without being differentiated as such. An interesting question is that of the origin of apogamy. It is no doubt the outcome of sexual degeneration; but this general statement requires some explanation. In certain cases apogamy seems to be the result of the degeneration of the male organ; as in Humaria, where there is no male organ, and in Lachnea, where the male organ is rudimentary. In others, as in the Uredineae, it is apparently the female organ that has degenerated, losing its receptive part, the trichogyne; the male cells (spermatia) are developed normally, and there is no reason to believe that they might not fertilize the female organ were there the means of penetrating it. In yet other cases the degeneration occurs at a different stage in the life-history, in the development of the spores. In the apogamous ferns in- vestigated, meiosis is suppressed and apogamy results. In the heterosporous plants which have been investigated (e.g. Marsilia, Eu- Alchemilla) it has been observed that the microspores are so imperfectly developed as to be incapable of germinating, so that fertilization is impossible; and it is perhaps to this that the occurrence of apogamy is to be attributed. This abnormal development of the spores may be regarded as a variation; and in most cases it occurs in plants that are highly variable and often have a high 2x number of chromosomes. It will be observed that such physiological explanation as can be given of the phenomena of reproduction is based upon the results of the minute investigation of the changes in nuclear structure associated with them. The explanation is often rather suggested than proved, and some fundamental facts still remain altogether unexplained. But it may be anticipated that a method of research which has already so successfully justified itself will not fail in the future to elucidate what still remains obscure. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — This article should be read in connexion with the following: ALGAE, ANGIOSPERMS, BRYOPHYTA, CYTOLOGY, FUNGI, GYMNOSPERMS.HEREDITY, HYBRIDISM, MENDELISM, PLANTS, PTERIDOPHYTA. As the bibliographies to these articles include all the publications containing the facts and theories mentioned here, it will suffice to append only a few papers of general importance: Blackman and Fraser. " Further Studies on the Sexuality of the Uredineae," Ann. Dot. (1906) vol. xx. ; Farmer, " On the Structural Constituents of the Nucleus, and their Relation to the Organization of the In- dividual " (Croonian Lecture), Proc. Roy. Soc. (1907) vol. 79, series B ; Farmer and Digby, " Studies in Apospory and Apogamy in Ferns," Ann. Bot. (1907) vol. xxi. ; Strasburger, Die stpfflichen Grundlagen der Vererbung (1905); " Apogamie bei Manilla," Flora (1907), vol. 97; D. M. Mottier, Fecundation in Plants (1904), Carnegie Institution, Washington. (S. H. V.*) REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, IN ANATOMY.— The repro- ductive system in some parts of its course shares structures in common with the urinary system (q.v.). In this article the following structures will be dealt with. In the male the testes, epididymis, vasa deferentia, vesiculae seminales, prostate, penis and urethra. In the female the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and vulva. Male Reproductive Organs. The testes or testicles are the glands in which the male repro- ductive cells are formed. They lie, one on each side, in the scrotum surrounded by the tunica vaginalis (see COELOM and SEROUS MEMBRANES). Each is an oval gland about one and a half inches long with its long axis directed downward, backward and inward. There is a strong fibrous coat called the tunica albuginea, from which vertical and horizontal septa penetrate into the substance, thus dividing it into compartments or lobules in which the seminiferous tubes are coiled. It is estimated that the total length of these seminiferous tubes in the two glands is little short of a mile. (See fig. i.) At the posterior part of the testis the fibrous sheath is greatly thickened to form the mediastinum testis, and con- tains a plexus of tubules called the rele testis (see fig. i), into which the semini- ferous tubes open. In this way the secretion of the gland is carried to its upper and back part, whence from fifteen From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Textbook to twenty small tubes (vasa °f Ana">my- e/erenlia) pass to the epidi- FlG' ''T Diafra,m to '""strate the f . V r xi. • structure of the testis and epidi- dymis. Each of these is dymis. convoluted before opening, ct Coni vasculosi. and forms what is known as c- , G.!°!>us m?)or- g.m'. Globus minor, a C011US VaSCUWSUS. r.v. Rete testis Under the microscope the '• ^^ seminiferous tubules are seen to consist of a basement membrane surrounding several layers of epithelial cells, some of which are constantly being transformed into spermatozoa or male sexual cells. The epididymis (see fig. i) is a soft body lying behind the testis; it is enlarged above to form the globus major or head, while below is a lesser swelling, the globus minor or tail. The whole epididymis is made up of a convoluted tube about 20 ft. long, from which one long diverticulum (vas aberrans) comes off. Between the globus major arid the testis two small vesicles called the hydatids of Morgagni are often found. The vas deferens is the continuation of the tube of the epidi- dymis and starts at the globus minor; at first it is convoluted, but soon becomes straight, and runs up on the inner (mesial) side of the epididymis to the external abdominal ring in the abdominal wall. On its way up it is joined by several other structures, to form the spermatic cord; these are the artery (spermatic) and veins (pampiniform plexus) of the testis, the artery of the vas, the ilio-inguinal, genito-crural and sympathetic- nerves, and the testicular lymphatics. After entering the external abdominal ring, these structures pass obliquely through the abdominal wall, lying in the inguinal canal for an inch and a half, until the internal abdominal ring is reached. Here they separate and the vas passes down the side of the pelvis and turns XXIII. S s./. Seminiferous tubule. vd. Vas deferens. t.e. Vas efferens. t.r. Tubuli recti. 130 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM inward to meet its fellow at the back of the bladder, just above the prostate. The whole length of the vas is 12 to 18 in. and it is remarkable for the great thickness of its muscular walls, which gives it the feeling of a piece of whipcord when rolled between the finger and thumb. A little above the globus major a few scattered tubules are found in children in front of the cord; these form the rudi- mentary structure known as the organ of Giraldes or paradidymis. As the vas deferens approaches the prostate it enlarges and becomes slightly sacculated to act as a reservoir for the secretion of the testis; this part is the ampulla (see fig. 2). Posterior superior iliac spine Ureter Great sciatic notch Vas deferens Spine of ischium Vas deferens Seminal vesicle Bladder wall Levator ani Prostate Ischio-rectal fossa Tuberpsity of ischium Gluteus maximus and run, side by side, through the prostate to open into the floor of the prostatic urethra. The prostate is partly a muscular and partly a glandular struc- ture, situated just below the bladder and traversed by the urethra; it is of a somewhat conical form with the base upward in contact with the bladder. Both vertically and transversely it measures about an inch and a quarter, while antero-posteriorly it is only about three-quarters of an inch, though its size is liable to great variation. It is enclosed in a fibrous capsule from which it is separated by the prostatic plexus of veins anteriorly. It is often described as formed of three lobes two lateral and a median or posterior, but careful sections and recent research throw doubt on the existence of the last. Microscopically the prostate consists of masses of long, slen- der, slightly branching glands, embedded in unstriped muscle and fibrous tissue; these glands open by deli- cate ducts (about twenty in number) into the prostatic urethra, which will be described later. In the anterior part of the gland are seen bundles of striped muscle fibres, which are of interest when the comparative ana- tomy of the gland Cut end of great sacro- is studied: they are •ulatory duct better seen in young Levator ani Tuberosity of ischium Posterior superior iliac spine Cut end of rectum Apex of sacrum Great sciatic notch Ureter Peritoneum Spine of ischium Bladder wall Seminal vesicle Ampulla of vas defcrens Ischio-rectal fossa Cut end of rectum External sphincter ani Gluteus maximus than in old prostates. The male urethra begins at the bladder and runs through the prostate and perineum to the penis, which it traverses as far as the tip. It is divided into a prostatic, membran- ous and spongy part, and is altogether about 8 inches in length. The prostatic urethra The coccyx and the sacro-sciatic ligaments, together with the muscles attached to them, have been removed. runs downward "' through the prostate rather nearer the an- terior than the pos- inch and a quarter long, and it bends forward forming an From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy. FIG. 2. — View of the Base of the Bladder, Prostate, Seminal Vesicles and Vasa Deferentia from behind, ro-sciatic ligamer The levatores ani have been separated along the median raphe, and drawn outwards. A considerable , portion of the rectum and the upper part of the right seminal vesicle have been taken away. The vesiculae seminales are sac-like diverticula, one on each side, from the lower part of the ampullae of the vasa deferentia. They are about 2 in. long and run outward behind the bladder and parallel to the upper margin of the prostate for some little distance, but usually turn upward near their blind extremity. When carefully dissected and unravelled each is found to consist of a thick tube, about 5 in. long, which is sharply bent upon itself two or three times, and also has several short, sac-like pouches or diverticula. The vesiculae seminales are muscular sacs with a mucous lining which is thrown into a series of delicate net-like folds. The convolutions are held together by the pelvic cellular tissue, and by involuntary muscle continuous with that of the bladder. It is probable that these vesicles are not reservoirs, as was at one time thought, but form some special secretion which mixes with that of the testes. Where the vesiculae join the ampullae of the vasa deferentia the ejaculatory ducts are formed; these are narrow and thin-walled, terior part. It is about an in the middle of the gland angle (see fig. 5); here it is from a third to half an inch wide, though at the base and apex of the prostate it is narrower. When it is slit open from in front a longitudinal ridge is seen in its posterior wall, which is called the verumon- tanum or crista urethra, and on each side of this is a longitudinal depression, the prostatic sinus, into which numerous ducts of the prostate open, though some of them open, on to the antero-lateral surface. Near the lower part of the verumontanum is a little pouch, the utriculus masculinus, about one-eighth of an inch deep, the opening of which is guarded by a delicate membranous circular fold, the male hymen. Close to the opening of the utriculus the ejaculatory ducts, already mentioned, open into the urethra by very small apertures. The part of the urethra above the openings of these ducts really belongs to the urinary system only, though it is convenient to describe it here. After leaving REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM the prostate the urethra runs more forward for about three- quarters of an inch, lying between the two layers of the triangular From C. S. Wallace's Pnslatic Enlargement.! FIG. 3. — Coronal Section through the Pelvis, showing the relations of the bladder above, prostate and bulb below. ligament, both of which it pierces. This is known as the membranous urethra, and is very narrow, being gripped by the compressor urethrae muscle. The spongy urethra is that part which is enclosed in the penis after piercing the anterior layer of the triangular ligament. At first it lies in the substance of the bulb and, later, of the corpus spongiosum, while finally it passes through the glans. In the greater part of its course it is a transverse slit, but in tra- versing the glans it enlarges considerably to form the fossa navicularis, and here, in transverse section, it looks like an inverted T (J.), then an inverted Y (A), and finally at its opening From C. S. Wallace's Pmtatic Enlargement. FIG. 4. — Transverse Section of a young Prostate, showing wavy striped muscle in front, urethra in the middle, and the two ejacu- latory ducts behind. (external meatus) a vertical slit. Into the whole length of the urethra mucous glands (glands of Littre) open, and in the roof of 1 Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 9 of this article are redrawn from Cuthbert S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement by permission of the managers of The Oxford Medical Publications. the fossa navicularis the mouth of one of these is sometimes so large that it may engage the point of a small catheter and is known as the lacuna magna. As a rule the meatus is the narrowest part of the whole canal. Opening into the spongy urethra where it passes through the bulb are the ducts of two small glands known as Cowper's glands, which lie on each side of the membranous urethra and are best seen in childhood. The penis is the intromittent organ of generation, and is made up of three cylinders of erectile tissue, covered by skin and subcutaneous tissue without fat. In a transverse section two of these cylinders (the corpora cavernosa) are placed above, side by side, while one, the corpus spongiosum, is below. Pos- teriorly, at what is known as the root of the penis, the two corpora cavernosa diverge, become more and more fibrous in structure, and are attached on each side to the rami of the ischium, while the corpus spongiosum becomes more vascular and enlarges to form the bulb. It has already been pointed out that the whole length of the corpus spongiosum is traversed by the urethra. The anterior part of the penis is formed by the glans, a bell-shaped structure, apparently continuous with the corpus spongiosum, and having the conical ends of the cor- pora cavernosa fitted into depressions on its posterior surface. On the dorsum of the penis the rim of the bell-shaped glans projects beyond the level of the corpora cavernosa, and is From C. S. Wallace's Pnslatic Enlargement. FIG. 5. — Sagittal Median Section of Bladder, Prostate and Rectum, showing one of the ejaculatory ducts. known as the corona glandis. The skin of the penis forms a fold which covers the glans and is known as the prepuce or foreskin; when this is drawn back a median fold, the frenulum praeputii, is seen running to just below the meatus. After forming the prepuce the skin is reflected over the glans and here looks like mucous membrane. The structure of the cor- pora cavernosa consists of a strong fibrous coat, the tunica albuginea, from the deep surface of which numerous fibrous trabeculae penetrate the interior and divide it into a number of spaces which are lined with endothelium and communicate with the veins. Between the two corpora cavernosa the sheath is not complete and, having a comb-like appearance, is known as the septum pectinatum. The structure of the corpus spongiosum and glans resembles that of the corpora cavernosa, but the trabeculae are finer and the network closer. Female Reproductive Organs. The ovary is an organ which in shape and size somewhat resembles a large almond, though its appearance varies con- siderably in different individuals, and at different times of life. It lies in the side wall of the pelvis with its long axis nearly vertical and having its blunt end (tubal pole) upward. Its more pointed lower end is attached to the uterus by the liga- ment of the ovary, while its anterior border has a short reflection of peritoneum, known as the mesovarium, running forward to the broad ligament of the uterus. It is through this anterior border that the vessels and nerves enter and leave the gland. Under the microscope the ovary is seen to be covered by a 132 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM layer of cubical cells, which are continuous near the anterior border with the cells of the peritoneum. Deep to these is the ovarian stroma, composed of fibrous tissue, and embedded in it are numerous nests of epithelial cells, the Graafian fol- licles, in various stages of development. During the child- bearing period of life some of these will be nearing the ripe condition, and if one such be looked at it will be seen to con- tain one large cell, the ovum, surrounded by a mass of small cells forming the discus proligerus. At one point this is con- tinuous with a layer of cells called the stratum granulosum which lines the outer wall of the follicle, but elsewhere the two layers are separated by fluid, the liquor folliculi. When the follicle bursts, as it does in time, the ovum escapes on to the surface of the ovary. The Fallopian tubes receive the ova and carry them to the uterus. That end of each which lies in front of the ovary is called the fimbriated extremity, and has a number of fringes (fimbriae) hanging from it; one of the largest of these is the ovarian fimbria and is attached to the upper or tubal pole of the ovary. The small opening among the fimbriae by which the tube communicates with the peritoneal cavity is known as the ostium abdominale, and from this the lumen of the tube runs from four to four and a half inches, until it opens into the cavity of the uterus by an extremely small opening. In the accompanying figure (fig. 6) the Fallopian tube and ovary Parovarium Fallopian tube I Ovary Ligament of ovary Uterus Hydatid Fiml Round ligament Broad ligament A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 6. — A. The Uterus and Broad Ligament seen from behind (the broad ligament has been spread out). a, b and c, the isthmus tubae, the ligament of the ovary, and the round ligament of the right side cut short. B. Diagrammatic Representation of the Uterine Cavity opened up from in front. are pulled out from the uterus; this, as has been explained, is not the position of the ovary in the living body, nor is it of the tube, the outer half of which lies folded on the front and inner surface of the ovary. The Fallopian tubes, like many other tubes in the body, are made chiefly of unstriped muscle, the outer layer of which is longitudinal and the inner circular; deep to this are the submucous and mucous coats, the latter being lined with ciliated epithelium (see EPITHELIAL TISSUES), and thrown into longitudinal pleats. Superficially the tube is covered by a serous coat of peritoneum. The calibre gradually contracts from the peritoneal to the uterine opening. The uterus or -womb is a pear-shaped, very thick-walled, muscular bag, lying in the pelvis between the bladder and rectum. In the non-pregnant condition it is about three inches long and two in its broadest part, which is above. The upper half or body of the uterus is somewhat triangular with its base upward, and has an anterior surface which is moderately flat, and a posterior convex. The lower half is the neck or cervix and is cylindrical; it projects into the anterior wall of the vagina, into the cavity of which it opens by the os uteri externum. This opening in a uterus which has never been pregnant is a narrow transverse slit, rarely a circular aperture, but in those uteri in which pregnancy has occurred the slit is much wider and its lips are thickened and gaping and often scarred. The interior of the body of the uterus shows a com- paratively small triangular cavity (see fig. 6, B), the anterior and posterior walls of which are in contact. The base of the triangle is upward, and at each lateral angle one of the Fallopian tubes opens. The apex leads into the canal of the cervix, but between the two there is a slight constriction known as the os uteri internum. The canal of the cervix is about an inch long, and is spindle-shaped when looked at from in front; its anterior and posterior walls are in contact, and its lining mucous membrane is raised into a pattern which, from its likeness to a cypress twig, is called the arbor vitae. This arrange- ment is obliterated after the first pregnancy. On making a mesial vertical section of the uterus the cavity is seen as a mere slit which is bent about its middle to form an angle the opening of which is forward. A normal uterus is therefore bent forward on itself, or anteflexed. In addition to this, its long axis forms a marked angle with that of the vagina, so that the whole uterus is bent forward or anteverted. As a rule, in adults the uterus is more or less on one side of the mesial plane of the body. From each side of the uterus the peritoneum is reflected outward, as a two-layered sheet, to the side wall of the pelvis; this is the broad ligament, and between its layers lie several structures of importance. Above, there is the Fal- lopian tube, already described; below and in front is the round ligament; behind, the ovary projects backward, and just above this, when the broad ligament is stretched out as in fig. 6, are the epoophoron and paroophoron with the duct of Gartner. The round ligament is a cord of un- striped muscle which runs from the lateral angle of its own side of the uterus forward to the internal abdominal ring, and so through the inguinal canal to the upper part of the labium majus. The epoophoron or parovarium is a collection of short tubes which radiate from the upper border of the ovary when the broad ligament is pulled out as in fig. 6. It is best seen in very young children and represents the vasa effer- entia hi the male. Near the ovary the tubes are closed, but nearer the Fal- lopian tube they open into another tube which is nearly at right angles to them, and which runs toward the uterus, though in the human subject Lateral angle of uterus Vaginal cavity B it is generally lost before reaching that organ. It is known as the duct of Gartner, and is the homologue of the male epididymis and vas deferens. Some of the outermost tubules of the epoophoron are sometimes distended to form hydatids. Nearer the uterus than the epoophoron a few scattered tubules are occasionally found which are looked upon as the homologue of the organ of Giraldes in the male, and are known as the paroophoron. The vagina is a dilatable muscular passage, lined with mucous membrane, which leads from the uterus to the external genera- tive organs; its direction is, from the uterus, downward and forward, and its anterior and posterior walls are in contact, so that in a horizontal section it appears as a transverse slit. As the orifice is neared the slit becomes H-shaped. Owing to the fact that the neck of the uterus enters the vagina from in front, the anterior wall of that tube is only about 25 in., while the posterior is 35. The mucous membrane is raised into a series of transverse folds^or rugae, and between it and the muscular wall are plexuses of veins forming erectile tissue. The relation of the vagina to the peritoneum is noticed under COELUM and SEROUS MEMBRANES. The vulva or pudendum comprises all the female external generative organs, and consists of the mons Veneris, labia majora and minora, clitoris, urethral orifice, hymen, bulbs of the vestibule, and glands of Bartholin. The mons Veneris :s the REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM elevation in front of the pubic bones caused by a mass of fibro- fatty tissue; the skin over it is covered by hair in the adult. The labia majora are two folds of skin, also containing fibro-fatty tissue and covered on their outer surfaces by hair, running down from the mons Veneris to within an inch, of the anus and touching one another by their internal surfaces. They are the homologues of the scrotum in the male. The labia minora are two folds of skin containing no fat, which are usually hidden by the labia majora and above enclose the clitoris, they are of a pinkish colour and look like mucous membrane. The clitoris is the representative of the penis, and consists of two corpora cavernosa which posteriorly diverge to form the crura clitoridis, and are attached to the ischium; the organ is about an inch and a half long, and ends anteriorly in a rudi- mentary glans which is covered by the junction of the labia minora; this junction forms the prepuce of the clitoris. The orifice of the urethra is about an inch below the glans clitoridis and is slightly puckered. The hymen is a fold of mucous membrane which surrounds the orifice of the vagina and is usually only seen in the virgin. As has been pointed out above, it is represented in the male by the fold at the opening of the uterus masculinus. Occasionally the hymen is imperforate and then gives rise to trouble in menstruation. The bulbs of the vestibule are two masses of erectile tissue situated one on each side of the vaginal orifice: above they are continued up to the clitoris; they represent the bulb and the corpus spongiosum of the male, split into two, and the fact that they are so divided accounts for the urethra failing to be enclosed in the clitoris as it is in the penis. The glands of Bartholin are two oval bodies about half an inch long, lying on each side of the vagina close to its opening; they represent Cowper's glands in the male, and their ducts open by minute orifices between the hymen and the labia minora. From the above description it will be seen that all the parts of the male external genital organs are represented in the female, though usually in a less developed condition, and that, owing to the orifice of the vagina, they retain their original bi-lateral form. For further details see Quain's Anatomy (London: Longmans, Green & Co.) ; Gray's Anatomy (London : Longmans, Green & Co.) ; Cunningham's Text-Bo6k of Anatomy (Edinburgh: Young J. Pent- land), or Macafister's Anatomy (London: Griffin & Co.). Embryology. The development of the reproductive organs is so closely interwoven with that of the urinary that some reference from this article to that on the URINARY SYSTEM is necessary. It will here be convenient to take up the development at the stage depicted in the accompanying figure (fig. 7), in which the genital ridge (a) is seen on each side of the attachment of the mesentery ; external to this, and forming another slight ridge of its own, is the Wolffian duct, while a little later the Mullerian duct is .formed and lies ventral to the Wolffian. The early history of these ducts is indicated in the article on the URINARY SYSTEM. Until the fifth or sixth week the development of the genital ridge is very much the same in the two sexes, and consists of cords of cells growing from the epithelium-covered surface into the mesenchyme, which forms the interior of the ridge. In these cords are some large germ cells which are distinguishable at a very early stage of development. It must, of course, be understood that the germinal epithelium covering the ridge, and the mesenchyme inside it, are both derived from the mesoderm or middle layer of the embryo. About the fifth week of human embryonic life the tunica albuginea appears in the male, from which septa grow to divide the testis into lobules, while the epithelial cords form the seminiferous tubes, though these do not gain a lumen until just before puberty. From the adjacent mesonephros cords of cells grow into the attached part of the genital ridge, or testis, as it now is, and from these the rete testis is developed. Recent research, however, points to these cords of the rete testis et ovarii as being derived from the coelomic epithelium instead of from the mesonephros. In the female the same growth of epithelial cords into the mesenchyme of the genital ridge takes place, but each one is Neural tube— gunjlioo Anna-- Mesentery— Blood-vessel • — — «•• From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Ttxt-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 7. — Transverse Section through a Rat Embryo. a. shows position of germinal epithelium. distinguished by a bulging toward its middle, in which alone the large germ cells are found. Eventually this bulging part is broken up into a series of small portions, each of which contains one germ cell or ovum, and gives rise to a Graafian follicle. Mesonephric cords appear as in the male; they do not enter the ovary, however, but form a transitory network (rete ovarii) in the mesovarium. As each genital gland enlarges it remains attached to the rest of the intermediate cell mass by a constricted fold of the coelomic membrane, known as the mesorchium in the male, and the mesovarium in the female. Lying dorsal to the genital ridge in the intermediate cell mass is the mesonephros, consisting Ep.O. M.N. Mt.N FIG. 8. — Diagram of the Formation of the Genito-Urinary Apparatus. The first figure is the generalized type, the second the male and the third the female specialized arrangements. Suppressed parts are dotted. Pro. N. Pronephros. N. Nephrostome. M.N. Mt.N. Mesonephros. Metanephros. M.C. T. Malpighum corpuscle. Testis. B. Bladder. E. Epididymis. Clo. Cloaca. O.G. Organ of Giraldes. R. Rectum. V.D. Vas def erens. M.D. Mullerian duct. U.M. Uterus masculinus. W.D. Wolffian duct. O. Ovary. Ur. Ureter. Ep.O. Epoophoron. S.H.; Sessile hydatid. Par.O. Paroophoron. P.H. Pedunculated hydatid. F.T. Fallopian tube. S.G. Sexual gland. U. Uterus. of numerous tubules which open into the Wolffian duct. This at first is an important excretory organ, but during development becomes used for other purposes. In the male, as has been shown, it may form the rete testis, and certainly forms the vasa efferentia and globus major of the epididymis: in addition to these, some of its separate tubes probably account for the vas aberrans and the organ of Giraldes (see fig. 8, E. and O.G.). In the female the tubules of the epoophoron represent the main part. 134 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM while the paroophoron, like the organ of Giraldes in the male, is probably formed from some separate tubes (see fig. 8, Ep. O. and Par. O.). The Wolffian duct, which, in the early embryo, carries the excretion of the mesonephros to the cloaca, forms eventually the body and tail of the epididymis, the vas deferens, and ejaculatory duct in the male, the vesicula seminalis being developed as a pouch in its course. In the female this duct is largely done away with, but remains as the collecting tube of the epoophoron, and in some mammals as the duct of Gartner, which runs down the side of the vagina to open into the vestibule. The Miillerian duct, as it approaches the cloaca, joins its fellow of the opposite side, so that there is only one opening into the ventral cloacal wall. In the male the lower part only of it remains as the uterus masculinus (fig. 8, U.M.), but in the female the Fallopian tubes, uterus, and probably the vagina, are all formed from it (fig. 8, F.T. and U.) . In both sexes a small hydatid or vesicle is liable to be formed at the beginning of both the Wolffian and Miillerian duct (fig. 8, P.H. and S.H.) ; in the male these are close together in front of the globus major of the epididymis, and are known as the sessile and pedunculated hydatids of Morgagni. In the female there is a hydatid among the fimbriae of the Fallopian tube which of course is Mullerian and corresponds to the sessile hydatid in the male, while another is often found at the beginning of the collecting tube of the epoophoron and is probably formed by a blocked mesonephric tubule. This is the pedunculated hydatid of the male. The development of the vagina, as Berry Hart (Journ. Anal, and Phys. xxxv. 330) has pointed out, is peculiar. Instead of the two Mullerian ducts joining to form the lumen of its lower third, as they do in the case of the uterus and its upper two-thirds, they become obliterated, and their place is taken by two solid cords of cells, which Hart thinks are derived from the Wolffian ducts and are therefore probably of ectodermal origin, though this is open to doubt. These cords later become canalized and the septum between them is obliterated. The common chamber, or cloaca, into which the alimentary, urinary and reproductive tubes open in the foetus, has the urinary bladder (the remains of -the allantois) opening from its ventral wall (see PLACENTA and URINARY SYSTEM). During development the alimentary or anal part of the cloaca is separated from the urogenital, and in the article ALIMENTARY SYSTEM the hitherto accepted method of this separation' is described. The question has, however, lately been reinvesti- gated by F. Wood Jones, who says that the anal part is com- plete.ly shut off from the urogenital and ends in a blind pouch which grows toward the surface and meets a new ectodermal depression, the main point being that the permanent anus is not, according to him, any part of the original cloacal aperture, but a new perforation. This description is certainly more in harmony with the malformations occurring in this region than the old one, and only awaits confirmatory evidence to be gener- ally accepted. The external generative organs have at first the same appear- ance in the two sexes, and consist of a swelling, the genital eminence, in the ventral wall of the cloaca. This in the male becomes the penis and in the female the clitoris. Throughout the generative system the male organs depart most from the undifferentiated type, and in the case of the genital eminence two folds grow together and enclose the urogenital passage, thus making the urethra perforate the penis, while in the female these two folds remain separate as the labia minora or nymphae. Sometimes in the male the folds fail to unite completely, and then there is an opening into the urethra on the under surface of the penis — a condition known as hypospadias. In the undifferentiated condition the integument surrounding the genital opening is raised into a horseshoeh'ke swelling with its convexity over the pubic symphysis and its concavity to- ward the anus; the lateral parts of this remain separate in the female and form the labia majora, but in the male they unite to form the scrotum. The median part forms the mons Veneris or mons Jovis. The Descent of the Testis. — It has been shown that the testis is formed in the loin region of the embryo close to the kidney, and it is only in the later months of foetal life that it changes this position for that of the scrotum. In the lower part of the genital ridge a fibro-muscular cord is formed which stretches from the lower part of the testis to the bottom of the scrotum; it is known as the gubernaculum testis, and by its means the testis is directed into the scrotum. Before the testis descends, a pouch of peritoneum called the processus vaginalis passes down in front of the gubernaculum through the opening in the abdominal wall, which afterwards becomes the inguinal canal, into the scrotum, and behind this the testis descends, carrying with it the mesonephros and mesonephric duct. These, as has already been pointed out, form the epididymis and vas def- erens. At the sixth month the testis lies opposite the abdom- inal ring, and at the eighth reaches the bottom of the scrotum and invaginates the processus vaginalis from behind. Soon after birth the communication between that part of the pro- cessus vaginalis which now surrounds the testis and the general cavity of the peritoneum disappears, and the part which remains forms the tunica vaginalis. Sometimes the testis fails to pass beyond the inguinal canal, and the term " cryptorchism " is used for such cases. In the female the ovary undergoes a descent like that of the testis, but it is less marked owing to the fact that the guber- naculum becomes attached to the Mullerian duct where that duct joins its fellow to form the uterus; hence the ovary does not descend lower than the level of the top of the uterus, and the part of the gubernaculum running between it and the uterus remains as the ligament of the ovary, while the part running from the uterus to the labium is the round ligament. In rare cases the ovary may be drawn into the labium just as the testis is drawn into the scrotum. Comparative Anatomy. — In the Urochorda, the class to which Salpa, Pyrosoma and the sea squirts (Ascidians) belong, male and female generative glands (gonads) are present in the same individual; they are therefore hermaphrodite. In the Acrania (Amphioxus) there are some twenty-six pairs of gonads arranged segmentally along the side of the pharynx and intestine and bulging into the atrium. Between them and the atrial wall, however, is a. rudimentary remnant of the coelom, through which the spermatozoa or ova (for the sexes are distinct) burst into the atrial cavity. There are no genital ducts. In the Cyclostomata (lampreys and hags) only one median gonad is found, and its contents (spermatozoa or ova) burst into the coelom and then pass through the genital pores into the urogenital sinus and so to the exterior. It is probable that the single gonad is accounted for by the fact that its fellow has been suppressed? In the Elasmobranchs or cartilaginous fishes there are usually two testes or two ovaries, though in the dogfish one of the latter is suppressed. From each testis, which in fish is popularly known as the soft roe, vasa efferentia lead into the mesonephros, and the semen is conducted down the vas deferens or mesone- phric duct into the urogenital sinus, into which also the ureters open. Sometimes one or more thin-walled diverticula — the sperm sacs — open close to the aperture of the vas deferens. In the female the ova are large, on account of the quantity of yolk, and they burst into the coelum, from which they pass into the large Mullerian ducts or oviducts. In the oviparous forms, such as the common dogfish (Scyllium), there is an oviducal gland which secretes a horny case for the egg after it is fertilized, and these cases have various shapes in 'different species. Some ,pf the Elasmobranchs, e.g., the spiny dogfish (Acanthias), are viviparous, and in these the lower part of the oviduct is enlarged and acts as a uterus. In male elasmo- branchs the anterior part of the Mullerian duct persists. Paired intromittent organs (claspers) are developed on the pelvic fins of the males; these conduct the semen into the cloaca of the female. In the teleostean and ganoid fishes (Teleostomi) the nephridial REPSOLD ducts are not always used as genital ducts, but special coelomic ducts are formed (see COELOM and SEROUS MEM- BRANES). In the Dipnoi or mudfish long coiled Mullerian ducts are present, but the testes either pour their secretion directly into the coelom or, as in Protopterus, have ducts which are probably coelomic in origin. In both the Teleostomi and Dipnoi the testes and ovaries are paired. True hermaphroditism is known among fishes, the hag (Myxine) and the sea perch (Serranus) being examples. In many others it occurs as an abnormality. In the Amphibia both ovaries and testes are symmetrical. In the snakelike forms which are found in the order Gymno- phiona the testes are a series of separate lobules extending for a long distance, one behind the other, and joined by a connecting duct from which vasa efferentia pass into the Mal- pighian capsules of the kidneys, and so the sperm is conducted to the mesonephric duct, which acts both as vas deferens and ureter. The Mullerian ducts or oviducts are long and often coiled in Amphibia, and usually open separately into the cloaca. There is no penis, but in certain forms, especially the Gymno- phiona, the cloaca is protrusible in the male and acts as an intromittent organ. Corpora adiposa or fat bodies are present in all Amphibians, and probably nourish the sexual cells during the hibernating period. In Reptilia two testes and ovaries are developed, though they are often asymmetrical in position. In Lizards the vas deferens and ureter open into the cloaca by a common orifice; as they do in the human embryo. In these animals there are two penes, which can be protruded and retracted through the vent; but in the higher reptiles (Chelonia and Crocodilia) there is a single median penis rising from the ventral wall of the cloaca, composed of erectile tissue and deeply grooved on its dorsal surface for the passage of the sperm. In birds the right ovary and oviduct degenerates, and the left alone is functional. In the male the ureter and vas deferens open separately into the cloaca, and in the Ratitae (ostriches) and Anseres (ducks and geese) a well-developed penis is present in the male. In the ostrich this is fibrous, and bifurcated at its base, suggesting the crura penis of higher forms. Among the Mammalia the Monotremata (Ornithorhynchus and Echidna) have bird-like affinities. The left ovary is larger than the right, and the oviducts open separately into the cloaca and do not fuse to form a uterus. The testes retain their abdominal position; and the vasa deferentia open into the base of the penis, which lies in a separate sheath in the ventral wall of the cloaca, and shows an advance on that of the reptiles and birds in that the groove is now converted into a complete tunnel. In the female there is a well-developed clitoris, having the same relations as the penis. In the marsupials the cloaca is very short, and the vagina and rectum open separately into it. The two uteri open separately and three vaginae are formed, two lateral and one median. The two lateral join together below to form a single median lower vagina, and it is by means of these that the spermatozoa pass up into' the oviducts. The upper median vagina at first does not open into the lower one, but during parturition a com- munication is established which in some animals remains permanent (see J. P. Hill, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1899 and 1900). This tripartite arrangement of the upper part of the marsupial vagina is of especial interest in connexion with the views of the. embryology of the canal detailed by Berry Hart and already referred to. When, as in marsuf ials, the two uteri open separately into the vagina by two ora, the arrangement is spoken of as uterus duplex. When the two uteri join below and open by one os externum, it is known as uterus bipartitus. When the uterus bifurcates above and has two horns for the reception of the Fallopian tubes (oviducts) , but is otherwise single, the term uterus bicornis is given to it, while the single uterus of man and other Primates is called uterus simplex. From the marsupials upward the ovarian end of the Fallopian tube has the characteristic fimbriated appearance noticed in human anatomy. In some mammals, such as the sow and the cow, the Wolffian duct is persistent in the female and runs along the side of the vagina as the duct of Gartner. It is possible that the lateral vaginae of the marsupials are of Wolffian origin. In marsupials the testes descend into the scrotum, which lies in these animals in front of instead of behind the penis. In some mammals, such as the elephant, they never reach the scrotum at all; while in others, e.g. many rodents, they can be drawn up into the abdomen or lowered into the scrotum. The subject of the descent of the testicles has been very fully treated by H. Klaatsche, " Ueber den Descensus testiculorum," Morph. Jahrb., Ed. xvi. The prostate is met with in its most simple forms in marsupials, in which it is a mere thickening of the mucous membrane of the urethra; in the sheep it forms a bilateral elongated mass of gland tissue lying behind the urethra and surrounded by a well- developed layer of striped muscle. In the sloth it is said to be altogether absent, while in many of the insectivores and rodents it consists of many lobes which usually show a bilateral arrange- ment. The vesiculae seminales are. usually present in the Eutheria or higher mammals, and sometimes, as in the hedge- hog, are very large, though they are absent in the Carnivora. Cowper's glands are usually present and functional throughout From C. S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement. FIG. 9. — Transverse Section of Sheep's Prostate. life. The uterus masculinus is also usually present, but there is grave doubt whether the large organ called by this name in the rabbit should not rather be regarded as homologous with part of the vesiculae seminales. The penis shows many diversities of arrangement; above the marsupials its two crura obtain an attachment to the ischium. In many mammals it is quite hidden by the skin in the flaccid condition, and its external orifice may range from the perineum in the marsupials to the middle of the ventral wall of the abdomen in the ruminants. In the Marsupialia, Rodentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora and some Primates an os penis is developed in connexion with the corpora cavernosa. The clitoris is present in all mammals; sometimes, as in the female hyena, it is very large, and at others, as in the lemur, it is perforated by the urethra. For further details and literature, see Oppel's Lehrbuch der ver- gleich. mikroskop. Anatomie der Wirbelthiere, Bd. iv. (Jena, 1904); also Gegenbaur's Vergleich. Anal, der Wirbelthiere, and Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907). (F. G. P.) REPSOLD, JOHANN GEORQ (i77i-i»3o), German instru- ment maker, was born at Wremen in Hanover on the 23rd of September 1771, and became an engineer and afterwards chief of the fire brigade in Hamburg, where he started business as an instrument maker early in the igth century. He was killed by the fall of a wall during a fire at Hamburg on the I4th of January 1830. The business was continued by his sons Georg (1804-1884) 136 REPTILES [HISTORY and Adolf (1806-1871), and his grandsons Johann Adolf and Oskar Philipp. J. G. Repsold introduced essential improvements in the meridian circles by substituting microscopes (on Jesse Ramsden's plan) for the verniers to read the circles, and by making the various parts perfectly symmetrical. For a number of years the firm furnished meridian circles to the observatories at Hamburg, Konigs- bcrg, Pulkova, &c.; later on its activity declined, while Pistor and Martins of Berlin rose to eminence. But after the discon- tinuance of this firm that of Repsold again came to the front, not only in the construction of transit circles, but also of equatorial mountings and more especially of heliometers (see MICRO- METER) . REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; re/ere, to creep; Gr. epTreiv, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them). In the days before Linnaeus, writers comprised the animals which popularly are known as tortoises and turtles, crocodiles, lizards and snakes, frogs and toads, newts and salamanders, under the name of oviparous quadrupeds or four-limbed animals which lay eggs. Linnaeus, desirous of giving expression to the extraordinary fact that many of these animals pass part of their life in the water and part on land,1 substituted the name of Amphibia for the ancient term. Subsequent French naturalists (Lyonnet2 and Brisson3) con- sidered that the creeping mode of. locomotion was a more general characteristic of the class than their amphibious habits, and consequently proposed the scarcely more appropriate name of Reptiles. As naturalists gradually comprehended the wide gap existing between frogs, toads, &c., on the one hand, and the other oviparous quadrupeds on the other, they either adopted the name of Batrachia for the former and that of Amphibia for the latter, or they restricted the term Amphibia to Batrachians, calling the remainder of these creatures reptiles. Thus the term Amphibia, as used by various authors, may apply (i) to all the various animals mentioned, or (2) to Batrachians only (see BATRACHIA). The term Reptiles (Reptilia) is used (i) by some for all the animals mentioned above, and (2) by others, as in the present article, for the same assemblage of animals after the exclusion of Batrachians. Equally varying are the limits of the term Saurians, which occurs so frequently in every scientific treatise on this subject. At first it comprised living crocodiles and lizards only, with which a number of fossil forms were gradually associated. As the characters and affinities of the latter became better known, some of them were withdrawn from the Saurians, and at present it is best to abandon the term altogether. I. HISTORY OF HERPETOLOGY Certain kinds of reptiles are mentioned in the earliest written records or have found a place among the fragments of the oldest relics of human art. Such evidences, however, form no part of a succinct review of the literature of the subject such as it is proposed to give here. We distinguish in it six periods: (i) the Aristotelian; (2) the Linnaean (formation of a class Amphibia, in which reptiles and Batrachians are mixed); (3) the period of the elimination of Batrachians as one of the reptilian orders (Brongniart) ; (4) that of the separation of reptiles and Bat- rachians as distinct subclasses; (5) that of the recognition of a class Reptilia as part of the Sauropsida (Huxley) ; (6) that of the discovery of fossil skeletons sufficiently well preserved to reveal, in its general outlines, the past history of the class. i. The Aristotelian Period. — Aristotle was the first to deal with the reptiles known to him as members of a distinct portion Aristotle °^ t^le al"mal kingdom, and to point out the character- istics by which they resemble each other and differ from other vertebrate and invertebrate animals. The plan of his 1 " Polymorpha in his amphibiis natura duplicem vitara plerisque concessit." 2 Theologie des insectes de Lesser (Paris, 1745), i. 91, note 5. 3 Regne animal divise en neuf classes (Paris, 1756). work, however, was rather that of a comparative treatise of the anatomical and physiological characters of animals than their systematic arrangement and definition, and his ideas about the various groups of reptiles are not distinctly expressed, but must be gleaned from the terms which he employs. Moreover, he paid less attention to the study of reptiles than to that of other classes. This is probably due to the limited number of kinds he could be acquainted with, to which only very few extra- European forms, like the crocodile, were added from other sources. But while we find in some respects a most remarkable accuracy of knowledge, there is sufficient evidence that he neglected everyday opportunities of information. Thus, he has not a single word about the metamorphoses of Batrachians, which he treats of in connexion with reptiles. Aristotle makes a clear distinction between the scute or scale of a reptile, which he describes as <£oXis, and that of a fish, which he designates as X«ris. He mentions reptiles (i) as oviparous quadrupeds with scutes, viz. Saurians and Chelonians; (2) as oviparous apodals, viz. Snakes; (3) as oviparous quadrupeds without scutes, viz. Batrachians. He considered the first and second of these three groups as much more nearly related to each other than to the third. Accurate statements and descriptions are sadly mixed with errors and stories of, to our eyes, the most absurd and fabulous kind. The most complete accounts are those of the crocodile (chiefly borrowed from Herodotus) and of the chameleon, which Aristotle evidently knew from personal observation, and had dissected himself. The other lizards men- tioned by him are the common lizards (aavpa), the common seps (XO.XKIS or f lyvls) and the gecko (do-KaXajSom/s or /copSuXos). Of snakes (of which he generally speaks as 3(£is) he knew the vipers (ex« or extova), the common snake (vdpos), and the blindworm (Tv\ivris o<£«), which he regards as a snake; he further mentions the Egyptian cobra and dragons (dpaiaav) — North-African serpents of fabulous size. Of Chelonians he describes in a perfectly recognizable manner land tortoises (xeXcbir;), freshwater turtles (ejws) and marine turtles (xsXoicr; 17 0a.Xa.TTia). Passing over eighteen centuries, we find the knowledge of reptiles to have remained as stationary as other branches of natural history, perhaps even more so. The reptile fauna of Europe was not extensive enough to attract the energy of a Belon' or Rondelet; popular prejudice and the difficulty of preserving these animals deterred from their study; nor was man sufficiently educated not to give implicit credence to the fabulous tales of reptiles in the isth and i6th centuries. The art of healing, however, was developing into a science based upon rational principles, and consequently not only those reptiles which formed part of the materia medica but also the venomous snakes became objects of study to the physician, though the majority of the writers were ignorant of the structure of the venom-apparatus, and of the distinction between non-venomous and venomous snakes. Nothing can show more clearly the small advance made by herpetology in this long post -Aristotelian period than a glance at the celebrated work, De Differentiis Animalium wotiom Libri decem (Paris, 1552), by Edward Wotton (1492- USSS)- Wotton treats of the reptiles which he designates as Quadrupedes oviparae et Serpentes in the sixth book of his work. They form the second division of the Quadrupedes qitae sanguinem habent, and are subdivided in the following " genera ": — Crocodilus et scincus (cap. cv.); Testudinum genera (cvi.); Ran- arum genera (cvii.); Lacertde (cviii.); Salamandra et seps quad- rupes (cix.); Stellio (ex.); Chamaeleo (cxi.); Serpentes (cxii.), a general account, the following being different kinds of serpents: Hydrus et alii quidam serpentes aquatiles (cxiii.) ; Serpentes terrestres et prints aspidum genera (cxiv.) ; Vipera, dipsas, cerastes, et hammodytes (cxv.); Haemorrhus, sepedon, seps, cenchris, et cenchrites (cxvi.); Basiliscus et alii quidam serpentes quorum venenum remedio caret (cxvii.) ; Draco, amphisbaena, et alii quidam serpentes quorum morsus minus affert periculi (cxviii.). Wotton's work might with propriety be termed " Aristoteles redivivus." The plan is the same, and the observations of the Greek naturalist are faithfully, sometimes literally, reproduced. HISTORY] REPTILES 137 It is surprising that even the reptiles "f his native country were most imperfectly known to the author. With the enlargement of geographical knowledge that of reptiles was also advanced, as is sufficiently apparent from the Johnston larSe encyclopaedic works of Gesner, Aldrovandi and Johnston. The last-named author especially, who published the various portions of his Natural History in the middle of the lyth century, was able to embody in his compilations notices of numerous reptiles observed by Francisco Hernandez in Mexico and by Marcgrave and Piso in Brazil. As the author had no definite idea of the Ray-Linnaean term " species," it is not possible to give the exact number of reptiles mentioned in his work. But it may be estimated at about fifty, not including some marine fishes and fabulous creatures. He figures (or rather reproduces the figures of) about forty — some species being represented by several figures. 2. Linnaean Period: Formation of a Class Amphibia. — Within the century which succeeded these compilatory works Precur- (1650-1750) fall the labours which prepared the way sorsof for and exerted the greatest influence on Ray and Lmaaeus. Lmnaeus. Although original researches in the field of herpetology were limited in extent and in number, the authors had freed themselves from the purely literary or scholastic tendency. Men were no longer satisfied with reproducing and commenting on the writings of their predecessors; the pen was superseded by the eye, the microscope and the knife, and statements were tested by experiment. This spirit of the age manifested itself, so far as the reptiles are concerned, in Chara's and Redi's admirable observations on the viper, in Major's and Vallisnieri's detailed accounts of the anatomy of the chameleon, in the researches of Jacobaeus into the metamorphoses of the Batrachians and the structure of lizards, in Dufay's history of the development of the salamander (for Batrachians are invariably associated with reptiles proper); in Tyson's description of the anatomy of the rattle- snake, &c. The natural history collections formed by insti- tutions and wealthy individuals now contained not merely skins of crocodiles or serpents stuffed and transformed into a shape to correspond with the fabulous descriptions of the ancient dragons, but, with the discovery of alcohol as a means of preserving animals, reptiles entire or dissected were exhibited for study; and no opportunity was lost of obtaining them from travellers or residents in foreign countries. Fossils also were now acknowledged to be remains of animals which had lived before the Flood, and some of them were recognized as those of reptiles. The contributions to a positive knowledge of the animal kingdom became so numerous as to render the need of a method- ical arrangement of the abundance of new facts more and more pressing. Of the two principal systematic attempts made in this period the first ranks as one of the most remarkable steps of the progress of natural history, whilst the second can only be designated as a signal failure, which ought to have been a warning to all those who in after years classified animals in what is called an, " artificial system." As the latter attempt, originating with Klein (1685-1759), did not exercise any further influence on herpetology, it will be sufficient to have merely o mentioned it. John Ray (1628-1705) had recognized the necessity of introducing exact definitions for the several categories into which the animals had to be divided, and he maintained that these categories ought to be characterized by the structure of animals, and that all zoological knowledge had to start from the " species " as its basis. His definition of reptiles as " animalia sanguinea pulmone respirantia cor unico tantum ventriculo instructum habentia ovipara " fixed the class in a manner which was adopted by the naturalists of the succeeding hundred and fifty years. Nevertheless, Ray was not a herpetologist ; his knowledge of reptiles is chiefly derived from the researches of others, from whose accounts, however, everything not based upon reliable demonstration is critically excluded. He begins with a chapter treating of frogs (Rana, with two species), toads (Bufo, with one species) and tortoises1 (Tesludo, with fourteen species). The second group comprises the Lacertae, twenty-five in number, and includes the salamander and newts; and the third the Serpentes, nine species, among which the limbless lizards are enumerated. Except in so far as he made known and briefly characterized a number of reptiles, our knowledge of this class was not advanced by Linnaeus. That he associated in the 1 2th edition cartilaginous and other fishes with the reptiles under the name of Amphibia Nantes was the result of some misunderstanding of an observation by Garden, and is not to be taken as a premonitory token of the recent discoveries of the relation between Batrachians and fishes. Linnaeus places reptiles, which he calls Amphibia, as the third class of the animal kingdom; he divides the genera thus: — ORDER i. REPTILES. — Testudo (15 species); Rana (17 sp.); Draco (2 sp.); Lacerla (48 sp., including 6 Batrachians). ORDER 2. SERPENTES. — Crotalus (5 species); Boa (10 sp.); Coluber (96 sp.); Anguis (15 sp.); Amphisbaena (2 sp.); Caecilia (2 sp.). None of the naturalists who under the direction or influence of Linnaeus visited foreign countries possessed any special knowledge of or predilection for the study of reptiles; all, however, contributed to our acquaintance with tropical forms, or transmitted well-preserved specimens to the collections at home, so that Gmelin, in the i3th edition of the Sy sterna Naturae, was able to enumerate three hundred and seventy-one species. The man who, with the advantage of the Linpaean method, first treated of reptiles monographically, was Laurenti. In a small book2 he proposed a new division of these animals, of which some ideas and terms have survived into our times, characterizing the orders, genera and species in a much more precise manner than Linnaeus, giving, for his time, excellent descriptions and figures of the species of his native country. Laurenti might have become for herpetology what Artedi was for ichthyology, but his resources were extremely limited. The circumstance that Chelonians are entirely omitted from his Synopsis seems due rather to the main object with which he engaged in the study of herpetology, viz. that of examining and distinguishing reptiles reputed to be poisonous, and to want of material, than to his conviction that tortoises should be relegated to another class. He divides the class into three orders: — 1. SALIENTIA, with the genera Pipa, Bufo, Rana, Hyla, and one species of " Proteus," viz. the larva of Pseudis paradoxa. 2. GRADIENTIA, the three first genera of which are Tailed Batrach- ians, viz. two species of Proteus (one being the P. anguinus), Triton and Salamandra; followed by true Saurians — Caudiverbera, Gecko, Chamaeleo, Iguana, Basiliscus, Draco, Cordylus, Crocodilus, Scincus, Stellio, Seps. 3. SERPENTIA, among which he continues to keep Amphisbaena, Caecilia and Anguis, but the large Linnaean genus Coluber is divided into twelve, chiefly from the scutellation of the head and form of the body. The work concludes with an account of the experiments made by Laurenti to prove the poisonous or innocuous nature of those reptiles of which he could obtain living specimens. The next general work on reptiles is by LacSpede. It appeared in the years 1788 and 1790 under the title Histaire naturelle des quadrupedes ovipares et des serpens (Paris, 2 vols. 4to). Although as regards treatment of details and amount of information this work far surpasses the modest attempt of Laurenti, it shows no advance towards a more natural division and arrangement of the genera. The author depends entirely on conspicuous external characters, and classifies the reptiles into (i) oviparous quadrupeds with a tail, (2) oviparous quadrupeds without a tail, (3) oviparous 1 In associating tortoises with toads, Ray could not disengage himself from the general popular view as to the nature of these animals, which found expression in the German Schildkrote (" Shield- toad "). 1 Specimen medicum exhibens Synopsin Reptilium emendatam cum experimentis circa venena et antidota Reptilium Austriacorum (Vienna, 1768, 8vo, pp. 214, with 5 plates). XXIH. 5 a 138 REPTILES [HISTORY Oaudin. bipeds (Chirotes and Pseudopus), (4) serpents, — an arrangement in which the old confusion of Batrachians and reptiles and the imperfect definition of lizards and snakes are continued, and which it is worthy of remark we find also adopted in Cuvier's Tableau elementaire de I'histoire naturelle des animaux (1798), and nearly so by Latreille in his Histoire naturelle des reptiles (Paris, 1801, 4 vols. 12 mo). Lacepede's monograph, however, remained for many years deservedly the standard work on reptiles. The numerous plates with which the work is illus- trated, are, for the time, well drawn, and the majority readily recognizable. 3. The Period of Elimination of Batrachians as one of the Reptilian Orders. — A new period for herpetology commences Bronx- with Alex. Brongniart,1 who in 1799 first recognized atari. the characters by which Batrachians differ from the other reptiles, and by which they form a natural passage to the class of fishes. Caecilia (as also Langaha and Acro- chordus) is left by Brongniart with hesitation in the order of snakes-, but newts and salamanders henceforth are no more classed with lizards. He leaves the Batrachians, however, in the class of reptiles, as the fourth order. The first order com- prises the Chelonians, the second the Saurians (including crocodiles and lizards), the third the Ophidians — terms which have been adopted by all succeeding naturalists. Here, however, Brongniart 's merit on the classification of reptiles ends, the definition and disposition of the genera remaining much the same as in the works of his predecessors. The activity in France in the field of natural science was at this period, in spite of the political disturbances, so great that only a few years after Lacepede's work another, almost identical in scope and of the same extent, appeared, viz. the Histoire naturelle genSrale et particuliere des reptiles of F. M. Daudin (Paris, 1802-3, 8 vols. 8vo). Written and illustrated with less care than that by Lacepede, it is of greater importance to the herpetologists of the present day, as it contains a considerable number of generic and specific forms described for the first time. Indeed, at the end of the work, the author states that he has examined more than eleven hundred specimens, belonging to five hundred and seventeen species, all of which he has described from nature. The system adopted is that of Brongniart, the genera are well defined, but ill arranged; it is, however, noteworthy that Caecilia takes now its place at the end of the Ophidians, and nearest to the succeeding order of Batrachians. The next step in the development of the herpetological system was the natural arrangement of the genera. This involved a stupendous amount of labour. Although many isolated con- tributions were made by various workers, this task could be successfully undertaken and completed in the Paris Museum only, in which, besides Seba's and Lacepede's collections, many other herpetological treasures from other museums had been deposited by the victorious generals of the empire, and to which, through Cuvier's reputation, objects from every part of the world were attracted in a voluntary manner. The men who devoted themselves to this task were A. M. C. Dumeril, Oppel and Cuvier himself. Oppel was a German who, during his visit to Paris (1807-1808), attended the Cuvier. lectures of Dumeril and Cuvier, and at the same time studied the materials to which access was given to him by the latter in the most liberal manner. Dumeril 2 maintains that Oppel's ideas and information were entirely derived from his lectures, and that Oppel himself avows this to be the case. The passage,3 however, to which he refers is somewhat ambiguous, 1 Bull. Acad. Sci. (1800), Nos. 35, 36. 2 Erpet. gener., i. p. 259. 8 " Ware es nicht die Ermunterung . . . dieser Freunde gewesen, so wiirde ich uberzeugt von den Mangeln, denen eine solche Arbeit bei aller moglichen Vorsicht doch unterworfen ist, es nie gewagt haben, meine Eintheilung bekannt zu machen, obwohl selbe Herr Dum^ril in seinen Lectionen vom Jahre 1809 schon vorgetragen, und die Thiere im Cabinet darnach bezeichnet hat " (preface, p. viii). A few lines further on he emphatically declares that the classification is based upon his own researches. and it is certain that there is the greatest possible difference between the arrangement published by Dumeril in 1806 (Zoologie Andlytique, Paris, 8vo) and that proposed by Oppel in his Ordnungen, Familien,undGattungen der Reptilien (Munich, 1811, 4to). There is no doubt that Oppel profited largely by the teaching of Dumeril; but, on the other hand, there is sufficient internal evidence in the works of both authors, not only that Oppel worked independently, but also that Dumeril and Cuvier owed much to their younger fellow-labourer, as Cuvier himself indeed acknowledges more than once. Oppel's classification may be shortly indicated thus: — ORDER I. TESTUDINATA OR CHELONIENS. Fam. i. CHELONII (gen. Mydas, Goriacea). Fam. 2. AMYDAE (gen. Trionyx, Chelys, Testudo, Emys). ORDER 2. SQUAMATA. Sect. A. SAURII. Fam. I. CROCODILINI (gen. Grocodilus, Gavialis, Alligator). Fam. 2. GECKOIDES (gen. Gecko, Stellio, Agama). Fam. 3. IGUANOIDES (gen. Camaeleo, Draco, Iguana, Basiliscus, Lophyrus, Anolis). Fam. 4. LACERTINI (gen. Tupinambis, Dracaena, Lacerta, Tachy- drontus). Fam. 5. SCINCOIDES (gen. Scincus, Seps, Scheltopusik, Anguis). Fam. 6. CHALCIDICI (gen. Chalcides, Bimanus, Bipes, Ophisaurus). Sect. B. OPHIDII. Fam. i. ANGUIFORMES (gen. Tortrix, Amphisbaena, Typhlops). Fam. 2. CONSTRICTORES (gen. Boa, Eryx). Fam. 3. HYDRI (gen. Platurus, Hydrophis). Fam. 4. PSEUDO-VIPERAE (gen. Acrochordus, Erpeton). Fam. 5. CROTALINI (gen. Crotalus, Trigonocephalus). Fam. 6. VIPERINI (gen. Vipera, Pseudoboa). Fam. 7. COLUBRINI (gen. Coluber, Bungarus). ORDER 3. NUDA OR BATRACII. In this classification we notice three points, which indicate a decided progress towards a natural system, (i) The four orders proposed by Brongniart are no more considered co- subordinate in the class, but the Saurians and Ophidians are associated as sections of the same order, a view held by Aristotle but abandoned by all following naturalists. The distinction between lizards and snakes is carried out in so precise a manner that one genus only, Amphisbaena, is wrongly placed. (2) The true reptiles have now been entirely divested of all hetero- geneous elements by relegating positively Caecilia to the Batrachians, a view for which Oppel had been fully prepared by Dumeril, who pointed out in 1807 that " les cecities se rapprochent considerablement des batraciens auxquels elles semblent lier 1'ordre entier des serpens."4 (3) An attempt is made at arranging the genera into families, some of which are still retained at the present day. In thus giving a well-merited prominence to Oppel's labours we are far from wishing to detract from the influence exercised by the master spirit of this period, Cuvier. Without his guid- ance Oppel probably never would have found a place among the promoters of herpetological science. But Cuvier's principal researches on reptiles were incidental or formed part of some more general plan; Oppel concentrated his on this class only. Cuvier adopts the four orders of reptiles proposed by Brong- niart as equivalent elements of the class, and restores the blind- worms and allied lizards and, what is worse, also the Caecilias, to the Ophidians. The chameleons and geckos are placed in separate groups, and the mode of dividing the latter has been retained to the present day. Also a natural division of the snakes, although the foreign elements mentioned are admitted into the order, is sufficiently indicated by his arrangement of the " vrais serpens proprement dits " as (i) non-venomous snakes, (2) venomous snakes with several maxillary teeth, and (3) venomous snakes with isolated poison-fangs. He distinguishes the species of reptiles with a precision not attained in any previous work. ^ Cuvier's researches into the osteology of reptiles had also the object of discovering the means of understanding the fossil remains which now claimed the attention of French, English and German naturalists. Extinct Chelonian and Crocodilian 4 Memoires de zoologie et d'anatomie comparee (Paris, 1807, 8vo), P- 45- HISTORY] REPTILES 139 v!fwe"" Menem. remains, Pterodactylus, Mosasaurus, Iguanodon, Ichthyosaurus, Teleosaurus, became the subjects of Cuvier's classical treatises, which form the contents of the 5th volume (part 2) of his Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles, oil. Von rttablit les caracteres des plusieurs animaux dont les revolutions du globe ont detruit les especes (new ed., Paris, 1824, 4to). All the succeeding herpetologists adopted either Oppel's or Cuvier's view as to the number of orders of reptiles, or as to the position Batrachians ought to take in their relation *° vePliles proper, with the single exception of D. DE BLAINVILLE. He divided the " oviparous subtype " of Vertebrates into four classes, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes,1 a modification of the system which is all the more significant as he designates the reptiles " Squammiferes Ornithoides, ecailleux," and the amphibians " Nudipelliferes, Ichthyoldes nus." In these terms we perceive clear indications of the relations which exist to the class of birds on the one hand, and to that of fishes on the other; but, unfortunately, Blainville himself did not follow up the ideas thus expressed, and abandoned even the terms in a later edition of his systematic tables. The direct or indirect influence of the work of French anato- mists manifested itself in the systems of the other herpetologists of this period. The Crocodiles, especially, which hitherto (strange to say, even in Cuvier's classification) had been placed as one of the families of Saurians, now commence to be separated from them. MERREM (Versuch eines Systems der Amphibien, Marburg, 1820, 8vo) distinguishes two classes of " Amphibians," Pholidota and Batrachia. The Pholidota (or Reptiles) are divided into three orders, distin- guished chiefly by osteological and splanchnological characters: — 1. TESTUDINATA. 2. LORICATA ( = Crocodiles). 3. SQUAMATA (=Oppel's Squamata, excluding Crocodiles). Merrem's subdivision of the Squamata into (i) Gradientia ( = limbed Lacertilia), (2) Repentia ( = limbless Lacertilia), (3) Serpentia (= Snakes and Amphisbaena), (4) Incedentia ( = Chirotes), and (5) Predentia ( = Chamaeleons) was based chiefly on the modi- fications of the limbs, and not adopted by his successors. The greater part of his work is occupied with a synopsis of all the species of Reptiles known, each being shortly characterized by a diagnosis; but, as only a small proportion (about one hundred and seventy) were known to him from autopsy, this synopsis has all the faults of a compilation. LATREILLE, who commenced the study of reptiles as early as 1801, had kept pace with the progress of science when he published, in 1825, his Families naturelles du regne animal (Paris, 1825, 8vo). He separated the Batra- chians as a class from the Reptiles, and the latter he divides into two sections only, Cataphracta and Squamosa — in the former Crocodiles being associated with the Chelonians. He bases this view on the development of a carapace in both, on the structure of the feet, on the fixed quadrate bone, on the single organ of copulation. None of the succeeding herpetologists adopted a combination founded on such important characters except J. E. GRAY, who, however, destroyed Latreille's idea of Cataphracta by adding the Amphisbaenians2 as a third order. A mass of new materials now began to accumulate from all parts of the world in European museums. Among others, Spix had brought from Brazil a rich spoil to the Munich Museum, and the Bavarian Academy charged JOH. WAGLER to prepare a general system of reptiles and batra- chians. His work,3 the result of ten years' labour, is a simple but lasting monument to a young naturalist,4 who, endowed with an ardent imagination, only too frequently misinterpreted the evidence of facts, or forced it into the service of preconceived ideas. Cuvier had drawn attention to certain resemblances in 1Bull. Sci. Soc. Philomat., July 1816. 2 Catalogue of the Tortoises, Crocodiles and Amphisbaenians in the Collection of the British Museum (London, 1844, i6mo), p. 2. 8 Naturliches System der Amphibien mil vorangehender Classifica- tion der Saugethiere und Vogel — ein Beilrag zur vergleichenden Zoologie (Munich, 1830, 8vo). 4 Wagler was accidentally killed three years after the publication of his System. Latrellle. Oray. some parts of the osseous structure of Ichthyosaurus and Ptero- dactylus to dolphins, birds, crocodiles, &c. Wagler, seizing upon such analogical resemblances, separated those extinct Saurians from the class of Reptiles, and formed of them and the Monotremes a distinct class of Vertebrates, intermediate between mammals and birds, which he called Gryphi. We must admit that he made free use of his imagination by defining his class of Gryphi as " vertebrates with lungs lying free in the pectoral cavity; oviparous development of the embryo (within or) without the parent; the young fed (or suckled?) by the parents." By the last character this Waglerian class is distinguished from the reptiles. Reptiles (in which Wagler includes Batrachians) are divided into eight orders: Testudines, Crocodili, Lacertae, Serpentes, Angues, Caeciliae, Ranae and Ichthyodi. He has great merit in having employed, for the subdivision of the families of lizards, the structure of the tongue and the mode of insertion of the teeth in the jaws. On the other hand, Wagler entirely failed in arrang- ing snakes in natural families, venomous and non-venomous types being mixed in the majority of his groups. L. FITZINGER was Wagler's contemporary; his first work* preceded Wagler's system by four years. As he says in the preface, his object was to arrange the reptiles in Ptt*~ " a natural system." Unfortunately, in order to later. attain this object, Fitzinger paid regard to the most superficial points of resemblance; and in the tabula affinitatum generum which he constructed to demonstrate " the progress of nature " he has been much more successful in placing closely allied generic forms in contiguity than in tracing the relationships of the higher groups. That table is prepared in the form of a genealogical tree, but Fitzinger wished to express thereby merely the amount of morphological resemblance, and there is no evidence whatever in the text that he had a clear idea of genetic affinity. The Batrachians are placed at the bottom of the scheme, leading through Hyla to the Geckos (clearly on account of the digital dilatations) and through Caecilia to Amphisbaena. At the top Draco leads through Pterodactylus to the Bats (Pteropus), Ichthyosaurus to the Cetaceans (Del- phinus), Emys to the Monotremes, Testudo to Manis, and the Marine Turtles to the Divers and Penguins. In Fitzinger's system the higher groups are, in fact, identical with those proposed by Merrem, while greater originality is shown in the subdivision of the orders. He differed also widely from Wagler in his views as to the relations of the extinct forms. The order of Loricata consists of two families, the Ichthyosaurpidea and Croco- diloidea, the former comprising Iguanodon, Plesiosaurus, Sauro- cephalus and Ichthyosaurus. In the order Squamata Lacertilians and Ophidians are combined and divided into twenty-two families, almost all based on the most conspicuous external characters: the first two, viz. the Geckos and Chameleons, are natural enough, but in the three following Iguanoids and Agamoids are sadly mixed, Pterodactyles and Draco forming one family; Megalo- saurus, Mosasaurus, Varanus, Tejus, &c., are associated in another named Ameivoidea; the Amphisbaenidae are correctly defined; the Cplubroidea are a heterogeneous assemblage of thirty genera; but with his family of Bungaroidea Fitzinger makes an attempt to separate at least a part of the venomous Colubrine Snakes from the Viperines, which again are differentiated from the last family, that of Crotaloidea. • If this little work had been his only performance in the field of herpetology his name would have been honourably mentioned among his fellow-workers. But the promise of his early labours was not justified by his' later work, and if we take notice of the latter here it is only because his name has become attached to many a reptile through the pedantic rules of zoological nomenclature. The labours of Wiegmann, Mttller, Dumeril and Bibron exercised no influence on him, and when he commenced to publish a new system of reptiles in 1843,' °f which fortunately one fasciculus only appeared, he exhibited a classification in which morphological facts are entirely superseded by fanciful ideas of the vaguest kind of physiosophy, each class of vertebrates being divided s Neue Classification der Reptilien nach ihren naturlichen Ver- wandtschaften (Vienna, 1826, 4to). • Systema Reptilium (Vienna, 1843, 8vo). 140 REPTILES [HISTORY fl va- into five " sense " series, and each series into three orders one comprising forms of superior, the second of medium anc the third of inferior development. In the generic arrangemenl of the species, to which Fitzinger devoted himself especially in this work, he equally failed to advance science. We have now arrived at a period distinguished by the appear- ance of a work which superseded all its predecessors, which formed the basis for the labours of many succeeding years and which will always -remain one of the classical monuments of descriptive zoology — the Erpetologie generate ou histoire naturelle complete des reptiles of A. M. C. DUMERIL and G. BIBRON (Paris, 8vo). The first volume appeared in 1834, and the ninth and last in 1854. No naturalist of that time could have been better qualified for the tremendous undertaking than C. Dumeril, who almost from the first year of half a century's connexion with the then largest collection of Reptilia had chiefly devoted himself to their study. The task would have been too great for the energy of a single man; it was, therefore, fortunate for Dumeril that he found a most devoted fellow-labourer in one of his assistants, G. Bibron, whose abilities equalled those of the master, but who, to the great loss of science, died (in 1848) before the completion of the work. Dumeril had the full benefit of Bibron's knowledge for the volumes containing the Snakes, but the last volume, which treats of the Tailed Batrachians, had to be prepared by Dumeril alone. The work is the first which gives a comprehensive scientific account of reptiles generally, their structure, physiology and literature, and again each of the four orders admitted by the authors is introduced by a similar general account. In the body of the work 121 Chelonians, 468 Saurians, 586 Ophidians and 218 Batrachians are described in detail and with the greatest precision. Singularly enough, the authors revert to Brong- niart's arrangement, in which the Batrachians are co-ordinate with the other three orders of reptiles. This must appear all the more strange as Von Baer1 in 1828, and J. Miiller2in 1831, had urged, besides other essential differences, the important fact that no Batrachian embryo possesses either an amnion or an allantois, like a reptile. 4. Period of the Separation of Reptiles and Batrachians as Distinct Classes or Subclasses. — In the chronological order which we have adopted for these historical notes, we had to refer in their proper places to two herpetologists, Blainville and Latreille, who advocated a deeper than merely ordinal separation of Reptiles from Batrachians, and who were followed by J. /nailer F. S. Leuckart. But this view only now began to find and more general acceptance. J. MULLER and STANNIUS ID/OS. were guided in their classification entirely by ana- tomical characters, and consequently recognized the wide gap which separates the Batrachians from the Reptiles; yet they considered them merely as subclasses of the class Amphibia. The former directed his attention particularly to those forms which seemed to occupy an intermediate position between Lacertilians and Ophidians, and definitely relegated Anguis, Pseudopus, Acontias to the former, and Typhlops, Rhinophis, Tortrix, but also the Amphisbaenoids to the latter. Stannius interpreted the characteristics of the Amphisbaenoids differ- ently, as will be seen from the following abstract of his. classi- fication:3 — SUBCLASSIS: AMPHIBIA MONO PNOA (Leuckart). SECT. i. STREPTOSTYLICA (Stann.). Quadrate bone arti- culated to the skull; copulatory organs paired, placed out- side the cloacal cavity. ORDOI. OPHIDIA. Subordo I. EURYSTOMATA or MACROSTOMATA (Mull.). The facial bones are '.loosely connected to admit of great extension of the wide mouth. Subordo 2. ANGIOSTOMATA or MICROSTOMATA (Mull.). Mouth narrow, not extensile; quadrate bone attached to the skull and not to a mastoid. 1 Enlwicklungsgeschichte der Thiere, p. 262. 2 Tiedemann s Zeitschrift fur Physiologie, vol. iv. p. 200. 3 Siebold and Stannius, Handbuch der Zootomie — Zootomie der Amphibien (2nd ed., Berlin, 1856, 8vo). ORD02. SAURIA. Subordo i. AMPHISBAENOIDEA. Subordo 2. KIONOCRANIA (Stann. )= Lizards. Subordo 3. CHAMAELEONIDEA. SECT. 2. MONIMOSTYLICA (Stann.). Quadrate bone sutur- ally united with the skull; copulatory organ simple, placed within the cloaca. ORDO i. CHELONIA. ORDO 2. CROCODILIA. This classification received the addition of a fifth Reptilian order which with many Lacertilian characters combined im- portant Crocodilian affinities, and in certain other respects differed from both, viz. the New Zealand Hatteria, which by its first describers had been placed to the Agamoid Lizards. A. GttNTHER,4 who pointed out the characteristics of this reptile, considered it to be co-ordinate with the other four orders of reptiles, and characterizes it thus: — Rhynchocephalia. — Quadrate bone suturally and immovably united with the skull and pterygoid; columella present. Kami of the mandible united as in Lacertilians. Temporal region with two horizontal bars. Vertebrae amphicoelian. Copulatory organs, none. 5. Period of the Recognition of a Class of Reptilia as Part of the Sauropsida. — Although so far the discovery of every new morphological and developmental fact had prepared naturalists for a class separation of Reptiles and Batrachians, it was left to T. H. Huxley to demonstrate, not merely that the weight of facts demanded such a class separation, but that the reptiles hold the same relation to birds as the fishes to Batrachians. In his Hunterian Lectures (1863) he divided the vertebrates into Mammals, Sauroids and Ichthyoids, subsequently substituting for the last two the terms Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida.6 The Sauropsida contain the two classes of birds and reptiles, the Ichthyopsida those of Batrachians and fishes. 6. Period of the Consideration of Skeletons of Extinct Reptiles. — SIR R. OWEN, while fully appreciating the value of the osteological characters on which Huxley based his division, yet Q admitted into his consideration those taken from the organs of circulation and respiration, and reverted to Latreille's division of warm- and cold-blooded (haematothermal and haematocryal) vertebrates, thus approximating the Batrachians to reptiles, and separating them from birds.6 The reptiles (or Monopnoa, Leuck.) thus form the highest of the five subclasses into which, after several previous c'assifications, Owen 7 finally divided the Haematocrya. His division of this subclass, however, nto nine orders, makes a considerable step in the progress of lerpetology, since it takes into consideration for the first time the many extinct groups whose skeletons are found fossil. He shows that the number of living reptilian types bears but a small aroportion to that of extinct forms, and therefore that a sys- tematic arrangement of the entire class must be based chiefly upon osteological characters. His nine orders are the follow- ng: a. ICHTHYOPTERYGIA (extinct)— Ichthyosaurus. b. SAUROPTERYGIA (extinct) — Plesiosaurus, Pliosaurus, Notho- saurus, Placodus. :. ANOMODONTIA (extinct) — Dicynodon, Rhynchosaurus, Ouden- odon. d. CHELONIA. e. LACERTILIA (with the extinct Mosasaurus). f. OPHIDIA. [.CROCODILIA (with the extinct Teleosaurus and Streptospon- dylus). h. DINOSAURIA (extinct) — Iguanodon, Scelidosaurus and Megalo- saurus. '. PTEROSAURIA (extinct)— Dimorphodon, Rhamphorhynchus and Pterodactylus. Owen was followed by Huxley and E. D. Cope, who, however, restricted still mttre the selection of classificatory characters by •elying for the purposes of arrangement on a few parts of the 4 " Contribution to the Anatomy of Hatteria (Rhynchocephalus Owen)," in Phil. Trans. (1867), part ii. 6 An Introduction to the Classification of Animals (London, 1869, °vo), pp. 104 seq. 6 Anatomy of Vertebrates (London, 1866, 8vo), vol. i. p. 6. ' Op. cit. p. 16. GENERAL CHARACTERS] REPTILES 141 Huxley. skeleton only. They attempted a further grouping of the orders which in Owen's system were merely serially enumerated as cosubordinate groups. HUXLEY used for this purpose almost exclusively the position and character of the rib-articulations to the vertebral centra, the orders themselves being the same as in Owen's system: — A. PLEUROSPONDYLIA. Dorsal vertebrae devoid of trans- verse processes and not movable upon one another, nor are the ribs movable upon the vertebrae. A plastron. Order I, CHELONIA. B. The dorsal vertebrae (which have either complete or rudi- mentary transverse processes) are movable upon one another, and the ribs upon them. No plastron. a. The dorsal vertebrae have transverse processes which are either entire or very imperfectly divided into terminal facets (ERPETOSPONDYLIA). a. Transverse processes long; limbs well developed, pad- dles; sternum and sternal ribs absent or rudiment- ary. Order 2, PLESIOSAURIA (= Sauropterygia, Ow.). jS. Transverse processes short. aa. A pectoral arch and urinary bladder. Order 3, LACERTILIA. 66. No pectoral arch and no urinary bladder. Order 4, OPHIDIA. b. The dorsal vertebrae have double tubercles in place of trans- verse processes (PEROSPONDYLIA). Limbs paddle-shaped. Order 5, ICHTHYOSAURIA ( = Ichthyopterygia, Ow.). c. The anterior dorsal vertebrae have elongated and divided transverse processes, the tubercular being longer than the capitular division (SucnOSPONDYLlA). o. Only two vertebrae in the sacrum. Order 6, CROCO- DILIA. (8. More than two vertebrae in the sacrum. 00. Manus without a prolonged ulnar digit. aa. Hind limb Saurian. Order 7, DICYNODON- TIA (= Anomodontia, Ow.). /S/3. Hind limb Ornithic. Order 8, ORNITHO- SCELIDA ( = Dinosauria, Ow.). 66. Manus with an extremely long ulnar digit. Order 9, PTEROSAURIA. COPE,1 by combining the modifications of the quadrate and supporting bones with the characters used by Huxley, further developed Owen's classification, separating the Pythonomorpha and Rhynchocephalia as distinct orders from the Lacertilia. He eventually2 elaborated the following classification, based entirely on osteological characters: — I. The quadrate bone immovably fixed to the adjacent elements by suture. A. Scapular arch external to ribs; temporal region with a complex bony roof ; no longitudinal postorbital bars. A tabular and supramastoid bones and a presternum; limbs ambulatory; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order I, COTYLOSAURIA. AA. Scapular arch internal to ribs ; temporal region with com- plex roof and no longitudinal bars. A presternum; limbs ambulatory. Order 2, CHELYDO- SAURIA. AAA. Scapular arch internal to ribs; sternum extending below coracoids and pelvis; one postorbital bar. No supramastoid ; a paroccipital ; clavicle not articulating with scapula. Order 3, TESTUDINATA. AAAA. Scapular arch external to ribs; one longitudinal post- orbital bar (Synaptosauria). A supramastoid and paroccipital bones ; ribs two-headed on centrum; carpals and tarsals not distinct in form from metapodials; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 4, ICHTHYOPTERYGIA. A supramastoid; paroccipital not distinct; a postorbito- squamosal arch ; ribs two-headed ; a clavicle; obturator foramen small or none ; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 5, THEROMORA. No supramastoid ; paroccipital not distinct ; a quadrato- jugal arch; scapula triradiate; no clavicle; ribs one- headed. Order 6, PLESIOSAURIA. AAAAA. Scapular arch external to ribs; two longitudinal post- orbital bars (paroccipital arch distinct) (Archosauna). a. A supramastoid bone. Ribs two-headed; a clavicle and interclavicle ; aceta- bulum closed; no obturator foramen; ambulatory; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 7, PELYCOSAURIA. aa. No supramastoid. 1 Proc. Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, loth meeting (Cambridge, 1871, 8vo), pp. 230 sq.; Amer. Naturalist (1889), vol. xxiii. p. 863. 'Syllabus of Lectures on the Vertebrata (Philadelphia, 1898, 8vo), P- 54- O.sAorn. Ribs two-headed; interclavicle not distinct; external digits greatly elongated to support a patagium for flight. Order 8, ORNITHOSAURIA. Ribs two-headed; no interclavicle; acetabulum open; ambulatory. Order 9, DINOSAURIA. Ribs two-headed; an interclavicle; acetabulum closed; ambulatory. Order 10, LORICATA. Ribs one-headed; an interclavicle; acetabulum closed, a large obturator foramen; ambulatory. Order n, RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. II. The quadrate bone loosely articulated to the cranium and at the proximal end only (Streptostylica). No distinct supramastoid, nor opisthotic; one or no post- orbital bar; scapular arch, when present, external to ribs; ribs one-headed. Order 12, SQUAMATA. While this classification was being considered and prepared, both Cope and G. Baur made a special study of the bones which surround the quadrate and arch over the biting muscles in the various groups of reptiles. This led to a series of discussions which ended in the idea, that the class could be most naturally divided into two great subclasses, the one culminating in tortoises and mammals, the other in crocodiles, lizards, snakes and birds. Professor H. F. OSBORN in 1903 * therefore proposed the following classification : — Subclass SYNAPSIDA. Primarily with single or undivided temporal arches. Giving rise to the mammals through some unknown member of the Anomodontia. Orders Cotylosauria, Anomodontia, Testudinata and Sauropterygia. Subclass DIAPSIDA. Primarily with double or divided temporal arches. Giving rise to the birds through some unknown type transitional between Protorosauria and Dinosauria. Orders Diaptosauria (= Protorosauria, Pelycosauria and Rhyn- chocephalia), Phytosauria (=Belodon, &c.), Ichthyosauria, Crocoduia, Dinosauria, Squamata and Pterosauria. The most exhaustive and modern general work on reptiles is by Dr C. K. HOFFMANN in Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs (1879-90). A most useful and less technical treatise is the volume on Amphibia and Reptiles contri- buted by Dr H. Gadow to the Cambridge Natural History (London, 1902). (A. C. G.; A. S. Wo.) II. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE CLASS REPTILIA Reptiles, as known in the existing world, are the modified, and in many respects degenerate, representatives of a group of lung-breathing vertebrate animals which attained its maximum development in the Mesozoic period. So far as can be judged from the skeleton, some of the members of this group then living might have become mammals by very slight change, while others might as readily have evolved into birds. It is therefore probable that the class Reptilia, as now understood, comprises the direct ancestors both of the Mammalia and Aves. Assuming that its extinct members, which are known only by skeletons, were organized essentially like its existing representatives, the class ranks higher than that of the lowest five-toed vertebrates (class Batrachia) in the investment of the foetus by two membranous envelopes (the amnion and allantois), and in the total absence of gills even in the earliest embryos. It ranks below both the Mammalia and Aves in the partial mixture of the arterial blood with the venous blood as it leaves the heart, thus causing the organism to be cold-blooded; it also differs both from Mammalia and Aves in retaining a pair of aortic arches, of which only the left remains in the former, while the right one is retained in the latter. No feature in the endoskeleton is absolutely distinctive, except possibly the degeneration of the parasphenoid bone, which separates the Reptilia from the Amphibia. In the exoskeleton, however, the epidermis forms horny scales, such as never occur in Amphibia, while there are no traces of any structures resembling either hairs or feathers, which respectively characterize Mammalia and Aves. There is little doubt that true reptiles date back to the latter part of the Palaeozoic period, but at that epoch the Amphibia approached them so closely in the characters of the skeleton that it is difficult to distinguish the members of the two classes among the fossils. Some of the Palaeozoic Amphibia — a few of the so-called Labyrinthodonts — are proved to have had well- developed gill-arches in their immature state, while there are conspicuous marks of slime-canals on their skulls. Others are 1 Mem. American Mus. Nat. Hist. (November 1903), vol. i. art. viii. 142 REPTILES [GENERAL CHARACTERS merely regarded as Amphibia because they closely resemble the genera which are proved to have been gill-breathers when immature. All these genera, however, so far as known, agree with the existing Amphibia in the production of their large parasphenoid bone as far forwards as the vomers to form a rigid and complete basicranial axis (fig. i, A). Those genera of the upper, bar, some members of this series eventually pass into the order Squamata (Lacertilia+Ophidia), in which the quadrate bone is completely exposed and loosely attached to the skull (fig. 2, E); other reptiles exhibiting a similar modi- fication may readily have acquired the typical Avian skull (fig. 2, F) by the loss of the upper and the retention of the lower temporal bar in question. In view of these and other palaeontological con- siderations, the Reptilia may be classified into orders as follows: — ORDERS OF CLASS REPTILIA 1. Anompdontia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull forming a complete roof over the temporal and masseter muscles, or contracted into a single broad zygo- matic arch, leaving a superior-temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. Ribs completely or imperfectly double- headed. No abdominal ribs. A large separately ossified epicoracoid. Limbs for support as well as progression; third and fourth digits with not more than three phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. — Permian and Triassic. 2. Chelonia. — -Postero-lateral region of skull as in Anomo- dontia, except bones of ear-capsule more modified. No pineal foramen. Ribs single-headed. No sternum. Pectoral and pelvic arches unique in being situated completely inside the ribs. No epicoracoid. Abdominal ribs replaced by three or four pairs of large plates, which, with the clavicles and interclayicle, form a plastron. Limbs only for pro- gression; third and fourth digits with not more than three phalanges. A regular dorsal carapace of bony plates in- After Credner. After C. W. Andrews. timately connected with the neural spines, and ribs of FlG-T,I-^A' Palat£of Palaeozoic Amphibian (Archegosaurus dechem). ^^ to nine dorsai vertebrae. Range.— Upper Triassic to B, ralate ot Mesozoic Reptile (Plesiosaurus macrocepnalus). Recent b.occ, basioccipital; 6s, basisphenoid ; eept, ectopterygoid ; i.pt, inter- 3. Sauropterygia.— Bones of postero-lateral region of pterygoid vacuity; j, jugal; mx. maxilla; pas, parasphenoid ; pi, palatine ; skull contracted into a single broad zygomatic arch, leaving pmx, premaxilla; ft, pterygoid; pt. nar, posterior nares; qu, quadrate; a superior-temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. No s.o, suborbital vacuity; v, vomer. • • • »" ' ' -L which less resemble the typical Labyrinthodonts are charac- terized by the reduction of the parasphenoid bone so that it no longer reaches the vomers; in these animals the weakened skull exhibits a secondary basicranial axis formed by the approxima- tion of the pterygoids to the median line (fig. i, B). The latter condition is universal in existing reptiles, and may there- fore perhaps be regarded as a diagnostic feature. If so, the oldest known undoubted reptile is Palaeohatteria, from the Lower Permian of Saxony. In the structure of the skull Palaeohatteria is much like the existing Sphenodon, the cheek-plates which cover the temporal and masseter muscles on each side being pierced by two great vacuities, one superior-temporal, the other lateral-temporal. The majority of the earliest reptiles, however, either resemble the Labyrinthodonts in having the biting muscles completely covered with a roof of bony plates, or exhibit a slight shrinkage of this investment so that a superior-temporal vacuity appears. As the various groups or orders become differentiated, this shrinkage or reduction continues, while the shape of the ossify- ing ear-capsule changes, and the squamosal bone, which covers the organ of hearing in the fishes, and presumably also in the Palaeozoic Batrachia, is gradually thrust outwards from all connexion with this capsule except at its hinder angle. The resultant modifications are diagrammatically represented in fig 2. In one series of orders, comprising the Anomodontia, Chelonia, Sauropterygia and Ichthyopterygia (fig. 2, B, C), the superior- temporal vacuity (s) first appears, and the cheek- plates in the broad temporal arch thus formed may be variously fused together, sometimes even irregularly perforated — showing at first, indeed, the usual inconstancy of a new and not com- pletely established feature. From the earliest members of this series of reptiles, palaeontology seems to demonstrate that the Mammalia (with one robust temporal arcade or zygomatic arch) ajose. In a second series, comprising the orders Rhyncho- cephalia, Dinosauria, Crocodilia and Ornithosauria (fig. 2, D); the broad arch of cheek-plates is regularly pierced by a lateral- temporal vacuity, which leaves a narrow bar above, another narrow bar below, and uncovers the middle part of the quadrate bone. By the constant loss of the lower, and the frequent loss fused ^crai vertebrae. All dorsal ribs single-headed, articulating with transverse processes of the neural arches. Abdominal ribs forming dense plastron. Apparently no sternum. Cpracoid, pubis and ischium in form of much-expanded plates. Limbs modified as paddles, with not more than five digits, of which the third and fourth always have more than three phalanges; all digits usually consisting of numerous phalanges. No dermal armour. Range. — Upper Triassic to Cretaceous. 4. Ichthyppterygia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull contracted into a single broad zygomatic arch, leaving a superior- temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. Vertebral centra short and deeply biconcave, with feeble neural arches which are almost or completely destitute of zygapophyses. No fused sacral vertebrae. Cervical and dorsal ribs double-headed, articulating with tubercles on the vertebral centra. Abdominal ribs forming dense plastron. Apparently no sternum. Coracoid an expanded plate, probably with cartilaginous epicoracoid. Pelvis very small, not connected with vertebrae. Limbs modified as paddles, with digits of very numerous short phalanges, which are closely pressed together, sometimes with supplementary rows of similar ossicles. No dermal armour. A vertical triangular caudal fin, not supported by skeletal rays. Range. — Triassic to Cretaceous. 5. Rhynchocephalia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull contracted into two slender zygomatic bars, leaving a superior- temporal and a lateral-temporal vacuity, and partly exposing the quadrate bone from the side. Pineal foramen present or absent. Ribs single-headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present. Epicoracoid cartilaginous. Limbs only for progression; third and fourth digits with four or five phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. — Lower Permian to Recent. 6. Dinosauria. — Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhyncho- cephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double- headed. Rarely abdominal ribs. Sternum present, but apparently no clavicular arch. Limbs for support as well as progression ; third and fourth digits with four and five phalanges respectively. Dermal armour variable. Range. — Triassic to Cretaceous. 7. Crocodilia. — Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhyncho- cephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double- headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present; also inter- clavicle, but no clavicles. Limbs only for progression on land or swimming; third and fourth digits with four or five phalanges. Dermal armour variable. Range. — Lower Jurassic to Recent. 8. Ornithosauria. — All bones extremely dense, light and hollow, the organism being adapted for flight. Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhynchocephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double-headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present, and keeled for attachment of pectoral muscles; no clavi- cular arch. Fifth digit of hand much elongated to support a wing- ...c * f it TT! _ J !!_£. f I_1_ XT« membrane, but with" only four phalanges. Hind limb feeble, dermal armour. Range. — Lower Jurassic to Cretaceous. No GENERAL CHARACTERS] REPTILES 9. Squamata. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull much reduced and partly absent, never forming more than a slender superior-temporal bar, thus completely exposing the quadrate, which is only loosely attached to the cranium at its upper end. Pineal foramen present. Ribs single-headed. No abdominal ribs. Sternum present when there are limbs. Limbs, when present, only for progression; third and fourth digits at least with more than three phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. — Cretaceous to Recent. Order i. ANOMODONTIA. — The Anomodonts are so named in allusion to the peculiar and unique dentition of the first-dis- covered genera. They are precisely intermediate between the and India, but they are best represented in the Karoo formation (Permian and Triassic) of South Africa. The Pariasauria most closely resemble the Labyrinthodont Amphibia, but have a single occipital condyle. Pariasauria itself is a massive herbivorous reptile, with a short tail, and the limbs adapted for excavating in the ground. It is known by several nearly complete skeletons, about 3 metres in length, from South Africa and northern Russia. Elginia, found in the Elgin sandstones of Morayshire, Scotland, is provided with horn-like bony bosses on the skull. Another apparently allied genus (Otocoelus) has a carapace suggesting that it may be an ancestral Chelonian. The Therio- n. 'gu,. sq. From A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology. FIG. 2. — Diagram of the Cranial Roof in a Labyrinthodont Amphibian, various types of Reptiles, and a Bird. A, Labyrin- thodont Amphibian (Mastodonsaurus giganteus). B, Generalized Anomodont or Sauropterygian, passing with slight modification into the Chelonian (sutures dotted to denote inconstancy in fusion of elements). C, Ichthyosaurus. D, Generalized Rhynchocephalian, Dinosaurian, Crocodilian, or Ornithosaurian. E, Generalized Lacertilian, often losing even the arcade here indicated. F, Generalized Bird. fr, frontal; j, jugal; /, lateral temporal vacuity; la, lachrymal; mx, maxilla; n, narial opening; na, nasal; o, orbit; pa, parietal; pmx, premaxilla; prf, prefrontal; plf, postfrontal; pto, postorbital; q.j, quadrato-jugal; qu, quadrate; s, supratemporal vacuity; s.t, supratemporals and prosquamosal ; sq, squamosal. Vacuities shaded with vertical lines, cartilage bones dotted. Labyrinthodont Batrachia and the lowest or Monotreme Mammalia. They flourished at the period when the former are known to have reached their culmination, and when the latter almost certainly began to appear. Many of them would, indeed, be regarded as primitive Mammalia, if they did not retain a pineal foramen, a free quadrate bone, and a complex mandible. The term Theromorpha or Theromora is thus sometimes applied to the order they represent. So far as known, they are all land-reptiles, with limbs adapted for habitual support of the body, and their feet are essentially identical with those of primitive mammals. Most of them are small, and none attain a gigantic size. They first appear in the Permian of Europe and North America, and also occur in the Triassic both of Europe dontia exhibit the marginal teeth differentiated (in shape) into incisors, canines and molars (fig. 3). They have two occipital condyles, as in mammals. They seem to have been all carni- vorous, or at least insecu . orous, but the malariform teeth vary much in shape in the different genera. Cynognathus (fig. 3) and Lycosaurus have cutting teeth, while Trilylodon and Gompho- gnathus possess powerful grinders. The Dicynodontia have one pair of upper tusks or are toothless: their occipital condyle is trefoil-shaped, as in Chelonia. Dicynodon itself occurs in the Karoo formation of S. Africa, while other genera are represented in India, N. Russia and Scotland. Order i. CHELONIA. — This order occurs first in the Upper Triassic of Wiirttemberg, where a complete " shell" has been 144 REPTILES [GENERAL CHARACTERS found (Proganochelys) . Its members are proved to have been toothless since the Jurassic period, and have only changed very From A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology. FIG. 3. — Skull of an Anomodont (Theriodont) Reptile (Cynognathus crateronotus), one- fifth natural size. — Karoo formation (Permian or Triassic), South Africa. d, dentary; j, jugal; l.t.f, incipient lateral temporal vacuity; la, lachrymal; mx, maxilla; na, nasal; orb, orbit; pa, parietal; pmx, premaxilla; prf, prefrontal; pto., postorbital; ptf, post- frontal; s.t, supratemporal (prosquamosal) ; sq, squamosal. slightly since their first appearance. The marine turtles seem to have first acquired elongated paddles and vacuities in the shell during the Cretaceous period, and the Trionychia, destitute of epidermal shields, apparently arose at the same time. Order 3. SAUROPTERYGIA. — These are amphibious or aquatic reptiles (fig. 4). The head is comparatively small in most Flo. 4. — Plesiosaurus rostratus: restoration of skeleton by W. G. Ridewood. — Lower Lias, Dorsetshire. genera, and the neck is usually elongated though not flexible. The tail is insignificant, generally short, and both pairs of paddles seem to have been concerned in progression. The order appears to have arisen from a group of land-reptiles, for its earliest members, from the Triassic of Europe (Lariosaurus) and from the Permo-Carboniferous of S. Africa (Mesosaurus) and Brazil (Slereoslernum) , are all amphibious animals. They are comparatively small, and their limbs are only just becoming paddle-like. The skull suggests affinities with the terrestrial effective paddles with elongated digits, and as the genera are traced upwards in the geological formations it is possible to observe how .the arches supporting the limbs become more rigid until the maximum of strength is reached. A few genera, such as Pliosaurus from the Jurassic and Polyptychodon from the Cretaceous of Europe, are distinguished by their relatively large head and stout neck. Some of the largest Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous species must have been 10 metres in length. They were cosmopolitan in their distribution, but became extinct before the dawn of the Tertiary period. Order 4. ICHTHYOPTERYGIA. — The Ichthyosaurians are all fish-shaped, with a relatively large head and very short neck. Both pairs of paddles are retained, but the hinder pair is usually very small, and locomotion seems to have been chiefly effected by a large caudal fin. This fin, as shown in impression by certain fossils from Wiirttemberg and Bavaria, is a vertical, triangular, dermal expansion, without any skeletal support except the hindermost part of the attenuated vertebral column, which extends along the border of its lower lobe (fig. 5). Another triangular fin, without skeletal support, is known to occur on the back, at least in one species (fig. 5). Some of the genera are proved to have been viviparous.' Like the Sauropterygia, the Ichthyopterygia appear to have originated from terrestrial ancestors, for their earliest Triassic representatives (Mixosaurus) have the teeth less uniform and the limbs slightly less paddle- shaped than the latter genera. In this connexion it is noteworthy that their hollow conical teeth exhibit curious infoldings of the wall, like those observed in many Labyrinthodonts, while their short, biconcave vertebrae almost exactly resemble those of the Labyrinthodont Mastodonsaurus and its allies. As the Ichthyosaurs are traced up- wards in geological time, some genera become almost, or quite, toothless, while the paddles grow wider, and are rendered more flexible by the persistence of cartilage round their constituent bones (Ophthalmosaurus). They were cosmopolitan in distribution, but dis- appeared from all seas at the close of the Cretaceous period. The largest forms, with a skull 2 metres in length, occur in the Lower Lias. Order 5. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. — These are small lizard-shaped reptiles, which have scarcely changed since the Triassic period. Though now represented only by Sphenodon or Hatteria, which survives in certain islands off New Zealand, in the Mesozoic epoch they ranged at least over Europe, Asia and North America. They comprise the earliest known reptile, Palaeohatteria, from the Lower Permian of Saxony, which differs from the Triassic and later genera in having an imperfectly ossified pubis and ischium, more numerous abdominal ribs, and the fifth metatarsal FIG. 5. — Ichthyosaurus quadriscissus : outline of specimen showing dorsal and caudal fins, about one-sixth natural size. — Upper Lias, Wurttemberg. (After E. Fraas.) The irregularities behind the triangular dorsal fin are torn pieces of skin. Anomodontia, and the shape of the scapula seems to show some connexion with the Chelonia. The truly aquatic Sauropter- ygians of the Jurassic (fig. 4) and Cretaceous periods possess most bone normal. They are also represented in the Permian, chiefly of North America, by the so-called Pelycosauria, which have sharp teeth in sockets, and are remarkable for the extreme GENERAL CHARACTERS] REPTILES elongation of the spines of their cervical and dorsal vertebrae (Dimetrodon, fig. 6). They seem to include various Triassic From Prof. E. C- Case's Revision of the Pelycosauria of North America, by permission of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. FIG. 6. — Dimetrodon incisivus\ restoration of skeleton by E. C. Case, about one-eighteenth natural size. genera (e.g. Aelosaurus, Belodon), which may perhaps belong to the ancestral stock of the Dinosauria and Crocodilia. Other Triassic genera (Hyperodapedon, Rhynchosaurus) scarcely differ from Sphenodon, except in the denti- tion and in the absence of the pineal foramen in the skull. In the late Cretaceous and early Eocene periods one genus (Champsosaurus) was truly aquatic, with gavial-shaped head. Order 6. DINOSAURIA. — The dinosaurs are land reptiles which flourished on all the continents during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, in the interval between the decline of the Anomodontia and the dominance of the Mammalia. They first appeared as carnivorous reptiles in the Triassic period in Europe, India, S. Africa, and N. America, but after- wards comprised numerous massive herbivores in nearly all parts of the world except the Australian and New Zealand regions. The skeleton in the carnivorous dinosaurs, or Theropoda, is of very light construction, the vertebrae and limb bones being hollow, with thin, dense walls and often perfectly fitting joints. The fore limbs are small, and the hind limbs are adapted for running, jumping or hopping on the toes. The sabre-shaped cutting teeth are fixed in sockets, and all the claws are sharp. Anchisaurus and Hallopus, from the Trias of N. America, and Scleromochlus from the Elgin sandstones of Scotland, are comparatively small animals. Ceratosaurus and Megalosaurus, from the Jurassic of North America and western Europe re- spectively, must have attained a length of from 5 to 6 metres. Tyrannosaurus, from the Cretaceous of Montana, U.S.A., has a skull more than a metre in length. The herbivorous Dinosaurs of the suborder Ornithopoda resemble the Theropoda in general shape, but are heavier in build, with a pelvis con- structed more nearly on the plan of that of a run- ning bird. It has, indeed, been suggested that certain arboreal Dinosaurs of bipedal gait may have been the ancestors of the class Aves. The best- known Ornithopod is Iguanodon (fig. 7), from the Wealden of W. Europe, with species from 5 to 10 metres in length. Claosaurus, from the Cretaceous of N. America, is nearly similar, and is represented by at least one complete skele- ton in the Yale University Museum. There are also members of the same group with a heavy armour of bony plates and spines, sometimes termed Stegosauria. Stegosaurus itself occurs in the Upper Jurassic of Colorado, and Omosaurus, from the Kimmeridge and Oxford clays of England, is a nearly similar reptile. Polacanthus, from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight, has the hip-region armoured with a continuous bony shield. Triceratops (fig. 8) and its allies, from the Upper Cretaceous (Laramie) of western N. America, are the latest members of the group, with a bony frill over the neck, a pair of bony horn- cores above the eyes, and a median bony horn-core on the nose. The skull with the bony frill sometimes measures nearly two metres in length. Another suborder of herbivorous Dino- saurs, that of Sauropoda, comprises the largest known land animals of any age, some measuring from 17 to 25 metres in total length. They have a small head, long neck, and long tail, and must have been quadrupedal in gait. Their teeth are adapted for feeding on succulent water weeds, perhaps with an admixture of small animals living among these; and their vertebrae are of very light construction, while the ribs are raised high on the neural arches to increase the size of the body cavity, perhaps for unusually large lungs or air sacs. Their massive limbs have five toes, of which the three inner alone bear outwardly curved claws. Diplodocus and Brontosaurus, from the Jurassic of Wyoming and Colorado, U.S.A., are the best-known genera. Atlanlosaurus, from the same formation, is usually noteworthy for si2e. Cetiosaurus, from the Jurassic of England, is also known by large parts of the skeleton in the British Museum and the Oxford Museum, indicating species nearly 20 metres in length. FIG. 7. — Iguanodon bernissartensis: restoration of skeleton by O. C. Marsh, one-eightieth natural size. — Wealden, Bernissart, Belgium. FIG. 8. — Triceratops prorsus: restoration of skeleton by O. C. Marsh, one-eightieth natural size. — Cretaceous, Wyoming. Order 7. CROCODILIA. — Typical crocodiles can be traced downwards to the Lower Lias at the base of the Jurassic 146 REPTILES [GENERAL CHARACTERS formations, but all the Jurassic and some of the Cretaceous genera have the secondary bony plate less extended backwards than that in the Tertiary and existing genera, while their vertebrae have flattened or concave ends, instead of exhibiting a ball- and-socket articulation. Some of the Upper Jurassic crocodiles (Metriorhynchus) were more truly aquatic than any now living, with the fore limbs degenerate, the hind limbs much enlarged for swimming, and the dermal armour lacking. The end of the vertebral column is bent downwards, as in Ichthyosaurus, so they doubtless possessed a similar triangular tail-fin. Typical crocodiles and alligators date back to the close of the Cretaceous period, and they did not become extinct in Europe until the beginning of the Miocene period. Remains of an extinct alligator (Diplocynodon) are common in the Upper Eocene sands of the Hordwell cliffs, Hampshire. Order 8. ORNITHOSAURIA. — The flying reptiles or Ptero- dactyls (fig. 9) are completely evolved at their earliest known FIG. 9. — Pterodactylus spectabilis, natural size, from the Litho- graphic Stone, h, humerus; ru, radius and ulna; me, metacarpals ; pt, pteroid bone; 2, 3, 4, digits with claws; 5, elongated digit for support of wing-membrane; st, sternum, crest not shown; is, ischium; pp, prepubis. The teeth are not shown. (After H. von Meyer.) appearance in the Lower Lias (Dimorphodon), and exhibit little essential change as they are traced upwards through the Mesozoic formations. The latest Cretaceous genera, however, comprise the largest species, which have been found in Europe, N. America and Brazil. Some of these (Pteranodon) are tooth- less, and their wings are so large that for adequate support the pectoral arch is fixed to the vertebrae like a pelvis. The wings occasionally have a span of from 5 to 6 metres. The wing- membranes are only known in the European Jurassic genus, Rhamphorhynchus (fig. 10), found well preserved in the fine- grained lithographic stone of Bavaria. In this genus there is also a rhomboidal flap of membrane at the end of the tail. Order 9. SQUAMATA. — The ancestors of the lizards and snakes can only be traced back definitely to the latter part of the Cretaceous period. They were then represented by two' suborders of aquatic reptiles, the Dolichosauria and Pythono- morpha(or Mosasauria), which are in many respects intermediate between the existing Lacertilia and Ophidia. The Dolichosauria, from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe, are small and snake-like in shape, but with completely formed limbs. The Pythono- morpha are known from Europe, N. and S. America and New Zealand, and sometimes attained a very large size, the typical Mosasaurus camperi from Maastricht being about 15 metres in length. Their limbs are powerful paddles. Their trunk and FIG. 10. — Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus, from the Solenhofen Lithographic Stone, one-fourth natural size, with the greater part of the wing-membranes preserved, x, caudal membrane; st, sternum; h, humerus; sc, scapula and coracoid; wm, wing- membrane. (After O. C. Marsh.) tail are often much elongated, so that their shape is snake-like, as shown by Clidastes (fig. n), from the Chalk of Kansas, U.S.A. The Lacertilia and Ophidia, so far as known, are exclusively Tertiary and Recent reptiles. Marine snakes (Palaeophis) occur in the Eocene of the London and Hampshire basins. AUTHORITIES. — General Works on Extinct Reptiles. — K. A. v. Zittel, Handbuch der Palaeontologie, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887-1889). — H. A. Nicholson and R. Lydekker, Manual of Palaeontology, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1889). — R. Lydekker, Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum, vols. i.-iv. (London, 1888-90). — A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology (Cambridge, 1898). — K. A. v. Zittel, Text-book of Palaeontology, ed. C. R. Eastman, vol. ii. (London, 1902). Anomodontia: R. Owen. Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the Collection of the British Museum (London, 1876). — E. D. Cope, " The Reptilian Order Cotylosauria," Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. xxxiv. (1896), p. 436, and vol. xxxv. (1896), p. 122. — E. T. Newton, " Some New Reptiles from the Elgin Sandstones," Phil. Trans., vol. 1848 (1893), p. 431. — Various papers by R. Owen in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1876- 1884, by H. G. Seeley in Phil. Trans. (1889-1895), and by R. Broom in Proc. Zool. Soc., Ann. S. African Museum and Trans. S. African Phil. Soc. (from 1900 onwards). Chelonia: G. Baur, " Bemerkungen iiber die Phylogenie der Schildkroten," Anal. Anzeiger, vol. xii. (1896), p. 561.— Technical papers by F. A. Quenstedt in Wurtt. Jahresh. vol. xlv. (1889), p. 120 (Proganochelys). — G. R. Wieland in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 4, vol. ii. (1896), p. 399 (gigantic Cretaceous leathery turtle), and E. C. Case, Journ. Morphol. vol. xiv. (1897), ANATOMY] REPTILES p. 21 (ditto). Sauropterygia: G. A. Boulenger, "On a Notho- saurian Reptile from me Trias of Lombardy, apparently referable to Lariosaurus," Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. xiv. (1896), p. i. — H. G. Seeley, " The Nature of the Shoulder Girdle and Clavicular Arch in Sauropterygia," Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. li. (1892), p. 119, FIG. n. — Skeleton of Clidastes. (After Cope.) and vol. liv. (1893), p. 160. Ichthyopterygia: 'E. Fraas, Die Ichthyosaurier der suddeutschen Trias- und Jura-Ablagerungen (Tubingen, 1891). — J. C. Merriam, " Triassic Ichthyosauria," Mem. Univ. California, vol. i. No. I (1908). — Also technical papers by E. Fraas on fins in Wiirtt. Jahresh. (1894), p. 493, and Foldtani Kozlony, vol. xxviii. (Budapest, 1898), p. 169. Rhynchocephalia: G. A. Boulenger, " On British Remains of Homoeosaurus, with Remarks on the Classification of the Rhynchocephalia," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1891), p. 167. — J. H. McGregor, r' The Phytosauria," Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. pt. ii. (1906) — E. C. Case, Revision of the Pelycosauria of North America (Carnegie Institution, Washing- ton, 1907). — Technical papers by H. Credner in Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. vol. xl. (1888), p. 488 (Palaeohatteria) , T. H. Huxley in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xliii. (1887), p. 675 (Hyperodapedon) , and L. Dollo in Bull. Soc. Belg. Geol. vol. v. (1891), Mem. p. 151 (Champsosaurus). Dinosauria: O. C. Marsh, " The Dinosaurs of North America," Sixteenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey (1896). — Technical papers by L. Dollo in Bull. mus. roy. d'hist. nat. Belg. vols. i.-iii. (1882-84) (Iguanodon), O. C. Marsh in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. 1. (1895), pi. viii. (restorations), J. B. Hatcher in Mem. Carnegie Museum, vol. i. No. I (1901), and W. J. Holland in Mem. Carnegie Museum, vol. ii. No. 6 (1906). Crocodilia: T. H. Huxley, " On Stagonolepis robertsoni, and on the Evolution of the Croco- dilia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxi. (1875), P- 423- — E. Koken, " Thoracosaurus macrorhynchus, Bl., aus der Tuffkreide von Maas- tricht," Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. (1888), p. 754. — E. Fraas, " Thattosuchia," Palaeontogr. vol. xlix. (1902), p. I. — L. Dollo, " Premiere note sur les crocodiliens de Bernissart," Bull. mus. roy. d'hist. nat. Belg. vol. ii. (1883), p. 309. — G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles in the British Museum (London, 1889). Ornithosauria: K. A. von Zittel, " Ueber Flugsaurier aus dem lithographischen Schiefer," Palaeontogr. vol. xxix. (1882), p. 49. — E. T. Newton, " On the Skull, Brain and Auditory Organ of a New Species of Pterosaurian," Phil. Trans, vol. 1793 (1888), p. 503 — H. G. Seeley, Dragons of the Air (London, 1901). — Technical papers by O. C. Marsh in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. xxiii. (1882), p. 251 (wing-membranes), S. W. Williston in Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vol. vi. (1897), p. 35 (restora- tion of Pteranodon), and G. F. Eaton in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 4, vols. xvi., xvii. (1903-4). Squamata: R. Owen, " On the Rank and Affinities of the Reptilian Class of the Mosasauridae, Gervais," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. (1877), p. 682, and vol. xxxiv. (1878), p. 748. — G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of the Lizards in the British Museum, vols. i.-iii. (London, 1885-87); Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum, vols. i., ii. (London, 1893-94). — Technical papers by A. Kornhuber in Abh. k. k. geol. Reichsanst. Wien. vol. v. (1873), No. 4, and vol. xvii. (1893), No. 3 (Dolicho- sauria), F. Noppsa in Beitr. Palaont. Oesterr.-Ungarns,\o\. xxi.(igo8), and S. W. Williston in Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vols. i., ii., vi. (1892-1897) (Mosasauria). (A. S. Wo.) III. ANATOMY OF REPTILES The Skull. Sphenodon has the most primitive and still most complex skull, the salient features of which it is easy to derive from Stegocephalian and early, generalized reptilian conditions; whilst in other directions, mostly by reduction, the skull of this " living fossil " affords the key to that of all the other groups of at least recent reptiles. The main features are the following. There are, in the temporal region, three complete bony arches, the supra-, infra-, and post-temporal, which subdivide the whole temporal fossa into four foramina. The supratemporal bridge is formed by the squamosal and post-orbital, the latter (/in fig. 12) being continued forwards and fused with the post-frontal. These three bones, with the parietal, . enclose the supra- temporal foramen. The postorbital joins an ascending branch of the jugal, both together form- ing the hinder border of the orbit, and this is bordered below chiefly by the maxillary. The pos- teriortemporal bridge is formed by the parietal and squamosal, extends laterally over the quadrate and encloses a wide space between itself and the buttress-like transverse expansion of the lateral occipital After Giinther. FIG. 12.— Skull of Sphenodon. i, Ventral aspect; 2, lateral aspect; 3, lateral aspect of mandible, or. articular; bo, basioccipital ; bs, basisphenoid; c, coronoid; CO., columella auris; d, dentary; /, postorbital; m, maxilla; n, nasal; pa, parietal; pi, palatine; pm, premaxilla; pr, prefrontal; ps, postf rental; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate in the upper figure, quadrato-jugal in the middle figure; qj, jugal; s, squamosal; sp, splenial ; v, vomer. bone (these " parotic processes " are made up of the lat. occipital, parotic and opisthotic bones); this is the post- temporal foramen. The space enclosed between this occipital buttress, the quadrate and the pterygoidal support of the latter represents the wide and large cavity of the middle ear, 23 148 REPTILES [ANATOMY and as such is crossed by the auditory columellar chain. The infra-temporal bridge or jugal arch is formed by the jugal (qj in fig. 12), which joins the descending process of the squamosal, and the quadrato-jugal, which is very small and partly fused with the lateral side of the quadrate. Now, between the quadrate on the one side and the squamoso+quadrato-jugal+jugal on the other, is enclosed a gap, met with only in Sphenodon of recent reptiles. This fourth, or quadrato-squamosal foramen, with its squamoso-quadrato-jugal bridge, is, as a rule, not mentioned, being too small to be obvious. The quadrate is very firmly fixed. On the ventral side of the cranium we notice the broad and long bony palate, the large vomers, and the pterygoids meeting in the middle line; aside of the vomers are the long posterior nares; posteriorly the pterygoids diverge to rest upon short basi-sphenoid processes, and they articulate by short flanges with the quadrates. 'The occipital condyle is kidney-shaped, triple, composed of the basi and the lateral occipitals. The dorsal median roof of the cranium is formed by the paired parietals, near their anterior symphysis with the large pineal foramen, the paired frontals, nasals and premaxillaries. The outer nares are surrounded by the premaxillaries, maxillaries and nasals. Prefrontals and postfrontals exist. There is a complete cartilaginous, inter- orbital septum, and a cranial columella, a pair of upright buttresses arising in the alisphenoidal walls, connecting the parietals with the pterygoids. The hyoid apparatus consists of a narrow base, with three pairs of arches; of these the first or hyoid arch is variously connected with the cranium near the paroccipital process, or with the extracolumella (see Middle Ear, below) ; the others are a long and stout pair of first and a smaller pair of second branchial arches. Crocodiles. — The temporal region is still bridged over by three arches, dividing the whole fossa into three, very much as in Sphenodon. The supratemporal foramen is bordered by the parietal, postfrontal (postorbital absent) and squamosal. The posttemporal foramen is very much reduced, sometimes to a narrow passage between the parietal, occipitals and squamosal, because the latter bone forms an extensive suture with the paroccipital process. The infratemporal or lateral fossa is wide and rather shallow, bordered above by the postfrontal and squamosal, in front by the postfrontal and jugal, below by the jugal and quadrato-jugal, behind by the latter, the quadrate, tip of the paroccipital and the squamosal. The quadrato-jugal being long and in an almost horizontal position, being wedged in between the jugal and nearly the whole length of the lateral edge of the quadrate, and there being no squamoso-quadrato- jugal bridge, the fourth foramen of Sphenodon is absent. The middle-ear cavity is reduced to a complicated system of narrow passages; one for the passage of the extra-columellar-mandi- bular string of the auditory chain (see Ear, below), between the quadrate, paroccipital and lateral occipital bones; another passage (Eustachian) opens in the roof of the mouth, between basioccipital and basisphenoid ; a .third joins that of the other side and forms with it a median opening between the same bones, just behind the posterior pterygoid border of the choanae. These nares, being in the recent crocodiles shifted as far back as possible, communicate with the outer nostrils by very long passages, formed by the whole length of the pterygoids, palatines, maxillaries, vomers and pre-maxillaries, all of which form a long median suture. But this long bony palatal roof is interrupted by a pair of large palatal foramina, bordered usually by palatine, pterygoid, ectopterygoid, or transverse bone and maxillary. On the dorsal side of the cranium we notice the parietals fused into an unpaired bone, without a pineal hole and the likewise unpaired frontal. There are a pair of postfrontals, prefrontals and lacrymals perforated by the naso-lacrymal duct. The nasals vary much in length, mostly in conformity with that of the maxillaries; as a rule they reach the short premaxillaries; but not always the nasal groove. (For taxonomic detail see under CROCODILE.) The occipital condyle is formed mainly by the basioccipital, which always borders part of the foramen magnum, but the lateral occipitals each send a flange to it, which in immature specimens still partakes of the articulation with the atlas. The opisthotic and epiotic bones fuse early with the lateral and with supraoccipital bones; only the prootic remains longer as a separate element, anteriorly with a large hole for the exit of the third branch of the trigeminal nerve. The basisphenoid is scarcely visible, being overlaid by the pterygoids. The pre- sphenoid is larger, continued forwards and upwards into the inter-orbital septum, which remains mostly cartilaginous. Near the anterior and upper margin of the pre-sphenoid is a large notch on either side for the passage of the optic nerve, the three eye- muscle nerves and the first branch of the trigeminal. The place of the orbitosphenoids is taken by membrane or cartilaginous continuations of the interorbital septum, but the alisphenoids are large and abut upwards against the frontals and with a lateral flange against the postfrontals. These send down a conspicuous process which forms sutures with an upward process of the jugal and another of the ectopterygoid; it is this compound pillar which partly divides the orbit from the infratemporal or lateral fossa. The size of these and the upper temporal fossae stand in an inverse ratio to each other. The upper fossae are still comparatively large in the long-snouted Gavialis and Tomis- toma, whilst these holes almost completely disappear in the alligators, namely, in the broad- and short-snouted members of the order, which chew their prey. In extinct Crocodilians the upper fossae were the larger. The temporo-mandibular muscle which lifts or shuts the lower jaw arises from the walls of the upper fossa, passes beneath the jugal-arch and is inserted upon the supra-angular portion of the lower jaw. In the more recent crocodiles this muscle is more and more superseded by the pterygo-mandibular muscle, which, arising chiefly from the dorsal surface of the much-broadened pterygoid, fills the widened space between the latter and the quadrate, and is inserted into the outer surface of the angular bone. The arrangement of this muscle secures a more advantageous leverage of the jaw, and is capable of more powerful development than the other, which is con- sequently on the wane — a nice illustration of onward, ortho- genetic evolution. The dentary bones of the under jaw form a suture, later a symphysis; this is very long in the long-snouted genera, in which the splenials likewise form a long symphysis; in the others the mandibular symphysis is much shorter and the splenials remain widely separated. The articular bone is short, forms a transverse cup for the quadrate, or a saddle-shaped cup, and is perforated by the Siphonium (see below under Ear). The angle is upturned, formed by the articular, angular and, laterally, by the supra-angular bone; the opercular or counter- part of the splenial lies on the outer side, forming part of the anterior border of the oval foramen in the jaw. The Chelonian skull agrees in many important features with that of Sphenodon and of the crocodiles, but it is composed of fewer bones, the ectopterygoids, lacrymals and postorbitals being absent, often also the nasals, unless they are fused with the prefrontals. The vomer is unpaired and forms a septum between the nasal passages, which, except in Sphargis, are ventrally roofed over to a variable extent by wings sent out by the palatines, joining the sides of the vomer. Most of the con- figurations of the other cranial bones are well represented in the accompanying figures. The palatines form a continuous broad floor with the pterygoids, which are extensively and firmly joined to the quadrates and to the basisphenoid. There are no Eustachian tubes. The occipital condyle is distinctly triple and the basioccipital is frequently excluded from the foramen magnum. The lateral occipitals early send out a pair of stout wings, the ventral of which joins a stout ventrilateral process of the basioccipital, both forming a thick knob especially in Chelone, and a dor,solateral wing, which broadly joins the large opisthotic bone. This connects the lateral occipital and the supraoccipital with the upper portion of the quadrate. On the top of the quadrate and upon the lateral dorsal portion of this compound transverse process (which of course corresponds to the paroccipital process of crocodiles, &c.) lies the squamosal, about which more presently. The two wings of the lateral ANATOMY] REPTILES 149 occipital, part of the opisthotic, the quadrate, and part of the I the parietals. They represent of course the columellae cranii or pterygoids, form the bony borders of the middle ear- cavity, | pterygoidal columellae; if they are of alisphenoidal origin the term epipterygoids is a misnomer; the same applies to these structures in other reptiles. Through the space enclosed by the pterygoid, basioccipital, opisthotic and quadrate, enters the cranial carotid artery, sometimes piercing the posterior rim of the pterygoid; then the canal runs along the dorsal side of this bone and opens near the cranial columella. The arcades over the temporal region are most vari- able. Potentially Chelonians possess all the three arcades of the crocodiles, but it so happens that never more than one fenestra is present. The false roof over the temporal region is most complete in Sphargis and in the Chelonidae. Excepting Sphargis the supraoccipital extends far beyond the back of the cranium in shape of a long unpaired crest, which never diverges, or sends out lateral processes, but it is joined, and partly overlaid for a great part of its length, by the parietals in Chelonidae and Sphargis. In these genera the much-enlarged parietal, the equally large postfrontal, with the squamosal behind, the jugal below, and a large quadrato-jugal, form one continuous bony roof over the whole temporal fossa, which is widely open behind, the space being bordered by supraoccipital, opisthotic, squamosal and parietal. All other FIG. 13. — Dorsal aspect of skull of Testudo tabidala (from nature), an, anterior nares; /, frontal, on either side of which are the orbits, bounded behind by ps, the postfrontal; bo, basioccipital; ep, epiotic; so, supra- occipital ; 9, quadrate ; s, squamosal ; pa, parietal; po, periotic bones. FIG. 14. — Ventral surface of skull of Tes- tudo tabulate, (from nature), bo, basi- occipital ; bs, basisphenoid ; ep, epiotic ; Chelonians show a great reduction of this roof. m, maxilla; pi, palatine; pm, pre- maxilla; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; g_/',quadrato-jugal; so, supraoccipital. which is open behind; through it extends horizontally the columellar rod, received with its outer portion by a notch on the posterior side of the quadrate. This is of very complicated shape. Its outer margins form most of the tympanic frame; the posterior margins being curved backwards leave a wide notch behind in the Cryptodira and in Sphargis, but in the Pleurodira this part of the quadrate is transformed into a trumpet, the rim of which, forming a complete ring, carries the tympanic mem- brane. The tympanic cavity thus formed often leads into a deep recess which extends into the hollowed-out squamosal (e.g. in Testudo) towards the opisthotic and bears some resem- blance to the intricate tympanic recesses which pervade that region of the crocodile's skull. With its upper anterior and aji FIG. 15. — Side view of skull of Testuao tabulata (from nature). an, angular; ar, articular; d, dentary; f, frontal; j, jugal; m, mandible; n, naso-prefrontal ; pa, parietal; pi, palatine; ps, postfrontal; q, quadrate; qj, quadrato-jugal. inner portion the quadrate joins the large prootic bone which is usually completely fused with the rest of the opisthotic, but in Sphargis it remains separate, and in this turtle the sutures between the otic bones and the supraoccipital also persist. In front of the prootics the bony lateral walls of the brain-case end in Sphargis, but • in most of the other Chelonians bony ali- sphenoids are represented by a pair of epipterygoids which rest upon short upward processes of the pterygoids and are joined by much longer, rather thin, but broad descending lamellae from The parietal does not send out dorsolateral expan- sions; and the postfrontal likewise forms no ex- pansions. It joins the rather short malar, forming the posteriororbital bridge, which posteriorly is connected by the quadrato-jugal with the upper portion of the quadrate and with the squamosal. The latter rests upon the quadrate and is in no connexion with the parietal. Consequently the whole temporal fossa is quite open. The hori- zontal bridge or arcade is to a certain extent homologous with the infra-temporal arcade. All the bones which border the temporal fossa vary much in extent. The greatest reduction has taken place in Cistudo and in Geoemyda, the latter an Indian genus of Testudinidae, in which the quadrato-jugal is lost, leaving a wide gap in the horizontal arcade.— The Chelonians form an instruc- tive parallel to mammalian conditions by the broad contact of the squamosal with the malar, e.g. in Chelone, whilst the quad- pm FIG. 1 6. — Dorsal Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. bo, basi- occipital; eo, exoccipital; /, frontal; j, jugal; m, maxilla; pm, premaxilla; pa, parietal; pr, prefrontal; ps, postfrontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; so, supraoccipital. rato-jugal, having in all Chelonians lost its original ventral connexion with the jugal, may actually get lost as in all the REPTILES [ANATOMY Lacertilia. The zygomatic arch of the Mammalia is formed (cf. also Agamidae) out of the supratemporal arch of Sphenodon, null FIG. 17. — Ventral Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. bo, basi- occipital; bs, basisphenoid ; mdl, mandible; oh, opisthotic; pi, palatine; pm, premaxilla; po, prootic; pb, pterygoid; g, quadrate; s, squamosal; v, vomer. FIG. 18. — Lateral Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. an, an- gular; ar, articular; bo, basioccipital ; d, dentary; op, opisthotic; m, maxilla; pa, parietal; pm, premaxilla; pr, pref rental; ps, postfrontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; sg, supra-angular. after the loss of the postorbital element and of the quadrato- jugal, the squamosal gaining connexion with the upper, not posterior and ventral, branch of the jugal or malar bone. The mandibular halves form a complete osseous symphysis, the only instance in reptiles; all the other elements retain their sutures. The articular portion of the articular bone forms several shallow cups and a slight anterior knob, best developed in Chelone. The angular bone does not help to form the posterior upper angle. The coronoid, or complementary element, is often small; the supra-angular and the splenial or opercular are always present, mostly also a pre-splenial wanting in Testudinidae (cf. G. Baur). The hyoid apparatus is well developed, and sometimes assumes large dimensions, especially in Chelys. The two pairs of " horns " are the first and second branchial arches, whilst the hyoid arches are reduced to a pair of small, frequently only cartilaginous nodules, attached near the anterior corners of the basis linguae, which generally fuses with the os entoglossum in the tip of the tongue. In Chelydidae the long median basal or copular piece forms a semi-canal for the reception of the trachea. In the skull of the Lacertilia the arcades over the temporal region vary much in composition and numbers. There are at most two arcades and two windows. First the posttemporal arcade, enclosing the posttemporal fenestra, which is framed mainly by the large paroccipital process below and the long parietal process above, both meeting distally, and the quadrate is carried by the paroccipital process. In the corner, in front, where the three bones meet, lies the squamosal, connecting parietal and quadrate. This squamosal, when not too much reduced, has an upper parietal and an anterior horizontal arm ; the latter is essential for the formation of the second horizontal arcade, which makes the lower border of the supra-temporal window. The infra-temporal arcade, namely a quadrato- jugal +jugal arch, is absent in all Lacertilians owing to the complete absence of the quadrato-jugal element. In Heloderma and Geckos the posttemporal is the only arcade. In the Amphisbaenids and in Aniella, practically also in Anelytropsis, all the arcades are lost. All the other families FIG. 19. — Skull of Chlamydosaurus kingii (old male), showing much differentiated teeth. I, ventral aspect; 2, posterior; 3, profile, showing the enormous process at the hinder end of the lower jaw. of lizards and the chameleons have two arcades. We begin the description of the horizontal arcade with those families in which it is most complete, and most like that of Sphenodon. In Varanus it is formed by four bones. The postfrontal is short; to it is attached the postorbital, which sends a long horizontal process to join the squamosal J splint, and this connects with the 1 There is a much-debated question of the homologies of the one or two elements, both apparently membrane bones, which connect the upper end of the quadrate with the parietal and with the supra- temporal arch. The question becomes acute in the snakes, whether the single element connecting skull and quadrate has to be called squamosal or supratemporal. Space forbids here to expound the matter, which has been very ably reviewed by S. W. Williston (" Temporal Arches in the Reptilia," Biolog. Bulletin, vii. No. 4, 1904, pp. 175-192 ;\i. also F. W. Thyng, Tufts College Studies, II. 2, 1906). About ten different names have been applied to these two elements, and two, namely, squamosal and supratemporal, are being used quite promiscuously. When only one element is present, the present writer uses the term squamosal, and there are reasons making it probable that this element is the squamosum of mammals. When both elements are present, the more ventral or lateral of the two is termed squamosal, that which always helps to form the ANATOMY] REPTILES upper anterior end of the quadrate; between the quadrate, the squamosal and the long parietal process lies the likewise splint-like supratemporal, attached by most of its length to the parietal process. The jugal has only one arm, and this connects the maxilla with the postorbital, completing the posterior orbital border. There is a wide gap between jugal and quadrate. In Tejidae the arcade is the same, but the squamosal reaches the jugal, both meeting the postorbital. In Lacerta the arcade is essentially the same, but the window is completely filled up by the postfrontal, which extends so far back as to reach the supra- temporal. In the Agamidae the arcade is strong and simplified. Postfrontal and postorbital are represented by one forked piece. This squamosal and the post- frontal mass are connected by the upper, much up-curved end of- the jugal, which is thrust between them. This arrangement is further emphasized in Iguana, the upper end of the jugal being much enlarged so as to form the greater portion of the arcade, and keeping the postfrontal mass and the simple squamosal widely asunder. In Heloderma post- and prefrontals are in contact with each other, FIG. 20. — Dorsal aspect of separating the frontal bone from skMotHelodermahorridum. the orbit; the jugal joins only /,frontal;j,jupl;/,lachry- th prefrontal, and there is no mal ; m, maxilla ; n, nasal; ^ , j t_ . pa, parietal, pm, premax- further arcade whatever. A ilia ; pr.prefrontal ; ps, post- vestige of a supratemporal (?) frontal; pt, pterygoid; g, lies on the outside of the base quadrate;*, squamosal; so, of the squamosai between 5 and supraoccipital. . ,. q in fig. 20. The chameleons are peculiar. The posttemporal arcade, spanning a wide space, is formed by a long process of the supra- temporal - squamosal, which is directed up- and backwards to join the parietal, which ex- tends back by a long unpaired process. The horizontal arch is broad and short, squamosal and postfrontal, form- ing a broad suture; below they are joined by the jugal; above the suture lies, in cham- eleon, a tiny piece, perhaps a vestige of the dislodged post- orbital. The jugal bones, to continue the descrip- tion of the appendi- 7>r FIG. 21. — Skull of Chamaeleon vulgaris. ag, angular; ar, articular; bs, basisphe- noid; d, dentary ; j, jugal; m, maxilla; me, median ethmoid ; pl and f?, parie- tals; pi, palatine; pr, prefrontal; pt, pterygoid ; q, quadrate ; sg, supra-angu- lar; so, supraoccipital; sq, squamosal. cular parts of the skull, are firmly joined to lateral processes of the pterygoids by the ectopterygoids; further forwards they are extensively connected with the maxillaries. These rest against strong transverse palatine processes. The pal- atines form a medium symphysis; posteriorly they diverge together with the pterygoids, which articulate with the quad- supratemporal bridge, generally with the postorbital, sometimes also with the jugal. The more dorsal element is mentioned as supratemporal; it is always smaller, and mostly restricted to the corner between the squamosal and the parietal process against which it rests. Either of these two elements articulate with the quadrate. Both elements are present in Labyrinthodonts and in most of the extinct groups of reptiles; among recent forms in Lacertidae, Varanidae, Tejidae; one three-armed piece in Sphenodon, chameleons and crocodiles, without, in Sphenodon at least, any trace of a compound nature; one piece, forked, in Agamidae; one simple piece in most of the other Lacertilia, and in snakes. rates and with the basisphenoid by a pair of strong basiptery- goid processes. A slender vertical rod of bone, the columella cranii, arises from the dorsal surface of each pterygoid and, passing at a distance from the cranial capsule, is sutured to a short lateroventral process of the parietals Such a pair of columellje exists in nearly all Lacertilia (distinguished by many systematists as Kionocrania) with the exception of the chame- leons and the Amphisbaenidae. In many lizards, however, this columella, or epipterygoid, does not quite reach the parietal, leaning instead against the prob'tic; possibly it has been evolved out of the alisphenoid, and Chelonians seem to support this view. The premaxillary bone is single, except in the Skinks and in some Geckos; ventrally it touches the vomers which vary much in size; they are always paired although suturally connected; posteriorly they pass into, and fuse with, the palatines before these send off their maxillary processes. Be- tween the vomer and its maxillary is a longitudinal hole. Often, e.g. in Lacerta, the vomers enclose a median hole near their anterior end, for Jacobson's organ. Dorsally the premaxilla sends a median process backwards to the nasals. These are paired, and fuse together only in Uroplates and in Varanus. The external nasal fossae are sometimes very large, and their anterior half appears blocked by the ossified turbinals, e.g. in Varanus and Tejus. Prefrontals are always present, often fused with the lacrymals; in Heloderma, in Aniella and in chameleons the prefrontals extend so far back as to meet the postfrontals, excluding thereby the frontals from the orbital rim. The frontals are either paired, as in Varanus, Lacertidae, Heloderma, Anguidae, Scincidae.Anelytropsidae, Aniella, Amphis- baenidae, and in some Geckoninae; or they are fused into one bone, as in the Eublepharinae, chameleons, Tejidae, Iguanidae, Agamidae, Xenosaurus. The parietals are double in the Geckos, in Uroplates and Xantusia; in all the others they form one coossified mass, generally with a pineal foramen, except in Eublepharinae, Amphisbaenidae, Tejidae, in Aniella and other degraded forms. In the majority the pineal fora- men lies in the middle of the parietal, but in the Iguanidae it is near the frontal, and actually in the frontal in chameleons. As regards the brain-case, there is a cartilaginous inter- orbital septum, connected posteriorly with the slender, bony presphenoid; ventraUy on to this is fused a vestige of the parasphenoid, a narrow and thin splint which sometimes can be dislodged. The whole of the anterior wall of the brain-case is membranous, excepting a pair of separate ossifications, which do but rarely touch any of the cranial bones, as frontal, parietal or prootics. The ossifications are irregular in shape, each sending out a downward process which curves inwards almost to meet its fellow; between these issue the olfactory lobes. W. K. Parker recognized them as the alisphenoids; E. D. Cope named them postoptics, and remarked that in Sphenodon they coexist with an orbitosphenoid bone. The prootic has a notch in its anterior lateral margin for the passage of the trigeminal nerve. The opisthotic portion of the petrosal mass is intimately fused with the lateral occipital bones and their paroccipital process, and sometimes, e.g. Tejus, encloses with them many intricate recesses of the middle ear-chamber, which extend also into hollow and swollen thick downward processes of the basioccipital. These cavities of both sides communicate with each other through the cancellous substance of the basioccipital and basisphenoid. There are no Eustachian tubes opening into the mouth through the base of the skull. The occipital condyle is tripartite, the lateral occipitals partaking of the articulation; very rarely, e.g. in Amphis- baenidae (see fig. 22), the basioccipital portion is so much reduced that the skull articulates by two very broad condyles. The halves of the under jaw are but loosely united, either by ligament only or by an at least very movable suture. The jaw is compound and the numerous constituent bones mostly retain their sutures. Besides the dentary and articular, angular and supra-angular on the lateral side, and the opercular or splenial on the inner side, there lies on the dorsal side the coronoid, six pairs in all. The posterior angle of the jaw 152 REPTILES [ANATOMY is always formed by the articular bone, not by the angular which lies on the ventral side, about the middle of the jaw; it is fused with the articular in Geckos, some Tejidae, Amphis- baenidae, and some other bur- rowing kinds. The splenial is absent in chameleons; near the vanish- ing point in some of the Agamidae. The coronoid is always present, for the insertion o f masseter muscles. In the pleurodont lizards the outer wall of the dentary forms a ledge, against the inner side of which are fixed the teeth with cementum. The snakes' skull shows many peculiarities, and most of the bones of the cranial capsule fuse together without sutures. The occipital condyle is triple, the lateral occipitals and the basi- occipital taking equal share in its composition; the basioccipital is excluded from the foramen magnum; frequently one common epiphysial pad covers this tripartite condyle. The supra- occipital is likewise excluded from the margin of the foramen magnum by the lateral occipitals. The basisphenoid is prolonged forwards into a long presphenoidal rostrum, on the upper sur- face of which the trabeculae cranii, which persist as cartilages, extend forwards to blend with the median ethmoidal cartilage. There are no ali- and no orbitosphenoids, their places being taken by downward extensions of the frontal bones, which descend to this sphenoidal rostrum and then turn inwards to meet together on the floor of the cranial cavity. There is consequently no interorbital septum. The parietals also de- scend laterally, but unite with the basisphenoid by suture. On e.a. 3 FIG. 22.— Skull of Monopeltis sphenorhynchus. I , dorsal aspect ; 2, ventral aspect ; 3, lateral aspect ; 4, posterior aspect, ar articular ; bs, basisphenoid ; d, dentary ;/, frontal ; m, max- illa; n, nasal; oc, oc, occipital condyles; of, occipital foramen ; pal, palatine ; pa, parietal ; pm, premaxilla; ptg, pterygoid; q, quadrate; so, supraoccipital ; sq, squamosal ; v, vomer. FIG. 23. — Skull of Python sebae. ar, articular; ca, columella auris ; d, dentary ; /, frontal ; m, maxilla ; p, parietal ; pm, pre- maxilla; po, prootic; pr, prefrontal; ps, postfrontal; pt, ptery- goid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; t, transversum; tb, turbinal. the base of the skull we note various processes for the insertion of ventral cervicooccipital muscles, much used during the act of vigorous striking. Boidae have a long sphenoidal ridge and thick basipterygoid processes; others have one or more median knobs or crests, and the Viperidae have a very pro- minent and large ridge. The parietals fuse together into an unpaired mass whence arises mostly a strong median crest which projects a little beyond the occiput; there is no parietal or pineal foramen. There are paired frontals, postfrontals, f. / pr FIG. 24. — Skull of Vipera nasicornis. ar, articular; ca, columella auris; d, dent- ary ; /, frontal ; m, maxilla ; pf, poison fang ; pm, premaxilla; pr, prefrontal; ps, post- frontal ; pt, pterygoid ; q, quadrate ; s, squa- mosal ; /, transversum or ectopterygoid. prefrontals and nasals; the latter are said to coossify in Charina only. The position of the prefrontals is vari- able. In the boas, for instance, they meet, separating the nasals from the frontals; they are in contact with the nasals in the boas, burrowing snakes and- in Xenopeltis, but more or less widely separated from them, and often from each other, in the Colubridae and Viperidae. The premaxillary is single-, and only in Glauconiidae connected with the maxillaries; in the others it is but loosely connected with the ethmoidal end of the skull, for instance, with the turbinals, which are osseous and well developed in pythons. The whole appendicular apparatus is most loosely attached to the skull, at least in the typical snakes, and since they do not chew their prey but only hook it in, so to speak, during the act of swallowing, the whole apparatus is as movable as possible. The whole palatal apparatus shows many modifications, but the maxillaries, palatines and pterygoids always remain widely asunder, and from the mid-line. Some of the modifications, so far as they are used for taxonomic purposes, are mentioned in the article SNAKES: Classification. In the majority of snakes the maxillaries form the borders of the mouth, and they are but loosely attached to the other bones, to their palatine processes, to the palatines, and with their posterior ends, by the ectoptery- goids to the pterygoids. In the Viperidae the maxillaries are much shortened and articulate extensively with the prefrontals; they can be erected, or rather pushed forwards, by the ectoptery- goids (see SNAKES); they are not connected with the palatines. The pterygoids diverge posteriorly and articulate loosely with the quadrates; in the original condition the articulation is near the distal end of the quadrate, e.g. in Boidae, and the pterygoids may form an additional attachment with the mandibles; in the Viperidae the pterygoids are somewhat shortened and are attached to about the middle of the quadrate shafts; in the Amblycepha- lidae they are still shorter and do not reach these bones. The ectopterygoids are lost by the burrowing Typhlopidae and Glau- coniidae. The quadrate is always extremely movable; besides being in a most curious way connected with the outer end of the columellar rod (see below, Ear), it is suspended from the skull by the squamosal. The squamoso-quadrate connexion is very loose; that of the squamosal with the skull varies much. In the majority of snakes it slides quite freely upon the parietal; it is much longer than the quadrate in the boas, much shorter than the elongated and slender quadrate in most of the poisonous snakes. Lastly, in most of the ancient burrowing snakes, e.g. Typhlops, Glaucoma, Ilysia and Uropeltis, the squamosal has worked its way into the cranial wall so that the quadrate, itself also much shortened, rests directly upon the cranium. The Vertebral Column. The vertebrae of all reptiles are gastrocentrous, that is to say. the centra or bodies of the vertebrae are formed by the originally paired, interventral cartilages, while the basiventrals are reduced, persisting either as so-called intercentra or wedge-bones, or as intervertebral pads, or disappearing altogether; the basidorsal elements form the neural arch. At the earlier stages of develop- ment the gastrocentrous vertebrae behave in the same way as in the Urodela, except that the interdorsal pair of elements is suppressed from the beginning (the very elements which in ANATOMY) REPTILES Stegocephali and most Anura form the centre), therefore the typical batrachian vertebrae are notocentrous. If the re- maining three pairs of constituent elements of each vertebra (the neural arch, the centrum and the intercentra) remain separate, the vertebrae are called temnospondylous (rifjivu, I cut, zygapophyses; c, cup ™"™08 °f the u Thoracic. !i ao: X M Ii E Lumbar ribless. Serial Numbers of the Sacral Vertebrae. Caudal. Sphenodon punctatum Crocodilus vulgaris . Alligator mississippien. 7 9 9 3.4 5 5 15 o 3 3 ri4in 2 2 all. 5 5 26, 27 25,26 25.26 ±30 33 40 Gavialis gangeticus . 9 7 2 3 3 25,26 33 Chelone viridis . 8 9 0 0 o I9,2O,2I l6+py- gostyle Macrolernys temmincki 8 9 O o i 19, 2O 27 Chelys matamata 8 8 0 0 o 17, 18 !7 Varanus niloticus 8 4 4 II 2 30,31 75 + ii giganteus 9 2 i 16 I 3°. 31 99 Iguana tuberculata . 8 4 2-3 10-9 I 26, 27 46 Uromastix spinipes . 8 4 I ii O 25,26 24 Trachysaurus rugosus 6 4 I 25 O 37.38 7+py- *ostyleof about 6 Cyclodus gigas . 7 4 2 21 o 35.36 o Lacerta viridis . 7 3 2 15 0 28,29 40 + Ophisaurus apus o o O 0 o 55, 56 o Chamaeleo vulgaris . 5 2 I 12 2 23, 24, ±50 Rhampholeon spectrum 5 I 3 8 2 2O, 21 i? The ribs, having arisen as lateral, separated off processes from the basiventral elements, show many modifications in their proximal attachments. These can be best studied on the skeleton of a young crocodile (fig. 25, 7 and 8). The first pair of ribs is very long and broad, attached to the unpaired ventral piece of the atlas-ring; the tubercular portion is indicated by a very small rugosity. The second pair of ribs is still larger; the capitulum attached to the second intercentral piece which fuses with the odontoid process; the tubercular process is weak or represented only by a ligamentous connexion with a small knob of the odontoid process; consequently the tuberculum has shifted its attachment away from the second vertebra. The other cervical, and the anterior thoracic, ribs have complete ANATOMY] REPTILES 155 capitular and tubercular processes, which, articulating with the bodies and with dorsolateral processes of the neural arches of their vertebrae, enclose typical transverse canals. In the posterior thoracic region ^he ribs are attached entirely to transverse processes of 't cf the neural arches, both ep capitular and tubercular portions having left the bodies or centra; the same arrangement pre- vails in the tail, but the ribs are very short and soon fuse with the pro- cesses. The two sacral ribs are very thick, FIG. 30.— Lateral aspect of Three Thor- articulating with the acic Vertebrae of Crocodilus vulgaris centra and the bases of (after Mi vart). c, cup on the anterior their neural arch, and cula'of ribs; u, uncinate processes; the intervertebral Joint ! IT, dorsal or vertebral portions of In Sphenodon the first the ribs; re, ventral or sternal card- three ribs are repre- laginous portions of ribs. sented by bands of CQn nective tissue only, with similar attachments as in crocodiles. The other cervical ribs are osseous; their short capitula retain their partly intercentral attachment, while the tubercula are carried by low processes of the centra. In the thorax both capitulum and tuberculum merge into one facet, which is gradually shifting farther tailwards and upwards until the attachment reaches them, and then lies upon the neuro-central suture. The first caudal vertebrae also possess ribs, very short and soon fusing with the diapophyses of the neural arches. In the cervical region of the Chelonia the ribs seem to be absent. In the thorax they retain their primitive intercentral position throughout life, assuming (except the first pair, which remains short and least modified) an absolutely intervertebral position. From the lumbar or presacral region backwards the capitula are gradually shifting upon short processes of the centra, until in the tail the vestigial ribs are carried by the diapophyses of the neural arches. In Sphargis (fig. 31) all the ribs are free; in the other Chelonians the ribs, generally in the recent species, flatten and become sur- rounded by the grow- ing membrane bone of the dorsal plates, and the cartilage of the ribs (except the capit- ular and neck portion FIG. 31. -Three Vertebrae of Sphargi* of the rib which cannot coriacea. c, vertebral centra ; «, neural be got at by the dermal arches; r, ribs. bones) undergoes a pro- cess of calcification. Ultimately this is resorbed and its place is taken by the dermal bone, which forms, so to speak, a cast of the rib. Several of the short presacral ribs, and of course the postsacrals, are not drawn into these enormous changes, although the carapace covers, and indirectly affects, them. Certain changes initiated in Sphenodon are more marked in the ribs of the Lacertilia; cervical ribs are often long in the lower neck. In the trunk the capitular portions are often much reduced, and in these cases the ribs are suspended mainly by their tubercular portions, usually from the diapophyses of the neural arches near the anterior end. In the snakes all the vertebrae, from the second cervical to the tail, carry ribs. These are very movable, articulating with a rather large, more or less vertically placed facet, which is borne by the parapophysis or transverse process; sometimes the rib retains traces of the original division into a capitular and tubercular portion. The ribs of the snakes, although long, consist only of their dorsal portions. In snake-shaped lizards, e.g. Pseudopus, rather long ribs begin with the fourth vertebra. Uncinate processes are developed only in Sphenodon and in the Crocodilia. They are not homologous structures, arising in the former from, the posterior margin of the middle of the dorsal portions of the ribs, overlapping the shaft of the next following rib; in the crocodiles they arise out of the middle portion of the ribs, remaining cartilaginous, whilst the middle portion codssifies with the dorsal. Only in Sphenodon and Crocodiles the thoracic ribs consist of three successive pieces; in the Lacertilia they consist only of the dorsal and the ventral or costosternal. The latter remain cartilaginous, or they calcify, but they never ossify. The sternum and further modifications of the ribs of the trunk. —The sternum of most reptiles consists (i) of an anterior portion (presternum, Parker; prosternum, Fiirbringer; mesosternum of Gegenbaur), which is generally broad, more or less rhomboid and carries the shoulder-girdle, and on its posterior sides several pairs of ribs; (2) of a posterior portion (mesosternum and xiphi- sternum of Parker; xiphisternum of Furbringer; metasternum of Gegenbaur), which is narrow, sometimes metameric, carries several pairs of ribs, and generally divides into a right and left xiphoidal half, each of which is continued into one or more ribs. These ribs tend to lose their connexion, and in these cases the sternum ends in two typical xiphoid processes. The distinction between pre- and metasternum is arbitrary. In Sphenodon the broad sternal plate carries only three pairs of ribs, the 8th to toth, and there is no xiphisternum. The other ribs of the trunk are long and compound, but they remain free and do not approach the mid-line. From the posterior edge of the sternum to the pelvis extends the complicated parasternum, embedded in the abdominal wall; it is composed of about two dozen sets of abdominal ribs, each set containing a right and a left and a median chevron-shaped piece. In the Crocodilia the presternum carries only two or one pair of ribs, always that of the loth vertebra. The narrow, more or less metameric metasternum carries seven or eight ribs, the last one to three being xiphoidal. The post-thoracic ribs gradually decrease in length; about three presacral vertebrae have no ribs, and so are typically lumbar. The sacral ribs are generally the 25th and 26th in Crocodilus and Alligator; sometimes the 24th and 2$th in Gavialis. The parasternum consists of only seven or eight transverse sets, each composed of two right and two left narrow splint-bones. All these parasternal elements belong to the category of dermal bones, together with those of the plastron of tortoises, inherited from Stegocephalian conditions. The Lacertilia present an almost endless variety. The presternum is rhomboid and broad; it carries from three to six pairs of ribs, mostly four or five; the first thoracic rib is that of the pth vertebra, the only exceptions being the chameleons with only five cervical vertebrae, and Varanus, which has usually nine cervicals like the crocodiles. The last cervical rib in these long-necked lizards is very long and has all the appearance of having but recently severed its connexion with the sternum. The presternum of Lacertilia sometimes has a window, e.g. some species of Lacerla, Phrynosoma, Iguana, or a pair of windows, e.g. Agama, Liolepis, Goniocephalus. The xiphi- sternum carries a variable number of ribs; it is either scarcely distinguished from the anterior plate, or it is long, and in these cases either double, e.g. Iguana, Gerrhonolus, Varanus, Zonurus, Agama, Cyclodus, Lacerta; or single, e.g. Zonosaurus. The post- sternal ribs shorten gradually in the majority of the Lacertae, and there is sometimes a ribless lumbar vertebra, e.g. in Iguana; in many Lacertilia, however, the ventral cartilaginous halves of the ribs are connected with those of the other side, either by ligaments, or they join together, forming complete hoops of thin cartilages. Such ribs occur in all Geckones and Cha- meleons, but also in many Iguanidae, Scincidae, and even 'in the Anelytropidae; their numbers vary much, from 27 in the Scincoid Aconlias meleagris, 7-10 in Polychrus, 8 in Chamaeleo i56 REPTILES [ANATOMY vulgaris, 4 or 5 in Anolis, to 1-3 in some other iguanids, skinks and geckos. Uroplates fimbriatus has 14, and the last four pairs are separated from the dorsal portions of their ribs; similar discontinuity occurs in geckos, the median portions bearing a striking, although not fundamental, resemblance to parasternal ribs. In the lizards with much reduced fore limbs, the sternum loses its connexion with the ribs from behind forwards; two sternal ribs existing in the Tejid ^^s ^^ v^ ^0 Ophiodes and in the Scincoid ! ' ' Acontias, one only in Pygopus, FIG. 32.-Rudimcnts of pec- none in Ophisaums s Pseudo- toral arch— i, of Acontias Pus and Anguis (in the latter one meleagris; 2, of Typhlo- rib is still connected in the saurus aurantiacus (after embryo). The sternum is like- wise quite free in Chirotcs in spite of its functional limbs; the sternum is still a large plate, with a window, and ending in two long, xiphoid processes. Lastly, the sternum has vanished without a trace, as in the snakes, in some species of Acontias, in the Anelytropidae, Dibamus and Aniella (Fiirbringer). In the limbless genera of Amphisbaenidae the sternum is very much reduced; in Trogonophis alone it is still represented by a narrow trans- verse bar connecting the ossicular vestiges of the shoulder-girdle; in the other genera the sternum has shrunk to a pair of nodules or to a single nodule. The pectoral or shoulder-girdle in its completest condition consists of a right and left scapula, coracoid, precoracoid and clavicles, and an unpaired interclavicle or episternum. The dorsal portion of the scapula remains cartilaginous, with or without calcification, and is usually distinguished as supra- scapula. The ventral portion of the precoracoidal and cora- coidal mass remains likewise more or less cartilaginous, rather unnecessarily distinguished as epicoracoid. Ossification begins near the glenoid cavity and thence spreads, eventually with the formation of a dorsal and a ventral centre. The resulting suture separates the dorsal or scapular from the ventral or coraco-precoracoidal mass. A kind of landmark, not always reliable, between coracoid and precoracoid is the exit of the supra-coracoidal nerve. The ventral margins of the coracoids articulate in tenon and mortice fashion with the antero-lateral margins of the sternum. The interclavicle, usually T-shaped, is a dermal bone and rests upon the ventral side of the girdle. The paired clavicles, sometimes fused together, rest upon the anterior end of the interclavicle and extend transversely to the acromial process of the scapula; the detail of the attachments varies much. The girdle is most complete in Sphenodon and in Lacertilia. In Sphenodon the coracoid forms one continuous mass with the precoracoid, without further differentiation; the clavicles are fused with the interclavicle into one T-shaped mass, the cross-arms of which are attached to the acromia by ligaments. In the lizards (except Heloderma) the much-broadened central and anterior halves of the girdle are fenestrated; the windows, always closed by membranes, are bordered by bony processes, distally by unossified cartilage. The first window to appear, or the most constant, lies between the coracoid and its pre- coracoid; in Anguis it is the only window, in this case not a primary feature. In other lizards, e.g. Uromaslix, a second window occurs between precoracoid and scapula, and even a third window can appear in the scapula itself, causing in many Iguanidae, e.g. Amblyrhynchus (see fig. 33, ms.), the so- called mesoscapula; an analogous window within the coracoid produces the mesocoracoid; unnecessary distinctions of little morphological value considering the great variability of these fenestrations in closely allied genera. The chameleons have lost the clavicles and the interclaviclp, and the scapula, which is very slender and long, is devoid of an acromial process. The coracoid forms one mass with the precoracoid, through the middle of which passes the supra- coracoidal nerve; the coracoids articulate by their whole bases with the sternum. Geckos possess a complete shoulder-girdle; the ventral por- tion shows, e.g. Hemidactylus, three pairs of windows; only FIG. 33. — Sternum and Shoulder-Girdle of Amblyrhynchus subcris- tatus (after Steindachner). cl, clavicle; co, coracoid; h, humerus; ic, interclavicle; me, mesocoracoid; ms, mesoscapula; pc, pre- coracoid ; i, scapula ; st, sternum. one in Uroplates. In the latter the interclavicle is much re- duced; the clavicles meet each other and are slender rods. In the Geckoninae and Eublepharinae the ventral halves of the clavicles are dilated and possess each a foramen; the inter- clavicle is cross-shaped. In the more or less limbless genera of lizards the shoulder- girdle is much reduced. In Chirotes, which still has functional fore limbs, the clavicles and the interclavicle are absent, the coracoids are not divided from the precoracoids; in the limb- less Amphisbaenidae the girdle is reduced to a pair of cylindrical ossicles in Amphisbaena, Blanus and Trogonophis; no vestiges exist in Rhineura, Lepidosternon and Anops. Foramina in the broadened clavicles occur also in various Lacertae, for instance in the Iguanid Lacmanctus, in the Scin- coid Trachysaurus, in Plestiodon, Zonasaurus and in Lacerta simonyi, but not in L. agilis. In Mabuia the median portions are especially broad and show each two foramina. Their pres- ence can be of but very doubtful taxonomic value. The girdle of the Crocodiles is considerably simplified. Scapula and coracoidae, movably united, at least in younger specimens. The precoracoid is slightly indicated by a process of the coracoid, which is perforated by the supra-coracoidal nerve near the glenoid cavity. Clavicles are absent. The interclavicle is reduced to a long, flat splint-bone, which is firmly fused on to the sternal cartilage. The Chelonian shoulder- girdle shows several very remarkable modifications. Instead of lying outside the trunk, it has been transferred into the cavity of the trunk, the carapace with the ribs covering it from the outside. An explanation of the changes implied in this trans- position is still extant. Chelonians are, moreover, the only reptiles besides Pterosauria in which the scapula is attached to the skeleton of the trunk. The scapulae stand in a more or less vertical position, and their dorsal end rests against the inside of the nuchal plate, where this is sutured to the first neural and the first costal plate, a little in front of and side- wards from the first short rib. From near its ventral end the scapula sends oft" a long process, which converges transversely with its fellow. This process, the clavicle(I) or the precora- coid of many authors, is the acromial process, the Plesiosauri giving the clue as to how an acromion can assume such an abnormal position. The coracoid, with a suture between it and the scapula, is very long and extends horizontally back- wards, not meeting that of the other side. The sternum being ANATOMY] REPTILES absent, and clavicles and interclavicles forming the epi-and endo-plastral elements of the plastron, the shoulder-girdle is nowhere in contact with the skeleton except at its dorsal end. The Fore Limbs. — The humerus has near its upper end a median process, and at a variable distance a lateral process, near which is the biceps-fossa. Above the radial or outer condyle exists a foramen for the passage of the radial nerve in Sphenodon, in the Lacertilia, and 'in many Chelonians, e.g. Cholone and Sphargis; such an ectepicondylar foramen is absent in crocodiles. Above the ulnar condyle exists, but only in Sphenodon, the entepi- condylar foramen, for the passage of the nervus medianus and brachial vessels. Thus Sphenodon alone possesses both foramina, the crocodiles neither. Ulna and radius always remain distinct; the former is generally the stouter although not always the larger bone. The carpus may contain as many as 12 separate elements: ulnare, intermedium, radiale, 2 centralia, a pisiform on the ulnar and a small nodule in a corresponding position on the medial side, and 5 distal carpals. In Sphenodon the centralia are sometimes fused into one, and the radial nodule is absent; the numbers of phalanges are, 2, 3, 4, 4 and 3 proceeding from the first to the fifth finger. The carpus of the Chelonia is like- wise primitive, with various unimportant reductions; Chelydra possesses one or two centralia, whilst pisiform and extra radial are absent; both these bones are present in Emys, but the centrale fuses with the radial carpal, and the fourth and fifth distal carpal are fused together. In Testudo the pisiform is small; intermedium, centrale and radiale are represented by one bone only, and the first, second and third distal carpals are fused, whilst the two remaining are free. In the marine turtles the fore limbs are transformed into paddles; the ulna is considerably shorter than the radius; all the normal nine carpal elements remain distinct; the pisiform is much enlarged, helping to increase the paddling surface, and it has moved from the ulnar carpal to the side of the fifth distal carpal. The three middle fingers and toes have mostly 3 phalanges; the pollex and hallux have always 2 ; the number of phalanges of the fifth finger varies from 3 to i, of the fifth toe from 2 to o. The greatest reduction occurs in Testudo and its allied genera of typical land-tortoises, Homopus, Pyxis and Cinixys, the formula for the fingers being 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 or i, and 2, 2, 2, 2, o for the toes. In Pelomedusa all the fingers possess 2 free phalanges only, owing to fusion of the first and second phalanges with each other. Considerable advance is marked by the Crocodiles. The intermedium and centrale are lost, the pisiform is small, ulnar and radiale are considerably elongated and enlarged. Of the distal carpals the two last are fused into one bone, and the three first, together with the central, are transformed into a pad-like cartilaginous and ligamentous piece between the large radial and the first and second finger, to which the pad is firmly attached. The other fingers articulate with the " humatum." The result of the whole arrangement is the formation of two main joints, one between fore arm and carpus, the other inter- carpal. The number of phalanges is 2, 3, 4, 4, 3. The conditions prevailing in Lacertilia are connected with those of Sphenodon. The intermedium is lost, the other normal carpalia are present, also the pisiform; the first distal carpal is much reduced and the correspondingly enlarged radial carpal comes into articulating contact with the first metacarpal. The numbers of phalanges are 2, 3, 4, 4, and 2 or 3 for the fifth finger. The hand of the chameleons is most modified; the first three fingers form an inner bundle opposed to the outer or fourth and fifth fingers; in correlation herewith the third and fourth distal carpals are fused into one rather large mass; the other elements remain free, and A. Stecker has found a small intermedium present in the young, in a position which indicates that its subsequent absence is due to loss, not fusion with neighbouring elements. The Pelvic Girdle. — The ilium is attached to the vertebral column by' means of the two sacraljribs.1 The ischia and the 1 In all reptiles, except a few fossil groups, the ilio-sacral connexion is post-acetabular, i.e. it lies in a transverse plane tailwards from pubic bones join the ilium at the acetabulum, which is not perforated, except in crocodiles. The ischia and pubes invariably form symphyses at their ventral ends, except the so-called pubes of the crocodiles, and these two symphyses are further con- tinuous with each other, dividing the pubo-ischiadic space into a right and left foramen obturatum of very variable size. They are small and round in Testudo, divided by a broad, bony bridge, larger in Chelone, separated by a chiefly ligamentous, partly cartilaginous string; largest they are in Sphenodon and in the Lacertilia. Frequently the symphysial portion at the anterior end of the pubic symphysis remains cartilaginous, unpaired, e.g. in most Chelonians and Lacertilians, comparable with the epipubis of Urodela. A corresponding cartilage, the os cloacae or hypoischium, is continued backwards, from the ischiadic symphysis towards the vent, serving for the attachment of sphincter muscles; it occurs in many lizards and tortoises. In the Chelonians the pubic bones are generally much stronger than the ischia, and they send out each a strong lateral pubic process, directed forwards and outwards; the obturator nerve passes through the wide obturator foramen. In the pleuro- dirous tortoises the ends of the ilia and those of the lateral processes of the pubes are much broadened and firmly anchy- losed with the posterior costal plates and with the xiphiplastron respectively. The whole pelvis, like the shoulder-girdle, lies inside the body. The pelvis of Sphenodon is essentially like that of the Lacertilia. The pubes are slender ; they send out a pair of lateral processes, near the base of which the obturator nerve pierces the shaft of its pubis. This lateral process is the homologue of the long, slender pubis of birds. The chameleons' pelvis is peculiar. The pubes are devoid of lateral processes, but from their anterior end arises a pair of small cartilages, in a transverse direction; their ends are connected by ligament with the median anterior portion of the ischiadic symphysis. The crocodilian pelvis is very aberrant. The ilium is broad and sends two processes to the acetabulum, which retains a foramen; the posterior process articulates movably with the ischium; the preacetabular process fuses in very young speci- mens with a separate, ossifying, cartilaginous piece, which then forms a rough joint with the anterior portion or process of the ischium, which closes the acetabulum on its ventral side. To this anterior ischiadic process is attached the freely-movable, club- shaped bone, generally called pubis. The homologies of these club-shaped bones and of the small bone mentioned above are not clear. The club-shaped bones remain asunder; the ischia form a long and firm symphysis. The obturator nerve passes out of the pelvis between the ischium and the club-shaped bone, close to the posterior margin of the latter. The posterior limbs show essentially the same composition as the fore limbs, but the modifications in the various reptilian orders are much greater. The femur has generally a well- marked neck. Fibula and tibia remain distinct; the former usually shows a reduction in thickness. In the tarsus we observe never more than two proximal tarsal elements, a re- duction due either to the suppression of the intermedium or to its enlargement and concomitant loss of the tibial element. The least-modified foot-skeleton is that of the Chelydridae, the lowest Chelonians. The proximal row is composed of a fibulare, and a much larger piece articulates with both tibia and fibula, the " astragalus" ; the centrale is present; the first three distal tarsals remain separate, each carrying a toe. The fused fourth and fifth tarsals carry the fourth toe, and, laterally attached, the hook-shaped fifth metatarsal. Chelone shows the same arrangement, except that the centrale is fused with the astra- galus; in Testudo, Emys, the fibulare, astragalus and centrale are fused into one broad mass, with the result of forming a cruro- tarsal and an intertarsal joint. The same arrangement reached by the Testudinidae is universal in the Lacertae, with the further modification that the three first distal tarsals fuse on to the proximal ends of their respective metatarsals. Most aberrant is the tarsus of Chameleons, in which the first and second toe one passing through the acetabulum. In birds it is likewise post- in mammals pre-acetabular. i58 REPTILES [ANATOMY form a bundle opposed to the rest; the fibulare and tibiale are fused into one bone; the fused fifth and fourth distal tarsals form a very large half-globular piece for the three outer toes, whilst the second toe is carried by the third distal tarsal, besides which there are three more small cartilages, one of which may be the displaced second tarsal or the still independent central. The tarsus of Sphenodon is like that of typical lizards, but none of its distal tarsals are fused on to metatarsals. The Crocodilian foot marks an advance. The astragalus is large, articulating well with tibia and fibula, and against the fibulare, which forms a typical, heel-shaped calcaneum. The fifth and fourth distal tarsals carry the fourth toe and the hook-shaped fifth meta- tarsal to which the fifth toe is reduced. The third, second and first distal tarsalia scarcely contain osseous nodules; they form together a wedge-shaped cartilaginous pad between the astra- galus and the first and second toes. This attachment of the distal tarsals to the metatarsals reminds us of the Lacertilian condition, the result in either case being a still more marked intertarsal joint in addition to the cruro-tarsal. Most well-footed reptiles retain all the five toes; only the crocodiles and a few tortoises have lost all the phalanges of the fifth toe. The phalangeal numbers are in the Lacertilia 2, 3, 4, 5 and 3 in the fifth toe; in chameleons 2, 3, 4, 4, 3; in most tortoises 2, 3, 3, 3, 2; but in Homo pus, Pyxis and Cinixys 2, 2, 2, 2, o; in the crocodiles 2, 3, 4, 4, o. The embryos of crocodiles are said to be hyperphalangeal; i.e. as many as 7 phalanges on the fourth; 5 or 6 on the fifth finger; 6 on the fourth toe, and there are traces of the fifth toe. In the adult the fourth toe remains without a claw. Burrowing and living in sand, or humus, is in many lizards correlated with reduction of the limbs and their girdles. The vestiges of the hind limbs come to lie as near the vent as possible. The reduction occurs in various families, independently. In most cases the fore limbs disappear first, but in the Amphisbaenidae, FIG. 34.— Vestiges of pelvic limb— i, cf. Chirotes, and in the of Lialis bartonii; 2, of Anguis fra- Tejidae, the reverse takes gilis; 3, of Amphisbaenafuliginosa. place. Whilst degeneracy f, femur ; il ilium ; ip, iliopectineum ; of the shoulder.girdle is p, pubis; t, tibia. , , , , , delayed long after the loss of the anterior limbs, that of the pelvic arch precedes the loss of the hind limbs. Cope has drawn up a tabular statistic of the loss of digits, limbs and their girdles on pp. 202-3 °f his work, Crocodiles, Lizards and Snakes of North America (Washington, 1900). The peculiar hind limbs of the Dibamidae are described in the article LIZARD. The majority of snakes have lost all traces of the limbs and their girdles, ex- cept the so-called Peropoda (see SNAKES: Classification). The vestiges of a Boa and of a Glauconia are shown in fig. 35- ^ r FIG. 35. — i, Vestigial pelvis and limb of Glauconia macrolepis. 2, The same parts of Boa (after Fiirbringer). /, lemur; il, ilium ; ip, bone called " iliopectineum " by Fiirbringer; p, pubis; t, tibia. Tegumenlary System. The skin of reptiles is characterized by the strong development of its horny stratum; on the outside of it exists a thin cuticular or epitrichial layer. An important feature in most lizards and in the snakes is the existence of a " subepirdemoidal " or transi- tional kyer which is produced by the migration of ectodermal cells into the cutis. The immigration takes place during the embryonic development, observed first by Kerschner, who, however, misinterpreted the process. Pigment cells, black chromatophores also, make their first appearance in the epiderm and then migrate into the transitional stratum, as has been first correctly stated by F. Maurer. The horny stratum is shed periodically, several times during the year, and as one entire piece in snakes and a few lizards, e.g. Anguidae; in most lizards, chameleons, geckos and in Sphenodon the thin, transparent colourless layer comes off in flakes. In crocodiles it is not shed except for the usual wear and tear, nor in tortoises, although in some e.g. Chrysemys, a periodical peeling of the large shields has been observed. In all reptiles the cutis is raised into papillae, or folds. When the papillae are small the skin appears granular; when they are large, flat, mostly imbricating, they form scales; when they are very broad-based and still larger, they are called scutes or shields. The overlying epidermal covering partakes of these elevations, often e.g. in many snakes, with a very fine system of ridges of its own. Such a scale, cutis and horny sheath, may form spikes, or crests. They all have only basal growth. Thus, for instance, a shield of a tortoise-shell is a much flattened scale, or cone, with the apex more or less in the centre, surrounded by marginal ridges which indicate the continuous additional growth at the base. The central " areola " represents in fact the size of the shield at the time of hatching. Of very common occurrence is the development of bone in the cutaneous portion of the scales; such osteoderms occur in many lizards, very strongly developed in the scutes of the crocodiles, especially on the back; they also occur in the skin of tortoises especially on their legs and on the tail, and they probably constitute the peculiar shell of Sphargis, the leathery turtle (see TORTOISE). Sphenodon and chameleons are devoid of such osteoderms, in geckos they are likewise absent, but calcifications occur in their tubercular skin. A similar process seems to have produced the egg-tooth of crocodiles and tortoises (see under Teeth below). Calcareous deposits, or at least deposits of guanine and more commonly of carbonate of lime, play a considerable role in the skin of lizards and snakes. These waste products of the metabolism are always deposited within cells, and a favourite place is the subepidermal layer. In combination with superimposed yellow or red pigment, and with the black chromatophores as a foil, partial or complete screen to the light, as the case may be, these mineral deposists are to a great extent answerable for the colours and their often mar- vellous changes in the skin (see CHAMELEON). Peculiar pits in the scales of snakes and crocodiles are described under Sense-Organs below. The skin of reptiles is very poor in glands, but the few which exist are well developed. Crocodiles possess a pair of glandular musk bags which open by rather large slits on the under jaw, against the inner side of the jaw. Another pair of musk glands are the anal glands. During great excitement all these glands can be everted by the crocodiles. Sphenodon and snakes have only the anal pair. Water tortoises have inguinal glands, which secrete a strongly scented fluid, opening near the posterior rim of the bridge. Trionyx has additional glands opening near the anterior part of the plastron. Peculiar glandular structures are the femoral pores of many lizards. They lie in a line from the inner side of the knee to the anterior margin of the anal region, to which they are restricted in the limbless Amphis- baenidae. Each pore leads into a subcutaneous pocket , sometimes with slightly acinous side chambers, the walls of which produce a smeary, yellowish matter consisting chiefly of the debris of disintegrated cells which dries or hardens on the surface in the shape of a little projecting rod. They occur in both sexes, but are most active in males during the pairing season. Their use is unknown. It would be far-fetched to liken them to fore- runners of the sebaceous portions of milk glands, although not so imaginary as to see in them and in the sensory pits of snake scales the foreruriners of the mammalian hairs! Claws, scarcely indicated in Batrachia, are fully developed in all limbed reptiles. The base is sunk into the skin like our own finger nails; the dorsal and ventral halves are differenti- ated into a harder, more curved dorsal sheath-like portion, and into the beginning of a sole, especially in crocodiles and in blunt-toed tortoises. The first claw to be reduced is that of ANATOMY] REPTILES the fifth digit. The claws of many geckos are " retractile," like those of cats; the adhesive lamellae on the under side of their digits have already been described (see GECKO). Nervous System. The hemispheres are still much longer than broad, and pass, especially in lizards, gradually into the olfactory lobes, into which continue the ventricles of the hemispheres. The dorsal walls of these are thin, especially in crocodiles, although they possess already a considerable amount of grey matter. The basal masses of the fore-brain bulge into the roomy ventricles like cushions. Fibres referable to a corpus callosum are scarcely separated from those of the still much stronger anterior commissure. The epiphysis comes to the surface between the hinder parts of the hemispheres. The pineal eye is described below under Sense Organs. The hypo- physis has tyit a shallow infundibulum. The mid-brain shows a pair of dorsal globular swellings, each with a cavity; they separate the hemispheres from the cerebellum. Of the hind- brain, the middle portion is by far the largest; although the dorsal wall of this cerebellum is thick, and rich in grey matter, it's surface is still quite smooth and it shows no trace of an arbor vitae. It covers but a small portion of the wide fourth ventricle. The spinal cord shows a brachial and a lumbar longitudinal swelling, especially marked in tortoises, but without a rhom- boidal sinus. The cord is continued into the end of the tail. The cranial nerves of the reptiles agree in their arrangement and distribution more with those of birds and mammals than with those of the Batrachia. The facial nerve sends a palatine branch to the palate and to the superior maxillary of the trige- minus, and a strong mandibular branch joins the third of the trigeminal, and further ramifications supply the sphincter muscle of the neck. The vagus and glossopharyngeus leave the cranium separately. The vagus then goes towards the heart, which in the /f Sauropsida is far re- moved from the head, and there possesses another ganglion, vari- ously called ganglion trunci vagi or g. nodosum. It is con- nected by a nerve with the large gang- lion supremum of the sympathetic. From FIG. 36.— Brain of Locertoogito. (After Ley- tne cardiac ganglion, dig.) i, Dorsal aspect; 2, vertical longi- and from the con- tudinal section, cb, cerebellum; ch, tinuation cerebral hemisphere; m, medulla oblon- vagus are sen(- gata ; olf, olfactory lobes ; on, optic nerve ; opl, optic lobes; p, pineal body or several branches epiphysis ; py, base of pituitary body. sue cession, which, having to pass below or tailwards from the transverse carotic, aortic and Botal- lian vessels, have to take again a headward course to the larynx and pharynx; a side branch enters the heart by its truncus. The main mass of the vagus then supplies lungs, stomach and further viscera. The accessory or nth cranial nerve arises with about half a dozen roots which extend often beyond the second cranial nerve; they collect into a thin stem which leaves the cranium together with the vagus, with which it is often fused; it supplies the cucullaris s. trarepius muscle. The hypoglossus arises by two ventral roots, leaving the skull by two holes through the lateral occipital bone, near the condyle. The united stem is invariably joined by strong branches from cervical nerves, always from the first, mostly also from the second, sometimes also from the third. The details vary much; occasionally there are three cranial roots and foramina, and then only the first cervical joins the hypo- glossus; this often fuses with the glossopharyngeal or with the nff the vagus. In the broad and well-muscularized tongue of the crocodiles the right and left hypoglossal branches form a com- plete ansa, an arrangement in which A. Schneider saw the infraoesophageal nerve ring of Invertebrata! The spinal nerves each issue behind, or through, the neural arch of the vertebra to which they belong genetically. The first spinal, or suboccipital, nerve has no dorsal roots, and, having lost its vertebra, an apparently anomalous arrangement has come to pass, in this way, that there are x cervical vertebrae, but x + i cervical nerves, a condition prevailing in, and char- acteristic of, all Amniota. The hypoglossal-cervical plexus is separated from the brachial plexus by several metameres, according to the length of the neck. The brachial plexus is composed of about 5 nerves; the variations have been studied chiefly by M. Fiirbringer. It is interesting to note that the brachial plexus still persists in snakes, although they have completely lost the anterior girdle and the limbs (Albertina Carlsson). A disturbance in the pelvic region likewise indi- cates in snakes the former existence of a pelvic or lu.mbo-sacral plexus, which in limbed reptiles is composed of about 5 nerves, the last of which is weak and in many cases (by no means the rule) issues between the two sacral vertebrae, sending one branch to the ischiadic, another to the public plexus which supplies the cloacal region. (For details of these plexuses see the papers by Mivart, Jhering and Gadow.) The sympathetic system shows considerable modifications in the various orders and even families of the reptiles. In the neck region, in Sphenodon and most lizards it is', on the right and left side, composed of two portions. One, more lateral and placed deeply, runs along the side of the vertebral column, starting from the first and second spinal nerves, with which it is connected by. so-called rami communicantes; it is not con- nected with the other spinal nerves until it reaches, in the thorax, the first stem of the brachial plexus, and hereabout lies the so-called second thoracic ganglion. The other, super- ficial and more ventral, portion arises from the petrosal gan- glion of the glossopharyngeal, and from the vagus ganglion, and then forms a long loop which joins the second thoracic gan- glion. In its long course it sometimes, e.g. in Varanus, forms one common stem with the vagus before it splits off. At a variable distance, but not far above the heart, the vagus pos- sesses a big swelling, the ganglion trunci vagi, and the sym- pathetic stem, in the same level, or farther down, has likewise a large ganglion, the g. supremum vagi, or first thoracic gan- glion. The vagus ganglion receives several nerve strands from this big sympathetic ganglion, and then divides as described above. In the crocodiles the deep portion of the sympathetic begins at the vagus and extends in rope-ladder fashion into the thorax, there being, as in birds, regular transverse communicating branches with the spinal nerves, and the longitudinal strands run through the transverse foramina between the capitular and tubercular portions of the cervical ribs. The other, ventral, por- tion starts by a right and a left branch from the vagus ganglia, but both branches unite at once into one unpaired stem, which is deeply embedded in the middle line between the ventral muscles of the cervical vertebrae. Very thin branches connect this unpaired stem with the right and left sympathetic portions ; small ganglia are embedded in the unpaired nerve. The so-called second thoracic ganglion is in reality a compound of all the sympathetic ganglia of the four or five metameres of the brachial plexus. It forms the point of juncture of the deep and the superficial cervical sympathetic portions. From the posterior region of the thorax backwards the right and left strands run along their side of the vertebral column, with a communicating branch and a ganglion for each metamere; sometimes one or more successive ganglia are combined, for instance near the cloaca. After having supplied the latter, the sympathetic system appears exhausted and is continued into the tail by but a very thin strand, which runs between the caudal vein and artery. The best illustrations of the sympathetic system are those by Vogt (neck of crocodile), J. G. Fischer (many i6o REPTILES [ANATOMY lizards), H. Gadow (cloaca of crocodile), J. F. v. Bemmelen (Sphenodon and others), W. H. Gaskell and H. Gadow (heart of tortoise). Sense Organs. 1. Tegumentary Organs of some Tactile or other Sense. — Reptiles possess apparently no traces of those tegumentary sense organs which, belonging to the domains of the trigeminal and vagus nerves, have spread far over the body in fishes and batrachia. They were developed by those classes in correlation with their essentially aquatic life. This does not apply to the reptiles which, as a class, are of absolutely terrestrial origin. Never- theless all recent reptiles possess numerous low sense-organs, " tactile bodies," in most parts of the skin, connected with the regional, spinal nerves. They are most obvious in snakes, appearing as one or more little colourless spots near the apex of each scale on the back. The spot is formed by a little cluster of epidermal cells, connected with a sensory nerve. Their lowest stage they show in Sphenodon and in lizards, whilst in crocodiles they have reached a higher stage, at the bottom of the pit, since the tactile bodies, mostly several together, have sunk into the cutis, below the epiderm, forming a little pit, mostly near to the anterior margin of the flat scutes. They are most obvious on the belly of crocodiles, whilst in the American alligator such pits are scarcer, not because the organs are absent, but because these have sunk still farther into the skin. The last stage is that met with in tortoises, which possess such tactile bodies in considerable numbers in the softer subepidermal layers, beneath the large horny shields which themselves show no traces of them. 2. Taste. — The respective organs do not seem to have been investigated. That they exist is amply proved by the careful predilection for certain kinds of food which is shown especially by vegetarian tortoises and lizards, independent of smell. Many lizards are, for instance, very fond of sugar. 3. Nose. — The sense of smell is well developed in all rep- tiles. In none is the olfactory organ degraded; that the nasal passages, the nose itself, are never degraded is explained by the fact that all reptiles invariably breathe through the nose, except snakes during the act of swallowing their prey. The nostrils, always paired, are frequently provided with valves, to shut out the water, or sand. In some water tortoises, e.g. Trionyx, Chelys, the nostrils are prolonged into a soft, unpaired proboscis. Double tubes exist in the snake Herpeton (see SNAKES, Opis- thoglypha). The nostril leads into an antrum or vestibulum, this again into the nasal cavity proper, at the dorsal farther end enters the olfactory nerve, whilst ventrally it leads into the naso- laryngeal duct, with its posterior narial opening, or choana. The ducts are short in snakes and lizards, the choanae lying in the front part of the palate, but in tortoises and crocodiles they are placed far backwards, as has been described under Skull above. Into the nasal cavity projects, from the septum, a concha, least developed in tortoises, most in lizards and snakes. Crocodiles show a beginning of separation into several conchae as in birds and mammals. A large nasal gland lies against the lateral, or ventral, side of the outer wall of the nasal cavity, into which also opens the naso-lacrymal duct. Jacobson's organ, of uncertain function, is present in most reptiles. It is paired. In tortoises it is still placed within its nasal cavity, against the median wall, and is still nothing but a recess of the same and its mucous lining. In lizards and snakes the organ has become completely separated from the nasal cavity, lying below it and opening, each by a separate passage, into the palate mouth, close to or still within the choanae. In snakes it is mushroom-shaped, with a very short stalk. It lies immediately below the floor of the nasal capsule, and the membranous wall of the cavity on which it lies is covered and protected by a bone, commonly called the turbinal, which extends out from the median nasal system to the maxilla. In crocodiles these organs are vestigial and soon disappear: 4. Ear. — In crocodiles the outer ear lies in a recess, dorsally overhung by the lateral edge of the bony squamoso-frontal bridge; it carries a flap of skin, provided with muscles, to close the ear tightly. In lizards the outer ear is quite unprotected, and when the meatus is very short and wide, the drum is quite exposed. No reptiles possess cartilages comparable to the mammalian outer ear. Sphenodon, chameleons, snakes have no outer ear, the skin passing over the region. So also in tortoises, but in some of the aquatic kinds its position is well indicated by softer and thinner skin; in others, for instance marine turtles, a thick leathery plug, or a bigger scale marks the former position. In various lizards, chiefly burrow- ing in sand, the ear passage is very narrow, or closed. The middle ear or tympanic cavity is quite obliterated in snakes, Amphisbaenas and some other snake-shaped lizards. In Anguis may exist individual traces. The cavity communicates with the mouth. In lizards the communication is a wide recess, lined with black pigment, so that in these creatures the whole auditory chain can easily be inspected from the oppned mouth. In tortoises the recesses are contracted into the Eustachian tubes, each of which opens by a separate aperture into the roof of the mouth. In the crocodiles part of the cavities is trans- formed into an intricate system of canals and passages. The two Eustachian tubes open together in the mid-lines protected by a valve, between the basioccipital and basisphenoid; thence arises a median passage which with lateral arms and loops extends upward through the occiput into the cranial roof, communicating with the tympanic cavity, and further continued through the quadrates and beyond into the mandibles, by the siphonium. In spite of the obliterated tympanic cavity of snakes, and the closed up outer ear passage and absence of a tympanic membrane in snakes and tortoises, these creatures can hear very well. The same applies to Sphenodon, but it seems doubtful whether chameleons can hear. Through the whole middle ear, from the fenestra ovalis to the drum-membrane, stretches the chain of auditory ossicles or cartilages, partly attached to the posterior wall by the common lining membrane. The arrangement appears simplest in snakes, in chameleons and in tortoises, not because it is primitive but because it is so much reduced, partly in correlation with the abolition of the outer ear. In these creatures the columella goes as a bony, slender rod straight to the middle of the quadrate, against which it leans, or with which it articulates by a short piece of cartilage, the extra-columella. Here the whole chain ends. It looks like a proof that columella = stapes, extra- columella = incus, and quadrate= malleus; or, with the usual ignoring of the little extra-columellar piece, that quadrate = incus, Gegenbaur's favourite impossibility. In those lizards which have a tympanic membrane conditions are far less reduced. The extra-columellar piece sends out three distal processes; one leans on to the middle of the tympanic membrane, the second usually is fastened to the bony dorsal rim of the meatus, the third is directed downwards and is continued as a thin ligament towards the inner angle of the articular of the mandible, but " before reaching this it comes to grief, being squeezed in between the quadrate and the posterior end of the pterygoid. The hyoid proper is of no account in snakes and tortoises, since it is reduced to very short distal pieces attached to the base of the tongue; but in lizards it remains in its original length, or it even lengthens, and shows many vagaries in its position and attachments. In embryos of Sphenodon and lizards it arises from near the junction of the columella with the extra-columella. It becomes very long, too long for the available space (perhaps correlated with lingual functions), and it forms a high loop, thereby causing the peculiar loop of the chorda tympani; the upward bend of the hyoid becomes connected with the parotic process of the cranium. Next aborts the portion between this connexion and the original proximal end of the hyoid, near the columellar mass. The upper end of the hyoid either remains attached to the parotic process (various lizards and Sphenodon) whence the lingual apparatus remains suspended, or the hyoid, having broken loose, leaves a little cartilage, Versluy's cartilage, behind, at the end of the parotic process, and the hyoid horn remains free, in the majority of lizards. In Sphenodon, whilst ANATOMY] REPTILES 161 passing the distal portion of the extra-columella, part of the hyoid fuses with it, often forming thereby a little hole, the remnant of imperfect fusion. In the crocodiles the arrangement is at first complete and diagrammatically clear, not obscured by vagaries of the hyoid, which is free and much reduced. In the embryo the large extra-columellar cartilage, abutting against the tympanic membrane, and with another process against the quadrate, sends its third, downward, process as a thick rod of cartilage to the posterior inner angle of the mandible with which it is directly in cartilaginous continuity. It was W. K. Parker's mistake to call this cartilage the cerato-hyal. In young embryos it looks like an upward continuation of Meckel's cartilage, much resembling mammalian conditions. But in nearly ripe embryos this cartilage is already reduced to a string of connective tissue, cartilage remaining only at the upper end, and where this string enters the mandible lies the siphonium, the tube which connects the air cavities of the mandible with the Eustachian passages, the long connecting channel becoming — side by side with the extracolumellar-mandibular ligament — embedded into a canal of the quadrate, so that in older stages, and above all in the adult, the proper display of the whole arrangement requires a FIG. 37. — Diagram showing Evolution cf the Ossicular Chain of the Ear. I. Hyostylic Elasmobranch. H, hyoid; Hrn, hyomandible; M, mandible; P Q, palatoquadrate. 2. Lacertilian. Co, colu- mella or stapes; and E, extra-columella with supra-, extra- and infra- " stapedial " processes. 3. Hypothetic stage between 2 and 4, Sphenodon. Par = parotic bone. 5. Lacertilian. Parotic pro- cess with a piece of cartilage at its end, remnant of piece of the hyoid ; connexion of intra-stapedial process with mandible vanish- ing. 6. Embryo of Crocodile. Continuous cartilaginous connexion of extra-columella with Meckel's cartilage. 7. Embryonic Mammal; for comparison. Cd, the new condyle, articulating with Sq, squamosal; Cor, coronoid process; quadrate trans- forming into tympanic ring. little anatomical skill. The whole string, whether cartilaginous or ligamentous, which connects the downward extracolumellar process with the articulare, is of course homologous with the continuation of Meckel's cartilage into the malleus of foetal and young mammals; and the chain of bones and cartilages between the auditory capsule, fenestra ovalis, and the proximal part of the mandible is also homologous wherever such a chain occurs; lastly, fenestra ovalis and membrana tympani are fixed points. Consequently columella=stapes, extracolumella of Sauropsida= lentiform+incus+malleus of Mammalia. The inner ear has been studied minutely and well by C. Hasse, E. Clason and G. Retzius. It is enclosed by the periotic bones. The fenestra rotunda is surmounted by the opisthotic, the fenestra ovalis by the same and by the pro-otic, and this protects also the anterior vertical semicircular canal. The posterior canal is opisthotic, the horizontal is pro- and opisthotic. The anterior canal is the largest of the three, a feature characteristic of the Sauropsida. The lagena, with its own acoustic papilla, begins to show a basilar membrane with papilla, at the expense of that in the sacculus. In Sphenodon and lizards a slight curving of the lagena indicates the beginning of a cochlea, and a scala is developed in crocodiles, but neither cochlea nor scala is specially twisted. The endo-lymphatic ducts end as closed sacs, in lizards and snakes, in the roof of the skull, between the occipital and parietal bones. They reach an enormous development in many geckos, where they form large twisted sacs beneath the skin, covering the sides of the neck, which then assumes a much swollen appearance. They contain white otolithic masses, with lymph. It is remarkable that the extent of these sacs varies not only in allied species, but even individually, independent of sex and age, although they are naturally liable to increase with age. 5. Eyes are present in all reptiles, although in many of the burrowing snakes and lizards they may be so completely covered by the skin as to have lost their function. Most reptiles have upper and lower lids, moved by palpebral muscles, and a third lid, the nictitating membrane, which can be drawn over the front of the cornea from the inner angle obliquely up and backwards. Its mechanism is simplest in lizards. A muscle, a split from the retractor muscle of the eyeball, arises from the posterior part of the orbit, is attached to the posterior wall of the eyeball, and there forms a pulley for the long tendon which arises from the median side of the orbit and passes over the back of the ball forwards into the nictitating [membrane. Contraction of this muscle draws the membrane backwards and over the eye. In crocodiles and tortoises the tendon of the nictitating membrane broadens out into a muscle (M. pyramidalis), which arises from the median side of the posterior portion of the ball; above the optic nerve it crosses over the broad insertion of the retractor of the ball, without being much guided by it, although this muscle by its contraction slightly prevents the nictitating tendon and muscle from touching the optic nerve. It is easy to recognize the mechanism of birds as a combina- tion of the two types just described; their ,musc. quadrates s. bursalis is of course the single muscle of the lizards, but now restricted to, and broadened out upon, the eyeball. Special Modifications of the Lids. — In the snakes the upper and lower lids are reduced to the rim, and the nictitating membrane has become the permanent cover, which protects the eye like a watch-glass, leaving between itself and the cornea a space, drained by the naso-lacrymal duct, and behind this space the eyeball moves as freely as in other animals. A similar arrange- ment exists in tb,e true geckos, not in the Eublepharidae, which still possess the outer lids. In some lizards, especially such as live in deserts, the middle of the lower lid has a transparent disk, and it is always the lower lid which is drawn over the eye, the upper in nearly all Sauropsida being much smaller and less movable; for instance, some specimens of the Lacertine genus Eremias in Africa and India. In the Indian genus Cabrita, and in Ophiops of Africa and India, the lower lid is permanently fused with the rim of the shrunken upper lid and forms a trans- parent window superficially looking like that of the snakes. Exactly the same arrangement has been developed by A Uepharus, one of the Scincidae. The eyeball is provided with the usual rectus and obliquus muscles, in addition to a retractor oculi. Apparently all reptiles possess a pair of Harderian or nictitating glands, which open in front, in the nasal, inner corner, and lacrymal glands which open likewise into the conjunctival sac, but near the outer or temporal corner. The secretion of both is drained off through the lacrymal canals, which in lizards open below in the outer wall of the posterior nares; in snakes they open into the mouth by a narrow aperture on the inner side of the pala- tine bone. The walls of the anterior half of the sclerotic of lizards, tortoises and Sphenodon contain numerous cartilaginous or osseous plates, which imbricate in ring shape; they are absent in snakes and crocodiles. Internally the eye of most reptiles possesses at least traces of a pecten; very small indeed in tortoises, or in crocodiles where it is represented by only a few mosslike, pigmented vessels. In many lizards these vessels, arising from near the optic nerve, form a network which extends right up to the posterior side of the lens; in others, especially in Iguanidae, is developed a typical, large pecten, deeply pigmented with black, fan-shaped or umbrella-shaped, some- times folded. In chameleons it is a short cone; apparently xxm. 6 REPTILES [ANATOMY quite absent in Sphenodon. A falciform process and other remnants of a campanula are absent. In most of those reptiles which have but a rudimentary pecten, the retina is supplied by hyaloid vessels which spread over the surface of the vitreous body; such superficial vessels disappear with a greater develop- ment of the pecten, and the retina receives a choroid supply; special retinal arteries from the a. centralis retinae, and veins, exist in snakes. Ciliary processes of the choroid are usually small, a proper ciliary body being least' developed in crocodiles; all reptiles have a ciliary muscle. The shape of the contracted pupil varies from round to a vertical slit; the latter is most marked in Sphenodon. The retina shows usually a fovea centralis, sometimes but slightly indicated by a shallow depression; it is well marked in chameleons. The retina contains only cones, rods being absent; fat-drops on the apex of the cones are common; their usual colours are green and blue. 6. The pineal, median or parietal eye is the terminal organ of the epiphysis of the brain, with which it is connected by a nerve-containing string. Among recent reptiles it exists in Sphenodon and in the Lacertilia, with vestiges in snakes. It is embedded in the median parietal foramen. Externally its presence is generally marked by the scales being arranged in a rosette, with a transparent central scale. The organ itself is distinctly a dioptric apparatus, with all the essential features of an eye; a pigmented retina of the arthropodous simple type surrounds an inner chamber which is nearly filled by a cellular globular mass which projects into it from above; this is the so-called lens, in reality much more like the corpus vitreum in its still cellular condition, while the real lens has to be looked for in the superimposed tissue. The whole organ is best developed in Sphenodon, even in the adult; but whether it is still functional, and what its function is, remain unknown. The throwing of a beam of light upon this eye, by means of a lens, produces no effect. Whilst in Sphenodon the " lens " is rather dull and the efferent nerve is still present, in various lizards the " lens " is more perfect, but the nerve is degenerated. We conclude that the whole organ is now without the least visual function, whilst in various extinct groups of reptiles and Stego- cephali it was fully developed. It has been well investigated by de Graaff, W. B. Spencer and A. Bendy. The Muscular System. A useful account of the differentiation of the muscles in the main reptilian groups, with their almost endless modifications in correlation with walking, climbing, swimming, gliding and burrowing, with limbs complete or absent, would fill several pages of this article and would necessitate many illustrations. The literature is great; it comprises many good detailed de- scriptions of various kinds of reptiles, and several monographs. M. Fiirbringer has devoted a whole series to the muscles of the neck, shoulder-girdle and fore limbs. Hand in hand with these investigations went that of the innervation, without which myology would lack scientific value. The present writer has devoted much time to the muscles and nerves of the pelvis and hind limbs, and has, in tabular form, compared them with those of other vertebrates. The results of all these labours are rather disappointing, except for the study of myology as such, which raises many interesting questions. Broadly speaking, the muscles of typical reptiles, crocodiles and lizards are more highly differentiated (by no means always more numerous, but more individualized by origin and insertion, the behaviour of the tendons), more effectively disposed according to mechanical principles, than in Batrachia, and less than in birds and mammals. This can easily be proved, whether we take for comparison the muscles of the neck, of the larynx or hyoid, or limbs. Lowest.in general stands Sphenodon, next to it the lizards, highest the crocodiles, while tortoises and snakes show the greatest reduction and specialization. In the tortoises it is the non-yielding box of carapace and plastron which has caused great changes within the region of the trunk proper. First, all the epiaxial muscles have vanished; the same applies to the costal muscles; but traces of dorso-lateral muscles occur on the inside of the posterior half of the carapace, extending as a longitudinal system from one transverse process to the next in many of the lower aquatic tortoises, as perfectly useless vestiges; or more striking, these muscles exist in the young, and disappear with age, for instance in Testudo. Secondly, it is rather surprising that the rigid shell has offered so little or no inducement to the muscles of the girdles, neck and tail to transfer their origins upon it. Thirdly, the retractile neck of the typical cryptodirous tortoises is correlated with a pair of long retractor muscles, which in the shape of a pair of broad, vertical ribbons (between which is received the S-kinked neck) extend far back along the vertebral column, almost to the level of the pelvis. In snakes, owing to the loss of limbs and girdles, only the spinal and costal muscles remain, besides of course those of the abdomen and the visceral arches. The vestigial muscles of the limbless lizards and of the peropodous snakes have been monographed by Fiirbringer in much detail without great results. Respiratory Organs. All reptiles breathe by lungs, and they possess no vestiges of gills, not even during their embryonic stages, although gill clefts are invariably present in the embryo. Nor does any part of the outer skin assist respiration, as is so commonly the case in Batrachia; yet, strictly speaking, the lungs are not the only organs of respiration in the class of reptiles, since various tortoises possess additional breathing apparatus in the anal sacs and in certain recesses of the throat, to be mentioned farther on. The Larynx, instead of lying at the bottom and. far back in the throat, as in the Batrachia, is considerably moved for- wards so as to rest upon the hyoid and to project into the pharyngeal cavity. A pair of arytenoid cartilages, enclosing the glottis, rest upon several more or less fused tracheal cartil- ages, which thus represent the cricoid, but there is no thyroid cartilage. A small process from the anterior median edge of the cricoid is the beginning of an epiglottis. Vocal chords are indicated by lateral projecting folds of the inner membran- ous lining of the larynx, and are in a few cases effective in producing a voice. Crocodiles and alligators have a powerful, loud, bellowing voice; many tortoises utter weak, piping sounds, especially during the pairing season; and also various lizards can emit a feeble squeak, for instance, Psammodromus hispanicus, and the geckos. Sphenodon, at least the males, can grunt. Snakes have no voice; they can only hiss like all other reptiles, but a curious modification exists in the larynx of the North American Coluber s. Pityophis, e.g. C. melanoleucus: the epiglottis is more enlarged, and laterally compressed so that the hissing sound is much strengthened by the vibration of the epiglottis. The larynx possesses a constrictor and a dilator muscle, which arise from the ary- tenoids and from the cricoid respectively, and are attached to the hyoid. Chameleons have bladder-shaped sacs which can be filled with air from a slit immediately below the larynx. For further modifications see G. Tornier. The Trachea is furnished with cartilaginous rings and semi- rings, which extend to the lungs. As a rule the trachea is straight; in Crocodilus americanus it forms a loop; and similar curvings occur in various tortoises in correlation with the retractile neck. The two bronchi are shortest in Sphenodon, very long in most tortoises, where they begin frequently already half down the neck. In Sphargis most of the trachea is divided by a longitudinal partition. It is an advance upon amphibian conditions that the bronchus enters its lung no longer at its apex, since an anterior, pre-bronchial lung-portion has come into existence. This is still very short in Sphenodon, while in crocodiles, tortoises and in the highly developed Varanidae the bronchus enters near the middle of its lung, so that the anterior portion is nearly as long as the posterior. The shape of the trunk influences that of the lungs. In the snake-shaped forms, both snakes and lizards alike, the lungs have become ANATOMY1 REPTILES very asymmetrical, one of them being much larger than th other, which is often quite aborted. The simplest form of lungs is that of Sphenodon; the pre bronchial part is still small. Each lung is still a sac with on large lumen, the walls being honeycombed. In the lizard the walls are more spongy, and several septa begin to extent more or less far from the walls into the lumen, towards eacl bronchus. Some of these septa begin to cut the lung intc lobes, especially in Varanus and in chameleons. In the latte exists a further specialization, a side-departure, in the shapi of several long, hollow processes which are sent out from the posterior portions of the lungs and extend far into the body cavity and between the viscera. By means of them these creatures can " blow " themselves out. They are of mor phological interest since they are first stages of air-sacs so marvellously developed in birds, and possibly also in various Dinosaurs. In the Amphisbaenids the left lung alone remains The lungs of crocodiles have reached a considerably higher stage. They alone in reptiles are, on the ventral side, com- pletely shut off from the viscera by a pleural, partly mus- cularized, membrane. From each bronchus extend a number of broad septa towards the periphery, dividing the originally single lumen into many chambers, perhaps a dozen, from the walls of which wide secondary or parabronchial canals extend into the alveolar meshwork, in very regular arrangement, in series like organ-pipes. The lungs of the tortoises are, in adaptation to the peculiar shape of the body, stowed away along the back, as far as the pelvis, and only their ventral surface is covered by a strong peritoneal membrane which receives muscular, diaphragmatic fibres. The inner division of the lungs into chambers has pro- gressed so much that a sort of mesobronchus has become dis- cernible; the arrangement of the side-bronchi is far less regular than in crocodiles; the whole lung is much more honeycombed, meshy and spongy. The mechanism of breathing of tortoises is not such a puzzle as it is sometimes stated to be. Of course the rigid box of the trunk excludes any costal, or abdominal breathing, but by pro- truding the limbs or the neck, piston-like, an effective vacuum is produced in the box. Moreover, the throat is distended and worked considerably by the unusually large and very movable hyoid apparatus, by which air is pumped into the lungs. The lungs of the snakes are very thin-walled, with a very wide lumen, and only for about the first half from the heart backwards the walls are alveolar enough for actual respiratory function, while towards the blind end the sacs are so thin and sparsely vascularized that they act mainly as reservoirs of a large amount of air. Frequently their posterior portions receive blood vessels not from the pulmonary arteries but directly from those of the trunk. In correlation with tKe long, cylindrical body, the lungs are much elongated and they are not equally developed. The asymmetry shows great differences in the various groups, consequently the asymmetry has been developed independently in those groups. It is usually stated that the left lung is much smaller than the right. This is but rarely the case. The most recent observations are those of E. D. Cope (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. (1894), xxxiii. 217). In Boidae both lungs are large, although unequal: the left or more dorsally placed one being the larger. In Ilysia the right is functional, the left is ventral and vestigial. In Rhinophis the right is very small, the left larger. In Glaucoma and Typhlops the right lung alone is developed: the left is^juite aborted. In Colubridae the left lung alone is functional, while the right is vestigial. There is no trace of the right in Elapinae and Hydro- phinae and most Viperidae. In the Colubridae the right, or ventral, lung is, when present at all, reduced to a length of from 2-5 mm., and it then communicates with the anterior portion of the left lung by a foramen, in level of the heart, whilst the right bronchus is aborted. A further complication is the so-called tracheal lung, which is present in Typhlopidae, Ungalia of the Boidae, in Chersydrus of the Acrochordinae, in the Hydrophinae and Viperidae. This 163 peculiar organ is a continuation of the anterior portion of the functional lung, extending far headwards, along the trachea, with the lumen of which it communicates by numerous openings. In Chersydrus this mysterious organ is " composed of coarse cells and without lumen, extends from the heart to the head, and is discontinuous with the true lung; the trachea communi- cates with it by a series of symmetrical pores on each side." In Typhlops it extends likewise from the heart to the throat, as a cellular body but without lumen or connexion with either trachea or lung. Thyroid and Thymus. The Thyroid of the reptiles is a single, unpaired organ, placed ventrally upon the trachea and one or other of the arterial trunks, more or less distant from the heart. In snakes it lies on the mid-line near the heart; a little farther up in Sphenodon; still farther in lizards, and chameleons near the root of their gular sac. In tortoises it is globular, at the division of the carotic trunk. In crocodiles it is bilobed. The Thymus is paired. It is largest in crocodiles, extending on either side of nearly the whole neck, along the carotids and jugulars. In the tortoises they are much shorter; in Sphenodon and lizards are two pairs, more or less elongated; in the snakes are sometimes as many as three pairs, elongated but small, attached to the carotis near the heart. As usual the thymus bodies become much reduced with age. The Spleen. The Spleen varies much in shape and position. In lizards it is mostly roundish, elongated in Sphenodon, and placed near the stomach; in crocodiles it lies in the duodenal loop behind the pancreas; similarly situated in snakes, but in the tortoises it is much concentrated, large and attached to the hind-gut. The Body Canty. The body cavity of the reptiles is subdivided into several sacs or cavities by serous membranes of peritoneal origin. The number of these subcavities differs much in the various groups. The pericardial sac is always complete. In tortoises the lungs are retro-peritoneal, a dense serous membrane spreading over their ventral surface from the walls of the carapace forwards to the liver and shutting off a saccus hepato-pulmonalis from the rest of the peritoneal cavity. Snakes possess, besides the modifications mentioned above, separate chambers for the stomach, right and left liver, and for the gut, whilst the pleural cavities as such have been destroyed. In lizards a " post-hepatic septum " divides liver, lungs and heart from the rest of the ntestines. This transverse vertical septum is best developed, almost complete, in some of the Tejidae, in others it seems to be more imperfect, and it is probably a further development of the uspensorial ligament of the liver, which is ultimately inserted upon the ventral wall of the body. The subdivisions have reached their highest development in he crocodiles, there being, besides the pericardial and the two )leural cavities and the usual peritoneal room, a right and left icpato-pericardiac, an hepato-gastric, and an hepato-pulmonal ac. The caudal and ventral edges of these liver-sacs are fused in to the ventral body-wall, thus producing a complete trans- verse partition, headwards of which lie the lungs, liver and icart. This partition, morphologically not homologous with he mammalian diaphragm, more resembling the imperfect tructure in birds, acts, however, as a perfect diaphragm, since : is well furnished with muscular fibres. These are attached o its whole periphery, with centripetal direction, especially n the ventral half. These fibres are transgressors upon this eptum from a broad sheet of muscles, which, inserted together ith the septum upon the body-wall, arise from the iliac bones, fie pubes, and the greater portion of the last pair of abdominal ibs. This broad muscular sheet, covering the intestines, is be so-called abdominal diaphragm or peritoneal muscle. Its ontinuation upon the transverse septum is the crocodilian muse, diaphragmaticus, and in functional effect very similar 164 REPTILES [ANATOMY to that of the Mammalia, whilst the abdominal diaphragm undoubtedly causes abdominal respiration. We have seen that these crocodilian conditions do not stand quite alone, but are connected with simpler features in the other reptiles. Two recent, very lengthy papers have been written on this subject by I. Bromann (1904) and by F. Hochstetter (1906), besides two in 1902 by G. Butler. The Heart. The Heart of all reptiles is removed from the head and is placed well in the thorax, in the Varanidae even a little beyond it. Only in snakes the heart lies headwards from the hilus of the lungs, not cauda'lwards, generally at about the end of the first fifth of the body. The batrachian conus arteriosus is reduced, one set of semilunar valves guarding the entrances into the truncus arteriosus which now issues directly from the heart. A sinus venosus exists still in Sphenodon and Chelonians, in which it may even receive separate hepatic veins, but in crocodiles, lizards and snakes the sinus as such exists no longer, forming part of the right atrium. All the hepatic veins enter the stem of the posterior vena cava, which henceforth enters the heart as inferior vena cava. This, the largest, and the right and left anterior vena cavae, are the only three veins which enter the right atrium. Into the left open the two pul- monary veins. Right and left atrium have in all reptiles a complete septum between them. The ventricular portion shows considerable steps towards the differentiation into a right and a left ventricle, but the partition is very incomplete in tortoises, lizards and snakes, quite complete only in the crocodiles. The most important character of the reptilian heart, absolutely diagnostic of it, is the fact that the systemic vessel which leaves the right ventricle turns to the left to form the left aorta, while the stem which comes from the left ventricular half arches over to the right as the right aorta. It is not at all necessary to conclude that this fact excludes the reptiles from the mammalian ancestry and to hark back to conditions as indifferent as are those of the batrachia. The Foramen Panizzae shows the way to a solution, how ultimately all the arterial blood from the left ventricle may pass, first through the root of the right arch, then through this hole into the left, whilst the rest of the right arch, and the root of the left, obliterate. The difficulty is not much greater than that of deriving the birds' condition from the reptilian. The Foramen Panizzae, which exists only in the Crocodilia, lies exactly where the right crosses dorsally over the left aorta. The whole is not the last remnant of the originally undivided truncus, as is taught generally, but it is a new foramen, a hole dug by the left arterial blood into the venous right aorta. According to the recent observations made by F. Hochstetter the foramen comes into existence in a very late embryonic stage. Whilst the batrachian single ventricle possesses only one ostium ventriculare or outlet into the truncus, in the reptiles the inter-atrial. septum extends considerably downwards into the base of the ventricle, so as to produce a right and a left niche, and correspondingly two ostia instead of one. The atrio- ventricular valves are still membranous, even in crocodiles; attached to them are muscles, trabeculae carneae, from the very trabecular walls of the ventricle; they are especially spongy in tortoises. By means of the arrangement of some of these trabeculae, perhaps still more through the confluence of their basal portions, an imperfect ventricular septum is initiated. Certainly even in tortoises, which represent the lowest stage, the venous blood is received into and sent out by the same right side of the ventricle, while the arterial blood is correspondingly managed and dodged by the left side. That there is not very much mixture of the two kinds of blood, in spite of the wide communication in the ventricle, is further due to the peristaltic systole and diastole of the various divisions of the heart. — The heart of Chelonians is broader than long. In correlation with the very much flattened body of Trionyx and its allied genera, the whole heart is dislodged from the middle line, far over to the right side; the vessels of the left side are correspondingly much elongated and have to cross the neck, trachea and oesophagus. — The apex of the heart is attached to the pericardium by a special ligament in the Crocodilia and in many Chelonia, e.g. Testudo, but it is absent in Clemmys. Sometimes this little ligament sends a tiny blood vessel into the liver. Arterial System. Crocodiles. — The left aorta crosses obliquely beneath the right and gives off only the coeliac, just before joining the right aorta in the level of the eighth thoracic vertebra. The aorta descendens sends off, besides intercostals and other segmentals into the body-wall, the mesenteric, right and left iliac, a pair of renal and ischiadics, a cloacal and the caudal artery. The right aorta forms the main root of the a. descendens. Close to the heart it sends off two coronaries and a short carotis primaria which divides at once into two anonymae, the left of which is the stronger. The right anonyma divides into the subclavia and collateralis colli, the left into subclavia and carotis subverte- bralis. Each subclavia sends off an a. vertebralis communis, which runs headwards and, with another longer branch, down- wards, giving off intercostals, and then joins the descending aorta. Tortoises. — The left aorta is rather more separated from the truncus, which it crosses ventrally in an oblique forward direc- tion; it sends off a left cardiac to stomach and oesophagus, a coeliac and mesenteric, and then a communicating branch to the right aorta. The a. descendens gives off paired supra- renals, spermatics, very large iliacs, then a pair of renals, hypogastrics and the caudal. Each iliac artery divides into a recurrent intercostal anastomosing with the axillaries, an epigastric (sending off the crural and anastomosing with thoracics and humerals), and other arteries to abdominal muscles and to the shell. The hypogastrics supply the cloacal region and then continue as the ischiadics. But there are many anastomoses which cause great variation in the different tortoises. The right aorta sends off a right cardiac, the coronary, and the right and left anonymae which are quite symmetrical, each dividing into subclavia and carotis; in the angle lies the thymus. Lizards. — Two common carotids arise either side by side, or by one carotis primaria, from the right aortic root. In the majority each common carotis ascends the neck and then divides into the vessels for the head and another branch which turns back and goes into the descending part of the aortic arch. In chameleons two carotid stems ascend the neck and there is no recurrent vessel. In the Varanidae the two common carotids start from a long carotis primaria; there is no recurrent vessel. The vertebral arteries come from the origin of the subclavians and run to the head in a very lateral position. The subclavian arteries (which occur also in limbless lizards) arise far away from the carotids out of the descending arch of the right aorta, in a level often far behind the heart. " Anonymous " arteries are consequently absent in lizards. Snakes. — The left aorta is stronger than the right, both com- bining soon to form the descending aorta. Owing to the absence of fore limbs and shoulder-girdle the conditions are much simpli- fied. In most snakes the right aorta sends off but one strong carotic vessel which represents the left carotis communis whilst the right is much reduced or even quite absent; further, there is only one vertebral artery, which either runs along the right side of the vertebral column or it divides soon into a right and a left vessel along the neck. In conformity with the reduction of one lung there is usually but one pulmonary vessel. Venous System. Crocodiles. — Elach, right and left, anterior vena cava is com- posed of a subclavian (axillary and external jugular), an internal jugular, common vertebral and an internal mammary vein. The posterior vena cava is composed of the two revehent renals, veins from the genital glands and ducts, revehent veins of the suprarenals (which, like birds, still have a portal system), and the big vein from the fat body. Thus the vena cava posterior ANATOMY] REPTILES 165 perforates the right liver, receiving from it many hepatic reve- hent veins and also the big revehent vessel from the left lobe; next it receives the coronary vein and then enters the heart as inferior vena cava. The portal vein arises out of the coccygo-mesenteric (which comes out of the bifurcation of the caudal), collecting the blood from most abdominal viscera and from the thorax and breaks up in the right liver. The rest of the venous system is rather complicated. The big caudal vessel divides near the vent, receives an unpaired cloacal and a rectal vessel, and goes off to the right and left, each of which trunks receives an ischiadic and an inter-sacral vein and then divides into the v. renalis advehens which breaks up in the kidney, and the abdominal vein. The latter are interesting; they run in the abdominal wall, receive the obturator and other pelvic veins, intervertebrals and intercostals, the crurals, and the epigastrics out of the body- wall. Then these two abdominals (Rathke's internal epigastrics) go to the liver, which they enter to either side of the gall bladder, collecting also blood from the stomach and from the vertebral column. Both break up in the liver. Consequently all the blood from " below the heart " passes through some portal system — renal or hepatic — except that which comes from the genital glands and ducts and from the fat body. Tortoises. — The venous system much resembles that of the crocodiles, but many and wide anastomoses, especially on the inside of the carapace and plastron, exist between often distant vessels, so that one lucky injection may fill the whole system. There are three advehent renal veins which collect on the back of their kidney into one stem; they dissolve completely into a portal system, and leave the kidney on its ventral surface as one v. renalis revehens. The right and left then form the v. c. posterior which perforates the posterior margin of the right liver, then headwards of the liver takes up the hepatic and enters the heart. The three pairs of afferent renal veins are composed as follows. The externa collects from the shell and the abdominal muscles; the posterior collects along the rectum from the genital glands, the bladder, and from parts of other pelvic viscera; the anterior comes from the anterior part of the shell and runs back- wards to the kidney, with frequent anastomoses with the other advehent renal veins. The abdominals arise, as in the crocodiles, with the external advehent renal from the lateral continuation of the bifurcated caudal, which takes up vessels from the pelvis, the shell and the crural. The abdominal itself takes up a femoral vein, vessels from the abdominal and pelvic muscles, and from the plastron, and then dives into the body-cavity, receives veins from the fore limbs, and enters the right lobe of the liver, there to break up.' The hepatic portal collects from the intestinal tract, spleen and pancreas. Consequently in tor- toises all the blood from below the heart passes through some portal system. The most important peculiarity of the Lizards is the condition of the abdominal veins ; they combine into a single stem (after having collected the blood from the fat body and from the ventral body- wall of the pelvic region) which dives into the body-cavity to join, embedded in the ventral hepatic ligament, the left branch of the portal vein. The chief characteristic of the abdominal is that it does not communicate directly with the caudal, and that it forms an unpaired stem. The renal portal system receives its blood from the tail, the hind limbs, the abdominal wall and the urine-genital organs, all the blood passing into a right and a left advehent vein. The suprarenal portal system drains from the abdominal wall and the supra- renal bodies, and issues into the revehent renals. These, with some intervertebrals and with hepatics, constitute the inferior vena cava. Lymphatic System. The lymphatic vessels frequently accompany the big arteries of the trunk, either surrounding them with a meshwork or ensheathing them completely, .especially in tortoises. The lymphatics from the head and neck combine with stems which accompany the veins of the fore limbs; they join the thoracic ducts and these open into the brachio-cephalic veins, as they do in birds. The lymph from the tail flows into the ischiadic veins or into the advehent renal veins. Reptiles possess only a posterior pair of lymph-hearts; they are placed near the root of the tail against the ends of one of the transverse processes. In snakes they lie in a space protected by the ribs and transverse processes of the original sacral vertebrae. Lymph glands proper are not developed in reptiles, except in the shape of the so-called mesenteric^gland of crocodiles. Blood. The red corpuscles are invariably oval, and, since they still possess a nucleus, biconvex. Numerous measurements have been made by G. Gulliver (P.Z.S., 1845, pp. 93-102), their long and short axes range between 0-015-0-023 and 0-000-0-21 mm. respectively. That means to say they are very much larger than those of mammals, considerably larger than those of most birds, and in turn much smaller than those of amphibia. Digestive System. Teeth. — All the groups of recent reptiles have teeth, except the tortoises, which have lost even embryonic traces of them. In the under jaw they are restricted to the dentary bones. In the upper they are almost universal in the maxilla and premaxilla, although the latter has lost them in most of the snakes. The pterygoids are toothed in most snakes and in a few lizards, e.g. Lacerta and Iguana. The palatines are toothed -in Sphenodon and in some lizards. Only the young of Sphenodon and the chameleons have a few small teeth on the vomer. The teeth themselves consist of dentine with a cap of enamel and with cementum around their base. In the crocodiles they are planted into separate alveoles in the maxilla, premaxilla and under jaw. In lizards they are either pleurodont, i.e. they stand in a series upon a longitudinal ridge which projects from the lingual side of the supporting bone, or they stand upon the upper rim of the bone, acrodont. In either case they are, when full grown, cemented on to the bone. Acrodont are amongst lizards only the Agamidae; the Tejidae are intermediate, almost acrodont. All the snakes and Sphe- nodon are acrodont. The latter is in so far peculiar as its broad- based, somewhat triangular teeth are much worn down in old specimens; originally there are several in the premaxilla, but the adults bite with the somewhat curved-down portions of the premaxillaries themselves, or with what remains of the anchy- losed bases of the original teeth, which then, together with the bone, look like a pair of large chisel-shaped incisors. The lateral edges of the palatines of Sphenodon likewise carry teeth, those of the mandibles fit into a long slit-like space between the palatine and the maxillary teeth. This is a unique arrange- ment. Further, it is surprising that in this old, Rhyncho- cephalian type the supply of teeth has become exhausted, whilst in the other recent reptiles the supply is continuous and appar- ently inexhaustible. The new teeth lie on the lingual side of the old set, and long before the new tooth is finished part of the base of its older neighbour is absorbed, so that the pulp-cavity which persists in nearly all reptilian teeth becomes free. Ulti- mately the old tooth is pushed off and the new is cemented into its place. In the crocodiles it has come to pass that several sets of teeth are lodged more or less into one another's bases. Where crocodiles and alligators collect habitually the ground is sometimes found strewn with thousands of teeth, large and small, every creature shedding about seventy teeth many times during its long life. Some or all teeth of various families of lizards and snakes have a more or less pronounced groove or furrow along their anterior convex curve. The usefulness of this furrow in facili- tating the entering of saliva into the bitten wound is merely incidental, but this preformed feature has in many snakes been improved into a fearful weapon. In the Opisthoglypha a few of the most posterior teeth in the maxilla are enlarged, have deeper furrows, and lie in the vicinity of the poison ducts. In the Proteroglypha one or two of the most anterior maxillary i66 REPTILES [ANATOMY (after Bocourt). teeth are enlarged and furnished with a deep groove for the reception of poison. In the Solenoglypha or Viperidae the enlarged teeth of the Opisthoglypha have moved to the front, owing to re- duction of the anterior portion of the maxilla. The latter, much shortened, moves with the firmly anchylosed poison fang upon the prefrontal as its pivot, being pushed forward, or " erected," by the ectopterygoid bone, which con- nects it with the pterygoid, and this in turn can be moved forwards and backwards, together with the quad- i, rate. (See fig. 24, skull of Vtpera antero - internal as- nasicornis and the diagram of the pect of the tooth, mechanism in article SNAKES.) In SngTudinaT^oove^he still unfinished fang the furrow 2, postero- external 1S open, later the edges close together aspect of the_ same and the end of the duct of the gland tooth, showing a itself is surrounded by the substance Tna7 rowe g " of the growing basal portion of the tooth, so that the furrow is converted into a canal continuous with that of the gland. The poison is now sure to be projected into the very deepest part of the wound with the precision of a surgical instrument. The Pro- teroglypha, with their long, non-erectile maxillae, bite, or, like Elaps, deliberately chew their victim; the Viperidae rather strike with the mouth widely open. The teeth of snakes and lizards are often of irregular size; but it is rare that a kind of differentiation into incisors, canines and molars occurs. In many lizards, especially in Iguanidae, some teeth are multi- cuspid, trilobed, or somewhat serrated; in Tiliqua, universally known as Cyclodus, most of the hinder teeth are roundish crushers. Lizards and snakes are born with an " egg-tooth " which is lost a day or two after hatching. Its function is the filing through of the eggshell. This tooth, always unpaired, is in Tropidonotus natrix one millimetre long and half a millimetre broad at its base, which rests upon a middle depression of the premaxillary bone; it stands forward above the mouth and is curved upwards. In crocodiles and tortoises the same effect is produced by another organ, which, as in birds, lies well out- side the mouth on the top of the end of the snout and consists of a little cone of calcified epidermis. Tongue. — The tongue of the crocodiles is very broad and flat, and with nearly its whole broad base attached to the floor of the mouth; however, in its whole circumference its edge is well marked, and it arises on its hinder border as a transverse fold which meets a similar fold descending from the palate in front of the posterior nares. By these folds the mouth can be com- pletely shut off from the nasal passages into the trachea. The upper surface of the tongue contains several dozen large flat papillae, each with a central pit-like opening; it is not known whether they are gustatory organs. Besides scarce mucous glands on the tongue, there is an absence of salivary glands in the mouth. The tongue of tortoises is likewise short, broad, and not protractile, and there appears to be only a sublingual gland; the surface of the tongue is 'covered with velvety papillae in the terrestrial, with larger folds in the marine Chelonians. In the Lacertilia the tongue presents a number of variations which have been referred to as diagnostic characters of the various families of LIZARDS (q.ii.). The chief modifications are the following: Either flat and broad, not protractile, e.g. Agamidae; or the body of the tongue is somewhat cylindrical, elongated, and the whole organ can be protruded; lastly, the anterior half of the tongue, which can be protruded, is retractile or telescoped into the posterior portion, e.g. Anguidae. Jn nearly all cases the posterior dorsal end of the body of the tongue is well marked off by a margin raised above the root, a character which does not occur in any snake. The upper surface is either smooth or curved with velvety, flat, or scaly, always soft, papillae. In the majority the tip of the tongue is bifid, either slightly niched or deeply bifid. The tips con- tain tactile corpuscles, although sometimes covered with a horny epithelium. The most specialized is the tongue of the chameleon. The body of this tongue is very thick, club- shaped, fleshy and full of large mucous glands which cover it with a sticky secretion. The base or root is very narrow, composed of extremely elastic fibres and supported by a much elongated copular piece of the hyoid. This elastic part is, so to speak, telescoped over the style-shaped copula, and the whole apparatus is kept in a contracted state like a spring in a tube. A pair of wide blood vessels and elastic bands extend from the base into the thick end, which in an ordinary chame- leon can be shot out to a distance of about 8 in. The tongue of the snakes is invariably slender, smooth and almost entirely retractile into its posterior sheath-like portion. It is always bifid and contains many tactile and other sensory corpuscles by which these creatures seem to investi- gate. The tongue is always protruded during excitement. How this is done is not very obvious, since the hyoid apparatus itself is much reduced. There is a niche in the middle of the rostral shield to permit protrusion of the tongue whilst the mouth is shut, and probably herewith is correlated the almost uni- versal absence of teeth in the premaxilla. The tongue and the larynx are placed very far forwards in the mouth and, during the act of swallowing, the larynx approaches the chin, or it may even protrude out of the mouth to secure breathing during the often painfully protracted act. Of Glands, sublingual glands are of general occurrence in reptiles; they open near the root or in the sheath of the tongue. Labial glands seem to be absent in crocodiles and tortoises, but upper and lower labial glands exist in lizards and snakes, generally in considerable numbers. Heloderma is the only lizard in which some of these glands — those along the lower jaw — produce a poisonous secretion, each small gland conducting its secretion towards the base of one of the somewhat furrowed teeth. In the snakes, upper and lower labial glands are well developed for salivation. It is the upper series which attracts our interest by its eventual modification into the deadly poison glands. Probably the saliva of most snakes, like their serum, possesses toxic properties. In most of the harmless Colubrine snakes the glands extend in a continuous series from behind the premaxilla along the whole of the upper jaw, with numer- ous openings. In the Opisthoglypha a gradual differentiation takes place into an anterior, middle and posterior portion; the middle, extending from below and behind the eye back- wards, is the thickest and yellowish in colour; behind it follows a small portion, reddish grey like the anterior portion, with which it is more or less continuous below the middle complex. Thus, still rather indifferent, is Dryophis. In Dipsas, e.g. D. fusca, the middle portion has become predominant; some of its enlarged ducts lead to the pair of posterior, enlarged and well-grooved, maxillary teeth. It is this middle portion which becomes the characteristic poison gland with one long duct. The gland itself retains its position; all the other upper labials, except the anterior series, abort. In the Viperidae the poison duct opens near the base of the perforated fangs, which, owing to the shortening of the anterior portion of the maxilla with its teeth, have come to be the only teeth in the upper jaw. In the Elapine, still more in the Hydrophine snakes, the position of the gland and its duct is the same, but the duct has been carried past the smaller harmless teeth which stand in the maxilla and open at the base of the anterior maxillary teeth. The effect is the same, although the poison fangs are not homologous, in the one case the most posterior, in the other the most anterior, of the maxillary series. In Doliophis, one of the Malay genera of Elapine snakes, each poison gland sends an enormously elongated recess far into the body-cavity. (For some other details see SNAKES; VIPER; and RATTLESNAKE. The best account of the buccal glands and teeth of poisonous snakes is that by G. S. West, P.Z.S., 1895, pp. 812-826.) Stomach, &c. — In lizards and in Sphenodon the wide pharynx and oesophagus passes gradually into the stomach, which is ANATOMY] REPTILES 167 more or less spindle-shaped, never transversely placed. The walls of the stomach are thrown into longitudinal folds which contain the specific gastric glands, whilst glands are absent in the oesophagus, excepting scattered and very simple slime glands. The circular muscular fibres of the stomach are much stronger than the longitudinal fibres. The end of the stomach is generally marked by a pyloric valve. The walls of the mid gut are said to be devoid of glands. The end gut, marked by a circular valve, is considerably wider and there is a caecum, mostly left-sided, largest in leaf-eating lizards, rarely absent, as, for instance, in Anguis. The absorbent portion of the rectum is always strongly marked off from the cloaca by a circular fold or sphincter, which projects into the widened coprodaeum of the cloaca. In those lizards which, like Varanus, have no urinary bladder, there are two successive sphincters, marking off two chambers, one, the upper or innermost, for the reception of the faeces, the lower for that of the urine. In adult crocodiles the stomach is transformed into a gizzard; it is more or less oval, with a wide fundus and with two opposite apo-neurotic or tendinous disks whence radiate the muscular fibres. The muscular walls remain, however, comparatively thin, like those of birds of prey. There is a distinct pyloric stomach and then follows the pylorus. The inner lining of the stomach is velvet- like with numerous gastric glands which form groups with net- like interstices. There is a distinct duodenal loop which contains the pancreas. The more convoluted mid gut is lined with net-like meshes which farther back assume a longitudinal zigzag arrange- ment; towards the end gut the walls become quite smooth, but in the end gut the walls again show a very narrow-meshed structure. None of these folds of the mid and hind gut is said to contain digestive glands; they seem to be entirely absorbent. The oesophagus of most tortoises shows longitudinal folds with very numerous mucous glands. In the Chelonidae the pharynx and adjoining part of the gullet are covered with little tubercles upon each of which opens a small gland. Farther down they give way to large, more or less conical papillae, which assume a considerable size, point backwards, and are covered with a somewhat horny epithelium. Similar conical, horny papillae exist also in Sphargis, in which the oesophagus, moreover, makes a long loop half round the stomach before passing into it, an absolutely unique feature. The transition into the stomach is quite gradual. The latter is strongly muscular, partly transversely placed, and possesses often a very distinct pyloric stomach. In Chelone conical papillae extend into the cardiac portion. In the majority of tortoises the inner lining shows longitudinal folds with numerous small glands, mucous and gastric, but their distribution differs much in the various families and even genera. The lining of the mid gut shows either longitudinal folds or a network, without glands, except in some cases, Lieberkiihn crypts, e.g. in Trionyx, not in Testudo and Chelone. The hind gut begins suddenly, but there is no caecum; its inner walls contain numerous glands in Testudo, Emys, not in Chelys, Trionyx, Cinosternum. In the snakes the oesophagus is very thin-walled and passes imperceptibly into the stomach, which continues in a longitudinal direction, scarcely wider in the middle. Its muscular coating is surprisingly weak. There is a small pyloric portion. Mucous and especially long-bodied gastric glands are numerous. The wall of the mid gut carries numerous papillae variably arranged, velvet-like, or densely crowded little blades supported by longitudinal or by meshy folds. The hind gut is short, often constricted into several successive chambers, mostly smooth inside; there is a short, rather wide caecum which seems best developed in Viperidae; sometimes absent. The total length of the snakes' gut is always short, there being only short folds possible or necessary in the body cavity, which itself is of extra- ordinary length. Yet, while in Typhlops the gut is almost straight, it forms numerous convolutions in Torlrix. Whilst in all other reptiles the gut, at least stomach, liver and mid gut, are suspended by the mesentery from the vertebral column and hang free into the body cavity, in some snakes, especially often described in Boa and Python, the body cavity is cut up into numerous spaces, by peritoneal folds which connect neighbouring twists of the canal into bundles and attach them to the ventral surface of the body-wall. Probably the gut is thereby secured against dislocations in adaptation to the peculiar twisting contortions of the body, especially in the act of climbing. The mesentery of reptiles is remarkable for the possession of smooth, non-striated, muscular fibres. In most lizards, not in other orders, the peritoneum so far as it covers the abdominal cavity shows a deep black pigmentation; this pigment is situated in the connective tissue, not in the epithelial layer; it stops suddenly towards the thorax. In some lizards, e.g. in Anguis, the black pigment extends, more or less scattered, upon the mesentery and thence upon the intestines. The same pigment colours the pharynx with its recesses entirely black in many lizards. There is no compensating correlation between this internal pigment and that in the outer skin. The Liver of lizards is more or less bilobed; more so in crocodiles; while in tortoises the broad right and left lobes are connected by a narrow isthmus. In the snakes it is much elongated and extends from the heart backwards along the right side of the oesophagus, closely connected in its long course with numerous short branches into, or from, the inferior vena cava and the portal vein. A gall bladder is always present. The ducts into and from the cyst sometimes form a complicated network, for instance in Varanus (F. E. Beddard); the bile is carried by one or more ducts into the duodenal portion of the mid gut. The microscopic structure of the reptilian liver has been compared with that of monotremes by M. Fiirbringer. The Pancreas is a compact body attached to the duodenal region, which surrounds it by a loop i i the crocodiles, as is the case in birds and mammals. The Cloaca of the reptiles shows a great advance upon the simple batrachian arrangement. • It is no longer one common chamber, but consists of three successive chambers with the further tendency of separating the temporary retention and the passage of the faecal, urinary and genital products from each other. The arrangement is simplest and most typical in the lizards. There is first the proctodaeum or vestibulum of the cloaca, epiblastic in origin. ' Its outer boundary is formed by the cloacal lips, covered so far by the usual scaly integument. Just within this chamber arise the paired copulatory organs, and, when they are present, as in Sphenodon and snakes, the two anal glands. Secondly, the urodaeum, middle or urino- genital chamber, hypoblastic in origin. It is separated from . the proctodaeum by a more or less circular fold which is pro- vided with sphincter muscles, which form the true vent, and this is always round; whilst the outermost opening in lizards and snakes is a transverse slit. Farther inwards, headwards, the urodaeum is shut off by another circular fold, generally very well marked, especially in its dorsal half, which is higher and thicker. Into the dorsal, and innermost, recess of this urodaeum open the genital and urinary ducts; on the ventral side arises the urinary bladder. The whole chamber is always empty, being only a passage room, and in the female the copulatory chamber. The urine is of course collected in the bladder; when this is absent the fluid is pressed into the third chamber, the coprodaeum, which is often subdivided into two, or even three, successive rooms by circular folds. This coprodaeum serves for the temporary storage of the faeces, eventually mixed with the urine. Micturition and defaecation are in most lizards two successive separate acts. The snake's arrangement is a side-departure of that prevailing in lizards. The urodaeum is transformed into a dorsal recess into which open above the oviducts, while the ureters open below, in the caudal corner. A horizontal fold imperfectly shuts off the wide urino-genital chamber or recess from the ventral half of the original urodaeum. The coprodaeum is marked above and below by strong sphincters. There is no urinary bladder. In crocodiles the protodaeum is rather shallow, but long; from its ventral wall arises the unpaired copulatory organ, the basal investing membranes of which continue into the ventral i68 REPTILES [ANATOMY half of the uro-proctodaeal fold, near which open the male ducts. Very young crocodiles possess a typical middle chamber or urodaeum, into the dorso-lateral corners of which open the ureters, but soon the strong circular fold between urodaeum and coprodaeum disappears completely, so that both chambers now form one large oval room, which is used solely for the storage of the urine, there being no bladder. The faeces are kept in the not specially dilated rectum. The cloacal arrangement of the Chelonia is a further develop- ment of early crocodilian conditions, but it has become rather complicated and shows a surprising resemblance to that which still prevails in the Monotremes. The proctodaeum is deep and very long, especially in the males. From its innermost and ventral walls arises the large copulatory organ. From the urodaeum is separated off a deep ventral recess into which open the ureters and the genital ducts, and it is continued by a long neck into the large bladder. Between the dorsal wall of this recess and the ventral wall of the main portion of the urodaeum arises a horizontal fold which, diverging, is continued on to the investing skin of the penis, helping to form the edges of the deep longitudinal furrow on its morphologically dorsal surface. If the lips of this furrow were closed, urine and all the genital products would pass through this urethral canal, but in reality only the semen is conducted through it (the furrow during the state of turgescence being transformed into a closed tube), whilst urine and eggs escape through the wide slit near its inner end. This is an arrangement almost the same as that of Ornithorhynchus. The urodaeum is separated from the rectum by a strong sphincter, and there is, as in the crocodiles and mammals, no special coprodaeum. The Chelonian urodaeum is further complicated by the occurrence of a pair of large anal sacs, thin-walled diverticula on the dorsal side. Such sacs, not to be confounded with the anal glands of other reptiles, exist in many water tortoises, especially in the Chelydidae, also in various aquatic Testudinidae, e.g. Emys, in Platy sternum, and sometimes in Trionyx; they are absent in the Chelonidae and in the typically terrestrial tortoises. These sacs have highly vascularized walls and a considerable layer of circular and longitudinal non-striped muscular fibres; their inside is some- times villous, never glandular. They are incessantly filled and emptied with water through the vent, and act as additional respiratory organs, like a kind of water lungs. When such a tortoise is suddenly taken out of the water it squirts out a stream of water, which is not, as is usually supposed, the urine from the bladder. In connexion with the cloaca may be mentioned the frequent occurrence of peritoneal canals. In the tortoises their abdominal openings are situated in a recess of the peritoneal cavity close to either side of the neck of the bladder; in the females they extend as funnels, generally blind, into the cloaca on or near the base of the clitoris. In the males they extend, without having communication with the cavities of the corpora cavernosa, and without ramifications, as canals along the dorsum penis and either terminate blindly in the glans (Testudo, Chelone), or they open, each by a small orifice, in the groove at the base of the glans. In crocodiles these canals are short and open near the base of the copulatory organ, protected by a small papilla. They are present in both sexes, but are still closed in newly hatched and very immature specimens. In an adult Nile crocodile they are wide enough to pass an ordinary lead pencil. The function of these outlets from the body cavity is obscure. ,In Sphenodon the writer has found them as closed funnels which project as soft papillae into the proctodaeum a little to the right and left and caudalwards from the urino-genital papillae. Urinary Organs. The kidneys of the reptiles show, like those of the birds and mammals, a considerable advance upon those of the Batrachia. They are, in the adult, represented entirely by the metanephros; the segmental tubes have no longer any nephro- stomes opening into the body cavity, not even during any time of their development, and it has come to a complete separation of the efferent genital ducts from the kidneys and from their ureters. Yet these differences are but of degree, there being a continuous bridge from Batrachian to Lacer- tilian conditions. In Lacerta, for instance, in which these features have been studied most thoroughly, the mesonephros continues as the only functional excretory organ during the first year of the young creature until and during its first hiber- nation, when the formation of the metanephros takes place, and with it the complete separation of the vasa deferentia from the kidneys. Until then the segmental canals remain in the male as common carriers of semen and urine, at least morphologically, not physiologically, since in the immature there is no occasion for the conduction of semen. The kidneys of these young lizards show precisely the same arrangement as- that of the Batrachia, excluding the Discoglossidae. Clearly the metanephros is developed from, and is part of, the posterior portion of the mesonephros, the glomeruli of which no longer open into the segmental duct, but become connected with a new canal, the future ureter, which sprouts from the distal portion of the segmental duct and grows headwards. Or let us put these important changes in another way. Since there are originally several segmental ducts (permanent in the male newt) which tailwards more and more lose their connexion with the testes, until — in the posterior portion of the mesonephros — they become entirely urinary ducts, the hindmost of these sprouts (in lizards postembryonic, much earlier in birds and mammals) independently, but at the same time as the neigh- bouring mass of the mesonephros, the growing glomeruli of which then connect with the sprouting processes of the ureter. Phylogenetically and ontogenetically it is evident enough that the kidneys are essentially one organ, the anterior portion of which is the oldest and decays, whilst farther backwards new and more differentiated portions continue to grow. Pro-, meso- and metanephros and successive wave-like stages of the same organ with morphological and functional continuity, until the next, improved portion is ready. It is important that in the Discoglossidae, especially in the male Alyles, an arrangement has come to pass which much resembles that of the Amniota. The mesonephros has, by a simple contrivance, become a metane- phros, provided we define the former as a kidney which is still connected with true segmental ducts. The supra-renal bodies, adrenals, head-kidneys or Nebennieren, are yellowish bodies which lie more in connexion with the generative glands than with the kidneys, always closely attached to the vena cava posterior just above the kidneys. They are very elongated in the snakes, in a ro-foot python they measure about one inch in length; they are flattened in tortoises, roundish in crocodiles. In all reptiles the kidneys are retroperitoneal, and they do not project into the body cavity. Their position is different in the various groups, and their general shape is much affected by the shape of the body. In the Ophidia they are much elongated, and of course far in front of the pelvic region, which has been moved to the cloaca. They are placed asymmetrically, the right extending farthest forwards. They consist of many transverse lobes, sometimes in such a way as to appear spirally twisted. Each terminates considerably in front of the cloaca. Each ureter begins at the anterior end of the kidney, and thence proceeds on its inner and dorsal border, receiving ducts from the interspaces of the numerous lobes. In the male each ureter opens upon a papilla, together with the vas deferens; in the female the ureter is joined by a blind canal, the vestige of the male duct. No snake has a urinary bladder. The urinary excretion is white, chalky, consisting mainly of uric acid in crystals, with very little fluid. In the Lacerttlia the kidneys are more posteriorly placed than in snakes. They lie between the pelvis and the cloaca and are generally close together, sometimes partly fused with each other. Only in the Amphisbaenids the right kidney extends more forwards. They are usually transversely furrowed. The ureters open dorso-laterally into the urodaeum upon papillae as in the snakes. In the females the remnants of the segmental ANATOMY] REPTILES 169 ducts, or vestigial representatives of the vasa efferentia,areoften of considerable length, persistent in chameleon and Uromastix, much reduced in geckos, or disappearing with age as in Lacerta. The urine of most lizards contains much solid uric acid, which is retained in the urodaeum and voided as a rather solid, white mass, not united with the faeces. Those which have a greater amount of fluid urine have a bladder which receives the fluid portion. The opening of this bladder is on the ventral side of the cloaca, not in direct connexion with the ureters. The bladder is very rarely absent, e.g. in Varanidae and Amphisbaenidae. The Crocodilia have the kidneys placed below the pelvis; their surface shows meandering convolutions separated by furrows. The ureters are for the greater part of their length deeply sunk into the substance of the kidneys, which they leave near the hinder ends, to run freely for a short distance along the dorsal sides of the cloaca, and they open, each separately, and away from the vasa deferentia, into the dorsal side of the urodaeum, which, together with the coprodaeum, forms a large oval chamber, and this being filled with the very fluid urine, functionizes instead of the absent bladder. In Chelonia the kidneys lie in the pelvis, short and thick, more or less trihedral; the surface is marked with many shallow meandering grooves and fewer deeper furrows. Each ureter, composed of several large successive canals, leaves its kidney near the inner hinder end, and then runs free for a short space, crossing the gut to open into the neck of the urinary bladder, which arises ventrally out of the urodaeum, which itself has become a recess of the cloaca. The bladder is large, often more or less two-horned, attached to the pelvic wall by a peritoneal fold, and it contains very fluid urine. The kidneys of Sphenodon are very small and far removed from the generative organs. The ureters open," each close to the vas deferens of its side, beneath a little papilla, on the dorsal side, rather near the midline of the urodaeum, whence arises a long-necked bladder. Reproductive System. The Ovaries are always in pairs, placed headwards at a distance from the kidneys in Sphenodon, lizards and snakes; in the latter the right ovary lies farther forward. In tortoises, and especially in the crocodiles, where they are very long and much twisted or lobated, they are situated close to the kidneys and even accompany them. The ovaries of lizards and snakes con- tain many and large lymph spaces; those of the other reptiles are much denser in structure. The ripening eggs always cause them to assume the shape of a bunch of grapes. The oviducts are each held by a peritoneal fold which arises from near the dorsal midline. The abdominal ostia are long slits and are turned towards the side, away from the ovaries. The walls of the ducts gradually become thicker, glandular and much folded. Whilst the ripe eggs, often in considerable numbers, receive their shell, each egg lies in a separate chamber; in the geckos, which lay only one pair of eggs, the two respective chambers have become permanent features. In Sphenodon each oviduct opens together with the ureter of its side near the dorsomedian line of the urodaeum. In most lizards the two oviducts and the two ureters have four separate openings in the dorsal wall of the rather deep dorsal recess of the urodaeum. But in Lophura both oviducts unite (like the ureters) and have only one opening, which is placed a little nearer towards the pelvis than the urinary opening, but they are divided by a longitudinal septum which extends almost to their common orifice. In the snakes the oviducts likewise open into the dorsal recess, sometimes by a common ostium, which is provided with a strong sphincter. The whole recess acts like a vagina for the reception of one of -the copulatory organs. The oviducts of the crocodiles open in a decidedly ventral position, on either side close to the base of the clitoris, a considerable distance from the openings of the ureters. In the tortoises the oviducts open separately into a wide ventral urino-genital sinus, at the base of the neck of the bladder. The Testes correspond in position with the ovaries; in snakes and Amphisbaenids the right is placed farther head- wards than the left. The usual shape is elongated, sometimes pointed forwards. The Epididymis is sometimes of the same size as the testis and then consists of many meandering con- volutions of the vas deferens which is composed of several canals from the testis. The convolutions are held together by a peritoneal lamella. Towards the cloaca they become much smaller and shorter, and the vas deferens passes along the median side of the ureter. In Sphenodon these open separately, each near and below the same papilla near which opens the ureter of the same side. In most lizards the vas deferens unites with its ureter into one short canal which opens beneath or upon a small papilla in the upper corner of the urodaeal recess, far away from the penis. In snakes vas deferens and ureter of each side are likewise commonly united. In the crocodiles each vas deferens passes from the dorsal side of the cloaca to the ventral side, not accompanied by the ureter, and opens into the blind sac which forms the basal continuation of the deep groove on the dorsal side of the penis. In the tortoises the epididymis is very large and the vas deferens is also much convoluted; each opens separately near the neck of the large urinary bladder close to the backward continuation of the deep longitudinal groove of the copulatory organ. Remnants of the Miillerian ducts run parallel with the vasa deferentia, and similar remnants of the Wolffian ducts accompany the oviducts in crocodiles and tortoises, least degenerated of course in young specimens. Such reciprocal vestiges occur most likely also in lizards, and in female snakes a. vestige of the male duct joins its ureter. In a nearly adult male Sphenodon the present writer missed the female remnants. The copulatory organs show very important modifications. Sphenodon is the only recent reptile which is devoid of such an organ; its imperfect substitute is an unpaired, thin, but high membranous fold which arises from the dorsal middle of the circular fold between urodaeum and coprodaeum. During copulation this part of the cloaca is probably everted to secure conception, a striking resemblance to the arrangement found in the Caecilia. The organs of all lizards and snakes are paired, in their quiescent state withdrawn into deep pockets which open on the right and left posterior corners of the proctodaeum or outer chamber of the cloaca, which for this reason has assumed the shape of a transverse slit in all lizards and snakes. Hence these have sometimes been called Plagiotremata. Each organ can be everted and tucked in like the linger of a glove, a muscle being attached to the inside of the apex; when everted, the muscle extends through the length of the organ; each muscle arises from the ven- tral side of several trans- verse processes of the tail FIG. 39.— Mate copulatory organs of . , Lacerta aguis (after Leydig).*i, *», vertebrae, at a consider- organs Of right and feft sioVs— able distance from the between them is the anal aperture; cloaca. In the embryo each PP, preanal plate, organ arises as a conical protuberance, or papilla, which projects out of the vent. Later it becomes inverted. Prob- ably this ontogenetic feature recapitulates the phylogeny of these organs, which have to be looked upon as swell- ing flaps or portions of the walls of the cloaca which were pro- truded during copulation, and which in time borrowed, and specialized, muscular fibres from the ventral tail muscles. On the outer everted side of each organ is a furrow for the reception of the semen. The apex is either single or more or less deeply bifurcated, each arm being followed by the likewise divided furrow. The outer investing membrane of these> very muscular erectile bodies is epidermal; often, especially in snakes, pro- vided with numerous papillae, folds or other excrescences. In xxm. 6 a ff* REPTILES [ANATOMY many snakes these are spiny and hard, but according to Leydig this hardness is not due to a horny substance but to the deposi- tion of calcifying matter. E. D. Cope has investigated the almost endless minor modifications of these penial features and uses them for taxonomic purposes in the snakes. Vestiges of these organs occur in females of snakes and lizards. Close to these organs of the snakes lies a pair of anal glands of some size, which pour their very offensive secretion through an opening close to the base of each penis. The same glands occur in the same position in Sphenodon, which has no copulatory organs, and in crocodiles they appear as evertible musk glands. Hence J. E. V. Boas, not knowing of their existence in both sexes of snakes, tried to homologize them with the paired penes of reptiles, an error which has been repeated in C. Gegenbaur's Lehrbuch, vol. ii. p. 533. The crocodiles and tortoises possess a single, median copula- tory organ; it lies on the ventral or anterior end of the cloaca, the outer opening of which is therefore a longitudinal slit, hence the term ucthotremata. In the crocodiles the organ is attached to the caudal corner of the ischiadic symphysis by a strong and roundish fibrous band, which arises single from the ventral sides and forms partly the continuation of the two fibrous halves of the organ; the bulk of the crura, comparable to corpora cavernosa, is not attached to the pelvis, as generally stated, but projects backwards towards and into the pelvic cavity. This portion is especially rich in venous cavernosities. The outer coating of the glans possesses various papillary pro- jections, which are furnished with sensory, hedonic corpuscles. On the morphologically dorsal side of the organ, not on the dorsum penis, is a deep groove which ends towards the crura in a blind sac, into the farther corner of which open the vasa deferentia. In a full-grown Nile crocodile the whole organ is about 10 in. long. In young females up to a total length of 3 or 4 ft. the clitoris is nearly of the same size as the male organ, but it remains stationary and appears very smaU in large specimens. The organ of the tortoises is essentially of the same type as that of the crocodiles, but it is nowhere directly attached to the pelvis or to any other skeletal part. The whole organ, when withdrawn, lies in a ventral, long recess of the wide outer cloacal chamber, and its crura extend so far back as to form the continuation of the ventral and lateral walls of the recessus which is continued into the neck of the urinary bladder. Its orifice and those of the seminal ducts are enclosed by the walls of the deep groove which runs along the underside of the organ. This is always of considerable size, surprisingly large in Trionyx. The clitoris is small, sometimes tiny. The sexual act is extremely prolonged in Chelonians and still more so are the preliminaries, but in crocodiles it is the deed of a few seconds. Lizards and snakes insert only one side. There remains the question whether the unpaired organ of the crocodiles and tortoises, which is the prototype of the mammalian organ in every essential point, and the paired organs of the lizards and snakes, are to a certain extent homo- logous organs in so far as they can both be derived from the same indifferent condition. With this view we assume that originally the protrusible walls of the outer cloacal chamber became specialized into a right and left imperfect intromittent organ, that subsequently, in lizards, those hemipenes were shifted back towards the tail and were henceforth bound to develop separately, while , in the crocodiles, tortoises, mammals and birds the two primitive lateral evertile flaps approached each other towards the ventral anterior side of the cloaca, and that this led to a fusion, beginning probably at the basal part, which at the same time was farther withdrawn from the surface and secured the reception of the sperma from both vasa deferentia into one canal. This hypothesis has been objected to by Boas, but accepted by Gegenbaur (p. 538) after having been rejected on p. 533 of his Lehrbuch. The Fat bodies belong at least physiologically to the genera- tive system. They are placed outside the peritoneum. In lizards they appear as two masses in the pelvic region, the black peritoneal lining covering only their dorsal side. They consist of a network of arteries and connective tissue, the meshy spaces of which are filled with " fat "; they each receive an artery from the femoral vessel which enters them in the inguinal region; the veins collect into the abdominal. In snakes the fat bodies are very long, extending from the cloaca to the liver. Tortoises seem to have only traces of them, but in Sphenodon and in crocodiles they resemble those of lizards. — The peculiar organ suspended from the right abdominal wall of crocodiles, variously mentioned as mesenteric gland or body, or fatty spleen, by Butler, is possibly related to the same category. The fat bodies of reptiles are sometimes vaguely alluded to as hibernating bodies; like the fat bodies which are attached to the generative glands of Amphibia they do not become reduced during the eventual hibernation but are largest before the pairing season, by the end of which they are exhausted, looking reddish or grey after the loss of their stores of fat and probably other important contents The Embryonic Development. Fertilization of the egg always takes place internally, and the egg containing a large amount of food-yolk is of course meroblastic. It is sufficient to mention that many lizards, some chameleons and many snakes (not Sphenodon, geckos, crocodiles and Chelonians) retain their, in these cases very thin-shelled, eggs in the oviducts until the embryo is 'ready to burst the egg-membrane during the act of parturition or immediately after it. Such species are usually called ovo- viviparous, although there is no difference between them and other viviparous creatures, for instance the marsupials. The majority of reptiles are oviparous and the egg is enclosed in a strong parchment shell, with or without calcareous deposits. Only gas exchange can take place between such an egg and the outside, and it loses by evaporation, whilst in the batrachian egg various other exchanges are easy through the thin membrane. The salamander embryo, within its thin egg-membrane, even grows to a size many times larger than the original egg, it does not only breathe, but it is also nourished through the gills, and by some means or other the waste products are partly eliminated without filling the bladder. The amphibia are born as larvae and live as such for a long time, often in a most imperfect condition. Nothing of all this applies to the reptile, which leaves the egg as a perfect little imago. A great amount of yolk supplying the material, and a large " bladder " to receive the waste products and to act as respiratory organ, have made this possible. That the allantois and the amnion behave precisely in the same way in the mammals with their much reduced yolk, only testifies to the superior value of these organs, and after all there is no difference in this respect between a monotreme and a reptile. These two organs seem to have come into existence with the reptiles and constitute the most reliable diagnostic feature between higher and lower vertebrates. All reptiles, birds and mammals have a navel, a feature unknown and impossible in Batrachia and fishes. A few remarks on these important embryonic organs may not be superfluous, especially concerning their possible origin. Whilst the urinary bladder of the Batrachia remains within the body throughout the embryonic stage, this organ undergoes in the higher vertebrates, reptiles, birds and mammals, con- siderable modifications, and it assumes, henceforth as Allantois, new important functions besides that of being the receptacle of the embryonic urine. The development of the Allantois is in -intimate causal connexion with that of the Amnion. All the Allantoidea are also Amniota and vice versa, but the term Amniota is preferable, since the basal portion of the Allantois remains in the adult as the urinary bladder, as an organ hence- forth equivalent to and homologous with that of the Anamnia. The primary feature seems to be the allantois which leaves the body cavity, remains without the amniotic folds, even after these have enclosed the body within the amniotic bag, and ANATOMY] REPTILES 171 then spreads nearly all over the. inner side of the egg-shell Having thus come into the closest possible contact with the atmospheric air, the vessels of the allantois can exchange their carbon dioxide for oxygen and the allantois becomes the re- spiratory organ of the embryo. Herewith stands in direct correlation the complete absence of any internal and of externa. gills in the embryonic reptiles. The blood vessels of the allan- tois are fundamentally the same as those of the batrachian bladder, namely, branches from the pelvic arteries (later hypo- gastrics) and veins which return from the base of the bladder to the abdominal wall and thence to the liver. In the normal reptilian egg, surrounded by its non-yielding shell, space is absolutely limited, and whilst the yolk is being diminished and increased secretion of urine distends the bladder, this soon protrudes out of the body cavity proper into the extra-embryonal coelomatic space between the true amnion and the false amnion or serous membrane. It fills this space so far as the yolk-sac allows it. It seems reasonable to suppose that this growth of the allantois has been one of the causes of the caudal amniotic fold; the sinking of the embryo into the space of the diminishing yolk-sac is no doubt another cause, but the fact remains that the amnion is the chief hindrance to the closing of the body-wall at the region of the future navel. The life-histories of embryonic development are the domain of the embryographers. They are the imperfect accounts of the ways and means (often crooked and blurred, owing to short cuts and in adaptation to conditions which prevail during the embryonic period) by which the growing creature arrives at those features which form the account of the anatomical structure of the adult. Comparative anatomy, with physiology, alone lead through the maze of the endless embryonic vagaries and afford the clues for the reconstruction of the real life-history of an animal and its ancestry. For detail the reader is referred to numerous papers quoted in the list of literature, and to the various text-books, above all to the Handbuch d. vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichle d. Wirbelthiere, edited by O. Hertwig, Berlin. AUTHORITIES ON ANATOMY: Bibliography. — The appended list of papers (many with shortened titles) represents but a fraction of the enormous literature dealing with the anatomy of reptiles. Special stress has been laid upon the more recent publications. A great amount of information, general and detailed, is contained in Bronn's Klassen u. Ordnungen d. Thierreichs, the three volumes concerning reptiles having been written by C. K. Hoffmann (Leipzig, 1878-1890) ; E. D. Cope's Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of North America, U.S. Nat. Mus., Washington, 1900; H. Gadow's " Am- phibia and Reptiles," vol. xiii. of The Cambridge Natural History (London, 1901) ; above all in C. Gegenbaur's Vergleichende Anatomie d. Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1898-1901). Skeletal. — J. F. v. Bemmelen, " Schaedelbau v. Dermochelys coriacea," Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896); E. Gaupp, " Morphologic d. Schaedels," Morpholog. Arbeiten (1894), iv. pp. 77-128, pis.; ibid. (" Problems Concerning the Skull "),Anat.Ergebn. (1901), x. pp. 847- looi. W. K. Parker," Skull of Lacertilia," Phil. Trans. 170 (1880), pp. 595-640, pis. 37745 ; " of Tropidonotus," ibid. (1879), 169, pp. 385-417, pis.; "Crocodilia," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1885), xi. pp. 263—310, pis.; "Chamaeleons," ibid. (1885), xi. pp. 77-195, pis. 15-19.; F. Siebenrock, " Kopfskclet d. Scincoiden, Anguiden u. Gerrhosaur- iden," Ann. Nat. Hofmuseum (Wien, 1892), vii. 3. Of the enormous, still increasing, literature concerning the homologies of the auditory ossicles, a few only can be mentioned; the papers by Kingsley and Versluys contain most of the previous literature : W. Peters, several most important papers in Monatsber. Ak. Wiss. (Berlin, 2ist Nov. 1867, 5th Dec. 1867, 7th Jan. 1869, i?th Jan. 1870, I5th Jan. 1874). H. Gadow, " Modifications of the First and Second Visceral Arches, and Homologies of the Auditory Ossicles," Phil. Trans. 179 (1888), B. pp. 451-485, pis. 71-74; " Evolution of the Auditory Ossicles," Anal. Anz. (1901), xix. No. 16. J. Versluys, " Mittlere u. aussere Ohrsphare d. Lacertilia u. Rhynchocephalia," Zool. Jahrb. Anal. (1898), 12, pp. 161-406, pis. (most exhaustive and careful) ; ibid., " Entwickl. d. Columella auris b. Lacertiliern," ibid. (1903), 18, pp. 107-188, pis. (. S. Kinsrslev, "The Ossicula auditus," Tufts College Studies, No. 6 (1900). E. Gaupp, " Columella auris," Anal. Anz: (1891), vi. p. 107. T. H. Huxley, " The Repre- sentatives of the Malleus and Incus of the Mammalia in the other Vertebrata," P.Z.S., 1869. W. K. Parker, " Struct, and Develop- ment of Crocodilian Skull," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1883), xi., especially pis. 68 and 69. H. Gadow," Evolution of the Vertebral Column of Amphibia and Amniota," Phil. Trans. (1896), 136, pp. 1-57 (with a list of ninety-three papers). G. B. Howes and H. H. Swmnerton, " Development of the Skeleton of Sphenodon," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1901), xvi. pp. 1-86, pis. 1-6. G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles, Brit. Mus. 1889- Cat. of Lizards (3 vols., 1885-1887); Cat. of Snakes (3 vpls., 1893- 1896); these volumes contain a great body of ostcological obser- vations, ignored by most compilers of anatomical text-books; " Osteol. of Heloderma, and Vertebrae of Lacertilia," P.Z.S pp. 109-118 (1891). L. Calori, "Skeleton of Varanus, Lacerta," Mem. Ace. Set. Instil. Bologna (8, 1857, and 9, 1859). E. D. Cope, " Osteology of Lacertilia, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. (1892), 30, pp. 185-221; "Degeneration of Limbs and Girdles," Journ. Morph. (1892), vii. pp. 223-244. E. Ficalbi, Osteologia del Plati- datttlo (Pisa, 1882). A. Goette, " Beitrage z. Skeletsystem," Arch, micr. Anal. (1877), 14, pp. 502-620. A. GQnther, '' Anatomy of Hattena," Phil. Trans. (1867), 157, pp. 595-629, pis. S. Orlandi, 1 Note anatomiche s. Macrosincus, Atti S. Lig. (Geneva, 1894), v. 2 ; Skelet d. Seine. Anguid. Gerrhosaurid," Ann. Naturhist. Hofmus. (1895)- x. pp. 17-41; " Skelet d. Agamidae," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1895), 104, pp. 1089-1196. F. Siebenrock, " Skelet v. Brookesia," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1893), 102, pp. 71-118; "Skelet v. Uro- plates," Annal. Naturhist. Hofmuseum (1892), vii. pp. 517-536, 1893; "Skelet d. Lacertiden," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1894), 102, pp. 203-292. C. Smalian, " Anat. d. Amphisbaenid," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 11885), 42, pp. 126-202. A. Voeltzkow, " Biolog. u. Entwickl.* von Crocodiles," Abh. Senckenb. Ges. (1899), 26, pp. 1-150, 17 pis. E. A. Case, " Osteology and Relationships of Protostega," Journ. Morph. (1897), xiv. pp. 21-60. H. Goette, " Entwickl. des Carapax d. Schildkroeten," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1899), 66, pp. 40-434, pis. O. P. Hay, " Morphogeny of Chelonian Carapace," Amer. Nat. (1898), 32, pp. 929-948. G. Baur, " Morphol. Unterkiefer d. Rept.," Anat. Anz. (1896), xi. pp. 410-415. M. Fiirbringer, " Brustschulter- apparat und Schultermuskeln. Reptilien," Jena Zeitschr. (1900), 34, pp. 215-718, pis. 13-17 (with a list of many titles of papers con- cerning reptiles ; and a new, unsatisfactory classification of the whole class). C. K. Hoffmann, " Becken d. Amphib. u. Reptil.," Niederl. Arch. f. Zool., iii. E. Mehnert, " Beckenguertel d. Emys lutaria," Morph. Jahrb. (1890), 16, pp. 537-57L pH; " Os hypoischium, &c. d. Lidechsen, Morph. Jahrb. (1891), 17, pp. 123-144, pi. W. K. Parker, " Shoulder Girdle and Sternum," Roy. Soc. London, 1868. A. Rosenberg, " Development of Skeleton of Reduced Limbs," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1873), 23, pp. 116-170, pis. A. Sabatier. Comparaison des ceintures et des membres ant. et post," Mem. Ac. Montpellier (1880), xix. C. Gegenbaur, Untersuch. 2. verg. Anat., I. Carpus u. Tarsus " (1864), II. " Schulterguertel " (1865) (the most important monographs). A. Banchi, " Parafibula," Monitore Zool. Italiano (1900), xi. No. 7 (A nodule ][ between femur and fibula in Lacerta). G. Baur, " Carpus u. Tarsus d. Reptil.," Anatom. Anzeig. iv. No. 2. G. Born, " Carpus u. Tarsus d. Saurier," Morph. Jahrb. (1876), 2, pp. 1-26, pi. A. Carlsson, " Gliedmassenreste bei Schlan- gen, Svensk. Vetensk. Ac. Handlingar, ii. (1886). A. Johnson, ' Development of Pelvic Girdle," Q.J.M.S. (1883), 23, pp. 399-411. G. Kehrer, " Carpus u. Tarsus," Ber. Naturf. Ges. (Freiburg, i. 1886). W. Kuekenthal, " Entwickl. d. Handskelets des Crocodiles," Morph. Jahrb. (1892), 19, pp. 42-55. H. F. Sauvage, " Membre anterieur du Pseudopus, Ann. Sci. Nat.-Zool. 7. art. 15 (1878). A. Sleeker, " Carpus u. Tarsus bei Chamaeleon," Sitzb. Ak. Wtss. (1877), 75, 2, pis. R. Wiedersheim, GliedmassenskeleU, Schulter u. Beckenguertel t"~" »_uv-i -j««\-nii, vjfn>u./f*t*-ooc-f*o/v^*-^«-*-f . >t rt ill tr r 14* JJt L Kt rl ffHt fli t (Jena, 1892). K. Baechtold, #6er dte Giftwerkzeuge der Schlangen (Tubingen, 1843). A. Duges, " Venin de 1'Heloderma," Jubil. Soc. Biol. (1899), pp. 34-137. D. F. Weinland, " On the Egg-tooth of the Snakes, Proc. Essex Institute (Salem, 1856); and in Wurttemb. Jahresheft. Verein vaterl. Naturk. (1856). G. S. West, " Buccal Glands and Teeth of Poisonous Snakes," P.Z.S. (1895), pp. 812-826, pis. 44-46. Tegumentary. — A. Batelli, " Bau der Reptilienhaut," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1880), 17, pp. 346-361, pis. J. E. V. Boas, " Wirbelthier- cralle," Morph. Jahrb. (1894), xxi. pp. 281-311, pis. A. Haase, ' Bau d. Haftlappen bei den Geckotiden,'" Arch. Naturg. (1900), 61, pp. 321-345, pis. R. Keller, " Farbenwechsel d. Chamaeleons," Arch. ges. Physiol. (1895), 61, pp. 123-168. C. Kerbert, " Haut der Reptilien," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1876), 13, pp. 205-262. F. Maurer, Epidermis und ihre Abkoemmlinge (Leipzig, 1895). F. Schaefer, ' Schenkeldruesen d. Eidechsen, Arch. Naturg (1902), 68, pp. 27-64, pis. F. Todaro, Ricerche f. nel labor, di anal, norm, di Roma ,1878), II. i. F. Toelg, " Drusenartige Epidermoidalorgane d. Eidechsen u. Schlangen, Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien (1904), 15, pp. 119-154, pis. Nervous System. — J. F. Bemmelen, "Beitr. Kenntnissd. Halsgegend >ei Reptilien Mededeel," Natura Artis Magistra (Amsterdam, 1887). ^. Edinger, " Zwischenhirn d. Reptilien," Abh. Senckenb. Ges. (1899), 20, pp. 161-197, P'S- J- G. Fischer, " Gehirnnerven d. Saurier," Abhandl. Naturwiss. Verein, Hamburg, II. (1852), pp. 115-212 with many excellent illustrations). M. Fiirbringer, " Spino- occipital Nerven," &c., Festschr. f. Gegenbaur, iii. (1896). S. P. Gage, " Brain of Trionyx," Proc. Am. Micr. Soc. (1895), xvii. pp. 185-222. E. Gaupp, " Anlage d. Hypophyse b. Sauriern," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1893), 42, pp. 569-680. Giuliani, " Struttura d. midolla spinale d. Lacerta viridis, Ric. Lab. di Anat. Roma, ii. *. Grimm, " Riickenmark v. Vipera berus," Arch. Anat. Phys. (1864), 172 REPTILES [DISTRIBUTION pp. 502-51 1, pi. 12. C. L. Herrick, " Brain of Certain Reptiles," Journ. comp. Neural. (1891), i. pp. 1-36, iii. (1893), pp. 77-106, 119-140, with many plates. 0. D. Humphry, " Brain of Chelydra," Journ. comp. Neural. (1894), pp. 73-116. H. v. Jhering, Das peripherische Nervensystem (410, Leipzig, 1873), pis. St G. Mivart and R. Clarke, " Sacral Plexus of Lizards, &c.," Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool. i. (1877), PP- 5'3~532i P'S- 66, 67. H. F. Osborn, " Origin of the Corpora callosa," Morph. Jahrb. xii. pp. 530-543. H. Rabl-Rtickhard, " Centralnervensystem d. Alligator," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1878), xxx. pp. 336-373, pis. 19 and 20. " Python," ibid. (1894), Iviii. pp. 694-717, pi. 41. G. Ruge, " Peripher. Gebiet. d. N. facialis " (masti- cator muscles, &c.), Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), iii. L. Stieda, " Centralnervensystem d. Emys," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1875), xxv. PP- 361-408. Sense Organs. — R. Hoffmann, " Thraenenwege d. Vogel u. Reptil.," Zeitschr. f. Naturw. (Nat. Verein Sachsen u. Thuring., 1882). C. Rose, " Nasendriise u. Gaumendriisen d. Crocodils," Anat. Anz. (1893), viii. pp. 745-751. C. Ph. Sluitez, " Jacobson's Organ v. Crocodilus," Inat. Anz. (1892), vii. pp. 540-545. O. Seydel, " Nasen- hohle u. Jacobson's Organ d. Schildkroten,' Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), ii. B. Solger, " Nasenwand u. Nasenmuschelw. d. Reptil.," Morph. Jahrb. (1876), i. pp. 467-494, pi. E. Beraneck, " Parietal- auge d. Rept.," Jen. Zeitschr. (1887), xxi. pp. 374-410, pis.; ibid., Anat. Anz. (1893), No. 20. P. Francotte, " L'CEil parietal, &c. chez les Lacertiliens," Mem. couronnb Ac. Belgique (1898), 55, No. 3. H. W. de Graaf, Structure and Development of the Epiphysis in Amph. and Rept. (Leiden, 1886; written in Dutch). W. B. Spencer, " Presence and Structure of the Pineal Eye in Lacertilia," Q.J.M.S. (1886), 27, pp. 165-237, 7 pis. H. Strahl u. E. Martin, " Entwickl. d. Parietalauges b. Anguis u. Lacerta, " Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys. (1888), pp. 146-165, pi. 10. A. Dendy, " Development of Parietal Eye of Sphenodon," Q.J.M.S. (1899), 42, pp. 1-87 and pp. 111-153, 13 plates. H. Miiller, Schriften z. Anat. u. Physiol. d. Auges, edit. O. Becker (Leipzig, 1872). E. Ficalbi, " Palpebralapparat d. Schlangen u. Geckonen," Alt. Soc. Tosc. Pisa, ix. C. K. Hoff- mann, " Anatomie d. Retina d. Amph. Rept. u. Vogel. Niederl.," Arch. Zool. (1875), iii. M. Borysiekiewicz, Retina v. Chamaeleo vulgaris (Leipzig, 1889), 7 pis. M. Weber, " Nebenorgane d. Auges d. Reptil.," Arch. f. Naturg. (1897), 43. E. Clason, " Gefiororgan d. Eidechsen," Anatom. Studien (Leipzig, 1873). C. Hasse, " Gehor- organ d. Krokodile," &c., ibid; " Gehororgan d. Schildkroeten, von Tropidonotus natrix," ibid. G. Retzius, Gehororgan d. Wir- belthiere, i. (Stockholm, 1881). Muscles.— -O. C. Bradley, " Muscles of Mastication of Lacertilia," Zool. Jahrb. Anat. (1902), 18, pp. 475-488. M. Furbringer, " Ver- gleich. Anatomie d. Schultermuskeln," Jena Zeitschr. (1873), vii. muskeln d. Crocod. Eidechs. Schildkroeten," Morph. Jahrb. (1882), vii. pp. 57-100, pi.; " Myologie d. hinteren Extremitaet d. Rep- tilien," ibid. (1882), vii. pp. 327-466, pis. G. M. Humphrey, " Muscles of Pseudopus," Journ. An. Phys. (1872), vii. G. Killian, " Ohrmuskeln d. Crocodile," Jen. Zeitschr. (1890), xxiv. pp. 632- 656, pi. F. Maurer, " Ventrale Rumpfmuskulatur d. Reptil.," Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), i. St G. Mivart, " Muscles of Iguana," P.Z.S. (1867), p. 766; " of Chamaeleon," ibid. (1870), p. 850. N. Ros6n, " Kaumuskeln d. Schlangen u. Giftdruese," Zool. Anz. (1906), 28, pp. 1-7. A. Sanders, " Muscles of Platydactylus," P.Z.S. (1870), p. 413; " of Liolepis," ibid. (1872), p. 154; " of Phry- rosoma," ibid. (1874), p. 71; F. Walther, " Visceralskelett u. Mus- kulatur b. Amph. u. Rept.," Jen. Zeitschr. (1887), xxi. pp. 1-45, pis. Respiratory System. — F. E. Beddard, " Trachea and Lungs of Ophiophagus bungarus," P.Z.S. (1903), pp. 319-328. G. Butler, ' Suppression of one Lung in various Reptiles," ibid. (1895), Turtle," Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. (1884), pp. 316-318; and Amer. Nat. (1886), xx. pp. 233-236. J. Henle, Vergl. anal. Beschreibung d. Kehlkopfes (1839). F. Siebenrock, " Kehlkopf u. Luftroehre d. Schildkroeten," Sitzb. Ak. Wien (1899), 108, pp. 563-595, pis. G. Tornier, " Kopflappen u. Halsluftsaecke bei Chamaeleonen," Zool. Jahrb. Anat. (1904), 21, pp. 1-40, pis. D. Bertelli, " Pieghe dei reni primitivi nei Rettili. Contribute allo sviluppo del dia- framma," Atti Soc. Toscan (Pisa, 1896), 15, (1898), 16. I. Bromann, Entwicklung d. Bursa omentalis und aehnlicher Recessbildungen (Wiesbaden, 1904). G. Butler, " Subdivision of Body-cavity in Lizards, Crocodiles and Birds," P.Z.S. (1892), pp. 452-474, 4 pis.; " Subdivision of Body-cavity in Snakes," ibid. (1892), pp. 477- 497, pi. 6; " The Fat Bodies of the Sauropsida," ibid. (1889), p. 602, pis. 59-60. F. Hochstetter, Scheidewandbildungen in d. Leibeshohle der Krokodile, Voeltzkow, Reise in Ostafrika, vol. iv. pp. 141-206, pis. 11-15 (Stuttgart, 1906). Vascular System. — F. E. Beddard, various papers on vascular system of Ophidia and Lacertilia, P.Z.S. (1904); "Notes on Anatomy of Boidae," ibid. (1903), pp. 107-121. F. E. Beddard and P. C. Mitchell, " Structure of Heart of Alligator," ibid. (1895). A. Greil, " Herz u. Truncus arteriosus d. Wirbelthiere Reptilien," Morph. Jahrb. (1903), 31, pp. 123-310, pis. O. Grosser and E. Brezina, " Entwickl. Venen d. Kopfes u. Halses bei Reptil.," Morph. Jahrb. (1895), pp. 289-325, pis. 20 and 21. F. Hochstetter, several important papers on vascular system of reptiles, Morph. Jahrb. (1891, 1892, 1898, 1901); ibid., " Blutgefass-System," O. Hertwig's Entwickl. d. Wirbelthiere (Jena, 1902) ; " Blutgefaess- System d. Krokodile," Voeltzkow, Reise in Ostafrika (Stuttgart, 1906, iv.). A. Langer, " Entwickl. Bulbus cordis bei Amph. u. Rept.," Morph. Jahrb. (1894), pp. 40-67. J. Y. Mackay, " Arterial System of Vertebrates, homologically considered," Memoirs and Memoranda in Anatomy (London and Edinburgh, 1889), i. B. Panizza, Sopra il sistema linfatico dei rettili (Pavia, 1833). C. Roese, " Vergl. Anat. d. Herzens d. Wirbelthiere," Morph. Jahrb. (1890), 16, pp. 27-96, pis. A. Sabatier, Etudes sur le cceur el la circulation centrale (Paris, 1873); " Transformat. du syst^me aortique," Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. (1874), 5, J. 19. H. Watney, " Minute Anatomy of Thymus," Phil. Trans. (1882), 173, pp. 1063-1123, pis. 83-95. Urino-genital System. — J. E. V. Boas, " Morphol. d. Begattungs- organe d. Wirbelth.," Morph. Jahrb. (1891), xvii. pp. 171-287, pi. 16. J. Budge, " Das Harnreservoir d. Wirbelthiere," Neu Vorpommern, Mittheil. 7 (1875), pp. 20-128, pi. W. R. Coe and B. W. Kunkel, " Reproduct. Ore. of Aniella," Amer. Natural. (1904), 38, pp. 487-490. H. Gadow, Cloaca and Copulatory Organs of the Amniota, Phil. Trans. B. (1887), pp. 5-37, pis. 2-5. K. Hellmuth, " Kloake u. Phallus d. Schildkroeten u. Krokodile," Morph. Jahrb. (1902), 30, pp. 582-613. F. v. Moeller, " Urogenital- system d. Schildkroeten," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., 65, pp. 573-598, pis. F. W. Pickel, " Accessory Bladders of Testudmata," Zool. Bull. (1899), ii. pp. 291-301. F. Schoof, Zur Kenntniss d. Vro- genitalsystems d. Saurier. Arch. f. Naturg. (1888), 54, p. 62. P. Unterhoessel, " Kloake u. Phallus d. Eidechsen u. Schlangen," Morph. Jahrb. (1902), 30, pp. 541-581. O. Schmidtgen, " Cloake und ihre Organe bei Schildkroter," Zool. Jahrb. (1907), pp. 357-412, pl. 32- 33- (H. F. G.) IV. DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE This zoo-geographical review deals only with modern reptiles. We begin with a survey of the faunas of some of the most obvious land-complexes which bear close resemblance to the now classical " regions " of P. L. Sclater and A. R. Wallace. None of these " regions " has definable frontiers, and what acts as a bar to one family may be totally ignored by another. According to the several orders of reptiles the world is mapped out in very different ways. The African fauna does not stop at the Suez Canal, nor even at the Red Sea; there is a transitional belt notice- able in the countries from Syria to Arabia, Persia and India. To the north, Indian influence extends right into Turkestan, or vice versa; the Central Asiatic fauna passes into that of India. On the Chinese side prevailing conditions are still almost un- known; Wallace's line is more or less rigidly respected by Trionychidae, hooded Elaps, vipers and Lacertidae, while it has not the slightest influence upon crocodiles, pit vipers, Varanidae, Agamidae, &c. In the western hemisphere we have a grand illustration of the interchange of two faunas and of the fact that it is neither a narrow strait nor an equally narrow isthmus which decides the limitation of two regions. Central America and the Antilles form one complex with S. America. The nearctic region ends at the edge of the great Mexican plateau, which itself is a continuation o.f the north continent. Many nearctic forms have passed southwards into the tropics, even into far- off S. America, but the majority of the southerners, in their northern extension, have been checked by this plateau and have surged to the right and left along the Pacific and Atlantic tropical coastlands. The present writer happens to have made a special study of this part of the world (cf. "The Distribution of Mexican Amphibians and Reptiles," P.Z.S., 1905, pp. 191-294); the N. and S. American faunas have therefore been more fully treated in the following review of the various faunas. No doubt others can be treated in a similar manner, but the physical features between N. and S. America are unique, and the results are closely paralleled by those of the fauna of birds. The narrow and long neck of the isthmus of Panama (once no doubt much broader) is no boundary; if the meeting of N. and S. had taken place there, that narrow causeway would be crowded, and this is not the case. NEW ZEALAND. — The only recent reptiles are Sphenodon (q.v.), which testifies to the great age of these islands; about half a dozen Scincidae of the genus Lygosoma, members of a cosmopolitan family; and some few geckos, e.g. Naultinus, of a family of great DISTRIBUTION] REPTILES I73 age, world-wide distribution and with exceptional facilities of distribution. AUSTRALIAN REGION. — Of crocodiles only C. johnstoni in N. Australia and Queensland; C. porosus on the N. coast, and occur- ring on various Pacific islands, as far E. as the Fiji Islands. Tor- toises are represented only by the pleurodirous Chelydidae, e.g. Chelodina; they are absent in Tasmania and on the Pacific islands. New Guinea possesses the aquatic Carettochelys, sole type of a family. The bulk of the Lacertilian fauna is composed of skinks, geckos, agamoids and Varanidae, with the addition of a small family which is peculiar to the region, the Pygopodidae. A peculiar type, Dibamus, inhabits the borderlands, namely, New Guinea, the Moluccas, Celebes and the Nicobar Islands; and, finally, a single iguanoid, Brachylophus, is common in the Fiji Islands; how it came there, or how it survived its severance from the American stock, is a mystery. The skinks are in this region more highly developed and more specialized than in any other part of the world ; they exceed in numbers the geckos, which generally accompany the skinks in their range over the smaller islands of the Pacific; in these islands members of these two families represent the whole of the Lacertilian fauna. The Australian agamoids are chiefly peculiar and partly much differentiated forms (e.g. Moloch and Chlamy- dosaurus), but some have distinct affinities to, or are even identical with, Indian genera. The Varanidae are also closely allied to Indian species. Of snakes, amounting to about one hundred species only, we note about one dozen Typhlopidae, and of Pythoninae simply Python, and the Boine Enygrus on the islands from New Guinea to Fiji. There are but surprisingly few innocuous colubrine snakes, scarcely a dozen, and all belonging to Indian genera. The bulk of the snakes belong to the poisonous Elapinae, all of genera peculiar to the region, e.g. Acanthophis, Pseudechis, Notechis. Such a prepon- derance of poisonous over harmless snakes is found nowhere else in the world. Tasmania is tenanted by poisonous snakes only. In Australia we meet, therefore, with the interesting fact that, whilst it is closely allied to S. America, but totally distinct from India by its Chelonians, its lizards and colubrine snakes connect it with this latter region. With regard to the other Ophidians, they have their nearest allies partly in India, partly in Madagascar, partly in S. America; and the character of the Australian snake fauna consists chiefly in its peculiar composition, differing thereby more from the other equatorial regions than those do among them- selves. Wallace's line marks the boundary between India and Australia only as far as Chelonians are concerned, but it is quite effaced by the distribution of lizards and snakes. Thus in ftew Guinea lizards of the Indian region are mixed with Pygopodidae, and an island as far E. as Timorlaut is inhabited by snakes, some of which are peculiarly Indian, whilst the others are as decidedly Australian. The islands N. of New Guinea and of Melanesia are not yet occupied by the Ophidian type, and only species of Enygrus have penetrated eastwards as far as the Low Archipelago, whilst the Fiji Islands and the larger islands of Melanesia have sufficiently long been raised above the level of the sea to develop quite peculiar genera of snakes. INDIAN REGION. — Of Crocodilia C. paluslris, the " mugger " or marsh crocodile, and C. porosus; Gavialis gangeticus; Tomistoma schlegeli in Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra. Of tortoises Platy- sternum megacephalum, type of a family from Siam to S. China; many Trionychidae and Testudinidae, mostly aquatic; whilst the terrestrial Testudo is very scantily represented. One species which is common in the Indian peninsula (T. stellata) is so similar to an African species as to have been considered identical with it; the Burmese tortoise is also closely allied to it, and the two others extend far into western-central Asia. Thus this type is to be considered rather an immigrant from its present headquarters, Africa, than a survivor of the Indian Tertiary fauna, which com- prised the most extraordinary forms of land tortoises. Wallace's line marks the E. boundary of Trionyx; species of this genus are common in Java and Borneo, and occur likewise in the Philippine Islands, but are not found in Celebes, Amboyna or any of the other islands E. of Wallace's line. Agamidae are exceedingly numerous, and are represented chiefly by arboreal forms, e.g. Draco (g.f.) is peculiar to the region, Ceratophora and Lyriocephalus exclusively Ceylonese; terrestrial forms, like Agama and Uromastix, inhabit the hot and sandy plains in the N.W., and pass uninterruptedly into the fauna of western-central Asia and Africa. The Geckonidae, Scincidae and Varanidae are likewise well represented, but without giving a characteristic feature to the region by special modification of the leading forms except the gecko Ptychozoon homalocephalum in Malaya. The Lacertidae are represented by one characteristic genus, Tachydromus — Ophiops and Cabrita being more developed beyond the limits assigned to this region. Finally, the Euble- pharidae and Anguidae, families whose living representatives are probably the scattered remains of once widely and more generally distributed types, have retained respectively two species in W. India, and one in the Khasi Hills, whilst the presence of a single species of chameleon in S. India and Ceylon reminds us again of the relations of this part of the fauna to that of Africa. The Indian region excels all the other tropical countries in the great variety of genuine types and numbers of species of snakes. Boulenger1 recognizes 267 species, i.e. about one-fifth of the total number of snakes known. India is the only country in the world possessing viperine, crotaline and elapine poisonous snakes (their proportion to harmless snakes being about I : 10), e.g. Vipera russeui, the " dabpia " (see VIPER) ; Lachesis, e.g. gramineus, an arboreal pit viper; Naja tripudians, the cobra; Bungarus coeruleus, the " krait " ; CaUophis ; and Hydrpphinae along the coasts of the whole region. Several sub-families and families are peculiar to the region: the Uropeltidae with Rhinophis in southern India, and Uropeltis confined to Ceylon; Ilysiidae in Ceylon and Malay Islands, elsewhere only in S. America; the opisthoglyphous Elachis- todon westermanni of Bengal ; the Homalopsmae, with many species from Bengal to N. Australia; further the Amblycephalidae; Xenopeltis unicolor, sole type of a family; and the Acrochordinae, a sub-family of aglyphous Colubridae, ranging from the Khasi Hills to New Guinea. Of other Colubridae, we notice numerous Tropidonotus, Coronella and Zamenis, the latter one of the most characteristic types of the warmer parts of Eurasia. Tree-snakes, e.g. Dipsas and Dendrophis, are common. Of other families we note a great number of Typhlopidae, of which T. braminus occurs even on Christmas Island. Lastly various species of Python, but no Glauconiidae, the only family not represented in the Indian region, which claims the Uropeltidae, Xenopeltidae and Amblycephalidae as peculiar to itself. Giinther remarks that to this region Japan has to be referred. This is clearly shown by the presence of species olOphites.Callophis, Trimeresurus s. Lachesis, Tachydromus, characteristically Indian forms, with which species of Clemmys, Trionyx, Gecko, Halys, and some Colubrines closely allied to Chinese and Central Asiatic species are associated. Halys is a central Asiatic pit viper. The few reptiles inhabiting the northern part of Japan are probably of palaearctic origin. THE AFRICAN CONTINENT. — Of crocodiles, C. vulgaris in the E., C. cataphractus and Osteolaemus tetraspis in the W. There are many Chelonians, especially small land tortoises of Testudo, and with Cinyxis which is peculiar to this continent ; the freshwater Clemmys only in the N.W. corner; several genera of the pleurodirous Pelo- medusidae, Pelomedusa galeata, which is equatorial and southern, with an outlying occurrence in the Sinai peninsula, and Sternothaerus with several tropical and southern species; of Trionychidae the tropical Cycloderma and Cyclanorbis peculiar to the country, and the large Trionyx triunguis which ranges from the Senegal and Congo into the Nile system with its big lakes, but occurring also in Syria. Of Lacertilia the geckos and skinks, and the typically old world families of Lacertidae and Varanidae are well represented; also Amphisbaenidae ; Gerrhosauridae and Zonuridae, peculiar to Africa and Madagascar; a few Eublepharinae and a few of the so-called Anelytropidae in West Africa. But the most important feature of this Lacertilian fauna is the almost universal distribution of chameleons in numerous and some highly specialized forms, Chame- leon and Rhampholeon. We note the entire absence of Iguanidae and of Anguidae, the latter represented by Ophisaurus only in the north-western corner. Of snakes only one sub-family is peculiar, the Rhachiodontinae with the sole species Dasypeltis scabra, the egg-swallowing snake. Many Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae, but no Ilysiidae; large pythons, Eryx in the N., and a boa, Pelophilus fordt in the W. of Africa. Of poisonous snakes there is an abundance, notably the Viperinae have their centre in this continent; besides Echis, which is also Indian, there are peculiar to the continent Bitis, the puff- adder, Causus, Atractaspis, Cerastes, and Atheris which is an arboreal genus, all lof which see under VIPER. The pit vipers are entirely absent. Elapinae are numerous, e.g. hooded cobras like Naja haje and Sepedon the " ringhals." Many opisthoglyphous tree snakes and a considerable number of innocuous colubrines, e.g. Lycodon, Psammophis and Coronella or closely allied genera all also in India, but Cpluber-\ike forms and Tropidonotus are very scantily represented, chiefly in the N. On the whole the reptilian fauna of Africa is not rich, considering the huge size of the continent, but this may be accounted for by the great expanse of desert in the N. half and of veld in the S. Lastly, the enormous central forests are still scarcely explored. MADAGASCAR and certain other islands have a fauna which is as remarkable for its deficiencies as it is for its present forms. The following well-defined groups are absent: Trionychidae and Chely- didae; Agamidae, Lacertidae, Anguidae, Amphisbaenidae, Varanidae and Eublepharinae; all the Viperidae and Elapinae, so that this large island enjoys perfect absence of poisonous snakes, not counting the practically harmless opisthoglyphous tree snakes; there are further no pythons and no ilysias. The actual fauna consists of: Crocodilus vulgaris, which is said to be extremely abundant; of Chelonians, Pelomedusa galeata and 1 The same authority enumerates 536 species of reptiles for British India, i.e. about one-sixth of all the recent species of reptiles (Fauna of British India, edit. W. T. Blanford, London, 1890). 174 REPTILES [DISTRIBUTION Sternothaerus, both also in Africa, Podocnemis, which elsewhere occurs in South America onty, and several Testudinidae ; of these Pyxis is peculiar to Madagascar, while Testudo has furnished the gigantic tortoises of Aldabra, the Seychelles, and recently extinct in Mauritius and Madagascar. Of lizards are present a few Gerrho- sauridae and Zonuridae, both African types; the remarkable occurrence of two iguanid genera Chalarodon and Hoplurm, both peculiar to the island; skinks, many geckos, and Uroplates, sole type of the Uroplatinae and an abundance of chameleons, of the genera Chameleon, with Ch. parsoni, the giant of the family, and the small species of Brookesia, a genus peculiar to Madagascar. Of snakes we note Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae, and the remarkable occurrence of Boinae, two of the genus Boa (Pelophilus), one of Corallus on the main island and Casarea on Round Island. There opisthoglyphous mostly arboreal snakes, and the rest are jcuous colubrines, some few with Indian and African affinities, are innocuous e.g. Zamenis s. Ptyas, more with apparently S. American relation- ship, or at least with resemblance in taxonomic characters. An analysis of this peculiarly compound and deficient fauna gives surprising results, namely, the almost total absence of affinity with the Indian region, close connexion with Africa by the posses- sion of Gerrhosauridae, Zonuridae, Chameleons and Pelomedusidae; lastly, the presence of several tree boas, of Podocnemis and of Iguani- dae, i.e. families and genera which we are accustomed to consider as typically neo-tropical. Peculiar to Madagascar, autochthonous and very ancient, is only Uroplates. Ancient are also the tortoises, chameleons, geckos, boas, typhlops, gerrhosaurids and zonurids. The absent families may be as ancient as the others, but most of them, notably Varanus, lacertids and agamids are of distinctly northern, palaeotropical origin, and we can conclude with certainty that they had not spread into S. Africa before Madagascar and its satellites became severed from the continent. EUROPE AND TEMPERATE ASIA. — The present reptilian fauna of this vast area is composed almost entirely of the leavings of those groups which are now flourishing with manifold differentiations under more genial climes, in Africa and India. Fossils, none too numerous, tell us that it was not always thus, since crocodiles, alligators and long-snouted gavials, all the main groups of chelo- nians, iguanoids, &c., existed in England, the crocodilians persisting even towards the end of the Tertiary period. There are no crocodiles now in the Eurasian sub-region, excepting small survivors in the Jordan basin, on the borderland of Africa; but the Yang-tse-Kiang is inhabited by an alligator, A. sinensis, while all its congeners are now in America. This finds, to a certain extent, a parallel in Trionyx, of which one species lives in the Eu- phrates basin, likewise borderland, and another, T. maacki, in rivers of N. China, e.g. in the Amoor. Of other Chelonians we note several species of Testudo, two of them European; Emys europaea, chiefly in Europe, with the other species E. blandingi in the eastern United States ; and a few species of Clemmys, a truly periarctic genus. Of Lacertilia we exclude the chameleon. Of geckos Hemidac- tylus turcicus extends from Portugal to Karachi; Platydactylus facetanus is at home in most S. Mediterranean countries; Teratos- cincus is peculiar to the steppes and deserts of Turkestan and Persia; other geckos in the transitional region from Asia Minor to India. Of Lacertae we have Anguidae, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Amphisbaenidae and Scincidae, most of them in Europe represented by but one or two species. Thus Blanus cinereus in Mediterranean countries, Asia Minor and Syria, represents the Amphisbaenidae which are found nowhere else in Europe or Asia, but plentiful in Africa and both Americas. Of the Anguidae, Anguis fragilis is peculiar to Europe, Ophisaurus apus in S.E. Europe, another in Indo-Burman countries, with the rest of the species in N. America. Of Scincidae few in Europe, e.g. Chalcides s. Seps s. Gongylus, others from Asia Minor eastwards, e.g. Scincus, and Ablepharus in Turke- stan. Agamidae do not occur in Europe but they exist in considerable numbers from Asia Minor and Turkestan to China, with Phryno- cephalus peculiar to central Asia. Lastly, the Lacertidae, of which several species of Lacerta, Psammodromus, Acanthodactylus in Europe, but the majority in Africa and warmer parts of India; in a similar manner the Manchurian forms are related to Chinese. The total number of palaearctic snakes amounts to about sixty, the majority living in the Mediterranean countries and in W. Asia. One Typhlops in the Balkan peninsula and in W. Asia, in Persia also Glauconia ; Eryx jaculus extends into Greece from S.W. Asia as sole representative of the Boidae. Several vipers, the common viper, V. berus, from Wales to Saghalien Island, V. aspis, V. latastei and V. ammodytes in S. Europe; a pit viper, Ancistrodon. e.g. halys, in the Caspian district, thence this genus through China and again in N. America. Echis extends N. into Turkestan. The Indian cobra ranges N. to Transcaspia and far into China. All the other snakes belong to the aglyphous and opisthoglyphous Colubridae; of the latter Coelopeltis is peculiar to S. Europe and S.W. Asia; Macro- protodon cucullatus to S. Spain, the Balearic Islands and N. Africa; Tephrometoppn peculiar to Turkestan and neighbouring countries; none extending into E. Asia. Of the aglyphous coiubrines the most characteristic genus is Zamenis incl. Zaocys, very widely spread and including more species than any other palaearctic genus; several species of the wide-ranging genus Tropidonotus, besides Coluber. with Rhinechis scalaris in S.W. Europe. There are, besides, other genera, especially in the debatable countries of S.W. Asia, Persia and Afghanistan, and speaking generally the colubrines show less affinity to African than to Indian forms, just as we should expect from the prevailing geographical conditions. If it were not for the N.W. corner of Africa and portion of its N. coast, the European fauna would have very little in common with Africa. NORTH AMERICA.— Of this huge continent only the United States and Mexico come into consideration, since N. of 45° latitude reptilian life is very scarce. The area, however, with these restrictions, is larger than the Indian and Malay countries, and larger than the Australian region. Yet the fauna is comparatively poor, very poor indeed, if it were not for Mexico and the Sonoran province, which seems to be the ancient centre of distribution of much of the present typically N. American fauna. Characteristic of the area is the abundance of Chelonians and Iguanidae, to which Tejidae have to be added in the S.; equally characteristic is the complete absence of Pleurodirous Chelonians, of Chameleons, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Varanidae and Viperinae. The fauna is composed as follows: Crocodilia, with Crocodilus americanus and Alhgator mississigpiensis in the S. Of Chelonians the Chelydridae, peculiar to the E. half but for the reappearance of a species of Chelydra in Central America; many Cinosternidae like- wise almost peculiar to the area; of Testudinidae an abundance of freshwater forms, notably Chrysemys, and Emys in common with Europe, whilst terrestrial tortoises are extremely scanty, namely one species of Testudo, T. polyphemus, the gopher, and two of Cistudo, e.g. C. Carolina; lastly, two Trionyx in the whole of the Mississippi basin and thence N. into Lake Winnipeg, 51° N. Lacer- tilia: Geckos are very scarce; N. America has received only Sphaerodactylus notatus from the Antilles into Florida, and Phyllo- dactylus tuberculosus into California from the Pacific side of Mexico ; Eublepharinae are absent. Of Iguanidae we have a typically Sonoran set, e.g. Crotaphytus, Holbrookia, Uta, Phrynosoma, Scelo- porus, and a S. set of which only Anolis extends out of the tropics. It is significant that only a few species of Sceloporus and Phrynosoma extend into the United States, although far N.; of the large genus Anolis only A. carolinensis enters Texas to Carolina. Sceloporus may be called the most characteristic genus of Sonoraland and Mexico. Of the tropical family of Tejidae only Cnemidophorus, with many species in Mexico, a few in the adjoining N. states, and with C. sexlineatus over the greater part of the Union. Anguidae: Ophisaurus ventralis in the United States; the other species in the Old World. Diploglossus peculiar to mountains of Mexico. Gerrho- notus, the main genus, centred in Mexico, but G. coeruleus ranges from Costa Rica along the Pacific side right into British Columbia, the most northern instance of a New World reptile. Xenosaurus grandis of Mexican mountains is the monotype of a family, and the same would apply to Heloderma (H. suspectum, the Gila monster of the hottest lowland parts of Arizona and New Mexico; and H. horridum of Mexico) if it were not for Lanthanotus of Borneo. Scincidae: of this cosmopolitan family America possesses the smallest number, and it is significant that the number of species decreases from N. to S. ; Eumeces from Minnesota and Massachusetts through Mexico, with many species, and Lygosoma s. Mocoa laterale from S.E. and Central States to Mexico. Xantusiidae, a small family, is composed of a N. or Sonoran and a S. or Central American-Antillean group; e.g. Xantusia of the deserts of Nevada and California. Aniella, monotype of a family of California to El Paso, Texas, i.e. peculiar to Sonoraland, Amphisbaenidae with Rhineura in Florida and the marvellous Chirotes in Lower California and the Pacific side of Mexico ; the other members of this family are tropical so far as America is concerned. Snakes: of Typhlopidae only Anomalepis mexicana, peculiar to Nueyo Leon; of Glauconiidae several extending N. into Texas and Florida. Boinae continue N. as the arenicolous Lichanura of Lower California and Arizona, and the likewise arenicolous Charina boltae which extends from California to the state of Washington; the other members of the family are all tropical, extra-regional. Of Viperidae only pit vipers occur, but of them rattlesnakes cover the whole of the habitable area; Ancistrodon, without a rattle, e.g. the moccasin snake and the water viper, has other species in central and E. Asia. Of Elapinae, far into the E. United States only the genus Elaps with a few species, of which E. fulvius, the commonest, ranges from S. Brazil far into the S. and E. states. A few opis- thoglyphous, terrestrial, snakes just enter the United States from Mexico, e.g. Trimorphodon. Of aglyphous colubrines species of genera like or resembling Tropidonotus, Coronella and Coluber, in- cluding Pityophis and Spilotes, are abundant, the latter being very characteristic; Ischnognathus and Contia, Ficimia and Zamenis likewise are clearly nearctic, or Sonoran. The Greater Antilles have essentially neotropical, i.e. Central American and S. American affinities, but there is also some Sonoran infusion. — There is Crocodilus americanus; no Chelonians are natives except one or two Chrysemys. Of Lacertilia, geckos are abundant; of Iguanidae several arboreal forms, notably the large Iguana, and Metopoceras of Haiti, and Cyclura, both peculiar; of Anguidae Celestus, peculiar, but closely allied to Diploglossus; of Xantusiidae the peculiar genus Cricosaura s. Cricolepis. Of DISTRIBUTION] REPTILES Amphisbaenidae Amphisbaena itself occurs in Puerto Rico and on the Virgin Islands. Of Tejidae only Ameiva, not Cnemidophorus. Snakes: a Typhlops in Puerto Rico; of boas Epicrates, Ungtuia and Corallus, the latter re-occurring in Madagascar. Absent are: Viperidae, Elapinae and Opisthoglyphs; of aglyphous colu- bnncs the Central American genera Urotheca, Dromicus, Drymobius and Leptophis; the genera of distinctly northern origin. SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA. — The fauna is very rich. It is advisable first to mention those groups which are either confined to Central America (including the hot lowlands of Mexico), e.g. the Dermatemydidae, Eublephannae, Anelytropsis and the aglyphous colubrines: Urotheca, Dromicus, Drymobius, Leptophis, Rhadinea, Streptophorus, or which, from their N. centre have sent some genera into Central America, or beyond into the S. continent : e.g. Chelydra rossignoni, ranging from Guatemala to Ecuador; one Cinosternum extending into Guiana; Testudo labulata, the only terrestrial tortoise of S. America, besides the gigantic creatures of the Gala- pagos Islands; a few Eublepharinae reaching Ecuador; of Anguidae Gerrhonotus coeruleus, extending S. to Costa Rica; of Scincidae, Mabuia and Lygosoma, which extend far into S. America, and the same applies to the Amphisbaenidae. Immigrants from the N. are probably also the Iguamdae, although they have found a congenial home in the S. countries, where they are now represented by an abundance of genera and species, e.g. Laemanctus and Corytho- phanes of Mexico, Anolis, Iguana, Basiliscus, Ctenosaura,Polychrus, Hoplurus, Chalarodon. Amongst snakes the following appear to be of N. origin: Boidae (with the Pythonine Loxocaemus mcolor in Mexico), in spite of their great development of boas and anacondas in the S. ; certainly Crotalinae, of which only one species, C. terrificus, is found in S. America; further, some aglyphous colubrines, which have sent a few species only into Central, and still fewer into S. America,* e.g. Tropidonotus, Ischnognathus, Contia* Ficimia, Coluber, Spilotes, Pityophis, Coronella* and Zamenis. After these numerous restrictions we should expect the genuine autochthonous fauna of the S. American continent to be very scanty, especially if we remember those important Old World groups which are absent in America, e.g. Varanidae, Lacertidae, Agamidae and chameleons, and that Central and S. America have no Triony- chidae. The oldest S. American reptilian fauna is composed as follows. It is the only part of the world which possesses Chelydidae in abundance, e.g. of Chelys the Matamata, Hydromedusa, and of Pelomedusidae, Podocnemis, which re-occurs in Madagascar. Cro- codilia are represented by Crocodilus americanus and C. moreleti in the N. and by about five species of Caiman. Of Lacertilia geckos are rather few, mostly in the N.W. of the continent, more numerous in Central America and the Antilles. The Tejidae are clearly a neotropical family, with several dozen genera in S. America; of all these, only Ameiva and the closely allied Cnemidophorus extend through and beyond Central America: Ameiva into the E. and W. hot lands of Mexico and into the Antilles, Cnemidophorus through Mexico far into most of the United States with a few species. Of snakes there is an abundance. Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae are well represented. Of aglyphous colubrines many genera, some of these extending northwards into Mexico, but not to the Antilles, e.g. Atractes, Tropidodipsas, Dirosema, Geophis, Xenodon. Opisthoglypha are very numerous in genera and species both in S. and Central America, whence many of the arboreal forms extend into the hot countries of Mexico, while a few terrestrials have spread over the plateau and thence into the United States, none entering the Antilles; such typical neotropical genera are Himan- todes, Leptodira, Oxyrhopus, Erythrolamprus, Conophis, Scolecophis, Homalocranium, Petalognathus, Leptognathus. Most of the Ambly- cephalidae are neotropical, the others in S.E. Asia. Of Elapinae only the genus Elaps occurs, but with many species. Of the Cro- talinae, Lachesis is the essentially neotropical genus, with many species, some of which enter the hot lands of Mexico, e.g. L. lansbergi s. lanceolatus, a very widely distributed species, the only pit viper which has entered the Lower Antilles. The above survey of the world shows that but very few of the principal families of reptiles are peculiar to only one of the main regions." The occurrence of some freak, constituting a little family or sub-family by itself in some small district, and therefore put down as peculiar to a whole wide region, cannot be much of a criterion, e.g. Rhachiodon, Elachistodon, Acrochordinae, Uroplates, Xenosaurus, Heloderma, Aniellidae, Dibamus, A'nelytropidae, Platysternum. They are not characteristic of large countries, but rather local freaks. Quite a number of very ancient families have such a wide distribution that they also are of little critical value, notably the peropodous snakes, which have survivors in almost any tropical country; such cosmopolitans are also geckos and skinks. A difficulty which is ever present in such zoogeographical in- vestigations is the uncertainty as to whether our zoological families and sub-families and even genera are genuine units, or heterogeneous compounds, as for instance the Anelytropidae, of which degraded skinks there is one in Mexico, two others in W. Africa. Heloderma in Mexico and Lanthanotus in Borneo are both without much doubt descendants of some Anguid stock, but when we now combine them, in deference to our highest authority, as one family, we thereby raise the tremendous problem of the present distribution of this Antilles. South America. North America. Eurasia. 1 II If .9 < Chelydridae * . o . .|_ _|_ O o o o o Testudinidae . 0s _|_ _j_ _J- o Chelydidae . . o _|_ O o o o o Pelomedusidae o ij- 0 o -j- -)- o o Trionychidae o 0 -)_ _)- b -)- o Chamaeleonidae o 0 o o _)_ ^_ o 0 Varanidae 0 o o 0» _J_ o Agamidae 0 o 0 -)- _)- o -ir -(- Iguanidae -J- ^_ _)- o 0 -)_ 0 o Lacertidae o 0 o -j_ o o Zonuridae ) Gerrhosauridae ) o o o o + + o o Anguidae -)- -)- -)- -l_ -)-' 0 -)- 0 Amphisbaenidae Tejidae .... 1 + o o o o 0 o o o o • Pygopodidae . Viperinae o o o 0 0 o 0 0 0 o 0 0 Crotalinae o -)-. J. +' o o -J- o Elapinae o + + +' + o + + family. Boas and pythons are likewise not above suspicion, cf. some boas in Madagascar and the python Loxocaemus in Mexico. The opisthoglyphous col j brines are almost certainly not a natural group, not to speak of numerous genera of the aglyphous assembly. To avoid arguing in a circle, such doubtful units had better be avoided whilst building hypotheses. G. Pfeffer has recently endeavoured to show by an elaborate careful paper (" Zoogeographische Beziehungen Siidamerikas," Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. viii., 1905), " that nearly all the principal groups of reptiles, amphibians and fishes had formerly a universal or sub- universal distribution, and that therefore it is not necessary to assume a direct land connexion of S. America with either Africa or Australia, with or without an Antarctic." Many cases of such a former universal distribution are undoubtedly true, but the question remains how the respective creatures managed to attain it. For true characterization of large areas we must resort to the combination of some of the large wide-ranging families, and equally important is the absence of certain large groups; both to be selected from the following table. 1 Including the related Dermatemydidae and Cinpsternidae. 2 With an exception. ' Entering, or in the borderland. 4 Mediterranean countries. 6 Rhineura; formerly wider distribution. 6 In Asia. Deductions from this table show, for instance, that Australia is quite sufficiently characterized by the possession of Chelydidae and Varanidae; Madagascar by the presence of chameleons and Pelomedusidae. On the other hand, the separation of the whole of Africa from Asia, or the diagnosis of the palaearctic " region," would require the combination of several positive and negative characters. Chelonians are very diagnostic, expressed by the following com- binations of families: — America as a whole: Chelydridae and Cinosterridae and Der- matemydidae. N. America: Chelydridae and Trionychidae, but only E. of the Rockies. S. America : Chelydidae and Pelomedusidae. Africa : Trionychidae and Pelomedusidae. Madagascar: Pelomedusidae and Testudinidae. India and Eurasia: Trionychidae and Testudinidae. Australia : Chelydidae only. That the Chelonians are regionally so very diagnostic that their main families are still in rational agreement with the main divisions of land, is perhaps due, first, to their being an ancient group; secondly, to their limited means of distribution (none across the seas, omitting of course Cheloniidae, &c.); and lastly, to their being rather in- different to climate. Note, for instance, Trionyx ferox from the Canadian lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, Cinosternum pennsylvanicum from New York to New Orleans. It may be taken for certain that wherever a Testudo occurs as a genuine native, it has got there by land, be the locality the Galapagos, Aldabra, Madagascar or some Malay islands. The Trionychidae reveal themselves as of periarctic origin, being debarred from Australia, Madagascar and the neotropical region (alleged from Eocene Patagonia). Testu- dinidae are cosmopolitan, excluding Australia, and practically also the Antilles; and Testudo is most instructive with its almost similar distribution; but something has gone wronjf with this genus in America, where it flourished in mid-Tertiary times. Pleurodira are less satisfactory than they appear to be from a merely statistical point of view. The Pelomedusidae, being known from European Trias and from nearctic cretaceous formations, 176 REPTON— REPUBLIC may have had a world-wide distribution; but Chelydidae may well have centred in an antarctic continent. Chelydridae were periarctic and have disappeared from Eurasia; N. American offshoots are the Cinosterridae and Dermatemydidae, the latter now restricted to Central American countries. CrocodUia, probably once universal, afford through the Chinese alligator an instance of the original intimate connexion of the whole holarctic region, paralleled by many other animals which now happen to be restricted to E. Asia and to eastern N. America. Lacertilia are less satisfactory for short diagnoses. America alone combines Iguanidae and Tejidae : — N. America: Iguanidae, Anguidae, Tejidae (and Rhineura in Florida). S. America: Iguanidae, Anguidae, Tejidae and many Amphis- baenidae. Africa and Madagascar: Chameleons and Zonuridae and Gerrho- sauridae. Madagascar : Chameleons and Iguanidae. India: Varanidae, Agamidae and Lacertidae, all of which also in Africa. Australia alone has Pygopodidae. The Lacertilia are now distributed upon principles very different from those of the tortoises. According to the lizards the world is divided into an E. and a W. half. The W. alone has Iguanidae and Tejidae, the E. alone that important combination of Varanidae and Agamidae. Further subdivision is in most cases possible only by exclusion, e.g. exclusion of Lacertilia and chameleons from Australia; of Varanidae and Agamidae from Madagascar. Lizards are rather susceptible to climatic conditions, infinitely more than water tortoises. As regards Ophidia, America has Crotalinae and Elapinae, but no Viperinae. Eurasia and India alone combines Viperinae, Crotalinae and Elapinae. Africa, Viperinae and Elapinae but no Crotalinae. Australia only Elapinae. Madagascar none of these groups. The Viperinae must have had their original centre in the palae- arctic countries, and they have been debarred only from Australia and Madagascar. Both vipers and pit vipers are still in Asia, but true vipers are absent in America, with their fullest develop- ment now in Africa, whilst pit vipers went E., covering now the whole of America, and having developed the rattlesnakes in Sonora- land. The Elapinae are undoubtedly of Asiatic origin; they have overrun Africa, were too late for Madagascar, but early enough for Australia, where they are only poisonous snakes; and only one genus, Elaps, has got into, or rather, has differentiated in America, in the S. of which it is abundant. Opisthoglypha are useless for our purpose; they are cosmopolitan, with the exception of Australia, but probably they have one ancient centre in S. America, and another in the old world. Amblycephalidae afford another of those curious instances of apparent affinity between S.E. Asia and Central America; paral- leled by Pelamis bicolor, which ranges from Madagascar to Panama, while all the other Hydrophinae belong to the Indian Ocean and the E. Asiatic seas. Aglyphous Colubrines show undoubted affinity between N. America and Eurasia; the whole group is absolutely cosmopolitan, and many of the genera, e.g. Coluber, Tropidonotus and Coronella, have proved their success by having acquired an enormous range. Snakes have comparatively few enemies, and they possess exceptional means of distribution. It is rare for a terrestrial species to have such a wide range as Crotalus terrificus, from Arizona to Argentina, or as the India cobra, which, like the tiger, is equally at home in Malay islands, Manchuria and Turkestan. The tortoises divide the habitable world into a S. and a N. world, much as do the anurous Batrachians; the lizards split it into an E. and a W. hemisphere. The poisonous snakes, the most recent of reptiles in their full development and distribution, allow us to distinguish between Australia, America and the rest of the world. (H. F. G.) REPTON, a village in the S. parliamentary division of Derby- shire, England, 8 m. S.W. of Derby, on the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 1695. It is famous for its school, founded in 1557 by Sir John Port, of the neighbouring village of Etwall, which has valuable entrance scholarships, and two leaving exhibitions to the universities annually. The number of boys is about 300. The school buildings are modern, but incorporate considerable portions of an Augustinian priory established in 1 1 7 2 . There was an ecclesiastical establishment on this site in the 7th century, the first bishop of Mercia being established here. This was destroyed by the Danes in 874. In the second half of the loth century, during the reign of Edgar, another church was founded. The existing parish church of St Wystan retains pre-Conquest work in the chancel, beneath which is a remarkably fine vaulted crypt, probably dating from the reign of Edgar, its roof sup- ported on fluted columns. The monastery was dissolved by Henry VIII. REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common- wealth), a term now universally understood to mean a state, or polity, in which the head of the government is elective, and in which those things which are the interest of all are decided upon by all. This is notoriously a very modern interpretation of the term. In the ancient world of Greece and Rome the franchise was in the hands of a minority, who were surrounded by, and who governed, a majority composed of men personally free but not possessed of the franchise, and of slaves. Modern writers have often used respublica, and literal translation, as meaning only the state, even when the head was an absolute king, provided that he held his place according to law and ruled by law. " Republic," to quote one example only of many, was so used by Jean Bodin, whose treatise, commonly known by its Latin name De Republica Libri Sex, first appeared in French in 1577- Englishmen of the middle ages habitually spoke of the commonwealth of England, though they had no conception that they could be governed except by a king with hereditary right. The coins of Napoleon bear the inscription "Republique ' franQaise, Napoleon Empereur." Except as an arbitrary term of art, or as a rhetorical expression, " republic " has, however, always been understood to mean a state in which the head holds his place by the choice of his subjects. Poland was a republic because its king had in earlier times to be accepted, and in later times was chosen by a democracy composed of gentry. Venice was a republic, though after -the "closing of the great council " the franchise was confined to a strictly limited aristocracy, which was itself in practice dominated by a small oligarchy. The seven states which formed the confederation of the United Netherlands were republics from the time they renounced their allegiance to Philip II., though they chose to be governed by a stadtholder to whom they delegated large powers, and though the choice of the stadtholder was made by a small body of burghers who alone had the franchise. The varieties are many. What, however, is emphatically not a republic is a state in which the ruler can truly tell his subjects that, the sovereignty resides in his royal person, and that he is king, or tsar, " pure and absolute," by the grace of God, even though he may hasten to add that " absolute " is not " despotic," which means government without regard to law. The case of Great Britain, where the king reigns theoretically by the grace of God, but in fact by a parliamentary title and under the Act of Settle- ment, is, like the whole British constitution, unique. There is in fact a fundamental incompatibility between the conceptions of government as a commonwealth and as an institution based on a right superior to the people's will. Where the two views endeavour to live together one of two things must happen. The ruler will confiscate the rights of the community to himself and will become the embodiment of sovereignty, which is what happened in most of the states' of Europe at the close of the middle ages; or the community, acting through some body politic which is its virtual representative, will confine the head of the government to denned functions. The question of representation is dealt with separately (see REPRESENTATION), but the conception of a republic in which all males, who do not belong to an inferior and barbarous race, share in the suffrage is one which would never have been accepted in the ancient or medieval world, for it is based on a foundation of which they knew nothing, — the political rights of man. When the Scottish reformer John Knox based his claim to speak on the government of the realm on the fact that he was " a subject born within the same " he advanced a pretension very new to his generation. But it was one which was fated to achieve a great fortune. The right of the subject, simply as a member of the community, to a voice in the commimity in which he was born, and on which his happiness depended, implied all " the rights of man " as they were to be stated by the American Declaration of Independence, and again by the French in 1789. As they could be vindicated only by revolt against monarchical governments in the old world and the new, and as they were incompatible with all the convictions which make monarchy possible, they embodied REPUBLICAN PARTY 177 themselves in the modern democratic republics of Europe and America. It is a form of government not much more like the republic of antiquity and the middle ages than the French sans- culottes was like Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whom he admired for being what they most decidedly were not — believers in equality and fraternity. But it does, subject to the imper- fections of human nature, set up a government in which all, theoretically at least, have a voice in what concerns all. REPUBLICAN PARTY. Of the three important American parties which have called themselves Republican,1 this article deals only with that one which was organized during the years 1854 to 1856 and has been in control of the government of the United States during the larger portion of the half century since the presidential election of 1860 Origin and Character. — Sectionalism, the movement which tended to break the Union into two separate republics, one based on free labour, the other on that of slaves, had gained before the middle of the rpth century such headway as to compel a reconstruction of the party system. The beginning of this reconstruction was heralded by the rise of the Liberty party (?.».), in 1840, its completion by the disruption in 1860 of the Democratic party along sectional lines, and the election of Abraham Lincoln by a sectional vote. The event which determined the date of the birth of the Republican party was the repeal by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854 of that provision of the Compromise of 1820 which excluded slavery from national territory N. of the geographical line 36° 30' and the formal substitution in that bill of " squatter " for national sovereignty, in deciding the question of slavery in the Territories. The enactment of this bill introduced a new and highly critical stage in the relations between North and South. Down to 1850 the differences of the two sections over slavery had always been arranged by mutual concessions. In 1854 this expedi- ent was set aside. Without giving anything in return, Douglas and his supporters took from the free-labour section an invalu- able barrier against the extension of slavery: and through the doctrine of " squatter sovereignty " denied to Congress the power to erect such barriers in the future. But this only hast- ened a crisis that could not have been greatly delayed. Cal- houn had already discerned the true source and deadly nature of the growing sectional estrangement, and Lincoln was soon to utter the prophetic words: " This government cannot endure permanently, half slave and half free." The immediate result of the agitation over the repeal was to convince a large number — which soon became a majority — of the best citizens of the North, irrespective of party, that the restriction of slavery was essential to the well-being both of the North and of the Union as a whole. In order to give effect to this conviction it was necessary to form a new party. The agitation which prepared the way for its rise began in Congress during the debates on the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, and spread thence throughout the North. The West was more quickly responsive than the East. But everywhere large elements of the existing parties came together and agreed to unite in resisting the extension of slavery. Before the discussion of the repeal in Congress had reached its later stages, a mass meeting of Whigs, Democrats and Free Soilers at Ripon, Wis- consin, resolved that if the Kansas-Nebraska Bill should pass: " They would throw old party organizations to the winds and organize a new party on the sole issue of the non-extension of slavery." The name Republican was formally adopted at a state convention of the new party held at Jackson, Michigan, on the 6th of July 1854, and by other Western state conven- tions on the 1 3th of the same month. The great majority of the new party had been either Whigs or Democrats. In two cardinal points they were agreed, namely, opposition to slavery and belief in the national, as opposed to the federative, nature of the Union. In other points there was at the beginning much disagreement. For- 1 The party organized by Thomas Jefferson; the National Republicans, 1824-1834; and the Republican party of the present tunately the issues on which there was agreement overshadowed all others long enough to bring about a fusing of the two ele- ments. It was the union of the Whig who believed in making government strong and its sphere .wide, with the Democrat who believed in the people and th~e people's control of govern- ment, that made the Republican party both efficient and popular. History. — Before its advent to power, from 1854 to 1860, the tasks of the Republican party were three: to propagate the doctrine of slavery restriction by Congressional action; to oppose the extension of slavery under the operation of the doctrine of squatter sovereignty; and to obtain control of the Federal government. In each it was successful. Through- out the North and under such leaders as Seward, Lincoln, Chase, Sumner, Henry Ward Beecher and Horace Greeley, all the resources of the press, the platform, the pulpit and (an institu- tion then powerful but now forgotten) the lyceum or citizens' debating club, were fully enlisted in the propaganda. Other events that turned to the advantage of the Republicans were the brutal assault upon Charles Sumner in the Senate Chamber in 1856, the Ostend Manifesto, advising in the interest of slavery the acquisition of Cuba by force if Spain should refuse to sell, the enforcement — sometimes brutal and always hateful — of the Fugitive Slave Law (q.v.), and the quarrel of Douglas with the administration and the South over the application of squatter sovereignty to Kansas. On the other hand, the decision of the Supreme Court in the case of Dred Scott, which the Re- publicans refused to accept as good law, and the raid of John Brown at Harper's Ferry, which they condemned,' brought them into serious embarrassment. In the prosecution of the third task, the attainment of office, the party followed wise counsels and was fortunate. In its first national platform, that of 1856, the party affirmed its adherence to the principles of Washington and Jefferson, denied the constitutional right of Congress or a Territory to establish slavery, and declared that it was " both the right and duty of Congress to prohibit in the Territories those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery." At the close of the resolutions there was a demand for government aid to a Pacific railway and for the improvement of rivers and harbours. The platform of 1860 was more comprehensive. It added to the planks of the first, an arraignment of the administration and the Dred Scott decision, and demands for a protective tariff and a homestead act. Although the popular vote for Abraham Lincoln was more than a half-million greater than that for John C. Fremont, the party's candidate in 1856, never- theless it was the disruption of the Democratic party that made the Republican triumph possible. On the other hand, the Republican party was the strongest member of the new party system as reorganized on the sectional principle. Moreover, in character and purpose, as well as numerical strength, it was better qualified than its rivals to meet the impending crisis. The War Period, 1861-1865. — Between the election of Mr Lincoln in November 1860, and his inauguration on the following 4th of March, seven of the slave-holding states seceded, formed a Confederacy and withdrew their representatives from the national legislature. All attempts to arrange a compromise failed. The vacillation of President Buchanan, and the position taken in his annual message that the national government had no right to coerce a seceding state, gave strong support to the disunion movement. These events forced upon the Republican party a change of policy Hitherto its efforts had been directed chiefly to excluding slavery from the Territories. Now the first duty was to save the Union from disruption. In order to do this it was necessary to unite the North, and to bring to the support of the Union a large proportion of those border slave states, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri, in which there was considerable Union sentiment. Hence the party laid aside completely the earlier issue of slavery restriction and accepted as the sole issue of the hour the main- tenance of the Union. Indeed, in order to secure more easily the co-operation of loyal Democrats, it even gave up its own name for a time and called itself the Union party. REPUBLICAN PARTY During the early period of the war the President checked all efforts on the part of zealous subordinates, civil and military, to make the war for the Union even incidentally a war upon slavery. In his efforts to unionize the border states Mr Lincoln in March 1862 urged that Congress should co-operate with any state in providing for a voluntary, gradual and compensated emancipation. Congress acceded, but not one of the border states would undertake emancipation. Many of the Republican leaders rejected the border state policy of the President and urged a more radical course towards slavery. In replying to Horace Greeley, who voiced the discontent in a public letter, to which he gave the title, The Prayer of Twenty Millions of People, Mr Lincoln in August 1862 wrote: " My paramount object is to save the Union and not either to save or destroy slavery." But as evidence accumulated that slavery was a strong military support of the Confederacy the policy of destroying slavery as a means of saving the Union grew in favour. To this policy Mr Lincoln on the 22nd of September 1862 com- mitted himself, the Republican party and the cause of the Union. The first response was distinctly unfavourable. The immediate effect was " to unite the South and divide the North." A considerable element of the Democratic party became disloyal, while the party as a whole opposed all measures looking to the destruction of slavery. The autumn elections greatly reduced the Republican majority in Congress. But the new policy steadily gained ground until the Republican party in its third national convention, which met on the 7th of June 1864, resolved: " that as slavery was the cause and now constitutes the strength of this rebellion, justice and national safety demand its utter and complete extirpation from the soil of the republic." In the following year slavery was finally abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment. On the Republican party, since it had an effective majority in each house of Congress, rests the responsibility for the legisla- tion of the war period. The theory of loose construction of the Constitution was accepted. Throughout the Civil War, Congress, proceeding upon this theory, made prompt provision for the prosecution of the war. It passed Legal Tender Acts; it established a system of national banks; greatly raised the tariff rates; and in order to hasten the settlement of the Far West and to make that section an integral part of the Union, it passed a Homestead Act and an act providing for a railway to the Pacific. For a time, while disloyalty was most rife in the North, there was a sharp curtailment of the rights of the individual citizen through the suspension, initiated by the President 'and approved by Congress, of the writ of Habeas Corpus. Most of the acts, which their opponents held to be violations of the Constitution, were in general acts of question- able utility. The results of the war, which came to a close early in 1865, vindicated in a signal way the principles, policies and leadership of the Republican party. It had saved the Union; it had established the national character of the Union so firmly as to bring to an end the doctrine of the right of secession; and it had destroyed slavery. The party had been singularly fortunate in its founders and leaders. Of these three were pre-eminent: Horace Greeley, William H. Seward and Abraham Lincoln — Greeley in the field of journalism, Seward in the two realms of idealistic and practical politics, and, greatest of all, Abraham Lincoln who won and held the people. Reconstruction. — The larger tasks of the period from the close of the Civil War in '1865 to the inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes in 1877 were three: first, to accomplish with the least possible disturbance the transition from war to peace; second, to settle certain matters of dispute with France and England that had arisen during the progress of the war; arid third, to reconstruct the South. Full responsibility for the way in which these tasks were discharged rests upon the Republican party, for it was in control of the presidency and the Senate throughout the period and of the House until December 1875. In the first and second it was notably successful. The soldiers of North and South returned at once to the fields of productive labour. The colossal war establishment was quickly reduced to the requirements of peace. The French withdrew from Mexico. The Alabama Claims were submitted to arbitration. But the reconstruction of the South proved difficult in the extreme. The strain of a prolonged and exhausting war, the upheaval of emancipation, and the utter collapse of the Confederate government, had thrown the elements of social, economic and civil life in the South into almost hopeless disorder. To restore these to normal relations and working was but part of the task; the other and more important part was to apply those methods of reconstruc- tion which would tend to make one nation out of hitherto discordant sections. In his third annual message, Dec. 8th, 1863, Lincoln brought forward the so-called presidential plan of reconstruction. This was rejected on the ground that recon- struction was a Congressional rather than an executive function; and on the 4th of July 1864 Congress passed a bill making Congress instead of the president the chief agent in the work of reconstruction. President Johnson adopted Lincoln's plan, and put it into operation with such vigour that when Congress met in December 1865 all the states that had seceded were quite or nearly ready to demand the readmission of their represen- tatives to the House and Senate. From the standpoint of party the situation was highly critical. The men whom the newly reconstructed states had sent to Washington represented the old South and would naturally join the opposition. Although the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, was assured, and a fort- night later was officially proclaimed, nevertheless the recon- structed legislatures were busy enacting police regulations which, in the opinion of most Republicans, threatened to re- enslave the freedmen. With an earnestness like that which the party in earlier days had shown in opposing the extension of slavery, it now resolved to secure full civil rights to the freedmen. Another consideration of great weight in shaping party policy was the need of maintaining the rights of Congress against executive encroachment. Owing to the war and Lincoln's masterful personality, the presidency had gained in prestige at the expense of Congress. The tendency thus established would be strengthened to a dangerous degree, it was thought, if the President were to take the leading part in reconstructing as well as in saving the Union. There now took place within the party a change of great importance. Hitherto the conservatives, represented by such leaders as Lincoln and Seward, had always won in struggles with the radical elements; but now the tide changed, and the radicals who were more narrowly national and more strongly partisan gained control, and ruled the party to the end of the period. This revolution within the Republican party between the years 1865 and 1867 was fostered by a marked re- crudescence of sectional feeling in the North, and by the character of the successor of President Lincoln and of the party leaders in Congress. President Johnson while eminently patriotic and courageous, was tactless and imprudent to the last degree. Mr Sumner, the leader of the Senate, was not conciliatory in manner, and while incapable of revengeful feeling seemed more con- siderate of the freedman than of the Southern white. Thaddeus Stevens, whose influence over the House of Representatives was stronger than that of Sumner over the Senate, regarded the South as " a conquered province," and his personal feelings towards the ruling class of the South were harshly vindktive. The policy adopted by the Republican majority in each house of Congress was to refuse admission to the men chosen by the states that had been reconstructed under the presidential plan, until a joint- committee of both houses should investigate conditions in the South. In this rebuff there was distinct intimation of a purpose to set aside altogether the reconstructive work of the President. Congress proceeded at once to enact measures to continue and extend the earlier temporary provision for helpless freedmen whom emancipation had set adrift, and to give them full civil rights. By passing the Fourteenth Amendment in June 1866 Congress committed itself to the policy of securing the civil rights of the negro by constitutional guarantee. Each of these acts was vetoed by the President, between whom and REPUBLICAN PARTY Congress political disagreement ripened soon into bitter enmity. As the quarrel developed Congress ignored the recommendations of the President, repassed by the requisite majority and without due consideration of his objections each measure that he vetoed, took from him the power to remove subordinates which had been exercised by his predecessors, deprived him of his constitutional rights as commander-in-chief of the army, and finally in 1868 undertook to drive him from office by impeach- ment. In 1867 Congress, under the control of the radical wing of the Republican party, set aside nearly all reconstructive work that had been accomplished previously and put into execution a plan of its own, under which the Southern States were reconstructed anew and admitted to representation in Congress between the years 1867 and 1870. Inevitable consequences of the Con- gressional plan of reconstruction were: first, the erection of state governments that were inefficient, corrupt, ruinously wasteful and shamefully oppressive; second, the extreme demoralization of the freedmen suddenly transformed from slaves into rulers of their former masters; third, the demoraliza- tion, in many cases also extreme, of the great body of the Southern whites by the expedients to which they resorted in order to escape from the rule of the freedman, led by the " Carpet Bagger " his Northern, and the " Scalawag " his Southern, white ally; fourth, the alienation of the white and coloured races in the South, — an alienation which was to each a source of immeasurable evils; fifth, the speedy overthrow on the withdrawal of military support of the governments set up under the Congressional plan, and the creation of a South " solid " in resentful opposition to the North and the Republican party. And sixth, as the out- come of all these results, an unfortunate delay in reuniting North and South. The Republican party suffered during this period a moral decline, seen in the frequent efforts to gain party advantage by kindling anew the earlier sectional animosities, a growing arrogance, the increasing weight of the partisan and spoilsman in party management, and the widespread corruption that came to light in the " scandals " of the second administra- tion of General Grant. The mismanaged Liberal Republican movement of 1870-1872 was a reaction against this moral decline and a protest against the Southern policy of the party and its support of the " Spoils " system. The service of the Liberal Republicans consisted mainly in the aid they gave to the reform of the Republican party and in the influence they exerted to induce the Democratic party to accept the results of the war. But despite the warnings it received, the prestige it had gained during the war and the popularity of President Grant, the Republican party lost ground steadily during the second half of the period. In the election of 1874 the Democratic party gained control of the House of Representatives; and in the election of 1876 came within a hair's breadth of winning the presidency. Election of Mr Hayes to that of Mr McKinley, 1876-1896. — During these twenty years the subsidence of old and the rise of new issues led to a reconstruction of the party system, which, although less radical than that of 1840 to 1860, brought into existence several new parties and changed in important respects the character and policies of those already in the field. From the standpoint of party history the chief interest of these twenty years lies in the answer to the question, How did the discredited Republican party secure in 1896 a new and prolonged lease of power? The task was not easy. The reconstruction policy of the party had alienated many Northern supporters and had made the South solidly Democratic. The prevalence of the spoils system and the scandals of the second administration of General Grant had hurt the prestige of the party as a guardian of public morals and of the national honour. What gave the Republicans a fighting chance were: its record down to the close of the Civil War; its proven aptitude for the tasks of government; and the growth among the people of a more vital national feeling which turned instinctively to the party that had saved the nation. Despite these substantial advantages over their Democratic rivals the Republicans lost the presidential elections of 1884 and 1892, and the entire Democratic party — some Republicans agreeing — has always held that a just decision of the contested election of 1876 would have seated Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic candi- date, instead of Mr Hayes. In the Senate the Republicans were in a majority during fourteen years. In the House, whose members are chosen by popular vote, these figures were reversed, the Democrats having control during fourteen years. In each of five successive presidential elections, those of 1876, 1880, 1884, 1888 and 1892, the Democratic popular vote was larger than the Republican. Marked features of the party situation were- the apparent similarity for a time of the principles of the two great parties, the influence on their policy exerted by the stronger minor parties, and the rise of the Mugwumps (not strictly a party), who claimed the right to vote for the best candidate independently of party and were in the main of Republican origin. Of the issues of the period one, the reform of the civil service, was served by both of the great parties with imperfect fidelity. Each of the Republican presidents, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur and Harrison gave it efficient and steadfast support; and so did Cleveland, the Democratic president, although under stronger pressure from party hunger. The same was true in the case of the more important questions of foreign policy and, to a degree in its early stage, of the question of silver coinage. It was not so with the treatment of the South. President Hayes_ withdrew the national troops from S. Carolina and Louisiana and thus brought to an end Federal military interference with state governments. For this course a considerable section of the Republican party gave him thereafter a support which was half-hearted and inconstant. Further disaffection resulted • from efforts to reform the civil service of New York which brought the President into conflict with the powerful Republican party machine in that state.1 The high character of the President and his firm, wise and upright course raised the reputation of the party. His veto of the Silver Bill and the resumption of specie payments tended to the same result. The failure in 1889 of the third term movement for General Grant worked for the health of the party. The struggle of President Garfield with New York spoilsmen and his assassina- tion by a disappointed office-seeker, gave a fresh impetus to the movement for the reform of the civil service. President Arthur maintained the high standard established by Presidents Hayes and Garfield. In the election of 1884 the old parties were competitors for the confidence of the conservative and reforming elements of the country. Mr Blaine, the Republican candidate, who in brilliancy, popularity, patriotism, and disappointing personal fortunes recalled the Whig leader, Henry Clay, lost the election by a narrow margin because, while meeting the requirements of the conservatives, he had lost in a measure the confidence of the reformers. In the election of 1888 Mr Cleveland, by making tariff reform •the issue, turned the manufacturing interests to the support of Mr Harrison, the candidate of the Republicans, who thereby won the election. Mr Harrison, while not personally popular, maintained the best traditions of his Republican predecessors. The highly protective McKinley tariff, frarhed in obedience to the people's mandate in 1888, proved somewhat disappointing, and in the election of 1892, Mr Cleveland, as the champion of lower tariff rates, was successful for the second time. Mr Cleveland, at the beginning of his second term, secured the repeal of the act for the purchase of silver, and thus strengthened himself with the con- servatives of both parties. Democratic defection in the Senate nullified largely the downward revision of the tariff urged by the President and supported by the House. The election of 1896 marked the close of the period of party 1 In the course of this conflict, which continued to disturb the harmony of the Republican party until the death of President Garfield, the term " Stalwarts was used to designate the supporters of Senator Conkling, who was in control of the Republican machine in New York state, and the term " Half-Breeds " to designate the supporters of the administration. i8o REQUENA— REQUEST, LETTERS OF readjustment. The leading issue was the free coinage of silver under conditions which would have made the monetary standard silver instead of gold, and would have lowered its value. The Democratic convention repudiated Mr Cleveland, accepted free coinage, and nominated W. J. Bryan. The Republicans, at the cost of a formidable party defection, endorsed the gold standard and a highly protective tariff, and nominated William McKinley, whose record and character made him an exceptionally strong candidate. In doing this the Democratic organization became the party of radicalism, the Republican, the party of conservat- ism. The committal of the Republican party to the mainten- ance of the gold standard far more than its continued support of high protection, established its position in the reconstructed party system. In doing this it allied its fortunes with those of all the property-holding classes of the country, while retaining in a high degree the confidence of the wage-earners. Period 1897-1910. — During this period there was first a rapid recovery from economic depression, and then ten years of almost unexampled prosperity, followed by two years of moderate depression. But the period is chiefly memorable for the war of 1898 with Spain; for the oversea territorial expansion that followed; for the rise of the so-called policy of imperialism; for the assumption of a far more prominent international role; for wide-reaching measures of internal reform; and, lastly, for the •establishment of the policy of conserving the natural resources of the nation. Throughout this period the Republican party had undis- puted control of the national government. One of the earliest acts in the administration of Mr McKinley was the enactment in 1897 of the highly protective Dingley Tariff. The provision for Reciprocity proved at first of little use. But the need of foreign markets for the rapidly growing output of manufactured products, the rising demand that the interests of the home consumer, as well as those of the producer, should be considered, and the conviction that high protection fostered monopolies, brought about a change of sentiment in the party. Mr McKin- ley, in his last speech, made at the Buffalo Exposition on the 5th of September 1901, gave voice to this change: " The period of exclusiveness is past. The expansion of our trade and com- merce is the pressing problem. Commercial wars are unpro- fitable. A policy of good will and friendly trade relations will prevent reprisals. Reciprocity treaties are in harmony with the spirit of the times. Measures of retaliation are not." These views gained headway against the strenuous opposition of the "stand-patters,"1 until revision of the tariff down- ward was demanded in the platform of 1908, and achieved to .a moderate degree in the Tariff Act of 1909. The party has also fulfilled its promise to establish the gold monetary standard •on a firm basis. During the war with Spain and in meeting the new problems of colonial empire, the Republican party has again justified its reputation for efficiency. Not less noteworthy has been the policy of the party, initiated and urged by President Theodore Roosevelt and developed by President W. H. Taft for the regulation of railways and all corporations and trusts engaged in interstate business. The latest important event in the history of the Republican party is the rise of the " Insurgents," a group of senators and •congressmen whose professed aims are to resist centralization in both party and national government, to lessen the influ- ence of the money power over public policy, to regulate tariff schedules largely in the interest of the consumer, and in brief to emphasize anew the subordination of party and government to the will and service of the people. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See Francis Curtis, History of the Republican Party (2 vols., New York, 1904); J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (ibid., 1893-1904); J. W. Burgess, The Middle Period (New York, 1897), The Civil War and the Constitution (ibid., 1899), and Reconstruction and the Constitution (ibid., 1902); T. C. Smith, The Parties and Slavery, 1851-1859 (ibid., 1906) ; Henry Wilson, Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America (3 vols., Boston, 1872-77); J. G. Blaine, Twenty 1 Those members of the" Republican party who would maintain -as far as possible the high protective duties of the Dingley Tariff. Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1886); Horace Greeley, The American Conflict (2 vols., Hartford, 1864-66); J. G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln, A History (10 vols., New York, 1890); J. T. Morse, Life of Lincoln (2 vols., Boston, 1893); F. Bancroft, Life of W. H. Seward (New York, 1900); H. E. Von Hoist, Political and Constitutional History of the United States (Chicago, 1899); and E. Stanwood, History of the Presidency (Boston, 1898). (A. D. Mo.) REQUENA, a town of E. Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the left bank of the river Magro, and on the railway from Valencia to Utiel. Pop. (1900) 16,236. The town was formerly a Moorish fortress, occupying a strong position in the mountainous region of Las Cabrillas (3400 ft). It is dominated by the ancient citadel of the Moors, and still has traces of the original town walls. There are three ancient parish churches; San Nicolas, the oldest, dates from the I3th century, but was partly restored in 1727. Near the town are the sulphurous springs of Fuentepodrida. The chief industries are the cultiva- tion of grain, fruit and saffron, and the manufacture of wine and silk. REQUESENS, LUIS DE ZUNIGA Y (? -1576), Spanish governor of the Netherlands, had the misfortune to succeed the duke of Alva (q.v.) and to govern amid hopeless difficulties under the direction of Philip II. His early career was that of a government official and diplomatist. In 1563 he gained the king's confidence as his representative at Rome. In 1568 he was appointed lieutenant-general to Don John of Austria during the suppression of the Morisco revolt in Granada, and he also accompanied Don John during the Lepanto campaign, his function being to watch and control his nominal commander- in-chief, whose excitable temperament was distrusted by the king. Philip must have been satisfied with Requesens, for he named him viceroy in Milan, a post usually given to a great noble. Requesens was only " a gentleman of cloak and sword " (caballero de capa y espada), though by the king's favour he was " grand commander " of the military order of Santiago in Castile. He was credited with having shown moderation at Milan, but it is certain that he came into sharp collision with the archbishop, Saint Charles Borromeo, who took up the cause of his flock. His docility rather than his capacity marked him out to succeed Alva. The king wished to pursue a more conciliatory policy, without, however, yielding any one of the points in dispute between himself and the revolted Netherlanders. Requesens came to Brussels on the I7th of November 1573, and till his death on the 5th of March 1576 was plunged into insuperable difficulties. With an empty treasury and unpaid mutinous troops, no faculty could have helped Requesens to succeed; and he was only an honest official who was worn out in trying to do the impossible. AUTHORITIES. — Documentor InMitos para la historia de Espana (Madrid, 1892); and Nueva Coleccion de documentos, vols. iv. and v. (Madrid). REQUEST, LETTERS OF. The legal terms "letters rogatory," or " of request " (commission rogatoire), express a request made by one judge for the assistance of another in serving a citation, taking the deposition of a witness, executing a judgment, or the performance of any other judicial act. The later law of Rome imposed a duty of mutual assistance on the courts of the Empire, and this was extended to the courts of different states when, and so far as, Roman law came to rule the modern world. Consequently, outside ecclesiastical law (see below), the only trace of such a practice to be found in England or the United States, independent of statutory enact- ! ment, is in the admiralty doctrine that the sentence of a foreign court of admiralty may be executed on letters of request from the foreign judge or on a libel by a party for its execution. See the authorities collected by Sir R. Phillimore in The City of Mecca, 5 P.D. 28. The need of assistance in taking the deposi- tions of witnesses outside their jurisdiction was long in being felt by the British and United States courts, because they issued commissions for that purpose to private persons, some- times to foreign judges in their private capacities. But an increasing sensitiveness as to the rights of sovereignty led to REQUESTS, COURT OF— RESEARCH 181 objection being taken to the execution of such commissions by persons who in that employment were officers of courts foreign to the countries in which they acted, besides which those com- missions could give no power to compel the attendance of witnesses abroad. Consequently both in the mother country and in the United States acts have been passed empowering the courts to issue commissions for taking evidence to colonial or foreign courts, and to execute such commissions when received by them from the courts of the colonies or of foreign countries. The British statutes are 13 Geo. III. c. 63; i Will. IV. c. 22; 3 & 4 Viet. c. 105, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 82, 22 Viet. c. 20 and 49 & 49 Viet. c. 74. But neither in England nor in the United States have commissions of the old kind been entirely disused. In the practice under the Anglo-American statutes, the leading rules are that all the acts of the judge whose services are required, and all things done before him, are governed by the law of the country in which the execution takes place (locus regit actum), while the admissibility of the evidence and all else which concerns the conduct of the action is governed by the law of the country in which it is pending (lex fori). Details may be seen for England and the United States in the usual books of practice, and in Wharton's Conflict of Laws (and ed., 1881), §§ 722-31, and Sir R. Phillimore's International Law (3rd ed., 1889), v. 4, §§ 882-85; f°r other countries in von Bar's Private International Law, translated by Guthrie (2nd ed., 1892), §§ 391) 392) 409, 410. In ecclesiastical law, letters of request are issued for the purpose of sending causes from one court to another. Where a diocesan court within a province has juris- diction over the parties concerned, the plaintiff may apply to the judge of such court for letters of request, in order that the cause may be instituted either in the court of arches or the chancery court of York, as the case may be. When the judge of the diocesan court consents to sign such letters and they have been accepted by the judge of the higher court, a decree issues under his seal, calling upon the defendant to answer to the plaintiff in the suit instituted against him. Letters of request are also issued for other purposes, being sometimes sent from one judge to another to request him to examine witnesses who are out of the jurisdiction of the former, but in that of the latter; to enforce a monition, &c. REQUESTS, COURT OF, a minor court of the king's council in England, under the presidency of the lord keeper of the privy seal. Its possible origin has been assigned to an order in council of 1390 directing the lords of the council to form a committee to examine the petitions of the humble people. Its jurisdiction was chiefly equitable, and owing to the small expenses of procedure it grew in popularity, especially for cases not of sufficient importance to bring into the court of chancery itself. Under Wolsey the court was fixed permanently at Whitehall. The judges of the court were styled masters of requests. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth there were two masters ordinary and two masters extraordinary. In James I.'s reign there were four masters ordinary. In Henry VIII.'s reign the judges of the court had ceased to be privy councillors, and towards the end of Elizabeth's reign the court incurred the hostility of the common law courts, as having neither a statutory nor prescriptive title to jurisdiction. Notwithstanding a decision in 1598 as to the illegality of its jurisdiction, and subsequent decisions to the same effect in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., it continued to flourish until the suppression of the Star Chamber in 1640 virtually put an end to it. Although it sat until 1642, and masters of requests were appointed even after the Restora- tion, it ceased to exercise judicial functions. There were also courts of requests or, as they were sometimes called, courts of conscience, established in London in the reign of Henry VIII. with jurisdiction in matters of debt under forty shillings. These courts were extended in the reigns of George I. and George II. to various places in England, but they were abolished by an act of 1846 (County Courts Act), which established in their place the tribunal of the county court (q.v.). REQUIEM, the name of a solemn mass for the dead (Missa pro defunctis) in the Roman Church, appointed to be sung on All Souls' Day, in memory of all " faithful departed," at funeral services, and at the anniversaries of the death of particular persons. The name is taken from the first words of the Introit, Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine. The term is specially applied to the musical setting of the mass. The most celebrated Requiem Masses are those of Palestrina, Mozart and Cherubini. The word has been also used of memorial services held in honour of a deceased person in churches other than the Roman. REREDOS (Anglo-Fr. areredos, from arere, behind, and dos, back), an ornamental screen of stone or wood built up, or forming a facing to the wall behind an altar in a church. Reredoses are frequently decorated with representations of the Passion, niches containing statues of saints, and the like. In England these were for the most part destroyed at the Reforma- tion or by the Puritans later; a few medieval examples, however, survive, e.g. at Christchurch, Hants. In some large cathedrals e.g. Winchester, Durham, St Albans, the reredos is a mass of splendid tabernacle work, reaching nearly to the groining. In small churches the reredos is usually replaced by a hanging or parament behind the altar, known as a dossal or dorsal. (See also ALTAR.) For the legality of images on reredoses in the Church of England, see IMAGE. The use of the word reredos for the iron or brick back of an open fire-place is all but obsolete. RESCHEN SCHEIDECK. This Alpine pass is in some sort the pendant of the Brenner Pass, but leads from the upper valley of the Inn or Engadine to the upper valley of the Adige. It is but 4902 ft. in height. Near the summit is the hamlet of Reschen, while some way below is the former hospice of St Valentin auf der Haid, mentioned as early as 1140. Start- ing from Landeck, the carriage road runs up the Inn valley to Pfunds, whence it mounts above the gorge of Finstermunz to the village of Nauders (27^ m.) where the road from the Swiss Engadine falls in (53$ m. from St Moritz). Thence the road mounts gently to the pass, and then descends, with the infant Adige, to Mais (15$ m.), whence the pass is sometimes wrongly named Malserheide. The road now descends the upper Adige valley, or Vintschgau, past Meran (37$ m.) to Botzen (20 m. from Meran, or 100 m. from Landeck) where the Brenner route is joined. (W. A. B. C.) RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse, Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa, reexcutere, to shake off again, re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake), the forcible setting at liberty of a person or thing. To constitute the legal offence of rescue, the person rescued must be in the custody of a constable or private individual, but in the latter case the rescuer must know that the prisoner is in lawful custody. The punishment for the offence is fine and imprisonment, with or without hard labour, if the party rescued has not been convicted of the offence for which he was in custody. But if the prisoner has been imprisoned on a charge of, or under sentence for, high treason, felony or misdemeanour, the rescue is high treason, felony or misdemeanour. The punishment for a felonious rescue may be penal servitude for not more than seven or less than three years, or imprisonment for not more than two years, with or without hard labour. The forcible rescue of goods legally distrained or the rescuing of cattle by pound breach are misdemeanours indictable at common law, but the more usual procedure is a civil action under 2 W. & M. c. 5, s. 3 (1690), which makes an offender liable for treble damages. RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore), the act of searching into a matter closely and carefully, inquiry directed to the discovery of truth, and in particular the trained scientific investigation of the principles and facts of any subject, based on original and first-hand study of authorities or experiment. Investigations of every kind which have been based on original sources of knowledge may be styled " research," and it may be said that without " research " no authoritative works have been written, no scientific discoveries or inventions made, no theories of any value propounded; but the word also has a somewhat restricted i82 RESENDE, ANDRE DE— RESHT meaning attached to it in current usage. It is applied more particularly to the investigations of those who devote them- selves to the study of pure as opposed to applied science, to the investigation of causes rather than to practical experiment; thus while every surgeon or physician who treats an individual case of cancer may add to our sum of knowledge of the disease, the body of trained investigators which is endowed by the Cancer Research Fund are working on different lines. Again, the practical engineers who are building aeroplanes, and those who are making practical tests by actual flight in those machines, cannot be called "researchers"; that term should be con- fined to the members, for example, of the scientific committee appointed by the British Government in 1909 to make investiga- tions regarding aerial construction and navigation. Further, the term is particularly used of a course of post-graduate study at a university, for which many universities have provided special Research Studentships or Fellowships. These act as endowments for a specific period, and are conditional on the holder devoting his time to the investigation at first hand of some specified subject. RESENDE, ANDRE DE (1498-1573), the father of archae- ology in Portugal, began life as a Dominican friar, but about 1540 passed over to the ranks of the secular clergy. He spent many years travelling in Spain, France and Belgium, where he corresponded with Erasmus and other learned men. He was also intimate with King John III. and his sons, and acted as tutor to the Infante D. Duarte. Resende enjoyed considerable fame in his lifetime, but modern writers have shown that he is neither accurate nor scrupulous. In Portuguese he wrote: (1) Historia da antiguidade da cidade de Ewra (ibid. 1553); (2) Vida do Infante D. Duarte .(Lisbon, 1789). His chief Latin work is the De Antiquitatibus Lusilaniae (Evora, 1593). See the " Life " of Resende in Farinha's Collecfao das antiguidades de Evora (1785), and a biographical-critical article by Rivara in the Revista Litteraria (Oporto, 1839), iii. 340-62; also Cleynarts, Latin Letters. (E. PR.) RESENDE, GARCIA DE (1470-1536), Portuguese poet and editor, was born at Evora, and began to serve John II. as a page at the age of ten, becoming his private secretary in 1491. He was present at his death at Alvor on the 25th of October 1495. He continued to enjoy the same favour with King Manoel, whom he accompanied to Castile in 1498, and from whom he obtained a knighthood of the Order of Christ. In 1514 Resende went to Rome with Tristao da Cunha, as secretary and treasurer of the famous embassy sent by the king to offer the tribute of the East at the feet of Pope Leo X. In 1516 he was given the rank of a nobleman of the royal household, and became escrivao de fazenda to Prince John, afterwards King John III., from whom he received further pensions in 1525. Resende built a chapel in the monastery of Espinheiro near Evora, the pantheon of the Alemtejo nobility, where he was buried. He began to cultivate the making of verses in the palace of John II., and he tells us how one night when the king was in bed he caused him (Resende) to repeat some " trovas " of Jorge Manrique, saying it was as needful for a man to know them as to know the Pater Noster. Under these conditions, Resende grew up no mean poet, and moreover distinguished himself by his skill in drawing and music; while he collected into an album the best court verse of the time. The Cancioneiro Geral, probably begun in 1483 though not printed until 1516, includes the com- positions of some three hundred fidalgos of the reigns of kings Alphonso V., John II. and Manoel. The main subjects of its pieces are love, satire and epigram, and most of them are written in the national redondilha v.erse, but the metre is irregular and the rhyming careless. The Spanish language is largely employed, because the literary progenitors of the whole collection were Juan de Mena, Jorge Manrique, Boscan and Garcilasso. As a rule the compositions were improvised at palace entertainments, at which the poets present divided into two bands, attacking and defending a given theme throughout successive evenings. At other times these poetical soirees took the form of a mock trial at law, in which the queen of John II. acted as judge. Resende was much twitted by other rhymesters on his corpulence, but he repaid all their gibes with interest. The artistic value of the Cancioneiro Geral is slight. Con- ventional in tone, the greater part are imitations of Spanish poets and show no trace of inspiration in their authors. The Cancioneiro is redeemed from complete insipidity by Resende himself, and his fine verses on the death of D. Ignez de Castro inspired the great episode in the Lusiads of Camoens ( hence c'd' will be larger the larger the angle x. The case, however, is not so clear with reference to the anterior portions of the internal intercostals which lie between the cartilages; for it is evident that these fibres have the same direction with regard to the sternum as an axis as the external intercostals have with regard to the vertebral column as an axis; that is to say, the geometrical diagram in fig. 10 applies to the inter-cartilaginous internal intercostals as perfectly as it does to the inter-osseous parts of the external intercostals, the inference being that the inter-cartilaginous internal intercostals tend to elevate the pair of ribs between which they stretch. The geometrical argument is, however, overborne by physio- logical experiment: Martin and Hart well have observed in the dog and the cat that the internal intercostals throughout their whole extent contract (not synchronously) but alternately with the diaphragm; hence we must conclude that their function throughout is not inspiratory like that of the diaphragm, but expiratory. The Movements of the Diaphragm. — The muscular fibres of the diaphragm are arranged in a radial manner, or, more strictly speaking, in a manner like the lines of longitude on a terrestrial globe. The central tendon of the diaphragm corresponds to the pole of such a globe. The contraction of the fibres is ex- pended on straightening the longitudinal curves rather than on pulling down the central tendon to a lower level; in fact, the central tendon moves very little in ordinary respiration. How the Expiratory Movements are Produced.— The action of inspiration disturbs many organs from the position of rest into which gravity and their own physical properties have thrown them. The ribs and sternum are raised from the position of lowest level; the elastic costal cartilages are twisted; the elastic lungs are put upon the stretch; the abdominal organs, themselves elastic, are compressed and thrust against the elastic walls of the belly, causing these to bulge outwards. In short the very act of inspiration stores up, as it were, in sundry ways the forces which make for expiration. As soon as the inspiratory muscles cease to act these .forces come into play, and the position of rest or equilibrium is regained. It is very doubtful whether any special expiratory muscles are called into action during ordinary respiration. The internal intercostals may in man be exercised in ordinary expiration (although they are certainly not so exercised in the dog and the cat); but in laboured expiration many muscles assist in the expulsive effort. The muscles forming the belly-walls contract and force the abdominal contents against the relaxed diaphragm in such a manner as to drive it farther and farther into the thorax. At the same time by their attachment to the lower edge of the PATHOLOGY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM thorax these same muscles pull down the ribs and sternum. The M. triangularis sterni, which arises from the back or thoracic aspect of the sternum and lower costal cartilages and is inserted into the costal cartilages higher up, can obviously depress the ribs. So also can the M. serratus posticus inferior, which arises from the thick fascia of the loins and is inserted into the last four ribs. So also can the M. quadratus lumborum, which springs from the pelvis and is attached to the last rib. Indeed there is hardly a muscle of the body but may be called into play during extremely laboured respiration, either because it acts on the chest, or because it serves to steady some part and give a better purchase for the action of direct respiratory muscles. Certain Abnormal Forms of Respiration. Coughing. — There is first a deep inspiration followed by closure of the glottis. Then follows a violent expiratory effort which bursts open the glottis and drives the air out of the lungs in a blast which carries away any light irritating matter it may meet with. The act is commonly involuntary, but may be imitated exactly by a voluntary effort. Hawking, or Clearing the Throat. — In this act a current of air is driven from the lungs and forced through the narrow space between the root of the tongue and the depressed soft palate. This action can only be caused voluntarily. Sneezing. — There is first an inspiration which is often un- usually rapid; then follows a sudden expiration, and the blast is directed through the nose. The glottis remains open all the time. The act is generally involuntary, but may be more or less successfully imitated by a voluntary effort. Snoring is caused by unusually steady and prolonged inspira- tions and expirations through the open mouth, — the soft palate and uvula being set vibrating by the currents of air. Crying consists of short deep inspirations and prolonged expirations with the glottis partially closed. Long-continued crying leads to sobbing, in which sudden spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm cause sudden inspirations and inspiratory sounds generated in larynx and pharynx. Sighing is a sudden and prolonged inspiration following an unusually long pause after the last expiration. Laughing is caused by a series of short expiratory blasts which provoke a clear sound from the vocal chords kept tense for the purpose, and at the same time other inarticulate but very characteristic sounds from the vibrating structures of the larynx and pharynx. The face has a characteristic expression. This act is essentially involuntary, and often is beyond control; it can only be imitated very imperfectly. Yawning is a long deep inspiration followed by a shorter expiration, the mouth, fauces and glottis being kept open in a characteristic fashion. It is involuntary, but may be imitated. Hiccough is really an inspiration suddenly checked by closure of the glottis; the inspiration is due to a spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm. The closure of the glottis generally leads to a characteristic sound. (A. G.*) . (4) PATHOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM In the following article we have to give an account of the more important pathological processes which affect the lungs, pleurae and bronchial tubes. In the aetiology of pulmonary affections, the relations between the lungs and the external air, and also between them and the circulatory system, are im- portant. The lungs are, so to speak, placed between the right and left cavities of the heart, and the only way for the blood to pass from the right ventricle to the left side of the heart, except in cases of a patent foramen ovale or other congenital defect forming a communication between the two sides of the organ, is by passing through them. The result is that not only may they become diseased by foreign material carried into them by the blood, but any obstruction to the flow of blood through the left side of the heart tends sooner or later to engorge or con- gest them, and lead to further changes. Through the nose and mouth they are in direct connexion with the external atmo- sphere. Hence the variable condition of the air as regards temperature, degree of moisture, and density, is liable to produce directly various changes in the lungs, or to predispose them to disease; and the contamination of the air with various patho- genic germs and irritating particles in the shape of dust, is a direct source of many lung affections. Bronchitis, or inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes, has been generally attributed to exposure to atmospheric changes. It occurs with great frequence in the extremes of life, and it is in early childhood and in old age that it is more liable to be fatal. Bronchitis may often follow exposure to cold, but that low temperature in itself is not sufficient to cause it is shown by the fact that the crews of arctic expeditions have been singularly free from diseases usually attributed to cold, but on their return to moist germ-laden atmospheres have at once been affected. Children reared in heated rooms with lack of ventilation are peculiarly susceptible to attacks on the slightest change of temperature. Bronchitis is also frequently caused by cardiac and renal diseases, and by the extension of inflammatory diseases of the upper air passages (as rhinitis, laryngitis or pharyngitis), while blockage of the nasal passages by adenoid or other growths may, by causing persistent mouth-breathing, lead to bronchial infection. Before the bacterial origin of disease was understood, bronchitis was attributed solely to what is termed " catching cold, " and the exact relation of the chill to the bacterial infection is still unknown. It is probable that the chilling of the surface of the body by exposure causes congestion of the mucous membrane, the presence of a virulent micro-organism being then all that is required to produce bronchitis. It is generally accepted that in persons living in the pure air of the country the small bronchi and air-cells are sterile (Barthel in the Zentralblatt ftir Bakterio- logie, vol. xxiv.). Bacteria are arrested on their way by the leucocytes of the nasal mucous membrane and by the vibration of the ciliated epithelium of the upper air passages. The mucous membrane of the upper bronchi is, however, tenanted by various micro-organisms such as the diplo-bacillus of Friedlander, bacillus coli communis, micrococcus tetragenus, &c., and it is considered by William Ewart that these organisms may in certain conditions of their host become virulent. " Specific " bronchitis occurs in the course of a specific infective disease (e.g. influenza, measles or whooping cough) and is due to the specific micro-organism gaining access by the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. Cases have been known in which the diphtheria bacillus has been so localized. In glanders, small-pox, syphilis and pemphigus, the infective micro-organism is carried to the bronchi by the blood stream. In common or " non- specific" bronchitis, streptococci, pneumococci and staphylococci are found in the sputum together with Friedlander's bacillus and the bacillus coli communis. Microscopically the bronchi show hyperaemia of the mucous and submucous coats, and the whole wall becomes infiltrated with polymorphonuclear leucocytes and round cells. Many cells undergo mucoid de- generation, and there is abundant epithelial proliferation. A large quantity of mucus is secreted by the glands, and the lumen of the bronchi contains an exudate consisting of mucus, degenerated leucocytes and cast-off epithelial cells. In the rare form of bronchitis known as fibrinous or plastic bronchitis a membranous exudate is formed which forms casts of the bronchi, which may be coughed up. The casts vary from an inch to six or seven inches in length, with branches corre- sponding to the divisions of the bronchi from which they come. The cast consists of mucus and fibrin in varying proportions. The exact pathology of this variety is still undetermined. Bronchitis may affect the whole bronchial tract, or more especially the larger or the smaller tubes. It may occur as an acute or as a chronic affection. In the acute form the inflamma- tion may remain limited to the bronchial tubes and gradually subside, or it may lead to inflammation of the surrounding lung tissue, giving rise to disseminated foci of inflammation of greater or less extent throughout the lungs (catarrhal or broncho- pneumonia). This is a common complication of bronchitis, especially where the smaller tubes are affected, and is more 196 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [PATHOLOGY frequently seen in children than adults. In cases of chronic bronchitis the affection, as a rule, begins as a slight ailment during the winter, and recurs in succeeding winters. The intervals of freedom from the trouble get shorter, and in the course of a few years it persists during the summer as well as the winter months. A condition of chronic bronchitis is thus established. The persistent cough which this occasions is one of the chief causes of the development of the condition of emphysema, where there is a permanent enlargement of the air-cells of the lungs with an atrophy of the walls of the air vesicles. The emphysema occasions an increase in the shortness of breath from which the person had previously suffered, and later, in consequence of the greater difficulty with which the blood circulates through the emphysematous lungs, the right side of the heart becomes dilated, and from that we have the development of a general dropsy of the subcutaneous tissues, and less and less perfect aeration of the blood. The death rate from bronchitis in England and Wales during 1908 was: males 1102, females 1083 per million living. The death rate for the five years 1901-1905 was 1237 per million for all sexes. The death rate for the twenty years 1888-1908 con- sistently showed a slight decline. Diseases of Occupations. — We all inhale a considerable amount of carbonaceous and other foreign particles, which in health are partly got rid of by the action of the ciliated cells lining the bronchial tubes, and are partly absorbed by cells in the wall of the tubes, and carried in the lymph channels to the bronchial lymphatic glands, where they are deposited, and cause a more or less marked pigmentation of the tissues. Part of such pig- ment is also deposited in the walls of the bronchial tubes and the interstitial tissue of the lungs, giving rise to the grey appearance presented by the lungs of all adults who live in large cities. In certain dusty occupations, such as those of stone masons, knife-grinders, colliers, &c., the foreign particles inhaled cause trouble. The most common affection so produced is chronic bronchitis, to which becomes added emphysema. In some cases not only is bronchitis developed, but the foreign particles lead to an increase of the fibrous tissue round the bronchi and in the interstitial tissue of the lungs, and so to a greater or lesser extent of fibroid consolidation. As this fibrous tissue may later under- go'softening and cavities be formed, a form of consumption is produced, which is named according to the particular occupation giving rise to it; e.g. stonemasons' phthisis, knife-grinders' phthisis, colliers' phthisis. It should, however, be pointed out that these dusty occupations are probably not so frequently the cause as was at one time taught of these simple inflammatory fibroid changes in the lungs with their subsequent cavity for- mation; individuals engaged in such occupations are apt to suffer from a chronic tuberculosis of the lung associated with the formation of much fibrous tissue, and the occupation simply predisposes the lung to the attacks of the tubercle bacillus. The term pneumonia is frequently used of different forms of inflammation of the lungs, and includes affections which run different clinical courses, present diverse appear- ances after death, and probably have different excit- ing causes. It would be better if the term acute pneumonia or pneumonic fever were reserved for that form of acute inflammation of the lungs which is usually characterized by sudden onset, and runs an acute, course, which terminates generally by crisis from the fifth to the tenth day, the inflam- mation leading to the consolidation by fibrinous effusion of the greater part or whole of one lobe of a lung. Acute pneu- monia usually occurs in a sporadic form, and is most prevalent in the United Kingdom from November to March. Occasion- ally it is epidemic, and there is evidence to show that sometimes it is an infective disease. There is great difficulty, however, in being quite certain that the occurrence of the disease in those who have been attending upon or brought into intimate connexion with sufferers from pneumonia is the result of infection, for such cases may be due to an epidemic of the disease, or to the various individuals attacked having been exposed to the same cause. Formerly acute croupous or lobar pneumonia was thought to be due to "catching cold"; we now know it to be an infectious disease resultant on the invasion of one or more specific micro-organisms. The chief micro-organisms which have been found to be present during an attack of acute pneu- monia are the micrococcus lanceolatus or pneumococcus of Frankel and Weichselbaum, which is found in the inflamed lung in a large majority of cases and is capable of produc- ing pneumonia when inoculated into guinea-pigs. Sternberg demonstrated the presence of the pneumococcus in the saliva of healthy individuals; it tends, however, in this case to vary in form. The micro-organism differs in virulence in given strains; thus one epidemic may be more severe than another; and it tends to increase in virulence in its passage through the human subject. The exact conditions necessary for the production of increased virulence in the organism causing an attack of lobar pneumonia are not yet determined, but are usually ascribed to lowered states of the health and to atmo- spheric conditions. The pneumococcus produces in the human organism an intracellular toxin, but the question as to whether it can also produce a soluble toxin in the living body is still debated. The difficulty of obtaining sufficient quantities of the toxins of this organism has prevented the production of antisera of high potency. In lower animals, less potent sera have proved successful in protecting against a fatal dose of pneumococci. The change effected by the administration of a serum is produced by causing a change in the pneumococci, which causes them to be more easily destroyed by the phagocytes. The element which brings about this change is termed an opsonin; see BLOOD and BACTERIOLOGY (ii). The bacillus pneumoniae of Friedlander is also said to be found in a certain percentage of cases, but a number of observers deny its presence in pure culture in primary croupous pneumonia. Unlike many acute diseases, pneumonia does not render a person less liable to future attacks; on the contrary, those who have been once attacked must be looked upon as more prone to be affected again. Acute pneumonia usually attacks the whole or greater part of one lobe of one lung, but more than one lobe may be affected, or both lungs may be involved. The disease produces a solid and airless condition of the affected part owing to a fibrinous exudation taking place into the air- cells and smaller bronchial passages. In favourable cases the exudation is partly absorbed and partly expectorated, and the lung returns to its normal healthy condition; in others, death may ensue from the extent of lung affected, or from the spread of the inflammation to other parts, as for instance the pericardium or meninges of the brain. In such cases it is interesting to note that the same micro-organism has been found in the inflammatory exudation in the pericardium or on the meninges as in the pneumonic lung; probably the organism had been absorbed from the lung, and was the cause of the secondary inflammations. In cases of death from uncom- plicated pneumonia a very variable extent of lung is involved. In some cases this result may be ascribed to the weakness of the individual and especially of the heart, but in others the virulence of the micro-organisms and the toxins which they have produced is probably the more correct explanation. The improvement in a patient suffering from pneumonia usually commences suddenly, with a rapid fall in the temperature. The day on which this " crisis" takes place varies, but most commonly it appears to be the seventh from the initial rigor (22 % of the cases, Jiirgensen). It may, however, occur a few days earlier or later, being observed in about 74% between the fifth and the ninth day of the disease (Jiirgensen).. The disease occasionally ends in the formation of an abscess, in gangrene, or in fibroid induration of the lung, but these ter- minations are rare. The death rate of acute pneumonia for England and Wales in 1908 was 1383 per million living of the population. Broncho-pneumonia. — It is usual to recognize a form of inflam- mation of the lungs which differs from the above lobar pneumonia. PATHOLOGY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 197 and in which small patches of consolidation are usually scattered throughout the lower lobes of both lungs. This broncho- or catarrhal1 pneumonia is usually preceded by an attack of bronchitis, to which it bears an intimate relation. In some cases the small foci of inflammation may run together so as to affect the greater part of a lobe of a lung, and the distinction between such a form of broncho-pneumonia and lobar pneumonia presents such diffi- culties in the view of some observers, that they have refused to recognize any essential difference between the two. Usually, however, it is not difficult to distinguish the two affections both clinically and anatomically. Broncho-pneumonia is especially seen as a complication of bronchitis, and while it more frequently attacks children than young adults, it is not uncommon in old people, especially secondary to bronchitis. It is frequent in children after acute infectious fevers, especially measles and diphtheria, and in cases of whooping-cough. It differs from the above-mentioned pneumonia in that it does not usually attack the whole of a lobe of a lung, but occurs in small disseminated patches more especially throughout the lower lobe of both lungs. The accompanying fever is more irregular than in the preceding form, and the disease usually runs a more prolonged course. It is an extremely fatal affection in both the very young and old. Young persons who have suffered from it are not unfrequently attacked by pulmonary tuberculosis subsequently. It must be admitted that we are even less certain of its bacteriology than we are of that of lobar pneu- monia. In some cases Frankel's pneumococcus is found, and in others various other micro-organisms. Many of the latter are doubtless saprophytic, and are not the essential cause of the disease, but it is not probable that any one particular form of organism accounts for all forms of broncho-pneumonia. The bacteriology of broncho-pneumonia presents no one micro-organism which can be definitely said to cause the disease. The micro-organism most frequently found, either alone or associated with other bacteria, is the pneumococcus, which occurred in 67% of a series investigated by Wollstein. Other organisms found are the streptococcus, particularly in broncho- pneumonia following infectious fevers, the staphylococcus aureus and albus, and Friedlander's bacillus. In some cases the bacillus influenzae alone has been found, and the Klebs- Loffler bacillus in cases following upon diphtheria. When the disease is associated with pulmonary tuberculosis the tubercle bacillus is found. The tuberculous virus, the tubercle bacilli, may gain entrance to the lungs through the inspired air or by means of the blood or lymph currents. Also in some cases it has been demonstrated that tubercle bacilli may infect the glands of the mesentery following the ingestion of the milk of tuberculous cattle. In this the Government Com- missions of Great Britain and Germany as well as the United States Bureau of Animal Industry confirm the findings of private investigators. It may be well here to summarize the views generally held as to infection. In the first place, the doctrine of inherited disease is discredited, and the doctrine of specific susceptibility is in doubt. Infants are known to be extremely susceptible, and this susceptibility lessens with increasing age, adults requiring prolonged exposure. As a mode of infection the sputum of diseased persons is of great importance. Infected food, especially milk, comes next, together with food infected by flies; and the mother's milk is a minor source. Infection is not often received through the skin, but most frequently through the mucous membrane of the mouth, air passages and intestine; occasionally the infection is alveolar. Pulmonary tuberculosis is often second- ary to a latent lymphatic form. The tubercle bacillus was discovered by Koch in 1882, and since then it has become generally accepted that the bacillus varies in type. The bacilli have been classified by A. G. Foullerton into (a) occur- ring in fishes and cold-blooded animals, (6) in birds, (c) in rats, (d) in cattle, (e) in man. Exactly how far they 1 The term catarrhal pneumonia has been usually regarded as synonymous with the term broncho-pneumonia, and this usual nomenclature has been maintained in the present article. We must, however, recognize that all simple acute broncho-pneumonias are not purely catarrhal in the strict pathological sense. For instance, a considerable amount of fibrinous exudation is not unfrequently present in the patches of broncho-pneumonia, and some of the cases of septic broncho-pneumonia can scarcely be accurately termed catarrhal. are interchangeable and can affect the human race is not definitely settled. They may be different varieties of the same species caused by differentiated strains of a common stock, or may be distinct but generically allied species. Von Behring considers that the bovine type may undergo modifica- tion in the human body, a theory which may lead to a complete change in our beb'efs in the mode of entry of the bacillus. Re- cent investigators have put forward the view that the tubercle bacillus is not a bacterium, but belongs to the higher group known as streptotricheae or mould fungi. The action of the tubercle bacillus upon the tissues, like most other infectious agents, gives rise to inflammatory pro- cesses and anatomical changes, varying with the mode of entry and virulence of the micro-organism. The most character- istic result is the formation throughout the lungs in the form of small scattered foci forming the so-called miliary tubercles. Such miliary tuberculosis of the lungs is frequently only a part of a general tuberculosis, a similar tuberculous affection being found in other organs of the body. In other cases the lungs may be the only or the principal seat of the affection. The source whence the tuberculous virus is derived varies in different cases. Old tubercular glands in the abdomen, neck and elsewhere, and tuberculous disease of bones or joints, are common sources whence tubercule bacilli may become ab- sorbed, and occasion a general dissemination of miliary tubercles in which the lungs participate. Where the source of infection is an old tuberculous bronchial gland or a focus' of old tubercle in the lung, the pulmonary organs may be the only seat of the development of miliary tuberculosis for a time; but even then, if life is sufficiently prolonged, other parts of the body become- involved. Acute miliary tuberculosis of the lungs is not infrequently a final stage in the more chronic tuberculous lesions of the different forms of pulmonary phthisis. In pulmonary phthisis, or consumption, the disease usually commences at the apex of one lung, but runs a very variable course. In a large majority of cases it remains confined to one small focus, and not only does not spread, but undergoes retrograde changes and becomes arrested. In such cases fibrous tissue develops round the focus of disease and the tuberculous patch dries up, often becoming the seat of the deposit of calcareous salts. This arrest of small tuberculous foci in the lung is doubtless of very frequent occurrence, and in post mortem examinations of persons who have died from injuries or various diseases other than tubercle it is common to find in the lungs arrested foci of tubercle, which in the majority of instances have never been suspected during life, and probably have occasioned few, if any, symptoms. It has been shown that in more than 37% of persons, over 21 years of age, dying in a general hospital of various diseases, there is evidence of arrested tubercle in the lungs. As such persons are chiefly drawn from the poorer classes, among whom tubercle is more common than among the well-to-do, this high percentage may not be an accurate indication of the frequency with which pulmonary tubercle does become arrested. It does, however, show that the arrest and the healing of tuberculosis of the lungs is by no means unfrequent, and that it occurs among those who are not only prone to become infected, but whose circumstances are least favourable to the arrest of the disease. These facts indicate that the human organism does offer a resistance to the growth of the tubercle bacilli. A focus of pulmonary tubercle may become arrested for a time and then resume activity. In many cases it is difficult to say why this is so, but often it is clearly associated with a lowering in the general health of the individual. It can- not be too strongly insisted that the arrest of a tuberculous focus in the lung is a slow process and requires a long time. Commonly a person in the early stage of phthisis goes away to a health resort, and in the course of a few weeks or months improves so much that he returns to a densely populated town and resumes his former employment. In a short time the disease shows renewed activity, because the improved 198 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [PATHOLOGY conditions were not maintained long enough to ensure the com- plete arrest of the disease. Instead of the tuberculous focus becoming arrested, it may continue to spread. The original focus and the secondary ones are at first patches of consolidated lung. Later, their central parts soften and burst into a bronchus; then the softened portion is coughed up, and a small cavity is left, which tends gradually to increase in size by peripheric ex- tension and by merging with other cavities. This process is repeated again and again, and sooner or later the other lung becomes similarly affected. At any stage of the softening process the blood vessels may become involved and give rise by rupture to a large or a small haemorrhage (haemoptysis). It not unfrequently happens that such haemoptysis may be the first symptom that seriously attracts attention. At a later period haemorrhage frequently takes place in large or small amounts from the rupture of vessels, which frequently are dilated and form small aneurysms in the walls of cavities. A fatal termination may be hastened by the absorption by means of the blood vessels and lymphatics of the tuberculous virus from some of the foci of disease, and the occurrence therefrom of a local miliary tuberculosis of the lungs or a general tuberculosis of other organs. The rapidity with which the destructive process spreads throughout the lung varies con- siderably. We therefore recognize acute phthisis, or galloping consumption, and chronic phthisis. In the acute cases the soften- ing progresses rapidly and is associated with the development of very little fibrous tissue; probably various forms of micro- organisms other than the tubercle bacilli assist in the rapid softening. In the more chronic cases there is development of much fibroid tissue, and the disease is associated with periods of temporary arrest of the tubercular process. The expectoration from cases of pulmonary phthisis contains tubercle bacilli, and is a source of danger to healthy individuals, in whom it may produce the disease. Attendance on persons suffering from pulmonary phthisis involves very little risk of infection if proper care is taken to prevent the expectoration be- coming dry and disseminated as dust; perfect cleanliness is there- fore to be insisted upon in the rooms inhabited by a phthisical person. The tubercle bacilli soon lose their virulence in the presence of fresh air and sunshine, and therefore these agents are not only desirable for the direct benefit of the phthisical patient, but also are agents in preventing the development of fresh disease in healthy individuals. Although the tubercle bacilli are the essential agents in the development of pulmonary tuberculosis, there are other conditions which must be present before they will produce the disease. It is probable that large numbers of individuals are exposed to the action of tubercle bacilli which gain entrance to the pulmonary tract, and yet do not give rise to the disease, because the conditions of their growth and multiplication do not exist. In such cases we may consider that the seed is present, but that the soil is unsuit- able for its growth. Certain families appear more predisposed to tuberculosis than others. The most important circulatory disturbances met with in the lungs are those seen in cases of dilated heart, with or with- out disease of the mitral valve, when engorgement gesiioa. °f t'ie pulmonary vessels sets up a condition of venous engorgement of the lungs. This may lead to various changes. After it has lasted a variable time, and if it is very intense, serous transudation occurs into the substance of the lung and the alveoli, and thus a condition of pulmonary dropsy or oedema is established. The venous engorgement also pre- disposes the subjects of such heart affections to bronchitis and pneumonia. In disease of the mitral valve, in cardiac dilatation and in simple feebleness of the heart, such as is seen in old age and after debilitating fevers, especially typhoid, there is commonly developed a venous congestion of the bases of the lungs, forming the so-called hypostatic congestion of those organs, and to this is frequently added pneumonia. In long-standing cases of pulmonary congestion brought about by disease of the mitral valve and dilatation of the heart, a certain amount of fibrous tissue may be found in the inter- stitial tissue of the lungs, and from transudation of certain elements of the blood we get the formation in the newly formed fibrous tissue of blood pigment. In these cases blood pigment is found in the cells, in the pulmonary alveoli, and such cells also carry the pigment into the interstitial tissue. This con- dition constitutes the state known as brown induration of the lungs. Acute congestion of the lungs occurs as part of the first stage of pneumonia. It also probably exists during violent exertion, and may possibly be brought about by excitement. Another circulatory disturbance of great importance is that arising from blocking of the pulmonary artery or its branches by an embolus or a thrombus. Where the Embolita, obstruction takes place in the main vessel, death aaa rapidly ensues. Where, however, a small branch of Tbrom- the vessel is occluded, as frequently occurs from a bo*'*- coagulum forming in the right side of the heart, or in the pulmonary vessels in cases of disease of the mitral valve, or in dilatation of the heart, or from the detachment of a small vegetation from disease of the tricuspid or pulmonary valves, a haemorrhagic exudation takes place, forming a patch of consolidation in the lung (haemorrhagic infarcl). As this haemorrhagic exudation takes place not only into the substance of the lung, but also into the bronchial tubes, such lesions are usually associated with spitting of blood (haemop- tysis). The increased tension produced in the pulmonary vessels in cases of mitral disease may also probably lead to the formation of haemorrhagic exudations into the lungs, apart from the occurrence of embolism or thrombosis. Usually the occurrence of pulmonary embolism and the formation of haemorrhagic infarcts in the lungs mark an important epoch in the course of a case of heart disease. It usually occurs at a late stage of the affection, and not unfrequently contri- butes materially to a fatal termination. It is probable that many of the cases of pneumonia and pleuritic effusion, coming on in cases of valvular heart disease and of cardiac dilatation, owe their origin to an embolus and to the formation of a haemor- rhagic infarct. The term asthma is commonly applied to a paroxysmal dyspnoea of a special type which is associated with a variety of conditions. In true spasmodic asthma there may be no detectable organic disease, and the par- oxysms are generally believed to be due to a nervous influence which, acting upon the bronchial muscles, produces a spasm of the tubes, or, acting through the vaso-motor branches of the sympathetic, produces a congestion of the bronchial mucous membrane. The most probable theory is that lately advanced, that it is caused by a profound toxaemia. An organism has been isolated, which is said to be the cause of certain cases of asthma, and the fact that benefit has been said to follow treatment by a vaccine is in favour of this view. The exciting cause may not be at all apparent, even on the most careful obser- vation and examination of the sufferer, but in other cases the attacks may be brought about by some reflex irritation. Nasal polypi and other diseases of nasal mucous membrane have been shown in some cases to be a cause of asthma. Irritation of the bronchial mucous membrane appears to be one of the most common, but it is usually difficult to say exactly in what the irritation consists. The sputum in true asthma is typical, consisting of white translucent pellets like boiled tapioca. These pellets consist of mucus arranged in a twisted manner and known as Cursch- mann spirals; they also contain Charcot-Leyden crystals, degenerated epithelium and leucocytes, of which the majority are eosinophiles. The spirals consist of a central solid thread round which the mucus is arranged in spiral form. The twisting has been attributed to a rotatory motion of the cilia, helped by the spasm of the, bronchial muscles. Allied to true asthma is the bronchial asthma frequently met with in the subjects of bronchitis and emphysema. In such cases the irritation evi- dently proceeds from the inflamed bronchial mucous membrane. Hay asthma is the variety in which the pollen of certain plants, especially grasses, is the exciting cause of the paroxysms. In cardiac feebleness, in valvular disease of the heart, and in cardiac dilatation, we may get dyspnoeic attacks of a more or less SURGERY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 199 paroxysmal nature, to which the term cardiac asthma has been applied. Similarly, to a form of dyspnoea met with occasionally as a manifestation of uraemia in chronic Bright's disease the term of renal asthma has been given. Pleurisy, or inflammation of the pleura, is a very common affection, and is met with under different forms. In many _. rf instances we have simply the pouring out, over a greater or less area of the surface of the pleura, of a fibrinous exudation which may become absorbed or undergo organisation, a certain amount of thickening of the pleura, and adhesions of the two layers resulting. Such cases form the group known as cases of dry pleurisy. In other instances a greater or lesser amount of serous exudation takes place into one or other pleural cavity, forming the cases of serous pleuritic effusion. In others the exudation into the pleural cavity is purulent, giving rise to the condition known as empyema or purulent pleuritic effusion. The occurrence of dry pleurisy is probably very frequent, and leads to small pleural adhesions which cause little or no inconvenience. In post-mortem examinations of persons who have died from various diseases it is common to find such pleural adhesions present, although they have never been suspected during life. Pleurisy in one or other of the above forms may come on in a person apparently in good health (idiopathic pleurisy), or it may follow a fracture of the ribs or other injury to the chest. It is not uncommonly secondary to some other disease; thus it is almost a constant accompaniment of acute lobar pneumonia. In such cases the effusion is most commonly a simple fibrinous one, which with the subsidence of the primary disease is in great part absorbed. In other cases of pneumonia we get a certain amount of serous effusion into the pleura; and some- times, especially in children, the pneumonia is followed by the development of an empyema. Pleurisy with effusion is also frequently a complication of valvular heart disease and dilatation of the heart, and in such cases is often associated with the forma- tion of superficial pulmonary infarcts. It is also seen in many other diseases of the lungs. For instance, in chronic pulmonary phthisis pleuritic adhesions over various parts of the lungs are the rule; and we also frequently get serous effusion into the pleura as a complication of the various forms of pulmonary tuberculosis. Purulent effusion is less common in phthisis, but it is the rule where the pleura is perforated by the necrosis of a tuberculous focus in the lung and the establishment of a communication between the pleura and a tuberculous cavity and the bronchial tubes (pyopneumonothorax) , a combination in which there is both air and pus in the pleural cavity. Secondary pleurisy is also seen in an extension of the disease from neigh- bouring parts, as from peritonitis, sub-diaphragmatic abscess, and suppuration in the liver or spleen. As a secondary disease, pleurisy is also known in the course of various forms of nephritis, rheumatism, and the acute specific diseases. Cases formerly classed as idiopathic pleurisy are now known to be caused by certain micro-organisms. These vary in rela- tion to the character of the effusion. The most frequent is the tubercle bacillus, which is generally present in sero-fibrinous effusions. In this case the pleurisy is really secondary to a possibly unrecognized tuberculous infection either of the lung or pleura. In purulent effusions the pneumococcus may occur as a pure infection, or the streptococcus pyogenes or the staphy- lococcus may be present. Mixed infections occur in 21% of purulent effusions, and varieties of other organisms, such as the influenza bacillus, the typhoid bacillus, the Klebs-Loffler bacillus and the colon bacillus, have been occasionally found. There are at least five types of pulmonary emphysema; (1) hypertrophic, idiopathic or large-lunged emphysema; (2) senile or small-lunged emphysema; (3) compensatory emphysema; (4) acute vesicular emphysema; (5) interstitial or interlobular emphysema. Two points are usually admitted: that emphysema appears only in lungs that are congenitally weak, and that the exciting cause is increased intra vesicular tension. When one or more lobules are cut off from the working part of the lung the neighbouring vesicles become distended. Should the plugging of the lobule remain permanent, typical emphysema results. This happens in illnesses inducing violent respiratory efforts, such as chronic bronchitis, whooping cough and asthma. In large-lunged emphysema the lung is excessively large, and does not collapse on opening the chest wall. Micro- scopically two lesions are notable. The septa between the vesicles are atrophied, many have disappeared and the vesicles have coalesced; the loss in lung tissue diminishes the vascular field of the lung and tends to imperfect aeration, whence the dyspnoea. The elastic tissue of the lung is also lost. In small- lunged emphysema there is a condition of senile atrophy. The lung is smaller than normal, and the intravesicular septa are destroyed. In this case the primary cause is atrophy of the bronchi, and increased air pressure is not a factor. Com- pensatory emphysema is that which develops in a portion of a lung in which the other portion is the seat of a lesion, such as pneumonia. Occasionally it is merely physiological, but some- times here too the septa undergo atrophic changes. Acute vesicular emphysema is hardly a pathological variety, and is really rapid distension coming on during an attack of asthma or angina pectoris. The variety is temporary only. Interstitial emphysema is characterized by the presence of air in the inter- stitial connective tissue of the lung. It is usually due to rupture of the air vesicles during paroxysms of coughing. (T. H.*; H. L. H.) (5) SURGERY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM About the middle of the loth century, Manuel Garcia demon- strated the working of the vocal cords in the living subject, by placing a flat mirror of about the size of a shilling at the back of the mouth, and throwing strong light on to it from a concave mirror fixed upon the observer's forehead. By the use of a laryngoscope and a cocaine spray the most irritable throat can now be made tolerant of the presence of the small mirror, and thus the medical man is enabled to make a prolonged and thorough examination of the interior of the larynx and even to perform delicate operations upon it. Foreign bodies which have become caught in the larynx can thus be seen and extracted, and small growths can be satisfactorily removed even from the vocal cords themselves. A foreign body in the air-passages may be impacted above the vocal cords, and the prompt thrusting down of a finger may dislodge it and save the person from death by suffocation. If there is doubt as to the site of the impaction, and the symptoms are urgent (as is likely to be the case) immediate laryngotomy should be done. In this operation a tube is introduced through the crevice which can easily be felt in the middle line of the neck, between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. The procedure is easily and quickly accomplished. It is, moreover, of ten resorted to when the surgeon is about to perform some extensive opera- tion in the mouth which must needs be accompanied by free haemorrhage. Laryngotomy having been done, and the pharynx having been plugged with gauze, the air passages can be kept free of blood during the whole operation. If the foreign body be such a thing as a button, cherry-stone, sugar-plum or coin, it may at once set up alarming symptoms of spasmodic suffocation. But when the first alarm has quieted down, the attacks are likely to be only occasional, as when the article, drawn up with the expired air, comes in contact with the under aspect of the vocal cords. It may be that in a violent fit of coughing it will be expelled, but, if not, the surgeon must be at hand ready to perform tracheotomy when the urgency of the symptoms demands it. Tracheotomy is the making of an opening into the trachea, the air-tube below the larynx. It is unsafe to leave a child with a foreign body loose in its windpipe, on account of the risk of sudden and fatal asphyxia. Possibly the X-rays may show its exact position and give help in its removal. But, in any case, the safest thing will be to perform tracheotomy and to leave the edges of the opening into the windpipe wide asunder, so that the object may be coughed out — the nurse being on guard all the while. The operation of tracheotomy is sometimes urgently called for in the case in 200 RESPITE— RESTOUT which the air-way has become blocked by a child having sucked hot water from the spout of a kettle or teapot, or in the case of obstruction by the swelling of the acute inflammation of laryngitis or of diphtheria. Should the air-way through the larynx become narrowed by the presence of a growth which does not diminish under the influence of iodide of potassium, the question may arise as to whether it should be dealt with by splitting the thyroid cartilage and holding the wings apart, or by the removal of the whole larynx. For such growths are often malignant. If the wide infection of the lymphatic glands of the neck suggests that no radical operation should be undertaken, a bent silver tube may be introduced below the growth (trache- otomy) in order to provide for the entrance of air. This will get over the difficulty of breathing, but it cannot, of course, do more than that. Acute laryngitis is very often due to diphtheria. The symptoms are those of laryngeal obstruction, together with constitutional disturbances of various kinds. The old-fashioned nurse called the disease " croup " — a term devoid of scientific meaning (see DIPHTHERIA). In an ordinary catarrhal case, leeches and fomentations may suffice, though sometimes tracheotomy or intubation is called for. But if bacteriological examination shows the presence of diphtheritic bacilli, antitoxin must at once be injected. (See also LUNG.) (E.G.*) RESPITE (O. Fr. rcspit, modern repit, Lat. respectus, regard, consideration, respicere, to look back at), properly a delay, given for the further consideration of some matter, hence relief. In law the term is used of the postponement of the immediate execution of the law in criminal cases, e.g. by binding a con- victed prisoner over to come up for judgment when called upon, or when a case is "respited" from one quarter sessions to another. The word is loosely used in the sense of a " reprieve " (?.».). RESPOND, in architecture, the term given to the half-pier or semi-detached column at the end of a range of piers or columns carrying an architrave or arcade. In Greek temples the respond is known as the anta. The term is also given to the wall pilaster which in Roman and Renaissance work is frequently placed behind the detached columns forming the decoration of a wall. RESPONDENT (from Lat. respondere, to answer), strictly, one who answers; in law one called upon to answer a petition or other proceeding. In a matrimonial cause the defendant in the suit is called the respondent. The defendant to a quarter sessions appeal is called the respondent, and so generally in appeals is the party, whether plaintiff or defendant, against whom the appeal is brought. REST (O. Eng. rast, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Ruste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place), a cessation from active or regular work, hence a time of relief from mental or manual labour. Specific meanings are for an interval of silence in music, marked by a sign indicating the length of the pause; for the forked support with iron-shod spike carried by the soldier till the end of the i7th century as a rest for the heavy musket; and for the support for the cue in billiards to be used when the striking ball is out of reach of the natural rest formed by the hand. In the medieval armour of the horsed man-at-arms, and later in the armour of the tournament, a contrivance was fixed to the side of the body-armour near the right arm-pit, in which the butt-end of the lance was placed to prevent the lance being driven back after striking the opponent at full charge; hence a knight, as a preliminary to the charge, " laid his lance in rest." This " rest" is a shortened form of " arrest," to check, stop, as is seen by the French equivalent, anil. Further, " rest," that which remains over and above, is derived from the' French rester, to remain over, Lat. restare, to remain, literally, to stay behind. The principal specific use of this word is in com- merce for the balance of undivided profit; it has thus always been the term used by the Bank of England for that which in other banks and companies is called the " reserve " (Hartley Withers, The Meaning of Money (1909), p. 298). The Bank of England " rest " is never allowed to fall below £3,000,000 (see BANKS AND BANKING). RESTIF, NICOLAS EDME (1734-1806), called RESTIF DE LA BRETONNE, French novelist, son of a farmer, was born at Sacy (Yonne) on the 23rd of October 1734. He was educated by the Jansenists at Bicetre, and on the expulsion of the Jansenists was received by one of his brothers, who was a cure. Owing to a scandal in which he was involved, he was apprenticed to a printer at Auxerre, and, having served his time, went to Paris. Here he worked as a journeyman printer, and in 1 760 he married Anne or Agnes Lebegue, a relation of his former master at Auxerre. It was not until five or six years after his marriage that Restif appeared as an author, and from that time to his death, on the 2nd of February 1806, he produced a bewildering multitude of books, amounting to something like two hundred volumes, many of them printed with his own hand, on almost every conceivable variety of subject. Restif suffered at one time or another the extremes of poverty and was acquainted with every kind of intrigue. He drew on the episodes of his own life for his books, which, in spite of their faded sentiment, contain truthful pictures of French society on the eve of the Revolution. The most noteworthy of his works are Le Pied de Fanchette, a novel (1769) ; Le Pornographe (1769), a plan for regulating prostitution which is said to have been actually carried out by the Emperor Joseph II., while not a few detached hints have been adopted by continental nations; Le Paysan peroerti (1775), a novel with a moral purpose, though sufficiently horrible in detail; La Vie de man pere (1779); Les Contemporaines (42 vols., 1 780-1 785) , a vast collection of short stories; Ingenue Saxancour, also a novel (1785); and, lastly, the extraordinary autobiography of Monsieur Nicolas (16 vols., 1794-1797; the last two are practically a separate and much less interesting work), in which at the age of sixty he has set down his remembrances, his notions on ethical and social points, his hatreds, and above all his numerous loves, real and fancied. The original editions of these, and indeed of all his books, have long been bibliographical curiosities owing to their rarity, the beautiful and curious illustrations which many of them contain, and the quaint typographic system in which most are composed. In 1795 he received a gratuity of 2000 francs from the government, and just before his death Napoleon gave him a place in the ministry of police, which he did not live to take up. Restif de la Bretonne undoubtedly holds a remarkable place in French literature. He was inordinately vain, of extremely relaxed morals, and perhaps not entirely sane. His books were written with haste, and their licence of subject and language renders them quite unfit for general perusal. The works of C. Monselet, Retif de la Bretonne (1853), and P. Lacroix, Bibliographie et iconographie (1875), J. Assezat's selection from the Contemporaines, with excellent introductions (3 vols., 1875), and the valuable reprint of Monsieur Nicolas (14 vols., 1883-1884), will be sufficient to enable even curious readers to form a judgment of him. His life, written by his contemporary Cubieres-Palmezeaux, was republished in 1875. See also Eugen Diihren, Retif de la Bretonne, der Mensch, der Schriftsteller, der Reformator (Berlin, 1906), and a bibliography, Retif-Bibliothek (Berlin, 1906), by the same author. RESTOUT, JEAN (1692-1768), French painter, born at Rouen on the 26th of March 1692, was the son of Jean Restout, the first of that name, and of Marie M. Jouvenet, sister and pupil of the well-known Jean Jouvenet. In 1717, the Royal Academy having elected him a member on his work for the Grand Prix, he remained in Paris, instead of proceeding to Italy, exhibited at all the salons, and filled successively every post of academical distinction. He died on the ist of January 1768. His works, chiefly altar-pieces (Louvre Museum), ceilings and designs for Gobelin tapestries, were engraved by Cochin, Brevet and others; his diploma picture may still be seen at St Cloud. His son, JEAN BERNARD RESTOUT (1732-1797), won the Grand Prix in 1758, and on his return from Italy was received into the Academy; but his refusal to comply with rules led to a quarrel with that body. Roland appointed him keeper of the Garde Meuble, but this piece of favour nearly cost him his life during the Terror. The St Bruno painted by him at Rome is in the Louvre. RESTRAINT— RETAINER 2OI RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent), in law, a restriction or limitation. The word is used particularly in three connexions: i. Restraint on Anticipa- tion. Although it is a principle of English law that there can be no restriction of the right of alienation of property vested in any person under an instrument, equity makes an exception in the case of a married woman, and has laid down the rule that property may be so settled to the separate use of a married woman that she cannot, during coverture, alienate it or anticipate the income. Restraint on anticipation attaches only during coverture and is therefore removed on widowhood, but it may attach again on remarriage. By the Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 39, a court may however, if it thinks fit, by judgment or order bind a married woman's interest in her property, with her consent, if it appears to be for her benefit, notwithstanding that she is restained from anticipating. 2. Restraint of Marriage. — A gift or bequest to a person may have a condition attached in restraint of marriage. This condition may be either general or partial. A condition in general restraint of marriage is void, as being contrary to public policy, although a condition in restraint of a second marriage is not void. A condition in partial restraint of marriage is valid, and may be either to restrain marriage with a particular class of persons, e.g. a papist, a domestic servant, or a Scotsman, or under a certain age. 3. Restraint of Trade. — A contract in general restraint of trade is void as being against public policy. In the leading caseof Mitchell v. Reynolds, 1711, i Smith L.C., it was laid down that " it is the privilege of a trader in a free country, in ah1 matters not contrary to law, to regulate his own mode of carry- ing it on according to his own discretion and choice. If the law has regulated or restrained his mode of doing this, the law must be obeyed. But no power short of the general law ought to restrain his free discretion." It has been suggested that the rule dates from a time when a covenant by a man not to exercise his own trade meant a covenant not to exercise any trade at all — every man being obliged to confine himself to the trade to which he had been apprenticed. However, contracts which are only in partial restraint of trade are good. A contract not to carry on the business of an ironmonger would be bad; but a contract made by the seller of an ironmonger's business not to compete with the buyer would be good. To make such a contract binding it must be founded on a valuable consideration and must not go beyond what is reasonably necessary for the protection of the other party. This is the tendency also of the law in the United States. See Matthew on Restraint of Trade (1907). RESZKE, JEAN DE (1850- ), operatic singer, was born at Warsaw on the i4th of January 1850. His parents were Poles; his father was a state official and his mother a capable amateur singer, their house being a recognized musical centre. After singing as a boy in the Cathedral of Warsaw, he studied law in the university there, but in a few years he abandoned this and went to Italy to study singing. He made his first public appearance, as a baritone, at Venice in January 1874, as Alfonso in La Favorita, and in the following April he sang for the first time in London, appearing at Drury Lane Theatre, and a little later in Paris. He was not entirely successful and retired for a further period of study, during which his voice gained remarkably in the upper register; so that when he made his first reappearance at Madrid in 1879 it was as a tenor, in the title-role of Robert le Diable. Jean de Reszke's great fame as a singer dates from this time. For several seasons he sang regularly in Paris, and he reappeared at Drury Lane in 1887 as Radames. In the next year he was again in London, this time at Covent Garden as Vasco da Gama; this appearance was mainly responsible for the revival of the opera as a fashionable amusement in London. He appeared in London nearly every year from this date until 1900. In 1891 he visited America, and from 1893 to 1899 he was welcomed each year at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York. Jean de Reszke's most successful parts were the title-r&le of Le Cid, which was written for him by Massenet, and those of Romeo, Lancelot in Elaine, and Lohengrin, Walther von Stolzing, Siegfried and Tristan in Wagner's operas. In 1904 illness compelled him to retire from the stage, and he subsequently divided his time between teaching singing in Paris and breeding race-horses in Poland. Jean de Reszke's younger brother, EDOUARD, born at Warsaw on the 23rd of December 1855, is also famous as an operatic singer. He appeared for the first time in Paris in April 1896, and has since sung with his brother for many seasons both in London and in New York. His magnificent bass voice and admirable technique earned him fame in such parts as those of Mephistopheles in Faust, Charles V. in Marchetti's Don Qiovanni d' A ustria, Walter in Tell, the Count in Sonnambula, Prince Gudal in Demonio, and Hans Sachs, King Mark, Hunding and Hagen in Wagner's operas. RETABLE (Fr. ritable, a shortened form derived from Med. Lat. retrotabidum) , a term of ecclesiastical art and architecture, applied in modern English usage to an altar-ledge or shelf, raised slightly above the back of the altar or communion table, on which are placed the cross, ceremonial candlesticks and other ornaments. Retables may be lawfully used in the church of England (Liddett &• Beale, 1860, 14 P.C.). Foreign usage of the term, as in French, is different, and where the word is kept with this foreign application, the distinction should be observed. The Med. Lat. retrotabulum (modernized re- tabulum) was applied to an architectural feature set up at the back of an altar, and generally taking the form of a screen framing a picture, carved or sculptured work in wood or stone, or mosaic, or of a movable feature such as the famous Pala d' Oro in St Mark's, Venice, of gold, jewels and enamels. The foreign " ratable " is, therefore, what should in English be called a " reredos " (g.».), though that is not in modern usage a movable feature. RETAIL, the sale of goods or commodities in small quantities to the immediate consumer, opposed to a sale wholesale or in gross. The O. Fr. retaille, from which the word is taken, meant a piece cut off, from tailler, to cut, Med. Lat. taleare, Lat. lalea, a rod, cutting for planting. The English meaning appears in Anglo-French and in the Italian retaglio, selling by the piece. The other meaning of " retail," to repeat a story, is a transferred sense of an early meaning, " to sell at second hand." The Latin source is also seen in the related words "entail," "tailor," "detail" and "tally." RETAINER (from " retain," Lat. retinere, to hold back, keep), properly the act of retaining or keeping for oneself, or a person or object which retains or keeps; historically, a follower of a house or family, and particularly used of armed followers attached to the barons of the middle ages. John Cowell, in The Interpreter (1607), defines " retainer " as a " servant not meniall nor familiar, that is, not continually dwelling in the house of his lord or master, but onely using or bearing his name or livery." Retainer of Counsel. — When it is considered desirable by a litigant that the services of any particular counsel (bar- rister) should be obtained for the conduct of his case, it is necessary to deposit with counsel a form of retainer together with the necessary fee in cash, from which time counsel is bound to give the party who has thus retained him the first call on his services in the matter in which he has been retained. Retainers are either general or special. A general retainer is one which retains counsel for all proceedings in which the person retaining is a party, and lasts for the joint lives of client and counsel. If any other person offers a special retainer or brief against the general retainer, counsel must give the general retainer notice of such offer — and if after a reasonable time the general retainer does not himself specially retain or brief counsel, the general retainer is forfeited. A special retainer is one which only applies to some particular cause or action. It can only be delivered after the action is begun, and gives the client a right to the services of counsel throughout the course of the action, and counsel is entitled to be briefed on all occasions to which the retainer applies. Retainer rules were drawn up in 1901 by the Bar Committee, read by the Bar Council and approved by the Attorney-General and the Council xxm. 7 a 202 RETALIATION— RETHEL of the Incorporated Law Society in 1902. They may be found in the Annual Practice. Retainer of Debt. — In connexion with the administration of an estate under a will, it is the right of the personal repre- sentative— whether executor or administrator — of a deceased person to retain legal assets which have come into his hands towards the payment of a debt due to himself as against creditors of an equal degree, and this even though his debt is barred by the Statutes of Limitation. The privilege arose in all probability from the inability of the representative to sue himself, though it has been suggested that it is merely a corollary to the right of the representative to prefer one creditor to another of equal degree.1 The principle of retainer is not looked upon with favour by courts of equity, and consequently it has long been the rule that there is no right to retain out of equitable assets. It was thought that the effect of the Land Transfer Act 1897 was to make all the assets of the deceased legal assets, and so extend the privilege to reality which had till then been exempt; this view, however, has been repudiated by the courts of equity, and it must now be taken that there is still no right to retain out of real estate.2 It is a rule of the probate division to require a creditor administrator, to whom letters of administration are granted, to enter into a bond with two sureties not to prefer himself. This course, however, is not followed where administration is granted to a person as next of kin who happens also to be a creditor. The privilege is not lost by judgment for an account being given in a suit by other creditors for the administration of assets, and the representative may retain out of assets which come to his hand subsequent to such judgment. On the other hand, the appointment of a receiver deprives the representative of his right except as regards assets which come to his hands prior to the appointment of the receiver. RETALIATION, repayment of like with like, especially the return of hostile action, injuries or wrongs by similar action or injury, as in the primitive theory of punishment, an " eye for an eye," " tooth for a tooth." The Late Lat. retaliare was formed from tails, such as, of the same quality as ; and this source also gave talio, talionis, the name of this type of punishment. (See PUNISHMENT, THEORY or, and ROMAN LAW, § The Twelve Tables.) A special form of retaliation is familiar in the imposition of differential import duties against the goods of a particular country (see TARIFFS and PROTECTION). RETENE (methyl isopropyl phenanthrene), Ci8Hi8, a hydro- carbon present in the coal-tar fraction, boiling above 360° C.; it also occurs in the tars obtained by the distillation of resinous woods. It crystallizes in large plates, which melt at 98-5° C. and boil at 390° C. It is readily soluble in warm ether and in hot glacial acetic acid. Sodium and boiling amyl alcohol reduce it to a tetrahydroretene, ^whilst if it be heated with phos- phorus and hydriodic acid to 260° C. a dodecahydride is formed. Chromic acid oxidizes it to retene quinone, phthalic acid and acetic acid. It forms a picrate which melts at 123-124° C. RETFORD (officially EAST RETFORD), a market town and municipal borough in the Bassetlaw parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England, 1385 m. N. by W. from London by the Great Northern railway, the station being a junction with the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 12,340. The church of St Swithin dates from the I3th century, but was rebuilt in 1658 by a brief granted by Richard Cromwell. Modern buildings are the town hall, the corn exchange, the court house, and the covered markets. There is a large trade in corn and cheese, and the town possesses iron foundries, paper and corn mills, and india-rubber works. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors. Area, 4656 acres. The situation of Retford (Redforde, Ratford), near one of the Roman roads and on the river Idle, where there was possibly a ford, may account for its origin. In 1086 the archbishop of York 1 Per Jessel, M.R. Talbot v. Frere (1879), L.R. 9. C.D. 568, 574. 2 In re Williams; Holder v. Williams (1904), I Ch. 52. owned a mill at Retford, and Roger de Rusli had rights here. Retford was a borough by prescription, and was in the hands of the crown when, in 1276, Edward I. granted it to the burgesses in fee-farm with the right of electing bailiffs. This charter was confirmed by Edward III., Henry VI. and Elizabeth. In 1607 James I. granted a charter of incorporation to the bailiffs and burgesses, under which the town was governed until 1835, when it was reincorporated under a mayor. East Retford returned two members to parliament in 1315, and again from 1572 till 1885, when it was disfranchised. Henry III. granted the burgesses an eight-days' fair at Holy Trinity, altered by Edward II. to St Gregory. Edward III. granted a six-days' fair at St Margaret, and Henry VI. a four-days' fair at St Matthew. Fairs are now held in March, June, July and December. The market held on Saturdays by prescription was sanctioned by Edward III. and still exists. RETHEL, ALFRED (1816-1859), German historical painter, was born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He very early showed an interest in art, and at the age of thirteen he executed a drawing which procured his admission to the academy of DUsseldorf. Here he studied for several years, and produced, among other works, a figure of St Boniface which attracted much attention. At the age of twenty he removed to Frankfort, and was selected to decorate the walls of the imperial hall in the Romer with figures of famous men. At the same period he produced a series of designs illustrative of Old Testament history. Four years later he was the successful competitor for the work of ornamenting the restored council house of his native city with frescoes depicting prominent events in the career of Charlemagne, but the execution of this work was delayed for some six years. Meanwhile Rethel occupied himself with the production of easel pictures and of drawings; and in 1842 he began a striking series of designs dealing with the " Crossing of the Alps by Hannibal," in which the weird power which animates his later art becomes first apparent. In 1844 Rethel visited Rome, executing, along with other subjects, an altar-piece for one of the churches of his native land. In 1846 he returned to Aix, and commenced his Charlemagne frescoes. But mental derangement, remotely attributable, it is believed, to an accident from which he suffered in childhood, began to manifest itself. While he hovered between madness and sanity, Rethel produced some of the most striking, individual and impressive of his works. Strange legends are told of the effect produced by some of his weird subjects. He painted " Nemesis pursuing a Murderer " — a flat stretch of land- scape, with a slaughtered body, while in front is the assassin speed- ing away into the darkness, and above an angel of vengeance. The picture, so the story goes, was won in a lottery at Frankfort by a personage of high rank, who had been guilty of an undis- covered crime, and the contemplation of his prize drove him mad. Another design which Rethel executed was " Death the Avenger," a skeleton appearing at a masked ball, scraping daintily, like a violinist, upon two human bones. The drawing haunted the memory of his artist friends and disturbed their dreams; and, in expiation, he produced his pathetic design of " Death the Friend." Rethel also executed a powerful series of drawings — " The Dance of Death " — suggested by the Belgian insurrections of 1848. It is by such designs as these, executed in a technique founded upon that of Durer, and animated by an imagination akin to that of the elder master, that Rethel is most widely known. He died at DUsseldorf on the ist of December 1859. His picture of " Peter and John at the Beautiful Gate of the Temple," is preserved in the Leipzig Museum, and his " St Boni- face " and several of his cartoons for the frescoes at Aix in the Berlin National Gallery. His Life, by Wolfgang Muller von Konigswinter, was published in 1861. See also Art Journal, November 1865. RETHEL, a towvn of N. France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Ardennes, on the right bank of the Aisne and the Ardennes canal, 31 m. S.W. of Mezieres by rail. Pop. (1906) 5254. The church of St Nicholas was formed by the amalgamation of two churches, the oldest of which dates from the 1 3th century. Rethel has a subprefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of arts and manufactures and a school of agriculture, and carries on REUNITE— RETZ, CARDINAL DE wool-spinning, the weaving of light woollen fabrics, and the manufacture of millboard and farm implements. Rethel (Castrum Retectum), of Roman origin, was from the end of the loth century the seat of a countship which passed successively to the families of Flanders, Burgundy, Cleves, Foix and Gonzaga. In 1581 it was erected into a duchy in favour of the latter. In 1663 it was sold by Charles VI. de Gonzaga to Mazarin, whose family held it till the Revolution. REUNITE (Gr. far'ani, resin), a general name applied to various resins, particularly those from beds of brown coal, which are near amber in appearance, but contain little or no succinic acid. It may conveniently serve as a generic name, since no two independent occurrences prove to be alike, and the indefinite multiplication of names, no one of them properly specific, is not to be desired. RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back, retain), a body of persons " retained " in the service of a noble or royal personage, a suite of " retainers." Such retainers were not in the domestic service of their lord, but were his " livery " and claimed his protection. They were a source of trouble and abuse in the I5th and early i6th century (see LIVERY and MAINTENANCE). RETORT (Lat. retorquere, to twist or turn back), a word used in two distinct meanings: (i) a sharp reply, answer to an argument, statement or charge; (2) a vessel used in chemistry and manufacture. The chemical retort is a flask-shaped or bulbous vessel made of glass, earthenware or metal, with a neck, bent downwards, which leads to a receiver; such vessels are particularly used for distillation (q.v.). The name is also given to the apparatus, varying in size and shape, used in the dis- tinctive distillation of various substances, such as coal, in the manufacture of gas (q.v.). RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back), a withdrawal, especially of a body of troops after a defeat or in face of a superior enemy. In military usage " retreat " is also the term for a signal, given by bugle and drum at or about sunset. It is the last general signal before " tattoo." In religious usage, a " retreat " is a period and place set apart for prayer, self-examination and other spiritual exercises. Such " retreats " conducted by a director have long been the practice in the Roman Church. They were introduced into the English Church by Pusey. The word is also used of an institution or home where insane persons or habitual inebriates may be treated. For the law relating to " licensed retreats " for inebriates, see INEBRIETY, LAW OF. RETRENCHMENT (Fr. retrenchement, an old form of retranchement, from retrancher, to cut down, cut short), an act of cutting down or reduction, particularly of expenditure; the word is familiar in this, its most general sense, from the motto of the Gladstonian Liberal party in British politics, " Peace, Retrenchment and Reform." A special technical use of the term is in fortification, where it is applied to a work or series of works constructed in rear of existing defences in order to bar the further progress of the enemy should he succeed in breach- ing or storming these. A modern example may be found in the siege of Port Arthur in 1904. When early in the siege Fort Panlung fell into the hands of the Japanese, the Russians connected up the two adjacent first-line forts to a fort in the rear by means of new works, the whole forming a rough semicircle facing the lost fort. This retrenchment prevented the Japanese from advancing, and remained in the hands of the defenders up to the fall of the whole line of forts. RETRO-COGNITION (from Lat. retro, back, cognitio, the acquiring of knowledge), a word invented by F. W. H. Myers to denote a supposed faculty of acquiring direct knowledge of the past beyond the reach of the subject's ordinary memory. The alleged manifestations of the faculty are of several kinds, of which the most important are as follows: (i) There are many recorded cases in which an impression has been received in dream or vision representing some recent event — shipwreck, death-bed scene, railway accident — outside the knowledge of the percipient. (2) Analogous to the transmission of habits 203 and physical peculiarities in particular families, it is alleged that there are also cases of the transmission of definite memories of scenes and events in the life of some ancestor. (3) It is asserted that pictures of past scenes may be called up in certain cases by the presence of a material object associated with those scenes — e.g. a vision of the destruction of Pompeii by a piece of cinder from the buried city, or the scene of a martyrdom by a charred fragment of bone — the percipient being unaware at the time of the nature of the object. For this supposed faculty the American geologist, Professor Denton, has suggested the name " psychometry." There are also cases recorded in which pictures of historical scenes unknown to the seer have been described in the crystal. (4) Some spirit mediums profess to realise incidents belonging to their previous incarnation. Thus Flournoy's medium, H61ene Smith, represented herself as having been successively incarnated as a Hindoo Princess, Simandini, and as Marie Antoinette, and gave vivid descriptions of scenes in which she had figured in these capacities. It will be gathered that the facts afford little warrant for the assumption of a faculty of retro-cognition. The cases described in the first class, though apparently exhibiting knowledge not within the range of the percipient's ordinary faculties, hardly call for such an extreme hypothesis. In the other cases the result recorded may plausibly be attributed to the imagination of the percipient, working upon hints given by bystanders, or aided by the emergence of forgotten knowledge. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— See W. Denton, The Soul of Things (Wellesley, Mass., U.S.A., 1863) ; F. W. H. Myers, article' " The Subliminal Self " in Proc. S. P. R. vol. xi.; Human Personality (London, 1903); Th. Flournoy, Des Indes a la planete Mars (Geneva, 1900). (F. P.) RETROGRADE (from the Lat. retro, backwards, gradiri, to go), in astronomy, the direction of the apparent motion of a planet from E. to W. ; the opposite of its regular motion around the sun, and due to the motion of the earth. RETZ, SEIGNEURS AND DUKES OF. The district of Retz or Rais, in S. Brittany, belonged in early times to a house which bore its name, and of which the eldest branch became extinct in the i3th century in the Chabot family. From the Chabot family the lordship passed to the Lavals. Gilles de Laval, sire de Retz (1404-1440), the comrade-in-arms of Joan of Arc and marshal of France, gave himself over to the most revolting debauchery, and was strangled and burned at Nantes. The barony of Retz passed successively to the families of Tournemine, Annebaut and Gondi. In 1581 it was erected into a duchy in the peerage of France (duchi-pairie) for Albert de Gondi, marshal of France and general of the galleys. Pierre de Gondi, brother of the first due de Retz, became bishop of Paris in 1570 and cardinal in 1587. He was succeeded by his nephews, Henri (d. 1622) and Jean Francois de Gondi (d. 1654), for whom the episcopal see of Paris was erected into an arch- bishopric in 1622, and by his great-nephew, Jean Francois Paul de Gondi, the famous cardinal de Retz. With the death of the last male of the house of Gondi in 1676 the duche'-pairie became extinct ; the lordship passed to the house of Neuville-Villeroy. (M. P.*) RETZ, JEAN FRANCOIS PAUL DE GONDI, CARDINAL DE (1614-1679), French churchman and agitator, was born at Montmirail in 1614. The family was one of those which had been introduced into France by Catherine de' Medici, but it acquired great estates in Brittany and became connected with the noblest houses of the kingdom. It may be added that Retz himself always spelt his designation " Rais." He was the third son, and according to Tallemant des Reaux was made a knight of Malta on the very day of his birth. The death of his second brother, however, destined him for a closer connexion with the church. The family of Retz had military traditions, but it had also much church influence, and, despite the very unclerical leanings of the future cardinal, which were not corrected by the teachings of his tutor St Vincent de Paul, the intentions of his family never varied respecting him. By unanimous consent his physical appearance was not that of a soldier. He was 204 REUBEN— REUCHLIN short, near-sighted, ugly and exceptionally awkward. Retz, however, despite the little inclination which he felt towards clerical life, entered into the disputes of the Sorbonne with vigour, and when he was scarcely eighteen wrote the remarkable Conjuration de Fiesque, a little historical essay, of which he drew the material from the Italian of Augustine Mascardi, but which is all his own in the negligent vigour of the style and the audacious insinuation, if nothing more, of revolutionary principles. Retz received no preferment of importance during Richelieu's life, and even after the minister's death, though he was presented to Louis XIII. and well received, he found a difficulty in attaining the coadjutorship with reversion of the archbishopric of Paris. But almost immediately after the king's death Anne of Austria appointed him to the coveted post on All Saints' Eve, 1643. Retz, who had, according to some accounts, already plotted against Richelieu, set himself to work to make the utmost political capital out of his position. His uncle, who was old, indolent and absurdly proud, had lived in great seclusion; Retz, on the contrary, gradually acquired a very great influence with the populace of the city. This influence he gradually turned against Mazarin. No one had more to do than Retz with the outbreak of the Fronde in October 1648, and his history for the next four years is the history of that confused and, as a rule, much misunderstood movement. Of the two parties who joined in it Retz could only depend on the bourgeoisie of Paris. The fact, moreover, that although he had some speculative tendencies in favour of popular liberties, and even perhaps of republicanism, he represented no real political principle, in- evitably weakened his position, and when the break up of the Fronde came he was left in the lurch, having more than once in the meanwhile been in no small danger from his own party. One stroke of luck, however, fell to him before his downfall. He was made cardinal almost by accident, and under a mis- apprehension on the pope's part. Then, in 1652, he was arrested and imprisoned, first at Vincennes, then at Nantes; he escaped, however, after two years' captivity, and for some time wandered about in various countries. He made his appearance at Rome more than once, and had no small influence in the election of Alexander VII. He was at last, in 1662, received back again into favour by Louis XIV. and on more than one occasion formally served as envoy to Rome. Retz, however, was glad in making his peace to resign his claims to the archbishopric of Paris. The terms were, among other things, his appointment to the rich abbacy of St Denis and his restoration to his other benefices with the payment of arrears. The last seventeen years of Retz's life were passed partly in his diplomatic duties (he was again in Rome at the papal election of 1668), partly at Paris, partly at his estate of Com- mercy, but latterly at St Mihiel in Lorraine. His debts were enormous, and in 1675 he resolved to make over to his creditors all his income except twenty thousand livres, and, as he said, to " live for " them. This plan he carried out, though he did not succeed in living very long, for he died at Paris on the 24th August 1679. One of the chief authorities for the last years of Retz is Madame de Sevigne, whose connexion he was by marriage. Retz and La Rochefoucauld, the greatest of the Frondeurs in literary genius, were personal and political enemies, and each has left a portrait of the other. La Rochefoucauld's character of the cardinal is on the whole harsh but scarcely unjust, and one of its sentences formulates, though in a manner which has a certain recoil upon the writer, the great defect of Retz's conduct : " II a suscite les plus grands desordres dans 1'etat sans avoir un dessein forme de s'en prevaloir." He would have been less, and certainly less favourably, remembered if it had not been for his Memoirs. They were certainly not written till the last ten years of his life, and they do not go further than the year 1655. They are addressed in the form of narrative to a lady who is not known, though guesses have been made at her identity, some even suggesting Madame de Sevigne herself. In the be- ginning there are some gaps. They display, in a rather irregular style and with some oddities of dialect and phrase, extraordinary narrative skill and a high degree of ability in that special art of the 1 7th century — the drawing of verbal portraits or characters. Few things of the kind are superior to the sketch of the early barricade of the Fronde in which the writer had so great a share, the hesitations of the court, the bold adventure of the coadjutor himself into the palace and the final triumph of the insurgents. Dumas, who has drawn from this passage one of his very best scenes in Vingt ans apres, has done little but throw Retz into dialogue and amplify his language and incidents. Besides these memoirs and the very striking youthful essay of the Conjuration de Fiesque, Retz has left diplomatic papers, sermons, Mazarinades and correspondence in some considerable quantity. The Memoirs of the cardinal de Retz were first published in a very imperfect condition in 1717 at Nancy. The first satisfactory edition was that which appeared in the twenty-fourth volume of the collection of Michaud and Poujoulat (Paris, 1836). They were then re-edited from the autograph manuscript by Ge'ruzez (Paris, 1844), and by Champollion-Figeac with the Mazannades, &c. (Paris, 1859). In 1870 a complete edition of the works of Retz was begun by M. A. Feillet in the collection of Grands £crivains. The editor dying, this passed into the hands of M. Gourdault and then into those of M. Chantelauze, who had already published studies on the connexion of St Vincent de Paul with the Condi family, &c. (1882). (G. SA.) REUBEN, a tribe of Israel named after the eldest " son " of Jacob and of Leah. Both the meaning of the name (see Gen. xxix. 32) and the history of the tribe are extremely obscure. In one version of the story of Joseph, Reuben appears in a some- what favourable light (Gen. xxxvii. 22, 29, xlii. 37), but in Gen. xxxv. 22 he is charged with a grave offence, which in Gen. xlix. 4 is given as a reason why the tribe which called him father did not take in Hebrew history the place proper to its seniority (cp. i Chron. v. i). Dathan and Abiram were Reubenites (Num. xvi.; Deut. xi. 6), and in Deut. xxxiii. 6 the tribe appears as threatened with extinction. In Judg. v. 1 5 seq. it is described as a pastoral tribe which took no share in the patriotic movement under Barak and Deborah. The district allotted to Reuben (Josh. xiii. 15-23; Num. xxxii. 37 seq.) is detailed in late passages which have little historical value for the age to which they are attributed. The tribe is represented as settled E. of the Jordan on the Moabite border, but no mention is made of it in the inscription of the Moabite king Mesha (see GAD; MOAB). The references to the tribe's wars against Arabians (i Chron. v. 10, 18 sqq.) in the time of Saul have caused much fruitless speculation. For mythological elements in the tribe's history, see especially E. Stucken, Mittheil. d. vorderasiat. Gesell. (1902), pt. iv. pp. 46 sqq. ; and for a full discussion of the biblical data, see H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib. s.v., also E. Meyer, Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme, pp. 530 sqq. REUCHLIN, JOHANN (1455-1522), German humanist and Hebraist, was born on the 22nd of February 1455 at Pforzheim in the Black Forest, where his father was an official of the Dominican monastery. In, the pedantic taste of his time the name was graecicized by his Italian friends into Capnion, a form which Reuchlin himself uses as a sort of transparent mask when he introduces himself as an interlocutor in the De Verbo Mirifico. For his native place Reuchlin always retained an affection; he constantly writes himself Phorcensis, and in the De Verbo he does not forget to ascribe to Pforzheim his first disposition to letters. Here he began his Latin studies in the monastery school, and, though in 1470 he was a short time in Freiburg, that university seems to have taught him little. Reuchlin's career as a scholar ^appears to have turned almost on an accident; his fine voice gained him a place in the house- hold of Charles I., margrave of Baden, and by-and-by, having already some reputation as a Latinist, he was chosen to accom- pany to the university of Paris Frederick, the third son of the prince, a lad some years his junior, who was destined for an ecclesiastical career. This new connexion lasted but a year or so, but it determined the course of Reuchlin's life. He now began to learn Greek, which had been taught in the French capital since 1470, and he also attached himself to the leader of the Paris realists, Jean Heynlin, or a Lapide (d. 1496), a REUCHLIN 205 worthy and learned man, whom he followed to the vigorous young university of Basel in 1474. At Basel Reuchlin took his master's degree (1477), and began to lecture with success, teaching a more classical Latin than was then common in German schools, and also explaining Aristotle in Greek. His studies in this language had been continued at Basel under Andronicus Contoblacas, and here too he formed the acquaint- ance of the bookseller, Johann Amorbach, for whom he prepared a Latin lexicon (Vocabularius Breviloquus, ist ed., 1475-76), which did good service in its time and ran through many editions. This first publication and Reuchlin's account of his teaching at Basel in a letter to Cardinal Adrian (Adriano Castellesi) in February 1518 show that he had already found the work which in a larger sphere occupied his whole life. He was no original genius, but a born teacher. But this work of teaching was not to be done mainly from the professor's chair. Reuchlin soon left Basel to seek further Greek training with George Hieronymus at Paris, and to learn to write a fair Greek hand that he might support himself by copying MSS. And now he felt that he must choose a profession. His choice fell on law, and he was thus led to the great school of Orleans (1478), and finally to Poitiers, where he became licentiate in July 1481. From Poitiers Reuchlin went in December 1481 to Tubingen, with the inten- tion of becoming a teacher in the university, but his friends recommended him to Count Eberhard of Wurttemberg, who was about to journey to Italy and required an interpreter. Reuchlin was selected for this post, and in February 1482 left Stuttgart for Florence and Rome. The journey lasted but a few months, but it brought the German scholar into contact with several learned Italians, especially at the Medicean Academy in Florence; his connexion with the count became permanent, and after his return to Stuttgart he received important posts at Eberhard's court. About this time he appears to have married, but little is known of his married life. He left no children; but in later years his sister's grandson Melanchthon was almost as a son to him till the Reformation estranged them. In 1490 he was again in Italy. Here he saw Pico della Mirandola, to whose Cabbalistic doctrines he afterwards became heir, and also made the friendship of the pope's secretary, Jakob Questen- berg, which was of service to him in his later troubles. Again in 1492 he was employed on an embassy to the emperor Frederick at Linz, and here he began to read Hebrew with the emperor's Jewish physician Jakob ben Jehiel Loans. He knew something of this language before, but Loans's instruction laid the basis of that thorough knowledge which he afterwards improved on his third visit to Rome in 1498 by the instruction of Obadja Sforno of Cesena. In 1494 his rising reputation had been greatly enhanced by the publication of De Verbo Mirifico. In 1496 Eberhard of Wurttemberg died, and enemies of Reuchlin had the ear of his successor, Duke Eberhard. He was glad, therefore, hastily to follow the invitation of Johann von Dalberg (1445-1503), the scholarly bishop of Worms, and flee to Heidelberg, which was then the seat of the " Rhenish Society." In this court of letters Reuchlin's appointed function was to make translations from the Greek authors, in which his reading was already extremely wide. Though Reuchlin had no public office as teacher, and even at Heidelberg was prevented from lecturing, he was during a great part of his life the real centre of all Greek teaching as well as of all Hebrew teaching in Germany. To carry out this work he found it necessary to provide a series of helps for beginners and others. He never published a Greek grammar, though he had one in MS. for use with his pupils, but he put out several little elementary Greek books. Reuchlin, it may be noted, pronounced Greek as his native teachers had taught him to do, i.e. in the modern Greek fashion. This pronunciation, which he defends in Dialogus de Recta Lai. Graecique Serm. Pron. (1519), came to be known, in contrast to that used by Erasmus, as the Reuchlinian. At Heidelberg Reuchlin had many private pupils, among whom Franz von Sickingen is the best known name. With the monks he had never been liked; at Stuttgart also his great enemy was the Augustinian Conrad Holzinger. On this man he took a scholar's revenge in his first Latin comedy Sergius, a satire on worthless monks and false relics. Through Dalberg, Reuchlin came into contact with Philip, elector palatine of the Rhine, who employed him to direct the studies of his sons, and in 1498 gave him the mission to Rome which has been already noticed as fruitful for Reuchlin's pro- gress in Hebrew. He came back laden with Hebrew books, and found when he reached Heidelberg that a change of govern- ment had opened the way for his return to Stuttgart, where his wife had remained all along. His friends had now again the upper hand, and knew Reuchlin's value. In 1500, or perhaps in 1502, he was given a very high judicial office in the Swabian League, which he held till 1512, when he" retired to a small estate near Stuttgart. For many years Reuchlin had been increasingly absorbed in Hebrew studies, which had for him more than a mere philological interest. Though he was always a good Catholic, and even took the habit of an Augustinian monk when he felt that his death was near, he was too thorough a humanist to be a blind follower of the church. He knew the abuses of monkish religion, and was interested in the reform of preaching as shown in his De Arte Predicandi (1503) — a book which became a sort of preacher's manual; but above all as a scholar he was eager that the Bible should be better known, and could not tie himself to the authority of the Vulgate. The key to the Hebraea veritas was the grammatical and exegetical tradition of the medieval rabbins, especially of David Kimhi, and when_ he had mastered this himself he was resolved to open it to others. In 1506 appeared his epoch-making De Rudimentis Hebraicis — grammar and lexicon — mainly after Kimhi, yet not a mere copy of one man's teaching. The edition was costly and sold slowly. One great difficulty was that the wars of Maximilian I. in Italy prevented Hebrew Bibles coming into Germany. But for this also Reuchlin found help by printing the Penitential Psalms with grammatical explanations (1512), and other helps followed from time to time. But his Greek studies had interested him in those fantastical and mystical systems of later times with which the Cabbala has no small affinity. Following Pico, he seemed to find in the Cabbala a profound theosophy which might be of the greatest service for the defence of Christianity and the reconciliation of science with the mysteries of faith — an unhappy delusion indeed, but one not surprising in that strange time of ferment. Reuchlin's mystico-cabbalistic ideas and objects were expounded in the De Verbo Mirifico, and finally in the De Arte Cabbalistica (1517). Unhappily many of his contemporaries thought that the first step to the conversion of the Jews was to take from them their books. This view had for its chief advocate the bigoted Johann Pfefferkorn (1460-1521), himself a baptized Hebrew. Pfeffer- korn's plans were backed by the Dominicans of Cologne; and in 1509 he got from the emperor authority to confiscate all Jewish books directed against the Christian faith. Armed with this mandate, he visited Stuttgart and asked Reuchlin's help as a jurist and expert in putting it into execution. Reuchlin evaded the demand, mainly because the mandate lacked certain formalities, but he could not long remain neutral. The execu- tion of Pfefferkorn's schemes led to difficulties and to a new appeal to Maximilian. In 1510 Reuchlin was summoned in the name of the emperor to give his opinion on the suppression of the Jewish books. His answer is dated from Stuttgart, October 6, 1510; in it he divides the books into six classes — apart from the Bible which no one proposed to destroy — and, going through each class, he shows that the books openly insulting to Chris- tianity are very few and viewed as worthless by most Jews themselves, while the others are either works necessary to the Jewish worship, which was licensed by papal as well as imperial law, or contain matter of value and scholarly interest which ought not to be sacrificed because they are connected with another faith than that of the Christians. He proposed that the emperor should decree that for ten years there be two Hebrew chairs at every German university for which the Jews should furnish books. The other experts proposed that all books 2O6 REUMONT— REUNION should be taken from the Jews; and, as the emperor still hesi- tated, the bigots threw on Reuchlin the whole blame of their ill success. Pfefferkorn circulated at the Frankfort fair of 1511 a gross libel (Handspiegel wider und gegen die Juden) declaring that Reuchlin had been bribed; and Reuchlin retorted as warmly in the Augenspiegel (1511)' His adversary's next move was to declare the Augenspiegel a dangerous book; the Cologne theological faculty, with the inquisitor Jakob von Hochstraten (d. 1527) took up this cry, and on the yth of October 1512 they obtained an imperial order confiscating the Augenspiegel. Reuchlin was timid, but he was honesty itself. He was willing to receive corrections in theology, which was not his subject, but he could riot unsay what he had said; and as his enemies tried to press him into a corner he met them with open defiance in a Defensio contra Calumniator es (1513). The uni- versities were now appealed to for opinions, and were all against Reuchlin. Even Paris (August 1514) condemned the Augen- spiegel, and called on Reuchlin to recant. Meantime a formal process had begun at Mainz before the grand inquisitor, but Reuchlin by an appeal succeeded in transferring the question to Rome. Judgment was not finally given till July 1516; and then, though the decision was really for Reuchlin, the trial was simply quashed. The result had cost Reuchlin years of trouble and no small part of his modest fortune, but it was worth the sacrifice. For far above the direct, importance of the issue was the great stirring of public opinion which had gone forward. And if the obscurantists escaped easily at Rome, with only a half condemnation, they received a crushing blow in Germany. No party could survive the ridicule that was poured on them in the Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, the first volume of which written chiefly by Crotus Rubeanus appeared in 1514, and the second by Ulrich von Hutten in 1517. Hutten and Franz von Sickingen did all they could to force Reuchlin's enemies to a restitution of his material damages; they even threatened a feud against the Dominicans of Cologne and Spires. In 1520 a commission met in Frankfort to investigate the case. It condemned Hochstraten. But the final decision of Rome did not indemnify him. The contest ended, however; public interest had grown cold, absorbed entirely by the Lutheran question, and Reuchlin had no reason to fear new attacks. Reuchlin did not long enjoy his victory in peace. In 1519 Stuttgart was visited by famine, civil war and pestilence. From November of this year to the spring of 1321 the veteran statesman sought refuge in Ingolstadt and taught there for a year as professor of Greek and Hebrew. It was forty-one years since at Poitiers he had last spoken from a public chair; but the old man of sixty-five had not lost his gift of teaching, and hundreds of scholars crowded round him. This gleam of autumn sunshine was again broken by the plague; but now he was called to Tubingen and again spent the winter of 1521-22 teaching in his own systematic way. But in the spring he found it necessary to visit the baths of Liebenzell, and here he was seized with jaundice, of which he died on the 3oth of June 1522, leaving in the history of the new learning a name only second to that of his younger contemporary Erasmus. The authorities for Reuchlin's life are enumerated in L. Geiger, Johann Reuchlin (1871), which is the standard biography. The controversy about the books of the Jews is well sketched by D. F. Strauss, Ulrich von Hutten. See also S. A. Hirsch, " John Reuchlin, the Father of the Study of Hebrew among the Christians," and his " John Pfefferkorn and the Battle of Books," in his Essays (London, 1905). Some interesting details about Reuchlin are given in the autobiography of Conrad Pellicanus (q.v.), which was not published when Geiger's book appeared. See also the article on Reuchlin in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and literature there cited. (W. R. S.) REUMONT, ALFRED VON (1808-1887), German scholar and diplomatist, the son of Gerhard Reumont (1765-1829), was born on the 1 5th of August 1808 and was named Alfred after the English king, Alfred the Great. Educated at the universities of Bonn and Heidelberg, he obtained a position in Florence through the influence of an Englishman, William Craufurd, but soon he entered the Prussian diplomatic service and was employed in Florence, in Constantinople and in Rome. He also spent some time in the Foreign Office in Berlin. From 1851 to 1860 he represented his country in Florence. Reumont was the friend and adviser of Frederick William IV. In 1879 he founded the Aachener Geschichtsverein, and having spent his concluding years at Bonn and at Aix-la-Chapelle, he died in the hitter city on the 27th of April 1887. f Reumont's numerous writings deal mainly with Italy, in which country he passed many years of his life. On the history of Florence and of Tuscany he wrote Tavole cronologiche e sincrone delta storia fiorentina (1841; Supplement, 1875); Geschichte Toscanas seit dent Ende des florentinischen Freistaats (Gotha, 1876-77); and Lorenzo de' Medici (Leipzig, 1874, and again 1883). This last book has been translated into English by R. Harrison (1876). He remembered his connexion with Florence when he wrote Romische Briefe von einem Florentiner (Leipzig, 1840-44), and his residence in Rome was also responsible for his Geschichte der Stadt Rom (3 vols., 1867-70). Turning his attention to the history of Naples, he wrote Die Carafa von Maddaloni: Neapel unter spanischer Herrschaft (1851; Eng. trans., 1854), and more general works on Italian history are: Beit- rage zur italienischen Geschichte (6 vols., Berlin, 1853-57), and Charakterbilder aus der neueren Geschichte Italiens (1886). More strictly biographical in their nature are: Die Jugend Caterinas de' Medici (1854), which has been translated into French by A. Baschet (1866); '-Die Grafin von Albany (1860) and a life of his close friend Capponi, Gino Capponi, ein Zcit- und Lebensbild (Gotha, 1880). His Ganganelli: Papst Clemens XIV., seine Briefe und seine Zeit (Berlin, 1847) is valuable for the relations between this pope and the Jesuits. Other works which may be mentioned are Zeitgenossen, Biografien und Charakteristiken (Berlin, 1862); Bibliografia dei lavori pubblicati in Germania sulla storia d' Italia (Berlin, 1863); Biographische Denkblatter nach personlichen Erinnerungen (Leipzig, 1878); and Saggi di storia e letteratura (Florence, 1880). Reumont s other important work, one which he was peculiarly fitted to write, was his Aus Friedrich Wilhelms IV. gesunden und kranken Tagen (Leipzig, 1885). See H. Htiffer, Alfred von Reumont (Cologne, 1904) ; and the same writer's article in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic, Band xxviii. (1880). REUNION, known also by its former name BOURBON, an island and French colony in the Indian Ocean, 400 m. S.E. of Tamatave, Madagascar, and 130 S.W. of Port Louis, Mauritius. It is elliptic in form; its greatest length is 45 m. and its greatest breadth 32 m., and it has an area of 965 sq. m. It lies between 20° 51' and 21° 22' S. and 55° 15' and 55° 54' E. The coast-line (about 130 m.) is little indented, there are no natural harbours and no small islets round the shore. The narrow coast-lands are succeeded by hilly ground which in turn gives place to mountain masses and tableland, which occupy the greater part of the island. The main axis runs N.W. and S.E., and divides the island into a windward (E.) district and a leeward (W.) district, the dividing line being practically that of the watershed. The form of the mountains is the result of double volcanic action. First there arose from the sea a mountain whose summit is approximately represented by Piton des Neiges (10,069 ft.), a denuded crater of immense proportions, and at a later date another crater opened towards the E., which, piling up the mountain mass of Le Volcan, turned what was till then a circle into an ellipse. The oldest erupted rocks belong to the type of the andesites; the newest are varieties of basalt. The two massifs are united by high table- lands. In the older massif the most striking features are now three areas of subsidence — the cirques of Salazie, Riviere des Galets and Cilaos — which lie N.W. and S. of the Piton des Neiges. The first, which may be taken as typical, is surrounded by high almost perpendicular walls of basaltic lava, and its surface is rendered irregular by hills and hillocks of debris fallen from the heights. Towards the S. lies the vast stratum of rocks (150 to 200 ft. deep) which, on the 26th of November 1875, suddenly sweeping down from the Piton des Neiges and the Gros Morne (a " shoulder " of the piton), buried the little village of Grand Sable and nearly a hundred of its inhabitants. Besides the Piton des Neiges and the Gros Morne the chief heights in this part of the island are the pyramidical Cimandef (7300 ft.), another shoulder of the piton, and the Grand Bernard (9490 ft.), separating the cirques of Mafate and Cilaos. The second massif, Le Volcan, is cut off from the rest of the island by two " enclosures," each about 500 or 600 ft. deep. REUNION 207 The outer enclosure runs across the island in a N. and S. direc- tion; the inner forms a kind of parabola with its arms (Rempart du Tremblet on the S. and Rempart du Bois Blanc on the N.) stretching E. to the sea and embracing not only the volcano proper but also the great eastward slope known as the Grand Brflle. The 30 m. of mountain wall round the volcano is per- haps unique in its astonishing regularity. It encloses an area of about 40 sq. m. known as the Grand Enclos. There are two principal craters, each on an elevated cone, — the more westerly, now extinct, known as the Bory Crater (8612 ft.), after Bory de St Vincent, the geologist, and the more easterly called the Burning Crater or Fournaise (8294 ft.). The latter is partially surrounded by an " enclosure " on a small scale with precipices 200 ft. high. Eruptions, though not infrequent (thirty were registered between 1735 and 1860), are seldom serious; the more noteworthy are those of 1745, 1778, 1791, 1812, 1860, 1870, 1881. Hot mineral springs are found on the flanks of the Piton des Neiges; the Source de Salazie (discovered in 1831) lies 2860 ft. above sea-level, has a temperature of 90°, and discharges 200 to 220 gallons per hour of water impregnated with bicarbonate of soda, and carbonates of magnesium and lime, iron, &c.; that of Cilaos (discovered in 1826) is 3650 ft. above the sea with a temperature of 100°; and that of Mafate 2238 ft. and 87°. Vertically Reunion may be divided into five zones. The first or maritime zone contains all the towns and most of the villages, built on the limited areas of level alluvium occurring at intervals round the coast. In the second, which lies between 2600 and 4000 ft., the sugar plantations made a green belt round the island and country houses abound. The third zone is that of the forests; the fourth that of the plateaus, where European vegetables can be cultivated; and above this extends the region of the mountains. Climate. — The year divides into two seasons — that of heat and rain from November to April, that of dry and more bracing weather from May to October. The prevailing winds are from the S.E., sometimes veering round to the S., and more frequently to the N.E.; the W. winds are not so steady (three hundred and seven days of E. to fifty-eight of W. wind in the course of the year). It is seldom calm during the day, but there is usually a period of complete repose before the land wind begins in the evening. Several years sometimes pass without a cyclone visiting the island; at other times they occur more than once in a single " winter." The raz de maree occasionally does great damage. On the leeward side of the island the winds are generally from the W. and S.W., and bring little rain. Mist hangs almost all day on the tops of the mountains, but usually clears off at night. On the coast and lower zones on the windward side the mean temperature is about 73° F. in the " winter " and 78° F. in the " summer." On the leeward side the heat is somewhat greater. In the Salazie cirque the mean annual average is 66° F.; at the Plaine des Palmistes 62" F. The rainfall is very heavy on the windward side, some stations registering 160 in. a year, while on the " dry " side of the island not more than 50 in. are registered. On the mountain heights snow falls every year, and ice is occasionally seen. In general the island is healthy, but fever is prevalent on the coast. Fauna and Flora. — The fauna of Reunion is not very rich in variety of species. The mammals are a brown maki (Lemur mongoz, Linn.) from Madagascar, Pteropus edwardsii now nearly extinct, several bats, a wild cat, the tang or tamec (Centetes setosus, Denn.), several rats, the hare, and the goat. Among the more familiar birds are the " oiseau de la vierge " (Muscipeta borbonica), the tec- tec (Pratincola sybilla), Certhia borbonica, the cardinal (Fpudia madagascariensis), various swallows, ducks, &c. The visitants from Madagascar, Mauritius and even India, are very numerous. Lizards and frogs of more than one species are common, but there is only one snake (Lycodon aulicum) known in the island. Various species of Gobius, a native species of mullet, Nestis cyprinoides, Osphronamus olfax and Doules rupestris are among the freshwater fishes. Turtles, formerly common, are now very rare. In the forest region of the island there is a belt, 4500-5000 ft. above the sea, characterized by the prevalence of dwarf bamboo (Bambusa alpina) ; and above that is a similar belt of Acacia heterophylla. Besides this last the best timber-trees are Casuarina laterifolia, Foetida mauritiana, Imbricaria petiolaris, Elaeodendron orientale, Calophyllum spurium (red tacamahac), Term.ina.lia bor- bonica, Parkin speciosa. The gardens of the coast districts display a marvellous wealth of flowers and shrubs, partly indigenous and partly gathered from all parts of the world. Among the indigenous varieties may be noted the vacoa (Pandanus utilis) and the aloe. A species of coffee plant is also indigenous. Fruits grown in the island are: the banana, the coco-nut, bread-fruit and jack-fruit, the bilimbi, the carambola, the guava, the litchi, the Japanese medlar, the mango-steen, the tamarind, the Abelmoschus esculentus, the chirimoya, the papaya, &c. Forests originally covered nearly the whole island ; the majority of the land has been cleared by the inhabitants, but there are still some 200 sq. m. of forest land and the administration has in part replanted the higher districts, such as Salazie, with eucalyptus and caoutchouc trees. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are divided into various classes, the Creoles, the mulattoes, the negroes, and Indians and other Asiatics. The Creole population is descended from the first French settlers, chiefly Normans and Bretons, who married Malagasy women. Later settlers included European women, but the presence of non-European blood is so commo_n among the Creoles that the phrase " Bourbon white " was given in Mauritius to linen of doubt- ful cleanness. Three kinds of Creoles are recognized — those of the towns and coasts, those of the mountains, and the petits Creoles, originally a class of small farmers living in the uplands, now reduced to a condition of poverty and dependence on the planters. The Creoles blancs de miles, the typical inhabitants of the island, are in general of a somewhat weak physique, quick-witted and of charming manners, brave and very proud of their island, but not of strong character. The mixed races tend to approximate to a single type, one in which the European strain predominates. The Creole patois is French mixed with a considerable number of Malagasy and Indian words, and containing many local idioms. The popu- lation, about 35,000 towards the close of the 1 8th century, was in 1849, at the period of the liberation of the slaves, 120,000, of whom 60,800 were newly freed negroes. Thereafter coolies were intro- duced from India, and in 1870 the population had increased to 212,000. In 1882 the government of India ceased to authorize the emigration of coolies to Reunion, and in consequence of that and other economic causes the population decreased. In 1902 the inhabitants numbered 173,315. Of these 13,492 were British Indians, 4496 Malagasy, 9457 foreign-born negroes, and 1378 Chinese. Of the native born the Creoles numbered about 3000, the remainder being negroes or of mixed race. Among the Indian Copulation the males are as three to one to the females, and the irth-rate is lower than the death-rate. Towns and Communication. — St Denis, the capital of the island, lies on _the N. coast. It had in 1902 a population of 27,392. It is built in the form of an amphitheatre, and has several fine public buildings and centrally, situated botanic gardens. It is the seat of a bishopric, a court of first instance and an appeal court. It has an abundant supply of pure water. The only anchorage for vessels is an open roadstead. St Pierre (pop. 28,885), the chief town on the leeward side of the island, has a small artificial harbour. Between St Pierre and St Denis, and both on the leeward shore, are the towns of St Louis (pop. 12,541) and St Paul (pop. 19,617). A few miles N. of St Paul on the S. side of Cape Pointe des Galets is the port of the same name, the only considerable harbour in the island. It_ was completed in 1886 at a cost of £2,700,000, covers 40 acres, is well protected, and has 28 ft. of water. A railway serving the port goes round the coast from St Pierre, by St Paul, St Denis, &c., to St Benoit (a town on the E. side of the island with a pop. of 12,523), a distance of 83! m. This line is carried through a tunnel nearly 6| m. long between La Possession and St Denis. Besides the railway the lower parts of the island are well provided with roads. There is regular steamship communication between Pointe des Galets, Marseilles, Havre and Madagascar. Telegraphic communication with all parts of the world was established in 1906 when a cable connecting Reunion with Tamatave and Mauritius was laid. Industries. — The Sugar Plantations. — The area of the cultivated lands is estimated at 148,200 acres (or 230 scj. m.), of which 86,450 acres are under sugar-cane, the remainder being under either maize, manioc, potatoes, haricots, or coffee, vanilla and cocoa. The sugar-cane, introduced in 1711 by Pierre Parat, is now the staple crop. In the l8th century the first place belonged to coffee (intro- duced from Arabia in 1715) and to the clove tree, brought from the Dutch Indies by Poivre at the risk of his life. Both are now culti- vated on a very limited scale. Vanilla, introduced in 1818, was not extensively cultivated till about 1850. Bourbon vanilla, as it is called, is of high character, and next to sugar is the most important article of cultivation in the island. There are small plantations of cocoa and cinchona; cotton-growing was tried, but proved un- successful. The sugar industry has suffered greatly from the competition with beet sugar and the effects of bounties, also from the scarcity of labour, from the ravages of the phylloxera (which made its appearance in 1878) and from extravagant methods of manu- facture. It was not until 1906 that steps were taken for the creation of central sugar mills and refineries, in consequence of the com- pulsory shutting down of many small mills. Rum is largely dis- tilled and forms an important article of export. There are also manufactories for the making of geranium essence, St Pierre being the centre of this industry. Other articles exported are aloe fibre and vacoa casks. The mineral wealth of the island has not been 208 REUS— REUSCH, F. H. exploited, except for the mineral springs which yield waters highly esteemed. Almost all the products of the island are exported, so that the import trade is very varied. Cattle are imported from Madagascar; rice, the chief article of food, from Saigon and India; petroleum, largely used in manufactories, from America and Russia; almost everything else comes from France, to which country go the great majority of the exports. Over 75 % of the shipping is under the French flag. Commerce. — The total trade amounted in 1860 to the value of £4,464,000 (the highest during thecentury); in 1900, to £1,533,240. In 1905 the imports were valued at £727,000 and the exports at £428,000. Of the imports £500,000 were from France or French colonies; of the exports £388,000 went to France or French colonies. The currency consists of notes of the Banquede la Reunion (guaran- teed by the government) and nickel token money. Neither the notes nor the nickel money have any currency outside Reunion; the rate of exchange varies from 5 to 20 %. Administration and Revenue. — Reunion is regarded practically as a department of France. It sends two deputies and one senator to the French legislature, and is governed by laws passed by that body. All inhabitants, not being aliens, enjoy the franchise, no distinction being made between whites, negroes or mulattoes, all of whom are citizens. At the head of the local administration is a governor who is assisted by a secretary-general, a procureur general, a privy council and a council-general elected by the suffrages of all citizens. The governor has the right of direct communication and negotiation with the government of South Africa and all states east of the Cape. The council-general has wide powers, including the fixing of the budget. For administrative purposes the island is divided into two arrondissements, the Wind- ward, with five cantons and nine communes, and the Leeward, with four cantons and seven communes. The towns are subject to the French municipal law. The revenue, largely dependent on the prosperity of the sugar trade, declined from an average of £163,765 in the five years 1895-99 to an average of £147 ,225 in the five years 1900—4. For the same periods the average colonial expenditure, which includes the loss incurred in maintaining the harbour and railway, increased from £224,508 to £225,088. De- ficits are made good by grants from France. History. — Reunion is usually said to have been first discovered in April 1513 by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Mascarenhas, and his name, or that of Mascarene Islands, is still applied to the archi- pelago of which it forms a part; but it seems probable that it must be identified with the island of Santa Apollonia discovered by Diego Fernandes Pereira on the 9th of February 1507. It was visited by the Dutch towards the close of the i6th century, and by the English early in the 1 7th century. When in 1638 the island was taken possession of by Captain Gaubert, or Gobert, of Dieppe, it was still uninhabited; a more formal annexation in the name of Louis XIII. was effected in 1643 by Jacques Pronis, agent of the Compagnie des Indes in Madagascar; and in 1649 Etienne de Flacourt, Pronis's more eminent successor, repeated the ceremony at a spot which he named La Possession. He also changed the name of the island from Mascarenhas to Bourbon. By decree of the Convention in 1793, Bourbon in turn gave place to Reunion, and, though during the empire this was discarded in favour of lie Bonaparte, and at the Restoration people naturally went back to Bourbon, Reunion has been the official designation since 1848. The first inhabitants were a dozen mutineers deported from Madagascar by Pronis, but they remained only three years (1646—49). Other colonists went thither of their own will in 1654 and 1662. In 1664 the Compagnie des Indes orientates de Madagascar, to whom a concession of the island was granted, initiated a regular colonization scheme. Their first commandant was Etienne Regnault, who in 1689 received from the French crown the title of governor. The growth of the colony was very slow, and in 1717 there were only some 2000 inhabitants. It is recorded that they lived on excellent terms with the pirates, who from 1684 onward infested the neigh- bouring seas for many years. In 1735 Bourbon was placed under the governor of the tie de France (Mauritius), at that time the illus- trious Mah6 de Labourdonnais. The Compagnie des Indes orien- tates gave up its concession in 1767, and under direct administration of the crown liberty of trade was granted. The French Revolution effected little change in the island and occasioned no bloodshed; the colonists successfully resisted the attempts of the Convention to abolish slavery, which continued until 1848 (when over 60,000 negroes were freed), the slave trade being, however, abolished in 1817. During the Napoleonic wars Reunion, like Mauritius, served the French corsairs as a rallying place from which attacks on Indian merchantmen could be directed. In 1809 the British attacked the island, and the French were forced to capitulate on the 8th of July iSip; the island remained in the possession of Great Britain until April 1815, when it was restored to France. From that period the island has had no exterior troubles. The negro population, upon whom in 1870 the Third Republic conferred the full rights of French citizenship including the vote, being unwilling to labour in the plantations, the immigration of coolies began in 1860, but in 1882 the government of India prohibited the further emigration of labourers from that country, in consequence of the inconsiderate treatment of the coolies by the colonists. Reunion has also suffered from the disastrous effects of cyclones. A particularly destructive storm swept over the island in March 1879, and in 1904 another cyclone destroyed fully half of the sugar crop and 75% of the vanilla crop. See A. G. Garsault, Notice sur la Reunion (Paris, 1900), a mono- graph prepared for the Paris exhibition of that year; E. Jacob de Cordemoy, Etude sur Vile de la Reunion, geographic, richesses natur- elles, &c. (Marseilles, 1905); W. D. Oliver, Crags and Craters; Rambles in the island of Reunion (London, 1896); C. Keller, Natur und Volksleben der Insel Reunion (Basel, 1888); J. D. Brunei, Histoire de f association generate des francs Creoles de file Bourbon (St Denis, Reunion, 1885); Trouette, L'lle Bourbon pendant la periode revolutionnaire (Paris, 1888). Of earlier works consult Demanet, Nouv. Hist, de I'Afrique fran^aise (1767); P. U. Thomas, Essai de statistique de file Bourbon (1828); Dejean de la Batie, Notice sur file Bourbon (1847); J. Mauran, Impressions dans un voy. de Paris a Bourbon (1850); Maillard, Notes sur file de la Re- union (1862); Azema, Hist, de file Bourbon (1862). The geology and volcanoes of Reunion were the object of elaborate study by Bory de St Vincent in 1801 and 1802 (Voyages dans les quatre prin- cipales ties des mers d'Afrique, Paris, 1804), and have since been examined by R. yon Drasche (see Die Insel Reunion, &c., Vienna, 1878, and C. Velain, Descriptions geologique de . . . file de la Reunion . . ., Paris, 1878). The best map is Pau Lepervanche's Carte de la Reunion 1-100,000 (Paris, 1906). REUS, a city of N.E. Spain, in the province of Tarragona, on the Saragossa-Tarragona railway, 4 m. N. of Salou, its port on the Mediterranean. Pop. (1900) 26,681. Reus consists of two parts, the old and the new, separated by the Calle Arrabal, which occupies the site of the old city wall. The old town centres in the Plaza del Mercado, from which narrow and tortuous lanes radiate in various directions; the new one dates from about the middle of the i8th century, and its streets are wide and straight. There is an active trade in the agricultural products of the fertile region around the city. The local industries developed considerably between 1875 and 1905, and the city has important flour, wine and fruit export houses. There is a model farm belonging to the municipality in the suburbs. Reus has excellent primary, normal and higher- grade state schools, many private schools, an academy of fine arts and a public library. The hospitals and foundling refuge, the institute and the town hall are handsome modern buildings. The earliest records of Reus date from about the middle of the i3th century. Its modern prosperity is traced to about the year 1750, when a colony of English settled here and estab- lished a trade in woollens, leather, wine and spirits. The principal incidents in its political history arose out of the occurrences of 1843 (see SPAIN, History), in connexion with which the town received the title of city, and Generals Zurbano and Prim were made counts of Reus. The city was the birth- place of General Prim (1814-1870) and of the painter Mariano Fortuny (1830-1874). REUSCH, FRANZ HEINRICH (1823-1900), Old Catholic theologian, was born at Brilon, in Westphalia, on 4th December 1823. He studied general literature at Paderborn, and theology at Bonn, Tubingen and Munich. The friend and pupil of Dollinger, he took his degree of Doctor in Theology at Munich, the university of which Dollinger was so long an ornament. He was ordained priest in 1849, a"d was immediately after- wards made chaplain at Cologne. In 1854 he became Privat- dozent in the exegesis of the Old Testament in the Catholic Theological Faculty at Bonn; in 1858 he was made extra- ordinary, and in 1861 ordinary, professor of theology in the same university. From 1866 to 1877 he was editor of the Banner Theologisches Literaturblatt. In the controversies on the Infallibility of the Pope, Reusch attached himself to Dollinger's party, and he and his colleagues Hilgers, Knoodt and Langen were interdicted by the archbishop of Cologne in 1871 from pursuing their courses of lectures. In 1872 he was excommunicated. For many years after this he held the post of Old Catholic cure of Bonn, as well as the position of vicar- general to the Old Catholic Bishop Reinkens, but resigned both in 1878, when, with Dollinger, he disapproved of the permission to marry granted by the Old Catholic Church in Germany to its clergy. From that time he retired into lay communion. REUSCH, H. H.— REUSS 209 but continued to give lectures as usual in the Old Catholic Faculty of Theology in the university of Bonn, and to write on theological subjects. He was made rector of that university in 1873. In 1874 and 1875 he was the official reporter of the memorable Reunion Conferences held at Bonn in those years and attended by many distinguished theologians of the Oriental and Anglican communions. Reusch was a profound scholar, an untiring worker and a man of lovable character. Among his voluminous works were contributions to the Revue Internationale de theologie, a review started at Bern at the instance of the Old Catholic Congress at Lucerne. He wrote also works on the Old Testament; a pamphlet on Die Deutschen Bischofe und der Aberglaube; and another on the falsifications to be found in the treatise of Aquinas against the Greeks; as well as essays on the history of the Jesuit Order, and a book of prayers. But his fame will mainly rest on the works which he and Dollinger published jointly. These consisted of a work on the Autobiography of Cardinal Bellarmine, the Geschichte der M oralstreitigen in der Romisch-Katholischen Kirche sell dem XVI. Jahrhundert, and the Erorterungen uber Leben und Schriften des hi. Liguori. During the last few years of his life he was smitten with paralysis. He died on the 3rd of March 1900, leaving behind him in manu- script a collection of letters to Bunsen about Roman cardinals and prelates, which has since been published. (J. J. L. *) REUSCH, HANS HENRIK (1852- ), Norwegian geologist, was born at Bergen on the sth of September 1852. He was educated at Christiania, Leipzig and Heidelberg, and graduated Ph.D. at Christiania in 1883. He joined the Geological Survey of Norway in 1875, and became Director in 1888. He is dis- tinguished for his researches on the crystalline schists and the Palaeozoic rocks of Norway. He discovered Silurian fossils in the highly altered rocks of the Bergen region; and in 1891 he called attention to a palaeozoic conglomerate of glacial origin in the Varanger Fiord, a view confirmed by Mr A. Strahan in 1896, who found glacial striae on the rocks beneath the ancient boulder-bed. Reusch has likewise thrown light on the later geological periods, on the Pleistocene glacial pheno- mena and on the sculpturing of the scenery of Norway. Among his separate publications are Silur fossiler og pressede Kon- glomeraler (1882); Del nordlige Norges Geologi (1891). REUSS, AUGUST EMANUEL VON (1811-1873), Austrian geologist and palaeontologist, the son of Franz Ambrosius Reuss (1761-1830), was born at Bilin in Bohemia on the Sth of July 1811. He was educated for the medical profession, graduating in 1834 at the university of Prague, and afterwards practising for fifteen years at Bilin. His leisure was devoted to mineralogy and geology, and the results of his researches were published in Geognostische Skizzen aus Bohmen (1840-44) and Die Versteinerungen der Bohmischen Kreideformation (1845-46). In 1849 he gave up his medical practice, and became professor of mineralogy at the university of Prague. There he estab- lished a fine mineralogical collection, and he became the first lecturer on geology. In 1863 he was appointed professor of mineralogy in the university of Vienna. He investigated the Cretaceous fauna of Gosau, and studied the Crustacea, including entomostraca, the corals, bryozoa, and especially the foraminifera of various geological formations and countries. He died at Vienna on the 26th of November 1873. REUSS, EDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE (1804-1891), Protestant theologian, was born at Strassburg on the i8th of July 1804. He studied philology in his native town (1819-22), theology at Gottingen under J. G. Eichhorn; and Oriental languages at Halle under Wilhelm Gesenius, and afterwards at Paris under Silvestre de Sacy (1827-28). In 1828 he became Privatdozent at Strassburg. From 1829 to 1834 he taught Biblical criticism and Oriental languages at the Strassburg Theological School; he then became assistant, and afterwards, in 1836, regular professor of theology at that university. The sympathies of Reuss were German rather than French, and after the annexation of Alsace to Germany he remained at Strassburg, and retained his professorship till, in 1888, he retired on a pension. Amongst his earliest works were: De libris veteris Testamenli dpocryphis plebi non negandis (1829), Ideen zur Einleitung in das Evangelium Johannis (1840) and Die J ohanneische Theologie (1847). In 1852 he published his Hisloire de la theologie chrttienne au siecle apostolique, which was followed in 1863 by L'Histoire du canon des sainles (critures dans I'iglise chrttienne. In 1874 he began to publish his translation of the Bible, La Bible, nouvelle traditction avec commenlaire. It was the criticism and exegesis of the New Testament which formed the subject of Reuss's earlier labours — in 1842, indeed, he had published in German a history of the books of the New Testament, Geschichte der heiligen Schriften N. Test. ; and though his own views were liberal, he opposed the results of the Tubingen school. After a time he turned his attention also to Old Testa- ment criticism, for which he was especially fitted by his sound knowledge of Hebrew. In 1881 he published in German his Geschichte der heiligen Schriften A. Test., a veritable encyclopaedia of the history of Israel from its earliest beginning till the taking of Jerusalem by Titus. He died at Strassburg on the isth of April 1891. Reuss belonged to the more modern section of the Liberal party in the Lutheran Church. His critical position was to some extent that of K. H. Graf and J. Wellhausen, allowing for the circumstances that he was in a sense their forerunner, and was actually for a time Graf's teacher. Indeed, he was really the originator of the new movement, but hesitated to publish the results of his studies. For many years Reuss edited with A. H. Cunitz (b. 1812) the Beitriige zu den theologischen Wissen- schaften. With A. H. Cunitz and J. W. Baum (1809-1878), and after their death alone, he edited the monumental edition of Calvin's works (38 vols., 1863 ff.). His critical edition of the Old Testament appeared a year after his death. His son, ERNST RUDOLF (b. 1841), was in 1873 appointed city librarian at Strassburg. See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in Germany since Kant (1890). REUSS, the name of two small principalities of the German empire, called Reuss, elder line, or Reuss-Greiz, and Reuss, younger line, or Reuss-Schleiz-Gera. With a joint area of 441 sq. m. they form part of the complex of Thuringian states, and consist, roughly speaking, of two main blocks of territory, separated by the Neustadt district of the duchy of Saxe- Weimar. The more southerly, which is much the larger of the two portions, belongs to the bleak, mountainous region of the Frankenwald and the Vogtland, while the northern portion is hilly, but fertile. The chief rivers are the Weisse Elster and the Saale. About 35% of the total surface is occupied by forests, while about 40% is under tillage and about 19% under meadow and pasture. Wheat, rye and barley are the principal crops grown, and the breeding of cattle is an important industry. Reuss-Greiz, with an area of 122 sq. m., belongs to the larger of the two divisions mentioned above, and consists of three large and several small parcels of land. On the whole, the soil is not favourable for agriculture, but the rearing of cattle is carried on with much success. About 63% of the inhabitants maintain themselves by industrial pursuits, the chief products of which are the making of woollen fabrics at Greiz, the capital, and of stockings at Zeulenroda. Other industries are machine- building, printing and the making of paper and porcelain. In 1905 the population of the principality was 70,603 . The constitution of Reuss-Greiz dates from 1867, and provides for a representative chamber of twelve members, of whom three are appointed by the prince, while two are chosen by the landed proprietors, three by the towns and four by the rural districts. The revenue and expenditure amount to about £76,000 a year, and there is no public debt. The reigning prince is Henry XXIV. (b. 1878), but as he is incapable of discharging his duties, these are now undertaken by a regent. Reuss-Schleiz-Gera, with an area of 319 sq. m., includes part of the southern and the whole of the northern of the two main divisions mentioned above; it touches Bavaria on the south 210 REUTER, F. and Prussian Saxony on the north. The former portion is known as the Oberland and the latter as the Unterland. Owing to the fertility of the Unterland, quite one-quarter of the people are supported by agricultural pursuits, although there is also much industrial activity. The chief industrial product consists of woollen goods, and the manufacture centres in the capital Gera, the largest of the six towns of the principality. Other industries are jute-spinning, dyeing and brewing, and the manufacture of musical instruments, chemicals, tobacco, cigars, porcelain and machinery. A considerable trade is carried on in these goods and also in timber, cattle and slate. Iron is mined in the Oberland, and large quantities of salt are yielded by the brine springs of Heinrichshall. In 1905 Reuss- Schleiz contained 144,584 inhabitants. Its annual revenue and expenditure amount to about £129,000, and in 1908 it had a public debt of £52,027. The constitution, which rests on laws of 1852 and 1856, provides for a representative assembly of 1 6 members which possesses limited legislative powers, the administrative duties being discharged by a cabinet of three members. The reigning prince is Henry XIV. (b. 1832), but since 1892 his duties have been undertaken by a regent. The states of Reuss return one member each to the Bundesrat, and one each to the Reichstag of the German empire. History. — The history of Reuss stretches back to the times when the German kings appointed vogts, or bailiffs (advocati imperil), to administer their lands. One of these vogts was a certain Henry, who died about 1120, after having been entrusted by the emperor Henry IV. with the vogtship of Gera and of Weida, and he is generally recognized as the ancestor of the princes of Reuss. His descendants called themselves lords of Weida, and some of them were men of note in their day, serving the emperors and German kings and distinguishing themselves in the ranks of the Teutonic order. The land under their rule gradually increased in size, and it is said that the name of Reuss was applied to it owing to the fact that one of its princes married a Russian princess, their son being called " der Russe," or the Russian. Another version is that the prince received this sobriquet because he passed many years in Russia. The district thus called Reuss was at one time much more extensive than it is at present, and for some years its rulers were margraves of Meissen. In 1564 the family was divided into three branches by the sons of Henry XVI. (d. 1535). One of these became ex- tinct in 1616, but the remaining ones are those of Reuss-Greiz and Reuss-Schleiz-Gera, which are flourishing to-day. Although there have been further divisions these have not been lasting, and the lands of the former family have been undivided since 1768 and those of the latter since 1848. The lords of Reuss took the title of count in 1673 ; and the head of the elder line became a prince of the Empire in 1778, and the head of the younger line in 1806. In 1807 the two princes joined the Confederation of the Rhine and in 1815 the German confederation. In 1866 Reuss-Greiz was compelled to atone for its active sympathy with Austria by the payment of a fine. In 1871 both princi- palities became members of the new German empire. The princes of Reuss are very wealthy, their private domain including a great part of the territory over which they rule. In the event of either line becoming extinct, its possessions will fall to the other. A curious custom prevails in the house of Reuss. The male members of both branches of the family all bear the name of Henry (Heinrich), the individuals being distinguished by numbers. In the elder line, according to an arrangement made in 1701, the enumeration continues until the number one hundred is reached when it begins again. In the younger line the first prince born in a new century is numbered I., and the numbers follow on until the end of the century when they begin again. Thus Henry XIV. of Reuss younger line, who was born in 1832, was the son of Henry LXVII. (1789-1867), the former being the i4th prince born in the igth century, and the latter the 67th prince born in the i8th. See B. Schmidt, Die Reussen, Genealogie des Gesamthattses Reuss (Schletz, 1903); H. von Voss, Die Ahnen des reussischen Hauses (Lobenstein, 1882); C. F. Collmann, Reussische Geschichte. Das Vogtland im Mittelalter (Greiz, 1892), and O. Liebmann, Das Staats- recht des Furstenthums Reuss (1884). REUTER, FRITZ (1810-1874), German novelist, was born on the 7th of November 1810, at Stavenhagen, in Mecklenburg- Schwerin, a small country town where his father was burgo- master and sheriff (Stadtrichter), and in addition to his official duties carried on the work of a fanner. He was educated at home by private tutors and subsequently at the gymnasiums of Friedland in Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and of Parchim. In 1831 he began to attend lectures on jurisprudence at the uni- versity of Rostock, and in the following year went to the university of Jena. Here he was a member of the political students' club, or German Burschenschaft, and in 1833 was arrested in Berlin by the Prussian government; although the only charge which could be proved against him was that he had been seen wearing its colours, he was condemned to death for high treason. This monstrous sentence was commuted by King Frederick William III. of Prussia to imprisonment for thirty years in a Prussian fortress. In 1838, through the personal intervention of the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, he was delivered over to the authorities of his native state, and the next two years he spent in the fortress of Domitz, but in 1840 was set free, an amnesty having been proclaimed after the accession of Frederick William IV. to the Prussian throne. Although Reuter was now thirty years of age, he went to Heidelberg to resume his legal studies; but he soon found it necessary to return to Stavenhagen, where he aided in the management of his father's farm. After his father's death, however, he abandoned farming, and in 1850 settled as a private tutor at the little town of Treptow in Pomerania. Here he married Luise Kunze, the daughter of a Mecklenburg pastor. Reuter's first publication was a collection of miscellanies, written in Plattdeutsch, and entitled Lauschen un Riemels ("anecdotes and rhymes," 1853; a second collection followed in 1858). The book, which was received with encouraging favour, was followed by Polterabendgedichte (1855), and De Reis' nah Belligen (1855), the latter a humorous poem describing the adventures of some Mecklenburg peasants who resolve to go to Belgium (which they never reach) to learn the secrets of an advanced civilization. In 1856 Reuter left Treptow and established himself at Neubrandenburg, resolving to devote his whole time to literary work. His next book (published in 1858) was Kein Husung, an epic in which he presents with great force and vividness some of the least attractive aspects of village life in Mecklenburg. This was followed, in 1860, by Hanne Niite un de liitte Pudel, the best of the works written by Reuter in verse. In 1861 Reuter's popularity was largely increased by Schurr-Murr, a collection of tales, some of which are in High German, but this work is of slight importance in comparison with the series of stories, entitled Olle Kamellen (" old stories of bygone days "). The first volume, published in 1860, con- tained Woans ick tau'ne Fru kam and Ut de Franzosentid. Ut mine Festungstid (1861) formed the second volume; Ut mine Stromtid (1864) the third, fourth and fifth volumes; and Dorch- Iduchting (1866) the sixth volume — all written in the Plattdeutsch dialect of the author's home. Woans ick tau 'ne Fru kam is a bright little tale, in which Reuter tells, in a half serious half bantering tone, how he wooed the lady who became his wife. In Ut de Franzosenlid the scene is laid in and neai Stavenhagen in the year 1813, and the characters of the story are associated with the great events which then stirred the heart of Germany to its depths. Ut mine Festungstid is of less general interest than Ut de Franzosenlid, a narrative of Reuter's hardships during the term of his imprisonment, but it is not less vigorous either in conception or in style. Ut mine Stromtid is by far the greatest of Reuter's writings. The men and women he describes are the men and women he knew in the villages and farmhouses of Mecklenburg, and the circumstances in which he places them are the circumstances by which they were surrounded in actual life. As in Ut de Franzosentid he describes the deep national impulse in obedience to which Germany rose against REUTER, BARON DE— REVAL 211 Napoleon, so in Ut mine Slromtid he presents many aspects of the revolutionary movement of 1848. In 1863 Reuter transferred his residence from Neubranden- burg to Eisenach; and here he died on the I2th of July 1874. In the works produced at Eisenach he did not maintain the high level of his earlier writings. Reuter's Samtliche Werke, in 13 vols., were first published in 1863- 68. To these were added in 1875 two volumes of Nachgelassene Schriften, with a biography by A. Wilbrandt; and in 1878 two supplementary volumes to the works appeared. A popular edition in 7 vols. was published in 1877—78 (last edition, 1902); there are also editions by K. F. Miiller (18 vols., 1905), and W. Seelmann(7 vols., 1905-6). See O. Glagau, F. Reuter und seine Dichtuneen (1866; 2nd ed., 1875); H. Ebert, F. Reuter und seine Werke (1874); F. Latendorf, Zur Erinnerung an F. Reuter (1879); K. T. Gadertz, Reuter- Studien (1890); by the same, A us Reuters alien und jungen Tagen (3 vols., 1894-1900); Briefe F. Reuters an seinen Vater, edited by F. Engel (2 vols., 1895); A. Romer, F. Reuter in seinem Leben und Schaffen (1895); G. Raatz, Wahrheit und Dichtung in Reuters Werken (1895); E. Brandes, Aus F. Reuters Leben (1899); K. F. Miiller, Der Mecklenburger Volksmund und F. Reuters Schriften (1902). A complete bibliography of F. Reuter will be found in the Niederdeutsche Jahrbuch for 1896 and 1902. REUTER, PAUL JULIUS, BARON DE (1821-1899), founder of Reuter's News Agency, was born at Cassel, Germany. At the age of thirteen he became a clerk in his uncle's bank at Gottingen, where he chanced to make the acquaintance of Professor Gauss, whose experiments in telegraphy were then attracting some attention. Reuter's mind was thus directed to the value of the speedy transmission of information, and in 1849, on the completion of the first telegraph lines in Germany and France, he found an opportunity of turning his ideas to account. There was a gap between the termination of the German line at Aix- la-Chapelle and that of the French and Belgian lines at Verviers. Reuter organized a news-collecting agency at each of these places, his wife being in charge of one, himself at the other, and bridged the interval by a pigeon-post. On the establishment of through telegraphic communication, Reuter endeavoured to start a news agency in Paris, but finding that the French govern- ment's restrictions would render the scheme unworkable, removed in 1851 to England and became a naturalized British subject. The first submarine cable — between Dover and Calais — had just been laid, and Reuter opened an office in London for the transmission of intelligence between England and the continent. At first, however, his business was practi- cally confined to the transmission of private commercial telegrams to places not connected with the new telegraph system. He appointed agents at the various telegraph termini on the con- tinent to take these despatches off the wires and forward them by rail or pigeon-post to the addresses. Simultaneously he endeavoured to induce the English papers to publish the foreign news telegrams supplied by his various agents. These efforts were for some years unsuccessful, until in 1858 The Times published the report of an important speech by Napoleon III. forwarded by Reuter's Paris agent. Reuter now extended his sphere of operations all over the world, and in 1859 obtained leave for the presence of representatives at the headquarters of the Austrian and French armies during the war. In 1866 he laid down a special cable from Cork to Crookhaven, which enabled him to circulate news of the American Civil War several hours before the steamer could reach Liverpool. A concession for a cable beneath the North Sea to Cuxhaven was granted him by the king of Hanover in 1863, and in the same year a concession was granted him for a cable between France and the United States, the line being worked jointly by Reuter (whose business had just been converted into a limited liability company) and the Anglo-American Telegraph Company. In 1872 he obtained from the shah of Persia an exclusive concession to develop the internal resources of that country, but the con- cession was annulled and its privileges transferred to the Im- perial Bank of Persia. Reuter was in 1871 given the title of baron by the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and by a special grant of Queen Victoria he and his heirs were authorized to have the privileges of this rank in England. Baron Reuter died at Nice on the 25th of February 1899. REUTERHOLM. GUSTAF ADOLF, BARON (1756-1813), Swedish statesman. After a brief military career he was ap- pointed Kammerherr to Sophia Magdalena, queen consort of Gustavus III., and subsequently became intimately connected with the king's brother, Charles, then duke of Sudermania. He remained in the background throughout the reign of Gustavus III., whom he constantly opposed and by whom he was im- prisoned along with the other malcontents in 1789. He was abroad at the time of the king's death, but a summons from his friend, now duke regent, speedily recalled him, and in 1793 he was made a member of the council of state and one of the " lords of the realm." At first he seemed inclined to adopt a liberal system, and reintroduced the freedom of the press. He did this solely, however, to reverse the Gustavian system, and persecuted the stalwarts of the late king (e.g. G. M. Armfelt, J. K. Toll) with a petty vindictiveness which excited general disgust. Towards the end of the regency, Reuterholm inclined towards an alliance with Russia on the basis of a marriage between the young king, Gustavus IV., and the empress Catherine's granddaughter, Alexandra Pavlovna, an alliance frustrated by the bigotry of the intended groom. At home the Swedish government ended as ultra-reactionary, owing to an insignificant riot in Stockholm which so alarmed Reuterholm that he threatened all printers who printed anything relating to the constitutions of the French republic or the United States of America with the loss of their privileges. In March 1795 he closed the Swedish Academy because A. G. Silfverstolpe in his inaugural address had ventured to disapprove of the coup d'etat of 1789. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November ist, 1796) Reuterholm was expelled from Stockholm. For the next twelve years he lived abroad under the name of Tempelcrentz. After the revolution of 1809 he returned to Sweden, but was denied all access to Charles XIII., and quitted his country for good. He died in Schleswig on the 27th of December 1813. See Sv'eriges'Historia (Stockholm, 1877-1881), vol. v. (R. N. B.) REUTLIN6EN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, situated on the Echatz, an affluent of the Neckar, near the base of the Achalm and 36 m. by rail S. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 23,850. It is a quaintly built town, with many picturesque houses and a fine Gothic church of the i3th and i4th centuries dedicated to St Mary, which was restored in 1893-1901; it contains in the choir a replica of the Holy Sepulchre and a sculptured stone font, and has a tower 240 ft. high. Reutlingen has three other Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a town hall, and several monuments, including one to the emperor William I. and another to Friedrich List. The industries of the town are numerous, and include the spinning and weaving of cotton, dyeing and bleaching; also the manufacture of leather, machinery, furniture, shoes, paper, clothing, hardware, bricks, beer and woollen goods. Hops, vines and fruit are grown in the neighbourhood. Reutlingen has several schools and educational establishments, including a celebrated pomological institute. It is also famous as the place where Pastor Gustav Werner (1800-1887) founded his Christian Socialist refuge, which has become widely known in philanthropic circles. Reutlingen, which is first mentioned in 1213, became a free im- perial town in the 1 3th century and was fortified by the emperor Frederick II., remaining loyal to him and to his son, Conrad IV. A member of the league of Swabian towns, its citizens defeated Count Ulrich of Wurttemberg on the I4th of May 1377. Later it joined the Swabian League and was favoured by the emperor Maxi- milian I. It came into the possession of Wurttemberg in 1802. An explosion which took place on the J7th of December 1852 destroyed many houses in the town. See Rupp, Aus der Vorzeit Reutlingens und seiner Umgegend (Stuttgart, 1869); Hochstetter, Fuhrer durch Reutlingen und Umgebung (Reutlingen, 1901); and Zwiesele, Geognostischer Fuhrer in der Umgegend von Reutlingen (Stuttgart, 1897). REVAL, or REVEL (Russ. Revel, formerly Kolyvan; Esthonian, Tallina and Tannilin), a fortified seaport town of Russia, capital of Esthonia, situated on a bay on the S. coast of the gulf of Finland, 230 m. W. of St Petersburg by rail. Pop. (1900) 66,292, of whom half were Esthonians and 30% 212 REVEILLE— REVELATION, BOOK OF Germans. The city consists of two parts — the Domberg or Dom, which occupies a hill, and the lower town on the beach. The Dom contains the castle (first built in the I3th century, rebuilt in 1772), where the provincial administration has its seat, and a cathedral (1894-1900) with five gilded domes. It has its own administration, separate from that of the lower town. The church of St Nicholas, built in 1317, contains many antiquities of the former Roman Catholic times and old German paintings. The Dom church contains many interesting shields, as also the graves of the circumnavigator Baron A. J. von Krusenstern (1770-1846), of the Swedish soldiers Pontus de la Gardie (d. 1585) and Carl Horn (d. 1601), and of the Bohemian Protestant leader Count Matthias von Thum (1580- 1640). The church of St Olai, first erected in 1240, and often rebuilt, was completed in 1840 in Gothic style; it has a bell tower 456 ft. high. The oldest church is the Esthonian, built in 1219. The public institutions ' include a good provincial museum of antiquities; an imperial palace, Katharinenthal, built by Peter the Great in 1719; and very valuable archives, preserved in the town hall (i4th century). The pleasant situation of the town attracts thousands of people for sea- bathing. It is the seat of a branch board of the Russian admiralty and of the administration of the Baltic lighthouses. Its port has a depth of 4 to 6 fathoms, and a roadstead 35 m. wide, which freezes nearly every winter. The exports consist chiefly of grain, timber, flax, hides, wool, a species of anchovy, and hemp, and the imports of manufactured goods and machinery. The value of the aggregate trade amounts to an average of seven to nine millions sterling annually. Ther£ is considerable trade with Finland. Baltic Port, 30 m. W., is a sort of annex to the port of Reval. The high Silurian crag now known as Domberg was early occupied by an Esthonian fort, Lindanissa. In 1219 the Danish king Valdemar II. erected here a strong castle and founded the first church. In 1228 the castle was taken by the Livonian Knights, but nine years later it returned to the Danes. About the same time Lubeck and Bremen merchants settled there, and their settlement became an important seaport of the Hanseatic League. It was fortified early in the i4th century, and in 1343 sustained a siege by the revolted Esthonians. Valdemar III. sold Reval and Esthonia to the Teutonic Knights in 1346, but on the dissolution of the order, in 1561, Esthonia and Reval surrendered to the Swedish king Erik XIV. A great conflagra- tion in 1433, the pestilence of 1532, the bombardment by the Danes in 1569, and the Russo-Livonian War, destroyed its trade. The Russians besieged Reval twice, in 1570 and 1577. It was still an important fortress, having been enlarged and fortified by the Swedes. In 1710 it was surrendered to Peter the Great, who immediately began the erection of a military port for his Baltic fleet. His successors continued to fortify the access to Reval from the sea, large works being undertaken, especially in the early years of the igth century. REVEILLfi (Fr. reveilles, imperative of reveiller, to awaken, Lat. re- and vigilare, to watch), the signal by call of bugle or beat of drum to announce to soldiers the time to awake and begin duty. REVELATION, BOOK OF, in the Bible, the last book of the New Testament. Title. — According to the best authorities K CA (in the sub- scription) 2, 8, 82, 93, the title of this book is airoKa^v^Ls 'Iwavvov. Some cursives (i, 14, 17, 25, 28, 31, 38, 51, 90, 91, 94, 97) read dir. (+ TOV ayiov i, 25, 28, 31, 38, 51, 90, 94) 'luavvov TOV 0€oX6yoir, Q and 12, (or. T. TOV 0eo\. Kal tva-yfiKiarov; P and 42,^ ? and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew letters we obtain the number 666. This solution is confirmed by the fact that it is possible to explain by it an ancient (Western?) variant for the number 666, i.e. 616. This latter, which is attested by Irenaeus (v. 30. i), the commentary of Ticonius, and the uncial C, can be explained from the Latin form of the name Nero, which by its omission of the final n makes the sum total 616 instead of 666. The above solution may be regarded as established, though several scholars, as Oscar Holtzmann (Stade's Geschichte des Volkes Israel, ii. 661), Spitta and Erbes, have contended that 616 was the original reading (Yaios Kourap=6i6) and that 'On the possibility of other points of contact between the Apocalypse and Egyptian mythology, see Mrs Grenfell's article, " Egyptian Mythology and the Bible," in the Monist (1906), pp. 169-200. z In xiii. 2 the description of the beast unites the features of the four beasts in Daniel's vision (vii.). It is clear that our author identified the fourth beast (vii. 23) with Rome, as did also the author of 4 Ezra xii. 10. But this was not the original significance of the fourth beast, for the author of Daniel referred thereby to the Greek empire; but, since the prophecy was not realized, it was subsequently reinterpreted, and applied, as we have observed, to Rome. chapter xiii. was part of a Jewish apocalypse written under Caligula between the years 39 and 41. But this Caligula hypothesis cannot be carried out unless by a vigorous use of the critical knife, in the course of which more than a third of the chapter is excised. Moreover the number 616 is too weakly supported to admit of its being recognized as the original. The figure of the first beast presents many difficulties, owing to the fact that it is not freely invented but largely derived from traditional elements and is by the writer identified with the seventh wounded head. The second beast, signifying the pagan priesthood of the imperial cult, called " the false prophet " in xvi. 13, appears to be an independent development of the Antichrist legend. xiv -xvi. — These chapters contain a vision of Christ on Mount Zion and the 144,000 of the undefiled that follow Him, xiv. 1-5, the last warnings relating to the harvest and vintage of the world, xiv. 6-20: the vision of the wrath of God in the out- pouring of the seven bowls containing the seven last plagues, xv.-xvi. In the above section most critics are agreed that xiv. 14-20 originally represented the final judgment and was removed from its rightful place at the close of an apocalypse to its present position. In its original setting " the one like unto a Son of Man, having on his head a golden crown " (xiv. 14), undoubtedly designated the Messiah, but the transformation of the final judgment into a preliminary act of judgment by a redactor, necessarily brought with it the degradation of the Son of Man to the level of a mere angel. Some critics hold that this apocalypse was the apocalyptic groundwork, but Bousset is of opinion that it stood originally in connexion with xi. 1-13. As regards xvi. the views of critics take different directions, but that of Bousset followed by Porter seems the most reason- able. This is that this chapter forms an introduction to xvii., which was an independent fragment. The writer throws this introduction into his favourite scheme of seven acts, in this case symbolized by seven bowls. The earlier verses, 2-11, do not amount to much beyond a repetition of what is found in viii.-ix., save that as a preparation for xvii. references are inserted to the beast and his worshippers (ver. 2) and to Rome (ver. 10). In xvi. 12-16 is a revised form of an older tradition. xvii. — This chapter presents great difficulties, especially if with the older and some of the recent exegetes we regard it as written at the same time and by the same author. Even so strong an upholder of the unity of the book as Swete is ready to admit that portions of xvii., as well as of xiii., show signs of an earlier date than the rest of the book. He writes: " The unity of the Book . . . cannot be pressed so far as to exclude the possibility that the extant book is a second edition of an earlier work, or that it incorporates earlier materials, and either hypothesis would sufficiently account for the few indica- tions of a Neronic or Vespasianic date that have been found in it " (Apoc. of St John"1, p. civ.). This chapter cannot be interpreted apart from the Neronic myth. Of this there appear to be two stages attested here. Of the earlier we have traces in xvii. 16-17 and xvi. 12, where there are allusions to Nero's confederacy with the Parthian kings with a view to the destruc- tion of Rome. Of the later stage, when the myth of Nero redivivus was fused with that of the Antichrist, we have at- testation in xvii. 8, 12-14, where Nero is regarded as a demon coming up from the abyss to war not with Rome but with Christ and the elect. This development of the Neronic myth belongs to the last years of the ist century, and is decidedly against a Vespasianic date. To meet this difficulty a recent interpreter — Anderson Scott — though he assigns the book to the year A.D. 77, is yet willing to admit that the book though composed in the reign of Vespasian was " reissued with additions by the same hand after the death of Domitian" (Revelation, p. 56). Our author represents himself as writing under the sixth emperor. Five have already died, the seventh is yet to come, to be followed by yet an eighth, who is one of the seven (i.e. Nero). In order to arrive at the date here implied, we can REVELATION, BOOK OF 219 begin the reckoning from Julius Caesar or Augustus, we can include or exclude Galba, Otho and Vitellius, and, finally, when we have drawn our conclusions from these data, there remains the possibility that the book was after all not written under the sixth emperor, but was really a vaticinium ex eventu. Ac- cording to the different methods pursued, some have concluded that Nero was the sixth emperor, and thus dated the Apocalypse before A.D. 70; others Vespasian, and yet others Domitian. No solution of the difficulties of the chapter is wholly satis- factory, but the best yet offered seems to be that of Bousset (0/enbarung2, 410-18). He holds that 1-7, o-n, 15-18, belong to an original source, which was written in the reign of Vespasian and represents the earlier stage of the Neronic myth. To a reviser in Domitian's reign we owe 8, 12-14 and 6b, a clause in 9, ima. 8pij . . . airrZv, and another in 1 1, 8 fy K.a.1 OVK tara>. If the clause t{>na.Ta.(Memoirs) appeared posthumously in 1894-1895. RHAPSODIST (Gk. Rhapsodos), originally an epic poet who recited his own poetry; then, one who recited the poems of others (see HOMER). RHATANY or KRAMERIA ROOT, in medicine, the dried root either of Para rhatany or of Peruvian rhatany. The action of rhatany is due to the rhatania-tannic acid, and re- sembles that of tannic acid, being a powerful astringent. An infusion is used as a gargle for relaxed throats; and lozenges, particularly those containing rhatany and cocaine, are useful 231 in similar cases. Like tannic acid, the powdered extract may be applied as a local haemostatic. Ah1 preparations of rhatany taken internally are powerful astringents in diarrhoea and intestinal haemorrhage. RHAYADER (Rhaiadr-Gwy) , a market town of Radnorshire, Wales, situated amid wild and beautiful scenery on the left bank of the Wye, about ij m. above its confluence with the Elan. Pop. (1901) 1215. Rhayader is a station on the Cambrian railway. A stone bridge over the Wye connects the town with the village and parish church of Cwmdauddwr. Rhayader has for some centuries been an important centre for Welsh mutton and wool, and its sheep fairs are largely attended by drovers and buyers from all parts. Near Rhayader are the large reservoirs constructed (1895) by the corporation of Birmingham in the Elan and Claerwen valleys. Rhayader, built close to the Falls of the Wye (whence its name), owes its early importance to the castle erected here by Prince Rhys 'ap Griffith oi South Wales, c. 1178, in order to check the English advance up the Wye Valley. Seized by the invaders, castle and town were later retaken in 1231 by Prince Llewelyn ap lorwerth, who burned the fortress and slew its garrison. Scarcely a trace of the castle exists, although its site near St Clement's church is locally known as Tower Hill. With the erection of Maesyfed into the shire of Radnor in 1536 Rhayader was named as assize-town for the newly formed county in conjunction with New Radnor; but in 1542, on account of a local riot, the town was deprived of this privilege in favour of Presteign. Rhayader constituted one of the group of boroughs comprising the Radnor parliamentary district until the Redistribution Act of 1885. RHEA, a goddess of the Greeks known in mythology as the daughter of Uranus and Gaia, the sister and consort of Kronos, and the mother of Zeus. In Homer she is the mother of the gods, though not a universal mother like Cybele, the Phrygian Great Mother, with whom she was later identified. The original seat of her worship was in Crete. There, according to legend, she saved the new-born Zeus, her sixth child, from being devoured by Kronos by substituting a stone for him and entrusting the infant god to the care of her attendants the Curetes (q.v.). These attendants afterwards ' became the bodyguard of Zeus and the priests of Rhea, and performed ceremonies in her honour. In historic times the resemblances between Rhea and the Asiatic Great Mother, Phrygian Cybele, were so notice- able that the Greeks accounted for them by regarding the latter as only their own Rhea, who had deserted her original home in Crete and fled to the mountain wilds of Asia Minor to escape the persecution of Kronos (Strabo 469, 12). The reverse view was also held (Virgil, Aen. iii. in), and it is probably true that a stock of Asiatic origin formed part of the primitive population of Crete and brought with them the worship of the Asiatic Great Mother, who became the Cretan Rhea. (See GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS.) (G. SN.) RHEA, the name given in 1752 by P. H. G. Mohring1 to a South American bird which, though long before known and described by the earlier writers — Nieremberg, Marcgrav and Piso (the last of whom has a recognizable but rude figure of it) — had been without any distinctive scientific appellation. Adopted a few years later by M. J. Brisson, the name has since passed into general use, especially among English authors, for what their predecessors had called the American ostrich; but on the European continent the bird is commonly called Nandu* a word corrupted from a name it is said to have borne among the aboriginal inhabitants of Brazil, where the Portuguese settlers called it ema (see EMEU). The resemblance of the rhea to the ostrich (q.v.) was at once perceived, but the differences between them are also very evident. The former, for instance, has three instead of two toes on each foot, it has no apparent tail, its wings are far better developed, and when folded cover the body, and its head and neck are clothed with feathers, while internal distinctions of still deeper significance have since been 1 What prompted his bestowal of this name, so well known in classical mythology, is not apparent. 2 The name Touyou, also of South American origin, was applied to it by Brisson and others, but erroneously, as Cuvier shows, since by that name, or something like it, the jabiru (q.v.) is properly meant. 232 RHEINBERGER dwelt upon by T. H. Huxley (Proc. Zool. Society, 1867, pp. 420- 422) and W. A. Forbes (op. cit., 1881, pp. 784-87). There can be little doubt that they should be regarded as types of as many orders — Strulhiones and Rheae — of the subclass Ratitae. Struc- tural characters no less important separate the rheas from the emeus; the former can be readily recognized by the rounded form of their contour-feathers, which want the hyporrhachis or after-shaft that in the emeus and cassowaries is so long as to equal the main shaft, and contributes to give these latter groups the appearance of being covered with shaggy hair. The feathers of the rhea have a considerable market value, and for the purpose of trade in them it is annually killed by thousands, so that1 its total extinction as a wild animal is probably only a question of time. It is polygamous, and the male performs the duty of incubation, brooding more than a score of eggs, the produce of several females— facts known to Nieremberg Rhea. more than two hundred and fifty years since, but hardly accepted by naturalists until recently. No examples of this bird seem to have been brought to Europe before the beginning of the present century, and accordingly the descriptions previously given of it by systematic writers were taken at second hand and were mostly defective if not misleading. In 1803 J. Latham issued a wretched figure of the species from a half-grown speci- men in the Leverian Museum, and twenty years later said he had seen only one other, and that still younger, in Bullock's collection (Gen. Hist. Birds, viii. p. 379) ? A bird living in con- finement at Strassburg in 1806 was, however, described and figured by Hammer in 1808 (Ann. du Museum, xii. pp. 427- 1 J. E. Harting, in his and De Mosenthal's Ostriches and Ostrich Farming, from which the woodcut here introduced is by permission copied, gives (pp. 67-72) some portentous statistics of the destruc- tion of rheas for the sake of their feathers, which, he says, are known in the trade as " Vautour " to distinguish them from those of the African bird. 'The ninth edition of the Companion to this collection (1810, p. 121) states that the specimen " was brought alive " [?to England]. 433, pi. 39). In England the Report of the Zoological Society for 1833 announced the rhea as having been exhibited for the first time in its gardens during the preceding twelvemonth. Since then many other living examples have been introduced, and it has bred both there and in many private parks in Britain. Though considerably smaller than the ostrich, and wanting its fine plumes, the rhea in general aspect far more resembles that bird than the other Ratitae. The feathers of the head and neck, except on the crown and nape, where they are dark brown, are dingy white, and those of the body ash-coloured tinged with brown, while on the breast they are brownish-black, and on the belly and thighs white. In the course of the memorable voyage of the " Beagle," C. Darwin came to hear of another kind of rhea, called by his informants Aveslruz petise, and at Port Desire on the east coast of Patagonia he obtained an example of it, the imperfect skin of which enabled J. Gould to describe it (Proc. Zool. Society, 183.7, p. 35) as a second species of the genus, naming it after its discoverer. Rhea darwini differs in several well-marked characters from the earlier known R. americana. Its bill is shorter than its head; its tarsi are reticulated instead of scutellated in front, with the upper part feathered instead of being bare; and the plumage of its body and wings is very different, each feather being tipped with a distinct whitish band, while that of the head and neck is greyish- brown. A further distinction is also asserted to be shown by the eggs — those of R. americana being of a yellowish-white, while those of R. darwini have a bluish tinge. Some years afterwards P. L. Sclater described (op. cit., 1860, p. 207) a third and smaller species, closely resembling the R. americana, but having apparently a longer bill, whence he named it R. tnacro- rhyncha, more slender tarsi, and shorter toes, while its general colour is very much darker, the body and wings being of a brownish-grey mixed with black. The precise geographical range of these three species is still undetermined. While R. americana is known to extend from Paraguay and southern Brazil through the La Plata region to an uncertain distance in Patagonia, R. darwini seems to be the proper inhabitant of the country last named, though M. Claraz asserts (op. cit., 1885, p. 324) that it is occasionally found to the northward of the Rio Negro, which had formerly been regarded as its limit, and, moreover, that flocks of the two species commingled may be very frequently seen in the district between that river and the Rio Colorado. On the " pampas " R. americana is said to associate with herds of deer (Cariacus campestris), and R. darwini to be the constant companion of guanacos (Lama huanaco) — just as in Africa the ostrich seeks the society of zebras and antelopes. As for R. macrorhyncha, it was found by W. A. Forbes (Ibis, 1881, pp. 360, 361) to inhabit the dry and open " sertoes " of north-eastern Brazil, a discovery the more interesting since it was in that part of the country that Marcgrav and Piso became acquainted with a bird of this kind, though the existence of any species of rhea in the district had been long overlooked by or unknown to succeeding travellers. Besides the works above named and those of other recognized authorities on the ornithology of South America such as Azara, Prince Max of Wied, Professor Burmeister and others, more cr less valuable information on the subject is to be found in Darwin's Voyage, Dr Backing's " Monographic des Nandu " in (Wieg- mann's) Archil) fur Naturgeschichte (1863, i. pp. 213-41); R. O. Cunningham's Natural History of the Strait of Magellan and paper in the Zoological Society's Proceedings for 1871 (pp. 105-110), as well as H. F. Gadow's still more important anatomical contributions in the same journal for 1885 (pp. 308 seq.). (A. N.) RHEINBERGER, JOSEPH GABRIEL (1830-1001), German composer, was born at Vaduz, Liechtenstein, on the I7th of March 1839. His musical abilities were manifested so early that he was appointed organist of the parish church when he was but seven years old. A three-part Mass composed by him was performed in the following year. He was taught at first by Philipp Schmutzer, choir director at Feldkirch; he entered the Munich Conservatorium in 1851, and remained there till 1854 RHEINE— RHETORIC 233 as a pupil of Professor E. Leonhard for piano, Professor Herzog for organ and J. J. Maier for counterpoint. After leaving the school he had private lessons from Franz Lachner, and was appointed a professor in the conservatorium in succession to Leonhard in 1859. In 1860 he became professor of composition, and was appointed organist of the Michelskirche, a post he held till 1866. In 1877 he succeeded Wiillner as Hof kapellmeister, and from that time his attention was largely devoted to sacred music. His compositions include works of importance in every form, from the operas Die sieben Raben (Munich, 1869) and Tiirmers Tochterlein (Munich, 1873) and the oratorio Christo- forus, op. 1 20, to the well-known quartet for piano and strings in E flat, op. 38, the nonet for wind and strings, op. 139, and the seventeen organ sonatas, which form notable additions to the literature of the instrument. He died in November 1901. RHEINE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated on the Ems, at the point where it becomes navigable, 29 m. W. by rail of Osnabruck, and at the junction of main lines to Miinster, Rotterdam and Emden. Pop. (1905) 12,801. It is an old-fashioned town with a pronounced Dutch aspect, and has pretty gardens and promenades. Rheine is the seat of cotton industries, has manufactures of jute, machinery, tobacco and flour, and a considerable river trade in agricultural produce. It received municipal rights in 1327. About a mile north of Rheine is the castle of Bentlage, the family seat of the princes of Rheina-Wolbeck. RHENANUS, BEATUS (1485-1547), German humanist, was born in 1485 at Schlettstadt in Alsace, where his father, named Bild, a native of Rheinau (hence the surname Rhenanus), was a prosperous butcher. He received his early education at the famous Latin school of Schlettstadt, and afterwards (1503) went to Paris, where he came under the influence of Jacobus Faber Stapulensis, an eminent Aristotelian. In 1511 he removed to Basel, where he became intimate with Desiderius Erasmus, and took an active share in the publishing enterprises of Joannes Froben (q.v.). In 1526 he returned to Schlettstadt, and devoted himself to a life of learned leisure, enlivened with epistolary and personal intercourse with Erasmus (the printing of whose more important works he personally superintended) and many other scholars of his time. He died at Strassburg on the 2oth of July 1547. His earliest publication was a biography of Geiler of Kaisers- berg (1510). Of his subsequent works the principal are Rerum Gennanicarum Libri III. (1531), and editions of Velleius Pater- culus (ed. princeps, from a MS. discovered by himself, 1522); Tacitus (1519, exclusive of the Histories); Livius (1535); and Erasmus (with a life, 9 vols. fol., 1540-41). See A. Horawitz, Beatus Rhenanus (1872), and by the same, Des Beatus Rhenanus literarische Tdtigkeit (2 vols., 1872) ; also the notice by R. Hartfelder in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic. RHETICUS, or RHAETICUS (1514-1576), a surname given to GEORGE JOACHIM, German astronomer and mathematician, from his birth at Feldkirch in that part of Tirol which was anciently the territory of the Rhaeti. Born on the isth of February 1514, he studied at Tiguri with Oswald Mycone, and afterwards went to Wittenberg where he was appointed pro- fessor of mathematics in 1537. Being greatly attracted by the new Copernican theory, he resigned the professorship in 1539, and went to Frauenberg to associate himself with Copernicus (q.v.), and superintended the printing of the De Orbium Revolu- tione which he had persuaded Copernicus to complete. Rheticus now began his great treatise, Opus Palatinum de Triangulis, and continued to work at it while he occupied his old chair at Wittenberg, and indeed up to his death at Cassovia in Hungary, on the 4th of December 1576. The Opus Palatinum of Rheticus was published by Valentine Otho, mathematician to the electoral prince palatine, in 1596. It gives tables of sines and cosines, tangents, &c., for every 10 seconds, calculated to ten places. He had projected a table of the same kind to fifteen places, but did not live to complete it. The sine table, however, was afterwards published on this scale under the name of Thesaurus M ' athematicus (Frankfort, 1613) by B. Pitiscus (1561-1613), who himself carried the calculation of a few of the earlier sines to twenty-two places. He also published Narratio de Libris Revolutionum Copernici (Gedenum, 1540), which was subse- quently added to editions of Copernicus's works; and Ephemer- ides until 1551, which were founded on the Copernican doctrines. He projected numerous other works, as is shown by a letter to Peter Ramus in 1568, which Adrian Romanus inserted in the preface to his Idea of Mathematics. RHETORIC (Gr. /Vopi«j) Tt\v^l, the art of the orator), the art of using language in such a way as to produce a desired impression upon the hearer or reader. The object is strictly persuasion rather than intellectual approval or conviction; hence the term, with its adjective " rhetorical," is commonly used for a speech or writing in which matter is subservient to form or display. So in grammar, a " rhetorical question " is one which is asked not for the purpose of obtaining an answer, but simply for dramatic effect. The power of eloquent speech is recognized in the earliest extant writings. Homer describes Achilles as a " speaker of words, as well as a doer of deeds ": Nestor, Menelaus and Odysseus are all orators as well as states- men and soldiers. Again the brilliant eloquence of Pericles is the theme of Aristophanes and Eupolis. Naturally the influ- ence wielded by the great orators led to an investigation of the characteristics of successful rhetoric, and especially from the time of Aristotle the technique of the art ranked among the recognized branches of learning. A lost work of Aristotle is quoted by Diogenes Laertius (viii. 57) as saying that Empedocles " invented " (tvpeiv) rhetoric; Zeno, dialectic (i.e. logic, the art of making a logical argument, apart from the style). This is certainly not to be understood as meaning that Empedocles composed the first " art " of rhetoric. It is rather to be explained by Aristotle's own remark, cited by Laertius from another lost treatise, that Empedocles was " a master of expression and skilled in the use of metaphor " — qualities which may have found scope in his political oratory, when, after the fall of^Thrasydaeus in 472 B.C., he opposed the restoration of a tyranny at Agrigentum. The founder of rhetoric as an art was Corax of Syracuse Barfy (c. 466 B.C.). In 466 a democracy was established Greet in Syracuse. One of the immediate consequences rhetoric was a mass of litigation on claims to property, urged Corax. by democratic exiles who had been dispossessed by Thrasybulus, Hiero or Gelo. Such claims, going many years back, would often require that a complicated series of details should be stated and arranged. It would also, in many instances, lack documentary support, and rely chiefly on inferential reasoning. Hence the need of professional advice. The facts known as to the " art " of Corax perfectly agree with these conditions. He gave rules for arrangement, dividing the speech into five parts,— proem, narrative, arguments (ay&ves), subsidiary remarks (irapeK/Saaw) and peroration. Next he illustrated the topic of general probability (e«6s), The showing its two-edged use: e.g., if a puny man is topic accused of assaulting a stronger, he can say, " Is it o/ «*<«<. likely that I should have attacked him?" If vice versa, the strong man can argue, " Is it likely that I should have committed an assault where the presumption was sure to be against me ? " This topic of «6c6s, in its manifold forms, was in fact the great weapon of the earliest Greek rhetoric. It was further developed by Tisias, the pupil of Corax, as we see from Plato's Phaedrus, in an " art " of rhetoric which antiquity possessed, but of which we know little else. Aristotle gives the e«6j a place among the topics of the fallacious enthymeme which he enumerates in Rhet. ii. 24, remarking that it was the very essence of the treatise of Corax; he points out the fallacy of omitting to distinguish between abstract and particular probability, quoting the verses of Agatho, — " Perhaps one might call this very thing a probability, that many im- probable things will happen to men." Gorgias (q.v.) of Leontini captivated the Athenians in 427 B.C. by his oratory (Diod. xii. 53), which, so far as we can judge, was xxm. 8 a Tisias. 234 RHETORIC characterized by florid antithesis, expressed in short jerky sentences. But he has no definite place in the development of rhetoric as a system. It is doubtful whether he left a written "art"; and his mode of teaching was based on learning prepared passages by heart, — diction (Xe£«), not invention or arrangement, being his great object. The first extant Greek author who combined the theory with the practice of rhetoric is the Athenian Antiphon (q.v.), the first of the Attic orators, and the earliest representative at Athens of a new profession created by the new art of rhetoric — that of the \o707pA0oj, the writer of forensic speeches for other men to speak in court. His speeches show the art of rhetoric in its transition from the technical to the practical stage, from the school to the law court and the assembly. The organic lines of the rhetorical pleader's thought stand out in bold relief, and we are enabled to form a clear notion of the logographer's method. We find a striking illustra- tion of the fact that the topic of " probability " is the staple of this early forensic rhetoric. Viewed generally, the works of Antiphon are of great interest for the history of Attic prose, as marking how far it had then been influenced by a theory of style. The movement of Antiphon's prose has a certain grave dignity, " impressing by its weight and grandeur," as a Greek critic in the Augustan age says, " not charming by its life and flow. " Verbal antithesis is used, not in a diffuse or florid way, but with a certain sledge-hammer force, as sometimes in the speeches of Thucydides. The imagery, too, though bold, is not florid. The structure of the periods is still crude; and the general effect of the whole, though often powerful and impressive, is somewhat rigid. Antiphon represents what was afterwards named the " austere " or " rugged " style (avo-rripa appavia), Lysias was the model of an artistic and versatile simplicity. But while Antiphon has a place in the history of rhetoric as an art, Lysias, with his more attractive gifts, belongs only to the history of oratory. Ancient writers quote an " art " of rhetoric by Isocrates, but its authenticity was questioned. It is certain, however, that Isocrates taught the art as such. He is said to have defined rhetoric " as the science of persuasion " (Sext. Empir. Adv. Mathem.ii. § 62, p. 301 seq.). Many of his particular precepts, both on arrangement and on diction, are cited, but they do not give a complete view of his method. The <£iXo£a (" theory of culture ") which Isocrates expounds in his discourses Against the Sophists and on the Anlidosis, was in fact rhetoric applied to politics. First came technical expositions: the pupil was introduced to all the artificial resources which prose composition employs (rds Ideas airaaas cus 6 Xayos rvyx&vti XPCO/WPOS, Anlid. § 183). The same term (Ideai) is also used by Isocrates in a narrower sense, with reference to the " figures " of rhetoric, properly called (Txh^a-ra (Panath. § 2) ; sometimes, again, in a sense still more general, to the several branches or styles of literary composition (Anlid. § n). When the technical elements of the subject had been learned, the pupil was required to apply abstract rules in actual composition, and his essay was revised by the master. Isocrates was unquestionably successful in forming speakers and writers. His school was famous during ' a period of some fifty years (390 to 340 B.C.). Among the statesmen whom it trained were Timotheus, Leodamas of Acharnae, Lycurgus and Hyperides; among the philosophers or rhetoricians were Speusippus, Plato's successor in the Academy, and Isaeus; among the historians, Ephorus and Theopompus. Cicero and through him all subsequent oratory owed much to the ample prose of the Isocratean school. In the person of Isocrates the art of rhetoric is thus thoroughly established, not merely as a technical method, but also as a practical discipline of life. If Plato's mildly ironical reference in the Euthydemus to a critic "on the borderland between philosophy and statesmanship " was meant, as is probable, for Isocrates, at least there was a wide difference between the measure of acceptance accorded to the earlier Sophists, such as Protagoras, and the influence which the school of Isocrates exerted through the men whom it had trained. Rhetoric had won its place in Arts- totie't "Rhe- toiic." education. It kept that place through varying fortunes to the fall of the Roman empire, and resumed it, for a while, at the revival of learning. Plato in the Gorgias and the Phaedrus satirized the ordinary textbooks of rhetoric, and himself gave directions for a higher standard of work; but the detailed study of the art begins with Aristotle. Aristotle's Rhetoric belongs to the generation after Isocrates, having been composed (but see ARISTOTLE) between 330 and 322 B.C. As controversial allusions sometimes hint it holds Isocrates for one of the foremost exponents of the subject. From a purely literary point of view Aristotle's Rhetoric (with the partial exception of book iii.) is one of the driest works in the world. From the historical or scientific point of view it is one of the most interesting. If we would seize the true significance of the treatise it is better to compare rhetoric with grammar than with its obvious analogue, logic. A method of grammar was the conception of the Alexandrian age, which had lying before it the standard masterpieces of Greek literature, and deduced the " rules " of grammar from the actual practice of the best writers. Aristotle in the latter years of the 4th century B.C. held the same position relatively to the monuments of Greek oratory which the Alexandrian methodizers of grammar held relatively to Greek literature at large. Abundant material lay before him, illustrating how speakers had been 'able to persuade the reason or to move the feelings. He therefore sought thence to deduce rules and so construct a true art. Aristotle's practical purpose was undoubtedly real. If we are to make persuasive speakers, he believed, this is the only sound way to set about it. But the enduring interest of his Rhetoric is mainly retrospective. It attracts us as a feat in analysis by an acute mind — a feat highly characteristic of that mind itself, and at the same time strikingly illustrative of the field over which the materials have been gathered. The Rhetoric is divided into three books. It deals in great detail with the minutiae of the rhetorical craft. Book i. discusses the nature and object of rhetoric. The means of persuasion (-flareis) are classified into " inartificial " (aTexcoi), i.e. the facts of the case external to the art, documents, laws, depositions, — and " arti- ficial " (itvTrxvoC), the latter subdivided into logical (the popular syllogism or " enthymeme," the " example," &c.), ethical, and emotional. Aristotle next deals with the " topics " (T&TOI), i.e. the commonplaces of rhetoric, general or particular arguments which the rhetorician must have ready for immediate use. Rhetoric is then broadly divided into : — (l) deliberative (yvitffovKtvriK-ii), concerned with exhortation or dissuasion, and with future time, its end (T£\OS) being the advantage or detriment of the persons addressed; (2) forensic (Stxawc??), concerned with accusation and defence, and with time past, its standard being justice; (3) epi- deictic, the ornamental rhetoric of display, concerned with praise and blame, usually with the present time, its standard being honour and shame. Each of these kinds is discussed, and the book ends with a brief analysis of the " inartificial proofs." In book ii. Aristotle returns to the " artificial " proofs — those which rhetoric itself provides. The " logical " proof having been discussed in book i., he turns to the ethical." He shows how the speaker may so indicate his own character and the goodness of his motive as to prepossess the audience in his favour, and proceeds to furnish materials to this end. The " emotional " proof is then discussed, and an analysis is given of the emotions on which the speaker may play. A consideration follows of the " universal commonplaces ' . (Koivol rbvoi) which are suitable to all subjects. The book ends with an appendix dealing with the "example" (irapd&ryAta), the general moral sentiments (yv&ncu) and the enthymeme. In book iii. Aristotle considers expression (Xf£is), including the art of delivery (iiTrixpuris), and arrangement (rd^s). Composition, the use of prose rhythm, the periodic style (the "periodic" style, KaTtarpanntvii, being contrasted with the running (tlpoiitini)) are all analysed, and the types of style literary (ypatpiKii) and oral (&ywvurTiKTi) are differentiated. Under " arrangement " he concludes with the parts of a speech, proem, narrative, proofs and epilogue. It is necessary briefly to consider Aristotle s general view of rhetoric as set forth in book i. Rhetoric is properly an art. This is the proposition from which Aristotle sets out. It is so because when a speaker persuades, it is possible to find out why he succeeds in doing so. Rhetoric is, in fact, the popular branch of logic. Hitherto, Aristotle says, the essence of rhetoric has been neglected for the accidents. Writers on rhetoric have hitherto concerned themselves mainly with " the exciting of prejudice, of pity, of anger, and such-like emotions of the soul." All this is very well, but " it has nothing to do with the matter in hand; it has regard RHETORIC 235 to the judge." The true aim should be to prove your point, or seem to prove it. Here we may interpolate a comment which has a general bearing on Aristotle's Rhetoric. It is quite true that, if we start from the conception of rhetoric as a branch of logic, the phantom of logic in rhetoric claims precedence over appeals to passion. But Aristotle does not sufficiently regard the question — -What, as a matter of experience, is most persuasive? Logic may be more persuasive with the more select hearers of rhetoric; but rhetoric is for the many, and with the many appeals to passion will sometimes, perhaps usually, be more effective than syllogism. No formulation of rhetoric can correspond with fact which does not leave it abso- lutely to the genius of the speaker whether reasoning (or its phantom) is to be what Aristotle calls it, the " body of proof " (aSi^a riorfGos), or whether the stress of persuading effort should not be rather addressed to the emotions of the hearers. But we can entirely agree with Aristotle in his next remark, which is historical in its nature. The deliberative branch of rhetoric had hitherto been postponed, he observes, to the forensic. We have, in fact, already seen that the very origin of rhetoric in Hellas was forensic. The relative subordination of deliberative rhetoric, however unscientific, had thus been human. Aristotle's next statement, that the master of logic will be the master of rhetoric, is a truism if we concede the essential primacy of the logical element in rhetoric. Otherwise it is a paradox; and it is not in accord with experience, which teaches that speakers incapable of showing even the ghost of an argument have sometimes been the most completely successful in carrying great audiences along with them. Aristotle never assumes that the hearers of his rhetorician are as oi \a.pltvTes, the culti- vated few; on the other hand, he is apt to assume tacitly — and here his individual bent comes out — that these hearers are not the great surging crowd, the #x^°s, but a body of persons with a decided, though imperfectly developed, preference for sound logic. What is the use of an art of rhetoric? It is fourfold, Aristotle replies. Rhetoric is useful, first of all, because truth and justice are naturally stronger than their opposites. When rhetoric, awards are not duly given, truth and justice must have been worsted by their own fault. This is worth correct- ing. Rhetoric is then (i) corrective. Next, it is (2) instructive, as a popular vehicle of persuasion for persons who could not be reached by the severer methods of strict logic. Then it is (2) suggestive. Logic and rhetoric are the two impartial arts; that is to say, it is a matter of indifference to them, as arts, whether the conclusion which they draw in any given case is affirmative or negative. Suppose that I am going to plead a cause, and have a sincere conviction that I am on the right side. The art of rhetoric will suggest to me what might be urged on the other side; and this will give me a stronger grasp of the whole situation. Lastly, rhetoric is (4) defensive. Mental effort is more distinctive of man than bodily effort; and " it would be absurd that, while incapacity for physical self-defence is . a reproach, incapacity for mental defence should be no reproach." Rhetoric, then, is corrective, instructive, sug- gestive, defensive. But what if it be urged that this art may be abused? The objection, Aristotle answers, applies to all good things, except virtue, and especially to the most useful things. Men may abuse strength, health, wealth, generalship. The function of the medical art is not necessarily to cure, but to make such progress towards a cure as each case may admit. Similarly it would be inaccurate to say that denned l^e functi°n °f rhetoric was to persuade. Rather must rhetoric be defined as " the faculty of discerning in every case the available means of persuasion." Suppose that among these means of persuasion is some process of reasoning which the rhetorician himself knows to be un- sound. That belongs to the province of rhetoric all the same. In relation to logic, a man is called a " sophist " with regard to his moral purpose (irpocupeoij), i.e. if he knowingly used a fallacious syllogism. But rhetoric takes no account of the moral purpose. It takes account simply of the faculty (Swa/uts)- — the faculty of discovering any means qf persuasion. Aristotle's Rhetoric is incomparably the most scientific work which exists on the subject. It may also be regarded as having determined the main lines on which the subject was j^ treated by nearly all subsequent writers. The extant nhei- treatise on rhetoric (also by Aristotle?) entitled 'Pirropu^ orle"to Trpds 'A\t^avSpov, formerly ascribed to Anaximenes of x/ex- Lampsacus, was written at latest by 340 B.C. The /j. ,, introductory letter prefixed to it is probably a late forgery. Its relation towards Aristotle's Rhetoric is discussed in the article on ARISTOTLE. During the three centuries from the age of Alexander to that of Augustus the fortunes of rhetoric were governed by the new conditions of Hellenism. Aristotle's scientific The method lived on in the Peripatetic school. Meanwhile the fashion of florid declamation or strained conceits prevailed in the rhetorical schools of Asia, where, amid anderto mixed populations, the pure traditions of the best Aupts- Greek taste had been dissociated from the use of the *"*• Greek language. The " Asianism " of style which thus came to be constrasted with " Atticism " found imitators at Rome, among whom must be reckoned the orator Hortensius (c. 95 B.C.). Hermagorasof Temnos in Aeolis (c. no Wenns. B.C.) claims mention as having done much to revive gons. a higher conception. Using both the practical rhetoric of the time before Aristotle and Aristotle's philosophical rhetoric, he worked up the results of both in a new system, — following the philosophers so far as to give the chief prominence to " inven- tion." He thus became the founder of a rhetoric which may be distinguished as the scholastic. Through the influence of his school, Hermagoras did for Roman eloquence very much what Isocrates had done for Athens. Above all, he counter- acted the view of " Asianism," that oratory is a mere knack founded on practice, and recalled attention to the study of it as an art.1 Cicero's rhetorical works are to some extent based on the technical system to which he had been introduced by Molon at Rhodes. But Cicero further made an independent ckero. use of the best among the earlier Greek writers, Isocrates, Aristotle and Theophrastus. Lastly, he could draw, at least in the later of his treatises, on a vast fund of reflection and experience. Indeed, the distinctive interest of his con- tributions to the theory of rhetoric consists in the fact that his theory can be compared with his practice. The result of such a comparison is certainly to suggest how much less he owed to his art than to his genius. Some consciousness of this is perhaps implied in the idea which pervades much of his writing on oratory, that the perfect orator is the perfect man. The same thought is present to Quintilian, in whose great work, De Institutione Oratorio, the scholastic rhetoric re- ceives its most complete expression (c. A.D. 90). Quintilian treats oratory as the end to which the entire mental and moral development of the student is to be directed. Thus he devotes his first book to an early discipline which should precede the orator's first studies, and his last book to a discipline of the whole man which lies beyond them. Some notion of his comprehensive method may be derived from the circumstance that he introduces a succinct estimate of the chief Greek and Roman authors, of every kind, from Homer to Seneca (bk. x. §§ 46-131). After Quintilian, the next important name is that of Hermogenes of Tarsus, who under Marcus Aurelius made a complete digest of the scholastic rhetoric from the time of Hermagoras of Temnos (no B.C.). It is contained in five extant treatises, which are remarkable for clearness and acuteness, and still more remarkable as having been" completed before the age of twenty-five. Hermogenes continued for nearly a century and a half to be one of the chief authorities in the schools. Longinus (c. A.D. 260) published an Art of Rhetoric which is still extant; and the more celebrated treatise On Sublimity (irtpi ityous), if not wrifcn his work, is at least of the same period. In the later half of the 4th century Aphthonius (q.v.) composed the " exercises " (irfxr/viJiv6.o fiara) which superseded the work of 1 See Jebb's Attic Orators, ii. 445. ' 236 RHETORIC under the Empire. Hermogenes. At the revival of letters the treatise of Aphthonius once more became a standard text-book. Much popularity was enjoyed also by the exercises of Aelius Theon (of uncertain date ; see THEON). (See further the editions of the Rhetores Graeci by L. Spengel and by Ch. Walz.) During the first four centuries of the empire the practice of the art was in greater vogue than ever before or since. First, Practice there was a general dearth of the higher intellectual ofRhet' interests: politics gave no scope to energy; philosophy oric was stagnant, and literature, as a rule, either arid or frivolous. Then the Greek schools had poured their rhetoricians into Rome, where the same tastes which revelled in coarse luxury welcomed tawdry declamation. The law-courts of the Roman provinces further created a continual demand for forensic speaking. The public teacher (< of rhetoric was called " sophist," which was now an phLts "" academic title, similar to " professor " or " doctor." In the 4th century B.C. Isocrates had taken pride in the name of crcx^itrnfc, which, indeed, had at no time wholly lost th; good, or neutral, sense which originally belonged to it. The academic meaning which it acquired under the early empire lasted into the middle ages (see Du Cange, s.v., who quotes from Baldricus, " Egregius Doctor magnusque Sophista Geraldus "). While the word rhetor still denoted the faculty, the word sophistes denoted the office or rank to which the rhetor might hope to rise. So Lucian (" Teacher of Rhe- toricians," § i) says: " You ask, young man, how you are to become a rhetor, and attain in your turn to the repute of that 'most impressive and illustrious title, sophist." Lucian also satirizes the discussions of the nature of rhetoric in his parody the Parasite (cf. also his Bis Accusatus). Vespasian (70-79 A.D.), according to Suetonius, was the first emperor who gave a public endowment to the teaching of rhetoric. Under Hadrian and the Antonines (A.D. 117-180) the public chairs of rhetoric became objects of the highest ambition. The complete constitution of the schools at Athens was due to Marcus Aurelius. The Philosophical school had four chairs (dpovoi) — Platonic, Stoic, Peripatetic, Epicurean. The Rhetorical school had two chairs, one for " sophistic," the other for " political " rhetoric. By " sophistic " was meant the academic teaching of rhetoric as an art, in distinction from its " political " application to the law-courts. The " sophistical " chair was superior to the "political" indignity as in emolument, and its occupant was invested with a jurisdiction over the youth of Athens similar to that of the vice-chancellor in a modern university. The Antonines further encouraged rhetoric by granting immunities to its teachers. Three " sophists " in each of the smaller towns, and five in the larger, were exempted from taxation (Dig. xxvii. i, 6, § 2). The wealthier sophists affected much personal splendour. Polemon (c. A.D. 130) and Adrian of Tyre (c. A.D. 170) are famous examples of extravagant display. The aim of the sophist was to impress the multitude. His whole stock- in-trade was style, and this was directed to astonishing by tours Dedama- ^e force- The scholastic declamations were chiefly of tioas. two classes- (i) The suasoriae were usually on historical or legendary subjects, in which some course of action was commended or censured (cf. Juv. Sat.}. These suasoriae belonged to deliberative rhetoric (the ftovktvTiKov Tftvos, deliberativum genus). (2) The contr overside turned especially on legal issues, and represented the forensic rhetoric (dLKaviitdv "ftvos, judiciale genus). But it was the general characteristic of this period that all subjects, though formally " deliberative " or " forensic," were treated in the style and spirit of that third branch which Aristotle distinguished, the rhetoric of kiridd&s or " display." The oratory produced by the age of the academic sophists can be estimated from a large extant literature. It is shown under various aspects, and pre- sumably at its best, by such writers as Dio Chrysostom at the end of the ist century, Aelius Aristides (see ARISTIDES, AELIUS) in the 2nd, the chief rhetorician under the Antonines, Themistius, Himerius and Libanius in the 4th. Amid much which is Chairs of Rhetoric. tawdry or vapid, these writings occasionally present passages of true literary beauty, while they constantly offer matter of the highest interest to the student. In the medieval system of academic studies, grammar, logic and rhetoric were the subjects of the trivium, or course followed during the four years of undergraduateship. Medieval Music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy con- study of stituted the quadrivium, or course for the three years Rhetoric. from the B.A. to the M.A. degree. These were the seven liberal arts. In the middle ages the chief authorities on rhetoric were the latest Latin epitomists, such as Martianus Capella (sth cent.), Cassiodorus (5th cent.) or Isidorus (7th cent.). After the revival of learning the better Roman and Greek writers gradually returned into use. Some new treatises were also produced. Leonard Cox (d. 1549) wrote The Art or Craft of Rhetoryke, partly compiled, partly original, which was reprinted in Latin at Cracow. The Art of Rhetorique, by Thomas Wilson (J553)> afterwards secretary of state, embodied rules chiefly from Aristotle, with help from Cicero and Quintilian. About the same time treatises on rhetoric were published in France by Tonquelin (1555) and Courcelles (1557). The general aim at this period was to revive and popularize the best teaching of the ancients on rhetoric. The subject was regularly Rhetoric taught at the universities, and was indeed important. at the At Cambridge in 1570 the study of rhetoric was Uaiver- based on Quintilian, Hermogenes and the speeches of Cicero viewed as works of art. An Oxford statute of 1588 shows that the same books were used there. In 1620 George Herbert was delivering lectures on rhetoric at Cambridge, where he held the office of public orator. The decay of rhetoric as a formal study at the universities set in during the i8th century. The function of the rhetoric lecturer passed over into that of correcting written themes; but his title remained long after his office had lost its primary meaning. If the theory of rhetoric fell into neglect, the practice, however, was encouraged by the public exercises (" acts " and " opponencies ") in the schools. The college prizes for " declamations " served the same purpose. The fortunes of rhetoric in the modern world, as briefly sketched above, may suffice to suggest why few modern writers of ability have given their attention to the subject. Modem Perhaps one of the most notable modern contributions Writers on to the art is the collection of commonplaces framed (in KhetoHc. Latin) by Bacon, " to be so many spools from which the threads can be drawn out as occasion serves," a truly curious work of that acute and fertile mind. He called them " Antitheta." A specimen is subjoined: — UXOR ET LlBERI Against. state " He who marries, and has children, has given hostages to fortune." " The immortality of brutes is in their progeny; of men, in their fame, services, and insti- tutions." " Regard for the family too often overrides regard for the state." For. " Attachment to the begins from the family." " Wife and children are a dis- cipline in humanity. Bachelors are morose and austere." " The only advantage of celi- bacy and childlessness is in case of exile." This is quite in the spirit of Aristotle's treatise. The popu- larity enjoyed by Blair's Rhetoric in the latter part of the i8th and the earlier part of the igth century was merited rather by the form than by the matter. Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, which found less wide acceptance than its predecessor, was superior to it in \lepth, though often marred by an imperfect comprehension of logic. But undoubtedly the best modern book on the subject is Whately's Elements of Rhetoric. \n,atei Starting from Aristotle's view, that rhetoric is " an offshoot from logic," Whately treats it as the art of " argu- mentative composition." He considers it under four heads: (1) the address to the understanding ( = Aristotle's XOTIKI? TROTIS); (2) the address to the will, or persuasion ( = Aristotle's ^1x17 and RHEUMATISM 237 iritTTis); (3) style; (4) elocution, or delivery. But when it is thus urged that — " All a rhetorician's rules But teach him how to name his tools," the assumption is tacitly made that an accurate nomenclature and classification of these tools must be devoid of practical use. The conditions of modern life, and especially the invention of printing, have to some extent diminished the importance which belonged in antiquity to the art of speaking, though modern democratic politics and forensic conditions still make it one which may be cultivated with advantage. Among more modern works are J. Bascom, Philosophy of Rhetoric (New York, 1885); and numerous books on voice culture, gesture and elocution. For ancient rhetoric see Sir R. C. Jebb's translation of Aristotle's Rhetoric (ed. J. E. Sandys, 1909), and his Attic Orators (1876); also Spengel, Artium Scriptores (1828); Westermann, Gesch. der Beredtsamkeit (1833—35;) Cope, in the Cambridge Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology (1855-57) ; introductions to Cicero's De Oratore (A. S. Wilkins) and Orator (J. E. Sandys); Volkmann, Die Rlietorik der Griechen und Romer in system. Ubersichl (ed. 2, 1885). (R. C.J.; X.) RHEUMATISM (from Gr. peDjwx, flux), a general term for various forms of disease, now subdivided more accurately under separate names. ACUTE RHEUMATISM or RHEUMATIC FEVER is the name given to a disease having for its chief characteristics inflammatory affections of the joints, attended by severe constitutional dis- turbances and frequently associated with inflammation of the pericardium and valves of the heart. The acute rheumatism of childhood differs materially from that of adults in that the articular manifestations and constitutional disturbance are usually much less severe, whereas the heart and pericardium are especially liable to be attacked. It will be advisable, therefore, in discussing the symptoms, to deal separately with the rheumatism of adults and that of childhood. There are certain points of importance in connexion with its causation which are generally agreed upon. It is essentially a disease of childhood and early adult life, being most commonly met with between the ages of ten and twenty-five and comparatively rarely after forty. Heredity is unquestionably an important predisposing cause. Climate is also a factor of considerable importance, cold and damp with sudden and wide fluctuations of temperature being especially conducive to an attack. While perhaps more common in Great Britain than elsewhere, it is met with in most parts of the globe. Exposure to cold and wet, and especially a chill after free perspiration and fatigue, are among the most common exciting causes of an attack. Of recent years much evidence has accumulated tending to show that rheumatism is a specific infective disease due to a micro-organism, and this is now generally recognized. There is still, however, some difference of opinion as to the nature of the micro-organism by which it is produced. In 1900 F. J. Poynton and Paine isolated from eight cases of acute rheumatism in children a minute diplococcus similar to that previously de- scribed by Triboulet and by A. Wasserman, which inoculated into rabbits produced lesions of the joints and of the heart indistinguishable from those met with in acute rheumatism. They have since obtained the same micro-organism from a further large number of cases of acute rheumatism, and their results have been confirmed by Walker, Beattie and others. They therefore claim that this micro-organism, to which they have given the name Diplococcus rheumaticus, is the specific cause of acute rheumatism. The objections which have been raised by other competent observers against this view are: (i) That this diplococcus is not found in all cases of acute rheumatism. (2) That certain other micro-organisms when inoculated into animals will produce joint and heart affections similar to those produced by the aforesaid Diplococcus rheumaticus . It would be out of place here to enter into the merits of this controversy; suffice it to say that the objections raised do not appear to be cogent enough to invalidate the conclusions arrived at by the authors of the germ theory. The matter is, however, still to a certain extent sub judice. In adults the affection of the joints is the most striking feature. The attack is usually ushered in by a feeling of chilliness or malaise, with pain or stiffness in one or more joints, generally those of large or medium size, such as the knees, ankles, wrists or shoulders. At first the pain is confined to one or two joints, but others soon become affected, and there is a tendency to symmetry in the order in which they are attacked, the inflammation in one joint being followed by that of the same joint on the opposite side. The affected joints are swollen, hot and excessively tender, and the skin over them is somewhat flushed. The temperature is raised, ranging from about 101° to 103° F., the pulse rapid, full and soft; the face is flushed, the tongue coated with a thick white fur, and there is thirst, loss of appetite, and constipation.^ The body is bathed in a profuse perspiration, which has a characteristic sour, disagreeable odour. The urine is diminished, acid and loaded with urates. The attack is of variable duration, and may pass off in a few days or last for some weeks. Relapses are not uncommon when convalescence appears to have been estab- lished. Among the complications which may arise are hyper- pyrexia, or rapid and extreme rise of temperature, which may run up as high as 110° F., when death will speedily ensue unless prompt and energetic treatment by cold baths or icepacks is resorted to. Affections of the heart, pericarditis (inflammation of the fibro-serous sac investing the heart) and endocarditis (inflammation of the lining membrane and the valves of the heart), which are so frequently associated with rheumatism, should be regarded as part of the disease, rather than as com- plications of rheumatism. They are far more common in children than in adults, and it is the damage to the valves of the heart in children by rheumatism which lays the foundation of much chronic heart disease in later life. In childhood the affection of the joints is usually slight, and may be confined to a little pain or stiffness in one or two joints, and is sometimes attributed by parents to " growing pains." The constitutional symptoms are also ill-marked and tliere are no acid sweats, the temperature is not as a rule very high, the tongue not heavily coated, and the child does not appear to be very ill. The heart and pericardium are, however, especially liable to attack, and this may be so insidious in its onset that attention is not called to it till considerable damage has been done to the heart. It is of importance, therefore, that in children the heart should be frequently examined by a physician, when there is the slightest suspicion of an attack of rheumatism. Chorea or St Vitus's dance is a common manifestation of rheu- matism in children. Subcutaneous fibrous nodules, attached to tendons or fibrous structures beneath the skin, are a special feature of the rheumatism of childhood. They are painless, and vary in size from one-eighth to half an inch in diameter. They are not very common, but when present indicate that the rheumatism has a firm hold and that cardiac complications are to be apprehended. The patient should be placed in bed between blankets, and should wear a light flannel or woollen shirt. The affected joints should be kept at rest as far as possible, and enveloped in cotton-wool. Salicylate of soda or salicin, first meat' suggested by Dr Maclagan in 1876, appear to exercise a specific influence in acute rheumatism. They have a power- ful effect not only in reducing the temperature, but in relieving the pain and cutting short the attack. Frequent and fairly large doses of salicylate of soda should be administered for the first twenty-four hours: the dose and interval at which it is given should then be gradually reduced till the symptoms subside. In conjunction with this, alkalies such as bicarbonate or citrate of potash should also be administered. The effect of the salicylate should be carefully watched, and the dose reduced if toxic symptoms such as delirium, deafness, and noises in the ears occur. These drugs are of less service in the rheumatism of children than in that of adults, as they do not appear to exercise any specific influence in arresting the cardiac inflammation to which children are specially liable, though they have a marked effect on the joint affections. Aspirin has RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS recently come into use as a substitute for salicylates, and may succeed when salicylates fail. Subacute rheumatism. — This term is sometimes applied to attacks of the disease of a less severe type in which the symp- toms, though milder in character, are usually of longer duration and more intractable than in the acute form. It is difficult, however, to draw a hard-and-fast line between the two, but the term may perhaps be most appropriately applied to the repeated and protracted attacks of cardiac rheumatism in children. CHRONIC RHEUMATISM. — This term has been somewhat loosely applied to various chronic joint affections, sometimes of gouty origin or the result of rheumatoid arthritis. Strictly speaking, it may be applied to cases in which the joint lesrons persist after an attack of rheumatism, and chronic inflammatory thickening of the tissues takes place, so that they become stiff and deformed. It is also appropriate to certain joint affections occurring in later life in rheumatic subjects, who are liable to repeated attacks of pain and stiffness in the joints, usually induced by exposure to cold and wet. This form of rheumatism is less migratory than the acute, and is commonly limited to one or two of the larger joints. After repeated attacks the affected joints may become permanently stiff and painful, and crackling or creaking may occur on movement. There is seldom any constitutional disturbance, and the heart is not liable to be affected. MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM. — By this is understood a painful affection of certain groups of muscles attributable to inflamma- tion of their fibrous and tendinous attachments. It is commonly brought on by exposure to cold and wet, and especially by a chill after violent exercise and free perspiration when the clothes are not changed. Any movement of the affected muscles gives rise to severe and sharp pain which may induce a certain degree of spasm and rigidity at the time. The pain usually subsides and passes off completely while the patient is at rest, but occurs on the slightest movement of the affected muscles. The chief varieties of muscular rheumatism are: — 1. Lumbago, in which the muscles of the lower part of the back are affected so that stooping, particularly the attempt to rise again to the erect position, induces severe pain. 2. Intercostal rheumatism, affecting the muscles between the ribs, so that taking a deep breath and certain movements of the arms give rise to pain. 3. Torticollis or stiff neck, affecting the muscles of one side of the neck. Treatment. — Salicylates, which are of service in acute rheu- matism, are not so reliable in the chronic varieties, but are some- times of service. Aspirin, salicin, quinine and iodide of potas- sium may be more successful, but other active treatment is usually required. The application of heat in the form of poul- tices or fomentations, counter irritation by mustard leaves or blisters, are indicated in some cases. In others massage, hot douches, or electricity may be required. Mineral waters and baths of various health resorts are often of great benefit in obstinate cases, such as those of Buxton, Bath, Harrogate, Woodhall Spa, &c., in England, or of Aix-les-Bains, Wiesbaden, Wildbad, &c., and many others on the continent of Europe. Wintering abroad in warm, dry and sunny climates may be advisable in some cases when this is practicable. Q. F. H. B.) RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (OSTEO-ARTHRITIS, ARTHRITIS DE- FORMANS), terms employed to designate a disease or group of diseases characterized by destructive changes in the joints. Though it is only in comparatively recent times that the disease was definitely recognized as separate clinically from either rheumatism or gout, it is certain that it prevailed in ancient times. Characteristic changes in the bones have been found in remains in tombs in Egypt attributed by Petrie to 1300 B.C., and ancient Roman as well as British graves have held bones showing distinct traces of the diseases. Of early medical writers, Paulus Aeginata observed the lesions and seemed to consider them distinctive. Landre Beauvais in 1800 published a description of the disease under the title of Goulte aslhenique primitif. The first endeavour, however, to separate rheumatoid arthritis as a distinct disease was made by William Heberden in 1803; while in 1805 John Haygarth recognized the difference between it and rheumatism, and suggested the term " nodosity of the joints." A wide divergence of opinion during the igth century as to its relation to rheumatism and to gout gave rise to the unfortunate term " rheumatic gout." The name arthritis deformans-wa.s suggested by Virchow in 1859. Various causes, such as nervous origin, inherited arthritic diathesis, a relationship to rheumatism or gout, and reflex irritation, have been put foward as giving rise to the disease, but in the present state of medical knowledge two are most favoured. The first ascribes the disease to an infective process arising from micro-organisms. Several observers have found bacteria in the synovial fluid and membranes of affected joints, — Max Schuller finding both bacilli and cocci, while in 1896 Gilbert Bannatyne, Wohlmann and Blaxall isolated a micro-organism, a bacillus with a bipolar staining, which they stated to be almost constantly present in the joints of patients with true rheumatoid arthritis. The second view is that the disease is the result of a chronic toxaemia produced by absorption of toxines from the intestine, with perhaps some error in metabolism. In many cases there seems to be a distinct evidence of a local infection, injury being a determining factor, and some families seem to have joints which are specially liable to degeneration. The disease may begin at any age, for there is no doubt that persistent cases have been met with in quite young children; but it usually begins in early middle-age, and statistics seem to confirm the impression of the greater liability of females. Conditions which tend to lower the general health seem to act as a predisposing cause to rheumatoid arthritis, e.g. mental worry, uterine disorders and various lowering diseases,' prominent among which are influenza and tonsillitis. In a number of cases in women the onset occurs about the time of the menopause. The method of onset varies according to the form. There are four well-marked types — (i) the peri-articular form, in which the most marked changes are in the synovial membrane and peri-articular tissues, and the cartilage may be involved to a lesser degree. In this variety is found every grade of severity. The onset may be acute, resembling an attack of rheumatic fever, for which it may be mistaken; the joints, one or more, are swollen, tender and painful to the touch; the temperature elevated to 100°; 101°; but unlike rheumatic fever, sweating and hyperpyrexia are uncommon. The acute stage may then subside, a slight thickening remaining in the capsule of the joint, and the contours of the limb scarcely regaining the normal; or the attack may gradually develop into the chronic form. The pain varies greatly, and is not necessarily in ratio to the amount of arthritis present. Various joints may be involved, the spinal vertebrae not infrequently sharing in an arthritis; the most usual joints to be attacked, however, arerthe knee and shoulder. When the knee is attacked there is commonly effusion into the joint. Muscular atrophy is usually present, but varies greatly in its extent. In most cases it is present to a much greater degree than can be accounted for by disuse of the muscles. The skin has in these cases a curious glossy appearance, and pigmentations may be noticed. In chronic forms the onset is gradual, one joint becoming painful and swelling, and then the others successively; in these slow forms the outlook for the recovery of the joint is not so good as in the acute, and some cases may proceed to extreme deformity with little or no pain. Gradually the shape of the joint is altered ; this is in a great measure due to synovial thickening, and partly to the presence of olsteophytes in the joint. When the affected joint is moved a distinct crepitation can be felt. The muscles about the joint atrophy often to an extreme degree, and con- tractures supervene, flexing the leg upon the thigh if the knees should be affected, and the thigh upon the abdomen should the hip be affected. In extreme degrees the patient may become a complete cripple. Later, in many cases a quiescent stage of the RHEYDT— RHIGAS 239 disease is reached, the patients cease to suffer pain, and are inconvenienced only by the deformities in the limbs, in which a considerable degree of motion may be retained. Remarkable deformities are seen in hands in which a considerable amount of usefulness still remains. Dyspepsia and anaemia are fre- quently associated with arthritis. Monarticular arthritis more particularly affects the aged; and when it affects the hip is known as morbus coxae senilis. (2) The atrophic form of arthritis is not very common. The chief anatomical change is due to atrophy in the bone and cartilage. The disease occurs at an earlier period in life than the peri-articular form, from which the initial symptoms do not markedly differ; but the disorganization in the joint is greater, dislocations frequently occur, and ankylosis of the joints follows. This is the most serious form of arthritis. (3) In the hypertrophic form the anatomical changes include the formation of new bone as well as changes in the cartilage. This new-bone formation may lead to progressive ankylosis in the joints. Should the , vertebral column be affected a rigid condition of the spine known as spondylilis deformans (" poker back ") may ensue. What are termed " Heberden's nodes " are small hard knobs about the size of a pea frequently found upon the fingers near the terminal phalangeal joints; they rarely give rise to symptoms. Popularly ascribed to gout, these nodes are in reality a manifestation of arthritis. (4) A variety of arthritis occurring in children is known as Still's disease; in which the swelling of the joints is associated with swelling of the lymph glands and of the spleen. The onset is often acute, with fever and rigors; sweating is profuse and the joints are enlarged and painful. There may be much muscular wasting and limitation of movement in the joints, and anaemia is associated with the disease. The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis is rarely curative, once the disease has been permanently established; and it is therefore important to begin treatment before destructive changes have taken place in the joints. In the acute febrile form, which is frequently taken for rheumatism, the essential treatment is rest to the affected joints, with the application of oil of wintergreen; the joint should not be fixed but supported. In the more chronic forms medicinal treatments are usually of little value. Potassium iodide is useful in some cases by promoting absorption of the hypertrophied fibrous tissue, and guaiacol if administered for a sufficiently long time is said to be capable of arresting the disease, diminishing the size of the joint and helping movement. Where anaemia accompanies the disease iron and arsenic are of value. The general health of a patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis must be maintained, and he should live upon a dry soil. Visits to Aix-les-Bains, Buxtdn, Bath or Droitwich, with their baths and shampooings, often prove useful, particularly when combined with gentle massage. It is a mistake to keep the joints entirely at rest in the chronic forms, as this tends to the formation of coritractures and ankylosis. Moderate exercise without undue fatigue is desirable. Patients should go early to bed and have plenty of rest, sunshine and fresh air. It is important that the diet should be nourishing and plentiful, and should there be intestinal putrefaction fermented milk is useful. As regards the local treatment, it will be well in the majority of cases to determine by the X-rays the exact state of the affected joints. Radiant heat, vibration and hot-air baths are among the best treatments. The active hyperaemia induced by hot air favours restoration of movement and alleviates pain, but where there is pronounced destruction of bone and cartilage full restoration of a joint cannot take place. Systematic exercises of the joints tend to prevent the atrophy of the adjacent muscles, and Bier's passive hyperaemia induced by the temporary use of an elastic bandage has the same results. Should an X-ray photograph reveal the presence of spurs or loose bodies in the joints interfering with free movement their removal is called for. Sometimes the breaking down of adhesions under an anaesthetic is necessary, and gentle passive and later active movements of the joints should follow if freedom of use is to be gained. Recently treatment by radium has taken a definite place in the therapeutics of chronic arthritis, its analgesic properties seeming of great benefit. (H. L. H.) RHEYDT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine pro- vince, situated on the Niers, 19 m. W. of Dusseldorf, on the main line of railway to Aix-la-Chapelle, and at the junction of lines to' Crefeld and Stolberg. Pop. (1005) 40,149. It has two Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a handsome new town hall (1895), a gymnasium, and several technical schools. The principal products of its numerous factories are silk, cotton, woollen and mixed fabrics, velvet, iron goods, machinery, shoes, cables, soap and cigars. Dyeing and finishing, brewing and distilling, are also carried on. Rheydt is an ancient place, but its industrial importance is of very recent growth, and it only received municipal rights in 1856. See Rheyter Chronik. Geschichte der Herrschaft und Stadt Rheydt (2 vols., Rheydt, 1897); and Strauss, Geschichte der Stadt Rheydt (Rheydt, 1897). RHlANUS, Greek poet and grammarian, a native of Crete, friend and contemporary of Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.). Sui'das says he was at first a slave and overseer of a palaestra, but obtained a good education later in life, and devoted himself to grammatical studies, probably in Alexandria. He prepared a new recension of. the Iliad and Odyssey, characterized by sound judgment and poetical taste. His bold atheteses are frequently mentioned in the scholia. He also wrote epigrams, eleven of which, preserved in the Greek anthology and Athenaeus, show elegance and vivacity. But he was chiefly known as a writer of epics (mythological and ethnographical), the most celebrated of which was the Messeniaca in six books, dealing with the second Messenian war and the exploits of its central figure Aristomenes, and used by Pausanias in his fourth book as a trustworthy authority. Other similar poems were the Achaica, Eliaca, and Thessalica. The Heracleia was a long mythological epic, probably an imitation of the poem .of the same name by Panyasis, and containing the same number of books (fourteen). Fragments in A. Meineke, Analecta Alexandrina (1843); for Rhianus's work in connexion with Homer, see C. Mayhoff, De Rhiani Studiis Homericis (Dresden, 1870); also W. Christ, Ges- chichte der griechischen Litteralur (1898). RHIGAS, CONSTANTINE, known as Rhigas of Velestinos (Pherae), or Rhigas Pheraios (1760-1798), Greek patriot and poet, was born at Velestinos, and was educated at Zagora and at Constantinople, where he became secretary to Alexander Ypsilanti. In 1786 he entered the service of Nicholas Mavro- genes, hospodar of Wallachia, at Bucharest, and when war broke out between Turkey and Russia in 1787 he was charged with the inspection of the troops at Craiova. Here he entered into close and friendly relations with a Turkish officer named Osman Passvan-Oglou (1758-1807), afterwards the famous governor of Widin, whose life he saved from the vengeance of Mavrogenes. After the death of his patron Rhigas returned to Bucharest to serve for some time as interpreter at the French Consulate. At this time he wrote the famous Greek version of the Marseillaise, well known in Byron's paraphrase as " sons of the Greeks, arise." He was the founder of the Hetaireia, a society formed to organize Greek patriotic sentiment and to provide the Greeks with arms and money. Believing that the influence of the French Revolution would spread to the Near East, he betook himself to Vienna to organize the movement among the exiled Greeks and their foreign supporters in 1793, or possibly earlier. He published in Vienna many Greek translations of foreign works, and presently foun jp-i a Greek press there, but his chief glory was the collection of national songs which, passed from hand to hand in MS., roused patriotic enthusiasm throughout Greece. They were only printed posthumously at Jassy in 1814. While at Vienna Rhigas entered into communication with Bonaparte, to whom he sent a snuff-box made of the root of a laurel tree taken from the temple of Apollo, and eventually he set out with a view to meeting the general of the army of Italy in Venice. But before leaving Vienna he forwarded papers, amongst which is said to have been his correspondence 240 RHINE with Bonaparte, to a compatriot at Istria. The papers were betrayed by Demetrios Oikonomos Kozanites into the hands of the Austrian government, and Rhigas was arrested at Trieste and handed over with his accomplices to the Turkish authorities at Belgrade. Immediately on arrest he attempted suicide. His Turkish friend, Passvan-Oglou, sought to secure his escape, and the government apparently consented to release him on the payment of a ransom of about £6000; but meanwhile the Turkish pasha commanding at Belgrade had taken the law into his own hands. Rhigas's five companions were secretly drowned, but he himself offered so violent a resistance that he was shot by two Turkish soldiers. His last words are reported as being: " I have sown a rich seed; the hour is coming when my country will reap its glorious fruits." Rhigas, writing in the popular dialect instead of in classical Greek, aroused the patriotic fervour of his contemporaries and his poems were a serious factor in the awakening of modern Greece. See Rizos Neron'.os, Histoire de la revolution grecque (Paris, 1829); I. C. Bolanachi, Hommes illustres de la Grece moderne (Paris, 1875) > and Mrs E. M. Edmonds, Rhigas Pheraios (London, 1890). RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijri), the chief river of Germany and one of the most im- portant in Europe. It is about 850 m. in length and drains an area of 75,000 sq. m. The distance in a direct line between its source in the Alps and its mouth in the German Ocean is 460 m. Its general course is north-north-west, but it makes numerous deflexions and at one point is found running in a diametrically opposite direction. The name Rhine, which is apparently of Celtic origin, is of uncertain etymology, the most favoured derivations being either from der Rinnende (the flowing), or from Rein (the clear), the latter being now the more generally accepted. i. The Swiss Portion. — The Rhine rises in the mountains of the Swiss canton of the Grisons, and flows for 233 m. in Swiss territory, within which its drainage basin includes about 14,059 sq. m., and every canton save Geneva. The two main branches of the Rhine, the Hinter Rhine and the Vorder Rhine, unite at Reichenau, 6 m. S.W. of Coire. (i) The principal stream is considered to be that of the Hinter Rhine, which issues (7271 ft.) from the glaciers of the Rheinwaldhorn group, and then flows first N.E. through the Rheinwald valley, and next N. through the Schams valley, which communicates by the well-known gorge of the Via Mala with the Tomleschg valley at Thusis, whence the stream continues its N. course to Reich- enau; total length 35^ m., total fall 3711 ft. It receives a number of mountain torrents during its course, the most im- portant being that from the Avers glen, and the Albula, both on the right, which is itself formed by many mountain streams. (2) The Vorder Rhine rises in the small Toma lake (7691 ft.), S. of the Oberalp Pass, not far from the St. Gotthard Pass, and then flows N.E. past Disentis and Ilanz, which claims the honour of being the " first town on the Rhine," to Reichenau; total length 42 m., total fall 34925 ft. Its chief affluents are the stream dignified by the name of the Medels Rhine, that rises in the Cadlimo glen, W. of the Lukmanier Pass, and, after flowing through the Medels glen, joins the Vorder Rhine at Disentis, and the Glenner, flowing from the Lugnetz glen, both on the right. From Reichenau the united streams flow N.E. to Coire, the capital of the canton of the Grisons, and then turn towards the N., past Ragatz, the valley broadening out, and the river being joined on the right by the Landquart and the 111, before it expands into the Lake of Constance. Extensive " corrections " of the river bed, especially the canal of Diepold- sau, have been carried out in the lower bit of this part of the valley, while from a little north of Ragatz the right bank belongs first to Liechtenstein and then to the Austrian province of the Vorarlberg. On issuing from the Lake of Constance at Con- stance, the Rhine flows nearly due west to Basel, where it leaves Swiss territory, the south bank during this portion of the river being entirely Swiss, save the town of Constance, but the north shore belongs to Baden, save in the case of the Swiss town of Stein-am-Rhein and the Swiss canton of Schaffhausen. The chief towns on its banks are Constance (S.), Schafihausen (N.), Waldshut (N.), Laufenburg (S.), Sackingen (N.), Rheinfelden (S.), and Basel (both banks). About 15 m. below Schaffhausen the river forms the famous Falls of the Rhine, or Falls of Schaff- hausen (60 ft. high), while at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut, it receives its chief affluent, the Aar, recently swollen by the Reuss and the Limmat, and of greater volume than the river in which it loses its identity. (W. A. B. C.) 2. The German and Dutch Portion. — After Basel, when the Rhine turns to the north and enters Germany, its breadth is between 550 and 600 ft., while its surface now lies not more than 800 ft. above the sea, showing that the river has made a descent of 6900 ft. by the time it has traversed a third of its course. From Basel to Mainz the Rhine flows through a wide and shallow valley, bordered on the east and west by the parallel ranges of the Black Forest and the Vosges. Its banks are low and flat, and numerous islands occur. The tendency to divide into parallel branches has been curbed in the interests of naviga- tion, and many windings have been cut off by leading the water into straight and regular channels. At Mannheim the river is nearly 1500 ft. in width, and at Mainz, where it is diverted to the west by the barrier of the Taurius, it is still wider. It follows the new direction for about 20 m., but at Bingen it again turns to the north and begins a completely new stage of its career, entering a narrow valley in which the enclosing rocky hills abut so closely on the river as often barely to leave room for the road and railway on either bank; during this portion of its course the speed of the current at a normal state of the water exceeds 6 m. an hour. This is the most beautiful part of the whole course of the river, abounding in ruintd castles, romantic crags and sunny vineyards. At Coblenz the valley widens and the river is 1200 ft. broad, but the hills close in again at Andernach, and this ravine-like part of its course cannot be considered as ending till below the Siebengebirge (Seven Mountains), where the river once more expands to a width of 1300-1600 ft. Beyond Bonn and Cologne the banks are again flat and the valley wide, though the hills on the right bank do not completely disappear till the neighbourhood of Diisseldorf. Farther on the country traversed by the Rhine is perfectly level, and the current becomes more and more sluggish. On entering Holland, which it does below Emmerich, its course is again deflected to the west. Within Holland the banks are so low as to require at places to be protected by embank- ments against inundations. Almost immediately after entering Holland the stream divides into two arms, the larger of which, carrying off about two-thirds of the water, diverges to the west, is called the Waal, and soon unites with the Maas. The smaller branch to the right retains the name of Rhine and sends off another arm, called the Yssel, to the Zuider Zee. The Rhine now pursues a westerly course almost parallel with that of the Waal. At Wijk another bifurcation takes place, the broad Lek diverging on the left to join the Maas, while the " Kromme Rijn " to the right is comparatively insignificant. Beyond Utrecht, where it is again diminished by the divergence of the Vecht to the Zuider Zee, the river under the name of the " Oude Rijn," or Old Rhine, degenerates into a sluggish and almost stagnant stream, which requires the artificial aid of a canal and of sluices in finding its way to the sea. In Roman times the Rhine at this part of its course seems to have been a full and flowing river, but by the 9th century it had lost itself in the sands of Katwijk, and it was not until the beginning of the igth century that its way to the sea was re-opened. Though the name Rhine thus at last attaches to a very insignificant stream, the entire district between the Waal on one side and the Yssel on the other, the Insula Batavorum of Caesar, in reality belongs to trie delta of the famous river. Tributaries. — The Rhine is said to receive, directly or indirectly, the waters of upwards of 12,000 tributaries of all sizes. Leaving out of account the innumerable glacier streams that swell its volume above the Lake of Constance, the most important affluents to its upper course are the Wutach, the Alb and the Wiese, descending on the right from the Black Forest, and the Aar, draining several Swiss cantons on the left. In the upper Rhenish basin, between RHINE 241 Basel and Mainz, the tributaries, though numerous, are mostly short and unimportant. The 111 and the Nahe on the left and the Neckar and the Main on the right are, however, notable exceptions. Before joining the Rhine the 111 runs almost parallel with it and at no great distance for upwards of 50 m. In the narrow part of the valley, between Bingen and Cologne, the Rhine receives the waters of the Lahn and the Sieg on the right, and those of the Mosel, bringing with it the Saar, and the Ahr on the left. Still lower down, but before the Dutch frontier is reached, come the Ruhr and the Lippe on the right, and the Erft on the left. The numerous arms into which the Rhine branches in Holland have already been noticed. Physical Geography. — The Rhine connects the highest Alps with the mud banks of Holland, and touches in its course the most varied geological periods; but the river valley itself is, geologically speaking, of comparatively recent formation. Rising amid the ancient gneiss rocks of the St Gotthard, the Rhine finds its way down to the Lake of Constance between layers of Triassic and Jurassic formation; and between that lake and Basel it penetrates the chalk barrier of the Jura. The upper Rhenish valley is evidently the bed of an ancient lake, the shores of which were formed by the gneiss and granite of the Black Forest on the one side and the granite and sandstone of the Vosges on the other. Within the valley all the alluvial deposits are recent. Between Bingen and Bonn the Rhine forces its way through a hilly and rocky district belonging to the Devonian formation. The contorted strata of slate and greywacke rock must have been formed at a period vastly anterior to that in which the lake of the upper valley managed to force an outlet through the enclosing barriers. Probably this section may be looked upon as the oldest portion of the river course proper, connecting the upper Rhenish lake with the primeval ocean at Bonn. In this district, too, as has already been remarked, is the finest scenery of the Rhine, a fact due in great part to the grotesque shapes of the quartzose rocks, left denuded of the less urable slate and sandstone. All the strata intersected by the Rhine between Bingen and Bonn contain fossils of the same classes. The deposits of the actual valley here, belonging to the Miocene group of the Tertiary system, are older than the deposits either farther up or farther down the river; but they are contempo- raneous with the basalts of the Rhine, which at Coblenz and in the peaks of the Seven Mountains also contribute to the scenic charm of the river. The very extensive pumice deposits at Neuwied and the lava and other volcanic rocks belong to a more recent epoch. Below Bingen the formations belong almost entirely to the Post- Tertiary period. Numerous extinct volcanoes rise near Neuwied. In the natter parts of the valley occur large beds of loam and rubble, sometimes in terraces parallel with, but several hundred feet above, the river, proving by their disposition and appearance that the valley has been formed by the action of water. Navigation. — The Rhine has been one of the chief waterways of Europe from the earliest times; and, as its channel is not exposed to the danger of silting up like those of the Elbe and the Oder, it has always been comparatively easy to keep it open* The Romans exerted themselves to improve the lower navigation of the river, and appointed prefects of the Rhine to superintend the shipping and to exact the moderate dues imposed to keep the channel in repair. The Franks continued the same policy and retained a system of river-dues. Afterwards, as the banks became parcelled out among a host of petty princelings, each of whom arrogated the right of laying a tax on passing vessels, the imposts became so prejudicial as seriously to hamper the development of the shipping. —Many of the riparian potentates derived the bulk of their revenue from this source, and it is calculated that in the 1 8th century the Rhine yielded a total revenue of £200,000, in spite of the comparatively insignificant amount of the shipping. The first proposal for a free Rhine was mooted by the French at the congress of Rastatt (1797-1799), but Holland, commanding the mouth of the river, placed every obstacle in the way of the sugges- tion. In 1831, on the separation of Holland and Belgium, the former had become more amenable to reason; and a system was agreed upon which practically gave free navigation to the vessels of the riverine states, while imposing a moderate tariff upon foreign ships. After the war of 1866, Prussia negotiated with Baden, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt with a view to the removal of all tolls. It was not, however, till 1868 (see Die Rhein-Schiffahrts Akte vom ijten Okt., 1868) that the last vestige of a toll disappeared and the river was thrown open without any restriction. -The management of the channel and navigation is now vested in a central commis- sion, meeting at Mannheim on the 1st of July in each year. The channel has been greatly improved and in many places made more direct since the beginning of the igth century, large sums being annually spent in keeping it in order. Capacious river harbours have been formed at various points, twenty-nine of these being in Germany and eight in Holland. The position of the river is highly favourable for the development of its trade. It flows through the ...o.,'; pooulous regions of the continent of Europe, to discharge into one ot the most frequented seas opposite Great Britain, and, besides serving as a natural outlet for Germany, Belgium and Holland, is connected with a great part of central and southern France by the Rhine-Rhone and the Rhine-Marne canals, and with the basin of the Danube by the Ludwigs-Canal. The introduction of steam has greatly increased the shipping on the Rhine; and small steamers ply also on the Main, the Neckar, the Maas and the Moscl. The first Rhine steamer was launched in 1817; and now the river is regularly traversed by upwards of a hundred, from the small tug up to the passenger saloon-steamer* The steamboat traffic has especially encouraged the influx of tourists, and the number of passing travellers may now be reckoned as between one and two millions annually. The river is navigable without interruption from Basel to its mouth, a distance of 550 miles, of which 450 lie within Germany. Above Spires, however, the river craft are comparatively small, but lower down vessels of 500 and 600 tons burden find no difficulty in plying. Between Basel and Strassburg the depth of water is sometimes not more than 3 ft. ; between Strassburg and Mainz it varies from 5 to 25 ft. ; while below Mainz it is never less than q or 10 ft. The deepest point is opposite the Lorelei (Lurlei) Rock near St Goar, where it is 75 ft. in depth ; at Dusseldorf the depth is about 50 ft. London, Hamburg, Bremen and the chief Baltic ports as far as Riga and St Petersburg participate in the traffic on the Rhine. The boats which ply up and down the river itself, without venturing upon the open sea, are mostly craft of 100 to 200 tons, owned in the great majority of cases by their captains, men principally of German or Dutch nationality. This fleet is computed to number some 8500 craft, with an aggregate capacity of over 2 million tons, of which about one-tenth are steamships. The traffic at the chief German ports of the river aggregated 4,489,000 tons in 1870, but by 1900 this had grown to a total of 17,000,000 tons, thus distributed: Ruhrort, 6,512,000 tons; Duisburg, 3,000,000 tons; Cologne, 1,422,000 tons; and Mannheim, 6,021,000 tons. These are not the only ports on the river; a large trade is also done at Kehl, Maxau (for Karlsruhe), Ludwigshafen, Mainz, Bonn, Rotterdam and a host of smaller places. The amount of traffic which passed the town of Emmerich near the Dutch frpntier,.both ways, increased from an annual average of about 6 million tons in 1881-85 to over ^'f. million t'1£.° m 1802- Notwithstanding the inherent diffi- culties of constructiSh-- The resolution of the B type is preceded by rapid multiplication of the nuclei by mitosis (fig. 5, 7), and the uninucleate cells are 2-flagellate zoospores (fig. 5, 9). These pair with zoospores of a different brood to their own (fig. 5, 10) (i.e. they are exogamous gametes); and the fusion cell (fig. 5. n) so formed is the starting-point of the A type (fig. 5, 12). Brood formation by resolution of a multinucleate individual has been observed or conjectured in Amoeba, &c. A formation of numerous pseudopodiospores within Pdomyxa has been repeatedly described, and these have been seen to conjugate equally, the zygote becoming multinuclear. But the possibility of the alleged reproductive cells being parasites has not yet been fully ex- cluded. Chlamydophrys stercorea is a small Pilose, occurring in the faeces of several mammals, but only forming its characteristic shell out- side the body; plastogamic monstrosities are frequent. The nucleus degenerates, and is expelled with some plasm. The chromidia remain inside the shell, and differentiate or aggregate into about eight nuclei; the cell is then resolved into as many a-flagellate swarmers, which escape as isogamous exogametes. The zygote becomes surrounded by a brown cyst. When From Eugene Penard, Paune rhizopodijut du kassin du Ltnum. FIG. 6. — A, Euglypha alveolata. I, Living animal; a, guitar- shaped outline of body, retracted from shell For emission of pseudo- pods ; b, b, reserve plates in body for offspring in next bud-fission ; 2, empty shell; 3, round plates; 4, 5, adoral plates with more or less marked denticulations; 6, oval plates; 7, transverse section of shell, showing circle of reserve plates within. B, Sphenoderia lenta. I, Animal, lateral view; 2, same from above; 3, shell, lateral view; 4, shell, oral view of the pylome; 5, optical section through empty shell and pylome; 6, nucleus; 7, surface view of pylome (dotted lines represent its opposite side as seen at a lower focus). 248 RHODE ISLAND swallowed by a mammal it develops, and the ordinary form is found in the excreta. Cenlropyxis aculeata is closely allied to Difflugia. It divides by fission and also at the end of a cycle by schizogony, the 8 FIG. 7. — Filosa and Foraminifera of similar habit. I. Diplo- phrys archeri (moor pools); a, nucleus; 6, contractile vacuoles; c, oil drop. 2. Allogromia fluviatilis (freshwater Foraminifer) ; a, numerous nuclei; the elongated bodies are ingested diatoms. 3. Shepheardella taeniformis (marine Foraminifer), X 30 with retracted protoplasm; a, nucleus. 4. The same X 15 with expanded pseudopods. 5-9. Nucleus of same in various aspects as carried along in streaming protoplasm. 10. Amphitrema wrighti- anum(moor pools) ; shell membranous.encrusted with foreign bodies. II. Diaphorodon mobile (moor pools); a, nucleus. offspring being amoebulae. In some these acquire a shell directly; in others a second brood division into four takes place, and it is only then that shells are formed. The latter conjugate as males with the former as females; and the fusion cell encysts within the approximated shells; it emerges as a naked amoeba after a period of rest, forms a shell and assumes the type of the species. Other types of reproduction are known, Amoeba colif an inhabitant of the gut of man, showing an endogamous pairing of closely related nuclei similar to that of Actinosphaerium (see HELIOZOA). CLASSIFICATION Lobosa. — W. B. Carpenter. Cytoplasm with a clear ectosarc, not wetted by the medium ; pseudopods never finely branching, usually rounded at the apex; nucleus single or multiple; shell (" test," " theca ") absent, gelatinous, membranous or of cemented granules of ingested sand, &c., or plates secreted in the endosarc. ^Selected genera: § i. Naked Amoeba ( United States. 25° RHODE ISLAND was valued in 1908 at $556,774. The value of the clay products, lime and talc, decreased from $245,378 in 1907 to $112,815 in 1908. The mining of iron ore was begun about 1767 in the vicinity of the present Cranston, and much of the metal was used in the making of cannon during the War of Independence, but the supply was soon exhausted. Near Tiverton and Cranston graphite has been quarried. Manufactures. — Rhode Island is essentially a manufacturing state; of the 191,923 persons in the state engaged in gainful occupations in 1900, 101,162 (or 52.7%) were employed in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. By the middle of the 1 7th century boat-building had become an established industry, and large vessels were built at Newport. In 1777 the state offered a large premium for every pound of steel, similar to German steel, made within its boundaries; and in 1789 a rolling and slitting mill was built near Providence. Cotton was first imported to Providence from Spain in 1785; a company to carry on cotton-spinning, formed at Providence in 1786, established there in the following year a factory con- taining a spinning jenny of 28 spindles (the first machine of the kind to be used in the United States), and also a carding machine and a spinning frame with which was manufactured a kind of jean having a linen warp and a cotton filling. The fly shuttle was also apparently first introduced at Providence in 1788. The first calico printed in the United States was made at East Greenwich about 1794. The Providence Associa- tion of Mechanics and Manufacturers, incorporated in 1789, organized industrial development. The prohibition of the exportation from England of machinery, models or drawings retarded mechanical improvement, but in 1790 an industrial company was formed at Providence to carry on cotton spinning, and in December of that year there was established at Paw- tucket a factory equipped with Arkwright machines constructed by Samuel Slater. This machinery was operated by water- power, then first used in the United States for the spinning of cotton thread; and from this may be dated the beginning of the factory system in Rhode Island. These machines were soon adapted to the spinning of wool, and in 1804 a woollen factory was built at Peacedale, South Kingston. The first power- loom used in the United States was invented about 1812, and was set up at Peacedale, in 1814, for the manufacture of woollen saddlegirths and other webbing. The first power-loom for cotton manufacture was set up in North Providence in 1817. Textile manufacturing by improved methods was hardly well established in Rhode Island before 1825. The manufacture of jewelry, which was established in Providence in 1784, was greatly promoted ten years later by Nehemiah Dodge's in- vention of the process of " gold-filling," still further improved in 1846 by Thomas H. Lowe. The manufacture of silverware was begun in Providence soon after the close of the War of Independence. Rhode Island's water powers have been its only natural resources which have aided in the development of its manu- factures, and its transportation facilities have always been inadequate, because of shallow water at Providence and scanty railway communication; but the state's manufacturing enter- prises are of great importance. In 1900 Rhode Island ranked 1 7th among the states in the value of its manufactured products, but led all of the states in the value per capita ($430). The total number of establishments in 1850 was 864; in 1890, 3377, and in 1900, 4189. In 1900 there were 1678 factories, and in 1905, 1617 factories.1 The total capital in- vested in manufacturing in 1850 was $12,935,676; in 1890, $126,483,401, and in 1900, $183,784,587, of which $176,901,606 was in factories; in 1905 the capital invested in factories was $215,901,375. The value of all manufactured products in 1850 was $22,117,688; in 1890, $142,500,625, and in 1900, $184,074,378, of which $165,550,382 was the value of factory products; in 1905 the value of factory products was $202,109,583. The average number of employes in 1850 was 20,967; in 1890, 81, ill; and in 1 The 1905 census of manufactures gives statistics only for estab- lishments under the factory system, excluding the hand trades, and gives factory statistics for 1905 and for 1900. The statistics given above for 1900 in comparison with 1905 are for factory pro- ducts. 1900, 98,813, of whom 88,197 were factory employes; in 1905 there were 97,318 factory employes. Rhode Island ranked first in 1900 ($13,229,313) and in 1905 ($14,431,756) among the states of the United States in the Value of jewelry, which was fourth in the value of the state's manu- factures; second in worsted goods (1900, $33,341,329; 1905, $44,477,596), which were first in value in the state's manufac- tures; and third in dyeing and finishing textiles (1900, $8,484,878; 1905, $9,981,457), which ranked fifth among; the state's manu- factures; in the value of cotton goods (second in rank in the state) it fell from the fourth rank in 1900 ($24,056,175) to fifth rank in 1905 ($30,628,843), when the value of Rhode Island's product was less than that of Georgia. Other important manufactures were: combined textiles (not including flax, hemp and jute products) in 1900, $77,998,396; in 1905, $103,096.311; foundry and machine shop products in 1900, $13,269,086; in 1905, $16,338,512; woollen goods in 1900, $5,330,550; in 1905, $8,163,167; rubber boots and shoes in 1900, $8,034,417; electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies in 1900, $5,113,292; in 1905, $5,435,474; silversmithing . and silverware in 1900, $4,249,190; in 1905, $5,323,264; gold and silver, reducing and refining (not from ore) in 1900, $3,484,454; in 1905, $.4,260,698; cotton small wares in 1900, $2,379,500; in 1905, $3,944,607; hosiery and knit goods in 1900, $2,713,850; in 1905, $3,344,655; silk and silk goods in 1900, $1,311,333; in 1905, $2,555,986. In 1905, 1146 establishments reported power, as against 1360 in 1900 — a decrease of 15-7%, but the total horsepower increased from 155,545 to 190,777, or 22-7%. Transportation. — Steam railway mileage in Rhode Island in- creased from 68 m. in 1850 to 209 m. in 1900, and to 211 m. on the 1st of January 1909 (the New York, New Haven & Hartford being the only railway system of any importance in the state). In 1910 a charter was granted to the Grand Trunk system. In 1902 the mileage of street and electric railways (most of them interurban) operated in the state was 336-33 m. The state has a natural water outlet in the Providence river and Narragansett Bay, but there is lack of adequate dockage in Providence harbour, and insufficient depth of water for ocean traffic. The ports of entry are Providence (by far the largest, with imports valued at $1,893,551, and exports valued at $12,517 in 1909), Newport and Bristol. Population. — The total population of Rhode Island in 1880 was 276,531; in 1890, 345,506; in 1900, 428,556; and in 1910, 542,674.z The increase from 1880 to 1890 was 24-9%, from 1890 to 1900 24%, and from 1900 to 1910, 26-6%. Of the total population in 1900, 285,278 were native whites, 134,519 were foreign-born, 9092 were negroes, 366 were Chinese, 35 were Indians and 13 were Japanese. Of the foreign-born, 35,501 were Irish, 31,533 were French-Canadians and 22,832 were English. Of the total population, 275,143 were of foreign parentage, i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born — and 81,232 were of Irish parentage, both on the father's and mother's side, and, in the same sense, 49,427 were of French- Canadian and 32,007 of English parentage. Rhode Island in 1900 had the highest percentage of urban population of any state in the Union, 91-6% of the total population living in cities of 4000 or more inhabitants. From 1890 to 1900 the urban population increased from 310,335 to 392,509 or 26-5%; while the rural population (i.e. population outside of incor- porated places), increased from 35,171 to 36,047 — 1-1% of the total increase in population. The cities of the state, with population in 1900,' are Providence, 175,597; Pawtucket, 39,231; Woonsocket, 28,204; Newport, 22,034; and Central Falls, 18,167. In 1906 there were in the state 264,712 com- municants of various religious denominations, and of these 199,951 were Roman Catholics. Second in strength were the Baptists, who founded the colony; in 1906 they numbered 19,878, of whom 14,304 were of the Northern Convention. There were 15,443 Protestant Episcopalians, 9858 Congrega- tionalists, 7892 Methodists. The Friends, whose influence was so strong in the early history of Providence, numbered in 1906 only 648 in the whole state. Administration. — The state is governed under the con- stitution of 1842, with amendments adopted in 1854, 1864, 1886, 1888, 1889, 1892, ^893, 1900, 1903, 1909. All native or naturalized citizens of the United States residing, in Rhode 2 The populations in other census years were: (1790) 68,825; (1800) 69,122; (1810) 76,931; (1820) 83,059; (1830) 97,199; (1840) 108,830; (1850) 147,545; (1860) 174,620; (1870) 217,353. 3 In 1910 the populations of the cities were: Providence, 224,326; Pawtucket, 51,622; Woonsocket, 38,125; Newport, 27,149; and Central Falls, 22,754. RHODE ISLAND 251 Island are citizens of the state. Under an act of 1724 the suffrage was restricted to adult males who possessed a freehold of the value of $134 (see History). So far as state and national elections are concerned, the privilege was extended to native non-freeholders by the constitution of 1842, to naturalized foreigners who had served in the Civil War by an amendment of the 7th of April 1886, and to all adult male citizens by the amendment of the 4th of April 1888. A curious survival of the old system exists in the provision that only those who pay taxes on $134 worth of property may vote for members of city councils or on propositions to levy taxes or to expend public money. The working men are thus almost entirely excluded from participating in the government of the large factory towns. Amendments to the constitution must be passed by both houses of the General Assembly at two consecutive sessions, and must then be ratified by three-fifths of the electors of the state present and voting thereon in town and ward meetings. Fifteen amendments have thus been added to the constitution of 1842. An amendment of the 7th of April 1886 forbade the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages, but it was badly enforced and was repealed by a subsequent amendment of the zoth of June 1889. The powers of the governor are unusually small. Until 1909, when a constitutional amendment was adopted, he had no power of veto, and his very limited nominal powers of appointment and removal are controlled by a rotten-borough Senate. The other administrative officers are a secretary of state, an attorney-general, an auditor, a treasurer, a commissioner of public schools, a railroad commissioner, and a factory inspector, and various boards and commissions, such as the board of education, the board of agri- culture, the board of health, and the commissioners of inland fisheries, commissioners of harbours and commissioners of pilots. The legislative power is vested in the General Assembly,1 which consists of a Senate made up of the lieutenant-governor and of one senator from each of the thirty-eight cities and townships in the state, and a House of Representatives of one hundred members, apportioned according to population, but with the proviso that each town or city shall have at least one member and none shall have more than one-fourth of the total (see History). Members of the legislature and all state officials are elected annually in November. A majority vote was formerly required, but since the adoption of the tenth amendment (November 28, 1893) a plurality vote has elected. At the head of the judicial system is the supreme court (1747), divided since 1893 into an appellate division and a common pleas division, with final revisory and appellate jurisdiction upon all questions of law and equity. Below this are the twelve district courts, the town councils, probate courts in the larger towns, and justices of the peace. The seven judges of the supreme court and the district judges are elected by the General Assembly, the former during good behaviour, the latter for terms of three years. The town (or township) is the unit of local government, the county being recognized only for judicial purposes and to a certain extent in the appointment by central administrative boards. There are five counties and thirty-eight towns. The municipal govern- ments of Newport and Providence present interesting features, for which see the separate articles on these cities. Education. — The public school system of Rhode Island was established in 1800, abolished in 1803, and re-established in 1828. At the head of it is a commissioner of education, appointed by the governor and the Senate, and a board of education, composed of the governor and the lieutenant-governor ex officio and six other members elected by the General Assembly. Under an act of the I2th of April 1883, as amended on the 4th of April 1902, education is compulsory for children between the ages of seven and fifteen, but the maximum limit is reduced to thirteen for children who are employed at lawful labour. The total enrolment in the public schools in 1905 was 71,425 and the total expenditure for public school purposes was $1,987,751. A considerable proportion of the Irish and the French Canadians send their children to the Roman Catholic parochial schools. The chief institutions for higher educa- 1 Under the constitution of 1842 it was provided that there should be two sessions of the General Assembly annually : one at Newport in May, and the other in October to be held at South Kingstown once in two years, and the intermediate years alternately at Bristol and East Greenwich, an adjournment from the October session being held annually at Providence. In 1854 this was amended: one session was provided for to be held in Newport in May, an adjournment being held annually at Providence. And in 1900 by another amendment Providence became the only meeting-place of the General Assembly. tion are Brown University (1764), the State School of Design (1877), the State Normal School (reorganized 1898), and the Moses Brown School (1819), all at Providence (q.v.), and the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (1888) at Kingston, a land grant college under the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890, the Hatch Act of 1887 and the Adams Act of 1906. This institution was founded as an agricultural school in 1888 and became a college in 1892. It has departments of agriculture, engineering and science, a library of 15,000 volumes and an experiment station. There an- state training-schools for teachers at Providence, Cranston, Bristol, Barrington, Central Falls, Warwick and Pawtucket. Charitable and Penal Institutions. — A board of state charities and corrections, established in 1869, supervises and controls all of the penal, charitable and correctional institutions of the state at large and also the local almshouses. There were in 1910 nine members of the board, three from Providence county, one from each of the other counties, and one from the state at large; five were appointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate, and four were elected by the Senate. A group of institutions (under the control of the board) at Howard, in Cranston town- ship, about 7 m. from Providence, including the Workhouse and House of Correction, the Hospital for the Insane (1869), the Alms- house, the State Prison and Providence County Jail, the Sock- anosset School for Boys, and the Oaklawn School for Girls, are supported entirely or in part by the state. In addition to the institutions under the board of charities and corrections there are two under the board of education, and supported wholly or in part by the state, the School for the Deaf (1877) and the Home and School for Dependent and Neglected Children (1885) at Providence. The Soldiers' Home (1891) at Bristol, the Butler Hospital for the Insane (1847) at Providence, and a Sanitarium (1905) at Wallum Lake, in the township of Burrillville, also receive state aid. Finance. — The chief sources of revenue in the order named are the general property tax, the tax on savings banks, the tax on insurance companies, and liquor licences. There is no corporation tax. The total receipts from all sources for the year 1909 were $2,317,512, the expenditures $2,345,359. The public debt, which originated in 1752, amounted to £70,000 sterling in 1764, to £4000 in 1775 and to $698,000 in 1783. Part of the Revolutionary debt was paid in depreciated paper, part was assumed by the United States government, part was paid at various rates of depreciation between 1803 and 1820, and the remainder, $43,971, was repudiated in 1847. Other obligations had accumulated in the meantime, however, so that the debt in 1848 amounted to $187,000. This was gradually reduced until the Civil War, when it was increased to $3,889,000 by 1865. A sinking fund commission was established in 1875, and the entire sum was extinguished by the 1st of August 1894. The issue of bonds for the construction of the new capitol building and other purposes has led, however, to a new debt, which at the beginning of 1910 amounted to $4,800,000. There was at the same time a sinking fund of $654,999. Before the adoption of the Federal constitution Rhode Island was badly afflicted with the paper money heresy. £5000 were printed in 1710, and from that time until 1751 there were nine separate issues. These were gradually retired, however, through the efforts of the mercantile classes, aided by the parliamentary statutes of 1751 and 1763, and by about 1763 the finances were again placed on a sound money basis. The influx of Continental currency gave some trouble during the War of Independence, but there were no further local issues until I7$6, when £100,000 were issued. The first banks organized in the state were the Providence Bank in 1791, the Bank of Rhode Island at Newport in 1795, and the Washington Bank at Westerly in 1800. Forty-four charters had been issued in 1826 and sixty in 1837. Partly through restrictive local legislation and partly as a result of the operation of the Suffolk system of redemption in Boston, these institutions were always conservative. During practically the entire period before the Civil War their note issues constituted a smaller proportion of the capital stock than those of any other state. By an act of 1858 which is still in force, annual reports must be presented to the state auditor. On the establishment of the national banking system, 1863-65, nearly all of the banks took out national charters. Since 1865 the most notable features have been the rise and de- cadence of the national banks and the rise of the trust companies. During the decade from 1890 to 1900 the deposits in the national banks increased only 5%, from $16,700,000 to $17,500,000; those of the trust companies increased 330 %, from $12,000,000 to more than $40,000,000. During the period from 1890 to 1901 twenty national banks retired from business, and the total capital stock was re- duced from about twenty millions to about thirteen millions of dollars. History. — Rhode Island was founded by refugees from Massachusetts, who went there in search of religious and political freedom. The first settlements were made at Pro- vidence by Roger Williams (q.r.) in June 1636, and at Portsmouth on the island of Aquidneck by the Antinomians, William Coddington (1601-1678), John Clarke (1609-1676), and Anne Hutchinson (1591-1643), in March-April 1638. 252 RHODE ISLAND Becoming dissatisfied with conditions at Portsmouth, Codd- ington and Clarke removed a few miles farther south on the 2Qth of April 1639, and established a settlement at New- port. In a similar manner Warwick was founded in January 1643 by seceders from Providence under the lead of Samuel Gorton. The union of Portsmouth and Newport, March 12, 1640, was followed by the consolidation of all four settlements, May 19, 1647, under a patent of March 14, 1644, issued by the parliamentary board of commissioners for plantations. The particularistic sentiment was still very strong, however, and in 1651 the union split into two confederations, one in- cluding the mainland towns, Providence and Warwick; the other, the island towns, Portsmouth and Newport. A re- union was effected in 1654 through the influence of Roger Williams, and a charter was secured from Charles II. on the 8th of July 1663. In the patent of 1644 the entire colony was called Providence Plantations. On the i3th of March 1644 the Portsmouth-Newport General Court changed the name of the island from Aquidneck to the Isle of Rhodes or Rhode Island. The official designation for the province as a whole in the charter of 1663, therefore, was Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. The charter was suspended at the beginning of the Andros regime in 1686, but was re- stored again after the Revolution of 1689. The closing years of the 1 7th century were characterized by a gradual transition from the agricultural to the commercial stage of civilization. Newport became the centre of an extensive business in piracy, privateering, smuggling, and legitimate trade. Cargoes of rum, manufactured from West Indian sugar and molasses, were exported to Africa and exchanged for slaves to be sold in the southern colonies and the West Indies. The passage of the Sugar Act of April 5, 1764, and the steps taken by the British government to enforce the Navigation Acts seriously affected this trade. The people of Rhode Island played a prominent part in the struggle for independence. On the 9th of June 1772 the " Gaspee," a British vessel which had been sent over to enforce the acts of trade and navigation, ran aground in Narragansett Bay and was burned to the water's edge by a party of men from Providence. Nathanael Greene, a native of Rhode Island, was made commander of the Rhode Island militia in May 1775, and a major-general in the Continental army in August 1776, and in the latter capacity he served with ability until the close of the war. In the year 1776, General Howe sent a detachment of his army under General Henry Clinton to seize Newport as a base of operations for reducing New England, and the city was occupied by the British on the 8th of December 1776. To capture this British garrison, later increased to 6000 men, the co-operation of about 10,000 men (mostly New England militia) under Major-General John Sullivan, and a French fleet carrying 4000 French regulars under Count D'Estaing, was planned in the summer of 1778. On the gth of August Sullivan crossed to the north end of the island of Rhode Island, but as the Frenchmen were disembarking on Conanicut Island, Lord Howe arrived with the British fleet. Count D'Estaing hastily re-embarked his troops and sailed out to meet Howe. For two days the hostile fleets manoeuvred for positions, and then they were dispersed by a severe storm. On the zoth, D'Estaing returned to the port with his fleet badly crippled, and only to announce that he should sail to Boston to refit. The American officers protested but in vain, and on the z8th they decided to retreat to the north end of the island. The British pursued, and the next day there was a severe engagement in which the Americans were driven from Turkey and Quaker Hills. On the 3Oth the Americans, learning of the approach of Lord Howe's fleet with 5000 troops under Clinton, decided to abandon the island. The British evacuated Newport the 2$th cf October 1779, and the French fleet was stationed here from Ju v 1780 to 1781. The influence of Roger Williams's iceas and the peculiar conditions under which the first settlements v",:3 established have tended to differentiate the history of Rhoc . Island from that of the other New England states. In 1640 the General Court of Massachusetts declared that the representatives of Aquidneck were " not to be capitulated withal either for them- selves or the people of the isle where they inhabit," and in 1644 and again in 1648 the application of the Narragansett settlers for admission to the New England Confederacy was refused except on condition that they should pass under the jurisdiction of either Massachusetts or Plymouth. Rhode Island was one of the first communities in the world to advo- cate religious freedom and political individualism. The individualistic principle was shown in the jealousy of the towns toward the central government, and in the establish- ment of legislative supremacy over the executive and the judiciary. The legislature migrated from county to county up to 1854, and there continued to be two centres of govern- ment until 1900. The dependence of the judiciary upon the legislature was maintained until .1860, and the governor is still shorn of certain powers which are customary in other states (see Administration). In the main the rural towns have adhered most strongly to the old individualistic sentiment, whereas the cities have kept more in touch with the modern nationalistic trend of thought. This was shown, for example, in the struggle for the ratification of the Federal constitution. Under the Articles of Confederation it was principally Rhode Island that defeated the proposal to authorize Congress to levy an impost duty of 5% mainly as a means of meeting the debts of the Central government. When the constitu- tional convention met in Philadelphia in 1787 to frame a con- stitution for a stronger Federal government, the agriculturists of Rhode Island were afraid that the movement would result in an interference with their local privileges, and especially with their favourite device of issuing paper money, and the state refused to send delegates, and not until the Senate had passed a bill for severing commercial relations between the United States and Rhode Island, did the latter, in May 1790, ratify the Federal constitution, and then only by a majority of two votes. Rhode Island, like the rest of New England, was opposed to the War of 1812 and the Mexican War. During the Civil War it sent 23,457 men into the service of the Union. The economic transition of the later i7th century from the agricultural to the commercial regime was followed by a further transition to the manufacturing regime during the closing years of the i8th and the early years of the igth centuries. Com- mercial interests have been almost entirely destroyed, partly because of the abolition of the slave trade and partly because of the embargo and the war of 1812, but mainly because the cities of the state are unfavourably situated to be the termini of interstate railway systems. Providence, owing to its superior water-power facilities, has therefore become one of the leading manufacturing centres of New England, whereas Newport is now known only as a fashionable summer resort. The move- ment as a whole was of exactly the same character as the industrial revolution in England, and it led to the same result, a struggle for electoral reform. The system of apportionment and the franchise qualifications were worked out to meet the needs of a group of agricultural communities. The charter of 1663 and the franchise law of 1724 established substantial equality of representation among the towns, and restricted the suffrage to freeholders. In the course of time, therefore, the small towns came to be better represented proportionally than the large cities, and the growing class of artisans was entirely disfranchised. The city of Providence issued a call for a constitutional convention in 1796, and similar efforts were made in 1799, 1817, 1821, 1822 and 1824, but nothing was accom- plished. About 1840 Thomas W. Dorr (1805-1854), a young lawyer of Providence, began a systematic campaign for an extension of the suffrage, a reapportionment of representation and the establishment of an independent judiciary. The struggle, which lasted for several years, and in fact is not yet entirely over, was one between the cities and the country, between the manufacturers and the agriculturists. It was RHODE ISLAND 253 also complicated by racial and religious prejudices, a large proportion of the factory operatives being foreigners and Roman Catholics, and most of the country people native Protestants. The former were in general associated with the Democratic party, the latter with the Whigs. A convention summoned without any authority from the legislature, and elected on the principle of universal manhood suffrage, met at Providence, October 4-November 18, 1841, and drafted a frame of govern- ment which came to be known as the People's Constitution. A second convention met on the call of the legislature in February 1842 and adopted the so-called Freeman's Constitution. On being submitted to popular vote the former was ratified by a large majority (December 27, 28, 29, 1841), while the latter was rejected by a majority of 676 (March 21, 22, 23, 1842). At an election held on the i8th of April 1842 Dorr was chosen governor. The supreme court of the state and the president of the United States (Tyler) both refused to recognize the validity of the People's Constitution, whereupon Dorr and a few of his more zealous adherents decided to organize a rebellion. They were easily repulsed in an attack upon the Providence town arsenal, and Dorr, after a brief period of exile in Connecti- cut, was convicted of high treason on the 26th of April 1844, and was sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was released by act of the Assembly in June 1845, and was restored to the full rights of citizenship in May 1851. The Freeman's Constitution, modified by another convention, which held its session at New- port and East Greenwich, September i2-November 5, 1842, was finally adopted by popular vote on November 21-23, 1842. Only a partial concession was made to the demand for reform. The suffrage was extended to non-freeholders, but only to those of American birth. Representation in the lower house of the legislature was apportioned according to population, but only on condition that no city or town should ever elect more than one-sixth of the total number of members. Each city and town without regard to population was to elect one senator. In order to perpetuate this system the method of amending the constitution was made extremely difficult (see Administration). Since the adoption of the constitution the conditions have become worse owing to the extensive immigration of foreigners into the large cities and the gradual decay of the rural towns. From about 1845 to 1880 most of the immigrants were Irish, but since 1880 the French-Canadians have constituted the chief element. In 1900 over 30% of the population of the state was foreign-born. A constitutional amendment of 1888 extended to them the right of suffrage in state and national elections, and an amendment of 1909 partially remedied the evils in the system of apportionment. When the last Federal census was taken in 1910, Providence, Pawtucket, Woonsocket and Newport, with a combined population of 341,222, had four senators, whereas the remainder of the state, with a population of 201,452, had thirty-four. Providence, with a population of 224,326 out of a total of 542,674, had one member in a Senate of thirty-eight and twenty-five members in a House of Representatives of one hundred. The Republican machine finds it easy with the support of the millionaire summer colony at Newport and the street railway corporations to corrupt the French-Canadians and a portion of the native element in the rural towns and maintain absolute control of the state government. The majority has occasionally protested by electing a Democratic governor, but he has not been able to accomplish a great deal, because until 1909 he did not have veto power nor effectual means to induce the Senate to ratify his appointments. Bonds were issued on the 8th of November 1892 for the construction of a new state house at Providence, the corner stone was laid in October 1896, and the building was thrown open to use on the ist of January 1901. A constitutional amendment of 1900 dispensed with the session of the legislature at Newport. In presidential campaigns the state has been Federalist, 1792-1800; Democratic Republican, 1804; Federalist, 1808- 1812; Democratic Republican, 1816-1820; Adams (Republican), 1824-1828; National Republican, 1832; Democratic, 1836; Whig, 1840-1848; Democratic, 1852; and Republican since 1856. GOVERNORS OF RHODE ISLAND Portsmouth William Coddington . . .• Judge, 1638-1639 William Hutchinson . . „ 1639-1640 Newport William Coddington . . . Judge, 1639-1640 Portsmouth and Newport William Coddington . . Governor, 1640-1647 PRESIDENTS UNDER THE PATENT OF 1644 John Coggeshall Jeremy Clarke ...... John Smith . Nicholas Easton ... Providence and Warwick ' Samuel Gorton . President, John Smith . . M Gregory Dexter ... „ Portsmouth and Newport John Sanford . . President, 1653-1654 PRESIDENTS UNDER THE PATENT OF 1644 Nicholas Easton . 1654 Roger Williams Benedict Arnold William Brenton Benedict Arnold 1647-1648 1648-1649 1649-1650 1650-1651 1651-1652 1652-1653 1653-1654 GOVERNORS UNDER THE CHARTER OF Benedict Arnold William Brenton Benedict Arnold Nicholas Easton William Coddington . Walter Clarke . Benedict Arnold William Coddington . John Cranston . Peleg Sanford William Coddington, 2nd Henry Bull Walter Clarke . John Coggeshall (acting) Henry Bull John Easton . . ' Caleb Carr Walter Clarke . Samuel Cranston Joseph Jencks William Wanton John Wanton Richard Ward . . William Greene . Gideon Wanton . William Greene . Gideon Wanton . William Greene ' Stephen Hopkins William Greene . Stephen Hopkins Samuel Ward Stephen Hopkins Samuel Ward Stephen Hopkins Josias Lyndon Joseph Wanton . Nicholas Cooke . William Greene, 2nd . John Collins Arthur Fenner, a Federalist and Democratic Re- publican ... . . Paul Mumford (acting), Democratic Republican Henry Smith, „ „ „ Isaac Wilbour, „ „ „ James Fenner, Democratic Republican . William Jones, Federalist .... Nehemiah R. Knight, Democratic Republican William C. Gibbs, James Fenner4 (Democratic Republican and National Republican) .... 1654-1657 1657-1660 1660-1662 1662-1663 1663 1663-1666 1666-1669 1669-1672 1672-1674 1674-1676 1676-1677 1677-1678 .1678 1678-1680 1680-1683 1683-1685 1685-1686 1686* 1689-1690 1690 1690-1695 1695 1696-1698 1698-1727 I727-I/32 '732-1/33 1734-1740 1740-1743 1743-1745 1745-1746 1746-1747 1747-1748 1748-1755 I755-I/57 I757-I/58 '758-1762 1762-1763 1763-1765 1765-1767 1767-1768 1768-1769 1760-1775 i775-'778 1778-1786 1786-1790 1790-1805 1805 1805-1806 1806-1807 1807-1811 1811-1817 1817-1821 1821-1824 1824-1831 1 A separation occurred in 1651 between the towns of Providence and Warwick on one side and Portsmouth and Newport on the other. They were reunited in 1654. 2 The charter was suspended from 1686 to 1689, during which time the province was under the supervision of Sir Edmund Andros. * Arthur Fenner became a Democratic Republican about 1800. 4 James Fenner was a Democratic Republican to 1826, a National Republican (Adams) to 1829 and a Democrat (Jackson) to 1831. 254 RHODES, C. J. Lemuel H. Arnold, National Republican . 1831-1833 John B. Francis, Democrat arid Anti-Masonic 1833-1838 William Sprague, Whig .... 1838-1839 Samuel W. King, Whig . 1839-1843 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF 1842 James Fenner, Whig 1843-1845 Charles Jackson,1 Democrat . . . 1845-1846 Byron Diman, Whig ..... 1846-1847 Elisha Harris, Whig 1847-1849 Henry B. Anthony, Whig .... 1849-1851 Philip Allen, Democrat .... 1851-1853 Francis M. Dimond (acting), Democrat . 1853-1854 William W. Hoppin, Whig and American . 1854-1857 Elisha Dyer, Republican . ... . 1857-1859 Thomas G. Turner, Republican . . . 1859-1860 William Sprague,2 Unionist .... 1860-1863 William C. Cozzens (acting), Unionist . . 1863 James Y. Smith, Republican ', . . 1863-1866 Ambrose E. Burnside, „ . . . . 1866-1869 Seth Padelford, , 1869-1873 Henry Howard, 1873-1875 Henry Lippitt, „ 1875-1877 Charles C. Van Zandt, „ .... 1877-1880 Alfred H. Littlefield, 1880-1883 Augustus O. Brown, ,,.... 1883-1885 George P. Wetmore, „ . . . . 1885-1887 John W. Davis, Democrat, .... 1887-1888 ' Royal C. Taft, Republican, . . . . . 1888-1889 Herbert W. Ladd, „ . . . . 1889-1890 John W. Davis, Democrat .... 1890-1891 Herbert W. Ladd, Republican . . . 1891-1892 D. Russell Brown, „ 1892-1895 Charles W. Lippitt 1895-1897 Elisha Dyer, ' . 1897-1900 William Gregory, , 1900-1901 Charles Dean Kimball, Republican . . 1901-1903 L. F. C. Garvin, Democrat .... 1903-1905 George H. Utter, Republican . . . 1905-1907 James H. Higgins, Democrat . . . I9O7-.I9O9 Aram J. Pothier, Republican . . . 1909- BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For general physical description see C. T. Jackson, Report on the Geological and Agricultural Survey of Rhode Island (Providence, 1840); N. S. Shaler, J. B. Woodworth, and A. F. Foerste, Geology of the Narragansett Basin (Washington, 1899); and T. Nelson Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts, lief ( Isle New Hampshire and Rhode Island (Ibid., 1908), being Bulletin 354 of the U.S. Geological Survey. Administration: — The charters of 1644 and 1663 and the constitution of 1842 are all given in F. N. Thorpe, Constitutions, Charters, and Organic Laws (Washington, 1909), vol. vi. See also the annual reports of the treasurer, the auditor, the commissioner of public schools, the board of education, and the board of state charities and corrections; W. H. Tolman, History of Higher Education in Rhode Island (Washington, 1894); Henry Phillips, Jr., Historical Sketches of the Paper Currency of the American Colonies (2 vols., Roxbury, Mass., 1865-1866); Thomas Durfee, Gleanings from the Judicial History of Rhode Island (Provi- dence, 1883); and the works of Field, Richman and Mowry (see History, Bibliography). History. — For many years the standard authority on the period before the ratification of the constitution was S. G. Arnold, History of Rhode Island, 1636-1790 (2 vols., New York, 1859-60, 4th ed., Providence, 1894). His work has, however, been partially super- seded by T. B. Richman, Rhode Island: Its Making and Meaning, 1636-1683 (2 vols., 1902), and Rhode Island: A Study in Separatism (Boston and New York, 1905). Edward Field (Editor), State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation at the end of the Century: A History (3 vols., Boston, 1902), is valuable for the more recent history of the state. See also Adelos Gorton, The Life and Times of Samuel Gorton (Philadelphia, 1908); W. B. Weeden, Early Rhode Island: A Social History of the People (New York, 1910); F. G. Bates, Rhode Island and the Formation of the Union (New York, 1898); A. M. Mowry, The Dorr War; or the Constitutional Struggle in Rhode Island (Providence, 1901); Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation, 1636-1792 (10 vols., Providence, 1856-65); Rhode Island Historical Society, Collec- tions (10 vols., to be continued, Providence, 1827-1902); Proceed- ings and Publications, 23 numbers (Providence, 1872-1902, to be continued). The Quarterly (8 vols., 1892-1901, discontinued); Rhode Island Historical Tracts, Series I., 20 vols. (Providence, 1877-1884), Series II., 5 vols. (Providence, 1880-96). For general bibliographies see J. R. Bartlett, Bibliography of Rhode Island (Providence, 1864); C. R. Brigham, in Field, III., pp. 651- 81 ; and Richman, in A Study in Separatism, pp. 353-85. 1 Jackson was a Liberation Whig — favouring the liberation of Dorr from prison — but he was elected on the Democratic ticket. 2 Sprague was elected over the radical Republican candidate through a coalition of Democrats and conservative Republicans. RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1833-1902), British colonial and Imperial statesman, was born on the $th of July 1853, at Bishop Stortford, in Hertfordshire. His father was a clergyman, but he claimed descent from yeoman stock. Cecil John Rhodes was the fifth son in a large family of sons and daughters. At the time of his birth his father held the living of Bishop Stort- ford. The boy was educated at Bishop Stortford grammar school with the intention of preparing for the Church; but at the age of sixteen his health broke down, and in the latter part of 1870 he was sent to join an elder brother, then engaged in farming in Natal.. In that year diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley fields. By the end of 1871 Mr Rhodes and his brother were among the successful diggers. The dry air of the interior restored Mr Rhodes's health, and before he was nineteen he found himself financially independent, physically strong and free to devote his life to any object which commended itself to his choice. Rhodes has left behind him an interesting record of the manner in which he was affected by the situation. He deter- mined to return to England, and to complete his education by reading for a degree at Oxford; but before doing so, he spent eight months in a solitary journey through the then little known parts of the country lying to the north of the Orange and Vaal rivers. He went through Bechuanaland to Mafeking, thence to Pretoria, Murchison, Middelburg and back through the Transvaal to Kimberley. The journey, made in an ox- wagon at a rate of progression of some 15 to 20 miles a day, represented a walking tour of eight months through the vast spaces of rolling veld which at that time filled those regions of Southern Africa. He saw one of the healthiest countries in the world barely occupied. He knew the agricultural possibilities of Natal. He knew its mineral wealth. The effect of the combined influences on his mind, in the circumstances in which he found himself, was profound. The idea took passionate possession of him that the fine country through which he moved ought to be secured for occupation by the British race, and that no power but Great Britain should be allowed to dominate in the administration of South Africa. When he brought his self-imposed pilgrimage to an end, he had found an object to which he proposed to devote his life. It was nothing less than the governance of the world by the British race. A will exists written in Mr Rhodes's own handwriting a couple of years later, when he was still only twenty-two, in which he states his reasons for accepting the aggrandizement and service of the British empire as his highest ideal of practical achievement. It ends with a single bequest of everything of which he might die possessed, for the furtherance of this great purpose. Five- and-twenty years later his final will carried out, with some difference of detail, the same intention. The share which he allotted to himself in the general scheme was the extension of the area of British settlement in Africa, but he did not attempt to address himself immediately to public work. He returned, in accordance with his first resolve, to Oxford, where he matriculated at Oriel. In 1873 his health again failed, and he was sent back to South Africa under what was practically a death sentence. Years afterwards he saw the entry of his own case in the diary of the eminent physician whom he consulted, with a note, " Not six months to live." South Africa again restored him to health. Three years later he was back at Oxford, and from 1876 to 1878 he kept his terms. During this period he spent the Long Vacation each year in South Africa, where his large financial interests were daily increasing in importance. He was a member of the Cape ministry when, after a further lapse of years, he kept his last term and took his degree. He did not read hard at Oxford, and was more than once remonstrated with in the earlier terms for non-attendance at lectures. But he passed his examina- tions; and though he was never a student in the university sense of the term, he was to the end of his life a keen devourer of books. He kept always a special liking for certain classic authors. Aristotle was the guide whom as a lad he followed in seeking the " highest object " on which to exercise the RHODES, C. J. " highest activity of the soul." Marcus Aurelius was his constant companion. There exists at Grote Schuur a copy of the Meditations deeply scored with Mr Rhodes's marks. During this Oxford time, and on to 1881, Mr Rhodes was occupied with the amalgamation of the larger number of the diamond mines of Kimberley with the De Beers Company, an operation which established his position as a practical financier and gave him an important connexion and following in the business world. To many admirers who shared his ideas on public questions his connexion with the financial world and his practical success were a stumbling-block. It was often wished for him that he had " kept himself clear of all that." But this was not his own view. His ideals were political and practical. To him the making of money was a necessary preliminary to their realization, and he was proud of his practical ability in this direction. He was personally a man of most simple tastes. His immense fortune was spent in the execution of his ideals, and it has been justly said of him that he taught the world a new chapter of the romance of wealth. In 1881 Mr Rhodes entered public life as a member of the Cape assembly. It was the year of the Majuba settlement. South Africa was convulsed with questions which had arisen between the British and the Dutch, and leaders of Dutch opinion at the Cape ventured to speak openly of the formation of a United States of South Africa under its own flag. The British party needed a rallying-ground, and Mr Rhodes took his stand on a policy of local union combined with the consolida- tion and expansion of Imperial interests. He offered to Dutch and British alike the ideal of a South African Federation governing itself within the empire, and extending, by its gradual absorption of native territories, the range of Imperial administra- tion. Local self-government was, in his opinion, the only endur- ing basis on which the unity of the empire could be built, and throughout his life he was as keen a defender of local rights as he was of Imperial unity. There was a period somewhat later in his career when this attitude on his part gave rise to a good deal of misapprehension, and his advocacy of the elimination of direct Imperial interference in local affairs caused him to be viewed in certain quarters with suspicion as a Separatist and Independent. Those who were inclined to take this view were greatly strengthened in their suspicions by the fact that at a critical moment in the struggle for Home Rule in Ireland Mr Rhodes contributed £10,000 to the funds of the Separatist party. The subsequent publication of his correspondence on the subject with Mr Parnell, who was at that time leading the Home Rule party, demonstrated, however, the essential fact that, whatever might have been the secret intentions of the extreme Irish Home Rulers, Mr Rhodes's contribution was made strictly subject to the retention of the Irish members at West- minster. He remained of the opinion that the Home Rule movement, wisely treated, would have had a consolidating and not a disruptive effect upon the organization of the empire. In South Africa the influence which he acquired over the local independents and over the Dutch vote was subsequently an important factor in enabling him to carry out the scheme of northern expansion which he had at heart, and which he had fully developed in his own mind at Oxford in 1878. In 1881 the Bechuana territory was a sort of no man's land through which ran the trade routes to the north. It was evident that any power which commanded the trade routes would command the unknown northern territory beyond. The Pretoria Con- vention of 1 88 1 limited the westward extension of the Transvaal to a line east of the trade routes. Nevertheless, the reconstituted republic showed itself anxious to encroach by irregular overflow into native territories, and Mr Rhodes feared to see the extension of the British colonies permanently blocked by Dutch occupation. One of his first acts as a member of the Cape assembly was to urge the appointment of a delimitation commission. He served in person on the commission, and obtained from the chief Mankoroane, who claimed about half of Bechuanaland, a formal cession of his territories to the British government of the Cape. The Cape government refused to accept the offer. In February 255 1884 a second convention signed in London again denned the western frontier of the Transvaal, Bechuanaland being left outside the republic. With the consent of Great Britain, Germany had occupied, almost at the same time, the territory on the Atlantic coast now known as German South-West Africa. In August 1884 Mr Rhodes was appointed resident deputy commissioner in Bechuanaland, where, notwithstanding the conventions to the contrary, Boers had ousted the natives from considerable areas and set up the so-called republics of Goshen and Stellaland. An old Dutchman who knew the value of the position said privately to Mr Rhodes, " This is the key of South Africa." The question at issue was whether Great Britain or the Transvaal was to hold the key. It was a question about which at that time the British public knew nothing and cared nothing. Mr Rhodes made it his business to enlighten them. President Kruger, speaking for the government of the Transvaal, professed to regard the Dutch commandoes as freebooters, and to be unable to control them. It devolved upon Great Britain to oblige them to evacuate the territory. ^Largely as the result of Mr Rhodes's exertions the necessary step was taken. The Warren expedition of 1884-85 was sent out. In the presence of British' troops upon the frontier President Kruger recovered his controlling power over the Transvaal burghers, and without any fighting the commandoes were withdrawn. Thereupon southern Bechuanaland was declared to be British territory, while a British protectorate was declared over the northern regions up to the 22nd parallel (September 1885). It was the first round in the long duel fought on the field of South Africa between Mr Rhodes, as the representative of British interests, and President Kruger, as the head of the militant Dutch party. The score on this occasion was to Mr Rhodes, and the entrance to the interior was secured. But the 22nd parallel was far short of the limits to which Mr Rhodes hoped to see British influence extend, and he feared lest Germany and the Transvaal might yet join hands in the native territory beyond, and bar his farther progress Inwards the north. The discovery of gold or 'Is. V\ it watersrand in 1886, by adding to the wealth and Importance of the Transvaal, gave substance to this fear. The territory to the north of the 22nd parallel was at that time under the domination of Lobengula, chief of the Matabele, a native potentate celebrated alike for his ability and for the despotic character of his rule. There were rumours of Dutch and German emissaries at the kraal of Lobengula, engaged in persuading that chief to cede certain portions of his territory. Portugal also was putting forward shadowy claims to the country. It was in these circumstances that Mr Rhodes conceived the idea of forming a British Chartered Company, which should occupy the territory for trading and mining purposes as far as the Zambezi, and bring the whole under the protection of Great Britain. The idea took shape in 1887, in which year Mr Rhodes's first emissaries were sent to Lobengula. The charter of the British South Africa Company was granted in October 1889. Between the two dates hi* conception of the possibilities to be achieved by the Company had expanded. Mr Rhodes no longer limited the sphere of his operations to the Zambezi, but, crossing the river at the back of the Portuguese settlements at its mouth, he obtained per- mission to extend the territories of the Chartered Company to the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, including within the sphere of its operations the British settlements already made in Nyasaland. He hoped to go farther still, and to create a connected chain of British possessions through the continent which nrght eventually justify the description," Africa British from the Cape to Cairo." The treaty negotiated between Great Britain and Germany in 1890 extended the German sphere of influence from the East Coast to the frontier of the Congo Free State, and defeated this hope. But Mr Rhodes did not wholly renounce the idea. In 1892, when the question of the retention or abandonment of Uganda hung in the balance at home, he threw all the weight of his influence into the scale of retention, and undertook at his own personal expense to connect '256 RHODES, C. J. that territory by telegraph with British possessions in the south. In the following year, 1893, it was found inevitable to fight the Matabele, and a war, prosecuted with a success that is perhaps unique of its kind, placed the country entirely in British hands. The territory thus added to the British empire covered an extent of 450,000 square miles, of which large portions consist of healthy uplands suitable for white colonization. The pioneer party who constructed the first road and founded the first British stations in the country received their orders to cross the frontier in the end of 1889. By the end of 1899, before the outbreak of the South African War, though the country had passed through the trial of a war, two native rebellions, and the scourge of rinderpest, it had become, under the name of Rhodesia, a well-settled province of the British empire, with a white popula- tion of some 12,000 to 13,000 persons. The six years which followed the granting of the charter may be regarded as the most successful of a singularly successful life. In 1890, not many months after the granting of the charter, Mr Rhodes accepted the position of prime minister of the Cape. He was maintained in power very largely by the Dutch vote, which he spared no pains to conciliate; and having the confidence of both political sections of the colony, he found himself practically in a position to play the part of benevolent despot in South Africa. He used the position well so far as the public was concerned. While his scheme of northern expansion was making the rapid progress which has been indicated, he did much to elevate and to enlarge the field of local politics. He frankly declared and worked for the policy of uniting British and Dutch interests in South Africa; he took a keen interest in local educa- tion. He also during this period carried through some important reforms in native policy. He had the courage to restrict the franchise, introducing an educational test and limiting the exercise of voting power to men enjoying an income equal to a labourer's wage — thus abolishing, without making any distinction of colour, the abuses of what was known as the " blanket " vote. But his native policy was far from being one of simple re- striction. He liked the natives; he employed them by thousands in the mining industry, he kept native servants habitually about his person he seemed to understand their peculiarities and was singularly successful in dealing with them. The first canon of his native policy was that liquor should be kept from them; the second, that they should be encouraged to labour, and guaranteed the full possession of their earnings; the third, that they should be educated in the practical arts of peace. He appreciated the full importance of raising their territorial con- dition from one of tribal to individual tenure; and while he protested against the absurdity of permitting the uncivilized Kaffir to vote on questions of highly civilized white policy, he believed in applying to the native for his own native affairs the principle of self-government. Of these views some received practical embodiment in the much-disputed act known as the Glen Grey Act of 1894. In this connexion it may also be noted that he was one of the warmest and most convinced supporters of Lovedale, the very successful missionary institution for the education of natives in South Africa. The position of benevolent despot has obvious drawbacks. In Mr Rhodes's case the dependence which the populations of Cape Colony were led to place on him had its reaction on the public in a demoralizing loss of self-reliance, and for himself it must be admitted that the effect on the character of a man already much disposed to habits of absolutism in thought and action was the reverse of beneficial. Mr Rhodes felt himself to be far stronger than any man in his own surroundings; he knew himself to be actuated by disinterested motives in the aims which he most earnestly desired to reach. He was pro- foundly impressed by a sense of the shortness of life, and he so far abused his power as to become intolerant of any sort of control or opposition. The inevitable result followed, that though Mr Rhodes did much of great and good work during the six years of his supreme power, he entirely failed during that period to surround himself, as he might have done, by a circle of able men fit to comprehend and to carry on the work to which his own best efforts were directed. To work with him was practically impossible for those who were not willing to accept without demur the yoke of dogmatic authority He had a few devoted personal friends, who appreciated his aims and were inspired by his example; but he was lacking in regard for individuals, and a great part of his daily life was spent in the company of satellites and instruments, whom he used with cynical unconcern for the furtherance of his ends. In 1896 the brilliant period of his premiership was brought to an end by the incident which became famous under the name of the Jameson Raid. The circumstances which led to the Raid belong properly to the history of the Transvaal. It is enough to say briefly here that the large alien population which had been attracted to the Transvaal by the phenomenal wealth of the Johannesburg goldfields, conceiving themselves to have reason to revolt against the authority of the Transvaal government, resolved towards the end of 1895 to have recourse to arms in order to obtain certain reforms. Mr Rhodes, as a large mine-owner, was theoretically a member of the mining population. In this capacity he was asked to give his counten- ance to the movement. But as prime minister of a British colony he was evidently placed in a false position from the moment in which he became cognizant of a secret attempt to overturn a neighbouring government by force of arms. He did more than become cognizant. The subsequent finding of a Cape committee, which he accepted as accurate, was to the effect that " in his capacity as controller of the three great joint-stock companies, the British South Africa Company, the De Beers Consolidated Mines, and the Gold Fields of South Africa, he directed and controlled the combination which rendered such a proceeding as the Jameson Raid possible." He gave money, arms and influence to the movement; and as the time fixed for the outbreak of the revolution approached, he allowed Dr Jameson, who was then administrator of the British South Africa Company in Rhodesia, to move an armed force of some 500 men upon the frontier. Here Mr Rhodes's participation in the movement came to an end. It became abundantly clear from subsequent inquiry that he was not personally responsible for what followed. A cipher corre- spondence, seized and published by the Boers, left the civilized world in no doubt as to Mr Rhodes's share in the previous preparation, and he was for a time believed to be responsible for the Raid itself. Subsequent inquiries held by committees of the Cape parliament and of the British House of Commons acquitted him entirely of responsibility for Dr Jameson's final movement, but both committees found that he had acted in a manner which was inconsistent with his duty as prime minister of the Cape and managing director of the British South Africa Company. He displayed, in the circumstances, characteristic qualities of pluck and candour. He made no concealment of his own share in the catastrophe; he took full responsibility for what had been done in his name by subordinates, and he accepted all the consequences which ensued. He resigned his premier- ship of the Cape (January 1896); and, recognizing that his presence was no longer useful in the colony, he turned his attention to Rhodesia. His design was to live in that country, and to give all the stimulus of his own presence and encourage- ment to the development of its resources. The Matabele rebellion of March 1896 intervened to prevent the immediate realization of his plans. In June Imperial troops were sent up, and by the end of July the result of the military operations had driven the natives to the Matoppo Hills, where they held a practically impregnable position. The prospect was of con- tinued war, with a renewal of a costly campaign in the following year. Mr Rhodes conceived the idea that he might effect single-handed the pacification which military skill had failed to compel. To succeed, it was essential that he should trust and be trusted. He accordingly moved his tent away from the troops to the base of the Matoppo Hills. He lay there quietly for six weeks, in the power of the enemy if they had chosen to attack. Word was circulated among the natives RHODES, J. F. that he had come alone and undefended to hear their side of the case. A council was held by them in the very depths of the hills, where no armed force could touch them. He was invited to attend it. It was a case of staking his life on trust. He displayed no hesitation, but mounted and rode unarmed with the messenger. Three friends rode with him. The confidence was justified. They met the assembled chiefs at the place appointed. The native grievances were laid before Mr Rhodes. At the end of a long discussion Mr Rhodes, having made and exacted such concessions as he thought fit, asked the question, " Now, for the future is it peace or is it war?" And the chiefs, laying down their sticks as a symbol of surrendered arms, declared, "We give you one word: it is peace." The scene, as described by one of the eye-witnesses, was very striking. Mr Rhodes, riding away, characterized it simply as " one of the scenes which make life worth living." His life was drawing towards its end. He had still a few years, which he devoted with success to the development of the country which bore his name. The railway was brought to Bulawayo, and arrangements were made for carrying the line on in sections as far as the south end of Lake Tanganyika, a construction which was part of his pet scheme for connecting the Cape by a British line of communication with Cairo. He also concluded arrangements for carrying a telegraphic land line through to Egypt, and had the satisfaction of seeing the mineral development of the country fairly started. But the federal union of South Africa, to which he had always worked as the secure basis of the extension of British rule in the southern half of the continent, was not for him to see. The South African War broke out in 1899. Mr Rhodes took his part at Kimberley in sustaining the hardships of a siege; but his health was broken, and though he lived to see victory practically assured to British arms, peace had not been concluded when, on the 26th of March 1902, he died at Muizenberg, near Cape Town. His life's work did not end actually with his death. He left behind him a will in which he dedicated his fortunes, as he had dedicated himself, exclusively to the public service. He left the bulk of his vast wealth for the purpose of founding scholarships at Oxford of the value each of £300 a year, to be held by students from every important British colony, and from every state and Territory of the United States of America. The sum so bequeathed was very large; but it was not for the munificence of the legacy that the will was received with acclamation throughout the civilized world: it was for the striking manifestation of faith which it embodied in the principles that make for the enlightenment and peace and union of man- kind, and for the fine constancy of Mr Rhodes's conviction that the unity of the British Empire, which he had been proud to serve, was among the greatest of organized forces uniting for universal good. The will was drawn up some years before his death. A codicil, signed during the last days of his life, gave evidence of some enlargement of his views as to the association of races necessary in order to secure the peace of the world, and added to the original scheme a certain number of scholar- ships to be held at the disposal of German students. The publication of the will silenced Mr Rhodes's detractors and converted many of his critics. It set a seal which could not be mistaken upon his completed life. The revulsion of sentiment towards him was complete, and his name passed at once in the public estimation to the place which it is probably destined to take in history, as one which his countrymen are proud to count among the great makers of the British Empire. See the Life by Sir Lewis Michell (2 vols., London, iqio); consult also Sir T. E Fuller, Cecil John Rhodes: A Monograph and a Reminiscence (London, 1910), and " Vindex," Cecil Rhodes: His Political Life and Speeches (London, 1900). (F L. L.) The Rhodes Scholarships. — The scholarship system founded by the will of Cecil Rhodes provides in perpetuity for the support at Oxford, for a term of three years each, of about 175 selected scholars. Each scholar from the colonies and the United States has an allowance of £300 per annum during 257 the continuance of his scholarship; those from Germany, as being nearer to Oxford, an allowance of £250 each. In each province of Canada, in each state of Australia, in the four collegiate schools of Cape Colony (Rondebosch, Stellenbosch, South African College, and St Andrew's College, Grahamstown), in the dominion of New Zealand, and in the colonies of Natal, Jamaica, Bermuda and Newfoundland, a scholar is elected each year. Three scholarships annually are assigned to Rhodesia. Each state and Territory of the American Union is entitled to have two scholars in residence, so that an election takes place in two years out of three. Five scholarships are provided annually for scholars from Germany. In his will Rhodes mentions the objects he had in view in founding the different scholarships : — 1. Colonial. — " I consider that the education of young colonists at one of the universities in the United Kingdom is of great advantage to them for giving breadth to their views, for their instruction in life and manners, and for instilling into their minds the advantage to the colonies as well as to the United Kingdom of the retention of the unity of the empire." 2. American. — " I also desire to encourage and foster an apprecia- tion of the advantages which I implicitly believe will result from the union of the English-speaking people throughout the world, and to encourage in the students from the United States of North America who will benefit from the American scholarships to be established for the reason above given at the university of Oxford under this my will an attachment to the country from which they have sprung, but without, I hope, withdrawing them or their sym- pathies from the land of their adoption or birth." 3. German. — " I note the German emperor has made instruction in English compulsory in German schools. I leave five yearly scholarships at Oxford of £250 per annum to students of German birth, the scholars to be nominated by the German emperor for the time being. Each scholarship to continue for three years, so that each year after the first three there will be fifteen scholars. The object is that an understanding between the three Great Powers will render war impossible and educational relations make the strongest tie." He defines as follows the principles on which he wished his scholars to be selected : — " My desire being that the students who shall be elected to the scholarships shall not be merely bookworms, I direct that in the election of a student to a scholarship regard shall be had to (l) his literary and scholastic attainments; (2) his fondness for and success in manly outdoor sports such as cricket, football and the like; (3) his qualities of manhood, truth, courage, devotion to duty, sympathy for and protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness and fellowship; and (4) his exhibition during school days of moral force of character and of instincts to lead and to take an interest in his schoolmates, for those latter attributes will be likely in after life to guide him to esteem the performance of public duties as his highest aim." The trustees named in the will for the management of the trust were Lord Rosebery, Lord Grey, Lord Milner, Sir Lewis Michell, Dr L. S. Jameson, Mr Alfred Beit and Mr Bourchier F. Hawksley. After consultation with the educational authorities of all the communities to which scholarships are assigned, the trustees arranged a system for the selection of scholars. This system, which is subject to such changes as experience suggests, may be summarized as follows. Every candidate, in order to become eligible, is required to pass the Responsions examination of the university of Oxford, or some examination accepted by the university as an equivalent. In the case of communities possessing universities or colleges in affiliation with Oxford, a certain standing at those universities is accepted in lieu of Responsions. Examinations are held in two years out of three in each state of the American Union, and annually in colonies which do not have the affiliated universities or colleges referred to. German scholars are nominated by his majesty the emperor of Germany. Candidates must be unmarried — must be between the ages of 19 and 25 (in Jamaica and Queensland, 18-25; in Newfoundland, 18-21; in Western Australia, 17-25), and they must be, in the colonies, British subjects — in the United States and Germany, subjects of those countries. In each British colony electing scholars and in each state of the Union there is a committee of selection, composed commonly of leading educational authorities or high public officials. To these committees all candidates who have passed the qualifying tests submit their claims. The com- mittees are entrusted with the power of selection, but are expected to exercise this power, as closely as circumstances permit, in accord- ance with the suggestions made by Rhodes. The trust arranges for the distribution of elected scholars among the colleges of Oxford, each of which has agreed to receive a limited number of approved candidates. (G. R. P.) RHODES, JAMES FORD (1848- ), American historian, was born in Cleveland, Ohio, on the ist of May 1848. He xxin. 9 RHODES entered the university of New York as a special student in 1865, studied at the university of Chicago in 1866-67, and at the College de France in 1867-68, and in 1868 served as occasional Paris correspondent to the Chicago Times. He then took a course in metallurgy in the School of Mines, at Berlin; subsequently inspected iron and steel works in western Germany and in Great Britain; and in 1870 joined his father in the iron, steel and coal business in Cleveland, becoming a member of the firm in 1874. He retired from business with an ample fortune in 1885, and after two years devoted to general reading and travel he began his History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, which, closing the narrative with the year 1877, was published in seven volumes in 1893- 1906. In recognition of the merit of his work he received honorary degrees from various American universities, was elected president of the American Historical Association in 1899, and received the Loubet prize of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1001. In 1909 he published a volume of Historical Essays. RHODES, the most easterly of the islands of the Aegean Sea, about 10 m. S. of Cape Alypo in Asia Minor. It forms, with the islands of Syme, Casos, Carpathos, Castelorizo, Telos and Charki, one of the four sanjaks into which the Archipelago vilayet of Turkey is divided. The governor-general of the vilayet resides at the town of Rhodes. The length of the island is about 45 m. from N.E. to S.W., its greatest breadth 22 m., and its area nearly 424 sq. m.' The population of the island comprises 7000 Moslems, 21,000 Christians, and 2000 Jews. The island is diversified in its surface, and is traversed from north to south by an elevated mountain range, the highest point of which is called Atairo (anc. Atabyris or Atabyrium) (4560 ft.). It commands a view of the elevated coast of Asia Minor towards the north, and of the Archipelago, studded with its numerous islands, on the north-west; while on the south-west is seen Mount Ida in Crete, often veiled in clouds, and on the south and south-east the vast expanse of waters which wash the African shore. The rest of the island is occupied in great part by ranges of moderately elevated hills, on which are found extensive woods of ancient pines, planted by the hand of nature. These forests were formerly very thick, but they are now greatly thinned by the Turks, who cut them down and take no care to plant others in their place. Beneath these hills the surface of the island falls lower, and several hills in the form of amphitheatres extend their bases as far as the sea. Rhodes was famed in ancient times for its delightful climate, and it still maintains its former reputation. The winds are liable to little variation; they blow from the west, often with great violence, for nine months in the year, and at other times from the north; and they moderate the summer heats, which are chiefly felt during the months of July and August, when the hot winds blow from the coast of Anatolia. Rhodes, in addition to its fine climate, is blessed with a fertile soil, and produces a variety of the finest fruits and vegetables. Around the villages are extensive cultivated fields and orchards, containing fig, pomegranate and orange trees. On the sloping hills carob trees, and others both useful and agreeable, still grow abundantly; the vine also holds its place, andj produces a species of wine which was highly valued by the ancients, though it seems to have degenerated greatly in modern times. The valleys afford rich pastures, and the plains produce every species of grain. The commerce of the island has been of late years increasing at a rapid rate. Many British manufactures are imported by indirect routes, through Smyrna, Constantinople, Beyrout and other places. Cotton stuffs, calicoes and grey linen are among the goods most in demand; they are exported to the neighbouring coast of Anatolia, between Budrum and Adalia, and thence conveyed into the interior. The expansion of the trade has been very much owing to the establishment of steam navigation direct to the island, which is now visited regularly by French and Austrian steamers, as well as by some from England to Symrna. The only town of any importance in the island is the capital, Rhodes, which stands at the north-east extremity. It rises in an imposing manner from the sea, on a gentle slope in the form of an amphitheatre. It is surrounded with walls and towers, and defended by a large moated castle of great strength. These fortifications are all the work of the Knights of St John. The interior of the city does not correspond to its outward appear- ance. No trace exists of the splendour of the ancient city, with its regular streets, well-ordered plan and numerous public buildings. The modern city of Rhodes is in general the work of the Knights of St John, and has altogether a medieval aspect. The picturesque fortifications also by which the city is surrounded remain almost unaltered as they were in the isth century. The principal buildings which remain are the church of St John, which is become the principal mosque; the hospital, which has been transformed into public granaries; the palace of the grand master, now the residence of the pasha; and the senate-house, which still contains some marbles and ancient columns. Of the streets, the best and widest is a long street which is still called the Street of the Knights. It is perfectly straight, and formed of old houses, on which remain the armorial bearings of the members of the order. On some of these buildings are still seen the arms of the popes and of some of the royal and noble houses of Europe. The only relics of classical antiquity are the numerous inscribed altars and bases of statues, as well as architectural fragments, which are found scattered in the courtyards and gardens of the houses in the extensive suburbs which now surround the town, the whole of which were comprised within the limits of the ancient city. The foundations also of the moles that separate the harbours are of Hellenic work, though the existing moles were erected by the Knights of St John. Rhodes has two harbours. The lesser of these lies towards the east, and its entrance is obstructed by a barrier of rocks, so as to admit the entrance of but one ship at a time. It is sufficiently sheltered, but by the negligence of, the Turks the sand has been suffered to accumulate until it has been gradually almost choked up. The other harbour is larger, and also in a bad condition; here small ships may anchor, and are sheltered from the west winds, though they are exposed to the north and north-east winds. The two harbours are separated by a mole which runs obliquely into the sea. At the eastern entrance is the fort of St Elmo, with a lighthouse. History. — It is as yet difficult to determine the part which Rhodes played in prehistoric days during the naval predominance of the neighbouring island of Crete; but archaeological remains dating from the later Minoan age prove that the early Aegean culture maintained itself there comparatively unimpaired until the historic period. A similar conclusion may be drawn from the legend which peopled primitive Rhodes with a population of skilful workers in metal, the " Telchines." Whatever the f racial affinities of the early inhabitants may have been, it is certain that in historic times Rhodes was occupied by a Dorian population, reputed to have emigrated mainly from Argos subsequently to the " Dorian invasion " of Greece. The three cities founded by these settlers — Lindus, lalysus and Camirus — belonged to the " League of Six Cities," by which the Dorian colonists in Asia Minor sought to protect themselves against the barbarians of the neighbouring mainland. The early history of these towns is a record of brisk commercial expansion and active colonization. The position of Rhodes as a distributing centre of Levantine and especially of Phoenician goods is well attested by archaeological finds. Its colonies extended not only eastward along the southern coast of Asia Minor, but also linked up the island with^the westernmost parts of the Greek world. Among such settlements may be mentioned Phaselis in Lycia, perhaps also Soli in Cilicia, Salapia on the east Italian coast, Gela in Sicily, the Lipari islands, and Rhoda in north-east Spain. In home waters the Rhodians exercised political control over Carpathos and other islands. RHODESIA 259 The history of Rhodes during the Persian wars is quite obscure. In the 5th century the three cities were enrolled in the Delian League, and democracies became prevalent. In 412 the island revolted from Athens and became the head- quarters of the Peloponnesian fleet. Four years later the in- habitants for the most part abandoned their former residences and concentrated in the newly founded city of Rhodes. This town, which was laid out on an exceptionally fine site according to a scientific plan by the architect Hippodamus of Miletus, soon rose to considerable importance, and attracted much of the Aegean and Levantine commerce which had hitherto been in Athenian hands. In the 4th century its political develop- ment was arrested by constant struggles between oligarchs and democrats, who in turn brought the city under the control of Sparta (412-395, 391-378), of Athens (395~39i, 378-357), and of the Carian dynasty of Maussollus (357-340). It seems that about 340 the island was conquered for the Persian king by his Rhodian admiral Mentor; in 332 it submitted to Alexander the Great. Upon Alexander's death the people expelled their Macedonian garrison, and henceforth not only maintained their independence but acquired great political influence. The expansion of Levantine trade which ensued in the Hellenistic age brought especial profit to Rhodes, whose standard of coinage and maritime law became widely accepted in the Mediterranean. Under a modified type of democracy, in which the chief power would seem to have rested normally with the six irpuravta, or heads of the executive, the city enjoyed a long period of remark- ably good administration. The chief success of the government lay in the field of foreign politics, where it prudently avoided entanglement in the ambitious schemes of Hellenistic monarchs, but gained great prestige by energetic interference against aggressors who threatened the existing balance of power or the security of the seas. The chief incidents of Rhodian history during this period are a memorable siege by Demetrius Polior- cetes in 304, who sought in vain to force the city into active alliance with King Antigonus by means of his formidable fleet and artillery; a severe earthquake in 227, the damages of which all the other Hellenistic states contributed to repair, because they could not afford to see the island ruined; some vigorous cam- paigns against Byzantium, the Pergamene and the Pontic kings, who had threatened the Black Sea trade-route (220 sqq.), and against the pirates of Crete. In accordance with their settled policy the Rhodians eagerly supported the Romans when these made war upon Philip V. of Macedon and Antiochus III. of Syria on behalf of the minor Greek states. In return for their more equivocal attitude during the Third Macedonian War they were deprived by Rome of some possessions in Lycia, and damaged by the partial diversion of their trade to Delos (167). Nevertheless during the two Mithradatic wars they remained loyal to the republic, and in 88 successfully stood a siege by the Pontic king. The Rhodian navy, which had dis- tinguished itself in most of these wars, did further good service on behalf of Pompey in his campaigns against the pirates and against Julius Caesar. A severe blow was struck against the city in 43 by C. Cassius, who besieged and ruthlessly plundered the people for refusing to submit to his exactions. Though Rhodes continued a free town for another century, its commercial prosperity was crippled and a series of extensive earthquakes after A.D. 155 completed the ruin of the city. In the days of its greatest power Rhodes became famous as a centre of pictorial and plastic art ; it gave rise to a school of eclectic oratory whose chief representative was Apollonius Molon, the teacher of Cicero; it was the birthplace of the Stoic philosopher Panaetius; the home of the poet Apollonius Rhodius and the historian Posidonius. Protogenes embellished the city with his paintings, and Chares of Lindus with the celebrated colossal statue of the sun-god, which was 105 ft. high. The colossus stood for fifty-six years, till an earthquake prostrated it in 224 B.C. Its enormous fragments continued to excite wonder in the time of Pliny, and were not removed till A.D. 656, when Rhodes was con- ouered by the Saracens, who sold the remains for old metal to a dealer, who employed nine hundred camels to carry them away. The notion that the colossus once stood astride over the entrance to the harbour is a medieval fiction. During the later Roman empire Rhodes was the capital of the province of the islands. Its history under the Byzantine rule is uneventf ul.but for some temporary occupations by the Saracens (653-658, 717-718), and the gradual encroachment of Venetian traders since 1082. In the I3th century the island stood as a rule under the control of Italian adventurers, who were, however, at times compelled to acknowledge the over- lordship of the emperors of Nicaea, and failed to protect it against the depredations of Turkish corsairs. In 1309 it was conquered by the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at the instiga- tion of the pope and the Genoese, and converted into a great fortress for the protection of the southern seas against the Turks. Under their mild and just rule both the native Greeks and the Italian residents were able to_carry on a brisk trade. But the piratical acts of these traders, in which the knights themselves sometimes joined, and the strategic position of the island between Constanti- nople and the Levant, necessitated its reduction by the Ottoman sultans. A siege in 1480 by Mahomet II. led to the repulse <•? Turks with severe losses; after a second investment, during which Sultan Suleiman I. is said to have lost 90,000 men out of a force of 200,000, the knights evacuated Rhodes under an honourable capitulation (1522). The population henceforth dwindled in con- sequence of pestilence and emigration, and although the island recovered somewhat in the i8th century under a comparatively lenient rule it was brought to a very low ebb owing to the severity of its governor during the Greek revolution. The sites of Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus, which in the most ancient times were the principal towns of the island, are clearly marked, and the first of the three is still occupied by a small town with a medieval castle, both of them dating from the time of the knights, though the castle occupies the site of the ancient acropolis, of the walls of which considerable remains are still visible. There are no ruins of any importance on the site of either lalysus or Camirus, but excavations at the latter place have produced valuable and interest- ing results in the way of ancient vases and other antiquities, which are now in the British Museum. Rhodes was again famous for its_ pottery in medieval times; this was a lustre ware at first imitated from Persian, though it afterwards developed into an independent style of fine colouring and rich variety of design. See Pindar, fill Olympian Ode; Diodorus v. 55-59, xiii.-xx. passim; Polybius iv. 46-52, v. 88-90, xvi. 2-9, xxvii.-xxix! passim; C. Torr, Rhodes in Ancient Times (Cambridge, 1885) Rhodes in Modern Times (Cambridge, 1887); C. Schumacher De republica Rhodiorum commentatio (Heidelberg, 1886); H. van Gelder, Geschichte der alien Rhodier (Hague, 1900); B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 539-542; and Baron de Balabre, Rhodes of the Knights (1909). (E. H. B.; E.Ga.; M. O. B. C.) RHODESIA (so named after Cecil Rhodes), an inland country and British possession in South Central Africa, bounded S. and S.W. by the Transvaal, the Bechuanaland Protectorate and German South- West Africa; W. by Portuguese West Africa. N.W. by Belgian Congo; N.E. by German East Africa; E. by the British Nyatsaland Protectorate and Portuguese East Africa. It covers an area of about 450,000 sq. m., being larger than France, Germany and the Low Countries combined. It is divided into two parts of unequal size by the midoUe course of the Zambezi. Southern Rhodesia, with an area of 148,575 sq. m., consists of Matabeleland and Mashonaland, the western and eastern provinces, while the trans-Zambezi regions are divided into North-Western Rhodesia (or Barotseland) and North-Eastern Rhodesia. Physical Features. — Rhodesia forms part of the high tableland which constitutes the interior of Africa south of the Congo basin. Hydrographically the greater part of the country' belongs to the basin of the Zambezi (q.v.), but in the N.E. it includes the eastern headstreams of the Congo, and in the S. and S.E. it is drained by the tributaries of the Limpopo, the Sabi and the Pungwe. The Limpopo forms the boundary between Southern Rhodesia and the Transvaal. The north- western regions, drained by the upper Zambezi and its affluents, are described under BAROTSELAND, and North-Eastern Rhodesia, together with the adjacent Nyasaland Protectorate, under BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA. The highest portion of the tableland of Southern Rhodesia runs from the S.W. to the N.E. and forms a broad watershed between the tributaries of the Zambezi flowing north and the rivers flowing south and east. It is along this high plateau that the railway runs from Bulawayo to Salisbury and onwards to Portuguese East Africa. The eleva- tion of the railway varies from 4500 ft. to 5500 ft. There is a gradual sloping away of the plateau to the N.W. and S.E., so 260 RHODESIA that only a small portion of Southern Rhodesia is under 3000 ft. The eastern boundary, along Portuguese East Africa, forms the edge of the tableland; the height of the edge is accentuated by a series of ridges, so that the country here assumes a mountainous appearance, the grass-clad heights being reminiscent of the Cheviot Hills of Scotland or the lower Alps of Switzerland. Geology. — The geology of this region is very imperfectly known. Metamorphic rocks extend over immense areas, but these and the other formations are to a great extent hidden beneath superficial deposits. Conglomerates and banded ironstone rocks are found in the metamorphic areas around Bulawayo and the borders of Katanga; but to what extent these represent the different forma- tions older than the Karroo and newer than the Swaziland schists (see TRANSVAAL) has not been satisfactorily determined. Certain gold-bearing conglomerates are regarded as the equivalents of the Witwatersrand series, but the main sources of gold are the veins of quartz and igneous rocks developed in the metamorphic series. The Karroo formation is well represented, and covers extensive areas in the Zambezi basin. The Dwyka conglomerate RHODESIA 50216.1:15.000,000 English Miles appears to be developed in the Tuli district. The coal-bearing strata of Tuli and Wankies are certainly of Karroo age. They have yielded the fossil remains of fishes Acrolepis molyneuxi, the fresh- water mollusc Palaeomutela, a few reptilian bones, and species of Glossopteris among plants. The age of a widely distributed series of red-white sandstones, named by Molyneux the Forest Sandstone, remains uncertain. Molyneux considers them Tertiary, but it is not improbable that sandstones of various ages from Karroo to those of Recent date are represented. They contain numerous interbedded sheets of basalt, but it is doubtful if any of these are of so recent a date as Tertiary. Rocks of Karroo age occur round Lake Bangweulu, and contain numerous fossil plants and a few small shells. The age of the wide, thick sheet of basalt, through which the Zambezi has cut the Batoka gorge between the Victoria Falls and Wankies, remains uncertain.1 1 For geology see F. H. Hatch, " Notes on the Geology of Masho- naland and Matabeleland," Geol. Mag., 1895; A. J. C. Molyneux, " The Sedimentary Deposits of Rhodesia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lix. (1903) ; F. P. Mennel, " Geology of Rhodesia," British Association Handbook (Cape Town, 1905); G. W. Lamplugh, British Assoc. Rep., South African Meeting, 1905. Climate. — As Southern Rhodesia extends between 16° S. and 22° S., and is thus within the tropics, it might be expected that the climate would be trying for Europeans, but owing to the elevation of the country the temperature is rarely too high for comfort. Another factor that renders the climate equable is that the rainy season coincides with the summer months, and the winter months are dry. The nights are always cool, so that the climate approxi- mates to the ideal. On the high tableland which forms the great proportion of the country the temperature in the shade rarely reaches 100° and there is just sufficient frost in the winter to be useful to farmers. The winter months are June, July and August, and the hottest months are the spring months of September, October and November, just before the rams begin. A temperature of 1 10° is sometimes reached in the low-lying district of Tuli (elevation 1890 ft.) and in the Zambezi valley. There is a striking difference between the minimum temperatures on the ground and those registered 4 ft. from the ground. The latter rarely reach freezing-point, but the ground temperature is sometimes as low as 24°. Hoar frost is most noticeable in the vleis and low-lying areas. The period known as the rainy season extends from Sep- tember to March, but the greatest amount falls in the last three months of that period. The mean annual rainfall for various stations in the eastern half of Rhodesia ranges from 24 to 44 in., the greatest rainfall being along the eastern border. For the western half the mean ranges from 19 to 27 in., but in the south-west corner it is much drier, the rainfall so far recorded never reaching 1 8 in. There is a sufficiency of rain for all summer crops, but winter crops, such as wheat, must be assisted^ by irrigation. Malaria is prevalent in certain districts during the wet season, but this is now preventable and the country is very healthy, children, especially in towns and on the high veld, growing sturdily. The death-rate amongst Europeans is only about 15 per 1000. Fauna. — Rhodesia is rich in the larger grami- nivorous animals, especially in antelope, which number about twenty-five varieties, including kudu, eland, hartebeeste, roan, sable, wilde- beeste and impala. The most common are the duiker, the stembok and the rietbok. Other herbivorous animals found in the country are the buffalo, giraffe, zebra, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros (black and white), warthog, and various baboons and monkeys. The buffalo is now rare, having been almost exterminated, by the rinder- pest in 1896. The carnivora include the lion, leopard, cheetah, and various wild cats, foxes, wolves, jackals and dogs. There are at least five varieties of the mongoose. Amongst the rodents are squirrels, dormice, rats (eleven kinds), the porcupine, the Cape hare and the rock hare. Of insectivora the ant-eater, the ant-bear, the hedgehog and various shrews may be mentioned. Bats number eleven varieties. Snakes are numer- ous, the most important being the python, the puff-adder and the cobra. Crocodiles and iguanas are found in most of the rivers, and chameleons and lizards are very common. Rhodesia abounds in beetles, butterflies and moths, and new varieties are frequently discovered in the wet season. Men- tion ought to be made of white ants (termites) and locusts. The ants are a serious pest, attack- ing all cut timber resting in or on the ground. ' They gradually envelop the dead wood in a mound of earth and consume it wholly, so that all poles and house-timber have to be carefully protected either by chemical preparations or by raising them clear from contact with the earth. The mounds which the white ants erect often reach a height of many feet. There are several kinds, the black-headed nipper ant, chiefly found in the west, being the most destructive. Locusts are particularly dreaded in their wingless state, when they clean off every green leaf, every bit of vegetation, as they march on in their hundreds of thousands. The rivers are not very plentiful in fish, but occasional sport is afforded by barbel, bream and tiger-fish. Birds to the number of about 400 varieties have been found in Rhodesia. The largest of these are the ostrich, the secretary-bird, the paauw, the koorhaan, cranes (three varieties), storks (four), vultures (six) and eagles (eight). The chief birds that attract sportsmen, besides x the paauw and the koorhaan already men- tioned, are the guinea-fowl (three kinds), partridge and francolin (seven kinds), wild goose, duck and teal. Some of the most in- teresting birds are the weaver-birds (eighteen), the ox-peckers, which find their food on the backs of cattle, the kingfishers (eight), the hornbills (five), the parrots, lovebirds, the polygamous widow birds — whose females are of insignificant appearance, but whose males develop a brilliant plumage and lengthy tails during the RHODESIA 261 breeding season, when they are on guard over their harems of from ten to fifte'en wives — the sunbirds, with their long curved beaks that search out the nectar of flowers, and the honey-guides, which, with their agitated " chuck, chuck," lead the wayfarer to bees' nests with expectation of joining in the plunder. The small birds of Rhodesia are usually very brilliantly coloured, the most dis- tinguished being what is known as the blue jay, with its bright, iridescent, light blue plumage. Flora. — The vegetation of the territory is luxurious and mainly subtropical, but in the lower valleys the flora assumes a tropical aspect. The country is well wooded and in this respect differs from the high tablelands farther south. The trees as a rule attain no greater height than about 20 ft., but in some districts, such as South Melsetter and Wankies, there are remains of forests of large timber. The small growth of the trees is said to be due to the annual veld fires, and it is noticeable that native trees that are protected attain a much greater height. As a rule the wood is either very hard or very soft, so that timber for building has still to be imported, although the existing timber is useful for mining purposes. One of the hardest woods is the so-called Rhodesian teak (native Ikusi), which is about 50% harder than real teak (Tectona grandis). The trees most commonly met with are mapane, used for poles; umkamba, resembling mahogany; m'lanji cedar, chiefly found along the eastern border; umsasa, used for firewood; impachla, the native wisteria. Among other trees are the baobab with enormous very soft trunk, the fruit being a large nut containing citrate of magnesia, which natives use to make a cooling drink; the umvagaz — or blood-wood — which issues a blood-coloured juice when cut, and the umkuna, or hissing tree, which hisses when an incision is made. The barks of the umSasa, the umhondo, and the umgosa are much used by natives for binding fibres in making huts and are also used for tanning. The bark of the baobab yields a fine fibre which natives use in making excellent game nets and fishing nets. The native fruit-bearing trees are the fig (many varieties), the mahobohobo or umjanje, resembling the loquat, the Kaffir plum, very sour and totally different from the Kaffir plum of Cape Colony, and the Kaffir orange. Among the shrubs the proteas, or sugar bushes, with their nectar-stored flowers, are the most frequent. The mimosa thorn, although more of the nature of a tree, grows in dense masses, chiefly in the western province. The period of the year when flowers begin to bloom is rather remarkable. After the long spell of dry weather, lasting from five to seven months, and before any rain has fallen, blooms appear all over the veld. Most of such flowers are those of bulbous plants or plants with large roots that have been stored with nourishment during the previous growing wet season. The flowers are sustained by this stock of food until the rains appear again to replenish the roots. Even grass sprouts green over the earth before the rains appear, and the hard-baked veld is pierced by the shoots of the gladiolus, the orchid, the asparagus, the solanum, the convolvulus and many other flowers. When the rains are far advanced, the annuals shoot rapidly and make a second ishow of bloom. A peculiarity of the early spring shoots on trees and shrubs is that they have not the green tints of the colder regions, but are all shades of brown and orange and red and yellow. One of the chief features of Rhodesia is the vast stretches of grass-covered veld, the grasses varying from a few inches to 15 ft. in height and numbering about 100 different varieties. Along the rivers are to be found palms, tree ferns, bananas, dracaenas and other hot climate plants. Rubber, indigo and cotton are indigenous and there are groves of lemon trees, but these were most probably introduced by early settlers. Tobacco, which grows luxuriantly, may also have been introduced. Inhabitants. — In Southern Rhodesia about half the European population, which in 1900 was approximately 16,500, is British born or born of British parents, and about one-third is South African born. There are about 11,500 males and 5000 females, and the population is equally divided between the urban and rural areas. In rural areas the chief occupations are mining and agriculture. Industrial pursuits, including mining, engage about 25% of the population, 8% are employed in agriculture, and 15% in commerce. Mashonaland has 7500 white inhabi- tants, and Matabeleland 9000. There are about 2000 Asiatics in Southern Rhodesia. The Natives of Rhodesia belong to the Bantu-Negro stock and are roughly divisible into two groups; those long settled in the country, and the Amazulu, who during the ipth century left Zululand and, passing through the more southern regions, overran Rhodesia and settled in Matabeleland. The Barotse (q.v.) are mainly settled in North-West Rhodesia. In Southern Rhodesia, in spite of incursions from Portuguese territory and from the north, the natives can be still clearly divided into Mashona and Matabele, living in the eastern and western pro- vinces respectively. The name Mashona is not used by the natives but is useful as distinguishing the allied tribes of the eastern division from the Matabele in the west. The languages of the Mashona tribes arc allied and are distinct from that of the Matabele (or Zulu), but it is uncertain whether these Mashona tongues should be regarded merely as different dialects, or .languages as different as those of the various nations of Europe (but see BANTU LANGUAGES). The tribes round Salisbury and extending as far as Marondella in the east and about 100 m. north are clearly branches of the Vasezuru people, that is, the people from " higher up," the " higher up " being a region in the south-east. Their history can be traced from about the beginning of the i8th century; but there is a great lack of tradition amongst this class of native, which is distinctly inferior in type to the Matabele in the west. Farther north there are the Makorikori and the Mabudja or Mabushla. It would appear that the country in which these people now dwell was formerly in the possession of the Barotse, and some of the present chiefs obtained their positions by per- mission of the Barotse. Previously, according to Portuguese documents of the i6th and I7th centuries, the Makaranga or Makalanga now located in the south round about Victoria had possession of the country as far north as the Zambezi. Their language is allied to that of the present inhabitants, but in many respects is widely different and of late has become more so owing to intercourse with the Matabele. Along the eastern border two more tribes can • be differentiated, namely, Umtasa's people in the north and those speaking the Chindawo language in the south. Their languages are merely variants of the language spoken in the Salisbury and Mazoe districts. All the tribes in the eastern province have very similar habits and customs. Their huts are circular with a wall a foot or two high, made of poles and daga (mud) surmounted by a conical thatched roof. They thus differ from the beehive huts of the Zulus. They are built indiscriminately together and are not surrounded by stockades. The whole family dwells in the same hut along with dogs, goats and fowls, and sometimes even with cattle, though there are usually separate kraals for their cattle. The kraals are as a rule filthy, but the inside of the hut is kept clean. There is a special place for a fire, and a raised portion of the mud floor on which to sleep, but no furniture. Their mealie fields are usually some distance from the place of abode, but their tobacco gardens are near their huts. Their main object in life seems to be to grow sufficient grain for food and beer. The grain they store in granaries, resembling small huts, placed on rocks or on stakes, out of the reach of white ants and secure from the depredations of animals. They amuse themselves occasionally by making earthenware pots which are very soft and easily broken, or by engaging in iron-work or brass-wire work for ornamentation. In the south they are quite clever in making water-tight baskets from rushes grown by the Sabi river. In their religious beliefs spirits play a great part. Above all there is a vague idea of a Supreme Being whom they call Mwari. They have a fixed belief in the spirits of their ancestors, the spirits of the witch-doctors, the spirits of the Matabele, the spirits of old women, the spirits of the foolish, the spirits of baboons, &c. Every occurrence is attributed to the influence of a spirit, and if the occurrence is an evil one a feast and dance of propitiation are held. Feasts of thanks- giving are also held on such occasions as the gathering of the first-fruits, the harvest festival, or on the return from a long and dangerous journey. Of the tribes already mentioned the most advanced are Umtasa's people and the Makaranga. The pro- bable connexion of the tribes now inhabiting Mashonaland with the architects of the ancient stone buildings which are scattered over the country is discussed in the section Archaeology. Of these ruins the most extensive are situated near Victoria and are known as Zimbabwe (q.v.). In the western province the Matabele, or rather Amandabele, are the descendants of the Zulus who trekked under the 262 RHODESIA leadership of the famous Mosilikatze up through the Trans vaal, whence they were driven by the Boers. Mosilikatz died in 1868, and his son Lobengula, after a fight with brother, assumed sway in 1870. His people were divid& into three main sections: the Abezansi (who were the aristo crats), the Abenhla and the Amaholi. The Amaholi or Ho! were the inhabitants of the land at the time of the invasion and thereafter were practically in the position o bondsmen and rarely allowed to possess cattle. The grea: spirit of the Holis was the Mlimo, who was practically th< spirit of the nation. Among the Holi tribes are the Aba shangwe, the Abanyai, the Batonke (near the Zambezi), the Abananzwa of the Wankie district, the Ababiro of the Tul district, and the Abasili, a nomadic tribe chiefly subsisting on game. There is a small tribe in the Belingwe district called the Abalemba, which would appear to have been in touch with the Arabs in early times. Their customs include circumcision anc the rejection of pork as food. The natives in Southern Rhodesia number about 700,000, and of these 10,000 work on the mines and 20,000 are engaged in farm, railway and household work under Europeans. Chief Towns. — Salisbury, which lies 4880 ft. above the sea, is the capital of Southern Rhodesia, being the seat of government, and is situated in the eastern province (Mashonaland). There are about 1700 white inhabitants and 3000 natives. It is the commercial centre for an extensive mining and farming district. The principal buildings include churches, public library, hospital, schools, banks, post office and numerous hotels. There are a con- siderable number of government offices, and the administrator and resident commissioner live here. The only industries are a brewery and a tobacco factory for grading and packing the tobaccos of the local growers. Bulawayo (g.f.), situated 4469 ft. above the sea, is the largest town and is in the western province, Matabeleland. It is 301 m. by rail S.W. of Salisbury, and 1362 m. N.E. of Cape Town. The popula- tion is some 4000 Europeans and about the same number of natives. The town has the advantage of a good pipe water supply and a service of electric light. It was the ancient capital of the Matabele king, Lobengula. There is a Government house which is occa- sionally occupied, and was the residence of Cecil Rhodes. It is from Bulawayo that the World's View, the burial-place of Rhodes in the Matoppo Hills, is usually visited. The other towns are Umtali, on the eastern border, pop. 800 whites, railway works, centre for numerous large and small gold mines; Gwelo, the central town, about midway between Salisbury and Bulawayo, 370 whites; Victoria and Melsetter in the south, centres of farming districts. Victoria, near which are the famous Zimbabwe ruins, is reached by mail cart (80 m.) from Selukwe, and Melsetter by mail cart (95 m.) from Umtali. There are also small townships at Hartley, Selukwe, Enkeldoorn and Gwanda. Bulawayo and Salisbury are managed by town councils, the other towns have sanitary boards. Communications. — The Rhodesian railway system connects the chief towns and mining centres with one another and all the other South African countries. The main line is a continuation of the railway from Cape Town through Kimberley and Mafeking. It runs from Mafeking in a general N.E. direction to Bulawayo, whence it goes N.W. to the Zambezi, which is crossed a little below the Victoria Falls. The bridging of the river was completed in April 1905. Thence the railway is continued N.E. (92 m.) to Kalomo, Barotseland, and onward to the Katanga district of Belgian Congo. The section from Kalomo to Broken Hill (261 m.) was completed in 1907, and the extension to the frontier of Belgian Congo (126 m.) in 1909. This main line forms the southern link in the Cape to Cairo railway and steamboat service. From Bulawayo a line goes N.E. by Gwelo to Salisbury and thence S.E. to the Portuguese port of Beira. From Bulawayo another line (120 m. long) runs S.E. to the West Nicholson Mine. From Gwelo a railway (40 m.) goes S.E. to Yankee Doodle, and from this there branches a line (50 m. long) in an easterly direction to Blinkwater. From Salisbury a line runs N.W. to Lomagundi (84 m.). The last-named has a 2 ft. gauge. The other railways are of the standard gauge of South Africa — 3 ft. 6 in. The distances from Bulawayo to the following places are: — Gwelo, 113 m. ; Salisbury, 301 m.; Umtali, 471 m. ; Beira, 675 m. ; Mafeking, 490 m. ; Kimberley, 713 m. ; Cape Town, 1362 m. ; Port Elizabeth, 1199 m.; East London, 1260 m.; Bloemfontein, 800 m. ; Johannesburg, 931 m.; Pretoria, 977 m. ; Lourenco Marques, 1307 m.; Durban, 1238 m. (the last four places all via Fourteen Streams, a junction 48 m. N. of Kimberley), and Victoria Falls, 282 m. About 4000 m. of roads have been built and are maintained by government. The telegraph and telephone system is very com- plete, there being for the whole of Rhodesia about 8000 m. of wires. This total includes the police telephone wires and part of the African Transcontinental system, and is served by about ninety telegraph offices. In Southern Rhodesia there are about eighty post offices. A post office savings bank was brought into operation on the 1st of January 1905. Over 2,500,000 letters, post-cards and parcels are despatched annually. Agriculture. — The country is well adapted for agriculture. Chief attention has been paid by farmers to the growing of maize, the annual produce being about half a million bushels. It is a very easily grown cereal, especially in such a fertile country as Rhodesia, and is extensively grown by natives, but the improved methods of the whites easily secure a yield of from twice to eight times that of the native. The average yield by European farmers is about eight bags of 200 ft per acre, but ten to fifteen bags is quite a common crop. Wheat, barley and oats are grown with success under irrigation in the winter time, but the moisture with attendant rust is too excessive for these crops in summer. Tobacco promises to be a great source of wealth to the territory. Both the Turkish and Virginian tobaccos have been raised and cured and put on the market, where they were easily disposed of. They are of better quality than those grown elsewhere in South Africa. In 1908 only about 500 acres were under cultivation, but there are large tracts of land suitable for this industry. Fruits of very extensive variety thrive in Rhodesia ; they include plums, bananas, grapes, guavas, paupaus, figs, loquats, pine-apples, Cape gooseberries, mulberries, tree tomatoes, rosellas, granadillas, all kinds of citrus fruits. The most flourishing are the citrus fruits and the Japanese plums, but in the higher altitudes pears and apples are also very successful. Vegetables of nearly all kinds can be grown, especially potatoes, tomatoes, asparagus, sweet potatoes, yams, &c. Coffee produces as much as 4 ft of beans to the shrub in certain parts. Cattle thrive well in Rhodesia, and stock-raising promises to be the chief agricultural industry of the future. During the early period of European occupation rinderpest and at a later date East Coast fever decimated the country, but the prevention of these diseases is now thoroughly understood and, since the rinderpest of 1896 swept away large herds, cattle have been increasing rapidly in number. There is hardly any portion of the territory which is not suitable for cattle, and the rapid natural increase indicates a speedy prosperity in cattle ranching. Goats and woolless sheep number about 800,000 in the territory. Donkeys and mules thrive, but horses are very liable to horse-sickness towards the end of the rainy season. Mining. — When Rhodesia was first opened up to European occupation, attention was immediately called to the large number of gold workings made by unknown former inhabitants of the :ountry. These workings were only carried on to a limited extent, jeing stopped probably by the presence of water and the lack of suitable machinery. European enterprise has resulted in the discovery of a large number of mines situated in widely scattered areas. The chief mines are the Globe and Phoenix, the Selukwe and the Wanderer in the Gwelo district; the Giant in the hartley district; the Jumbo in the Mazoe district; the Ayrshire n the Lomagundi district; the Penhalonga and the Rezende in .he Umtali district, while there are numerous smaller mines in the Gwanda, Insiza, Gwelo, Hartley and Umtali districts. The output of gold increased in value from £308,000 in 1900 to £2,623,000 in 1909, about one-third of this being produced by small workers whose individual output is not over 1500 oz. a month. As efforts lave been restricted mainly to extracting the ore indicated by ancient workings, it is probable that many gold reefs still await discovery. The mineral wealth of Rhodesia is very varied and ncludes silver, of which 262,000 oz. were produced in 1909; coal, 170,000 tons (1909), and lead, 965 tons. Extensive discoveries of chrome iron have been made in the Selukwe district. There is a steady export of this metal, of which the output in 1909 was over 25,000 tons. Besides these, small quantities of copper, wolframite and diamonds have been exported, while scheelite and asbestos lave been discovered in payable quantities. Commerce. — Taking the average for a series of years ending 908, the total imports amounted to about £1,500,000 per annum, :5% of which were manufactured articles, including £250,000 extile goods and wearing apparel, and £120,000 machinery. Im- ports of food and drink amounted to £330,000. In 1909 the mports amounted to £2,214,000, the chief items being food and [rink (£422,000), machinery, animals and cotton goods. Exports onsist almost entirely of minerals. In 1909 they were valued at '3,178,000. Included in the total is £342,000 goods imported and e-exported. Administration. — The administration of Rhodesia is carried n by the British South Africa Company under an order in ouncil of 1898, amended by orders in council of 1003 and 1905. The company is called upon to appoint for Southern Rhodesia n administrator or administrators. The company also ap- x>ints an executive council of not fewer than four members to dvise the administrator upon all matters of importance in dministration. An order in council of 1903 provided for a RHODESIA 263 legislative council consisting of the administrator, who presides, seven nominees of the company approved by the secretary of state, and seven members elected by registered voters (the number of registered voters in 1908 was 5291). In 1907 it was agreed to reduce the company's nominees by one, so that the elected members should form the majority of the council. The secretary of state appoints a resident commissioner, who sits on both executive and legislative councils without vote. The duty of the resident commissioner is to report to the high commissioner upon all matters of importance. Ordinances passed by the legislative council are submitted to the high commissioner for consent or otherwise, but may be disallowed by the secretary of state. For the administration of justice there is a High Court with two judges having civil and criminal jurisdiction. There are seven magistrates' courts throughout the territory. For the administration of native affairs there are appointed a secretary for native affairs, two chief native commissioners, twenty-eight native commissioners and six assistant native commissioners. Natives suffer no disabilities or restrictions which do not equally apply to Europeans except in respect of the supply of arms, ammunition and liquor. Native com- missioners may exercise jurisdiction in native affairs not ex- ceeding that exercisable by magistrates. The company has to provide land, usually termed Native Reserves, sufficient and suitable for occupation by natives and for their agricul- tural and industrial requirements. Revenue. — The administrative revenue of Southern Rhodesia was at first much less than the cost of administration. The figures for 1899-1900 were: revenue, £325,000; expenditure, £702,000. Since that date revenue has increased and expenditure decreased, and from 1905-6 (in which year the revenue exceeded £500,000) the cost of administration has been met out of revenue. For 1909-10 the revenue was approximately £600,000, the two main items being customs duty, £190,000, and native tax, £200,000. The native tax is £i per head for every adult male and los. for every wife after the first. Education. — Besides a few private schools, there were in 1909 34 schools for Europeans, 26 of which were wholly financed by government, the remainder being aided. The aided schools are as a rule connected with some religious body, and aid is given to the extent of half the salaries of the teachers and half the cost of school requisites. Loans are also given to assist in school building. A system of boarding grants has been instituted to enable children in the outlying districts to attend school. Education is not free except for poor children, but the fees in government schools do not exceed £6 a year. In 1910 several schools had reached the stage of preparing pupils for matriculation at the Cape University and similar examinations. The number of pupils in 1909 in European schools was 1212, being more than double what it had been four years previously. The education of natives is in the hands of various religious bodies, but financial aid is given by government to native schools which comply with certain easy conditions. In 1909, 80 native schools with an enrolment of 7622 pupils earned grants. Military Forces. — The military force in Southern Rhodesia is styled the British South African Police, and numbers about 40 officers, 400 non-commissioned officers and men, and 550 native police. The force is under a commandant-general, who, with the sub- ordinate officers, is appointed by the secretary of state, and is under the direct control and authority of the high commissioner. The commandant-general is paid by the British parliament. The offices of commandant-general and resident commissioner were com- bined in 1905. The Southern Rhodesia Volunteers, in two divisions, eastern and western, under command of colonels, number altogether 86 officers and 1700 non-commissioned officers and men. Medical. — There are, including cottage hospitals, ten hospitals in towns and townships, and thirteen district surgeries have been established. (G. Du.) Archaeology. — Between the Zambezi and the Limpopo, and extending from the coast to at least 27° E., may be found the traces of a large population which inhabited Southern Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa in bygone times. Apart from numerous mines, some of which are being successfully re- worked at the present day, ruins of stone buildings have been found in several hundred distinct places. Few of these have been explored systematically, but investigations in 1905, though confined to a small number of sites, determined at least the main questions of date and origin. The fanciful theories of popular writers, who had ascribed these buildings to a remote antiquity, and had even been so audacious as to identify their founders with the subjects of King Solomon or of his contemporary the queen of Sheba, are now seen to be untenable. J. T. Bent's Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892) is now interesting only for its illustrations, and his theories are obsolete. Positive archaeological evidence demonstrates that the " Great Zimbabwe " itself, the most famous and the most imposing of the misnamed " Ruined Cities," was not built before medieval times, and that the earliest date which can be assigned to any of the sites explored is subse- quent to the nth century A.D. Moreover, the complete identity of custom, revealed no less by the details of the dwell- ings than by the type of the articles found within them, proves that the tribe that built these structures was one closely akin to if not actually identical with the present Bantu inhabitants of the country. These ruins, even when stripped of their false romance, are of extreme interest; but their nature and appearance have been much misunderstood, and the skill and intelligence re- quired for their erection have been grossly overestimated. It should be clearly stated, therefore, that the methods of the old Rhodesians evince their complete ignorance of all the devices employed in the architecture of civilized peoples. They have not attempted to solve the problems of supporting weight and pressure by the use of pillar, arch or beam; the ingenuity of the builders goes no further than the dexterous heaping up of stones. Indeed, their most finished and ela- borate work must be compared with nothing more ambitious than the dry-built walls which serve to enclose the fields in certain parts of England. The material is the local granite or diorite obtainable in the immediate neighbourhood. Stone- hewing has not been practised; and was unnecessary, since the natural flaking of the boulders provides an abundance of ready-made slabs which need only be detached from the parent rock and broken to the required size. At most the blocks thus obtained have been very roughly trimmed with one or two blows, and any apparent regularity in the fitting has been obtained merely by judicious selection. Mortar has seldom been used; the courses are never laid with any approach to exactness; walls merely abut on one another •without being bonded, and the same line often varies greatly in thickness at different parts. The main principle of the ground plan is invariably circular or elliptical, though it is carried out with a conspicuous lack of symmetry or exactness. Straight lines are unknown, and even accidental approximations to an angle are rare. This is eminently characteristic of the Bantu, whose huts are .commonly built in circular form. Indeed, it is the round Bantu hut which has been the original model for even the finest of these stone constructions. The connexion between the two, however, goes beyond mere resemblance. The stone walls are always accompanied by huts; they are mere parti- tions or ring-fences enclosing and structurally inseparable from platforms of clay or cement on which stand the remains of precisely the same dwellings that the Makalanga make at the present day. Buildings such as those at Dhlo Dhlo, Nana- tali and Khami in Matabeleland, or at Zimbabwe in southern Mashonaland, are merely fortified kraals; remarkable indeed as the work of an African people, but essentially native African in every detail, not excepting the ornamentation. The best-known and the most attractive of the Rhodesian ruins are those situated in the more central and southern region. In the north-east, however, the remains are even more numerous, though the single units are less remarkable. Over the whole of Inyanga and the Mazoe region are distri- buted hill-forts, pit-dwellings and intrenchments which are more primitive in character though of the same generic type as those found farther south. The inhabitants of these northern districts were occupied more in agriculture than in gold-mining, and one of the most striking features of their settlements is the 264 RHODESIA irrigation system. There are no aqueducts such as Europeans or Arabs might have built, but water furrows have been carried on admirably calculated gradients for miles along the hill-sides. The amount of labour which has been expended on the great villages between Inyanga and the Zambezi is astounding. On one site, the Niekerk Ruins, an area of fully 50 sq. m. is covered with uninterrupted lines of walls. It is an interesting question which may be solved by future explorations whether these settlements do not extend north of the Zambezi. In- trenchments like those of the Niekerk Ruins have been reported from the south-east of Victoria Nyanza, and Major Powell Cotton has published a photograph from the Nandi country which exhibits a structure precisely similar to the hill forts of Inyanga. (See also ZIMBABWE; MONOMOTAPA.) See D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (London, 1906) ; R. N. Hall and W. G. Neal, The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia (London, 1902); Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1875 and 1876; Journal of the R.G.S., 1890, 1893, 1899, 1906; Journal of Anthropl. Inst., vols. xxxi., xxxv. (D. R.-M.) History. — There is evidence that from the loth or nth centuries onward the lands now forming Rhodesia were in- habited by Bantu-negroes who had made some progress in civilization and who traded with the Arab settlements at Sofala and elsewhere on the east coast (see Archaeology above). From the isth century, if not earlier, until about the close of the 1 8th century, a considerable part of this area was ruled by a hereditary monarch known as the Monomotapa, whose Zim- babwe (capital) was, in the earlier part of the period indicated, in what is now Mashonaland. Some of the Monomotapas during the i6th and i7th centuries entered into political and commercial relations with the Portuguese (see MONOMOTAPA and ZIMBABWE). The Monomotapa " empire " included many vassal states, and probably fell to pieces through intertribal fighting, which greatly reduced the number of inhabitants. In the early years of the ipth century the tribes appear to have lost all cohesion. The people were mainly agriculturists, but the working of the gold-mines, whence the Monomotapas had ob- tained much of their wealth, was not wholly abandoned. The modern history of the country begins with its invasion by the Matabele, an offshoot of the Zulus. Mosilikatze, their first chief, was a warrior and leader who served under the Zulu despot Chaka. Being condemned to death by Chaka, Mosilikatze fled, with a large division of the Zulu army. About 1817 he settled in territories north of the Vaal, not far from the site of Pretoria; and in 1836 a treaty of friendship was entered into with him by the governor of Cape Colony. In the same year a number of the " trek Boers " had crossed the Vaal river, and came in contact with the Matabele, who attacked and defeated them, capturing a large number of Boer cattle and sheep. In November 1837 the Boers felt themselves strong enough to assail Mosilikatze, and they drove him and his tribe north of the Limpopo, where they settled and occupied the country subsequently known as Matabeleland. In 1868 Mosilikatze died. Kuruman, son and recognized heir of the old chieftain, had disappeared years before, and though a Matabele who claimed to be the missing heir was brought from Natal he was not acknowledged by the leading indunas, who in January 1870 invested Lobengula, the next heir, with the chieftainship. Those Matabele who favoured the supposed Kuruman were defeated in one decisive battle, and thereafter Lobengula, whose kraal was at Bulawayo, reigned unchallenged. At this time the Matabele power extended north to the Zambezi, and eastward over the land occupied by the Mashona and other Makalanga tribes. North of the Zambezi the western districts were ruled by the Barotse ()«]Xi; aquopentammine salts (roseo-salts), [Rh(NHa)6-H2O]Xa; and pentammine salts (purpureo- salts), [Rh(NH,)lX]X2. (See S. F. Jorgensen, C. W. Blomstrand, Jour. prak. Chem., 1882, et seq.) The atomic weight of rhodium has been determined by S. F. Jorgensen (Jour, prakt. Chem., 1883, 27, p. 486), by the analysis of chlorpurpureo rhodium chloride, the mean value obtained being 103; whilst K. Seubert and K. Kobb6 (Ann., 1890, 260, p. 314), by analysis of the double chloride and sulphate, obtained as a mean value 1 02 -86. RHODOCHROSITE, a mineral species consisting of man- ganese carbonate, MnCOj, crystallizing in the rhombohedral system and isomorphous with calcite. It usually occurs as cleavable, compact or botryoidal masses, distinct crystals being somewhat rare; these often have the form of the primitive rhombohedron, parallel to the faces of which there are perfect cleavages. When pure, the mineral contains 47'7% °f manganese, but this is usually partly replaced by varying amounts of iron, and sometimes by calcium, mag- nesium, zinc, or rarely cobalt (cobalt-manganese-spar). With these variations in chemical composition the specific gravity varies from 3-45 to 3-60; the hardness is 4. The colour is usually rose-red, but may sometimes be grey to brown. The name rhodochrosite, from the Greek /SoSo-xpws (rose- coloured), has reference to the characteristic colour of the mineral: manganese-spar and dialogite are synonyms. It is found in mineral veins with ores of silver, lead, copper, &c., or in deposits of manganese ore. Crystals have been met with in the mines at Kapnik-B&nya and Nagyag near Deva in Transylvania and at Diez in Nassau, but by far the best specimens are from Colorado. The mineral is used to a limited extent in the manufacture of spiegeleisen and ferromanga'nese. RHODODENDRON. Classical writers, such as Dioscorides and Pliny, seem, from what can be ascertained, to have called the oleander (Nerium Oleander) by this name, but in modern usage it is applied to a large genus of shrubs and trees be- longing to the order of heaths (Ericaceae). No adequate distinction can be drawn between this genus and Azalea (q.v.) — the proposed marks of distinction, however applicable in particular cases, breaking down when tested more generally. The rhododendrons are trees or shrubs, never herbs, with simple, evergreen or deciduous leaves, and flowers in terminal clusters surrounded in the bud by bud-scales but not as a rule by true leaves. The flowers are remarkable for the frequent absence or reduced condition of the calyx. The funnel- or bell-shaped corolla, on the other hand, with its five or more lobes, is usually conspicuous, and in some species so much so as to render these plants greatly prized in gardens. The free stamens are usually ten, with slender filaments and anthers opening by pores at the top. The ovary is five- or many- celled, ripening into a long woody pod which splits from top to bottom by a number of valves, which break away from the central placenta and liberate a large number of small bran- like seeds provided with a membranous wing-like appendage at each end. The species are for the most part natives of the mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere, extend- ing as far south as the Malay Archipelago and New Guinea, but not hitherto found in South America or Australia. None are natives of Britain. They vary greatly in stature, some of the alpine species being mere pygmies with minute leaves and tiny blossoms, while some of the Himalayan species are moderate-sized trees with superb flowers. Some are 27° RHODONITE— RHONDDA epiphytal, growing on the branches of other trees, but not deriving their sustenance from them. The varieties grown in gardens are mostly grafted on the Pontic species (R. ponti- cum) and the Virginian R. catawbiense. The common Pontic variety is excellent for game-covert, from its hardiness, the shelter it affords, and the fact that hares and rabbits rarely eat it. Variety of colour has been infused by crossing or hybridizing the species first named, or their derivatives, with some of the more gorgeously coloured Himalayan-American varieties. In many instances this has been done without sacrifice of hardihood. Some of the finest hybrids for the open air, especially in favoured spots, are altaclerense (scarlet); Harrisi (rosy crimson); Kewense (rose); Luscombei (rose-pink); Mangiest (white); nobleanum (crimson), one of the first to flower after Christmas; praecox (rose- purple) ; and Shilsoni (crimson). There are almost countless colour variations of these, but one of the most exquisite of late years is that known as Pink Pearl, with large clear rosy-pink blossoms of great purity. What are termed greenhouse rhododendrons are derivatives from certain Malayan and Javanese species, and are consequently much more tender. They are characterized by the possession of a cylindrical (not funnel-shaped) flower-tube and other marks of distinction. The foliage of rhododendrons contains much tannin, and has been used medicinally. Whether the honey mentioned by Xenophon as poisonous was really derived from plants of this genus as alleged is still an open question. Cultivation. — The hardy evergreen kinds are readily propagated by seed, by layers, and by grafting. Grafting is resorted to only for the propagation of the rarer and more tender kinds. Loamy soil containing a large quantity of peat or vegetable humus is essential, the roots of all the species investigated being associated with a fungus partner (mycorhiza). An excess of lime or chalk in the soil proves fatal to rhododendrons and their allies sooner or later — a fact overlooked by many amateurs. The hardy deciduous kinds are valuable for forcing, and withstand cold-storage treatment well. The tender "Malayan and Javanese species thrive in warm green- house temperature, but are difficult to cultivate where the water is very alkaline. RHODONITE, a member of the pyroxene group of minerals, consisting of manganese metasilicate, MnSiOs, and crystallizing in the anorthic system. It commonly occurs as cleavable to compact masses with a rose-red colour; hence the name, from the Greek pbdov (a rose). Crystals often have a thick tabular habit; there are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism faces with an arigle of 87° 3iJ'. The hardness is s|-6|, and the specific 'gravity 3-4-3-68. The manganese is often partly replaced by iron and calcium, which may sometimes be present in considerable amounts; a greyish-brown variety containing as much as 20% of calcium oxide is called "bustamite"; " fowlerite " is a zinciferous variety containing 7 % of zinc oxide. Rhodonite is a mineral liable to alteration, with the formation of manganese carbonate, hydrous silicate or oxides. The compact material, which is cut and polished for ornamental purposes, is often marked in a striking manner by veins and patches of these black alteration products. At Syedelnikova, near Ekaterinburg in the Urals, compact material of a good colour occurs in a clay -slate and is extensively quarried: boulders of similar material found at Cummington in Massachusetts (" cummingtonite ") have also been worked as an ornamental stone. In the iron and manganese mines at Pajsberg near Filipstadt and Langban in Vennland, Sweden, small brilliant and translucent crystals (" pajsbergite ") and cleavage masses occur. Fowlerite occurs as large, rough crystals, somewhat resembling pink felspar, with franklinite and zinc ores in granular limestone at Franklin Furnace in New Jersey. RHOECUS, a Samian sculptor of the 6th century B.C. He and his son Theodorus were especially noted for their work in bronze. Herodotus says that Rhoecus built the temple of Hera at Samos. In the temple of Artemis at Ephesus was a marble figure of night by Rhoecus. His name has been found on a fragment of a vase which he dedicated to Aphrodite at Naucratis. His sons Theodorus and Telecles made a statue of the Pythian Apollo for the Samians. RHONDDA (formerly YSTRADYFODWG), an urban district and parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, South Wales. It is 12 m. long by about 4} m. across at' its widest part, and comprises two main valleys, named after their respective rivers, Rhondda Fawr (9! m.) and Rhondda Fach, or the lesser (6J m.), running S.E. and S.W. respectively till their junction at Porth, and thence the single valley for upwards of a mile farther down the boundary of the Pontypridd urban district at Trehafod. The valleys are narrow and tortuous, and their lateral boundaries are formed by steep hills varying in. height from about 560 ft. on either side of Trehafod to 1340 ft. on the N.E. of Maerdy in the lesser Rhondda and 1 742 ft. on the S.W. of Treherbert in the main valley, while the mountains at the upper end of the latter valley culminate in Carn Moesen(i9so ft.). Thetwo valleys are separated by the steep ridge of Cefn-rhondda, which ranges from 600 ft. high above Porth to 1690 ft. near the upper end of the district. There are a few tributary valleys of which Cwmparc, Clydach Vale and Cymmer are the chief. Though the urban district measures 23,884 acres, the area built upon is generally a narrow strip on either side of each river except at Treorky and Ton, where the valley of the Rhondda Fawr opens out a little. In 1877 the ancient parish of Ystradyfodwg (with the omission of the township of Rhigos, which lies beyond the mountains to the north) was formed into an urban district bearing the parish name, the area having previously been part of a rural district under the Pontypridd rural sanitary authority. In October 1879, portions of the parishes of Llanwonno and Llantrisant, comprising over 5000 acres, were added to the urban area, the whole being consolidated in 1894 into one civil parish. In 1897, the name of the urban district was changed into Rhondda. The Taff Vale railway runs up each of the two valleys from a junction at Porth (16 m. N.W. of Cardiff), and has five stations in the main valley and four in the lesser one. From Porth it runs to Pontypridd, whence there is communication with Cardiff, Barry and Newport. The Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway (authorized in 1882, opened in 1890, and now worked by the Great Western) connects the upper end of the main valley, where it has a station, Blaen-rhondda, with Port Talbot, Neath and Swansea (31 m. distant) by means of a line which has a tunnel 3443 yds. long. The district occupies almost the centre of the eastern division of the South Wales coal-field, and its coal, upon which the inhabitants are almost entirely dependent, is unsurpassed for its steam-raising properties. In common with other East Glamorgan coal it became commercially known as Cardiff coal from the fact that Cardiff was at first its only port of shipment. The development of the Rhondda coal-field was later in date than those of Aberdare and Merthyr, and it received its chief impetus from the American Civil War. Thus the population of the parish (excluding Rhigos), which was 576 in 1811, 951 in 1851 and 3035 in 1861, increased to 16,914 in 1871. When the bound- aries of the district were extended in 1879 the population of the enlarged area was calculated by the registrar-general to be 23,950 in 1871, but it reached 55,632 in 1881, and 113,735 in 1901, showing anincreaseof 104% in the previous twenty years. In 1901, 35-4% of the population of three years of age and upwards spoke English only, 11-4% spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilingual. Ecclesiastically the parish of Ystradyfodwg was an ancient chapelry dependent on Llantrisant. The old parish church at Ton Pentre (in substitution for which a new church was built in 1893-94) served the whole parish till past the middle of the igth century. Between 1879 and 1900 the ancient parish (excluding Rhigos) was divided into seven ecclesiastical parishes, the six new ones being Llwyn-y-pia (1879), Tylorstown (1887), Ynyshir (1887), Treherbert (1893), Cwmparc (1898) and Ferndale (1900). The additional area brought into the urban district in 1879 comprises two other ecclesiastical parishes, Cymmer and Forth (1894), and Dinas and Penygraig (1901). These nine parishes, comprised in the urban district, have twenty churches and eighteen mission-rooms, with accommodation for about 12,000 persons. This area, together with Pontypridd, Glyntaff and Llanwonno, form the rural deanery of Rhondda in the archdeaconry and diocese of Llandaff. There were at the end of 1905 over one hundred and fifty nonconformist chapels and mission rooms, with accommodation for over 85,000 persons, of which provision nearly two-thirds was in chapels with Welsh services. There is a Roman Catholic church at Tonypandy. The public buildings include the council house and offices of the district council, erected in 1883-84 for the local board at Pentre, libraries and workmen's institutes at Ystrad (1895), and Cymrner (1893), Maerdy (1905), Dinas (1893), and Ferndale public halls, the property of a private company at Treherbert (1872), and Tonypandy (1891) and a county intermediate school at Forth. By means of a tunnel about 2100 yds. long water is obtained for the greater part of the main valley from the lake of Llyn Fawr on the Neath side of the mountain range which shuts in the valley on the north. This lake has been converted into a storage reservoir of about 167 million gallons capacity. The rest of the district is supplied from the Pontypridd Water Company's works above Maerdy in the lesser valley. The ancient parish (excluding Rhigos) was formed into a parliamentary constituency with one member in 1885. The present urban district substantially corresponds to the ancient territorial division of Glyn-rhondda, one of the four commotes of the cantred of Penychen, and subsequently, in Norman times, one of the twelve " members " of the lordship of Glamorgan. Its Welsh lords enjoyed a large measure of independence and had their own courts, in which Welsh law was administered down to I535> when the lordship was fully incorporated in the county of Glamorgan. On the ridge of Cefn-rhondda between the two valleys was the Franciscan monastery of Penrhys, famous for its image of the Virgin and for its holy well which attracted large pilgrimages. It was dissolved about 1415, probably owing to its having supported Glyndwr in his rebellion. Edward II. came here from Neath Abbey and was captured on the i6th of November 1326, either at Penrhys, or between it and Llantrisant. (D. LL. T.) RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus), one of the most important rivers in Europe, and the chief of those which flow directly into the Mediterranean. It rises at the upper or eastern extremity of the Swiss canton of the Valais, flows between the Bernese Alps (N.) and the Lepontine and Pennine Alps (S.) till it expands into the Lake of Geneva, winds round the southernmost spurs of the Jura range, receives at Lyons its principal tributary, the Sa&ne, and then turns southward through France till, by many mouths, it enters that part of the Mediterranean which is rightly called the Golfe du Lion (sometimes wrongly the Gulf of Lyons) . Its total length from source to sea is 5045 m. (of which the Lake of Geneva claims 45 m.), while its total drainage area in 37,798 sq. m., of which 2772 sq. m. are in Switzerland (405 sq. m. of the Swiss portion being composed of glaciers), and its total fall 5898 ft. Its course (excluding the Lake of Geneva, q.v.) naturally falls into three divisions: (i) from its source to the Lake of Geneva, (2) from Geneva to Lyons, and (3) from Lyons to the Mediterranean. i. From its source to the lake the Rhone is a purely Alpine river, flowing through the great trench which it has cut for itself between two of the loftiest Alpine ranges, and which (save a bit at its north-west end) forms the Canton of the Valais. Its length is 1055 m., while its fall is 4679 ft. It issues as a torrent, at the height of 5909 ft., from the great Rhone glacier at the head of the Valais, the recent retreat of this glacier having proved that the river really flows from beneath it, and does not take its rise from the warm springs that are now at some distance from its shrunken snout. It is almost immediately joined on the left by the Mutt torrent, coming from a small glacier to the S.E., and then flows S.W. for a short distance past the well-known Gletsch Hotel (where the roads from the Grimsel and the Furka Passes unite). But about half a mile from the glacier the river turns S.E. and descends through a wild gorge to the more level valley, bending again S.W. before reaching the first village, Oberwald. It preserves this south-westerly direction till Martigny. The uppermost valley of the Rhone is named Goms (Fr. Conches), its chief village being Munster, while Fiesch, lower down, is well known to most Swiss travellers. As the river rolls on, it is swollen by mountain torrents, descend- ing from the glaciers on either side of its bed — so by the Geren (left), near Oberwald, by the Eginen (left), near Ulrichen, by the Fiesch (right), at Fiesch, by the Binna (left), near Grengiols, by the Massa (right), flowing from the great Aletsch glaciers, above Brieg. At Brieg the Rhone has descended 3678 ft. from its source, has flowed 28 m. in the open, and is already a consider- able stream when joined (left)by the Saltine, descending from the Simplon Pass. Its course below Brieg is less rapid than RHONE 271 before and lies through the alluvial deposits which it has brought down in the course of ages. The valley is wide and marshy, the river frequently overflowing its banks. Further mountain torrents (of greater volume than those higher up) fall into the Rhone as it rolls along in a south-westerly direction towards Martigny: the Visp (left), coming from the Zermatt valley, falls in at Visp, at Gampel the Lonza (right), from the Lotschen valley, at Leuk the Dala (right), from the Gemmi Pass, at Sierre the Navizen (left), from the Einfisch or Anniviers valley, at Sion, the capital of the Valais, the Borgne (left) from the Val d'Heiens; soon' the Rhone is joined by the Morge (right), flowing from the Sanetsch Pass, and the boundary in the middle ages between Episcopal Valais to the east and Savo- yard Valais to the west, and at Martigny by the Dranse (left), its chief Alpine tributary, from the Great St Bernard and the Val de Bagnes. At Martigny, about 50 m. from Brieg, the river bends sharply to the N.W., and runs in that direction to the Lake of Geneva. It receives the Salanfe (left), which forms the celebrated waterfall of Pissevache, before reaching the ancient town and abbey of St Maurice (gjm.). Henceforward the right bank is in the canton of Vaud (conquered from Savoy in 1475) and the left bank in that of the Valais (conquered similarly in 1536), for St Maurice marks the end of the historical Valais. Immediately below that town the Rhone rushes through a great natural gateway, a narrow and striking defile (now strongly fortified), which commands the entrance of the Valais. Beyond, the river enters the wide alluvial plain, formerly occupied by the south-eastern arm of the Lake of Geneva, but now marshy and requiring frequent '.' correction." ' It receives at Bex the Avancon (right), flowing from the glaciers of the Diablerets range, at Monthey the Vieze (left), from Champery and the Val d'llliez, and at Aigle the Grande Eau (right), from the valley of Ormonts-dessus. It passes by the hamlet of Port Valais, once on the shore of the lake, before expanding into the Lake of Geneva, between Villeneuve (right) and St Gingolph (left). During all this portion of its course the Rhone is not navigable, but a railway line runs along it from Brieg in about 72 m. to either Villeneuve or Le Bouveret. 2. On issuing at Geneva from the lake the waters of the Rhone are very limpid and blue, as it has left all its impurities in the great settling vat of the lake, so that Byron might well speak of the " blue rushing of the arrowy Rhone " (Childe Harold, canto iii. stanza 71). But about half a mile below Geneva this limpidity is disturbed by the pouring in of the 'turbid torrent of the Arve (left) , descending from the glaciers of the Mont Blanc range, the two currents for some distance refusing to mix. The distance from Geneva to Lyons by the tortuous course of the Rhone is about 124 m., the fall being only about 689 ft. The characteristic feature of this portion of the course of the Rhone is the number of narrow gorges or cluses through which it rushes, while it is forced by the southern spur of the Jura to run in a southerly direction, till, after rounding the base of that spur, it can flow freely westwards to Lyons. About 12 m. S. of Geneva the Rhone enters French territory, and henceforth till near Lyons forms first the eastern, then the southern boundary of the French department of the Ain, dividing it from those of Haute Savoie and Savoie (E.) and that of the Isere (S.). Soon after it becomes French the river rushes furiously through a deep gorge, being imprisoned on the north by the Credo and on the south by the Vuache, while the great fortress of 1'Ecluse guards this entrance into France. The railway pierces the Credo by a tunnel. In the narrowest portion of this gorge, not far from Bellegarde at its lower end, there formerly existed the famous Perte du Rhone (described by Saussure in his Voyages dans les Alpes, chapter xvii.), where for a certain distance the river disappeared in a subterranean channel; but this natural phenomenon has been destroyed, partly by blasting, and partly by the diversion of the water for th« use of the factories of Bellegarde. At Bellegarde the Valserine flows in (right), and then the river resumes its southerly direction, from which the great gorge had deflected it for a while. Some way below Bellegarde, between Le Pare and Pyrimont, the 272 RHONE— RHONGEBIRGE Rhone becomes officially " navigable," though as far as Lyons the navigation now consists all but wholly of the floating o: flat-bottomed boats, named rigues, laden chiefly with stone quarried from the banks of the river. Above Seyssel (n m from Bellegarde) the Usses (left) joins the Rhone, while just below that village the Fier (left) flows in from the Lake oi Annecy. Below the junction of the Fier the hills sink on either side, the channel of the river widens, and one may say that it leaves the mountains for the plains. At Culoz (415 m. by rail fro'm Geneva) the railway from Geneva to Lyons (105 m.) quits the Rhone in order to run west by a direct route past Amberieu. The Rhone continues to roll on southwards, but no longer (as no doubt it did in ancient days) enters the Lac du Bourget, of which it receives the waters through a canal, and then leaves it on the east in order to run along the foot of the last spur of the Jura. It flows past Yenne (left) and beneath the picturesque fortress (formerly a Carthusian monastery) of Pierre Chatel (right) before it attains the foot of the extreme southern spur of the Jura, at a height of 696 ft., not far from the village of Cordon, and just where the Guiers flows in (left) from the mountains of the Grande Chartreuse. This is nearly the last of the cluses through which the river has to make its way. The very last is at the Pont du Saut or Sault, a little S. of Lagnieu. The river now widens, but the neighbouring country is much exposed to inundations. It receives (right) its most important tributary in this part of its course, the Ain, which descends from the French slope of the Jura and is navigable for about 60 m. above its junction with the Rhone. Farther down the Rhone meanders for a time with shifting channels in a bed about 2 m. broad, but it gathers into a single stream before its junction with the Sa&ne, just below Lyons. The Sa6ne (q.v.), which has received (left) the Doubs, is the real continuation of the Rhone, both from a geographical and a commercial point of view, and it is by means of canals branching off from the course of the Saone that the Rhone communicates with the basins of the Loire, the Seine, the Rhine and the Moselle. In fact, up to Lyons, the Rhone (save when it expands into the Lake of Geneva) is a huge and very unruly mountain torrent rather than a great European river. 3. Below Lyons, however, the Rhone becomes one of the great historical rivers of France. It was up its valley that first Greek, then Latin civilization penetrated from the Medi- terranean to Lyons, as well as in the loth century the Saracen bandits from their settlement at La Garde Freinet, near the coast of Provence. Then, too, from Lyons downwards, the Rhone serves as a great medium of commerce by which central France sends its products to the sea. Its length from Lyons to the sea is some 230 m., though its fall is but 530 ft. But during this half of its course it can boast of having on its left bank (the right bank is very poor in this respect) such historical cities as Vienne, Valence, Avignon, Tarascon and Aries, while it receives (left) the Isere, the Drome and the Durance rivers, all formed by the union of many streams, and bringing down the waters that flow from the lofty snowy Dauphine Alps. The Ardeche is the only considerable affluent from the right. Near Aries, about 25 m. from the sea, and by rail 1755 m. from Lyons, the river breaks up into its two main branches, the Grand Rhone running S.E. and the Petit Rhone S.W.; they enclose between them the huge delta of the Camargue, which is cultivated on the banks of the river only, but elsewhere is simply a great alluvial plain, deposited in the course of ages by the river, and now composed of scanty pasturages and of great salt marshes. Between Lyons and the sea, the Rhone divides four departments on its right bank (Rh&ne, Loire, Ardeche and Card) from as many on its left bank (Isere, Dr&me, Vaucluse and Bouches du Rh6ne). Consult in general Ch. Lenthe'ric, Le Rhone — histoire d'un fleuve, 2 vols. (Paris, 1892). (W. A. B. C.) RHONE, a department of south-eastern France, formed in 1793 from the eastern portion of the department of Rhone-et- Loire, and comprising the old districts of Beaujolais, Lyonnais, Franc-Lyonnais, Forez and a small portion of Dauphin6. Pop. (1906) 858,907. Area, 1104 sq m. Rh6ne is bounded N. by the department of Sa&ne-et-Loire, E. by Ain and Isere and S. and W. by Loire. The Sa&ne and the Rhone form its natural boundary on the east. The department belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Rhone, to which it sends its waters by the Sa6ne and its tributary the Azergues, and by the Gier. The mountains which cover the surface of the department con- stitute the watershed between the Rhone and the Loire, and from north to south form four successive groups — the Beaujolais Mountains, the highest peak of which is 3320 ft.; the Tarare group; the Lyonnais Mountains (nearly 3000 ft.); and Mont Pilat, the highest peak of which belongs to the department of Loire. The lowest point of the department (460 ft. above sea- level) is at the egress of the Rhone. The meteorological con- ditions vary greatly with the elevation and exposure. Snow sometimes lies in the mountains from November to April, while at Lyons and in the valleys the mean temperature in winter is 36° F. and in summer 70°, the annual mean being 53°. The average rainfall is somewhat higher than is general over France owing to the amount of the precipitation on the hilly region. Good agricultural land is found in the valleys of the Sa&ne and Rhone, but for the most part the soil is stony and only moderately fertile. Wheat, oats, rye and potatoes are ex- tensively cultivated, but their importance is less than that of the vine, the hills of the Beaujolais on the right bank of the Saone producing excellent wines. Fruit trees, such as peaches, apricots, walnuts and chestnuts, grow well, but the wood in general is little more than copse and brushwood. Good pasture is found in the valleys of the Azergues and its affluents. Mines of iron-pyrites and coal and quarries of freestone are worked. The production of silk fabrics, the chief branch of manufacture, that of chemicals and machinery, together with most of the other industries of the department, are concentrated in Lyons (q.v.) and its vicinity. Tarare is a centre for the manufacture of muslin and embroidery. • Oullins has large railway workshops belonging to the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway, and there are important glass works at Givors. Cotton- spinning and weaving are carried on in several localities. The products of its manufactures, together with wine and brandy, form the bulk of the exports of the department; its imports comprise chiefly the raw material for its industries. It is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. The Rhone and the Sa6ne and in the extreme south the canal of Givors are its navigable waterways. Lyons the capital is the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal and centre of an educational division (academic). The department is divided amongst the districts of the VII., VIII., XII., XIII. and XIV. army corps. There are two arrondissements (Lyons and Villefranche) subdivided into 29 cantons and 269 communes. The principal places besides Lyons are Givors, Tarare and Villefranche, which receive separate treatment. RHONGEBIRGE, or DIE RHON, a mountain-chain of central ermany, running in a north-westerly direction from the Bavarian province of Lower Franconia to the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau and the grand duchy of Saxe- Weimar, and divided by the Werra from the Thuringian Forest on the N. The other sides are bounded by the Fulda on the W. and the Sinn and Prankish Saab on the E. and S. Its length is 50 m., Dreadth 5-7 m., and its mean elevation 1900 ft. This district s divided into three groups — the southern, the high (Hohe) and the nearer (Vordere) Rhon. Of these the southern, a con- tinuation of the Spessart, largely consists of flat conical masses and reaches its highest point in the Heiliger Kreuzberg (2900 ft.). The Hohe Rhon, beginning immediately to the north-west of the latter mountain, is a high plateau of red sandstone, covered with fens and basalt peaks. It is a wild, dreary, inclement ract of country, covered with snow for six months in the year and visited by frequent fogs and storms. It is said of it that whoever desires to experience a northern winter can spare limself a journey to the North Cape or Siberia, and find it in lis native Rhon. There is little vegetation, and the inhabitants eke out a scanty sustenance from the cultivation of potatoes RHOXOLANI— RHUBARB 273 and flax. The highest inhabited place is Frankenhausen, lying at a height of 2350 ft. with 6383 inhabitants (1900). The nearer (Vordere) Rhon, forming the northern side of the range, is more attractive, with forests and deep and fertile valleys. See Lenk, Zur geologischen Kenntnis der sudlichen Rhon (WUrzburg, 1887); Scheidtweiler, Die Rhon und ihre wirthschaftlichen Verhdlt- nisse (Frankfort, 1887); and Daniel, Deutschland (sth ed., Leipzig, 1878). RHOXOLANI. a Sarmatian tribe defeated in the Crimea by Diophantus, general of Mithradates, c. 100 B.C., and by the Romans on the lower Danube c. A.D. 60, and also under M. Aurelius. They seem to have finally succumbed to the Goths. RHUBARB. This name is applied both to a drug and to a vegetable. i. The drug has been used in medicine from very early times, being described in the Chinese herbal Pen-king, which is believed to date from 2700 B.C. The name seems to be a corruption of Rheum barbarum or Reu barbarum, a designa- tion appliedjto the drug as early as the middle of the 6th century, and apparently identical with the prjov or pa of Dioscorides, described by him as a root brought from beyond the Bosporus. In the I4th century rhubarb appears to have found its way to Europe by way of the Indus and Persian Gulf to the Red Sea and Alexandria, and was therefore described as " East Indian " rhubarb. Some also came by way of Persia and the Caspian to Syria and Asia Minor, and reached Europe from the ports of Aleppo and Smyrna, and became known as " Turkey " rhubarb. Subsequently to the year 1653, when China first permitted Russia to trade on her frontiers, Chinese rhubarb reached Europe chiefly by way of Moscow; and in 1704 the rhubarb trade became a monopoly of the Russian government, in consequence of which the term " Russian " or " crown " rhubarb came to be applied to it. Urga was the great depot for the rhubarb trade in 1719, but in 1728 the depot was transferred to Kiachta. All rhubarb brought to the depot passed through the hands of the govern- ment inspector; hence Russian rhubarb was invariably good and obtained a remarkably high price. This severe super- vision naturally led, as soon as the northern Chinese ports were thrown open to European trade, to a new outlet being sought; and the increased demand for the drug at these ports resulted in less care being exercised by the Chinese in the collection and curing of the root, so that the rhubarb of good quality offered at Kiachta rapidly dwindled in quantity, and after 1860 Russian rhubarb ceased to appear in European commerce. Owing to the expense of carrying the drug across the whole breadth of Asia, and the difficulty of preserving it from the attacks of insects, rhubarb was formerly one of the most costly of drugs. In 1542 it was sold in France for ten times the price of cinnamon and four times that of saffron, and in an English price list bearing date of 1657 it is quoted at i6s. per Ib, opium being at that time only 6s. and scammony 125. per Ib. The dose of rhubarb is anything from \ up to 30 grams, according to the action which is desired. The British Pharmacopeia contains seven preparations, only one of which is of any special value. This is the Pulvis Rhei Compositus, or Gregory's powder, which is composed of 2 parts of rhubarb, 6 of heavy or light magnesia and I of ginger. The dose is 20 to 60 gr. Rhubarb is used in small doses — J to 2 gr.— as an astringent tonic, since it stimulates all the functions of the upper part of the alimentary canal. In many cases of torpid dyspepsia it is very efficient when combined with the subnitrate of bismuth and the bicarbonate of sodium. The more characteristic action of rhubarb, however, is purgation, which it causes in doses of 15 gr. and upwards. _ The action occurs within seven or eight hours, a soft, pulpy motion of a yellow colour being produced. The colour is due to the chrysa- robin, which is also the purgative constituent of the drug. Rhubarb is also a secretory cholagogue, increasing the amount of bile formed by the liver. The drug is apt to cause colic, and should therefore never be given alone. The'-ginger in Gregory's powder averts this unpleasant consequence of the aperient properties of rhubarb. The drug is peculiar in that the purgation is succeeded by definite constipation, said to be due to the rheotannic acid. This explana- tion is hardly satisfactory, however, since it is difficult to see how the rheotannic acid can be retained in the bowel during the process of purgation. Rhubarb has, therefore, definite indications and contra-indications. It is obviously worse than useless in the treatment of chronic constipation, which it only aggravates. On the other hand, it is very valuable in children and others, when diarrhoea has been caused by an unsuitable dietary. The drug removes the indigestible residue of the food and then gives the bowel rest. Rhubarb is also useful in the weaning of infants, since it is partly excreted in the maternal milk, and gives it a bitter taste which the baby dislikes. Some chrysarobin is absorbed and is excreted in the urine, which it slightly increases and colours a reddish brown. The colour IE discharged by the addition of a little dilute hydrochloric acid to the urine. The botanical source of Chinese rhubarb cannot be said to have been as yet definitely cleared up by actual identification of plants observed to be used for the purpose. Rheum palmatum, R. officinale, R. palmatum, var. tqnguticum, R. colinianum and R. Franzenbachii have been variously stated to be the source of it, but the roots produced by these species under cultiyation_ in Europe do not present the characteristic network of white veins exhibited by the best specimens of the Chinese drug. Chemistry. — The most important constituent of this drug, giving it its purgative properties and its yellow colour, is chrysarobin, CsoHsoOT, formerly known as rhein or chrysophan. The rhubarb of commerce also contains chrysophanic acid, a dioxymethyl anthra- quinone, Ci4H6(CH,)O2(OH)2, of which chrysarobin is a reduction product. Nearly 40% of the drug consists of calcium oxalate, which gives it the characteristic grittiness. There is also present rheotannic acid, which is of some practical importance. There are numerous other constituents, such as emodin, CuHjoO6, mucilage, resins, rheumic acid, CfflHi«O9, aporrhetin, &c. Production and Commerce. — Rhubarb is produced in the four northern provinces of China proper (Chih-li, Shan-se, Shen-se and Ho-nan), in the north-west provinces of Kan-suh, formerly included in Shen-se, but now extending across the desert of G_obi to the frontier of Tibet, in the Mongolian province of Tsing-hai, including the salt lake Koko-nor, and the districts of "Tangut, Sifan and Turfan, and in the mountains of the western provinces of Sze-chuen.1 Two of the most important centres of the trade are Sining-fu in the province of Kan-suh, and Kwanhien in Sze-chuen. From Shen-se, Kan-suh and Sze-chuen the rhubarb is forwarded to Hankow, and thence carried to Shanghai, whence it is shipped to Europe. Lesser quantities are shipped from Tien-tsin, and occasionally the drug is exported from Canton, Amoy, Fuh-chow and Ning-po. Very little is known concerning the mode of preparing the drug for the market. According to Mr Bell, who on a journey from St Petersburg to Peking had the opportunity of observing the plant in a growing state, the root is not considered to be mature until it is six years old. It is then dug up, usually in the autumn, and deprived of its cortical portion and smaller branches, and the larger pieces are divided in half longitudinally; these pieces are bored with holes and strung up on cords to dry, in some cases being previously subjected to a preliminary drying on stone slabs heated by fire underneath. In Bhutan the root is said to be hung up in a kind of drying room, in which a moderate heat is regularly maintained. The effect produced by the two drying processes is very different : when dried by artificial heat, the exterior of the pieces becomes hardened before the interior has entirely lost its moisture, and consequently the pieces decay in the centre, although the surface may show no change. These two_ varieties are technically known as kiln-dried and sun-dried; and it was on account of this differ- ence in quality that the Russian officer at Kiachta had every piece examined by boring a hole to its centre. European Rhubarb. — As early as 1608 Prosper Alpinus of Padua cultivated as the true rhubarb a plant which is now known as Rheum rhaponticum, a native of southern Siberia and the basin of the Volga. This plant was introduced into England through Sir Matthew Lister, physician to Charles I., who gave seed obtained by him in Italy to the botanist Parkinson. The culture of this rhubarb for the sake of the root was commenced in 1777 at Banbury, in Oxfordshire, by an apothecary named Hayward, the plants being raised from seed sent from Russia in 1762, and with such success that the Society of Arts awarded him a silver medal in 1 789 and a gold one in 1 794. The cultivation subsequently extended to Somersetshire, Yorkshire, and Middlesex, but is now chiefly carried on at Banbury. English rhubarb root is sold at a cheaper rate than the Chinese rhubarb, and forms a considerable article of export to America, and is said to be used in Britain in the form of powder, which is of a finenyellow colour than that of Chinese rhubarb. The Banbury rhubarb appears to be a hybrid between R. rhaponticum and R. undulatum — the root, according to E. Colin, not presenting the typical microscopic structure of the former. More recently very 1 According to Mr F. Newcombe, Med- Press and Circ., August 2, 1882, the Chinese esteem the Shen-se rhubarb as the best, that coming from Kanchow being the most prized of all; Sze-chuen rhubarb has a rougher surface and little flavour, and brings only about half the price; Chung-chi rhubarb also is greatly valued, while the Chi-chuang, Tai-huang and Shan-huang varieties are considered worthless. 274 RHYL— RHYME good rhubarb has been grown at Banbury from Rheum officinale, but these two varieties are not equal in medicinal strength to the Chinese article, yielding less extract— Chinese rhubarb afford- ing, according to H. Seier, 58%, English rhubarb 21 % and R officinale 17%. In France the cultivation of rhubarb was commenced in the latter half of the i8th century— R. com- pactum, R. palmatum, R. rhaponticum and R. undulatum being the species grown. The cultivation has, however, now nearly ceased, small quantities only being prepared at Avignon and a few other localities. . . , The culture of Rheum compactum was begun in Moravia in the beginning of the present century by Prikyl, an apothecary in Austerlitz, and until about fifty years ago the root was largely exported to Lyons and Milan, where it was used for dyeing silk. As a medicine 5 parts are stated to be equal to 4 of Chinese rhubarb. Rhubarb root is also grown at Auspitz in Moravia and at Ilmitz, Kremnitz and Frauenkirchen in Hungary; R. emodi is said to be cultivated for the same purpose in Silesia. Rhubarb is also prepared for use in medicine from wild species in the Himalayas and Java. 2. The rhubarb used as a vegetable consists of the leaf stalks of R. rhaponticum and its varieties, and R. undulatum. It is known in America as pie-plant. Plants are readily raised from seed, but strong plants can be obtained in a much shorter time by dividing the roots. Divisions or seedlings are planted about 3 ft. apart in ground which has been deeply trenched and manured, the crowns being kept slightly above the sur- face. Rhubarb grows freely under fruit-trees, but succeeds best in an open situation in rich, rather light soil. The stalks should not be pulled during the first season. If a top-dress- ing of manure be given each winter a plantation will last good for several years. Forced rhubarb is much esteemed in winter and early spring, and forms a remunerative crop. Forcing under glass or in a mushroom house is most satisfactory, but open-ground forcing may be effected by placing pots or boxes over the roots and burying in a good depth of stable litter and leaves. Several other species, such as R. palmatum, R. officinale, R. nobile and others, are cultivated for their fine foliage and handsome inflorescence, especially in wild gardens, margins of shrubberies and similar places. They succeed in most soils, but prefer a rich soil of good depth. They are propagated by seeds or by division. RHYL, a watering-place and urban district of Flint, N. Wales, practically equidistant by rail from Bangor (29^ m.) and Chester (30 m.), and 209 m. from London on the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 8473. It is situated near the mouth of the Clwyd. Formerly, like Llandudno, a small fishing village, the town has now all the appointments of a popular resort. In winter the gales often fill the streets to the depth of several feet, with drifts of sand from the sur- rounding dunes, which, however, are noted in summer for the dry and bracing air. The neighbouring country is inter- esting from its scenery and antiquities. Among the institu- tions of the town may be mentioned the Queen Alexandra Hospital (1902), and several hydropathic establishments and convalescent homes. The estuary harbours coasting vessels, and some shipbuilding is carried on. On the beach towards Prestatyn can be seen the remains of a submerged forest. RHYME, more correctly spelt RIME, from a Provencal word rim (its customary English spelling is due to a confusion with rhythm), a literary ornament or device consisting of an identity of sound in the terminal syllables of two or more words. In the art of versification it signifies the repetition of a sound at the end of two or more lines in a single composition. This artifice was practically unknown to the ancients, and, wher it occurs, or seems to occur, in the works of classic Greek anc Latin poets, it must be considered to be accidental. The natural tendency of the writer of verse unconsciously to repea a sound, however, is shown by the fact that there have been discovered nearly one thousand lines in the writings of Virgi where the final syllable rhymes with a central one, thus — Bella per Emathios plus quam civilia campos. It is more than doubtful, however, whether the difference o stress would not prevent this from sounding as a rhyme in an antique ear, and the phenomenon results more from th ontingencies of grammar than from intention on the part of he poet. Conscious rhyme belongs to the early medieval >eriods of monkish literature, and the name given to lines ivith an intentional rhyme in the middle is Leonine verse, he invention being attributed to a probably apocryphal monk ,eoninus or Leonius, who is supposed to be the author of a listory of the Old Testament preserved in the Bibliotheque Rationale of Paris. This " history " is composed in Latin erses, all of which rhyme in the centre. Another very famous joem in Leonine rhyme is the " De Contemptu Mundi " of Bernard of Cluny, which was printed at Bremen in 1595. Uiyme exists to satisfy the ear by the richness of repeated ound. In the beginnings of modern verse, alliteration, a epetition of a consonant, satisfied the listener. A further jrnament was discovered when assonance, a repetition of the •owel-sounds, was invented. Finally, both of these were com- dned to procure a full identity of sound in the entire syllable, and rhyme took its place in prosody. When this identity of iound occurs in the last syllable of a verse it is the typical end- •hyme of modern European poetry. Recent criticism has been nclined to look upon the African church-Latin of the age of Tertullian as the starting-point of modern rhyme, and it is >robable that the ingenuities of priests, invented to aid wor- shippers in hearing and singing long pieces of Latin verse in the ritual of the Catholic church produced the earliest conscious >oems in rhyme. Moreover, not to give too great importance ;o the Leonine hexameters which have been mentioned above, t is certain that by the 4th century a school of rhymed sacred poetry had come into existence, classical examples of which we still possess in the " Stabat Mater " and the " Dies Irae." [n the course of the middle ages, alliteration, assonance and end-rhyme held the field without a rival in vernacular poetry. There is no such thing, it may broadly be said, as medieval verse in which one or other of these distinguishing ornaments is not employed. After the I4th century, in the north of Europe, and indeed everywhere except in Spain, where asson- ance held a powerful position, end-rhyme became universal and formed a distinctive indication of metrical construction. It was not until the invention of Blank Verse (q.v.) that rhyme found a modern rival, and in spite of the successes of this instrument rhyme has held its own, at all events for non- dramatic verse, in the principal literature of Europe. Certain forms of poetry are almost inconceivable without rhyme. For instance, efforts have been made to compose rhymeless sonnets, but the result has been, either that the piece of blank verse produced is not in any sense a sonnet, or else that by some artifice the appearance of rhyme has been retained. In the heyday of Elizabethan literature a serious attempt was made in England to reject rhyme altogether, and to return to the quantitative measures of the ancients. The prime mover in this heresy was not a poet at all, but a pedantic grammarian of Cambridge, Gabriel Harvey (1545 ?-i63v6nk, from fxlv, to flow), the measured flow of movement, or beat, in verse, music or by analogy in other connexions, e.g. " rhythm of life." The early critic of prosody, Aristoxenus, distinguished as the three elements out of which rhythm is composed, the spoken word, Xe£w, the tune of music and song, /wXos, and the bodily motion, dvijaa ffunaTudi. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to S har- monious combination of these three elements, language, instrument and gesture uniting to form perfect rhythm. Aris- toxenus proceeds to define the rhythm so produced as an arrange- ment of time-periods, TO.& xP°™v, but other early theorists make not the time but the syllable the measurement of poetic speech. Both music and poetry depend, and have depended from the earliest times, on rhythm. But in music melody and harmony have to be taken into consideration, whereas in poetry the rhythmical value of the tone is modified by the imaginative value and importance of the words themselves. In earliest times the fundamental unity of the two arts was constantly manifest, but as 'the world has progressed, and they have ramified into countless forms, the difference between them has been emphasized more and more. Rhythm in Verse. — Professor Jakob Minor has adduced a figure, valuable in helping us to realize what poetic rhythm is, when he remarks that to strike a bell twelve times, at exactly equal intervals, is to produce what may be called, indeed, a rhythmic effect, but not to awaken anything resembling the sensation of poetical rhythm. Into the idea of poetic rhythm enters an element of life, of pulse, of a certain inequality of time based upon an equality of tone. Rhythm ceases to be poetic rhythm if it is mechanical or lifeless. Aristotle, from whom a definition might be ex- pected, is very vague in dealing with the subject, and most of the old rhetorical writers darken counsel with statements that are obscure or irrational. The fact is that rhythm is an expression of the instinct for order in sound which naturally governs the human ear, and little practical know- ledge is gained by following Suidas when he says that rhythm is the father of metre, or Quintilian in his epigram that rhythm is male and metre is female. These definitions arise from a rhetorical desire to measure a delicate instinct by rule of three, and, as a matter of fact, Greek criticism on this subject often lost itself in arithmetical absurdities. It is sufficient to say that rhythm is the law which governs the even and periodical progress of sounds, in harmony with the exigencies of human emotion. For the passions, as expressed in verse, various movements are appropriate. Joy demands that the voice should leap and sing; sorrow that it should move solemnly and slowly; and poetry, which is founded on rhythm, requires that the movement of words should respond to this instinctive gradation of sounds. The finer the genius of the metrist the more exquisitely does his rhythm convey, as upon an instrument, the nature of the passion which burdens his verses. Ecstasy takes a quick, eager, rising movement: — " Give him the nectar! Pour out for the poet, Hebe, pour free! Quicken his eyes with celestial dew, That Styx the detested no more he may view. Mystery and suspense demand a faint, languid and throbbing movement: — " There is not wind enough in the air To move away the ringlet curl From the lovely lady's cheek — There is not wind enough to twirl The one red leaf, the last of its clan, That dances as often as dance it can." An overpowering sadness interprets itself in rhythm that is full and slow and emphatic: — " My genial spirits fail, And what can these avail To lift the smothering weight from off my breast? It were a vain endeavour, Though I should gaze for ever On that green light that lingers in the west : I may not hope from outward forms to win The passion ana the life, whose fountains are within." The rhythm so produced, intimately linked, almost beyond the disintegrating power of analysis, with human feeling, may depend either on accentuation or quantity. The latter forms the principle upon which all classic metre was composed, while the former is dominant in nearly every description of modem verse. Greek and Latin verse depends entirely upon the relation of syllables, long or short. It was a question of time with the ancients, of stress or weight with us. It is an error to say, as is often done, that ancient verse did not recognize accent, and that in modern verse there is no place for quantity. These state- ments are generally true, but there are various exceptions to both rules. Schiffer, in his Englische Melrik, specially points out that " long and short syllables have no constant length, no constant relation, but they depend on their place in the verse, and on the context; though they do not determine the rhythm of verse, they still act as regulators of our metre in a very im- portant degree." Pauses take an essential importance in the construction of modern rhythm, of the variety and vitality of which they are the basis. They are introduced for the purpose of relieving the monotony of successive equal groups of syllables. The pause often takes the place of a light syllable, and there are instances in the verse of Shakespeare and Milton where it is even allowed to fill up the space of a heavy syllable. But still more often the pause does not imply the dropping of a syllable at all, but simply dictates a break in the sound, equivalent to a break in the sense. The following extract from a " Psalm " in Crashaw's Steps to the Temple (1646), in which the pauses are numerous and energetic, will exemplify the variety of this artifice: — " On the proud banks of great Euphrates' flood, | There we sate | and there we wept : | Our harps | that | now | no music understood, | Nodding | on the willows slept | While | unhappy captiv'd I we Lovely Sion | thought on thee." In the blank verse of Milton the free use of pauses constitutes the principal element in the amazing metrical art of the poet, and is the source of the sublime originality of his music. In speaking of rhythm, it is customary to think of the formal rules which govern the fixed cadence of feet in poetry, but there is also a rhythm in prose, which imitates the measured movements of the body in stately speech. According to Renan, the rhythm of the ancient poetry of the Hebrews is solely founded on this prose movement, which differs, in fact, from that of modern European poetry merely in its undefined and indeterminate character. See I. Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Melrik (Strassburg, 1893); W. Christ, Die Melrik der Greichen (Leipzig, 1874); Roderick Benadix, Das Wesen des deutschen Rhythmus (Leipzig, 1862); Jakob Schiffer, Englische Melrik (Leipzig, 1895); Edwin Guest, History of English Rhythms (London, 1838; and ed., 1882); Theodore de Banville, Petit Traite de la poesie franfaise (Pans, 1881); F. B. Gummere, Handbook of Poetics (Boston, 1902). Rhythm in Music. — The rhythm of modem music began to develop through the attempts of learned medieval musicians to adapt the rhythms of spoken language to the necessities of choral singing; but before the process had gone far, certain much more ancient and powerful principles, always manifest in folk-song and dance, gained ascendancy, so that even the 278 RHYTHM simplest classical music has a rhythm for which no criteria of poetic metre can be made adequate. From the musical point of view, the rhythm of speech, whether in prose or verse, is very subtle and almost uniformly fluent. The metrical feet which constitute the details of poetic rhythm are musically very minute; and the exaggerated forms in which music represents them are many and varied. On the other hand, the groups of metrical feet which constitute any one kind of verse are of a uniformity which for music on a large scale would be intolerable. Artistic music is soon compelled to draw upon infinite resources of its own, which preserve an appropriate accentuation of the sense and feeling, while obliterating or hugely exaggerating the poet's rhythmic effects. Musical rhythm cannot be studied on a sound basis unless its radical divergences from speech- rhythm are recognized from the outset. In the earliest extant musical settings of poetry the treatment of accent and quantity was strictly arithmetical ; and purely aesthetic requirements were satisfied by ex post facto inference from the arithmetical laws, rather than treated as the basis of the laws. Accent, when translated into music, is a rhythmic sensation resembling the stress we put on the left foot in march- ing; while quantity rarely suggests any bodily movement at all, since it can correspond only to variations in the length of steps. Now in modern music a sense akin to that of bodily movement is of overwhelming importance. Changes of tempo, and of the grouping of musical beats, are incidents as obvious in their effect as changes in the pace of a running horse. One consequence is that the laws of musical accent are simple and cogent, while the laws of musical quantity, if such exist, are far beyond analysis. Fluent speech and energetic physical exercise cannot be carried on simultaneously by the same person; and hence the laws of quantity belong to speech rather than to dance. Before we could form adequate notions of the musical rhythms of classical Greece, we should need to settle, firstly, how far the dancing in Greek drama included movements other than ideal- ized dramatic gesticulation; secondly, how much bodily energy was involved in all dancing that may have gone beyond this; and lastly, how much dancing of any kind was executed by the singers while singing. What is certain is that ancient Greek musical rhythms were exact translations of verse rhythms, with the quantities interpreted arithmetically. The extant fragments of Greek music are, whether we have read them correctly or not, undoubtedly very different in rhythm from the system of discant on which European music of the 1 2th and i3th centuries first developed; but they resemble discant in so far as the modern sense of rhythm is absent and its place is supplied by a sense of the rhythmic expression of unusually slow and emphatic speech. In ordinary speech there is an important difference between long syllables and short; but it is not naturally regulated by an exact rhythm, and the art by which it is organized in verse admits (or indeed demands) considerable freedom on the part of the reciter in varying his pace within such limits as do not destroy the structure of the lines. But when a chorus is made to sing words, it must, if the words are to reach the hearer, sing them slowly; and moreover, it must sing them exactly together, unless, as in much classical music, it can repeat them until they are either understood or dismissed from the mind as a mere pretext for the employment of voices in a merely musical design. In any case, if a chorus is to sing well together, the contrast between short and long syllables must be placed on an arithmetical basis, the simpler the better. Now the sole function of ancient Greek music was to enhance the emotional effect of poetic words by regulating their rise and fall in a musical scale and their length in a metrical scheme; and it was natural and right that its rhythms should, though accurate, have no stronger ictus than those of the words. To make them as rigid and forcible as the rhythms of a non-vocal music would produce an effect as intolerable to a Greek ear as a schoolboy's worst jog-trotting scansion of poetry. We need not, then, imagine that the human sense of rhythm has suffered any mysterious change, when our best attempts at deciphering the extant fragments of ancient Greek music yield us a rhythm which scholars can explain by the structure of Greek verse, but which gives us no musical sense. Neither here nor in such strange harmonic phenomena as our complete inversion of medieval harmonic ideas as to the treatment of " perfect con- cords " (see HARMONY) do we find any principle involved which is not as true at the present day as it ever was. Ancient musical rhythm shared in the general qualities of that " Flatland " which we know ancient music to have been; modern musical rhythm, like harmony, belongs, as it were, to a three-dimensioned musical space with the vast artistic resources of a consistent perspective. Indeed, we need much the same kind of mental gymnastic in studying the origins of musical rhythm as we need for the much more abstruse subject of harmonic origins. The two subjects soon begin to show interaction. During the period of discant we find metrical conceptions already strongly modified by two purely musical factors. Firstly, the attempt to make voices produce a harmony from different simultaneous melodies (instead of from combinations conceived as disguised unison) brought with it the necessity for differences of length enormously larger than any possible metrical differences. The metrical influence, however, still so predominated, even in the i4th century, as to produce a rhythm based almost exclusively on what would now be called triple time. Secondly, that sense of bodily movement, for which the less clumsy term " dance- rhythm " is far too narrow, gained ground as the only means powerful enough to hold the various rhythms of the new and growing polyphony together. In the later stages of discant the old metrical conceptions struggled against the grain of the polyphony for awhile, only to succumb in a tangle of inextricable technicality: and the new art, which became coherent in the 1 5th century, disregarded poetic metre, with little or no loss in capacity to interpret words if the composer had leisure or desire to do so; since, after all, poetic rhythm in its highest forms has a subtle freedom which renders mechanical musical translation worse than useless, while the rhythmic swing of the lighter forms of poetry was soon discovered by the composers of the " Golden Age " to be practically identical with the refined dance-rhythm which they in their lighter moments idealized from folk-music.1 By the middle of the isth century polyphony attained such independence that the only rhythms which would hold the flow of independent melodious voices together were those in which a steadily duple or steadily triple rhythm (either of which might be subdivided by the other or by itself) could be felt as an absolutely regular musical tread. Such a rhythm is capable of expressing every poetic foot, either by the differ- ence of stress between notes or by a difference in their length. Moreover, emphasis may be obtained by the pitch of the note, or, again, by its harmonic significance. All these forms of emphasis combine and counteract each other in an infinite variety, till the sense of musical movement becomes as remote from crude dance-rhythm as it is from poetic metre. But though the part thus played by accent was already of para- mount importance in the " Golden Age " of music, it was not allowed to become evident to the ear except in the lighter and more coarse-grained art-forms. Its highest purpose was served as soon as the listener was able to lose all crude rhythmic impulses in a secure feeling that the mass of polyphonic harmony was held together by a general grouping of the rhythmic beats in fours or threes; and individual parts were at least as free to indulge in other rhythms across the main rhythm as they are in the most complex modern music, so long as the harmony was held together by the average grouping, or " time," as we now call it. Hence the rhythmic variety of 16th-century 1 It would be interesting and fruitful to consider how far the growing preference, In modern European languages, of accent to quantity, may not only have modified the conception of musical rhythm, but may itself have been enhanced by the rhythmic tend- encies of popular song, which had so great an influence on the learned music of the middle ages. And it can hardly be said that the subject of musical rhythm has yet been so clearly treated on these lines as to shed the light it seems capable of shedding upon many vexed questions in poetic rhythm. RHYTHM 279 music is exactly like the harmonic variety, and the limitations and waywardness of the one are no more archaic than those of the other. When the resources of later music and the treatment of instruments necessitated the publishing of music in score as well as in separate parts, it became necessary to guide the eye by drawing vertical lines (" bars ") at convenient distances. Hence the term " score " (Ger. Partitur, FT. partition). These divisions naturally coincided with the main rhythmic groups, and eventually became equidistant. This purely practical custom has co-operated with the great increase of rhythmic firmness necessary for the coherence of those large modern forms which decree the shape rather than the texture of the music, until our notions of rhythm may fairly be described as bar-ridden. And, since the vast majority of our musical rhythms absorb the utmost complexity of detail into the most square and symmetrical framework possible, we are taught to regard the " 4-bar period " as a normal (or even ultimate) rhythmic principle, instead of contenting ourselves with broader conceptions which treat symmetry and proportion in time as freely as they are treated in space. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the bar indicates no universal musical principle. The havoc wrought by mechanical teaching on this point is incalculable, especially in the childish crudeness of current ideas as to the declamation of words in classical and modern music: ideas which mislead even some composers who might have been expected to know better. As rhythm is contemplated in larger measures, it becomes increasingly difficult to say where the sense of rhythm ends and the sense of proportion begins. The same melody that may be felt as a square and symmetrical piece of proportion in four-bar rhythm if it is taken slowly, will be equally rational as a single bar of " common time " (see below) if it is taken very quickly; and between these two extremes there may be insensible gradations. All that can be laid down is that com- posers are apt to use short bars where they demand constant strong accent, while long bars will imply smoother rhythms. For example, if the scherzo of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony were written in " instead of ! bars, then the passages now marked Ritmo di tre battute would have to appear in ! time, and so the changes of rhythm would be much more visible on paper. But the tendency to put a strong accent on the first beat of every bar would make this notation an undesirable substitute for Beethoven's, since it would lead to a neglect of the sub- ordinate accents (all of them bar-accents, as Beethoven writes them). The trio of this scherzo shows the opposite case in the fact that Beethoven first intended to write it in * time, but, in order to indicate a more tranquil flow at the same pace, doubled the quantity contained in a bar, substituting alia breve bars, each equal to two of the preceding J bars. The alteration produced a discrepancy in the metronome marks, which has always caused controversy among conductors, but the facts admit of only one interpretation. It is clear, then, that the only sound theory of musical rhythm will be that in which accent, beat, bar, and even form and proportion are relative terms. The kinds of time (i.e. rhythmic groups forming, as it were, invariable molecules in the structure of any continuous piece of music) that are used in all music from the 1 5th century onwards are nowadays classified as duple and triple, and each of these may be simple or compound. Simple time is that in which the normal subdivision of its beats is by two, whether the number of the beats themselves is duple or triple. Compound time is that in which the beats are regularly divided by three, which three subdivisions are reckoned as subordinate beats. The beats are in all kinds of time reckoned as halves, quarters, 8ths, i6ths or even 32nds of the standard note in modern music, the semibreve: and the time- signature placed at the beginning of a piece of music is really a fraction, of which the numerator expresses the number of beats in a bar, while the denominator expresses the size of a beat. Thus J signifies three crotchets in a bar. Compound time is expressed, not by using normal fractions of a semibreve as main beats and dividing them into triplets,1 but by using dotted beats. A dot after 1 Triplets are groups of three equal notes crowded into the time normally taken by two. Binary and ternary subdivision answer a note adds another half to its value, and so not only do we obtain the means of expressing a great variety of rhythmic effects (especi- ally quantitative effects of iambic and trochaic character) in all kinds of time, but we are able to use normal fractions of a semi- breve as the subordinate beats of compound time. Thus 5 is the compound time obtained by dotting the two crotchets of * time, and is thus totally different in accent and meaning from J time though that also contains six quavers in a bar. The most highly compound times in classical music are to be found in the last move- ment _of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. in. He begins by dividing bars of J into their usual compound time ,V He then divides the six half-beats of J time by three, producing \l (which he in- correctly calls ,1), and lastly he divides the 12 quarter-beats by 3, producing JJ (which he calls JJ). The special signatures C for 4 time, and C for * time are the last survivals of the time system of the middle ages (see MUSICAL NOTATION). That complicated system of mood, time and prolation was capable of expressing even more highly compound rhythms than our usual time-signatures, though the complexity was in most cases unreal, since the small rhythmic ictus of ecclesiastical polyphony renders little but the general distinction between duple and triple rhythm audible: especially as the more compound rhythms were not subdivisions but multiples, involving lengths better measurable by an eight-day clock than by human ears. The second Kyrie of Palestrina s Missa L'Homme Arme is one of the rare cases which remain both rhythmic and complex when transcribed in modern score.1 For genuine articulate complexity the ballroom scene in Mozart's Don Giovanni has never been surpassed. So real are its three simultaneous rhythms of minuet, contredanse and waltz that the persons on the stage actually dance to whichever suits their char- acter. Anomalous measures such as { and J time, whether divisible into alternations of I and I or not, are aesthetically best regarded not as rhythmic units, but as extreme- cases of unsym- metncal phrase-rhythm erected into a system for special effect. They tend, however, to group themselves into musical sentences of reactionary squareness; and the 5 movement of Tschaikovsky's Pathetic Symphony consists of twenty 8-bar periods (twenty-four, counting the repeats) before an unpaired 4-bar phrase is heard in the short coda. Even the last bar is not odd, though it is the I79th, for the rhythm ends with an unwritten iSoth bar of silence. There is, no doubt, a germ of truth in current doctrine as to the fundamental character of 4-bar phrase-rhythms, inasmuch as the human anatomy has a bilateral symmetry with either limb on one side slightly stronger than that on the other. This is probably the basis of our natural tendency to group rhythmic units in pairs, with a stress on the first of each pair; and hence, if our attention is drawn to larger groups, we put more stress on the first of the first pair than on the first of the second; and so with still greater groups, until our immediate and un- analysed sense of rhythm merges into a sense of proportion distributed through time with a clear consciousness of past, present and future. The point at which this merging takes every ordinary purpose of musical rhythm, "being capable of expres- sing clear distinctions far more minute than have ever been regu- lated in speech. It is impossible to pronounce a syllable in less than a tenth of a second; but it is easy to play 1 6 notes in a second on the pianoforte. (That is to say, musical rhythm continues to be measurable up to the point at which atmospheric vibrations coalesce in the ear as low musical notes!) In a series of such rapid notes a single break twice in a second would have a very obvious rhythmic effect directly measured by the ear. If the broken series were levelled into an even series of fourteen notes a second, the rhythmic effect would be entirely different, though the actual difference of pace would be only j"j of a second. The special sign for triplets is readily adapted to other subdivisions where necessary; but such adaptation generally indicates rather a freedom of declamatory rhythm than any abstruse arithmetical accuracy. Among the worst barbarisms in musical editing is the persistent reduction of Chopin's septoles, groups of 13 and other indeterminables, into mutton-cutlet frills._ A natural freedom in performance is as necessary for the minutiae of musical rhythm as it is in speech; but where all but the finest players fail is in basing this freedom on the superlative accuracy of the rhythmic notation of the great composers. 4 In the critical edition of Palestrina's complete works, vol. xii. p. 177 (Breitkppf and Hartel), the editor has violently simplified it. He is justified in using the ordinary <£ bars to hold the piece together, and he is not called upon to reproduce the riddles of the original notation ; but some secondary time signatures ought to have been added to indicate the strong swing of the tune in its conflicting shapes; and there is no justification, in a full score intended for scholars, in supplanting the true rhythm of the quintus by a rough practical compromise. 280 RHYTINA place depends on the extent to which these larger groups can dominate the details of the rhythm, and this again depends on the listener's capacity for grasping large and slow rhythms. In any case, the only " ultimate " rhythmic element is the tendency to mark off rhythmic beats into pairs, with a stress on the first of each pair. Where this tendency is resisted, the mind will follow the line of least resistance, which will vary according to the pace and detail of the music. Thus in rapid triple time it is easier to seek duple rhythm in the grouping of bars than in the details within the bars; but if the groups of bars are also triple, or irregular, the mind will fix on the first recurring salient feature for a secondary beat, regardless of inequality in length; rather than, so to speak, hop on one leg indefinitely. On this principle there is a distinct tendency in moderate and slow triple times to throw a secondary accent on the third beat; or sometimes on the second, as in the spring- ing step of the mazurka, where the spring gives energy to the first beat and the descent from it gives poise to the second. The tendency of small rhythmic groups to build themselves into large and square ones, such as 8-bar, i6-bar and even 32-bar periods, is doubtless important; but the converse tendency of large phrase-rhythms to break up in a tapering series is far more significant, since even in its most regular forms it not only produces more variety the further it goes, but always increases in obvious effect, until the subdivisions attain the minuteness (and therewith the expression) of speech rhythms. (A crude example of the device is Diabelli's waltz, on which Beethoven wrote his gigantic 33 variations. See VARIATIONS, where the point is illustrated by a diagram.) Regularly expanding rhythm, on the other hand, not only becomes imperceptible as it is carried further, but tends merely to make musical proportions resemble those of a chess-board. In great music the expanding principle is therefore always contrasted with or modified by the tapering principle, which can indeed exist simultaneously with it and with any other. For, to take only three categories, the harmonic changes of a passage may be designed in tapering rhythm while the melodic phrases expand, and the entries of instruments or parts occur on some third principle, regular or irregular. Such interplay need produce no feeling of complexity; indeed, it is an art most neglected by those composers who most rely on the effect of complex rhythm. It is the main discoverable source of that almost dramatic sense of movement that distinguishes the great musical styles from the academic methods which play for safety, and from the anti-academic novelties which end in monotony. Square rhythms become desirable at climaxes where physical energy dominates thought. Strong final cadences accordingly require that the last chord should fall on an accent; and if the pace is rapid the final chord will probably be not only on an accented beat but on an accented bar. Thus it is quite obvious that there is by a mere oversight one bar too many in the four bars of tremolo quavers at the end of the first movement of Beethoven's Fourth Symphony; for they are followed by an important bar leading to the last three chords, which chords can only mean (counting bars as beats) — " ONE, two, THREE " (" four " being silent and therefore unwritten). A fifth bar of tremolo would correct the rhythm in a more vigorous but more vulgar way by bringing the last chord onto " ONE " of the next imaginary group of four. The former correction is so obviously right that the imagination makes it in spite of the presence of the superfluous bar, which is instinctively ignored as an accidental prolongation of the tremolo. Where the composer writes in bars so short as to be permanently less than the phrases of the piece (as in Beethoven's scherzos), or in bars that are frequently longer than the phrases (as in most of Mozart's movements in slow or moderate common time) , it sometimes becomes impossible to construe the music without carefully calculating where the accents come; and this calculation is most easily made on the assumption that the strongest cadences bring the tonic chord on an accent. Thus, in Beethoven's Sonata in E flat, Op. 27, No. i, the first bar of the second movement must be preliminary and the first accent must come on the second bar, since the piece refuses to make sense in any other way. Indeed, Beethoven has written some notes twice over in order to bring his double- bars and repeat-marks where they will indicate the true rhythmic joints to the eye. (A double-bar is a mere graphic indication of some important sectional division, not necessarily rhythmic or even coincident with a normal bar-stroke.) Theorists, however, have developed a tendency to assume that all cadences must be strong. More than one critic has told us that the scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 28, is in the same predicament as that of Op. 27, No. i; though it not only makes excellent sense with its cadences in the light and weak form in which they appear, but, when reconstrued on the " strong cadence " theory, entirely fails in its middle portion to uphold that theory or to make any other rhythmic sense. And when Professor Prout tells us that the overture to Figaro begins with a silent bar, and that Schubert's Impromptu in B flat is positively ungrammatical in its cadences unless it is entirely rebarred, and when Dr Riemann turns half the ritornello of a Bach con- certo from £ into f time, simply in order to make the sequences coincide with the hardest possible accents; then we can only protest that this is regulating musical aesthetics by criteria too crude for the aesthetics of bricklaying. An edition of Paradise Lost, in which the lines were so rearranged as to bring all punctua- tion marks (except perhaps commas) at the end of the line, would be on precisely the same level of ingenious barbarity. Few technical terms are entirely peculiar to the subject of musical rhythm; but some obvious terms of syntax, such as phrase, period and section are used with varying degrees of system by all writers on music; and the whole terminology of prosody has been annexed — with such success that we are told in Grove's Dictionary (article " Metre ") that " the theme of Weber's Rondo brillante in E flat (Op. 62) is in Anapaestic Tetrameter Brachycatalectic, very rigidly maintained." One important term has acquired a special significance in music: viz. Syncopation. It means a cross-accent of such strength as to equal or even suppress the main accent; but the use of the term is generally restricted to cases in which the cross- accent is produced by shifting the notes of a melody or a formula so that they fall between the beats instead of upon them. From what we have said as to the almost physical energy of musical rhythm it is obvious that such a phenomenon is of far greater effect and importance in music than it could possibly be in verse; and, to whichever subject the term may belong by priority, extreme caution is needed in extending any musical notion of it to the structure of poetry. (D. F. T.) RHYTINA, a name applied to the northern sea-cow (Rhylina gigas, or stelleri), a gigantic relative of the manati and dugong, which formerly inhabited Bering and Copper Islands, in the North Pacific, where it was discovered during Bering's voyage in 1741, and subsequently described by Steller, who accompanied that expedition as a naturalist. Bering's half-starved sailors soon reduced the numbers of these comparatively helpless creatures; and it was not long after — probably about the year 1768 — that the species, which was the sole representative of its genus, became completely exterminated. The Rhytina was the largest member of the order Sirenia, attaining a length of nearly twenty feet; and had a very thick, rugged, bark-like skin. The jaws, which are bent downwards to a moderate extent, are unprovided with teeth, but in life carried ridged horny plates. The tail was very deeply forked; and the flippers were short and truncated, lacking apparently the terminal joints of the digits. When first discovered, this Sirenian was extremely numerous in the bays of Bering Island, where it browsed upon the abundant sea-tangle. Its extirpation is due to the Russian sailors and traders who visited the island in pursuit of seals and sea-otters, and who subsisted on its flesh. Numbers of bones have been discovered in the soil of Bering and Copper Islands, from which more or less nearly perfect skeletons have been reconstructed, so that the osteology of this interesting animal is well represented in most of the larger museums. (R. L.*) RIANSARES— RIBADENEIRA 281 RIANSARES, AUGUSTIN FERNANDEZ MUNOZ, DUKE OF (1808 or 1810-1873), morganatic husband of Maria Christina, queen and regent of Spain, was born at Tarancon, in the province of Cuenca, in New Castile. His father was the keeper of an " estanco " or office for the sale of the tobacco of the govern- ment monopoly. He enlisted in the bodyguard, and attracted the attention of the queen. According to one account, he distinguished himself by stopping the runaway horses of her carriage; according to another, he only picked up her hand- kerchief; a third and scandalous explanation of his fortune has been given. It is certain that the queen married him privately, very soon after the death of her husband on the 29th of September 1833. By publishing her marriage, Maria Christina would have forfeited the regency; but her relations with Munoz were perfectly well known. When on the i3th of August 1836 the soldiers on duty at the summer palace, La Granja, mutinied and forced the regent to grant a constitution, it was generally, though wrongly, believed that they over- came her reluctance by seizing Munoz, whom they called her " guapo," or fancy man, and threatening to shoot him. When in 1840 the queen found her position intolerable and fled the country, Munoz went with her and the marriage was published, and on the overthrow of Espartero in 1843 the couple returned. In 1844 Queen Isabella II., who was now declared to be of age, gave her consent to her mother's marriage, which was publicly performed. Munoz was created duke of Riansares and made a knight of the Golden Fleece. By Louis Philippe, king of the French, he was created duke of Mont-Morot and Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. Until his wife was finally driven from Spain by the revolutionary movement of 1854, the duke is credibly reported to have applied himself to making a large fortune out of railway concessions and by judicious stock exchange speculations. Political ambi- tions he had none, and it is said that he declined the offer of the crown of Ecuador. All authorities agree that he was not only good-looking, but kindly and well-bred. He died five years before his wife at L'Adresse, near Havre, on the nth of September 1873. Several children were born of the marriage. RIAZ PASHA (c. 1835- ), Egyptian statesman, born about 1835, was of a Circassian family, but said to be of Hebrew extraction. Little is known of his early life save that until the accession of Ismail Pasha to the vice-royalty of Egypt in 1863 he occupied a humble position. Ismail, recognizing in this obscure individual a capacity for hard work and a strong will, made him one of his ministers, to find, to his chagrin, that Riaz was also an honest man possessed of a remarkable independence of character. When Ismail's financial straits compelled him to agree to a commission of inquiry Riaz was the only Egyptian of known honesty sufficiently intelligent and patriotic to be named as a vice-president of the com- mission. He filled this office with distinction, but not to the liking of Ismail. The khedive, however, felt compelled, when as a sop to his European creditors he assumed the position of a constitutional monarch, to nominate Riaz as a member of the first Egyptian cabinet. For the few months this government lasted (September 1878 to April 1879) Riaz was minister of the interior. When Ismail dismissed the cabinet and attempted to resume autocratic rule, Riaz had to flee the country. Upon the deposition of Ismail, June 1879, Riaz was sent for by the British and French controllers, and he formed the first ministry under the khedive Tewfik. His administration, marked by much ability, lasted only two years, and was overthrown by the agitation which had for figure-head Arabi Pasha (q.v.). The beginnings of this move- ment Riaz treated as of no consequence. In reply to a warning of what might happen he said, " But this is Egypt; such things do not happen; you say they have happened elsewhere, perhaps, but this is Egypt." On the evening of the pth of September 1881, after the military demonstration in Abdin Square, Riaz was dismissed; broken in health he went to Europe, remaining at Geneva until the fall of Arabi. After that event Riaz, subordinating his vanity to his patriotism, accepted office as minister of the interior under Sherif Pasha (q.v.). Had Riaz had his way Arabi and his associates would have been executed forthwith, and when the British insisted that clemency should be extended to the leaders of the revolt Riaz refused to remain in office, resigning in December 1882. He took no further part in public affairs until 1888, when, on the dismissal of Nubar Pasha (q.v.), he was summoned to form a government. He now understood that the only policy possible for an Egyptian statesman was to work in harmony with the British agent (Sir Evelyn Baring — afterwards Lord Cromer). This he succeeded in doing to a large extent, wit- nessing if not initiating the practical abolition of the coroie and many other reforms. The appointment of an Anglo-Indian official as judicial adviser to the khedive was, however, opposed by Riaz, who resigned in May 1891. In the February follow- ing he again became prime minister under Abbas II., being selected as comparatively acceptable both to the khedivial and British parties. In April 1894 Riaz finally resigned office on account of ill-health. Superior, probably, both intellectually and morally to his great rival Nubar, he lacked the latter's broad statesmanship as well as his pliability. Riaz's stand- point was that of the benevolent autocrat; he believed that the Egyptians were not fitted for self-government and must be treated like children, protected from ill-treatment by others and prevented from injuring themselves. In 1889 he was made an honorary G.C.M.G. A worthy tribute to Riaz was paid by Lord Cromer in his farewell speech at Cairo on the 4th of May 1907. " Little or no courage is now re- quired," said Lord Cromer, " on the part of a young Egyptian who poses as a reformer, but it was not always so. Ismail Pasha had some very drastic methods of dealing with those who did not bow before him. Nevertheless, some thirty years ago Riaz Pasha stood forth boldly to protest against the mal- administration that then prevailed in Egypt. He was not afraid to bell the cat.'' RIB (from O. Eng. ribb; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Gcr. Rippe, Swed. reb), in anatomy, the primary meaning, one of the series of elastic arched bones (costae) which form the casing or framework of the thorax (see SKELETON: Axial). The word is in meaning transferred to many objects resembling a rib in shape or function. In architecture, it is thus used of the arches of stone which in medieval work constitute the skeleton of the vault, and carry the shell or web. Although in the Roman vault the rib played an important element in its construction, it was generally hidden in the thickness of the vault and was made subservient to its geometrical surfaces. The Gothic masons, on the other hand, reversed the process, and not only made the vaulting surface subservient to the rib, but by mouldings rendered the latter a highly decorative feature. The principal ribs are the transverse (arc doubleau), the diagonal (arc ogive) and the wall rib (formeret). Those of less importance are the intermediate, the ridge and lierne ribs. The ridge-rib is one first introduced into the vault to resist the thrust of the intermediate ribs between the wall and diagonal ribs; it also served to mark the junction of the filling-in or web of vaults in those cases where the courses dipped toward the diagonal rib. (See VAULT.) A lierne rib (the term is borrowed from the French) is a short rib, introduced into the vaulting in the Early Perpendicular period, which coupled together the transverse and intermediate ribs; in the later period the " lierne " rib becomes one of the chief features of the " Stella " vault (see further VAULT). RIBADENEIRA, PEDRO A. (1527-1611), hagiologist, was born at Toledo on the ist of November 1527. As a lad he repaired to Rome for study, and there on the i8th of September 1540 was admitted by Ignatius Loyola, in his thirteenth year, as one of the Society of Jesus, which had not yet re- ceived papal sanction. He pursued his studies at Paris (1542) in philosophy and theology. Loyola, in 1555, sent him on a mission to Belgium; in pursuance of it he visited England in 282 RIBALD— RIBBON-FISHES 1558. A later result of his visit was his Historia Ecclesiastica del scisma del Reyno de Inglaterra (1588-1594), often reprinted, and used in later editions of N. Sander's De Origine et Pro- gressu Schismatis Anglicani. In 1560 he was made Provincial of the Society of Jesus in Tuscany, thence transferred as Pro- vincial to Sicily in 1563, again employed in Flanders, and from 1571 in Spain. In 1574 he settled in Madrid, where he died on the loth of September 1611. His most important work is the Life of Loyola (1572), which he was the first to write. In his first edition of the Life, as also in the second enlarged issue (1587), Ribadeneira affirmed that Loyola had wrought no miracle, except the foundation of his Society (thus making his claim parallel with that of Mahomet, whose only miracle, originally, was the Koran). In the process for the canonization of Loyola, a narrative published by Riba- deneira in 1609 exhibited miracles; and these are recorded in an abridgment of the Life by Ribadeneira (published post- humously in 1612) with a statement by Ribadeneira that he had known of them in 1572 but was not then satisfied of their proof. For this change of opinion he is taken to task by Bayle. That Ribadeneira was, though an able, a very credulous writer, is shown by his lives of the successors of Loyola in the general- ship of the Society, Lainez and Borgia; and especially by his Flos Sanctorum (1599-1610), a collection of saints' lives, entirely superseded by the labours of the Bollandists. His other works are numerous but of little moment, including his Tratado de la religion (1595), intended as a refutation of Machiavelli's Prince. See his autobiography in his Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu (1602 and 1608, supplemented by P.Alegambeand N.Sotwell in 1676) ; N. Antonio, Biotheca Hispana Nova (1788); Biographic Universelle (Michaud) (1842-1865). (A. Go.*) RIBALD, a word now only used in the sense of jeering, irreverent, abusive, particularly applied to the uses of low, offensive or mocking jests. It has an interesting early history, of which Du Cange (Gloss, s.v. Ribaldi) gives a full account. It is one of those words, like the Greek rvpavvos, an uncon- stitutional ruler, and the Latin latro, a hired soldier, mercenary, later robber, which have acquired a degraded and evil sig- nificance. The ribaldi were light-armed soldiers, on whom fell the duty of being first in attack, the enfans perdus or " for- lorn hope " of the armies of the French kings; thus Rigordus, in his contemporary history of the reign of Philip Augustus, for the year 1189, speaks of the Ribaldi . . . qui primes im- petus in expuguandis munitionibus facere consueverunl. Later we find the ribaldi among the rabble of camp-followers of an army, and Giovanni Villani, in his 16th-century Chronicle (n, 139), speaks of ribaldi et i raguazzi del hoste, and Froissart of the ribaux as the lowest ranks in an army. Ribaldus (ribaut) was thus a common name for everything ruffianly and aban- doned, and Matthew Paris (Ann. 1251) says: Fures, exules, fugilivi, excommunicati, quos omnes Ribaldos Francia vulgariter consuevit appellare. The name (ribaldae or ribaldi) was particu- larly applied to prostitutes, brothel-keepers and all who fre- quent haunts of vice, and there was at the French court from the 1 2th century an official, known as Rex Ribaldorum, king of the ribalds, changed in the reign of Charles VI. to Prae- posilus Hospitii Regis, whose duty was to investigate and hold judicial inquiry into all crimes committed within the precincts of the court, and control vagrants, prostitutes, brothels and gambling-houses. The etymology of the word has been much discussed, and no certainty can be arrived at. The termination — aid — points to a Teutonic origin, and connexion has been suggested with O.H.Ger. Hripd, M.H.Ger. Ribe, prostitute, with Ger. reiben, rub, or with rauben, rob. Neither Skeat nor the New English Dictionary find any relation to the English " bawd," procuress, pander. RIBAULT (or RIBAUT), JEAN (c. 1520-1565), French navigator, famous for his connexion with the early settlement of Florida, was born at Dieppe, probably about 1 520. Appointed by Admiral Coligny to the command of an expedition to prepare an asylum for French Protestants in America, Ribault sailed on the i8th of February 1562, with two vessels, and on the ist of May landed in Florida at St John's river, or, as he called it, Riviere de Mai. Having settled his colonists at Port Royal Harbour (now Paris Island, South Carolina), and built Fort Charles for their protection, he returned to France to find the country in the throes of the Civil War. In 1563 he appears to have been in England and to have issued True and Last Discoverie of Florida (Hakluyt Soc., vol. vii.). In April 1564 Coligny was in a position to despatch another expedition under Rene de Laudonniere, but meanwhile Ribault's colony had come to an untimely end — the unfortunate adventurers, destitute of sup- plies from home, having revolted against their governor and attempted to make their way back to Europe in a boat which was happily picked up, when they were in the last extremities, by an English vessel. In 1565 Ribault was again sent out to satisfy Coligny as to Laudonniere's management of his new settlement, Fort Caroline, on the Riviere de Mai. While he was still there the Spaniards, under Menendez de Aviles, though their country was at peace with France, attacked the French ships at the mouth of the river. Ribault set out to retaliate on the Spanish fleet, but his vessels were wrecked by a storm near Matanzas Inlet and he had to attempt to return to Fort Caroline by land. The fort had by this time fallen into the hands of the Spaniards, who had slaughtered all the colonists except a few who got off with two ships under Ribault's son. Induced to surrender by false assurances of safeguard, Ribault and his men were also put to the sword in October 1565. The massacre was avenged in kind by Dominique de Gourgues (d. 1583) two years later. See E. and E. Haag, La France protestante (1846-1859); and F. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World (new ed., 1899). RIBBECK, JOHANN CARL OTTO (1827-1898), German classical scholar, was born at Erfurt in Saxony on the 23rd of July 1827. Having held professorial appointments at Kiel and Heidelberg, he succeeded his tutor Ritschl in the chair of classical philology at Leipzig, where he died on the i8th of July 1898. Ribbeck was the author of several standard works on the poets and poetry of Rome, the most important of which are the following: Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (2nd ed., 1894-1900); Die romische Tragodie im Zeitalter der Republik (1875); Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, including the tragic and comic fragments (3rd ed., 1897). As a textual critic he was distinguished by considerable rashness, and never hesitated to alter, rearrange or reject as spurious what failed to reach his standard of excellence. These tendencies are strikingly shown in his editions of the Epistles and Ars Poetica of Horace (1869), theSalires of Juvenal (1859) and in the supplementary essay Der echte und unechte Juvenal (1865). In later years, however, he became much more conservative. His edition of Virgil (2nd ed., 1894-1895), although only critical, is a work of great erudition, especially the Prolegomena. His biography of Ritschl (1879-1881) is one of the best works of its kind. The influence of his tutor may be seen in Ribbeck's critical edition of the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus, and Beitrage zur Lehre von den lateinischen Partikeln, a work of much promise, which causes regret that he did not publish further results of his studies in that direction. His miscellaneous Reden und Vortriige were published after his death (Leipzig, 1899). He took great interest in the monumental Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, and it was chiefly owing to his efforts that the government of Saxony was induced to assist its production by a considerable subsidy. Xhe chief authority for his life is Otto Ribbeck; tin BUd seines Lebens aus seinen Briefen (1901), ed. by Emma Ribbeck. RIBBON-FISHES (Trachypteridae), a family of marine fishes readily recognized by their long, compressed, tape-like body, short head, narrow mouth and feeble dentition. A high dorsal fin occupies the whole length of the back; an anal is absent, and the caudal, if present, consists of two fascicles of rays of which the upper is prolonged and directed upwards. The pectoral fins are small, the ventrals composed of several rays, or of one long ray only. Ribbon-fishes possess all the characteristics of fishes living at very great depths. They are RIBBONISM— RIBBONS 283 extremely fragile when found floating on the surface or thrown ashore, and rarely in an uninjured condition; the rays of their FIG. i. — Trachypterus taenia. fins especially, and the membrane connecting them, are of a very delicate and brittle structure. In young ribbon-fishes some of the fin-rays are prolonged in an extraordinary degree, and sometimes provided with appendages (see fig. 2). There FIG. 2. — Young Trachypterus. are only two genera in the family, Regalecus, the oar-fish, and Trachypterus. In the former the length of the body is about fifteen times its depth. The head likewise is compressed, short, resembling in its form that of a herring; the eye is large; the mouth is small, and provided with very feeble teeth. A long many-rayed dorsal fin, of which the very long anterior rays form a kind of high crest, extends from the top of the head to the end of the tail; the anal and perhaps the caudal fins are absent; but the ventrals (and by this the oar-fish is distinguished from the other ribbon-fishes) are developed into a pair of long filaments, which terminate in a paddle-shaped extremity, but are too flexible to assist in locomotion. The whole body is covered with a layer of silvery epidermoid sub- stance, which easily comes off and adheres to other objects. FIG 3. — Oar-fish. Oar-fishes are the largest deep-sea fishes known, the majority ol the specimens observed measuring 12 ft. in length; but some are recorded to have exceeded 20 ft. Their range in the great depths of the ocean seems to extend over all seas, but, however numerous they may be in the depths which are their home, it is only by ran accident that specimens reach the su'rface. Thus from the coasts o Great Britain only about twenty captures are known in the long space of a century and a half, and not more than thirteen from those of Norway. Oar-fishes have been considered by naturalists to havr given rise to some of the tales of " sea-serpents," but their size as well is the facility with which they are secured when observed render this solution of the question of the existence of such a creature im- probable. When they rise to the surface of the water they are either lead or in a helpless and dying condition. The ligaments and tissues :>y which the bones and muscles were held together whilst the fish ived under the immense pressure of great depths have then become oosened and torn by the expansion of the internal gases; and it is only with difficulty that the specimens can be taken entire out of the water, and preserved afterwards. Every specimen found has been more or less mutilated; and especially the terminal portion of the ail, which seems to end in a delicate tapering filament, has never >een perfect; — it is perhaps usually lost as a useless appendage at a much earlier period of the life of the fish. Of Trachypterus, specimens have been taken in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, at Mauritius and in the Pacific. The species from the Atlantic has occurred chiefly on the northern coasts, Iceland, Scandinavia, Orkneys and Scotland. It is known as T. arcticus, in English the deal-fish; its Icelandic name is Vagmaer. Its length is 5 to 8 ft. Specimens seem usually to be driven to the shore by gales in winter, and are sometimes left by the tide. S. Nilsson, however, n Scandinavia observed a living specimen in two or three fathoms of water moving something like a flat-fish with one side turned obliquely upwards. RIBBONISM, the name given to an Irish secret-society movement, which began at the end of the i8th century in opposition to the Orangemen (q.v.), and which was represented ay various associations under different names, organized in odges, and recruited all over Ireland from the lowest classes of the people. The actual name of Ribbonism (from a green aadge worn by its members) became attached to the movement later, about 1826; and, after it had grown to its height about 1855, it declined in force, and was practically 'at an end in its old form when in 1871 the Westmeath Act declared Ribbonism illegal. See also under IRELAND: History. RIBBONS. By this name are designated narrow webs, properly of silk, not exceeding nine inches in width, used primarily for binding and tying in connexion with dress, but also now applied for innumerable useful, ornamental and symbolical purposes. Along with that of tapes, fringes and other small- wares, the manufacture of ribbons forms a special department of the textile industries. The essential feature of a ribbon loom is the simultaneous weaving in one loom frame of two or more webs, going up to as many as forty narrow fabrics in modern looms. To effect the conjoined throwing of all the shuttles and the various other movements of the loom, the automatic action of the power-loom is necessary; and it is a remarkable fact that the self-acting ribbon loom was known and extensively used more than a century before the famous invention of Cartwright. A loom in which several narrow webs could be woven at one time is mentioned as having been working in Dantzig towards the end of the i6th century. Similar looms were at work in Leiden in 1620, where their use gave rise to so much discontent and rioting on the part of the weavers that the states-general had to prohibit their use. The prohibition was renewed at various intervals throughout the century, and in the same interval the use of the ribbon loom was interdicted in most of the principal industrial centres of Europe. About 1676, under the name of the Dutch loom or engine loom, it was brought to London; and, although its introduction there caused some disturbance, it does not appear to have been pro- hibited. In 1745, John Kay, the inventor of the fly -shuttle, obtained, conjointly with Joseph Stell, a patent for im- provements in the ribbon loom; and since that period it has benefited by the inventions applied to weaving machinery generally. Ribbon-weaving is known to have been established near St Etienne (dep. Loire) so early as the nth century, and that town has remained the headquarters of the industry. During the Huguenot troubles, ribbon-weavers from St Etienne settled at Basel and there established an industry which in modern times has rivalled that of the original seat of the trade. Crefeld is the centre of the German ribbon industry, the manufacture of black velvet ribbon being there a specialty. In England Coventry is the most important seat of ribbon-making, which is also prose- cuted at Norwich and Leicester. 284 RIBEIRA— RIBERA RIBEIRA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Corunna, on the extreme south-west of the peninsula formed between the river of Muros y Noya and Arosa Bay. Pop. (1000) 12,218. Ribeira is in a hilly country, abounding in wheat, wine, fruit, fish and game. Its port is Santa Eugenia de Ribeira, on Arosa Bay. The population is chiefly occupied in agriculture, cattle-breeding and fisheries. RIBEIRO, BERNARDIM (1482-1552), the father of bucolic prose and verse in Portugal, was a native of Torrao in the Alemtejo. His father, Damiao Ribeiro, was implicated in the conspiracy against King John II. in 1484, and had to flee to Castile, whereupon young Bernardim and his mother took refuge with their relations Antonio Zagalo and D. Ignez Zagalo at the Quinta dos Lobos, near Cintra. When King Manoel came to the throne in 1495, he rehabilitated the families persecuted by his predecessor, and Ribeiro was able to leave his retreat and return to Torrao. Meanwhile D. Ignez had married a rich landowner of Estremoz, and in 1503 she was summoned to court and appointed one of the attendants to the Infanta D. Beatriz. Ribeiro accompanied her, and through her influence the king took him under his protection and sent him to the university of Lisbon, where he studied from 1506 to 1512. When he obtained his degree in law, the king showed him further favour by appointing him to the post of Escrivao da Camara, or secretary, and later by bestowing on him the habit of the military order by Sao Thiago. Ribeiro's poetic career commenced with his coming to court, and his early verses are to be found in the Cancioneiro Geral of Garcia de Resende (?.».). He took part in the historic Seroes do Pa$o, or palace evening 'entertainments, which largely consisted of poetical improvisations; there he met and earned the friendship of the poets Sa de Miranda (q.v.) and Christovao Falcao (q.v.), who became his literary comrades and the confidants of his romance, in which hope deferred and bitter disappointment ended in tragedy. Ribeiro had early conceived a violent passion for his cousin, D. Joanna Zagalo, the daughter of his protectress, D. Ignez; but, though she seems to have returned it, her family opposed her marriage to a singer and dreamer with small means and prospects, and finally compelled her to wed a rich man, one Pero Gato. When the latter met a violent death shortly afterwards, D. Joanna retired to a house in the country, and it is alleged that Ribeiro visited her, and that their amour resulted in the birth of a child. All we know positively, however, is that in 1521 the lady went into seclusion in the convent of St Clare at Estremoz, where she fell a victim to a violent form of insanity, and that she died there some years later. It is further alleged that Ribeiro's conduct had caused a scandal which led the king to deprive him of his office and exile him. But the loss of position and income can have added very little to the poignant grief of such a true lover and profound idealist as Bernardim Ribeiro. He had poured out his heart in five beautiful eclogues, the earliest in Portuguese, written in the popular octosyllabic verse; and now, hopeless of the future and broken in spirit, he decided to go to Italy, for a poet the land of promise. He started early in 1522, and travelled widely in the peninsula, and during his stay he wrote his moving knightly and pastoral romance Menina e Moi;a, in which he related the story of his unfortunate passion, personifying himself under the anagram of " Bimnarder," and D. Ignez under that of " Aonia." When he returned home in 1524, the new king, John III., restored him to his former post, and it is said that he paid a last visit to his love at St Clare's convent and found her in a fit of raving madness. This no doubt preyed on a mind already unhinged by trouble, and hastened the decline of his mental powers, which had already commenced. About 1534 a long illness supervened, and the years that elapsed between that year and his death may be described as the night of his soul. He was quite unable to fulfil the duties of his office, and in 1 549 the king bestowed upon him a pension for his support; but he did not live long to enjoy it, for in 1552 he died insane in All Saints Hospital in Lisbon. The Menina e Mo$a was not printed until after Ribeiro's death, and then first in Ferrara in 1554. On its appearance the book made such a sensation that its reading was forbidden, because, though it contained nothing heterodox, it disclosed a family tragedy which the allegory could not hide. It is divided into two parts, the first of which is certainly the work of Ribeiro, while as to the second opinion is divided, though Dr Theophilo Braga considers it genuine and explains its progressive lack of lucidity and order by the mental illness of the author. The first part has been ably edited by Dr Jose Pessanha (Oporto, 1891). Ribeiro's verses, including his five eclogues, which for their sincerity of feeling, simple diction and chaste form are unsurpassed in Portuguese literature, were reprinted in a limited ddition de luxe by Dr Xavier da Cunha (Lisbon, 1886). AUTHORITIES. — Visconde Sanches de Baena, Bernardim Ribeiro (Lisbon, 1895) ; Dr Theophilo Braga, Bernardim Ribeiro e o Bucolismo (Oporto, 1 897) , containing a full analysis of Ribeiro's novel (sometimes called the Saudades, though it is more commonly described, as here, by the initial words of the story, Menina e Mo$a). (E. PR.) RIBERA, GIUSEPPE (1588-1656), commonly called Lo SPAGNOLETTO, or the Little Spaniard, a leading painter of the Neapolitan or partly of the Spanish school, was born near Valencia in Spain, at Xativa, now named S. Felipe, on i2th January 1588. His parents intended him for a literary or learned career; but he neglected the regular studies, and entered the school of the Spanish painter Francisco Ribalta. Fired with a longing to study art in Italy, he somehow made his way to Rome. Early in the I7th century a cardinal noticed him in the streets of Rome drawing from the frescoes on a palace fagade; he took up the ragged stripling and housed him in his mansion. Artists had then already bestowed upon the alien student, who was perpetually copying all sorts of objects in art and in nature, the nickname of Lo Spagnoletto. In the cardinal's household Ribera was comfortable but dis- satisfied, and one day he decamped. He then betook himself to the famous painter Michelangelo da Caravaggio, the head of the naturalist school, called also -the school of the Tenebrosi, or shadow-painters, owing to the excessive contrasts of light and shade which marked their style. The Italian master gave every encouragement to the Spaniard, but not for long, as he died in 1609. Ribera, who had in the first instance studied chiefly from Raphael and the Caracci, had by this time acquired so much mastery over the tenebroso style that his performances were barely distinguishable from Caravaggio's own. He now went to Parma, and worked after the frescoes of Correggio with great zeal and efficiency: in the museum of Madrid is his " Jacob's Ladder," which is regarded as his chef-d'ceuvre in this manner. From Parma Spagnoletto returned to Rome, where he resumed the style of Caravaggio, and shortly after- wards he migrated to Naples, which became his permanent [home. Ribera was as yet still poor and inconspicuous, but a rich picture-dealer in Naples soon discerned in him all the stuff of a successful painter, and gave him his daughter in marriage. This was the turning-point in the Spaniard's fortunes. He painted a " Martyrdom of St Bartholomew," which the father- in-law exhibited from his balcony to a rapidly increasing and admiring crowd. The popular excitement grew to so noisy a height as to attract the attention of the Spanish viceroy, the Count de Monterey. From this nobleman and from the king of Spain, Philip IV., commissions now flowed in upon Ribera. With prosperity came grasping and jealous selfishness. Spagno- letto, chief in a triumvirate of greed, the " Cabal of Naples," his abettors being a Greek painter, Belisario Corenzio, and a Neapolitan, Giambattista Caracciolo, determined that Naples should be an artistic monopoly; by intrigue, terrorizing and personal violence on occasion they kept aloof all competitors. Annibale Caracci, tjie Cavalier d'Arpino, Guide, Domenichino, all of them successively invited to work in Naples, found the place too hot to hold them. The cabal ended at the time of Caracciolo's death in 1641. The close of Ribera's triumphant career has been variously related. If we are to believe Dominici, the historian of Nea- politan art, he totally disappeared from Naples in 1648 and RIBOT, A. F. J.— RIBOT, T. .85 was no more heard of — this being the sequel of the abduction by Don John of Austria, son of Philip IV., of the painter's beautiful only daughter Maria Rosa. But these assertions have not availed to displace the earlier and well-authenticated statement that Ribera died peaceably and wealthy in Naples in 1656. His own signature on his pictures is constantly " Jusepe de Ribera, Espanol." His daughter, so far from being disgraced by an abduction, married a Spanish nobleman who became a minister of the viceroy. The pictorial- style of Spagnoletto is extremely powerful. In his earlier style, founded (as we have seen) sometimes on Caravaggio and sometimes on the wholly diverse method of Correggio, the study of Spanish and Venetian masters can likewise be traced. Along with his massive and predominating shadows, he retained from first to last great strength of local colouring. His forms, though ordinary and partly gross, are correct; the impression of his works gloomy and startling. He delighted in subjects of horror. Salvator Rosa and Luca Giordano were his most distinguished pupils; also Giovanni Do, Enrico Fiammingo, Michelangelo Fracanzani, and Aniello Falcone, who was the first considerable painter of battle-pieces. Among Ribera's principal works should be named " St Januarius Emerging from the Furnace," in the cathedral of Naples; the " Descent from the Cross," in the Neapolitan Certosa, generally regarded as his masterpiece; the " Adoration of the Shepherds " (a late work, 1650), now in the Louvre; the " Martyrdom of St Bartholomew," in the museum of Madrid; the " Pieta," in the sacristy of S. Martino, Naples. His mythologic subjects are generally unpleasant — such as the " Silenus," in the Studj Gallery of Naples, and " Venus Lamenting over Adonis," in the Corsini Gallery of Rome. The Louvre contains altogether twenty-five of his paintings; the National Gallery, London, two — one of them, a " Peita," being an excellent though not exactly a leading specimen. He executed several fine male portraits; among others his own likeness, now in the collection at Alton Towers. He also produced twenty-six etchings, ably treated. For the use of his pupils, he drew a number of ele- mentary designs, which in 1650 were etched by Francisco Fernandez, and which continued much in vogue for a long while among Spanish and French painters and students. Besides the work of Dominici already referred to (1840-46), the Diccionario Historico of Cean Bermudez is a principal authority regarding Ribera and his works; also E. de Lalaing, " Ribera " (in Histoire de quatre grands peintres), 1888. (W. M. R.) RIBOT, ALEXANDRE FELIX JOSEPH (1842- ), French statesman, was born at St Omer on 7th February 1842. After a brilliant career at the university of Paris, where he was laureat of the faculty of law, he rapidly made his mark at the bar. He was secretary of the conference of advocates and one of the founders of the Sociele de legislation comparee. During 1875 and 1876 he was successively director of criminal affairs and secretary-general at the ministry of justice. In 1877 he made his entry into political life by the conspicuous part he played on the committee of legal resistance during the Broglie ministry, and in the following year he was returned to the chamber as a moderate republican member for Boulogne, in his native department of Pas-de-Calais. His impassioned yet reasoned eloquence gave him an influence which was increased by his articles in the Parlement in which he opposed violent measures against the unauthorized congregations. He devoted himself especially to financial questions, and in 1882 was reporter of the budget. He became one of the most prominent republican opponents of the Radical party, distinguishing himself by his attacks on the short-lived Gambetta ministry. He refused to vote the credits demanded by the Ferry cabinet for the Tongking expedition, and shared with M. Clemenceau in the overthrow of the ministry in 1885. At the general election of that year he was one of the victims of the Republican rout in the Pas-de-Calais, and did not re-enter the chamber till 1887. After 1889 he sat for St Omer. His fear of the Boulangist movement converted him to the policy of " Re- publican Concentration," and he entered office in 1890 as foreign minister in the Freycinet cabinet. He had an intimate acquaintance and sympathy with English institutions, and two of his published works — an address, Biographic de Lord Erskine (1866), and fiude sur I'acte du 5 awil 1873 pour I'itablisscmcnt .d'une cour supreme de justice en Angleterre (1874) — deal with English questions; he also gave a fresh and highly important direction to French policy by the understanding with Russia, which was declared to the world by the visit of the French fleet to Cronstadt in 1891, and which subsequently ripened into a formal treaty of alliance. He retained his post in the Loubet ministry (February-November 1892), and on its defeat became himself president of the council, retaining the direction of foreign affairs. The government resigned in March 1893 on the refusal of the chamber to accept the Senate's amendments to the budget. On the election of F61ix Faure as president of the Republic in January 1895, M. Ribot again became premier and minister of finance. On the loth of June he was able to make the first official announcement of a definite alliance with Russia. On the 3oth of October the government was defeated on the question of the Chemin de fer du Sud, and resigned office. The real reason of its fall was the mismanagement of the Madagascar expedition, the cost of which in men and money exceeded all expectations, and the alarming social conditions at home, as indicated by the strike at Carmaux. After the fall of the Meline ministry in 1898 M. Ribot tried in vain to form a cabinet of " conciliation." He was elected, at the end of 1898, president of the important commission on education, in which he advocated the adoption of a modern system of education. The policy of the Waldeck-Rousseau ministry on the religious teaching congregations broke .up the Republican party, and M. Ribot was among the seceders; but at the general election of 1902, though he himself secured re-election, his policy suffered a severe check. He actively opposed the policy of the Combes ministry and denounced the alliance with M. Jaures, and on the I3th of January 1905 he was one of the leaders of the opposition which brought about the fall of the cabinet. Although he had been most violent in denouncing the anti-clerical policy of the Combes cabinet, he now announced his willingness to> recognize a new regime to replace the Concordat, and gave the government his support in the establishment of the Associations cultuedes, while he secured some mitigation of the severities attending the separa- tion. He was re-elected deputy for St Omer in 1906. In the same year he became a member of the French Academy in succession to the due d'Audiffret-Pasquier; he was already a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Science. In justification of his policy in opposition he published in 1905 two volumes of his Discours poliliques. RIBOT, THEODULE (1823-1891), French painter, was born at Breteuil, in Eure, in 1823, and died at Bois Colomoes, near Paris, in September 1891. A pupil nominally of Glaize, but more really of Ribera, of the great Flemings and of Chardin, Theodule Ribot had yet conspicuously his own noble and personal vision, his own intensity of feeling and rich sobriety of performance. Beginning to work seriously at art when he was no longer extremely young, and dying before he was extremely old, Ribot crowded into some thirty or thirty-five years of active practice very varied achievements; and he worked in at least three mediums, oil paint, pencil or crayon draughtsmanship and the needle of the etcher. His drawings were sometimes " complete in themselves," and sometimes fragmentary but powerful preparations for painted canvases. The etchings, of which there are only about a couple of dozen, are of the middle period of his practice; they show a diversity of method as well as of theme; the work in the well-nigh Velazquez-like " Priere " — a group of girl children — contrast- ing strongly with that process almost of outline alone, which he employed in the brilliant little group of prints which record his vision of the character and humours of cooks and kitchen- boys. In etching, the method varied with .the theme — not with the period. It is quite otherwise with the paintings. Here the earlier work, irrespective of its subject, is the drier 286 RIBOT, T. A.— RICARDO and the more austere; the later work, irrespective of its subject, the freer and broader. But even in that which is quite early there is a curious and impressive intensity of conception and presentation. His visions of elderly women and young girls remain upon the memory. His women, wrinkled and worn, have had the experience of a hard and grinding world; his children, his young girls, are the quintessence of innocence and happy hopefulness, and life is a jest to his boys. His religious pieces, in which Ribera affected him, have conviction and force. Into portraits and into character studies, but more especially into genre subjects, Ribot was apt to introduce Still-life, and to make much of it. Herein, as in his sense of homeliness, he resembled Chardin. But again, Chardin-like, he painted Still-life for its own sake, by itself, and always with an extraordinary sense of the solidity and form, the texture and the hue, and, it must be added also, the very charm of matter. (F. WE.) RIBOT, THEODULE ARMAND (1830-1903), French psycho- logist, was born at Guingamp on the i8th of December 1839, and was educated at the Lycee de St Brieuc. In 1856 he began to teach, and was admitted to the Ecole Normale Superieure in 1862. In 1885 he gave a course of lectures on " Experi- mental Psychology " at the Sorbonne, and in 1888 was ap- pointed professor of that subject at the College of France. His thesis for his doctor's degree, republished in 1882, H&redite: etude psyckologique (sth ed., 1889), is his most important and best known book. Following the experimental and synthetic methods, he has brought together a large number of instances of inherited peculiarities; he pays particular attention to the physical element of mental life, ignoring all spiritual or non- material factors in man. In his work on La Psychologic anglaise coniemporaine (1870), he shows his sympathy with the sensationalist school, and again in his translation of Herbert Spencer's Principles of Psychology. Besides numerous articles, he has written on Schopenhauer, Philosophic de Schopenhauer (1874; 7th ed., 1896), and on the contemporary psychology of Germany (La Psychologie allemande contemporaine, 1879; i3th ed., 1898), also four little monographs on Les Maladies de la memoire (1881; I3th ed., 1898); De la volonlt (1883; i4th ed., 1899); De la personnalitl (1885; Sth ed., 1899); and La Psychologie de I' attention (1888), which supply useful data to the student of mental disease. Other works by him are: — La Psychologie des sentiments (1896); L' Evolution des idees generales (1897); Essai sur V imagination creatrice (1900); La Logique des sentiments (1904); Essai sur les passions (1906). Of the above the following have been translated into English: — English Psychology (1873); Heredity: a Psycho- logical Study of its Phenomena, Laws, Causes, and Consequences (1875); Diseases of Memory: An Essay in the Positive Psychology (1882); Diseases of the Will (New York, 1884); German Psychology of to-day, tr. J. M. Baldwin (New York, 1886) ; The Psychology of Atten- tion (Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1890); Diseases of Personality (Chicago, 1895); The Psychology of the Emotions (1897); The Evolution of General Ideas, tr. F. A. Welby (Chicago, 1899); Essay on the Creative Imagination, tr. A. H. N. Baron (1906). RICARD, LOUIS GUSTAVE (1823-1873), French painter, was born in Marseilles in 1823, and studied first under Auber in his native town, and subsequently under Coignet in Paris. The formation of his masterly, distinguished style in portraiture was, however, due rather to ten years' intelligent copying of the old masters at the Louvre and at the Italian galleries, than to any school training. He was a master of technique, and his portraits — about two hundred — reveal an extra- ordinary insight into the character of his sitters. Never- theless, for some time after his death his name was almost forgotten by the public, and it is only of quite recent years that he has been conceded the position among the leading masters of the modern French school which is his due. A portrait of himself, and one of Alfred de Musset, are at the Luxembourg Gallery. Among his best known works are the portrait of his mother, and those of the painters Fromentin, Heilbuth and Chaplin. See Gustave Ricard, by Camille Mauclair (Paris, Librairie de I'arf). RICARDO, DAVID (1772-1823), English economist, was born in London on the igth of April 1772, of Jewish origin. His father, who was of Dutch birth, bore an honourable character and was a successful member of the Stock Exchange. At the age of fourteen Ricardo entered his father's office, where he showed much aptitude for business. About the time when he attained his majority he abandoned the Hebrew faith and conformed to the Anglican Church, a change which seems to have been connected with his marriage to Miss Wilkinson, which took place in 1793. In consequence of the step thus taken he was separated from his family and thrown on his own resources. His ability and uprightness were known, and he at once entered on such a successful career in the pro- fession to which he had been brought up that at the age of twenty-five, we are told, he was already rich. He now began to occupy himself with scientific pursuits, and gave some atten- tion to mathematics as well as to chemistry and mineralogy; but, having met with Adam Smith's great work, he threw himself with ardour into the study of political economy. His first publication (1809) was The High Price of Bullion a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes. This tract was an expansion of a series of articles which the author had con- tributed to the Morning Chronicle. It gave a fresh stimulus to the controversy, which had for some time been discontinued, respecting the resumption of cash payments, and indirectly led to the appointment of a committee of the House of Commons, commonly known as the Bullion Committee, to consider the whole question. The report of the committee asserted the same views which Ricardo had put forward, and recommended the repeal of the Bank Restriction Act. Not- withstanding this, the House of Commons declared in the teeth of the facts that paper had undergone no depreciation. Ricardo's first tract, as well as another on the same subject, attracted much attention. In 1811 he made the acquaintance of James Mill, whose introduction to him arose out of the publication of Mill's tract entitled Commerce Defended. Whilst Mill doubtless largely affected his political ideas, he was, on his side, under obligations to Ricardo in the purely economic field; Mill said in 1823 that he himself and J. R. M'Culloch were Ricardo's disciples, and, he added, his only genuine ones. In 1815, when the Corn Laws were under discussion, he published his Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock. This was directed against a recent tract by Malthus entitled Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restraining the Free Importation of Foreign Corn. The reasonings .of the essay are based on the theory of rent which has often been called by the name of Ricardo; but the author distinctly states that it was not due to him. " In all that I have said concerning the origin and progress of rent I have briefly repeated, and endeavoured to elucidate, the principles which Malthus has so ably laid down on the same subject in his Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent." We now know that the theory had been fully stated, before the time of Malthus, by Anderson; it is in any case clear that it was no discovery of Ricardo. \Ricardo states in this essay a set of propositions, most of them deductions from the theory of rent, which are in substance the same as those afterwards embodied in the Principles, and regarded as characteristic of his system, such as that increase of wages does not raise prices; that profits can be raised only by a fall in wages and diminished only by a rise in wages; and that profits, in the whole progress of society, are determined by the cost of the production of the food which is raised at the greatest expense. It does not appear that, excepting the theory of foreign trade, anything of the nature of fundamental doctrine, as distinct from the special subjects of banking and taxation, is laid down in the Principles which does not already appear in this tract. We find in it, too, the same exclusive regard to the interest of the capitalist class, and the same identification of their interest with that of the whole nation, which are generally characteristic of his writings. RICASOLI 287 In the Proposals for an Economical and Secure Currency (1816) he first disposes of the chimera of a currency without a specific standard, and pronounces in favour of a single metal, with a preference for silver, as the standard. Ricardo's chief work, Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, appeared in 1817. The fundamental doctrine of this work is that, on the hypothesis of free competition, exchange value is determined by the labour expended in production, — a proposition not new, nor, except with considerable limitation and explanation, true, and of little practical use, as " amount of labour " is a vague expression, and the thing intended is incapable of exact estimation. Ricardo's theory of dis- tribution has been briefly enunciated as follows: " (i) The demand for food determines the margin of cultivation; (2) this margin determines rent; (3) the amount necessary to maintain the labourer determines wages; (4) the difference between the amount produced by a given quantity of labour at the margin and the wages of that labour determines profit." These theorems are too absolutely stated, and require much modification to adapt them to real life. His theory of foreign trade has been embodied in the two propositions: " (i) Inter- national values are not determined in the same way as domestic values; (2) the medium of exchange is distributed so as to bring trade to the condition it would be in if it were conducted by barter." A considerable portion of the work is devoted to a study of taxation, which requires to be considered as a part of the problem of distribution. A tax is not always paid by those on whom it is imposed; it is therefore necessary to determine the ultimate, as distinguished from the immediate, incidence of every 'form of [taxation. Smith had already dealt with this question; Ricardo develops and criticizes his results. The conclusions at which he arrives are in the main as follows: a tax on raw produce falls on the consumer, but will also diminish profits; a tax on rents on the landlord; taxes on houses will be divided between the occupier and the ground landlord; taxes on profits will be paid by the consumer, and taxes on wages by the capitalist. In 1819 Ricardo, having retired from business and become a landed proprietor, entered parliament as member for Portarlington. He was at first diffident and embarrassed in speaking, but gradually overcame these difficulties, and was heard with much attention and deference, especially when he addressed the House on economic questions. He probably contributed in a considerable degree to bringing about the change of opinion on the question of free trade which ulti- mately led to the legislation of Sir Robert Peel on that subject. In 1820 he contributed to the supplement of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (6th ed.) an " Essay on the Funding System." In this besides giving an historical account (founded on Dr Robert Hamilton's valuable work On the National Debt, 1813, 3rd ed., 1818) of the several successive forms of the sinking fund, he urges that nations should defray their expenses, whether ordinary or extraordinary, at the time when they are incurred, instead of providing for them by loans. In 1822 he published a tract On Protection to Agriculture, which is an able application to controversy of the general principles laid down in his systematic work. Its arguments and conclusions are therefore subject to the same limitations which those fundamental principles require. In his Plan for the Establishment of a National Bank, published posthumously in 1824, he proposes that the issue of the paper currency should be taken out of the hands of the Bank of England and vested in commissioners appointed by the government. The tract describes in detail the measures to be adopted for the introduction and working of the system. A certain step towards realizing the objects of his scheme, though on different lines from Ricardo's, was taken in Sir Robert Peel's act of 1844, by which the discount business of 'the bank was separated from the issue department. Ricardo died on the nth of September 1823, at bis seat (Gatcomb Park) in Gloucestershire, from a cerebral affection resulting from disease of the ear. James Mill, who was inti- mately acquainted with him, says (in a letter to Napier of November 1818) that he knew not a better man, and on the occasion of his death published a highly eulogistic notice of him in the Morning Chronicle. A lectureship on political economy, to exist for ten years, was founded in commemoration of him, M'Culloch being chosen to fill it. In forming a general judgment respecting Ricardo, we must have in view not so much the minor writings as the Principles, in which his economic system is expounded as a whole. By a study of this work we are led 'to the conclusion that he was an economist only, not at all a social philosopher in the wider sense, like Adam Smith or John Mill. He had great acuteness, but little breadth. For any large treatment of moral and political questions he seems to have been alike by nature and preparation unfitted; and there is no evidence of his having had any but the most ordinary and narrow views of the great social problems. He shows no trace of that hearty sympathy with the working classes which breaks out in several passages of the Wealth of Nations; we ought, perhaps, with Held, to regard it as a merit in Ricardo that he does not cover with fine phrases his deficiency in warmth of social sentiment. The idea of the active capitalist having any duties towards his employes never seems to occur to him; the labourer is, in fact, merely an instrument in the hands of the capitalist, a pawn in the game he plays. He first introduced into economics on a great scale the method of deduction from a priori assumptions. The con- clusions so arrived at have often been treated as if they were directly applicable to real life, and indeed to the economic phenomena of all times and places. But the truth of Ricardo's theorems is now by his warmest admirers admitted to be hypothetical only. Bagehot seems right in believing that Ricardo himself had no consciousness of the limitations to which his doctrines are subject. Be this as it may, we now see that the only basis on which these doctrines could be allowed to stand as a permanent part of economic science is that on which they are placed by Roscher, namely, as a stage in the preparatory work of the economist, who, beginning with such abstractions, afterwards turns from them, not in practice merely, but in the completed theory, to real life and men as they actually are or have been. The criticisms to which Ricardo's general economic scheme is open do not hold with respect to his treatment of the subjects of currency and banking. These form precisely that branch of economics into which moral ideas (beyond the plain pre- scriptions of honesty) can scarcely be said to enter, and where the operation of purely mercantile principles is most immediate and invariable. They were, besides, the departments of the study to which Ricardo's early training and practical habits led him to give special attention; and they have a lasting value independent of his systematic construction. Ricardo's collected works were published, with a notice of his life and writings, by J. R. M'Culloch in 1846. The Principles have been edited (with an introduction, biblio- graphy and notes) by E. C. K. Conner, 1891. See also Letters to H. Trower and Others, ed. J. Bonar and J. H. Hollander, 1809; Letters to J. R. M'Culloch, ed. J. H. Hollander, 1895; Letters to T. R. Malthus, ed. J. Bonar, 1887. A French translation of the Principles by Constancio, with notes by Say, appeared in 1818; the whole works, translated by Constancio and Fonteyraud, form vol. xiii. (1847) of the Collection des principaux economises, where they are accompanied by the notes of Say, Malthus, Sismondi, Rossi, &c. The Principlef was first " naturalized " in Germany, says Roscher (though another version by Von Schmid had pre- viously appeared), by Edward Baumstark in his David Ricardo's Grundgesetze der Volkswrthschaft und der Besteuerung ubersetzt und erldutert (1837), which Roscher highly commends, not only for the excellence of the rendering, but for the value of the explana- tions and criticisms which are added. RICASOLI, BETTING, BARON (1800-1880), Italian statesman, was born at Broglio on the ipth of March 1809. Left an orphan at eighteen, with an estate heavily encumbered, he was by special decree of the grand duke of Tuscany declared of age, and 288 RICCATI— RICCI entrusted with the guardianship of his younger brothers. In- terrupting his studies, he withdrew to Broglio, and by careful management disencumbered the family possessions. In 1847 he founded the journal La Patria, and addressed to the grand duke a memorial suggesting remedies for the difficulties of the state. In 1848 he was elected Gonfaloniere of Florence, but resigned on account of the anti-Liberal tendencies of the grand duke. As Tuscan minister of the interior in 1859 he promoted the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, which took place on"the 1 2th of March 1860. Elected Italian deputy in 1861 , he succeeded Cavour in the premiership. As premier he admitted the Garibal- dian volunteers to the regular army, revoked the decree of exile against Mazzini, and attempted reconciliation with the Vatican; but his efforts were rendered ineffectual by the non possumus of the pope. Disdainful of the intrigues of his rival Rattazzi, he found himself obliged in 1862 to resign office, but returned to power in 1866. On this occasion he refused Napoleon lll.'s offer to cede Venetia to Italy, on condition that Italy should abandon the Prussian alliance, and also refused the Prussian decoration of the Black Eagle because Lamarmora, author of the alliance, was not to receive it. Upon the departure of the French troops from Rome at the end of 1866 he again attempted to conciliate the Vatican with a convention, in virtue of which Italy would have restored to the Church the property of the suppressed religious orders in return for the gradual payment of £24,000,000. In order to mollify the Vatican he conceded the exequatur to forty-five bishops inimical to the Italian regime. The Vatican accepted his proposal, but the Italian Chamber proved refractory, and, though dissolved by Ricasoli, returned more hostile than before. Without waiting for a vote, Ricasoli resigned office and thenceforward practically disappeared from political life, speaking in the Chamber only upon rare occasions. He died at Broglio on the 23rd of October 1880. His private life and public career were marked by the utmost integrity, and by a rigid austerity which earned him the name of the " iron baron." In spite of the failure of his ecclesiastical scheme, he remains one of the most noteworthy figures of the Italian Risorgimento. See Tabarrini and Gotti, Lettere e documenti del barone Bettino Ricasoli, 10 vols. (Florence, 1886-1894); Passerini, Genealogia e storia della famiglia Ricasoli (ibid. 1861); Gotti, Vita del barone Bettino Ricasoli (ibid. 1894). (H. W. S.) RICCATI, JACOPO FRANCESCO, COUNT (1676-1754), Italian mathematician, was born at Venice on the 8th of May 1676, and died at Treviso on the isth of April 1754. He studied at the university of Padua, where he graduated in 1696. His favourite pursuits were scientific, and his authority on all questions of practical science was referred to by the senate of Venice. He corresponded with many of the European savants of his day, and contributed largely to the Acta Erudi- torum of Leipzig. He was offered the presidency of the academy of science of St Petersburg; but he declined, preferring the leisure and independence of life in Italy. Riccati's name is best known in connexion with his problem called Riccati's equation, published in the Acta Eruditorum, September 1724. A very complete account of this equation and its various transforma- tions was given by J. W. L. Glaisher in the Phil. Trans. (1881). After Riccati's death his works were collected by his sons and published (1758) in four volumes. His sons, Vincenzo (1707- 1775) and Giordano (1709-1790), inherited his talents. The former was professor of mathematics at Bologna, and published, among other works, a treatise on the infinitesimal calculus. Giordano was distinguished both as" a mathematician and an architect. RICCI, MATTED (1552-1610), Italian missionary to China, was born of a noble family at Macerata in the March of Ancona on the 7th of October 1552. After some education at a Jesuit college in his native town he went to study law at Rome, where in 1571, in opposition to his father's wishes, he joined the Society of Jesus. In 1577 Ricci and other students offered themselves for the East Indian missions. Ricci, without visiting his family to take leave, proceeded to Portugal. His comrades were Rudolfo Acquaviva, Nicolas Spinola, Francesco Pasio and Michele Ruggieri, all afterwards, like Ricci himself, famous in the Jesuit annals. They arrived at Goa in September 1578. After four years spent in India, Ricci was summoned to the task of opening China to evangelization. f Several fruitless attempts had been made by Xavier, and since his death, to introduce the Church into China, — as by Melchior Nunes of the Jesuit Society operating from Sanchian1 in 1555; by Caspar da Cruz, a Dominican, in that or the follow- ing year; by the Augustinians under Martin Herrada, 1575; and in 1579 by the Franciscans led by Pedro d'Alfaro. In 1571 a house of the Jesuits had been set up at Macao (where the Portuguese were established in 1557), but their attention was then occupied with Japan, and it was not till the arrival at Macao of Alessandro Valignani on a visitation in 1 582 that work in China was really taken up. For this object he had obtained the services first of M. Ruggieri and then of Ricci. After various disappointments they found access to Chow-king-fu on the Si- Kiang or West River of Canton, where the viceroy of the two provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si then had his residence, and by his favour were able to establish themselves there for some years. Their proceedings were very cautious and tentative; they excited the curiosity and interest of even the more intelli- gent Chinese by their clocks, their globes and maps, their books of European engravings, and by Ricci's knowledge of mathe- matics, including dialling and the projection of maps. They conciliated some influential friends, and their reputation spread widely in China. This was facilitated by the Chinese system of transfer of public officers from one province of the empire to another, and in the later movements of the missionaries they frequently met with one -and another of their old acquaintances in office, who were more or less well disposed. Eventually troubles at Chow-king compelled them to seek a new home; and in 1589, with the viceroy's sanction, they migrated to Chang- chow in the northern part of Kwang-tung, not far from the well- known Meiling Pass. During his stay here Ricci was convinced that a mistake had been made in adopting a dress resembling that of the bonzes, a class who were the objects either of superstition or of contempt. With the sanction of the visitor it was ordered that in future the missionaries should adopt the costumes of Chinese literates, and, in fact, they before long adopted Chinese manners altogether. Chang-chow, as a station, did not prove a happy selection, but it was not till 1595 that an opportunity occurred of travelling northward. For some time Ricci's residence was at Nan-chang- fu, the capital of Kiang-si; but in 1598 he was able to proceed under favourable conditions to Nan-king, and thence for the first time to Peking, which had all along been the goal of his missionary ambition. But circumstances were not then pro- pitious, and the party had to return to Nan-king. The fame of the presents which they carried had, however, reached the court, and the Jesuits were summoned north again, and on the 24th of January 1601 they entered the capital. Wan-li, the emperor of the Ming dynasty, in those days lived in seclusion, and saw no one but his women and the eunuchs. But the missionaries were summoned to the palace; their presents were immensely ad- mired, and the emperor had the curiosity to send for portraits of the fathers themselves. They obtained a settlement, with an allowance for subsistence, in Peking, and from this time to the end of his life Ricci's estimation among the Chinese was constantly increasing, as was at the same time the amount of his labours. Visitors thronged the mission house incessantly; and inquiries came to him from all parts of the empire respecting the doctrines which he taught, or the numerous Chinese publications which he issued. This in itself was a greatxburden, as Chinese composition, if wrong impressions are to be avoided, demands extreme care and accuracy. As head of the mission, which now had four stations 1 The island (properly Chang-chuen) on which the Portuguese had a temporary settlement before they got Macao, and on which F. Xavier died in 1552. RICCI 289 in China, he also devoted much time to answering the letters of the priests under him, a matter on which he spared no pains or detail. New converts had to be attended to — always welcomed, and never hustled away. Besides these came the composition of his Chinese books, the teaching of his people and the maintenance of the record of the mission history which had been enjoined upon him by the general of the order, and which he kept well up to date. Thus his labours were wearing and incessant. In May 1610 he broke down, and after an illness of eight days died on the nth of that month. His colleague Pantoja applied to the emperor for a burying-place outside the city. This was granted, with the most honourable official testimonies to the reputation and character of Ricci; and a large building in the neighbourhood of the city was at the same time bestowed upon the mission for their residence. Ricci's work was the foundation of the subsequent success attained by the Roman Catholic Church in China. When the missionaries of other Roman Catholic orders made their way into China, twenty years later, they found great fault with the manner in which certain Chinese practices had been dealt with by the Jesuits, a matter in which Ricci's action and policy had given the tone to the mission in China — though in fact that tone was rather inherent in the Jesuit system than the outcome of individual character, for controversies of an exactly parallel nature arose two generations later in southern India, between the Jesuits and Capuchins, regarding what were called " Malabar rites." The controversy thus kindled in China burned for considerably more than a century with great fierceness.1 The chief points were (i) the lawfulness and expediency of certain terms employed by the Jesuits in naming God Almighty, such as Tien, " Heaven," and Shang-ti, " Supreme Ruler " or " Em- peror," instead of Tien-Chu, " Lord of Heaven," and in particular the erection of inscribed tablets in the churches, on which these terms were made use of;2 (2) in respect to the ceremonial offerings made in honour of Confucius, and of personal ancestors, which Ricci had recognized as merely " civil " observances; (3) the erection of tablets in honour of ancestors in private nouses; and (4), more generally, sanction and favour accorded to ancient Chinese sacred books and philosophical doctrine, as not really trespassing .on Christian faith. Probably no European name of past centuries is so well known in China as that of Li-ma-teu, the form in which the name of Ricci (Ri-cci Mat-tea) was adapted to Chinese usage, and by which he appears in Chinese records.3 The works which he composed in Chinese are numerous; a list of them (apparently by no means complete, however) will be found in Kircher's China Illustrata, and also in Abel Remusat's Nouveaux Me- langes Asialiques (ii. 213-15). They are said to display an aptitude for clothing ideas in a Chinese dress very rare and remarkable in a foreigner. One of the first which attracted 1 The list of the literature of this controversy occupies forty-one columns in M. Cordier's excellent Bibliographic de la Chine. * Compare Browning, The Ring and the Book, x., The Pope, 1589-1603. 3 The name comes forward prominently in the mouth of the emperor Kang-hi, in a dialogue which took place between him and Monsgr. Maigrot, the leader of the anti-Jesuit movement (mentioned in Browning's lines referred to above), at the summer residence in Tartary, August 1706 — a dialogue which the Jesuits have reported with not a little malice: — "Emperor, ' Tell me why dp the people call me Van-sui (10,000 years). The Most Reverend (i.e. Maigrot), ' To express their desire for your Majesty's long life.' Emp. ' Good. You see, then, Chinese words are not always to be taken literally. We pay cult to Confucius and to the dead to express our respect for them. How is that inconsistent with your religion? When did it begin to be so? Is it since Ly-Mattheu's time? Hast thou ever read Ly-Mattheu ? ' The Most Reverend, turning to P. Parenin, whispers, ' Who's he ? ' and learning that it was P. Matteo Ricci, . . . answered the emperor: ' I have not read that book.' Emp. ' Ly-Mattheu and his fellows came hither some two centuries ago; and before their time China never heard anything of the Incarna- tion, anything of Tien-chu, who had not become incarnate in this part of the world. Why then, if it was lawful to call God Tien before Ly-Mattheu's time, should it be improper now?] " — Epistola de Eventu Apostolicae Legationis, scripta a PP. Missionariis . . . ad Praepositum Generalem S. J., An. 1706, I Novembris. attention and reputation among Chinese readers was a Treatise upon Friendship, in the form of a dialogue containing short and pithy paragraphs; this is stated in the De Expeditione to have been suggested during Ricci's stay at Nan-chang by a conversa- tion with the prince of Kien-ngan, who asked questions regarding the laws of friendship in the West. In the early part of his residence at Peking, when enjoying constant intercourse with scholars of high position, Ricci brought out the Tien-chu shih-i, or " Veritable Doctrine of the Lord of Heaven," which deals with the divine character and attributes under eight heads. " This work," says A. Wylie, " contains some acute reasoning in support of the propositions laid down, but the doctrine of faith in Christ is very slightly touched upon. The teachings of Buddhism are vigorously attacked, whilst the author tries to draw a parallel between Christianity and the teachings of the Chinese literati." In 1604 Ricci completed the Erh-shih-wu yen, a series of short articles of moral bearing, but exhibiting little of the essential doctrines of Christianity. Chi-jen shih pien is another of his productions, completed in 1608, and consisting of a record of ten conversations held with Chinese of high position. The subjects are: (i) Years past no [longer ours; (2) Man a sojourner on earth; (3) Advantage of frequent contemplation of eternity; (4) Preparation for judgment by such contempla- tion; (5) The good man not desirous of talking; (6) Abstinence, and its distinction from the prohibition to take life; (7) Self- examination and self-reproof inconsistent with inaction; (8) Future reward and punishment; (9) Prying into futurity hastens calamity; (10) Wealth with covetousness more wretched than poverty with contentment. To this work is appended a translation of eight European hymns, with elucidations, written in 1609. Some of the characteristics thus indicated may have suggested the bitterness of attacks afterwards made upon Ricci's theology. An example of these is found in the work called Anecdotes sur I'ttat de religion dans la Chine (Paris, 1733-35), the author of which (Abbe Villers) speaks of the Tien-chu shih-i in this fashion: " The Jesuit was also so ill versed in the particulars of the faith that, as the holy bishop of Conon, Monsgr. Maigrot, says of him, one need merely read his book on the true religion to convince oneself that he had never imbibed the first elements of theology." . . . Ricci's pointed attacks on Buddhism, and the wide circulation of his books, called forth the opposition of the Buddhist clergy. One of the ablest who took their part was Chu-hang, a priest of Hang-chow, who had abandoned the literary status for the Buddhist cloister. He wrote three articles against the doctrine 9f the missionaries. These were brought to Ricci's notice in an ostensible tone of candour by Yu-chun-he, a high mandarin at the capital. This letter, with Ricci's reply, the three Buddhist declamations and Ricci's confutation, were published in a collected form by the Christian Sen-Kwang-K'e. Another work of Ricci's which attracted attention was the Hsi-kuofa, or " Art of Memory as practised in the West." Ricci was himself a great expert in memoria lechnica, and astonished the Chinese by his performances in this line. He also wrote or edited various Chinese works on geography, the celestial and terrestrial spheres, geometry and arithmetic. And the detailed history of the mission was drawn out by him, which after his death was brought home by P. Nicolas Trigault, and published at Augsburg, and later in a complete form at Lyons under the name De Expeditione Christiana apud Sinas Suscepla, ab Soc. Jesu, Ex P. Mat. Ricci ejusdem Societatis Commenlariis, Trigault himself adding many interesting notes on China and the Chinese. Among the scientific works which Ricci took into China was a set of maps, which at first created great interest, but afterwards disgust when the Chinese came to perceive the insignificant place assigned to the " Middle Kingdom," thrust, as it seemed, into a corner, instead of being set in the centre of the world like the gem in a ring. Ricci, seeing their dissatisfaction, set about constructing a map of the hemisphere on a great scale, so adjusted that China, with its subject states, filled the central XXIII. IO RICCIARELLI— RICE, J. 290 area, and, without deviating from truth of projection, occupied a large space in proportion to the other kingdoms gathered round it. All the names were then entered in Chinese calligraphy. This map obtained immense favour, and was immediately engraved at the expense of the viceroy and widely circulated. In the accompanying cut we have endeavoured to portray this map. The projection adopted is a perspective of the hemisphere as viewed from a point at the distance of one diameter from the surface, and situ- ated on the produc- tion of the radius which passes through the intersection of 115° E. long. (Green- wich) with 30° N. lat. Something near this must have been Li- ma-teu's projection. With a vertex much more distant the de- sired effect would be impaired, and with one nearer neither of the poles would be seen, whilst the exaggeration of China would have been too gross for a professed representation of the hemisphere. The chief facts of Ricci's career are derived from Trigault; some contemporary works on the rites controversy have also been consulted; in the notice of Ricci's Chinese writings valuable matter has been derived from Notes on Chinese Literature by A. Wylie (London and Shanghai, 1867). A number of Ricci's letters are extant in the possession of the family, and access to them was afforded to Giuseppe La Farina, author of the work called La China, considerate, nella sua Storia, &c. (Florence, 1843), by the Marchese Amico Ricci of Macerata, living at Bologna. La Farina's quotations contain nothing of interest. There is a curious Chinese account of Ricci published by Dr Breitschneider in the China Review, iv. 391 sq. (H. Y.) RICCIARELLI, DANIELE (1500-1566), Italian artist, gener- ally called, from the place of his birth, DANIELE DA VOLTERRA, studied painting under Sodoma and Peruzzi. Settling in Rome, he received abundant encouragement. His constant friend, Michelangelo, recommended him on all possible occasions, and he was commissioned to beautify with works of art a chapel in the church of the Trinita, to paint in the Farnese Palace, to execute certain decorations in the Palazzo de' Medici at Navona, and to begin the stucco work and the pictures in the Hall of the Kings. Towards the close of his life he turned his attention to statuary. His last work was a bronze horse intended for an equestrian statue of Henry II. of France. He died in 1 566. The principal extant works of Ricciarelli are at Rome. These are a " St John the Baptist " in the picture gallery of the Capitol, a " Saviour bearing the Cross " in the Palazzo Rospigliosi, and a " Descent from the Cross," his masterpiece, in the church of Trinita de Monti. There is also an " Elijah " at Volterra. RICCOBONI, MARIE JEANNE (1714-1792), whose maiden name was Laboras de Mezieres, was born at Paris in 1714. She married in 1735 Antoine Francois Riccoboni, a comedian and dramatist, from whom she soon separated. She herself was an actress, but did not succeed on the stage. Her works are Lettres de mistress Fanny Butler (1757); the remarkable Hisloire du marquis de Cressy (1758); Milady Juliette Catesby ( 1 7 59-1 760) , like her other books, in letter form ; Ernestine ( 1 798) , which La Harpe thought her masterpiece; and three series of Lettres in the names of Adelaide de Dammartin (comtesse de Sancerre) (2 vols., 1766), Elizabeth Sophie de Valliere (2 vols., 1772), and Milord Rivers (2 vols., 1776). She obtained a small pension from the crown, but the Revolution deprived her of it, and she died on the 6th of December 1792 in great indigence. Besides the works named, she wrote a novel (1762) on the subject of Fielding's Amelia, and supplied in 1765 a continuation (but not the conclusion sometimes erroneously ascribed to her) of Marivaux's unfinished Marianne. All Madame Riccoboni's work is clever, and there is real pathos in it. But it is among the most eminent examples of the "sensi- bility " novel, of which no examples but Sterne's have kept their place in England, and that not in virtue of their sensibility. A still nearer parallel may be found in the work of Mackenzie. Madame Riccoboni is an especial offender in the use of mechanical aids to impressiveness — italics, dashes, rows of points and the like. The principal edition of her complete works is that of Paris (6 vols., 1818). The chief novels appear in a volume of Garnier's Biblio- thbque amusante (Paris, 1865). See Julia Kavanagh, French Women of Letters (2 vols., 1862), where an account o? her novels is given; J. Fleury, Marivaux et le marivaudage (Paris, 1881); J. M. Qu6rard, La France litteraire (vol. vii., 1835); and notices by La Harpe, Grimm and Diderot prefixed to her (Euvres (9 vols., Paris, 1826). RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844), Irish philan- thropist, founder of the " Irish Christian Brothers," was born at Westcourt, near Callen, Kilkenny, on the ist of June 1762. He entered the business of his uncle, an export provision merchant in Waterford, in 1779 and succeeded him in 1790. In 1796 he established an organization for visiting and relieving the poor, and in 1802 began to educate the poor children of Waterford, renting a school and supporting two teachers. In 1803 he gave up his business and, joined by a number of friends, began to systematize his plans. Others, like-minded, opened schools at Dungarvan and Carrick-on-Suir. The little society numbered nine in 1808, and meeting at Waterford took religious vows from their bishop, assumed a " habit " and adopted an addi- tional Christian name, by which, as by the collective title " Christian Brothers," they were thenceforth known. Schools were established in Cork (1811), Dublin (1812), and Thurles and Limerick (1817). In 1820 Pope Pius VII. issued a brief sanctioning the order of " Religious Brothers of the Christian Schools (Ireland)," the members of which were to be bound by vows of obedience, chastity, poverty and perseverance, and to give themselves to the free instruction, religious and literary, of male children, especially the poor. The heads of houses were to elect a superior general, and Rice held this office from 1822 to 1838, during which time the institution extended to several English towns (especially in Lancashire), and the course of instruction grew out of the primary stage. Rice died on the '29th of August 1844. The Irish Christian Brothers have some hundred houses in Ireland with 300 attached schools and over 30,000 pupils. There are also industrial schools and orphanages, and the institute has branches in Australia, India, Gibraltar and Newfoundland. RICE, JAMES (1843-1882), English novelist, was born at Northampton on the 26th of September 1843. Educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he graduated in law in 1867, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1871. In the meantime (1868) he had bought Once a Week, which proved a losing venture for him, but which brought him into touch with Walter Besant, a contributor [see Besant's preface to the Library Edition (1887) of Ready-money Mortiboy}. There ensued a close friendship and a literary partnership between the two men which lasted ten years until Rice's death, and resulted in a large number of successful novels. The first of them, published anonymously, Rice being responsible for the central figure and the leading situation, was Ready-money Morti- boy (1782), dramatized by them later and unsuccessfully produced at the Court Theatre in 1874. In rapid succession followed My Little Girl (1873); With Harp and Crown (1874); This Son of Vulcan (1876); The Golden Butterfly (1876), the most popular of their joint productions; The Monks of Thelema (1878); By Celia's Arbour (1878); The Seamy Side (1880); The Chaplain of the Fleet (1881); Sir Richard Whiltington (1881), and a large number of short stories, some of them reprinted in The Case of Mr Lucraft, &c. (1876), 'Twas in Trafalgar's Bay, &c. (1879), and The Ten Years' Tenant, &c. (1881). James Rice died at Redhill on the 26th of April 1882. RICE— RICH, B. 291 RICE (Greek opiifa, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arros, derived from the Arabic), a well-known cereal, botanical name Oryza saliva. According to Roxburgh, the great Indian botanist, the cultivated rice with all its numerous varieties has originated from a wild plant, called in India Newaree or Nivara, which is indigenous on the borders of lakes in the Circars and elsewhere in India, and is also native in tropical Australia. The rice plant is an annual grass with long linear glabrous leaves, each provided with a long sharply pointed ligule. The spikelets are borne on a compound or branched spike, erect at first but afterwards bent downwards. Each spikelet contains a solitary flower with two outer small barren glumes, above which is a large tough, com- pressed, often awned, flowering glume, which partly encloses the somewhat similar pale. Within these are six stamens, a hairy ovary surmounted by two feathery styles which ripens into the fruit (grain), and which is invested by the husk formed by the persistent glume and pale. The cultivated varieties are extremely numerous, some kinds being adapted for marshy land, others for growth on the hill- sides. The cultivators make two principal divisions according as the sorts are early or late. Rice has been cultivated from time immemorial in tropical countries. According to Stanislas Julien a ceremonial ordinance was established in China by the emperor Chin-nung 2800 years B.C., in accordance with which the emperor sows the rice himself while the seeds of four other kinds may be sown by the princes of his family. This fact , joined to other considerations, induced Alphonse de Candolle to consider rice as a native of China. It was very early cultivated in India, in some parts of which country, as in tropical Australia, it is, as we have seen, indigenous. It is not mentioned in the Bible, but its culture is alluded to in the Talmud. There is proof of its culture in the Euphrates valley and in Syria four hundred years before Christ. Crawfurd, on philological grounds, considers that rice was introduced into Persia from southern India. The Arabs carried the plant into Spain. Rice was first cultivated in Italy near Pisa in 1468. It was not introduced into S. Carolina until 1700, and then, it is said, by accident, although at one time the southern United States furnished a large proportion of the rice introduced into commerce. Rice sports into far more varieties than any of the corns familiar to Europeans; for some varieties grow in the water and some on dry land; some come to maturity in three months, while others take four and six months to do so. A very full account of the cultivation of rice in India will be found in Sir George Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Rice constitutes one of the most important articles of food in all tropical and subtropical countries, and is one of the most prolific of all crops. The rice yields best on low lands subject to occasional inundations, and thus enriched by alluvial deposits. An abundant Rice {Oryza saliva). A, spikelet (enlarged) ; B, bearded variety; C, spikelet of B (enlarged). rainfall during the growing season is also a desideratum. Rice is sown broadcast, ana in some districts is transplanted after a fort- night or three weeks. No special rotation is followed : indeed the soil best suited for rice is ill adapted for any other crop. In some cases little manure is employed, but in others abundance of manure is used. No special tillage is required, but weeding and irrigation are requisite. Rice in the husk is known as " paddy." On cutting across a grain of rice and examining it under the microscope, first the flattened and dried cells of the husk are seen, and then one or two layers of cells elongated in a direction parallel to the length of the seed, which contain the gluten or nitrogenous matter. Within these, and forming by far the largest part of the seed, are large polygonal cells filled with very numerous and very minute angular starch grains. Rice is not so valuable as a food as some other cereals, inasmuch as the proportion of nitrogenous matter (gluten) is less. Payen gives only 7 % of gluten in rice as compared with 22 % in the finest wheat, 14 in oats and 12 in maize. The percentage of potash in the ash is as 1 8 to 23 in wheat. The fatty matter is also less in proportion than in other cereals. Rice, therefore, is chiefly a farinaceous food, and requires to be combined with fatty and nitrogenous substances, such as milk or meat gravy, to satisfy the requirements of the system. A large proportion of the rice brought to Europe is used for starch-making, and some is taken by distillers of alcohol. Rice is also -the source of a drinking spirit in India, known as arrack, and the national beverage of Japan — sakd — is prepared from the grain by means of an organic ferment. RICE PAPER. The substance' which has received this name in Europe, through the mistaken notion that it is made from rice, consists of the pith of a small tree, Aralia papyri/era, which grows in the swampy forests of Formosa. The cylindrical core of pith is rolled on a hard flat surface against a knife, by which it is cut into thin sheets of a fine ivory-like texture. Dyed in various colours, rice paper is extensively used for the preparation of artificial flowers, while the white sheets are employed by native artists for water-colour drawings. RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617), English author and soldier, was a distant relative of Lord Chancellor Rich. He fought in the Low Countries, rising to the rank of captain, and afterwards served in Ireland. He shared in the colonization of Ulster, and spent the latter part of his life near Dublin. In the intervals of his campaigns he produced many pamphlets on political questions and romances. In 1606 he was in receipt of a pension of half a crown a day, and in 1616 he was presented with a gift of £100 as being the oldest captain in the service. He died on the loth of November 1617. His best-known work is Riche his Farewell to Militarie Profession containing verie pleasaunt discourses fit for a peaceable tyme (1581). Of the eight stories contained in it, five, he says, " are forged only for delight, neither credible to be believed, nor hurtful to be perused." The three others are translations from the Italian. He claims as his own invention the story of Apolonius and Silla, the second in the collection, from which Shakespeare took the plot of Twelfth Night. It is, however, founded on the tale of Nicuola and Lattantio as told by Matteo Bandello. The eighth, Phylotus and Emilia, a complicated story arising from the likeness and disguise of a brother and sister, is identical in plot with the anonymous play, Philotus, printed in Edinburgh in 1603. Both play and story were edited for the Bannatyne Club in 1835. In the conclusion to his collection Rich tells a story of a devil named Balthaser, who possesses a king of Scots, prudently changed after the accession of James I. to the " Grand Turk." The Strange and Wonderful Adventures of Don Simonides (1581), with its sequel (1584), is written in imitation of Lyly. Among his other romances should be mentioned The Adventures of Brusanus, prince of Hungaria (1592). His authenticated works number twenty-four, and include works on Ireland, the troubles of which were, according to him, due to the religion of the people and to the lack of consistency and firmness on the part of the English government. Such are: Attarme to England (1578); A New Description of Ireland (1610); The Irish Hubbub, or the English Hue and Crie (1617), in which he also inveighs against the use of tobacco. See " Introduction ". to the Shakespeare Society's reprint oT Riche his Farewell (1846); P. Cunningham's "Introduction" to Rich's Honesty of this Age (reprinted for the Percy Society, 1844); and the life by S. Lee in the Dictionary of National Biography. 292 RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821), English traveller and scholar, was born near Dijon on the 28th of March 1787. His youth was spent at Bristol. He early developed a gift for languages, becoming familiar not only with Latin and Greek but also with Hebrew, Syriac, Persian, Turkish and other Eastern tongues. In 1804 Rich went to Constantinople, where, and at Smyrna, he stayed some time, perfecting himself in Turkish. Proceeding to Alexandria as assistant to the British consul-general there, he devoted himself to Arabic and its various dialects, and made himself master of Eastern manners and usages. On leaving Egypt he travelled by land to the Persian Gulf, disguised as a Mameluke, visiting Damascus, and entering the great mosque undetected. At Bombay, which he reached in September 1807, he was the guest of Sir James Mackintosh, whose eldest daughter he married in January 1808, proceeding soon after to Bagdad as resident. There he began his investigations into the geography, history and anti- quities of the district. He explored the remains of Babylon, and projected a geographical and statistical account of the pashalic of Bagdad. The results of his work at Babylon appeared first in the Vienna serial Mines de I' orient, and in 1815 in England, under the title Narrative of a Journey to the Site of Babylon in 1811. In 1813-14 Rich spent some time in Europe, and on his return to Bagdad devoted himself to the study of the geography of Asia Minor, and collected much information in Syrian and Chaldaean convents concerning the Yezidis. During this period he made a second excursion to Babylon, and in 1820 undertook an extensive tour to Kurdistan — from Bagdad north to Sulimania, eastward to Sinna, then west to Nineveh, and thence down the Tigris to Bagdad. The narrative of this journey, which contained the first accurate knowledge (from scientific observation) regarding the topography and geography of the region, was published by his widow under the title, Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan and on the site of Ancient Nineveh, &c. (London, 1836). In 1821 Rich went to Basora, whence he made an excursion to Shiraz, visiting the ruins of Persepolis and the other remains in the neighbourhood. At Shiraz he died of cholera on the 5th of October 1821. His fine collec- tions of manuscripts and coins was purchased by the British Museum. RICH, JOHN (1692-1761-), English actor, the "father of English pantomime," was the son of Christopher Rich (d. 1714), the manager of Drury Lane, with whose quarrels and tyrannies Colley Gibber's Apology is much occupied. John Rich opened the new theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields left unfinished by his father, and here, in 1716, under the stage name of Lun, he first appeared as Harlequin in an unnamed entertainment which developed into an annual pantomine (q.v.) . By this departure he made successful headway in his competition with the stronger company at Drury Lane, including Gibber, Wilks and Booth. Rich was less happy in his management of Covent Garden, which he opened in 1733, until Garrick's arrival (1746), when a most prosperous season ensued, followed by a bad one when Garrick went to Dury Lane. During Rich's management occurred the rival performances of Romeo and Juliet— Barry and Mrs Gibber at Covent Garden, and Garrick and Miss Bellamy at Dury Lane — and the subsequent competition between the two rival actors in King Lear. Rich died on the 26th of Nov- ember 1761. Garrick's lines show that his acting was panto- mime pure and simple, without words:— " When Lun appeared, with matchless art and whim, He gave the power of speech to every limb : Tho' masked and mute, conveyed his quick intent, And told in frolic gesture what he meant." RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562-1607), the Stella of Sir Philip Sidney's Astrophel and Stella, was the daughter of Walter Devereux, ist Earl of Essex. She was a child of fourteen when Sir Philip Sidney accompanied the queen on a visit to Lady Essex in 1576, on her way from Kenilworth, and must have been frequently thrown into the society of Sidney, in consequence of the many ties between the two families. Essex died at Dublin in September 1576. He had sent a message to Philip RICH, C. J.— RICH, R. Sidney from his death-bed expressing his desire that he should marry his daughter, and later his secretary wrote to the young man's father, Sir Henry Sidney, in words which seem to point to the existence of a very definite understanding. Penelope's great-grandmother was a sister of Anne Boleyn, and she and her brother Robert were therefore distantly connected with Elizabeth. Perhaps the marriage of Lady Essex with the earl of Leicester, which destroyed Sidney's prospects as his uncle's heir, had something to do with the breaking off of the proposed match with Penelope. Her relative and guardian, Henry Hastings, earl of Huntingdon, secured Burghley's assent in March 1581 for her marriage with Robert Rich, 3rd Baron Rich. Penelope is said to have protested in vain against the alliance with Rich, who is represented as a rough and overbearing husband. The evidence against him is, however, chiefly derived from sources as interested as Sir Philip Sidney's violent denuncia- tion in the twenty-fourth sonnet of Astrophel and Stella, " Rich fooles there be whose base and filthy hart." Sidney's serious love for Penelope appears to date from her marriage with Rich. The earlier sonnets are in praise of her beauty, or treat of the conventional topic of the struggle between reason and love, while the later ones are marked by unmistakable passion. The eighth song of Astrophel and Stella narrates Stella's refusal to accept Sidney as a lover. Lady Rich was the mother of six children by her husband when she contracted in 1595 an open liaison with Charles Blount, 8th Lord Mountjoy, a brilliant courtier and favourite of Elizabeth, to whom she had long been attached. Rich took no steps against his wife during her brother's lifetime, and she nursed him through an illness in 1600, but they obtained a legal separation in 1601, and Mountjoy acknowledged her five children born after 1595. Mountjoy was created earl of Devonshire on the accession of James I., and Lady Rich was in high favour at court. In 1605, however, they legitimized their connexion by a marriage celebrated by William Laud, the earl's chaplain. This proceeding, carried out in defiance of canon law, was followed by the disgrace of both parties, who were banished from court. Devonshire died on the 3rd of April 1606, and his wife within a year of that date. Her eldest son by Lord Rich, who became earl of Warwick in. 1618, was Robert Rich, 2nd earl of Warwick (1587-1658). The second, Henry Rich, earl of Holland, was beheaded in 1649 for his share in the second Civil War. Her eldest son by Mount joy,Mount joy'Blount, Baron Mountjoy and earl of Newport (c. 1597-1665) also figured in the Civil War. See the editions of Astrophel and Stella by Dr A. B. Grosart, E. Arber and A. W. Pollard; also the various lives of Sir Philip Sidney, and Mrs Aubrey Richardson's Famous Ladies of the English Court (London, 1899). John Ford's Broken Heart has been alleged to have been founded on the history of Lady Rich. Richard Barn- field dedicated his Affectionate Shepherd (1594) to her; Bartholomew Yonge his Diana of George of Montemayor (1598); and sonnets are addressed to her by John Davies of Hereford and by Henry Constable. RICH, RICHARD (fl. 1610), English soldier and adventurer, the author of Newes from Virginia, sailed from England on the 2nd of June 1609 for Virginia, with Captain Christopher Newport and the three commissioners entrusted with the foundation of the new colony. In his verse pamphlet he relates the adventures undergone by the expedition, and describes the resources of the new country, with the advantages offered to colonists. The title runs: Newes from Virginia. • The lost Flocke Triumphant. With the happy Arrivall of that famous and worthy Knight Sr. Thomas Gates: and the well- reputed and valiant Captaine Mr Christopher Newport, and | others, into England. With the maner of their distresse in the Hand of Devils (otherwise called Bermoothawes) , where they remayned 42 weeks, and builded two Pynaces, in which they returned into Virginia. By R. Rich, Gent., one of the Voyage (1610)." The only known copy of this tract is in the Huth Library. A reprint edited by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips appeared in 1865 (another ed., 1874). The adventures related by Rich are supposed to have been in Shakespeare's mind when he wrote The Tempest. Another tract by Rich mentioned in the Stationers' Register, Good Speed to Virginia, is unknown. RICH, BARON— RICHARD OF CANTERBURY 293 RICH, RICHARD, IST BARON RICH (i490?-is67), lord chan- cellor, was born of a Hampshire family about 1490, in the parish of St Laurence Jewry, London. His great-grandfather, Richard Rich, was a wealthy mercer and sheriff of the city of London in 1441. Probably Lord Rich's father was also a mercer, but he sent his son to the Middle Temple, where Sir Thomas More was among his acquaintances. More told him at the time of his trial that he was reputed light of his tongue, a great dicer and gamester, and not of any commendable fame; but he was a commissioner of the peace in Hertfordshire in 1528, and in the next autumn became reader at the Middle Temple. Other preferments followed, and in 1533 he was knighted and became solicitor-general, in which capacity he was to act under Thomas Cromwell as a " lesser hammer " for the demolition of the monasteries, and to secure the operation of Henry VIII. 's act of supremacy. He had an odious share in the trials of Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher. In both cases he made use in his evidence against the prisoner of admissions made in a professedly friendly conversation, and in More's case the words he had used were misreported and received a miscon- struction that could hardly be other than wilful. More ex- pressed his opinion of the witness in open court with a candour that might well have dismayed Rich. Rich became the first chancellor (April 19, 1536) of the Court of Augmentations established for the disposal of the monastic revenues. His own share of the spoil, acquired either by grant or purchase, included Leez (Leighs) Priory and about a hundred manors in Essex. He was Speaker of the House of Commons in the same year, and advocated the king's policy. In spite of the share he had taken in the suppression of the monasteries, and of the part he was to play under Edward VI., his religious convictions remained Roman Catholic. His testimony helped the con- viction of Thomas Cromwell, and he was a willing agent in the Catholic reaction which followed. Anne Askew stated that the Chancellor Wriothesley and Rich screwed the rack at her torture with their own hands. Rich was one of the executors of the will of Henry VIII., on which so much suspicion has been thrown, and on the 26th of February 1548 he became Baron Rich of Leez. In the next month he succeeded Wriothesley as chancellor, an office in which he found full scope for the business and legal ability he undoubtedly possessed. He supported Protector Somerset in his subversive reforms in church matters, in the prosecution of his brother Lord Seymour of Sudeley, and in the rest of his policy until the crisis of his fortunes in October 1549, when he deserted to Warwick (afterwards Northumberland), and pre- sided over -the trial of his former chief. His daughter had married Warwick's son, and both men were at heart no friends to the reformed religion. Nevertheless, Rich took part in the prosecution of bishops Gardiner and Bonner, and in the harsh treatment accorded to the Princess Mary. Possibly this harshness was exaggerated, for Mary on her accession showed no ill-will to Rich. He retired from the chancellorship on the ground of ill-health in the close of 1551, at the time of the final breach between Northumberland and Somerset. He was now sixty years old, and there is no reason to suspect the sincerity of his plea. There is an improbable story, however, to the effect that Rich warned Somerset of his danger in the Tower, and that the letter was delivered by mistake to the duke of Norfolk, who handed it to Northumberland. Lord Rich took an active part in the restoration of the old religion in Essex under the new reign, and was one of the most active of persecutors. His reappearances in the privy council were rare during Mary's reign; but under Elizabeth he served on a commission to inquire into the grants of land made under Mary, and in 1566 was sent for to advise on the question of the queen's marriage. He died at Rochford, Essex, on the i2th of June 1567, and was buried in Felsted church. In Mary's reign he had founded a chaplaincy with provision for the singing of masses and dirges, and the ringing of bells in Felsted church. To this was added a Lenten allowance of herrings to the in- habitants of three parishes. These donations were transferred in 1564 to the foundation of a grammar-school at Felsted for instruction, primarily for children born on the founder's manors, in Latin, Greek and divinity. The patronage of the school remained in the family of the founder until 1851. By his wife Elizabeth Jenks, or Gynkes, he had fifteen children. The eldest son Robert (iS37?-is8i), second Baron Rich, supported the Reformation, and his grandson Robert, third lord, was created earl of Warwick in 1618. The chief authorities are the official records of the period covered by his official life, calendared in the Rolls Series. See also A. F. Pollard, England under Protector Somerset (1900) ; P. Morant, History of Essex (2 vols., 1768) ; R. W. Dixon, History of the Church of England (6 vols., 1878-1902); and lives in J. Sargeaunt's History of Felsted School (1889), Lord Campbell's Lives of the Lord CKdnceUors (1845-69), and C. H. &T. Cooper's Athenae Cantabrigienses (2 vols., 1858-61). RICHARD, ST, of Wyche (c. 1197-1253), English saint and bishop, was named after his birthplace, Droitwich in Worcester- shire. Educated at Oxford, he soon began to teach in the university, of which he became chancellor, probably after he had studied in Paris and in Bologna. About 1235 he became chancellor of the diocese of Canterbury under Archbishop Edmund Rich, and he was with the archbishop during his exile in France. Having returned to England some time after Edmund's death in 1240 he became vicar of Deal and chancellor of Canterbury for the second time. In 1244 he was elected bishop of Chichester, being consecrated at Lyons by Pope Innocent IV. in March 1245, although Henry III. refused to give him the temporalities of the see, the king favouring the candidature of Robert Passelewe (d. 1252). In 1246, however, Richard obtained the temporalities. The new bishop showed much eagerness to reform the manners and morals of his clergy, and also to introduce greater order and reverence into the services of the church. His term of office was also marked by the favour which he showed to the Dominicans, a house of this order at Orleans having sheltered him during his stay in France, and by his earnestness in preaching a crusade. He died at Dover in April 1253. It was generally believed that miracles were wrought at his tomb in Chichester cathedral, which was long a popular place of pilgrimage, and in 1262 he was canonized at Viterbo by Pope Urban IV. Richard furnished the chronicler, Matthew Paris, with material for the life of Edmund Rich, and instituted the offerings for the cathedral at Chichester which were known later as " St Richard's pence." His life by his confessor, Ralph Bocking, is published in the Ada Sanctorum of the Bollandists, where a later and shorter life by John Capgrave is also to be found. RICHARD (d. 1 184), archbishop of Canterbury, was a Norman, who became a monk at Canterbury, where he acted as chaplain to Archbishop Theobald and was a colleague of Thomas Becket. In 1173, more than two years after the murder of Becket, it was decided to fill the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury; there were two candidates, Richard, at that time prior of St Martin's, Dover, and Odo, prior of Canterbury, and in June Richard was chosen, although Odo was the nominee of the monks. Objections were raised against this election both in England and in Rome, but in April 1174 the new archbishop was consecrated at Anagui by Pope Alexander III., and he returned to England towards the close of the year. The ten years during which Richard was archbishop were disturbed by disputes with Roger, archbishop of York, over the respective rights of the two sees, and in 1175, at a council held in London, there was a free fight between their partisans. Henry II. arranged a truce for five years between the rival prelates, but Richard was soon involved in another quarrel, this being with Roger, abbot of St Augustine's, Canterbury, whose action also trenched upon the privileges of the archbishop. Richard was more acceptable to Henry II. than Becket had been; he attended the royal councils, and more than once he was with the king in Normandy. Henry probably preferred him because he insisted less on the rights of the clergy than his great predecessor had done; but the monastic writers and the followers of Becket regarded this attitude as a sign of weakness. Richard died at Rochester on the i6th of February 1184 and was 294 RICHARD OF CORNWALL— RICHARD I. buried in his cathedral. See the article by W. Hunt in the Diet. Nat. Biog. vol. xlviii. (1896); and W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. RICHARD, earl of Cornwall and king of the Romans (1200- 1272), was the second son of the English king John by Isabella of Angouleme. Born in 1209, Richard was the junior of his brother, Henry III., by fifteen months; he was educated in England and received the earldom of Cornwall in 1225. From this date to his death he was a prominent figure on the political stage. In the years 1225-27 he acted as governor of Gascony; between 1227 and 1238, owing to quarrels with his brother and dislike of the foreign favourites, he attached himself to the baronial opposition and bade fair to become a popular hero. But in 1240 he took the command of a crusade in order to escape from the troubled atmosphere of English politics. He was formally reconciled with Henry before his departure; and their amity was cemented on his return by his marriage with Sancha of Provence, the sister of Henry's queen (1243). Henceforward Richard, though by no means blind to the faults of the govern- ment, was among the most constant supporters of Henry III. While affecting to remain neutral in the quarrels of the barons with the Poitevins and Savoyards he constantly assisted the king with loans, and thus enabled him to withstand the pressure of the Great Council for reform. In 1257 a bare majority of the German electors nominated Richard as king of the Romans, and he accepted their offer at Henry's desire. He was elected partly on account of his wealth, but also because his family connexion with the Hohenstauf en and his friendly relations with the papacy made it probable that he would unite. all German parties. In the years 1257-68 Richard paid four visits to Germany. He obtained recognition in the Rhineland, which was closely connected with England by trade relations. Otherwise, how- ever, he was unsuccessful in securing German support. In the English troubles of the same period he endeavoured to act as a mediator. On the outbreak of civil war in 1264 he took his brother's side, and his capture in a windmill outside Lewes, after the defeat of the royalist army, is commemorated in the earliest of English vernacular satires; he remained a prisoner till the fall of Montfort. But after Evesham he exerted himself, not without success, to obtain reasonable terms for those who had suffered from the vengeance of the royalist party. He died on the 2nd of April 1272. His end is said to have been hastened by grief for his eldest son, Henry of Almain, who had been murdered in the previous year by the sons of Simon de Montfort at Viterbo. The earldom of Cornwall passed to Richard's eldest surviving son Edmund, who was guardian of England from 1286 to 1289. On Edmund's death, in October 1300, it became extinct. Authorities. — The original sources and general works of reference are the same as for the reign of Henry III. G. C. Gebauer's Leben und Thaten Herrn Richards von Cornwall (Leipzig, 1744), H. KocrTs Richard von Cornwall, 1209-1257 (Strassburg, 1888), and A. Busson's Doppelwahl des Jahres, 1257 (Munster, 1866) are useful monographs. (H. W. C. D.) RICHARD I. (1157-1199), king of England, nicknamed " Cceur de Lion " and " Yea and Nay," was the third son of Henry II. by Eleanor of Aquitaine. Born in September 1157, he received at the age of eleven the duchy of Aquitaine, and was formally installed in 1172. In his new position he was allowed, probably from regard to Aquitanian susceptibilities, to govern with an independence which was studiously denied to his brothers in their snares of the Angevin inheritance. Yet in 1173 Richard joined with the young Henry and Geoffrey of Brittany in their rebellion; Aquitaine was twice invaded by the old king before the unruly youth would make submission. •Richard was soon pardoned and reinstated in his duchy, where he distinguished himself by crushing a formidable revolt (1175) and exacting homage from the count of Toulouse. In a short . time he was so powerful that his elder brother Henry became alarmed and demanded, as heir-apparent, that Richard should do him homage for Aquitaine. Richard having scornfully rejected the demand, a fratricidal war ensued; the young Henry invaded Aquitaine and attracted to his standard many of Richard's vassals, who were exasperated by the iron rule of the duke. Henry II. marched to Richard's aid; but the war terminated abruptly with the death of the eldei prince (1183). Richard, being now the heir to England and Normandy, was invited to renounce Aquitaine in favour of Prince John. The proposal led to a new civil war;- and, although a temporary compromise was arranged, Richard soon sought the help of Philip Augustus, to whom he did homage for all the continental possessions in the actual presence of his father (Conference of Bonmoulins, i8th of November 1188) In the struggle which ensued the old king was overpowered, chased ignominiously from Le Mans to Angers, and forced to buy peace by conceding all that was demanded of him; in particular the immediate recognition of Richard as his successor./'"' But the death of Henry II. (i 189) at, once dissolved the friend- ship between Richard and Philip. Not only did Richard continue the continental policy of his father, but he also re- fused to fulfil his contract with Philip's sister, Alais, to whom he had been betrothed at the age of three. An open breach was only delayed by the desire of both kings to fulfil the crusading vows which they had recently taken. Richard, in particular, sacrificed all other interests to this scheme, and raised the necessary funds by the most reckless methods. He put up for auction the highest offices and honours; even remitting to William the Lion of Scotland, for a sum of 15,000 marks, the humiliating obligations which Henry II. had im- posed at the treaty of Falaise. It is true that Richard indemni- fied himself on his return by resuming some of his most important grants and refusing to return the purchase money; but it is improbable that he had originally planned this re- pudiation of his ill-considered bargains. By such expedients he raised and equipped a force which may be estimated at 4000 men-at-arms and as many foot-soldiers, with a fleet of 100 transports (1191). Richard did not return to his dominions until 1194. But his stay in Palestine was limited to sixteen months. On the outward journey he wintered in Sicily, where he employed himself in quarrelling with Philip and in exacting satisfaction from the usurper Tancred for the dower of his widowed sister, Queen Joanna, and for his own share in the inheritance of William the Good. Leaving Messina in March 1191, he inter- rupted his voyage to conquer Cyprus, and only joined the Christian besiegers of Acre in June. The reduction of that stronghold was largely due to his energy and skill. But his arrogance gave much offence. After the fall of Acre he in- flicted a gross insult upon Leopold of Austria; and his relations with Philip were so strained that the latter seized the first pretext for returning to France, and entered into negotiations with Prince John (see JOHN, king of England) for the partition of Richard's realm. Richard also threw himself into the disputes respecting the crown of Jerusalem, and supported Guy of Lusignan against Conrad of Montferrat with so much heat that he incurred grave, though unfounded, suspicions of complicity when Conrad was assassinated by emissaries of the Old MaA of the Mountain. None the less Richard, whom even the .French crusaders accepted as their leader, upheld the failing cause of the Prankish Christians with valour and tenacity. He won a brilliant victory over the forces of Saladin at Arsuf (1191), and twice led the Christian host within a few miles of Jerusalem. But the dissensions of the native Franks and the crusaders made it hopeless to continue the -struggle ; and Richard was alarmed by the news which reached him of j John's intrigues in England and Normandy. Hastily patching up a truce with Saladin, under which the Christians kept the coast-towns and -received free access to the Holy Sepulchre, Richard started on his return (9th October 1192). His voyage was delayed by storms, and he appears to have been perplexed as to the safest route. The natural route over- land through Marseilles and Toulouse was held by his enemies; that through the empire from the head of the Adriatic was little safer, since Leopold of Austria was on the watch for him. Having adopted the second of these alternatives, he was cap- ; RICHARD II. 295 tured at Vienna in a mean disguise (December 2oth, 1192) and strictly confined in the duke's castle of Diirenstein on the Danube. His mishap was soon known to England, but the regents were for some weeks uncertain of his whereabouts. This is the foundation for the tale of his discovery by the faithful minstrel Blondel, which first occurs in a French romantic chronicle of the next century. Early in 1193 Leopold surrendered his prize, under compulsion, to the emperor Henry VI., who was aggrieved both by the support which the Plantagenets had given to the family of Henry the Lion and also by Richard's recognition of Tancred in Sicily. Al- though the detention of a crusader was contrary to public law, Richard was compelled to purchase his release by the payment of a heavy ransom and by doing homage to the emperor for England. The ransom demanded was 150,000 marks; though it was never discharged in full, the resources of England were taxed to the utmost for the first instalments; and to this occasion we may trace the beginning of secular taxation levied on movable property. -^ Richard reappeared in England in March 1194; 4>ut his stay lasted only a few weeks, and the remainder of his reign was entirely devoted to his continental interests. He left England to be governed by Hubert Walter (q.v.*), and his personal authority was seldom asserted except by demands for new subsidies. The rule of the Plantagenets was still popular in Normandy and Aquitaine; but these provinces were unable or unwilling to pay for their own defence. Though Richard proved himself consistently the superior of Philip in the field, the difficulty of raising and paying forces to resist the French increased year by year. Richard could only stand on the defensive; the keynote of his later policy is given by the building of the famous Chateau Gaillard at Les Andelys (1196) to protect the lower courses of the Seine against in- vasion from the side of France. He did not live to see the futility of such bulwarks. In 1199 a claim to treasure-trove embroiled him with the viscount of Limoges. He harried the Limousin and laid siege to the castle of Chalus; while directing an assault he was wounded in the shoulder by a crossbow bolt, and, the wound mortifying from unskilful treatment or his own want of care, he died on the 6th of April 1199. He was buried by his own desire at his father's feet in the church of Fontevrault. Here his effigy may still be seen.1 Though contemporary, it does not altogether agree with the portraits on his Great Seal, which give the impression of greater strength and even of cruelty. The Fontevrault bust is no doubt idealized. The most accomplished and versatile representative of his gifted family, Richard was, in his lifetime and long after- wards, a favourite hero with troubadours and romancers. This was natural, as he belonged to their brotherhood and himself wrote lyrics of no mean quality. But his history shows that he by no means embodied the current ideal of chivalrous ex- cellence. His memory is stained by one act of needless cruelty, the massacre of over two thousand Saracen prisoners at Acre; and his fury, when thwarted or humbled, was ungovernable. A brave soldier, an experienced and astute general, he was never happier than when engaged in war. As a ruler he was equally profuse and rapacious. Not one useful measure can be placed to his credit; and it was by a fortunate accident that he found, in Hubert Walter, an administrator who had the skill to mitigate the consequences of a reckless fiscal policy. Richard's wife was Berengaria, daughter of Sancho VI., king of Navarre, whom he married in Cyprus in May 1191. She was with the king at Acre later in the same year, and during his imprisonment passed her time in Sicily, in Rome and in France. Husband and wife met again in 1195, and the queen long survived the king, residing chiefly at Le Mans. She died 1 The remains of Richard, together with those of Henry II. and his queen Eleanor, were removed in the 1 7th century from their tombs to another part of the church. They were rediscovered in 1910 during the restoration of the abbey undertaken by the French government. soon after 1230. Berengaria founded a Cistercian monastery at Espau. AUTHORITIES. — The more important of the general chronicles are: the Gesta Henrici Secundi, ascribed to Benedict of Peter- borough (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1867); the Chronica of Roger of Hoveden (Rolls Series, 4 vols., 1868-71); the Chronica of Gervasc of Canterbury (Rolls Series, 1870); the Imagines Historiarum of Ralph of Diceto (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1876); the Historic, Rerum Angli- carum of William of Newburgh (in Chronicles of the Reigns- of Stephen, &c., Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1884-85); the De rebus gestis Ricardi Primi of Richard of Devizes (in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, &c.. vol. iii., Rolls Series, 1886); the Chronicon Anglicanum of Ralph of Coggeshall (Rolls Series, 1875); the Flares Historiarum of Roger of Wendovcr (Rolls Scries, 3 yols., 1886-89) : the Gesta Philippi Augusti of Rigord (Soctitedel'histoirede France, Paris, 1 882) and of Guillaume le Breton (op. cit.). A detailed narrative of Richard's crusade is given in L'Estoire de la guerre sainte, a rhyming French chronicle by the minstrel Ambroise (ed. Gaston Paris, Paris, 1897), and in the Latin prose version known as the Itinerarium O. Peregrinorum et gesta Regis Ricardi; this last, with some valuable historical letters, is printed in W. Stubbs's Chronicles and Memorials of the Reign of Richard I. (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1864-65). Of modern works the following are useful: W. Stubbs's preface to vols. iii. and iv. of Hoveden; the same author's Constitutional History of England, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); Miss K. Nprgate's England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (London, 1887); Sir J. H. Ramsay's Angevin Empire (London, 1903) ; R. Rohricht's Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem (1898); W. B. Stevenson's Crusaders in the East (Cambridge, 1907); A. Cartellieri's Philipp II. August (Leipzig, 1899, &c.). (H. W. C. D.) RICHARD II. (1367-140x3), king of England, younger 'son of Edward the Black Prince by Joan " the Fair Maid of Kent," was born at Bordeaux on the 6th of January 1367. He was brought to England in 1371, and after his father's death was, on the petition of the Commons in parliament, created prince of Wales on the 2oth of November 1376. When Edward III. died, on the 2ist of June 1377, Richard became king. Popular opinion had credited John of Gaunt with designs on the throne. This was not justified; nevertheless, the rivalry of the boy- king's uncles added another to the troubles due to the war, the Black Death and the prospect of a long minority. At first the government was conducted by a council appointed by parliament. The council was honest, but the difficulties of the situation were too great. The ill-considered poll-tax of 1381 was the occasion, though not the real cause, of the Peasants' Revolt in that year. The ministers were quite unequal to the crisis, and when Wat Tyler and his followers got possession of London, it was Richard who showed a pre- cocious tact and confidence in handling it. It was the boy- king who met and temporized with the rebels on the i3th of June at Mile End, and again next day at Smithfield; and he who, with courageous presence of mind, saved the situation when Tyler was killed, by calling on them to take him for their leader. From this time Richard began to assert himself. His chief ministers, appointed by parliament in 1382, were the earl of Arundel and Michael de la Pole. Arundel Richard disliked, and dismissed next year, when he began his personal government. Pole, whom he retained as chancellor and made earl of Suffolk, was a well-chosen adviser. But others, and especially his youthful favourite Robert de Vere, promoted by unheard-of honour to be marquess of Dublin and duke of Ireland, were less worthy. Further, Richard made his own position difficult by lavish extravagance and unseemly out- bursts of temper. He chafed under the restraint of his relatives, and therefore encouraged John of Gaunt in his Spanish enter- prise. This gave the less scrupulous Thomas of Gloucester his opportunity. Gloucester, supported by Arundel, attacked his nephew's ministers in the parliament of 1386, and by open hints at deposition forced Richard to submit to a council of control. When Richard, with the aid of his friends and by the advice of subservient judges, planned a reversal of the parliament, Gloucester, at the head of the so-called lords ap- pellant, anticipated him. Richard had been premature and ill- advised. Gloucester had the advantage of posing as the head of the constitutional party. The king's friends were driven into exile or executed, and he himself forced to submit to the loss of all real power (May 1388). Richard changed his 296 RICHARD III. methods, and when the lords appellant had lost credit, asserted himself constitutionally by dismissing Gloucester's supporters from office, and appointing in their place well-approved men like William of Wykeham. In the next parliament of 1390 the king showed himself ready to meet and conciliate his subjects. The simultaneous return of John of Gaunt from Spain put a check on Gloucester's ambition. For seven years Richard ruled constitutionally and on the whole well. The opposition was quiescent except for two outbreaks by Arundel: the first was a violent attack on John of Gaunt, which rather strengthened Richard's position; the second was a wanton insult to the king at the funeral of his queen. In January 1383 Richard had married Anne of Bohemia (1366-1394), daughter of the emperor Charles IV. The marriage, though childless, was happy; had Anne lived or borne a son the course of events might have been different. Her death on the 7th of June 1394 was a great shock to Richard, and incidentally had important consequences. Richard sought distraction by an expedition to Ireland, the first visit of an English king for more than two centuries. In his policy there he showed a wise statesmanship. At the same time he was negotiating for a permanent peace with France, which was finally arranged in October 1396 to include his own marriage with Isabella, daughter of Charles VI., a child of seven. Gloucester criticized the peace openly, and there was some show of opposition in the parliament of February 1397. But there was nothing to foreshadow the sudden stroke by which in July Richard arrested Gloucester and his chief supporters, the earls of Arundel and Warwick. The others of the five lords appellant, Henry of Bolingbroke afterwards King Henry IV., and the earl of Nottingham, now supported the king. Richard's action was apparently in deliberate revenge for the events of 1387-88. Gloucester, after a forced con- fession, died in prison at Calais, smothered by his nephew's orders. Arundel in a packed parliament was condemned and executed; his brother Thomas archbishop of Canterbury was exiled. The king's friends, including Nottingham and Boling- broke, made dukes of Norfolk and Hereford, were all promoted in title and estate. Richard himself was rewarded for ten years' patience by the possession of absolute power. He might perhaps have established it if he could have exercised it with moderation. But he declared that the laws of England were in his mouth, and supported his court in wanton luxury by arbitrary methods of taxation. By the exile of Norfolk and Hereford in September 1398 he seemed to have removed the last persons he need fear. He was so confident that in May 1399 he paid a second visit to Ireland, taking with him all his most trusted adherents. Thus when Henry landed at Ravenspur in July he found only half-hearted opposition, and when Richard himself returned it was too late. Ultimately Richard surrendered to Henry at Flint on the igth of August, promising to abdicate if his life was spared. He was taken to London riding behind his rival with indignity. On the 30th of September he signed in the Tower a deed of abdication, wherein he owned himself insufficient and useless, reading it first aloud with a cheerful mien and ending with a request that his cousin would be good lord to him. The parliament ordered that Richard should be kept close prisoner, and he was sent secretly to Pontefract. There in February 1400 he died: no doubt of the rigour of his winter imprisonment, rather than by actual murder as alleged in the story adopted by Shakespeare. The mystery of Richard's death led to rumours that he had escaped, and an impostor pretending to be Richard lived during many years under the protection of the Scottish government. But no doubt it was the real Richard who was buried without state in 1400 at King's Langley, and honourably reinterred by Henry V. at Westminster in 1413. Richard II. is a character of strange contradictions. It is difficult to reconcile the precocious boy of 1381 with the way- ward and passionate youth of the next few years. Even if it be supposed that he dissembled his real opinions during the period of his constitutional rule, it is impossible to believe that the apparent indifference which he showed in his /all was the mere acting of a part. His violent outbursts of passion perhaps give the best clue to a mercurial and impulsive nature, easily elated and depressed. He had real ability, and in his Irish policy, and in the preference which he gave to it over continental adventure, showed a statesmanship in advance of his time. But this, in spite of his lofty theory of kingship, makes it all the more difficult to explain his extravagant bearing in his prosperity. His fall was due to the triumph of national right over absolute government, but it was his personal conduct which made it inevitable. In appearance Richard was tall and handsome, if effeminate. He had some literary tastes, which were shown in fitful patronage of Chaucer, Gower and Froissart. His fancy for splendid dress may have been due to an artistic sense, which found better expression in his great buildings of Westminster Hall and Abbey. Richard's second queen, Isabella (1389-1409), was born in Paris on the 9th of November 1389, and was married to the English king at Calais in October, or November, 1396, but on account of the bride's youth the marriage was never consummated. When Richard lost his crown in 1399 Isabella was captured by Henry IV.'s partisans and sent to Sonning, near Reading, while her father, Charles VI., asked in vain for the restoration of his daughter and of her dowry. In 1401 she was allowed to return to France; in 1406 she became the wife of the poet, Charles, duke of Orleans, and she died on the i3th of September 1409. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The best contemporary authorities are the Chronicon Angliae down to 1388, Walsinghara's Historia Anglicana, the Annales Ricardi II., Knighton's Chronicle (all these in the Rolls Series), the Vita Ricardi II. by a Monk of Evesham (ed. T. Hearne), and the Chronique de la traison et mart (English Hist. Soc.). Froissart wrote from some personal knowledge. A metrical account of Richard's fall, probably written by a French knight called Creton, is printed in Archaeologia, xx. The chief collections of documents are the Rolls of Parliament and the Calendar of Patent Rolls. H. A. Wallon's Richard II. (Paris, 1864) is the fullest life, though now somewhat out of date. For other modern accounts see W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, and C. W. C. Oman, The Political History of England, vol. iv., and The Great Revolt of 1381. (C. L. K.) RICHARD III. (1452-1485), king of England, youngest son of Richard, duke of York, by Cicely Neville, was born at Fothering- hay on the 2nd of October 1452. After the second battle of St Albans in February 1461, his mother sent him with his brother George for safety to Utrecht. They returned in April, and at the coronation of Edward IV. Richard was created duke of Gloucester. As a mere child he had no importance till 1469- 1470, when he supported his brother against Warwick, shared his exile and took part in his triumphant return. He distinguished himself at Barnet and Tewkesbury; according to the Lancastrian story, after the latter battle he murdered the young Edward of Wales in cold blood; this is discredited by the authority of Warkworth (Chronicle, p. 18); but Richard may have had a share in Edward's death during the fighting. He cannot be so fully cleared of complicity in the murder of Henry VI., which probably took place at the Tower on the night of the 21-22 of May, when Richard was certainly present there. Richard shared to the full in his brother's prosperity. He had large grants of lands and office, and by marrying Anne (1456-1485), the younger daughter of Warwick, secured a share in the Neville inheritance. This was distasteful to George, duke of Clarence, who was already married to the elder sister, Isabel. The rivalry of the two brothers caused a quarrel which was never appeased. Richard does not, however, seem to have been directly re- sponsible for the death of Clarence in 1478; Sir Thomas More, who is a hostile witness, says that he resisted it openly " how- beit somewhat (as men deemed) more faintly than he that were heartily minded tQ his wealth." Richard's share of the Neville inheritance was chiefly in the north, and he resided usually at Middleham in Yorkshire. In May 1480 he was made the king's lieutenant-general in the north, and in 1482 commanded a successful invasion of Scotland. His administration was good, and brought him well-deserved popularity. On Edward's death he was kept informed of events in London by William, Lord Hastings, who shared his dislike of the Woodville influence. RICHARD, F. M. B.— RICHARD OF CIRENCESTER 297 On the 29th of April 1483, supported by the duke of Bucking- ham, he intercepted his nephew at Stony Stratford and arrested Lord Rivers and Richard Grey, the little king's half-brother. It was in Richard's charge that Edward was brought to London On the 4th of May. Richard was recognized as protector, the Woodville faction was overthrown, and the queen with her younger children took sanctuary at Westminster. For the time the government was carried on in Edward's name, and the 22nd of June was appointed for his coronation. Richard was nevertheless gathering forces and concerting with his friends. In the council there was a party, of whom Hastings and Bishop Morton were the chief, which was loyal to the boy-king. On the i3th of June came the famous scene when Richard appeared suddenly in the council baring his withered arm and accusing Jane Shore and the queen of sorcery; Hastings, Morton and Stanley were arrested and the first-named at once beheaded. A few days later, probably on the 25th of June, Rivers and Grey were executed at Pontefract. On the 22nd of June Dr Shaw was put up to preach at Paul's Cross against the legitimacy of the children of Edward IV. On the 2Sth a sort of parliament was convened at which Edward's marriage was declared invalid on the ground of his precontract with Eleanor Talbot, and Richard rightful king. Richard, who was not present, accepted the crown with feigned reluctance, and from the following day began his formal reign. • On the 6th of July Richard was crowned at Westminster, and immediately afterwards made a royal progress through the Midlands, on which he was well received. But in spite of its apparent success the usurpation was not popular. Richard's position could not be secure whilst his nephews lived. There seems to be no reasonable doubt that early in August Edward V. and his brother Richard (whom Elizabeth Woodville had been forced to surrender) were murdered by their uncle's orders in the Tower. Attempts have been made to clear Richard's memory. But the report of the princes' death was believed in England at the time, " for which cause king Richard lost the hearts of the people " (Chronicles of London, 191), and it was referred to as a definite fact before the French states-general in January 1484. The general, if vague, dissatisfaction found its expression in Buckingham's rebellion. Richard, however, was fortunate, and the movement collapsed. He met his only parliament in January 1484 with some show of triumph, and deserves credit for the wise intent of its legislation. He could not, however, stay the undercurrent of disaffection, and his ministers, Lovell and Catesby, were unpopular. His position was weakened by the death of his only legitimate son in April 1484. His queen died also a year later (March 16, 1485), and public opinion was scandalized by the rumour that Richard intended to marry his own niece, Elizabeth of York. Thus the feeling in favour of his rival Henry Tudor strengthened. Henry landed at Milford Haven on the 7th of August 1485, and it was with dark forebodings that Richard met him at Bosworth on the 22nd. The defection of the Stanleys decided the day. Richard was killed fighting, courageous at all events. After the battle his body was carried to Leicester, trussed across a horse's back, and buried without honour in the church of the Greyfriars. Richard was not the villain that his enemies depicted. He had good qualities, both as a man and a ruler, and showed a sound judgment of political needs. Still it is impossible to acquit him of the crime, the popular belief in which was the chief cause of his ruin. He was not a monster; but a typical man in an age of strange contradictions of character, of culture combined with cruelty, and of an emotional temper that was capable of high ends, though unscrupulous of means. Tradition represents Richard as deformed. It seems clear that he had some physical defect, though not so great as has been alleged. John Stow told Buck that old men who remembered Richard described him as in bodily form comely enough. Extant portraits show an intellectual face characteristic of the early Renaissance, but do not indicate any deformity. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chief original authorities are Sir Thomas More's History of Richard III., based on information supplied by ArchbishopMorton, and therefore to be accepted with caution; the more trustworthy Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle in Fulman's Scriptores, the History of Polydore Vergil, written in a Tudor spirit; the Chronicle of London (ed. C. L. Kingsford, 1905), and its biased expansion in Fabyan's Chronicle. See also Letters and Papers Illustrative of the Reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII., ed. J. Gairdner, in Rolls Series. Of later accounts those in Stow s Annales (preserving some oral tradition) and George Buck's Richard III. ap. Kennet History of England deserve mention. Horace Walpole attempted a vindication in his Historic Doubts (1768). The best modern account is James Gairdner's Life of Richard III. (2nd ed., 1898). The latest and fullest defence is given in Sir Clements Markham's Richard III., His Life and Character (1906); G. B. Churchill's Richard the Third up to Shakespeare (Palaestra x., 1900) is a valuable digest of material. (C. L. K.) RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (1810-1908), archbishop of Paris, French prelate, was born at Nantes on the ist of March 1819. Educated at the seminary of St. Sulpice he became successively vicar-general of Nantes, bishop of Belley, and in 1875 coadjutor of Paris. In 1886 the death of Archbishop Guibert was followed by Mgr. Richard's appoint- ment to the see of Paris, and in 1889 he received a cardinal's hat. In January 1900 the trial of the Assumptionist Fathers resulted in the dissolution of their society as an illegal associa- tion. Next day an official visit of the archbishop to the Fathers was noted by government as an act of a political character, and Mgr. Richard was officially censured. His attitude was in general exceedingly moderate, he had no share in the extremist policy of the Ultrambntanes, and throughout the struggle over the law of Associations and the law of Separations he maintained his reasonable temper. He presided in September 1906 over an assembly of bishops and archbishops at hjs palace in the rue de Crenelle, a few days after the papal encyclical forbidding French Catholics to form associations for public worship, but it was then too late for conciliation. In December he gave up the archiepiscopal palace to the government authorities. He was then an old man of nearly ninety, and his " eviction " evoked great sympathy. Cardinal Richard died on the 29th of January 1908. RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888), Welsh politician, was the son of the Rev. Ebenezer Richard (1781-1837), a Calvinistic Methodist minister, and was born on the 3rd of April 1812. Educated at Llangeitho grammar school, he also studied at a college at Highbury, and in 1835 he became minister of a Con- gregational church in the Old Kent Road, London, a position which he retained for fifteen years. Richard is chiefly known as an advocate of peace and international arbitration. In 1848 he became secretary of the Peace Society, and in this capacity he helped to organize a series of congresses in the capitals of Europe, and was partly instrumental in securing the insertion of a declaration in favour of arbitration in the treaty of Paris in 1856. He resigned this post in 1885. In 1868 Richard was elected member of parliament for the Merthyr boroughs, and he remained in the House of Commons until his death at Treborth, near Bangor, on the 20th of August 1888. In parliament he was a leading member of the party which advocated the removal of Nonconformist grievances and the disestablishment of the church in Wales; in 1877 he was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. Among Richard's writings may be mentioned: Defensive War (1846, and again 1800); Memoirs of Joseph Sturge (1864); Letters on the Social and Political Condition of the Principality of Wales (1866, and again 1884); and The Recent Progress of International Arbitration (1884). He also prepared some of the material for the life of his friend and associate, Richard Cobden, which was written by Mr John, now Lord, Morley; and he did some journalistic work in the Morning Star and the Evening Star. See C. S. Miall, Henry Richard, M.P. (1889); L. Appleton, Memoirs of Henry Richard (1889); and articles in Cymru Fydd for 1888. RICHARD OF CIRENCESTER (c. i33S~f- HOI), historical writer, was a member of the Benedictine abbey at Westminster, and his name (" Circestre ") first appears on the chamberlain's list of the monks of that foundation drawn up in the year 1355. In the year 1391 he obtained a licence from the abbot to go to Rome, and in this the abbot gives his testimony to Richard's xxin. 10 a 298 RICHARD OF DEVIZES— RICHARD OF ST VICTOR perfect and sincere observance of religion for upwards of thirty years. In 1400 Richard was in the infirmary of the abbey, where he died in the following year. His only known extant work is Speculum Hisloriale de Geslis Regum Angliae, 447-1066. The MS. of this is in the university library at Cambridge, and has been edited for the Rolls Series (No. 30) by Professor J. E. B. Mayor (2 vols., London, 1863-69). It is in four books, and at the conclusion of the fourth book Richard expresses his intention of continuing his narrative from the accession of William I., and incorporating a sketch of the Conqueror's career from his birth. This design he does not, however, appear to have carried into effect. The value of the Speculum as a con- tribution to our historical knowledge is but slight, for it is mainly a compilation from other writers; while even in trans- scribing these the compiler is guilty of great carelessness. He gives, however, numerous charters relating to Westminster Abbey, and also a very complete account of the saints whose tombs were in the abbey church, and especially of Edward the Confessor. The work was, however, largely used by historians and antiquaries, until, with the rise of a more critical spirit, its value became more accurately estimated. Besides the Spec- ulum Richard also wrote, according to the statement of William of Woodford in his Answer to Wycliffe (Edward Brown, Fasciculus Rerum expetendarum, p. 193), a treatise De Officiis; and there was formerly in the cathedral library at Peterborough another tractate from his pen, entitled Super Symbolum. Of neither of these works, however, does any known copy now exist. The Speculum affords the most conclusive proof of the spurious- ness of another work attributed to Richard and long accepted by the learned world as his. This was the De Situ Britanniae, an elaborate forgery relating to the antiquities of Roman Britain, which first appeared at Copenhagen in the year 1747. It was printed with the works of Gildas and Nennius, under the editorship of Charles Julius Bertram, professor of English in the academy of Copenhagen in the middle of the i8th century, with the following special title: " Richard! Corinensis monachi Westmonasteriensis de situ Britanniae libri duo. E. Codici MS. descripsit, Notisque et Indice adornavit Carolus Bertram." This forgery was accepted as genuine by a well-known antiquary of the 1 8th century, Dr William Stukeley, and under the sanction of his authority continued for a long time to be regarded in the same light by numerous scholars and antiquaries, including Gibbon and Lingard. On the other hand, critics of a later date gave expression, on various grounds, to a contrary conclusion. All doubt on the subject may, however, be held to have been effectually set at rest by the masterly exposure of the whole fraud drawn up by Professor Mayor in the preface to the edition above referred to of the Speculum. He has there not only demonstrated, from the external and internal evidence alike, the spuriousness of the whole treatise, but in a collation (extending to nearly a hundred pages) of numerous passages with corresponding passages in classical medieval authorities, has also traced out the various sources whence Bertram derived the terminology and the facts which he reproduced in the De Situ. (J. B. M.) RICHARD OF DEVIZES (fl. 1191), English chronicler, was a monk of St Swithin's house at Winchester. His birthplace is probably indicated by his surname, but of his life we know nothing. He is credited by Bale with the composition of the Annales de Wintonia, which are edited by Luard in the second volume of the Annales Monastici. If this statement be correct, then the chronicler survived King Richard I. But the Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, by which Richard of Devizes is chiefly known, only covers the first three years of that king's reign; it is practically an account of events in England and the Holy Land during the Third Crusade. For the events of the crusade itself, Richard is a poor authority. But his account of the preparations for the crusade, and of English affairs in the king's absence, is valuable, in spite of some inaccuracies. The author is intensely conservative, steeped in the prejudices of his order, and particularly hostile to the Jews and to the chancellor, William Longchamp. He writes in a vivid and epigrammatic style; his Latin shows the effect of the 12th- century renaissance in its polish and in its reminiscences of classical poets. See the editions of the Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricatdi Primi by J. Stevenson (Eng. Historical Soc., 1838) and by R. Howlett in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard 1., vol. iii. (Rolls Series, 1886); the Annales de Wintonia in H. R. Luard's Annales Monastici, vol. ii. (Rolls Series, London, 1864-69). (H. W. C. D.) RICHARD OF HEXHAH (fl. 1141), English chronicler, became prior of Hexham about 1141, and died between 1163 and 1178. He wrote Brevis Annotatio, a short history of the church of Hexham from 674 to 1138, for which he borrowed from Bede, Eddius and Simeon of Durham. This is published by J. Raine in The Priory of Hexham, its Chroniclers, Endowments and Annals (Durham, 1864-65). More important is his Historia de gestis regis Stephani et de hello Standardii, very valuable for the history of the north of England during the earlier part of the reign of Stephen, and especially for the battle of the Standard. This history, which is a contemporary one, covers the period from the death of Henry I. in 1135 to early in 1139. It has been edited for the Rolls Series by R. Howlett in the Chroniclers of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard /., vol. iii. (1886); and has been translated by J. Stevenson in the Church Historians of England, vol. iv. (1856). RICHARD OF ILCHESTER (d. 1188), English statesman and prelate, was born in the diocese of Bath, where he obtained preferment. Early in the reign of Henry II., however, he is found acting as a clerk in the king's court, probably under Thomas Becket, and he was one of the officials who assisted Henry in carrying out his great judicial and financial reforms. • In 1162, or 1163, he was appointed archdeacon of Poitiers, but he passed most of his time in England, although in the next two or three years he visited Pope Alexander III. and the Emperor Frederick I. in the interests of the English king, who was then engaged in his struggle with Becket. For promising to support Frederick against Alexander he was excommunicated by Becket in 1 1 66. Before this event, however, Richard had been ap- pointed a baron of the exchequer, his great industry and exceptional abilities as an accountant being recognized by giving him a special seat at the exchequer table, and from 1168 until his death he frequently acted as one of the itinerant justices. Although totally immersed in secular business he received several rich ecclesiastical offices, and in May 1173 he was elected bishop of Winchester, being consecrated at Canter- bury in October 1174. Richard still continued to serve Henry II. In 1176 he was appointed justiciar and seneschal of Normandy, and was given full control of all the royal business in the duchy. He died on the 2ist or 22nd of December 1188, and was buried in Winchester cathedral. Richard owes his surname, to the fact that Henry II. granted him a mill at Ilchester; he is also called Richard of Toclyve. See the article by Miss K. Norgate in the Diet. Nat. Biog., vol. xlviii. (1896); and W. R. W. Stephens and W. W. Capes, The Bishops of Winchester (1907). RICHARD OF ST VICTOR (d. 1173), theologian and mystic of the I2th century. Very little is known of his life; he was born in Scotland or in England, and went to Paris, where he entered the abbey of St Victor and was a pupil of the great mystic, Hugh of St Victor. He succeeded as prior of this house in 1162, and was continually contesting the tyrannical authority of the abbot Ervisius. His writings, some of which are still in manuscript, are very numerous, the best known being his mystical treatises: De statu hominis interioris, De praeparatione animi ad contemplalionem, De gratia conlemplationis, De gradibus caritatis, De area nuptica, and his two works on the Trinity: De trinitate libri sex, De tribus appropriatis personis in Trinitate, As is the case with all the Victorines, his mysticism was a reaction against the philosophy of the schools of his time, a perpetual justification of contemplation as opposed to logical reasoning. According to him, six steps lead the soul to con- templation: (i) contemplation of visible and tangible objects; (2) study of the productions of nature and of art; (3) study of character; (4) study of souls and of spirits; (5) entrance to the mystical region which ends in (6) ecstasy. His theory of the Trinity is chiefly based on the arguments of Anselm of Canter- bury, although a certain deification of the social sense is evident. RICHARDIA— RICHARDSON, H. H. 299 His style is most affected, and the influence of the neo-Platonist terminology as well as of the works of the pseudo-Dionysius can be clearly detected. In the Paradis Dante has placed Richard de St Victor, whose books were much read by his contem- poraries, among the greatest teachers of the Church. His writ- ings seem to have come into favour again in the i6th and I7th centuries, six editions of his works having been printed between 1506 and 1650. BIBLIOGRAPHY. -CEuvres, edited in the Patrologia latino. by Migne, vol. cxcvi.; W. Kaulich, " Die Lehren des Hugo und Richard von St Victor " (Abhandlungen der K. bohmischen Gesellschaft der Wissen- schaften. V. Folge, vol. xiii. (2nd ed. Paris, 1905), p. 231 (Prague, 1864) ; P. C. F. Daunou, article in Histoire litteraire de la France, tome xiii. (Paris, 1869) ; G. Buonamici, Riccardo da S. Vittore (Alatri, 1899) ; De Wulf , Histoire de la philosophic medievale (2nd ed. Paris, 1 905) , p. 23 1 . RICHARDIA, a small genus of the nat. ord. Araceae, native in South Africa, to which the " arum lily " belongs. They are all greenhouse herbaceous plants of handsome appearance, with thick underground stems and large, more or less fleshy, long-stalked, arrow-shaped leaves and white or yellow flower spathes. They are readily propagated by division of the shoot, also by seed. Water should be given abundantly at all times, and the soil for potting should be rich and retentive. Potting is best effected in spring, and from the end of June to the end of August they should be plunged in a sunny spot out of doors. They will not withstand frost, and should be wintered in a warm greenhouse. They flower throughout the year. RICHARDS, ALFRED BATE (1820-1876), English journalist, was born in Worcestershire on the iyth of February 1820, and was educated at Westminster School and Exeter College, Oxford. After taking his degree in 1841 he published, anonymously, Oxford Unmasked, a denunciation of abuses in the university. Between 1845 and 1848 he wrote several dramas and some poetry, and in the latter year became editor of a weekly news- paper, the British Army Despatch. His temperament was strongly Imperialist; he opposed Cobden and the Manchester school of politicians, and in a volume entitled Britain Redeemed and Canada Preserved predicted, thirty years before the event, the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway. In 1855 he was appointed the first editor of the London Daily Telegraph, and through the medium of that journal strongly urged the forma- tion of volunteer rifle corps. The National and Constitutional Defence Association was established in 1858 to carry out the idea. Richards himself raised a regiment of a thousand working men in London, becoming major and subsequently colonel of the corps. In 1870 he was appointed editor of the London Morning Advertiser, and retained this position till his death on the 1 2th of June 1876. RICHARDS, HENRY BRINLEY (1810-1865), English pianist and composer, was born at Carmarthen, and educated at the Royal Academy of Music in London, where later he was a professor. He took much interest in Welsh music and in the Eisteddfod gatherings. He was a prolific composer, but is perhaps principally remembered for writing the song " God bless the Prince of Wales " (1862), which has been adopted as an English national anthem. RICHARDS, WILLIAM TROST (1833-1905), American marine painter, was born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the I4th of November 1833. He was a pupil of Paul Weber in his native city, and lived much in France, Italy and London. He was a member of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and of the American Water Colour Society. Examples of his work are in the collections of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Penn.; the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., and the Schaube Gallery, Hamburg. He died at Newport, Rhode Island, on the 8th of November 1905. His daughter ANNA M. RICHARDS (b. 1870), figure and landscape painter, was a pupil of John La Farge and Benjamin Constant. RICHARDSON, GEORGE, English 18th-century architect and designer. The dates of birth and death of this distinguished contemporary and rival of the brothers Adam are not ascer- tained, but he is conjectured to have been born about 1736 and to have died in 1817. Richardson spent three years — from 1760 to 1763 — travelling in Dalmatia and Istria, in the south of France and in Italy. During that period he imbibed the inspiration of a lifetime, and acquired the material for its practical application. He soon began to show remarkable skill in adapting classical ideals to the uses of his time, and in 1765 he won a premium offered, by the Society of Arts for a design of a street in the classical manner. Richardson's work is so closely allied to that of the brothers Adam that it is often difficult to distinguish between them, and if it possessed less freedom and variety, and bore to a smaller extent the impress of an original mind, it was in the main exceedingly admirable and satisfying. Richardson was an especially successful designer of ceilings and chimneypieces. He published in 1776 a Book of Ceilings in the Style of the Antique Grotesque. Many of its drawings are of exquisite taste. Nor is his fireplace work, as represented by his Collection of Chimneypieces Orna- mented in the Style of the Etruscan, Greek and Roman Archi- tecture (1781), less attractive. Richardson's chimneypieces are still to be found in considerable numbers in town and country houses. They are mostly of marble, but examples in wood are not uncommon. He made extensive use of coloured marbles, and the effect is constantly that of the sumptuous balancing the austere. Like the Adams, Richardson often worked with composition enrichments, and his New Designs in Architecture (1792) contains many drawings of interior friezes and columns to be executed either in this medium or painted to suit the wall hangings. His versatility was con- siderable, as the titles of his works, a dozen in-number, suggest. For many years he exhibited at the Royal Academy as well as in the Galleries of the Society of Arts. Why such a man should have fallen into penury in his old age we have no means of ascertaining, but we know that his necessities were relieved by Nollekens. His principal works in addition to those already mentioned were, in chronological orders Aedes Pembrochianae (1774); Iconoloey (2 vols.), with plates by Bartolozzi and other engravers (1778-1779) ; New Designs in Architecture (1792); Original Designs for Country Seats or Villas (1795); The New Vitruvius Britannicus, a sequel to Colin Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus, 2 vols. (1802); Ornaments in the Grecian, Roman and Etruscan Tastes (1816). He also pub- lished volumes dealing with vases and tripods, antique friezes and other architectural and decorative details. RICHARDSON, HENRY HOBSON (1838-1886), American architect, was born in the parish of St James, Louisiana, on the 29th of September 1838, of a rich family, his mother being a granddaughter of the famous Dr Priestley, the English dis- senting refugee and man of science. He was graduated from Harvard University in 1859, and going immediately to Paris to study architecture, entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. The Civil War, which broke out in the United States while he was in the school, prevented his return to Louisiana, and stripped his family of their possessions, so that Richardson provided for his own support by working in the offices of practising architects in Paris, till the fall of 1865. Coming back, he established himself in New York, where he soon made his way into practice as an architect. In 1878 he moved to Boston, where he passed the remaining years of his life, designing there most of the work that made his reputation. He had married in 1867 Miss Julia Gorham Hayden of Boston; he died on the 27th of April 1886, not yet forty-eight years old. Richardson's career was short, and the number of his works was small indeed compared with the attention they attracted and the influence he left behind him. The most important and characteristic are: Trinity church and the so-called Brattle Square church, in Boston; the alterations in the State Capitol at Albany; the county buildings at Pittsburg; town halls at Albany, Springfield and North Easton; town libraries at Woburn, North Easton, Quincy, Burlington and Maiden; Sever Hall and Austin Hall at Harvard University; the Chamber of Commerce at Cincinnati. Trinity church, the Pittsburg buildings and the Capitol at Albany were works of great importance, which have had a strong influence on men RICHARDSON, SIR J.— RICHARDSON, S. 300 who followed him and brought him wide acknowledgment. It is notable that American architects who have studied in Europe, especially in Paris, are apt to drift either into a pathless eclec- ticism or into the English current. Richardson did neither. The Romanesque that he saw in Europe, especially in the middle and south of France, appealed so strongly to his sense for mass and broad picturesqueness that he soon followed its leading, away from the style he had learned in Paris. His earliest work was modern French in style; his first church, in Springfield, a startlingly independent version of English Gothic. Yet half a dozen buildings made the transition to that derivative of Romanesque to which afterwards in all his buildings he steadfastly adhered. In Trinity church, his first monumental work, perhaps his finest, he broke away absolutely from the prevailing English Gothic fashion. Instead of the long Latin cross with aisles and transepts, he made a wide cross almost Greek in plan, with short arms fifty feet broad and aisles that are only passages, a narthex flanked by two western towers, a nave of one double bay, an eastern arm prolonged into a great apse of the full width of the crossing, over which sits a massive square tower. The arms of the church are barrel- vaulted in wood; under the great tower is a flat coffered ceiling a hundred feet above the floor. The style, though mixed, shows his surrender to the attraction of the churches in Auvergne, which have furnished the material for the design of the apse. The central tower is a reminiscence of the noble lantern of the old cathedral of Salamanca, but the square outline is insisted on instead of the polygonal, and the forms are in other ways much changed. The alteration of the Capitol at Albany, half a dozen years later, shared with Leopold Eidlitz, was a compromise in style, and so lacks the sure handling of his best work, except in that part of the interior in which he was untrammelled, the Senate Chamber and the great staircase. In the buildings at Pittsburg, on the other hand, he was free from interference, and these satisfied him more than any other of his buildings. His great design for the new cathedral at Albany, an adaptation of the Romanesque forms of Auvergne to a large modern problem, would have displayed his mature manner, and been perhaps his greatest work; but the plan did not lend itself to the tradition or the ritual of the Anglican Church, and it was rejected, to his great disappointment. At first the breadth of his compositions was offset by a richness of ornament which he afterwards called flamboyant, but there was a continual growth in simplicity. Some of his imitators have abused his example, running into mere baldness and brutality, but his own work never lost the fineness of quality with which he began, nor the adequacy of its detail. Richardson's uncommon personality so embodied itself in his works that it cannot be overlooked. He had an inexhaustible energy of body and mind, an enthusiasm more genial than combative, but so abounding and at times vehement that few men and few bodies of men could resist him. Abounding energy he had, but not health. . A serious bodily injury, and later a chronic malady, made his last years a con- stant struggle with suffering and infirmity, borne with in- domitable cheerfulness, but at last fatal. It is likely that the small number of his designs enhanced their quality. He put twice the labour into his work that the average architect would have given to it, and often twice the time, but the result was apt to be twice as good. He found American architecture restless, incoherent and exuberant; his example did much to turn it back to simplicity and repose. He came as near to establishing a style as it is given to any one man to come; but the tendency of the time was too strong, and the classic styles, reasserting themselves, once more drove out the medieval. The best known book about Richardson is Mrs Schuyler van Rensselaer's H. H. Richardson and his Works (Boston, 1888). (W. P. P. L.) RICHARDSON, SIR JOHN (1787-1865), British naturalist, was born at Dumfries on the sth of November 1787. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, and became a surgeon in the navy in 1807. In 1819 he was appointed surgeon and naturalist to Franklin's first arctic expedition (1810-22), and he served in the same capacity to the second (1825-26). The scientific results of these expeditions he described in contributions to Franklin's Narratives, and especially in the four quarto volumes of his Fauna Boreali-Americana (1829-37). He was knighted in 1846, and hi the following year was chosen commander of the Franklin search expedition (1848-49), the journal of which he published in 1851 under the title of An Arctic Searching Expedition. In 1855 he retired to Grasmere, where he died on the sth of June 1865. He also wrote accounts dealing with the natural history, and especially the ichthyology, of several other arctic voyages, and was the author of Icones Piscium (1843), Catalogue of Apodal Fish in the British Museum, translated from the German MS. (1856), the second edition of Yarrell's History of British Fishes (1860), and The Polar Regions (1861), expanded from an article with the same title which he wrote for the Ency- clopaedia Britannica. A Life by John Macllraith was published in 1868. RICHARDSON, SAMUEL (1689-1761), English novelist,' is a notable example of that " late-flowering " sometimes applied to Oliver Goldsmith. Born under William and Mary, the reign of the second George was well advanced before, at fifty years of age, he made his first serious literary effort — an effort which was not only a success, but the revelation of a new literary form. He was the son of a London joiner, who, for obscure reasons, probably connected with Monmouth's rebellion, had retired to an unidentified town in Derbyshire, where, in 1689, Samuel was born. At first intended for holy orders, and having little but the common learning of a private grammar school — for the tradition that upon the return of the family to the metropolis he went to Christ's Hospital cannot be sustained — he was eventually, as some compensation for a literary turn, apprenticed at seventeen to an Aldersgate printer named John Wilde. Here, like the typical " good apprentice " of his century, he prospered; became successively compositor, corrector of the press, and printer on his own account; married his master's daughter according to programme; set up newspapers and books; dabbled a little in literature by compiling indexes and " honest dedications," and ultimately proceeded Printer of the Journals of the House of Commons, Master of the Stationers' Company, and Law-Printer to the King. Like all well-to-do citizens, he had his city house of business and his " country box " in the suburbs; and, after a thoroughly " respectable " life, died on the 4th of July 1761, being buried in St Bride's Church, Fleet Street, close to his shop (now demolished), No. n Salisbury Court. To this uneventful and conventional career one would scarcely look for the birth and growth of a fresh departure in fiction. And yet, although Richardson's manifestation of his literary gift was deferred for half a century, there is no life to which the Horatian " qualis ab incepto " can be more appropriately applied. From his youth this moralist had moralized; from his youth — nay, from his childhood — this letter-writer had written letters; from his youth this supreme delineator of the other sex had been the confidant and counsellor of women. In his boyhood he was secretary-general to all the love-sick girls of the neighbourhood; at eleven he addressed a hortatory epistle, stuffed with texts, to a scandal-loving widow; and whenever it was possible to correspond with any one he was as " correspond- ing " as even Horace Walpole could have desired. At last, when he was known to the world only as a steady business man, who was also a " dab at an index " and an invaluable compiler of the " puff prefatory," it occurred to Mr Rivington of St Paul's Churchyard and Mj Osborn of Paternoster Row, two book- selling friends who were aware of his epistolary gifts, to suggest that he should prepare a little model letter-writer for such " country readers " as " were unable to indite for themselves." Would it be any harm, he suggested in answer, if he should also " instruct them how they should think and act in common cases "? His friends were all the more anxious that he should RICHARDSON, S. set to work. And thus originated his first novel of Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded. But not forthwith, as is sometimes supposed. Proceeding with the compilation of his model letter-writer, and seeking, in his own words, " to instruct handsome girls, who were obliged to go out on service . . . how to avoid the snares that might be laid against their virtue " — a danger which appears to have always abnormally preoccupied him — he came to recollect a story he had heard twenty years earlier, and had often proposed to other persons for fictitious treatment. It occurred to him that it would make a book of itself, and might moreover be told wholly in the fashion most congenial to himself, namely, by letters. Thereupon, with some domestic encouragement, he completed it in a couple of months, between the loth of Novem- ber 1739 and the loth of January 1740. In November 1740 it was issued by Messrs Rivington & Osborn, who, a few weeks afterwards (January 1741), also published the model letter- writer under the title of Letters written to and for Particular Friends, on the most Important Occasions. Both books were anonymous. The letter-writer was noticed in the Gentleman's Magazine for January, which also contains a brief announce- ment as to Pamela, already rapidly making its way without waiting for the reviewers. A second edition, it was stated, was expected; and such was its popularity, that not to have read it was judged " as great a sign of want of curiosity as not to have seen the French and Italian dancers " — i.e. Mme Chateauneuf and the Fausans, who were then delighting the town. In February a second edition duly appeared, followed by a third in March and a fourth in May. At public gardens ladies held up the book to show they had got it; Dr Benjamin Slocock of Southwark openly commended it from the pulpit; Pope praised it; and at Slough, when the heroine triumphed, the enraptured villagers rang the church bells for joy. The other volume of " familiar letters'" consequently fell into the background in the estimation of its author, who, though it went into several editions during his lifetime, never acknowledged it. Yet it scarcely deserves to be wholly neglected, as it contains many useful details and much shrewd criticism of lower middle-class life. For the exceptional success of Pamela there was the obvious excuse of novelty. People were tired of the old " mouthy " romances about impossible people doing impossible things. Here was a real-life story, which might happen to any one — a story which aroused curiosity and arrested attention — which was not exclusively about " high life," and which had, in addition, a moral purpose, since it was avowedly " published in order to cultivate the principles of virtue and religion in the minds of the youth of both sexes." Whether it had exactly this effect, or owed its good fortune chiefly to this proclamation, may be doubted. The heroine in humble life who resists the licentious advances of her master until he is forced to marry her, does not entirely convince us that her watchful prudence and keen eye for the main chance have not, in the long run, quite as much to do with her successful defence as her boasted innocence and purity. Nor is the book without passages which more than smack of an unpleasant pruriency. Nevertheless, in its extra- ordinary gift of minute analysis; in its intimate knowledge of feminine character; in the cumulative power of its shuffling, loose-shod style, and, above all, in the unquestionable earnest- ness and sincerity of the writer, Pamela had qualities which — particularly in a dead season of letters — sufficiently account for its favourable reception by the contemporary public. Such a popularity, of course, was not without its draw- backs. That it would lead to Anti-Pamelas, censures of Pamela and all the spawn of pamphlets which spring round the track of a sudden success, was to be anticipated. One of the results to which its rather sickly morality gave rise was the Joseph Andrews (1742) of Fielding (?.».). But there are two other works prompted by Pamela which need brief notice here. One is the Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews, a clever and very gross piece of raillery which appeared in 301 April 1741, and by which Fielding is supposed to have pre- luded to Joseph Andrews. Fielding's own works contain no reference to Shamela. But Richardson in his Correspond- ence, both printed and unprinted, roundly attributes it to the writer who was to be his rival; and it is also assigned to Field- ing by other contemporaries (Hist. MSS. Commn., Rept. 12, App. Pt. IX. p. 204). All that can be said is, that Fielding's authorship cannot be proved. If it could, it would go far to justify the after animosity of Richardson to Fielding — much farther, indeed, than what Richardson described as the " lewd and ungenerous engraftment " of Joseph Andrews. The second noteworthy result of Pamela was Pamela's Con- duct in High Life (September 1741), a spurious sequel by John Kelly of the Universal Spectator. Richardson tried to prevent its appearance, and, having failed, set about two volumes of his own, which followed in December, and professed to depict his heroine " in her exalted condition." But the public in- terest in Pamela had practically ceased with her marriage, and the author's continuation, like other continuations — particu- larly continuations prompted by extraneous circumstances — attracted no permanent attention. About 1744 we begin to hear something of the progress of Richardson's second and greatest novel, Clarissa; or, the History of a Young Lady, usually miscalled Clarissa Har- lowe. The first edition was in seven volumes, two of which came out in November 1747, two more in April 1748 and the last three in December. Upon the title-page of this, of which the mission was as edifying as that of Pamela, its object was defined as showing the distresses that may attend the misconduct both of parents and children in relation to marriage. Virtue, in Clarissa, is not " rewarded," but hunted down and outraged. The heroine, no longer an opportunist servant-girl, is a most pure, refined and beautiful young woman, invested with every attribute to attract and charm, while her pursuer, Lovelace, the libertine hero of the book — a personage of singular dash and vivacity, in spite of his worth- lessness — is drawn with extraordinary tenacity of power. The wronged Clarissa eventually dies of grief, and her cold- blooded betrayer, whom strict justice would have hanged, is considerately killed in a duel by her soldier cousin. Of the genius of the story there can be no doubt. Nor is there any doubt as to the ability shown in the delineation of the two chief characters, to whom the rest are merely subordinate. The chief drawbacks of Clarissa are its merciless prolixity (seven volumes, which only cover eleven months); the fact that (like Pamela) it is told by letters; and a certain haunting and uneasy feeling that many of the heroine's obstacles are only molehills which should have been readily surmounted. As to its success, accentuated as this was by its piecemeal method of publication, there has never been any question. Clarissa's sorrows set all England sobbing, and her fame and her fate spread rapidly to the Continent. Between Clarissa and Richardson's next work appeared the Tom Jones of Fielding— a rival by no means welcome to the elder writer, although a rival who generously (and perhaps penitently) acknowledged Clarissa's rare merits. " Pectus inaniter angit Irritat, mulcet, falsis terroribus implet Ut Magus," Fielding had written in the Jacobite's Journal. But even this could not console Richardson for the popularity of the " spurious brat " whom Fielding had made his hero, and his next effort was the depicting of a genuine fine gentleman — a task to which he was incited by a chorus of feminine wor- shippers. In the History of Sir Charles Grandison, " by the Editor of Pamela and Clarissa " (for he still preserved the fiction of anonymity), he essayed to draw a perfect model of manly character and conduct. In the pattern presented there is, however, too much buckram, too much ceremonial — in plain words, too much priggishness — to make him the de- sired exemplar of propriety in excelsis. Yet he is not entirely a failure, still less is he to be regarded as no more than " the 302 RICHELIEU, DUG DE condescending suit of clothes " by which Hazlitt unfairly defines Miss Burney's Lord Orville. When Richardson de- lineated Sir Charles Grandison he was at his best, and his experiences and opportunities for inventing such a character were infinitely greater than they had ever been before. And he lost nothing of his gift for portraying the other sex. Harriet Byron, Clementina della Porretta and even Charlotte Gran- dison, are no whit behind Clarissa and her friend Miss Howe. Sir Charles Grandison, in fine, is a far better book than Pamela, although M. Taine regarded the hero as only fit to be stuffed and put in a museum. Grandison was published in 1753, and by this time Richard- son was sixty-four. Although the book was welcomed as warmly as its predecessors, he wrote no other novel, content- ing himself instead with indexing his works, and compiling an anthology of the " maxims," " cautions " and " instructive sentiments " they contained. To these things, as a professed moralist, he had always attached the greatest importance. He continued to correspond relentlessly with a large circle of worshippers, mostly women, whose counsels and fertilizing sympathy had not a little contributed to the success of his last two books. He was a nervous, highly strung little man, intensely preoccupied with his health and his feelings, hungry for praise when he had once tasted it, and afterwards unable to exist without it; but apart from these things, well meaning, benevolent, honest, industrious and religious. Seven vast folio volumes of his correspondence with his lady friends, and with a few men of the Young and Aaron Hill type, are pre- served in the Forster Library at South Kensington. Parts of it only have been printed. There are several good portraits of him by Joseph Highmore, two of which are in the National Portrait Gallery. Richardson is sometimes styled the " Father of the English Novel," a title which has also been claimed for Defoe. It would be more accurate to call him the father of the novel of sentimental analysis. As Sir Walter Scott has said, no one before had dived so deeply into the human heart. No one, moreover, had brought to the study of feminine character so much prolonged research, so much patience of observation, so mu) RIESA, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Elbe, 30 m. N.W. of Dresden, on the main line of railway to Leipzig, and at the junction of lines to Chemnitz, Elsterwerda and Nossen. Pop. 14,073. The river is here crossed by a fine bridge, a 324 RIESENER— RIESENGEBIRGE sandstone and iron structure, carrying both railway and road, and replacing the one carried away by floods in 1875. The town contains two Evangelical churches, a castle, formerly a convent and now used as a town hall, and several schools. There is a harbour with quays and a dockyard, also rolling- mills and saw-mills, ironworks and sandstone quarries. Other industries are the manufacture of furniture, beer, soap, carriages and bricks. The most important shipping station on the Elbe in Saxony, Riesa is the lading-place for goods to and from Bavaria, and a mart for herrings, petroleum, wood, coal and grain. A constant passenger steamboat communication is maintained with Meissen and Dresden; and, owing to the artillery practice ranges at Zeithain, on the right bank of the Elbe, Riesa has become of recent years one of the chief depots of the Saxon army. Riesa received municipal rights in 1632, and after a period of decay was again raised to the rank of a town in 1859. RIESENER, JEAN HENRI (1734-1806), French cabinet-maker of the Louis XVI. period, was born at Gladbach near Cologne. At an early age he went to Paris, where he entered the workshop in the Arsenal of Jean Francois Oeben (?.».). When that great master died, Riesener became foreman of the works; two years later he married Mme. Oeben, and in 1 768 was admitted " maitre- menuisier-ebeniste." His wife died in 1776, and in 1782 he espoused, as his second wife, Anne Grezel, daughter of a bourgeois of Paris. The union was unhappy, and when, under the first Republic, divorce was legalized, the marriage was dissolved. When Riesener contracted his first marriage he possessed little or nothing; his second contract of marriage recited that in cash and in the money due to him by Louis XVI. he was worth more than £20,000, without counting the finished work in hand, bronze models, jewels and personal effects and invested funds. Thus in fifteen years he had accumulated a f ortuneamountingin all to about £40,000. By that time there had been conferred upon him the title, formerly enjoyed by Oeben, of " Ebeniste du Roi." He died on the 6th of January 1806, in the Enclos des Jacobins, leaving an only son, Henri Francois (1767-1828), a distinguished portrait- painter of the First Empire. Riesener was unquestionably the greatest of the Louis Seize cabinet-makers. His name is stamped upon the Bureau du Roi in the Louvre, and although the original conception of that master-work was due to Oeben, it cannot be doubted that its consummate finish and perfect achievement must in great measure be attributed to the man who completed it. Occasionally there may, perhaps, be some lack of spon- taneity in his forms, but his work is generally at once bold and graceful. His marquetry presents an extraordinary finish; his chiselled bronzes are of the first excellence. He was especially distinguished for his cabinets, in which he employed many European as well as exotic woods. Wreaths and bunches of flowers form the centres of the panels; on the sides are often diaper patterns in quiet colours. Yet despite his distinction as a maker of cabinets his high-water mark was reached in the Bureau du Roi, finished in 1769 and consequently belonging rather to the Louis Quinze than the Louis Seize period, and a not altogether dissimilar cylinder bureau believed to have been made for Stanislas Leszczynski, king of Poland, now in the Wallace Collection. Stanislas died in 1766, but the desk was not completed until February 20, 1769, as appears by the inscription accompanying the maker's signature. Upon its completion it passed into the possession of the French crown and was included in a sale of the royal furniture which took place in Holland. It was purchased by Sir William Hamilton, then British Minister at the Hague, and appears to have passfid out of his hands when he left Naples, where it was purchased by Sir Richard Wallace. At Buckingham Palace there is a third bureau on the same lines. These pieces are triumphs of marquetry. They are inlaid with trophies of musical instruments, doves, bouquets and garlands of flowers; the bronze vases and " galleries" are exquisite — they may possibly be the work of Gouthiere, but are more probably from the hands of Duplessis. For several years this great artist appears to have used the models of his master Oeben, but there was a gradual transition to a style more individual, more delicately conceived, with finer but hardly less vigorous lines. By the time he had been working alone for ten years he had completely embraced the Louis Seize manner — he had, perhaps, some responsibility for it. One of the most distinguished of his achievements for the court was the famous flat writing-table now at the Petit Trianon, for which he received only £200. The extent of these royal orders may be gauged from the fact that between 1775 and 1785 Riesener received 500,000 livres from the Garde Meubles, notwithstanding that during the whole of this period Gondouin the architect was the official designer of furniture for the royal palaces. Like so many other artists he was con- demned in the end to sacrifice to the false taste of his day, and a certain number of his creations, otherwise delightful, were vitiated by being mounted with panels of Sevres, Wedg- wood and other china. The beautiful little secretaire in the Jones collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum suffers seriously by this lapse. RIESENGEBIRGE (Bohemian Krkonose), or Giant Moun- tains, a lofty and rugged group on the boundary of Silesia and Bohemia, between the upper courses of the Elbe and the Oder. They form the highest portion of the Sudetic system which separates south-east Prussia from the Austrian empire, and finds its natural continuation towards the N.W. in the Erz- gebirge, the Thuringian Forest and the Harz Mountains. Adjoining the Isergebirge and the Lausitzergebirge on the W., and the Eulengebirge and the Adlergebirge on the E. and S.E., the Riesengebirge proper run S.E. and N.W. between the sources of the Zacken and the Bober, for a distance of 23 m., with a breadth of 14 m. They cover an area of about 425 sq. m., three-fourths of which is in Austrian, and the remainder in Prussian territory. The boundary line follows the crest of the principal chain or ridge (Riesenkamm), which stretches along the northern side of the group, with an average height of over 4000 ft. The principal peaks are the Reiftrager (4430 ft.), the Hohe Rad (4968 ft.), the Great Sturmhaube (4862 ft.), the Little Sturmhaube (4646 ft.), and, near the east extremity, the Schneekoppe or Riesenkoppe (5266 ft.), the loftiest mountain in northern or central Germany. Roughly parallel to this northern ridge, and separated from it by a long narrow valley known as the Siebengriinde, there extends on the S. a second and lower chain, of broad massive " saddles," with comparatively few peaks. The chief heights here are Kesselkoppe (47°8 ft.), the Krkonose (4849 ft.), the Ziegenriicken and the Brunnen- berg (5072 ft.). From both ridges spurs of greater or less length are sent off at various angles, whence a magnificent view is obtained from Breslau to Prague; the lowlands of Silesia, watered by the Oder, and those of Bohemia, intersected by the Elbe and the Moldau, appearing to lie mapped in relief. The summit is crowned by a chapel dedicated to St Lawrence, which once also served as a traveller's shelter. Since 1850 the chapel has been restored to its religious use, and a hotel for the accom- modation of tourists is built close by. A remarkable group of isolated columnar rocks are those known as the Adersbacher Felsen in a valley on the Bohemian side of the Riesengebirge, 9 m. W.N.W. of Braunau. On its northern side this mountain group rises ruggedly and precipitously from the Hirschberg valley; but on its southern side its slope towards Bohemia is very much more gradual. The scenery is in general bold and wild. The Bohemian ridge is cleft about the middle by a deep gorge through which pour the headwaters of the river Elbe, which finds its source in the Siebengriinde. The Iser, Bober, Aupa, Zacken, Queiss, and a great number of smaller streams also rise among these mountains or on their skirts; and small lakes and tarns are not unfrequent in the valleys. The Great and Little Schneegruben — two deep rocky gorge-like valleys in which snow remains all the year round — lie to the north of the Hohe Rad. Nearly the whole of the Riesenkamm and the western portion of the southern chain are granite; the eastern extremity of the main ridge and several mountains to the south-east are formed of a species of gneiss; and the greater part of the Bohemian chain, especially its summits, consists of mica-slate. Blocks of these minerals lie scattered on the sides and ridges of the mountains and RIETI— RIFLE 325 in the beds of the streams ; and extensive turf moors occupy many of the mountain slopes and valleys. The lower parts of the Riesenge- birge are clad w .th forests of oak, beech, pine and fir; above 1600 ft. only the last two kinds of trees are found, and beyond about 3950 ft. only the dwarf pine (Pinus Pumilio). Various alpine plants are found on the Riesengebirge, some of them having been artificially introduced on the Schneekoppe. Wheat is grown at an elevation of 1800 ft. above the sea-level, and oats as high as 2700 ft. Th<; inhabitants of this mountain region, who are tolerably numerous, ef pecially on the Bohemian side, live for the most part, not in villages, but in scattered huts called " Bauden." They support themselves by the rearing of cattle, tillage, glass-making and linen-weaving. Mining is carried on only to a small extent for arsenic, although there are traces of former more extensive workings for other metals. The Riesengebirge has of late years been made easily accessible by railway, several branches from the main lines, both on the Silesian and Bohemian side, penetrating the valleys, and thus many spots in the Riesengebirge are a good deal frequented in the summer. The Schneekoppe and other summits are annually visited by a considerable number of travellers, notably the spas of Warmbrunn (near Hirschberg) and Flinsberg on the Gneis, and Gorbersdorf, known as a climate health resort for consumptives. The Riesenge- birge is the legendary home of Number Nip (Rubezahl), a half- mischievous, half-friendly goblin of German folklore, and various localities in the group are more or less directly associated with his name. See Beemann's Oratio de monte Giganteo (Frankfort a. O. 1679) ; Daniel, Deutschland, vol. i. pp. 277-78; and Gebauer, Ldnder-und Volkerkunde, vol. i. RIETI (anc. Rente), a city and episcopal see of Italy, in the piovince of Perugia, 255 m. by rail and 15 m. direct S.S.E. of Terni, which is 70 m. by rail from Rome. Pop. (1901) 14,145 (town), 17,716 (commune). It occupies a fine position 1318 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Velino (a torrent sub- tributary to the Tiber), which at this point issues from the limestone plateau; the old town occupies the declivity and the new town spreads out on the level. While with its quaint red- roofed houses, its old town walls (restored about 1250), its castle, its cathedral (i3th and isth centuries), its episcopal palace (1283), and its various churches and convents Rieti has no small amount of medieval picturesqueness; it also displays a good deal of modern activity in vine and olive growing and cattle-breeding. The fertility of the neighbourhood is celebrated both by Virgil and by Cicero. A Roman bridge over the Turano, and the Palazzo Vincentini by Vignola deserve to be mentioned. Reate was reached from Rome by the Via Salaria (q.v.), which may originally have ended there, and a branch road ran from it to Interamna. While hardly mentioned in connexion with the Punic or Civil Wars, Reate is described by Strabo as exhausted by these long contests. Its inhabitants received the Roman franchise at the same time with the rest of the Sabines (290 B.C.), but it appears as a praefectura and not as a municipium down to the beginning of the empire. It was never made a colonia, though veterans of the Praetorian guard and of the eighth (Augusta) and ninth legions were settled there by Vespasian, who belonged to a Reatine family and was born in the neighbourhood. For the contests of the Reatines with the people of Interamna see TERNI. In 1 148 the town was besieged and captured by Roger I. of Sicily. In the struggle between church and empire it always held with the former; and it defied the forces of Frederick II. and Otho IV. Pope Nicholas IV. long resided at Rieti, and it was there he crowned Charles II. of Anjou king of the Two Sicilies. In the I4th century Robert, and afterwards Joanna, of Naples managed to keep possession of Rieti for many years, but it returned to the States of the Church under Gregory IX. About the year 1500, the liberties of the town, long defended against the encroachments of the popes, were entirely abolished. An earthquake in 1785 was in 1799 followed by the much more disastrous pillage of Rieti by the papal troops for a space of fourteen days. RIETSCHEL, ERNST FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1804-1861), German sculptor, was born at Pulsnitz in Saxony. At an early age he became an art student at Dresden, and subsequently a pupil of Rauch in Berlin. He there gained an art studentship, and studied in Rome in 1827-28. After returning to Saxony he soon brought himself into notice by a colossal statue of Frederick Augustus, king of Saxony; was elected a member of the academy of Dresden, and thenceforth became one of the chief sculptors of his country. In 1832 he was elected to the Dresden professorship of sculpture, and had many foreign orders of merit conferred on him by the governments of different countries. He died at Dresden in 1861. Rietschel's style was very varied; he produced works imbued with much religious feeling, and to some extent he occupied the same place as a sculptor that Overbeck did in painting. Other important works by him were purely classical in style. He was specially famed for his portrait figures of eminent men, treated with much idealism and dramatic vigour; among the latter class his chief works were colossal statues of Goethe and Schiller for the town of Weimar, of Weber for Dresden and of Lessing for Brunswick. He also designed the memorial statue of Luther for Worms, but died before he could carry it out. The principal among Rietschel's religious pieces of sculpture are the well-known Christ-Angel, and a life-sized Pieta, executed for the king of Prussia. He also worked a great deal in rilievo, and produced many graceful pieces, especially a fine series of bas-reliefs representing Night and Morning, Noon and Twilight, designed with much poetical feeling and imagination. For a good biography of Rietschel and account of his works see Appermann, Ernst Rietschel (Leipzig, 1863). (J. H. M.) RIEU, CHARLES PIERRE HENRI (1820-1902), Swiss Orientalist, was born at Geneva in 1820. He studied at Bonn University, where he received his doctor's degree in 1843. He entered the British Museum in 1847, and after twenty years of service, a new post, that of keeper of Oriental manuscripts, was created for him. He completed in 1871 the second part, dealing with Arabian MSS., of the Catalogus codicum manu- scriptorum orientalium, which had been begun by William Cureton, and he issued a supplementary volume in 1894. He also drew up a Catalogue of the Turkish Manuscripts (1888) and a Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts (4 vols., 1870-95), the latter being a storehouse of information on the books and their authors. In 1895 he was made professor of Arabic in the university of Cambridge in succession to Robertson Smith. He died in London on the igth of March 1902. RIEVAULX, a village in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. W. by N. of the small town of Helmsley, which is served by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Here, exquisitely situated in a deep wooded valley, are the ruins of Rievaulx Abbey, a foundation by Walter 1'Espec in 1131 for Cistercians. The principal remains are those of the cruciform church, mainly Early English in date, and of the finest workman- ship. There are considerable fragments of the refectory, and all the important domestic buildings may be traced. A beautiful prospect over the ruins and the valley is seen from the terrace on the eastern flanking hill. RIFFIANS, the name given to the Berbers of the Rlf district of Morocco, the mountain region bordering the north coast from Ceuta eastward nearly to the borders of Algeria and forming part of the Atlas range. The name, it has been suggested, is identical with Libyan or Libi. A peculiarity of the Rlf dialect is the change of the Arabic " 1 " to " r," and this would seem to support this derivation, " b " and " f " being interchangeable through " v." The Rimans are only nominally subject to the sultan of Morocco, against whose authority they are in constant revolt. They are typical Berbers in physique, tall, well made and muscular, with European features and fair skins bronzed by the sun. In morality they are singularly superior to their neighbours. In order to prevent youthful unchastity, marriages are contracted between children of eight years old, the girl being brought home to live with the lad at his parents' home till a child is born, when a separate dwelling is provided for the youthful couple. The women are noted for their beauty. The Rimans understand and speak Arabic very little. They were among the fiercest and most cruel of the pirates of the north coast of Africa. Even now they are entirely untrust- worthy in this respect. See further BERBERS, MOROCCO, MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES. RIFLE, a firearm which may be shortly defined as a musket in which, by grooves (cf. Ger. riffeln, to groove) in the bore or otherwise, the projectile is forced to rotate before leaving the barrel. This rotatory motion, maintained during flight, equalizes any irregularities in the form or weight of the bullet, and so lessens the tendency to depart from a straight line, and also in a measure overcomes atmospheric resistance. Rifling was invented about 1520, by Gaspard Roller or Kollner, a gunmaker of Vienna, according to some authorities; by August Kotter of Nuremberg, according to others. It has been said 326 RIFLE that at first the grooves were made straight, with the object of admitting a tight-fitting bullet and relieving the effects of fouling, and that the virtue of spiral grooving was subsequently discovered by accident. But this theory is unsupported. The earliest known rifle barrels have spiral grooving. The amount of turn varied in old rifles from a half or three-quarters turn to one turn in two to three feet. The form and depth of the grooving and the number of grooves also greatly varied. Historical Development of Military Rifles. — For the chief infantry firearms that preceded the modern military rifle, see GUN, ARMS AND ARMOUR (firearms), ARQUEBUS, &c. Rifles were at first used for amusement. There are, however, in- stances of their occasional employment in war in the I7th and 1 8th centuries. In 1631 the landgrave of Hesse had a troop of riflemen. Ten years later Maximilian of Bavaria had several troops armed with rifled arquebuses. Louis XIII. armed his bodyguard with rifles. Napoleon withdrew the rifle from those of his troops to whom it had been issued during the wars of the Republic, nor did the French make any considerable use of it again until 1830, when the Chasseurs d'Orleans were armed with it for the invasion of Algeria. The British learnt the value of rifles during the American War of Independence, when the government subsidized continental Jagers armed with rifles to oppose the American riflemen. After the war these corps disappeared, and though they are now represented by the 6oth (King's Royal) Rifles, the senior rifle corps in the British Army is the Rifle Brigade, raised in 1800 as the gsth Regi- ment and armed with a flint-lock weapon known as " Baker's Rifle, " which weighed pj Ib. The barrel was 23 ft. long, its calibre 20-bore, with seven grooves making a quarter-turn in its length. A small wooden mallet was at first supplied with this rifle to make the ball enter the barrel, and it was loaded with great difficulty. In 1826 Delvigne, a French infantry officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which the spherical bullet was rammed down until it expanded and filled the grooves. The objection was that the deformed bullet had an erratic flight. Delvigne's system was subsequently improved upon by Thouvenin, who introduced into the breech an iron stem, upon which the bullet, now of conical form, rested, and was expanded by a sharp blow with the iron ramrod when loading. In William IV. 's reign the Brunswick percussion rifle1 was introduced into the British rifle regiments. Its weight with bayonet was n Ib 5a oz.; length of barrel, 2 ft. 6 in., with two grooves making one turn in the length of the barrel; weight of spherical belted bullet, 557 grs.; diameter, -704 in.; charge of powder, 2\ drs. This rifle was not easily loaded, soon fouled, and shot wild beyond 400 yds. In 1835 W. Greener produced a new expansive bullet, an oval ball, a diameter and a half in length, with a flat end, perforated, in. which a cast metallic taper plug was inserted. The explosion of the charge drove the plug home, expanded the bullet, filled the grooves and prevented windage. A trial of the Greener bullet in August 1835 proved successful. The range and accuracy of the rifle were retained, while the loading was made as easy as with a smooth-bore musket. The invention was, however, rejected by the military authorities on the ground that the bullet was a compound one. In 1852 the Government awarded Minie, a Frenchman, £20,000 for a bullet of the same principle adopted into the British service. In 1857 Greener received a belated reward of £1000 for " the first public suggestion of the principle of expansion. " The Minie bullet contained an iron cup in a cavity at the base of the bullet. In 1851 a rifled musket of the Minie pattern was introduced into the British army, and, though not generally issued, was used in the Kaffir War of 1851, and in the Crimea. Its weight with bayonet was 10 ft 8J oz., length of barrel 3 ft. 3 in., with four grooves making one turn in 72 in.; diameter of bore -702 inch; 1The percussion principle, invented by the Rev. Alexander John Forsyth (1768-1843) in 1805, was not accepted for military arms until the introduction of this rifle. A small and belated money grant was made to Forsyth in 1843. See Major-General A. J. F. Reid's memoir of Forsyth (1910). charge of powder 2j drs., and sighted from i-x> to 1000 yds The form of its bullet was at first conoidal, aftei wards changed to cylindro-conoidal, with a hemispherical iron cup. In 1855 the Enfield rifle, having in a series of trials compe. ed favourably with the Minie and Lancaster rifles, was introduced into the British army; it was used during the latter part of the Crimean war, having there replaced the Mini6 rifle and tl'e percussion musket, and remained the general weapon of the er tire infantry until the introduction of the breech-loader in the year 1867. This rifle weighed, with bayonet, 9 Ib 3 oz., barrel 39 in.; diameter of bore -577 in.; three-grooved, with one turn in 78 in. It fired a bullet of cylindro-conoidal form with hollow base, weighing 530 grains, made up into cartridges and lubricated as for the Minie rifle, adapted to this rifle by Pritchett, who was awarded £1000 by the Government. This bullet was wrapped in greased paper round the cylindrical part half-way up its length. Short rifles of the same pattern, with five-grooved barrels 2 ft. 9 in. long and a sword bayonet, were supplied to the 6oth Rifles and to the Rifle Brigade. Two small carbines of the same principle were at this time introduced for the cavalry and artillery, also a rifled pistol. In 1854, on the suggestion of General Lord Hardinge, Sir Joseph Whitworth, the first mechanician of the day, began to consider the subject of rifling, and after a long series of experi- ments the Whitworth rifle was produced with hexagonal bore, •45-in. calibre, and with one turn in 20 in. It was tried at Hythe in 1857, and completely defeated the Enfield rifle up to 1800 yds. upon a fixed rest. This trial and Whitworth's experi- ments proved the advantages of a sharp twist, a smaller bore, and elongated projectile; but Whitworth's rifle was never adopted into the Government service, probably because the hexagonal rifling wore badly, and owing to the difficulty of equal mechanical perfection in all similar rifles and ammunition. Several improvements were subsequently made in the sighting, grooving and some other details of the Enfield rifle. In 1855 a boxwood plug to the bullet was used. Between 1857 and 1861 four breech-loading carbines were experimentally introduced in the cavalry — viz. Sharp's, Terry's, Green's, and Westley-Richards'. Sharp's and other breech- loading carbines and also Spencer repeating carbines were used by the Federal cavalry in the American Civil War. The general adoption of the breech-loading principle may be said to date from 1867. The Prussians were the first to see its great advantages, and about 1841 had adopted the cele- brated needle-gun (?.».), a bolt-action weapon. In 1864 and 1866 committees were appointed by the British War Office to report on breech-loading arms, and after protracted experiments, Jacob Snider's method of conversion of the muzzle - loading En- field to a breech- loader (fig. i) was adopted, with the me- tallic cartridge - case improved in i86^by Colonel Boxer, R A. FlG , ._Snider R!fle. (Text Book of Small All available En- Arms> by ^^^ Of the Controller, field rifles were thus H.M. Stationery Office.) converted, and new arms made with steel barrels instead of iron. Great Britain was the first to adopt for her army a breech-loading RIFLE 327 rifle with metallic cartridge-case, which secured the perfect obturation of the breech. The Snider breech was a hinged block, a type much in favour at the time. The French simil- arly converted their muzzle-loaders, the converted weapon being known as the Tabatiere or snuff-box. Other breech actions on the same principle were the Austrian Werndl and the Bavarian Podewils and Werder rifles. But these were only transitional arms. In 1866 France adopted the bolt-action Chassep6t (?.».); in 1867 Sweden the Hagstrom, and Russia the Carte; in 1868 Italy the Carcano. All these were breech- loaders firing paper cartridges containing their own means of ignition. After further experiments by a fresh committee the Martini-Henry rifle (fig. 2) was definitely adopted by the British FIG. 2. — Martini-Henry. Government in 1871, with the short chamber Boxer-Henry ammunition. This rifle was a combination of Martini's block- action breech mechanism with Henry's barrel of -45-in. calibre, firing a papered bullet of 480 grains from Boxer cases with a wad of wax lubrication at base of bullet, as proposed by Henry. The Henry rifling had seven grooves with one turn in 22 in.; the lands and the centres of the grooves were contained in the same circle. About the same time or a little later the various powers re-armed their infantry with breech-loaders of different patterns and names, all of which were of about n mm. (-433 in.) calibre, and nearly all of the bolt-action type. The next stage in the history of military firearms was the introduction of the repeating or magazine system. The Winchester rifle, an American invention which appeared in 1865, was one of the earliest magazine rifles. This weapon was used by Turkey to some extent in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, but Germany was the first great power to provide its army with a magazine rifle. In 1884 it converted the 1871 pattern Mauser of -443 -in. bore into a magazine rifle, holding eight cartridges in a tube magazine in the fore end. In 1885 France followed with the Lebel, which had an enormous advantage in its smokeless powder. In 1886 the question of the best calibre for small arms was reopened in England. In this year, 1886, Austria had adopted a Mannlicher rifle, -433 bore, with a straight- pull bolt. This rifle was the first adopted by any European nation embodying Lee's box magazine, an invention patented in 1879 and 1882, and consisting of a box, in rear of and below the entrance to the chamber, containing the cartridges. Another important improvement, the steel clip loader containing five cartridges, was also introduced with this rifle. In 1888 these rifles were converted to .315 bore, firing black powder cartridges; and in 1890, on the introduction of smokeless powder, the sights were re-graduated. In 1887 the British Small Arms Committee, after experiments with the small-calib're rifle invented in 1883 by the Swiss Major Rubin, director of the Federal laboratory at Thun, recommended the small calibre for adoption into the British service. The essential features of Rubin's system were the employment of a compound bullet with a leaden core in a copper envelope, and the use of a compressed charge of black powder. In 1888 a pattern of -303-^. calibre rifle, rifled on the Metford system and with the improved Lee bolt and maga- zine, was approved for trial by British troops. The Metford rifling is as follows: — diameter of bore, -303 in.; depth of rifling, •004 in.; width of lands, -023 in.; twist of rifling, one turn in 10 in. (left-hand) ; radial grooves, seven in number. About 1862, and later, W. E. Metford had carried out an exhaustive series of experiments on bullets and rifling. He invented the important system of light rifling, with increasing spiral with a hardened bullet. The Metford match rifle was prominent in all N.R.A. competitions from 1871 to 1894. In 1887 he laid down for the Small Arms Committee the proper proportions for the grooving, spiral and cartridge chamber of the -303 military rifle. This weapon proved satisfactory and was adopted by the War Office as the Lee-Metford rifle, Mark I., in December 1888. It had a magazine of eight cartridges. In 1891 the Mark II. pattern was approved, with a ten-cartridge magazine, a simpli- fied bolt, and many minor improvements. A magazine carbine with barrel 21 in. long and a six-cartridge magazine, otherwise identical with the Lee-Metford Mark II., was also approved. The Lee-Metford Mark II. rifle was subsequently further im- proved in its rifling to resist the wear of smokeless powder, and also in its bolt action, and became known as the Lee-Enfield rifle, and under that name was officially adopted as the rifle of the British army. The number of grooves were reduced from seven to five. Neither the Lee-Metford nor the Lee-Enfield has increasing spiral grooves, which are found inconvenient for military arms from a manufacturing point of view.1 The L.M. and L.E. carbines are similar to the shorter models of the rifles, but are covered for the whole length of the barrel by a wooden handguard and take only six cartridges; the fore-sights are protected by wings on the nose-cap, and the long-range sights are omitted. These, as also the Martini-Metford and Martini-Enfield carbines (falling-block action small-bores), have practically been replaced by the "short" rifle described below. The efficiency of the modern small-bore magazine rifle is largely due to the production of smokeless nitro-compound powder. France was the first country to adopt, about 1885, a smokeless powder with the Lebel magazine rifle. It was known as " Vieille " powder, or " Poudre B " (after General Boulanger). Since then smokeless explosives have been universally adopted in all small-bore magazine military rifles. The smokeless explosive known as " Cordite "or" Cordite M.D." (see CORDITE) is used for the cartridges of the Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield rifles and rifle-calibre machine guns. (H. S.-K.) Military Rifles of To-day. — About 1900, the various armies were equipped with weapons of nearly equal efficiency. The weights varied between 8J and 9^ fo, the lengths between 49 and 52 in.; the calibres were -315, -311, -303, with one or two -256. None of the rifles were sighted to less than 2000 yds., and nearly all had a " fixed " or " battle " sight. All were bolt-action rifles, and had a muzzle velocity of about 2000 f.s. (the -256 Mannlichers, about 2300 f.s.). Except France, with the tube-magazine Lebel, Denmark and the U.S.A. with the horizontal-box Krag-Jorgensen, and Great Britain, all nations used multiple-loading by clip or charger. With Lebel and Krag-Jorgensen weapons, multiple-loading is a practical im- possibility, but in Great Britain the charger was deliber- ately rejected. It was desired to use the rifle normally as a 1 Of all modern military rifles, the Italian 1891 weapon alone has an increasing twist. RIFLE single-loader, and to reserve the magazine (which held ten cartridges, or twice as many as the multiple-loading Mausers, Mannlichers, &c.) for emergencies. But from about 1903 this equivalence of infantry weapons began to be disturbed by two new influences: the tendency towards a " short " rifle, and the introduction of the pointed bullet. In the first, Switzerland took the lead with the short Schmidt- Rubin in looo. But amongst the greater powers, England and the United States alone have followed her example. At the close of the South African War Great Britain issued looo short Lee-Enfield rifles experimentally, and in 1903 the " short rifle " was actually approved and issued generally. Since then it has been improved in details. The barrel was shortened by 5 in., multiple-loading by charger was introduced, and by the Musketry Regulations of 1909 magazine fire was laid down as the normal, single-loading being forbidden. The change met with very considerable opposition, especially from target-shooting experts, who maintained that a long rifle, so perfected in details as to be equal to the short in every point except in length, must be more accurate. The view of the military authorities, which was maintained in spite of criticism, was that for service purposes, and especially for prolonged snap-shooting, the handier weapon was preferable. One important factor in the decision was the desire to give the cavalry a weapon with which, when dismounted, it could fight the infantry rifle on equal terms. A more serious objection than that of want of superfine accuracy in bull's-eye shooting was the loss of 5 in. of reach in bayonet fighting. This objec- tion was met in 1907 by the introduction of a new pattern bayonet with a blade 5 in. longer. In 1908 the long Lee- Enfield and Lee-Metford rifles in store were converted for charger-loading (fig. 3), fitted with safety catches and FIG. 3. — Charger-loading L.E. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) new sights, and issued to the infantry of the Territorial Force in 1909 and 1910. For target purposes many rifle shots prefer this converted weapon to the short rifle (fig. 4). FIG. 4.— L.E. Short Rifle. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) The United States in 1904 replaced the Krag-Jorgensen (hand- loading horizontal magazine) by the short Springfield. A sort of spring bayonet was at first fitted to this rifle, but it was soon replaced by an ordinary sword bayonet. The pointed bullet (" Spitz-geschoss " or " S ") was introduced by Germany in 1905, and her example was quickly followed by France (balle D) and other powers. Its advantage is a considerable flattening of the trajectory, chiefly on account of the lessened resistance of the air. This latter allows of a reduction in the sectional density and consequently in the weight of the bullet. Thus velocities up to 2900 foot-seconds are realized, which enables the " dangerous space " to be very greatly augmented (see fig. 20). The "fixed sight" range with the " S" bullet is 700 yds., as against the Lee-Enfield's 500. It was announced in the House of Commons in 1910 that a modified bullet was being experimented with, and that some increase in the fixed-sight range was expected to be obtained, but the relatively weak breech action of the Lee-Enfield — which is due chiefly to the rearward position of the locking lugs — does not allow designers much freedom in the matter of increasing velocities, as the chamber pressure has to be kept low. It will be seen from the table that other rifles are constructed to stand a much higher pressure. But both these improvements are destined to be eclipsed in importance by the adoption of the automatic rifle. The application of the automatic principle to the modern high- velocity small-arm of precision has been occupying the attention of the small-arms experts of all armies and of numerous private inventors for some years past. These numerous attempts have, in the case of the rifle, been largely doomed to failure because of the necessary limitations of space and weight; although the automatic principle has been successfully applied both to machine guns (}.».) and to pistols (q.v.). In these weapons the work of extracting the empty cartridge-case, re-loading and re-cocking, is accomplished either by the motive power of the recoil or of the gas generated by the explosion of the powder, thus enabling a rapid and continuous fire to be maintained to the full capacity of the weapon's magazine. In the case of machine guns the firing also is automatic, but self- firing rifles are not very desirable as infantry weapons and in addition are so heavy as to approximate to machine guns. Of the recoil-operated class of automatic rifles there are two subdivisions, " short-recoil " and " long-recoil. " In the former, which is most favoured by inventors, the barrel, body and bolt recoil together for a short distance, about j in., in which space the bolt is unlocked, and the bolt then recoils freely in the body. The bolt is run forward in reloading by a spring. In the long-recoil type the barrel, body and bolt recoil the whole distance, and the barrel and body are run up by one spring, the bolt by another. Several such rifles have been shown at the N.R.A. meetings at Bisley; the Rexer, Mauser and Woodgate rifles being on the long-recoil, the Halle on the short- recoil principle. Gas-operated rifles, like the Hotchkiss and Colt machine guns, have fixed barrels and are worked by a portion of the powder-gases which is allowed to escape from the barrel through a small hole near the muzzle, thence entering a cylinder and working a piston in connexion with the breech mechanism. No automatic rifle has as yet (August 1910) been issued as a service weapon by any power, the problem of ensuring certainty in action under service conditions — i.e. with grit and dirt in the working parts — being the principal difficulty. Great Britain. — There are two principal types of Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield rifles in the service, the " short " and the " charger- loading." The former is carried by all units (cavalry included) of the regular army, by the yeomanry cavalry of the Territorial Force, and by units of the Officers' Training Corps. The latter is used by the infantry of the Territorial Force. There exist, further, the older, non-charger-loading Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield rifles, a few carbines of the same type, and some Martini-Metford and Martini-Enfield carbines which have the -303 barrel and cartridge with the falling-block Martini action. -45 Martini-Henry rifles and carbines, and even Sniders, are still used by local police forces in some of the smaller colonies. The " long " charger-loading Lee-Enfield is converted from earlier patterns by the addition of a 'charger guide, the stripping of the bolt-cover, and improvements in the sighting. The action of the breech mechanism ' is as follows (the breech mechanism of the " short " rifle being practically the same) : The breech is closed by a bolt (I) which slides in a bolt-way cut in the body; the bolt-head (lo) abuts against the base of the cartridge when the rifle is loaded, and when the knob is turned down the whole is locked. On the right side of the bolt is a solid rib, and on the left side a lug; these support the bolt on firing by contact with the " resisting shoulder on the right, and the rear face of the " lug seating " on the left of the body. Underneath the bolt there are two recesses and two studs. The bolt-head is screwed to the bolt and is fitted with an extractor claw. The bolt-head, instead of being rigidly attached to the bolt, is so far independent that it remains stationary while the bolt is revolved. Inside the bolt is the arrangement of striker (V) and spring (W), and at its rear end, forming the working connexion between trigger and striker, is the " cocking- piece " (X) which 4s fitted with a safety-catch (not in the old pattern rifle illustrated). This cocking-piece (which cannot turn) has a long tongue projecting to the front, lying along the under side of the bolt, and the front end of this tongue (Y), called the " full-bent," 1 The annexed figures show the old pattern weapon. In both the existing patterns a safety catch is fitted, the magazine spring is of a different shape and there is no bolt-cover. But the essential parts of the action remain the same. RIFLE 329 engages the nose of the trigger sear when the weapon is loaded (a groove in the tongue, called the " half-bent " (Z), serves as a half- cock arrangement, and could be used as a safety-catch if the proper safety-catch were damaged). The trigger sear (K) is a bell-crank lever, the upper long arm of which is put in and out of contact with the " full-bent," and the lower or short arm is connected to the trigger. The magazine holds ten cartridges, which rest on a platform, underneath which is the magazine spring that pushes the platform and cartridges up. A " cut-off " is fitted in the " long " and in some marks of the " short " rifle. This is a sort of lid to the magazine, enabling the magazine to be kept full while the rifle is being used as a single loader. But the present musketry regula- tions forbid single-loading, and the cut-off is now only closed for special purposes, such as unloading a single cartridge (miss-fire, &c.) without unloading the magazine. The magazine is loaded by FIGS. 7 and 8. — Lee-Metford. inserting a charger in the " charger guides " (these, attached to the body, form a sort of bridge over the bolt) and forcing down the strip of cartridges into the magazine (charger guides not shown in diagrams). The action of the mechanism is as follows: Suppose that the rifle has been fired and the magazine is full. On beginning to turn up the knob of the bolt, the Tatter is revolved, but the cocking-piece (the tongue being held by a groove in the body) and the bolt-head remain stationary. Soon, however, a cam on the bolt comes in contact with a stud on the cocking-piece and the latter is brought slightly to the rear, pulling in the point of the striker and partly compressing the spring. At the same time the lug on the left of the bolt, in contact with the front face of a recess in the body (both being cut slantwise to a screw pitch), forces the bolt and with it the claw of the extractor, which grips the base of the cartridge-case, to slide backwards a little. As the bolt con- tinues to turn the rib on the right of it comes up clear of the body and the whole bolt, with the bolt-head, can thus be drawn back until the bolt-head comes against the resisting shoulder on the right of the body and the extractor attached to it flings out the fired cartridge-case. Another cartridge then comes up from the magazine and lies in front of the bolt-head ready to be pushed home. At this moment (the beginning of loading) the stud on the cocking- piece has fallen into one of the grooves on the bolt, and as the bolt is pushed forward the tongue or full-bent comes against the nose of the trigger sear and is held there, while the rest of the boh mechanism goes on. Thus between the moving bolt and the fixed cocking-piece the striker spring is further compressed, and when the sloping faces of the bolt lugs and ribs engage the resisting portion* of the body a last forward push is given to the bolt and the spring is completely compressed, ready to propel the striker forward when the full-bent is released from the nose of the sear. Figs. 5-8 of the older pattern rifle show the working of the breech mechanism. Instead of the older single pull-off of the trigger the "short" rifle, like many Continental weapons, has a double pull-off. This is provided for by suitably shaping the portion of the trigger which is in contact with the short arm of the sear. The " short " rifle has also a somewhat different pattern of safety-catch. The sights of British service rifles up to 1903 were of a very simple type, the fore-sight a " barleycorn " of triangular shape, and the back-sight a plain leaf with slid- ing bar into which a V was cut, the tip of the fore-sight seen in the middle of the V being brought on to the mark. In the long charger-loader this form of back-sight has been greatly modified, and in the " short " rifle it has been alto- gether abolished. The barleycorn fore-sight has been replaced in both cases by an upright blade, protected from injury by two ears or wings, and the V by a U aperture. For elevation the long rifle has still a slide on a vertical leaf, but the movement of this slide is controlled no longer merely by its tight fit but by a clamping screw. The sight of the short rifle is larger and also quite different in appearance and principle. There is a leaf and on it a slide, but the slide (controlled by clamping studs) works on a Cam-shaped bed; its position on the leaf, affecting the point of contact with the cam- shaped bed, elevates the leaf to the required amount, the actual sighting U being on the extremity of the leaf. The short rifle has also a ' fine adjustment " which admits of minor changes of eleva- tion within the usual 50 yds. graduation. Both the long and the short rifles have " wind-gauges," or mechanisms for fine lateral adjustment of the central U sighting aperture, so as to point the axis of the barrel a little to the left or the right of the line of sight to compensate for wind, error of the individual rifle, &c. In both rifles, on the left side of the stock, is a long-distance sight (graduated to 2800 yds.), which consists of an aperture sight near the bolt and a dial and movable pointer near the hand-guard. The short rifle is cased from breech to muzzle in a wooden hand-guard ; all patterns of long^ rifle have only a short wooden hand-guard just behind the back-sight bed. _The bayonet in the long nfle is secured to the fore-end by a spring catch and to the barrel by a ring passing over the muzzle. This traditional, and still usual, arrangement has been abandoned in the short rifle, as the vibration of the barrel on discharge is more or less checked by the extra weight of the bayonet, and therefore the shooting of the rifle differs according as it is fired with or without the bayonet fixed. With the short rifle the bayonet is fixed to two metal fastenings, a plug for the ring and a catch for the handle. Continental European Rifles. — These are for the most part of the Mauser and the Mannlicher types. The Mauser is a bolt weapon with box magazine. The bolt is simple, without separate bolt- head, and is held by two bolt-lugs at its front end engaging with recesses in the body (the German Mauser has an extra lug near the rear end). Near the rear end there is a cam-shaped recess, which, engaging with a stud on the cocking-piece, partially forces back the cocking-piece and spring when the bolt is revolved. When the bolt lever is turned up and the bolt begins to revolve, the cocking- piece and bolt plug, which together form the connexion between the bolt and the trigger, do not revolve, but are forced back slightly, so as to begin the compression of the striker spring. Then, the bolt lever being so shaped as to bear against an inclined-plane edge on the body, the bolt comes back a little, and with it the extractor jaw and the empty cartridge-case. Lastly, when the bolt has turned through a right angle, all studs are opposite their slots and ways in the body, and the bolt can be drawn back. At the farthest rearward position of the bolt the cocking-stud on the cocking-piece is well behind the nose of the trigger sear, and is thus held when the bolt is pushed forward again, the spring being thereby compressed. All Mauser rifles have a safety-catch and a double pull-off. None have cut-offs except the Turkish pattern. All are constructed for clip or charger loading, but the box magazine contains only five cart- ridges as against the Lee-Enfield's ten. Mauser rifles, which are perhaps the strongest and least complicated of magazine arms, are used in the German, Belgian, Spanish, Portuguese and Turkish armies, and were also used by the Boers in the South African War. The type adopted by each of these nations differs from the rest in details only. The German rifle has a long guardless sword bayonet, fixed to the fore-end only and not connected with the barrel, and a peculiar form of back-sight, which bears some resemblance to the xxm. ii a 330 RIFLE slide and bed arrangement of the British " short " rifle. The special I to the change of leverage, power at the commencement and rapidity feature of the Belgian Mauser is a thin steel casing for the barrel, | at the end of the pull. The weapon is a clip loader. The Dutch, FIG. 9. — Belgian Mauser. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) FIG. 90. — Spanish Mauser. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) which is supposed to act as a hand-guard or cooler and to free the barrel from disturbing influences due to its connexion with the fore-end ; but it is expensive, and if strong adds unduly to the weight FIG. 10. — German Mauser, 1898. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) of the weapon. The older German magazine rifle, pattern 1888, had a barrel casing, but this was given up when the new 1898 pattern was introduced. The bayonets of the Belgian and Spanish patterns are very short knives. The Mannlicher rifle, which is extensively used for sporting and target work, has been adopted for military purposes by various states, notably Austria-Hungary. Both the 1890 and FIG. 13. — Mannlicher, 1895. Rumanian and other Mannlichers have not straight-pull bolts, but the usual turn-over levers and locking-lugs. FIG. 14. — Austrian Mannlicher Carbine. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) France. — The breech mechanism of this rifle (see fig. 15) calls for no special remark. Its bolt is very similar to that of the British rifle. Its special peculiarity is the once popular tube magazine under the fore-end. This has many defects as compared with the box magazine. It is more cumbrous for the same number of cart- ridges; its feed and cut-off mechanism is very complicated; the balance of the rifle is altered as the magazine empties; the placing of the cartridges base to point, even when the bullet has a flat point, is not unattended with danger, especially when the magazine is full and the spiral spring strongly compressed; lastly, loading by any form of charger is practically impossible. FIG. 15.— Lebel Rifle. FIG. 1 1.— Austrian Mannlicher, 1895. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) 1895 patterns of Austrian Mannlicher have " straight-pull " bolts; that is, bolts which are not turned for locking. The FIG. 12. — Mannlicher, 1890. bolts are in two parts, which " telescope " into each other. In the 1890 pattern (see fig. 12), when the bolt is home against the cartridge and the " lever cylinder " I', which carries the bolt knob, is further pushed forward, the hinged block K is caused to drop in front of tie resistance-piece Q, and so locks the bolt I against the cartridge. In the 1895 pattern (see fig. 13), the final pushing forward of the lever cylinder causes the head of the bolt I to turn and projections on its head to lock into recesses SS just in rear of the breech. The turning is due to helical feathers (20) on the inside of the lever cylinder I' working in grooves in the rear of the bolt I. The 1890 pattern has a double pull-off. It will be seen from the figure that as the trigger is pulled the bearing is taken first at (8) and then at (9). This gives, owing FIG. 16. — Lebel Rifle. United States. — Up to 1904 the U.S. army had the Krag-Jorgensen rifle, in which, as shown in fig. 17, the magazine was placed hori- zontally under the breech action. At this time most of the second line troops had still the old-fashioned (black powder) Springfield rifle, a single loader with a hinged block similar to the rifles of the " sixties " in Europe, such as the Snider, the Tabatiere and the Werndl.1 Since 1904, however, the regular army has been re-armed with a short rifle (fig. 18) which in its action has a general resem- blance to a Mauser. As at first issued, the new Springfield had a rod bayonet which, when not in use, lay within the fore-end of the stock, and when required was run forward and fastened by a catch. This novelty was, however, soon discarded in favour of a sword bayonet 16 in. long. The United States navy had until about 1900 the Lee " straight-pull " rifle. The Russian " 3-line " and the Japanese 1 The Springfield was, however, a much improved model of this kind of weapon, dating from 1884 only. RIFLE 30th year ' (1900) and " 38th year " (1907) rifles are bolt-action weapons, with no special peculiarities. The Swiss rifle (Schmidt- Rubin) is a remarkable weapon of the straight-pull type, short, and possessing a relatively low velocity. (X.) FIG. 17. — Krag-Jorgensen. The Use of Ike Rifle in War.— The study of " musketry " as distinct from target shooting may , be said to date from the Franco- German War. Previously mili- tary students and practical soldiers concerned themselves rather with the tactical question of fire-power — fire versus shock, bullet versus bayonet and so on — FIG. 1 8. — U.S. Short Rifle. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) than with the technical question of its application. This was natural enough in the days of short-range fighting. But when bullets began to cause losses at 1000 yds. and more from the firing point, formations that presented the least vulnerable target had to be discovered and tested, aiming grew more difficult as the range increased, and firing by word of command in large units became practically impos- sible. The very accuracy and range of modern weapons involved new problems. The necessity, in the larger area of effective fire, of setting the sights to the distance of the mark made further demands on fire-discipline and brought up the difficult problem of judging distance. The possibilities of varying the rate of fire conferred by the magazine rifle also demanded close study. Each war, as it came, produced fresh evidence as to what was possible and what was not in matters of fire-control, the best rate of fire for effect, the range at which fire should be opened, and other half-tactical, half- technical problems. Thus, although many points still remain in the region of controversy, certain ideas and principles are almost universally accepted as the basis of service musketry. The leading idea is that of the " cone of dispersion." A modern rifle, even fired from a fixed rest under good conditions, will not place shot after shot in the same spot, but the shot- marks on the target form a more or less close " group." When to this error of the rifle and the ammunition there is added the personal error of the marksman, the group is larger, and in the collective fire of a squad it is larger still. Now the trajectories of bullets that do not strike in the same place naturally do not coincide, and the group on the target is represented in the air by a cone or sheaf of trajectories. The bullets of this sheaf striking the ground on either side of the target form on the ground a much elongated ellipse. The ellipse containing 90 % of the bullets fired is called the beaten zone. It is usual, however, to calculate from the " effective " zone, or that which contains 75% of bullets. Within the " effective " zone, and at its centre, is found the closely grouped " nucleus " of 50% of bullets. With the British -303 rifle in collective fire, the depths of these zones are : — Nucleus. Effective. Beaten. 500 yds. IOOO „ 1500 „ 120 yds. 7° .. 60 „ 220 yds. 120 „ 100 „ 320 yds. I7<> .. 140 „ The target aimed at and sighted for is at the centre of the zone (see fig. 19). The height of the grouping on a vertical target compared to the depth of the grouping on the ground is of course proportionate to the tangent of the angle of descent; hence, small as is the group on a vertical target at 500 yds., the beaten zone is no less than 320 yds. deep. For the same reason, as the range, and consequently the angle of descent, increases, the beaten zone diminishes in depth. Another factor is the " dangerous space." This is the space between " first catch," i.e. the point at which the bullet (in a sheaf, the lowest bullet) comes low enough to catch a man's head, and ." first graze," that at which it strikes the ground. The extent of this dangerous space varies of course with the height of the man's head. In the case of a mounted man, at icoo yds., it is 105 yds., while in that of a sharpshooter lying down, it is only 13 yds. (in addition of course to the beaten zone). As nowadays nearly all targets, on service, are lying or three- quarters concealed figures, the dangerous space as compared with the beaten zone is at such .a range too small to count as a factor. It is, however, important at shorter ranges, 500 yds. and under (700 and under with the new-pointed bullets). Here the advantages of flat trajectory make themselves felt. Within this distance the bullet is at no point in its career too high to be dangerous to a standing man or a horseman. A lying figure is in danger at any distance beyond 350 yds. if the sights are set to 500 yds. (front half of effective zone no yds., dangerous space 52 yds.). This is the theory under- lying the 500 yds. " fixed sight " or " battle-sight," a setting which holds good for all less ranges, and can be put on the rifle instantly and without looking at the back-sight graduations. Sight! 500 yards. •Sights 700 uds. 800 900' I -»«rt/.L*e- Cmfifld,and «a.»' '38 milli-S"bulM IK if It j' above gnuitdl HtiaMi **agtintcJ 30 MM y ®E h Uani- fieight L* >o ' 5( )O 6C O —TOO FIG. 20. — Trajectories. These facts, taken in conjunction with the imperfections of the most skilful individual marksmanship and the chances of wrong estimation of distance, are the basis of the musketry training and practice of to-day. At the School of Musketry, Hythe, the standard of judging distance is " not more than 332 RIFLE DETAILS OF MODERN (From the British official AUSTRIA AND BULGARIA. BELGIUM. DENMARK. GREAT BRITAIN. FRANCE. GERMANY. Pattern of the Year . 1895. 1889. 1889. 1907. 1907. 1886. 1898. Designation .... MANNLICHER. MAUSER. KRAG- JORGENSEN. CHARGER LOADING LEE-ENFIKLD, MARK I. SHORT LEE-ENFIELD, MARE III. LEBEL. MAUSER. Magazine System Box Box Horizontal-box Box Box Tube Box Number of Cartridges in Magazine 5 5 5 10 xo 8 5 Charger or Clip .... Cut off Clip No Yes Ch. No Yes Ch. Yes No Ch. Yes Yes Ch. Yes Yes No Yes" No Ch. No Yes Safety Bolt Weight:— Without bayonet . With bayonet .... s n> sj oz. 8 Ib 15 j oz. 8 Ib ) oz. g 1!) g.j OZ. 9 Ib nj oz. IO Ib 4J OZ. 9 ft» 4 oz. 10 Ib 34 oz. 8 Ib 2} oz. 9 Ib loj oz. 9 !b 3} oz. 10 It) I ^ OZ. 9 Ib. 9 Ib 14 oz. Length: — Without bayonet . With bayonet .... 4 ft. 2 in. 4 ft. 1 1 -5 in. 4 ft. 2-25 in. 4 ft. 11-75 in. 4 ft. 4-75 in. S ft. 3 m. 4ft. 1-5 in. 5 ft. 1-5 in. 3 ft. 8-5 in. 5 ft. 1-7 in. 4 ft. 3-12 in. 5 ft. 11-84 in. 4 ft. I 5 ft. 9' 4 in. 75 in. Barrel:— L"*h ' ' ' {mm. Calibre . . . .in. 30-12 8 •3«5 30-67 7-65 •301 32-9 8 •315 30-19 7-7 •303 25-19 7-7 •303 31-496 8 •315 29-05 7'9 •3«I Rifling:— Number of grooves . Twist (to right, except in Lee-» Enfield and Lebel) i turn in> calibres . . .| 4 31 4 32-5 6 37-5 5 3 5 i 4 30 4 30-2 Sights:— Lowest for .... Highest for .... Cartridge:— Length . . . .in. Weight .... grs. 500 paces (410 yds.) 2600 paces (2132 yds.) 3-0 455 500 m. (547 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 3-055 441 300 m. (328yds.) i goo m. (2078 yds.) 3;o 460 183 m. (200 yds.) 2560 m. (2800 yds.) 3-05 415 250 m. (273 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 2-95 447 415 200 (219 200C (2187 3-22 431 m. rds.) m. yds.) 3-18 369-9 Bullet:— Shape of point Round Round Round Round Round Pointed Round Pointed Material of envelope Steel, lubricated CN. C.N. C.N. c M 5 Copper zinc / no envelope Steel, coated with C.N. Steel, coated > with C.N. J Length . . . .in. Diameter (max.) Weight . . . .grs. 1-24 •3228 244 1-205 •31 • 219 1-187 •323 237 I-JS •3" 215 I-22I I-625 •3223 -327 231 198 1-235 •3189 227 1-105 •323 154-5 Chaine:— Weight . . . .grs. Propellant 4N2:c4 N.G. a3n'd N.C. tfc9S 31-5 Cordite 42-43 46-2 N.C. N.C. ftc5 48-4 N.C. Muzzle Velocity . . . f.s. »°34 2034 1968 2060 2073 2380 2093 2882 Chamber Pressure: — Tons on sq. in. ig-7 19-7 IS-' is-s I7-7S 17-75 21 17-5 too yds. wrong at any range." Now at 1000 yds. an error in judging distance of 13 yds. above or below the true range will cause all the shots of a particular rifle to fall away from the target, and the better the marksman — i.e. the closer his group— the more necessary is perfection in judging distance, a perfection which in reality seems unattainable. The British, musketry regulations therefore lay it down that the individual marksman's fire at service targets is unprofitable at ranges of more than 600 yds. Beyond that distance collective fire, controlled and directed by an officer or non-commissioned officer, is the rule. The question as to whether fire is to be opened in any given set of circumstances is decided by the fire- director, who considers first whether the probable error in judging distance is greater than half of the effective zone for the estimated range. If it is so, he must order " com- bined sights," i.e. half of the units under his command use one elevation, the rest another, which method artificially increases the dispersion of the bullets and thereby the probability of the target being included in the zone. This, however, makes the fire less effective, and in practice cannot profitably be used by any body of rifles of less than 80 or 100. The commander of only a single section, therefore, however tempting the target, must refrain from opening fire at all. At medium ranges, however, controlled and directed fire is effective, and at such ranges troops should still be sufficiently in NOTE. — C.N.= Cupro-nickel. N.G. = Nitro-glycerine. hand to execute the fire-director's orders. Within decisive ranges fire-direction has to give place to fire-control. All that the strongest commander can enforce is the opening and ceasing of fire when he gives the order, and success is sought through making the individual soldier skilful at rapid and snap shooting. Black bull's-eyes on white targets are now used only to teach men to make uniformly good shooting, which is shown by the closeness of the shot-grouping. The rest of the musketry course is fired against grey-green " head and shoulders " targets or brown silhouettes, and consists of slow, rapid and snap shooting, from behind cover, at disappearing or running targets, &c. In 1909 special attention began to be paid to visual training, both as an aid to judging distance and as an actual ingredient of fire-discipline. A method of indicating targets which origin- ated in the French army was adopted and improved upon, consisting essentially of giving two or three conspicuous " auxiliary marks," in artillery language, and naming the target with reference to them. Judging distance is generally associ- ated with fire-distipline practices, and men are frequently exercised in locating and ranging upon a hidden skirmisher, 300-800 yds. away. Perhaps the most important modifica- tion of musketry training, within recent years, has been the adoption of rapid fire in " bursts," as the normal procedure for infantry, instead of slow continuous fire. The complete cessation of fire at intervals enables the leaders to observe the RIFLE 333 MILITARY MAGAZINE RIFLES. Text Book of Small Arms, 1909.) GREECE. HOLLAND. ITALY. JAPAN. PORTUGAL. RUMANIA. RUSSIA. SPAIN. SWITZER- LAND. TURKEY. UNITED STATES. 1903. 1895. 1891. 1907. 1904. 1893. 1894. .896. 1900. .893. 1904. MANNLICHKR- SCUONAUER. MANNLICHER. MANNUCHER- CARCANO. YEAR '38. MAUSER- VERCUIERO. MANNLICIIER. " 3-Lmz " NAGANT. MAUSER. SCHIIIDT-ROBIN SHORT RIFLE. MAUSER. SHORT SpRj.scriEU). Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box 5 S 6 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 Ch. No Yes Clip No Yes Clip No Yes Ch. No Yes Ch. No Yes Clip No Yes Ch. No Yes Ch. No Yes Ch. No Yei Ch. Yes Yes Ch. Yes Yes 8 Ib sH oz. 9 Ib 9 Ib II oz. 10 Ib 6K oz. 8 Ib 6Ji oz. 9 ft) 3 oz. 8 Ib 10 oz. 9 Ib 9 oz. 8 Ib. 13 oz. 9 Ib. 9% oz. 8 Ib I2KOZ. 9 Ib vYi oz. 8 Ib isK oz. 9 Ib II>4 OZ. 9 Ib 6K oz. 10 Ib i'/i oz. 8 ft KOI. 8 Ib ioK oz. 9 ft i oz. 10 Ib 8 oz. 8 ft 8oz. 9 IbSoz. 4ft.. 4 ft. 10 in. 4 ft. 3 in. 5 ft. 0-75 in. 4 ft. 2-75 in. 5 ft. 2-375 in. 4 ft. 2-75 in. S ft. 5-75 in. 4ft. 4 ft. n^ in. 4 ft. 0-5 in. 4 ft. 10-25 in. 4 ft. 3-875 in. 5 ft. 9 in. 4 ft. 0-625 in. 4 ft. 10-5. in. 3 ft. 7-12 in. 4 ft. 10-75 in. 4 ft. 0-6 in. 5 ft. 6-6 in. 3 ft. 7-21 in. 4 ft. 11-21 in. 18-56 6-5 •256 31-125 6-5 •256 30-75 6-5 , •256 31-3 6-s •256 29-08 6'5 * •256 28-56 6'5* •256 31-5 7-62 •3 29-031 '-2,6 23-33 7-5 •295 29-134 7-65 •301 23-79 762 •30 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 tvi 32-2 30-7 30-76 30-8 31-6 31-4 36 33-2 200 m. (219 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 200 m. (219 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 600 m. (656 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 400 m. (437 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 200 m. (219 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 500 m. (547 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 400 paces (310 yds.) 2700 paces. (2096 yds.) 400 m. (437 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 300 m. (328 yds.) 1 200 m. (1312 yds.) 250 m. (273 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 183 m. (200 yds.) 2187 m. (2850 yds.) J'°S 3-05 338 3-0 331-8 2-98 348-S 3-26 3-05 35° 3-02S 363 3-08 373-5 3-043 434 3-07 416 3-33 302 Round 5 Steel, coated ( withCN. I-I24 •263 JS9-3 Round Steel, coated / with C. N. J 1-23 •2637 162- Round CN. 1-182 •266 163-0 Round Copper 1-28 •26 162-9 Round »55-3 Round C.N. 1-244 •2637 162 Round C.N. 1-194 •308 214 Round CN. 1-2X •2843 172-8 Round r Nickel plated < steel envelope ( over point 1-18 •319 212-5 Round 15 Steel, coated ( with C. N. I-2I2 •3" 211-3 Pointed C.|N. pointed 1-08 •308 ISO A fc6 30-09 Balistite 32-0 N.C. 31-8 N.G. and N.C. ' N'C. 33 Pyroxiline 38-3S N.C. 30-7 N.C. 4O-2 N.C. so Pyro-cellulose 2223 2433 2395 2396 2347 2400 1985 2296 1920 2066 2600 20- 1 3 17-1 •• 17-47 22-3 17-1 19-7 1978 N.C.=.Nitro-cellulose. progress of the engagement, to change their target, to economize ammunition, to select the ground for the next rush and the next burst of fire, and to regain control of the men, whom a prolonged fire-fight hypnotizes and rivets to the ground. The chief use of " slow " fire, which is generally employed by skir- mishers working in pairs, is to keep the enemy under; the storm of well-directed " rapid fire " the fire-director should hold in his own hands, ready to release it at the right moment. Slow fire averages 3 rounds a minute, rapid (aimed) 8-12. The con- figuration of the ground has often a great influence on fire effect. If the target is on a sharp forward slope, the beaten zone is greatly diminished in depth, ranging errors are no longer neutra- lized by the flatness of trajectory and (the bullets meeting the ground at a steeper angle) the dangerous space is reduced; if, on the other hand, the slope descends gently in rear of the target so that the falling bullets instead of making a pattern upon the ground, skim along' parallel to the surface, the zone is increased. For instance, at 1500 yds., if there is a reverse slope of about 5° in rear of the target the depth of the beaten zone is tenfold that of the zone for the same range on level ground. Similarly if the target is on the crest of a hill and the firers below, the " over " half of the cone of fire may graze the reverse slope or pass far above, according as the re- veise slope is gentle or sharp with respect to the (line of sight. The normal position for the firing infantryman in action is lying; the kneeling position is used for firing from behind cover, the sitting for firing down hill. Standing, formerly the usual position, is now employed chiefly for firing behind cover with the rifle rested, and for snap-shooting during an advance when it is undesirable to halt and lie down. As regards cover, it may be mentioned that well-covered or intrenched troops generally shoot less accurately than troops in the open, the soldier in security being loth to expose himself long enough to take careful aim. This was particularly noticeable in the Russo-Turkish War, and its effect is to create a zone of unaimed fire behind the assailants' fighting line, which sometimes causes serious losses to his supports and reserves. The relation between the cone of dispersion of peace-time experiments, even when these are specially designed to establish that relation (for example, series fired in France by third-class shots, after a long march without food), has never been satisfactorily estab- lished. An arbitrary figure of one-tenth or one-twentieth of peace-time effect has generally been assumed as representing war results, but some think that however the normal cone may be multiplied or divided, no relation can be found between peace and war effect, and that in battle the brave men aim and fire as if on the practice range, and the rest fire absolutely at hazard. From a musketry point of view, this brings again into the fore- ground the question of distance-judging, as, if the sights be wrongly set, the more accurate the fire the less its effect, and a 334 RIFLE mistake would nullify even the small amount of aimed fire that can be reckoned upon. Peace-time experiments have their value — and it is very great — in establishing data as to the effect of fire on troops in different formations, the limits of permissible error in ranging, &c., on the principle that of two methods, that which is proved to be better in peace would in much the same proportion be found better in war. (C. F. A.) See T. F. Fremantle, The Book of the Rifle; W. W. Greener, The Gun and its Development; the British official Text Book of Small Arms (1909); and Musketry Regulations (1909); C. B. Mayne, Infantry Fire Tactics; and Taffin, " Tir de Combat " (Revue d'infanterie, 1909). Match or Target Rifle. — The sport or pastime of target shooting has many times changed its character, owing to the steady improvement in the rifle and the different ranges or distances at which shooting is practised. Range usually governs the construction of the target rifle, long-range rifles not being necessarily the best weapons for a short range of, say, 200 yds. Limitations — such as the amount of powder charge, weight of bullet and rifle — are also usually imposed in order to place all competitors on equal terms. The long-range match rifle is not the superior of the military rifle as a weapon, but as a scientific shooting instrument is the best small-arm produced. The ordinary target rifle is a hybrid arm, combining the points of the long-range match, modern military and best sporting rifles. The miniature match rifle is used for short-range practice. Shooting at fixed marks has been practised continuously in Switzerland from medieval times. A club (" Societe de 1'harquebuse et de la Navigation ") has existed in Geneva since 1474; and the Zurich " Schutzen-Gesellschaft " since about the same date. It is not clear at what period rifles were introduced in these clubs. From the beginning of the ipth century up to 1844 the rifle generally used in Great Britain had a polygrooved barrel -630 in. in diameter, with spherical ball, and the arm weighed from n to 15 Ib. It was not fired in military fashion, but had a handle extending downwards fixed in front of the trigger-guard, which was grasped by the left hand, the left arm being steadied against the body. This method of shooting is still sometimes followed by Swiss and German riflemen. Target shooting as a sport or business was rarely practised in Great Britain until after the formation of the Volunteer Force in 1859. The inauguration of the " National Rifle Association " in 1860 opened a new and most important era in the history and develop- ment of the rifle. This institution was established " for the en- couragement of rifle corps and the promotion of rifle shooting throughout Great Britain. ... As a national pastime to make the rifle what the bow was in the days of the Plantagenets, the familiar weapon of those who stand forth in the defence of their country." The first meeting of the N.R.A. was held at Wimbledon in 1860. The first shot was fired by Queen Victoria1 from a Whitworth rifle on a machine rest, at 400 yds., and struck the bull's-eye. The Whitworth muzzle-loading rifle won many of the important prizes at this and subsequent meetings prior to 1871. Its most important features, arrived at after exhaustive experiments, were a smaller bore of -450 in., with a twist of rifling of one turn in 20 in., and an elongated mechanically fitting projectile. Long-range rifle construction is also largely indebted to Whitworth for the highly accurate and superior tools and processes introduced by him in this branch of manu- facture. In 1866 and after, Metford's system of hardened expanding bullets and shallow rifling gradually superseded the mechanically fitting system of Whitworth, and the Whitworth rifle gradually lost its position. In 1861, the Henry grooving for a cylindrical 'The "Queen's" or "King's" prize is the highest distinction to which a rifle shot can attain. The competition is one of three stages, the first and second eliminating all but the best 100 com- petitors. The bronze medal of the N.R.A. is awarded to the highest scorer in the first stage, the silver medal to the leader in the second, and the King's prize and N.R.A. gold medal to the winner in the last stage: 71 shots in all are fired at distances up to looo yds., and the winners' scores of late years have been 320 to 325 out of a possible 355. Only the service rifle is allowed. bullet, a modification of the Whitworth, first appeared. In 1864, Rigby, with a five-grooved rifle and a mechanically fitting bullet, tied with the Whitworth rifle in the preliminary rifle trial of the N.R.A. at 1000 yds., and in a subsequent trial took the first place. By 1871 the Whitworth rifle had given place to the Metford system with hardened cylindrical bullets, shallow rifling and increasing spiral. In 1867 the modern breech- loading rifle with a metallic cartridge was first introduced. The Metford system of rifling greatly assisted its development. In this year Rigby also produced a new model long-range rifle designed on the lines followed by Metford. In 1869 the Henry barrel came to the front. In 1870 the Martini-Henry, the new service arm, won the duke of Cambridge's prize, the extreme range in this competition being 800 yds. In 1871 the Snider breech-loader replaced the Enfield muzzle-loader, and the Martini-Henry replaced the Whitworth in the later stages — 800, 900 and icoo yds. — of the Queen's prize. The Metford barrel was also used in breech-loaders, and the duke of Cambridge's prize — for the first time fired at 1000 yds. — fell to it. During the twenty-three years from 1871 to 1894 the Metford military match rifle only four times failed to win this prize, while it took a preponderating share of other prizes. The years 1872 and 1873 marked a decided advance in the military breech- loader, though for fine shooting the muzzle-loader still seemed hard to equal. In 1875 a team of American riflemen first visited Wimbledon with " army-pattern " breech-loading rifles, which were cleaned out after every shot, and met with considerable success. A feature of their shooting was the " back position," then a novelty. In 1877 the superiority of the cleansable and cleansed breech-loader over the increased fouling of the muzzle- loader was clearly demonstrated, though the muzzle-loader did not at once disappear. In 1878 the highest scores ever made with the muzzle-loader in Great Britain were recorded, greater care in cleaning the rifle after every shot being observed. ... In 1883 the N.R.A. Council altered the conditions, wiping out after every shot was forbidden, but muzzle-loaders were not disqualified. The result was that the American type of rifle disappeared. The poor shooting of the Martini at icoo yds. induced the Council to take the retrograde step of reducing the maximum range for the Queen's prize to 900 yds. In 1890 the N.R.A. first met at the new ranges at Bisley. This year was noticeable for the excellent shooting made in the " any " rifle competitions by the Gibbs-Metford match rifle, particularly at 1000 yds. range. The accepted type was -461 calibre; 7 grooves •0045 in. in depth; 80 grains of special black gunpowder, and a bullet of 570 grains. In 1892 and 1893 the Lee-Metford -303 rifle with cordite ammunition was first used by the army teams. In 1890 and later the Hon. T. F. Fremantle, Captain Gibbs and some others used Metford's copper-coated bullets in the Gibbs- Metford rifle with success. In 1895 many match rifle shots followed their example. In 1895 and 1896 the -303 was equalled, and in some instances beaten, by the smaller-calibre Mannlicher rifle. This was partly due to faulty Lee-Metford ammunition. The -303 now proved its superiority to the -450 Martini, especi- ally at the longer ranges. The Bisley meeting of 1896 practically closed the series of contests with both the Martini and the military match rifles. The Volunteers were thenceforth armed with the -303. The results of the Bisley meetings since 1895 have proved that rifles of the -303 class, the British -303 rifle particularly, are not so good for match rifles pure and simple as the larger bores using black powder. The light bullets are more subject to deflection by the wind at long ranges than the heavier speed-retaining bullets of the larger bores. No nitro-powder used appears to have equalled the black powder in regularity of shooting. At the same time the object of the N.R.A. competitions is to encourage the use of the military service rifle in the first place, and in the case of the " any " rifle competitions to encourage the production of weapons of the highest efficiency for military purposes. Acting on these principles the rifles allowed by the N.R.A. regulations (1907) are classed as follows: — Class I.— Service rifle (S.R.): government pattern -303 magazine rifles; RIFLE 335 sights strictly in accordance with service pattern.1 Class II. — Match rifles (M.R.): any breech-loading rifle complying with the following conditions: maximum weight of barrel, 3j Ib; maximum calibre, -325; stock sufficiently strong for service purposes, and without pad or shoe on the heelplate; minimum pull of trigger, 4 Ib; sights, of any description. Class III. — Military breech- loading rifles (M.B.L.); any rifle, that is either (a) the regulation military rifle of any country; or (6) a breech-loading rifle comply- ing with the following conditions: maximum weight, exclusive of bayonet, 8J Ib; maximum calibre, -315; minimum pull of trigger, 4 Ib. Sights may be of any description except telescopic or magnifying, but must be fixed to the barrel and must be strong enough for military purposes. Class IV. — Sporting rifles: calibre, any; minimum pull of trigger, 3 Ib; sights, open or such as are sanctioned by the council or committee. The Lyman back- sight and the Beech combination fore-sight have been sanctioned. No lateral adjustment of fore- or back-sight is permitted. The miniature rifles allowed fall into two classes, " military," with open sights, only, and " any," with no restrictions as to sights except that magnifying and telescopic sights are forbidden. Modern American Target Rifles. — In America, according to some authorities, there are three recognized departments of target shooting — namely off-hand shooting; shooting from a simple rest; and shooting from a machine rest, with telescopic or any other sight. For the first two classes small-bore rifles of -380 calibre or under only are used. The usual weight is from 8 to 10 Ib, with 28- or 3O-in. barrel. Light charges for the shorter ranges are used. In the -380 bore only 55 grains of powder with a 33O-grain bullet is employed. In the second-class contests, from a simple rest, the barrel is longer and the weight increased to just under 1 2 Ib. The bore is generally -380. The usual range is 200 yds. The third-class shooting from a machine rest, generally with telescopic sights, is not much practised. Every kind of rifle is employed, usually of large bore and weighing from 20 to 60 Ib. The long-range breech-loading match rifle, with which so much fine shooting was done when wiping out after each shot was allowed, weighed about 10 Ib; the breech mechanism, any falling block, as the Sharp, Farquhar- son, Deeley, and Edge or Wiley, that admitted the insertion of the cleaning rod at the breech; length of barrel, 32 to 34 in.; seven or more grooves -003 to -005 in depth with a complete turn in 20 in. A sharp continual spiral and very shallow grooves constituted the feature of the American plan. Rigby's plan was similar, with one turn in 18 in. and eight grooves, the lands being about half the width of the grooves. In the Wiley the grooves were fewer and wider. The Metfoid is an increasing twist, starting with one turn in 60 in. and finishing with one in 20, or sharper. The usual bore of the American long- range rifle was -458 or -461; powder, 76 grains of special " foul- ing " rifle powder; elongated cylindrical bullet of 540 grains. The pull-off was under 3 Ib. During recent years smaller-bore smokeless-powder rifles have also been used. Continental Match Rifles. — The target rifle used by continental maiksmen for medium ranges is a modification of the old pattern Swiss rifle, with scroll guard, hollowed butt plate and hair trigger. This latter, a mechanical device to free the tumbler from the sear without sufficient pull on the trigger to influence the aim, is disallowed in military arms. Sporting Rifles. — Prior to 1845 smooth-bore guns with double charge of powder and an ounce spherical ball were generally preferred to rifles for sporting purposes and for large game; i6-bore muzzle-loading rifles were occasionally used by British sportsmen in the East Indies before that date, firing 1 1 drs. of powder with a spherical ounce ball. These rifles were sighted to 200 yds., but the trajectory was high and the penetration weak; they were also difficult to load when foul. The twist of the rifling was also too rapid, causing the bullet to strip with heavy charges of powder. According to Captain Forsyth and others, up to 1860 there was no known rifle suitable 1 The N.R.A. have recently sanctioned the use of the aperture sight in service rifles, provided it be attached to the weapon by the hinge-pin which fastens the ordinary folding leaf. for sporting purposes in India. Rifles of i2-bore gauge, firing a spherical ball, were subsequently made, with broad and shallow grooves making one turn in 10 ft. The bullet, of the same diameter as the bore, was loaded with a thin patch that took the grooving. These rifles proved very successful, possessing velocity equal to a smooth-bore of the same calibre, accuracy for sporting distances, flat trajectory and great striking power. In 1855 W. Greener produced the " Cape rifle " for South African sport, calibre -450 or -500; rifling, two deep grooves with one turn in 26 in., with a flanged bullet to fit the grooves; weight, 12 Ib; sighted up to 1200 yds. This rifle was successful, and others were built by Purdey, who in 1856 named the pattern " Express Train." Since that date the word " express " has been generally used to denote a rifle possessing high velocity, flat trajectory and long fixed-sight range.2 In America small-bore rifles were used earlier in the 1 9th century. The celebrated Kentucky rifles were of various sizes, firing spherical balls of 90, 60 and 40 to the Ib, and were renowned for their accuracy and fixed-sight range up to 100 yds. Some maintain that the express rifle was developed from the Kentucky model. The modern express rifle may be defined as a breech-loading rifle with a height of trajectory not exceeding 4$ in. at 150 yds., with a muzzle velocity of at least 1750 f.s. These rifles are usually 5- to 7-grooved, double-barrelled, with 26- to 28-in. barrels of -360, -400, -450, •500 and -577 bores, weighing respectively from 6J to 7 Ib, 7 to 8 Ib, 7$ to 9 ft, 8J to 10 ft and ioj to 12 ft. The re- spective average charges are: bullet, 150 grains; powder, 50 grains; 209 and 82; 270 and no; 340 and 130; 520 and 160; the fixed-sight ranges, 130, 160, 150/130 and 120 yds. Double and single express rifles of -303 bore with 26-in. barrels are also made. Since the invention of cordite powder and the advent of the small-bore high-velocity rifle for military purposes, the variety of sporting rifles with different-sized bores has increased. Sporting cordite express rifles are now made, both single- and double-barrelled, of the following calibres: -256, -265, -276, •3°3. -31°, -360, -370, -375, -400, -450, -500, -577 and -600. Some of these calibres, such as -500, -577 and -600, are seldom used with cordite. The -450 cordite express is the largest bore high- velocity rifle recommended. The modern . small-bore military rifle already described possesses all the best qualities of an express sporting rifle — namely accuracy, flat trajectory, high muzzle velocity and long point-blank or fixed-sight range up to 200 yds. The muzzle velocity of the -303 bore with black powder is 1850 f.s.; with cordite, 2100 f.s. The hollow-pointed or slit expanding bullet is generally used in these high-velocity rifles, as in the black- powder express, for ordinary sporting purposes, with the solid metal cartridge-case. The pointed bullet is also sometimes used, generally with the -375 and -475 calibre rifles, and gives an increased muzzle velocity of 2500 f.s. The trajectory of the cordite rifle is stated to be 10 in. flatter at 200 yds. than that of a black-powder rifle of similar calibre and corresponding charge. The variety of bores in sporting rifles is due largely to restrictions on the importation of arms of the military calibres (especially •303) into India and South Africa. The sights of sporting express rifles are of some variety, and are usually designed and made with special care. The open V * The term " point-blank range " is often used in this connexion. Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as " point-blank range," the bullet commencing to drop immediately it leaves the muzzle of the rifle. The path or trajectory of the bullet if fired horizontally is therefore always a downward curve. The higher the muzzle velocity the flatter is this curve. The " fixed-sight," or so-called " point-blank " range, is usually taken at such range, generally loo yds. with black powder, and with such elevation as render the amount of drop of the bullet or curve of its path practically imma- terial for sporting purposes, say a maximum of 4! in. At shorter range this curve would therefore take the bullet so much above the line of fixed-sight aim, and must where necessary be allowed for. With the high-velocity small-bore rifle the fixed-sight range can be increased to 200 yds. for the sporting rifle; and for military purposes in the field to 500 yds. and (with pointed bullets) even more. 33^ RIFLEMAN-BIRD back-sight on an ivory pyramid with two or three leaves up to 300 yds., and the enamelled bead fore-sight, are the most usual form. The more elaborate Lyman and Beech peep-sights are also popular. One or two varieties of telescope sight, attachable to the barrel, are also made by some leading gunmakers, and have been used with success in the field. Solid-drawn brass cartridge-cases are now always used for sporting rifles, except occasionally for some of the larger bores, in which paper car- tridges may be used. The peculiarity of the express bullet is its hollow point, which is intended to ensure the expansion of the projectile on impact. This diminishes its penetration, but translates its velocity or energy into " shock." If greater penetration is needed, the leaden bullet is hardened with mercury or tin, or the military nickel-coated bullet is used. Explosive bullets filled with detonating powder were at one time used in express and large-bore rifles for large game. These are now practically abandoned, owing to their uncertainty of action and the danger in handling them. The use of the large 4- and 8-bore black-powder rifles is restricted to the hunting of large and dangerous game. These are usually double-barrelled. The 4-bore weighs from 14 to 18 tt> with 2o-in. barrels, and fires a charge of 12 to 14 drs. of powder, with a spherical bullet of 1510 grs. The great weight of this rifle is against its general use. The 8-bore rifle weighs from iij to 15 Ib with 20- to 24-in. barrels, with a charge of 8 to 12 drs. of powder with a spherical ball. These rifles are accurate and effective up to 120 yds. Rook and rabbit rifles are usually single- barrel breech-loading rifles of from -220 to -380 bore, hammerless, ejectors. The range is ordinarily restricted to 200 yds. Combined rifles and shot-guns are generally used in countries where the kind of game to be met with is not known beforehand, and by emigrants who can only afford one gun. These weapons are double-barrelled (-450 rifle barrel and i6-bore short barrel; or -500 rifle and i2-bore shot). Such a gun has many drawbacks, being too heavy for a shot-gun and too light for a rifle, with a bad balance. More modern combinations of the rifle and shot-gun are Holland's " Paradox," a smooth bore with the last three inches of the barrel ratchet-rifled, Lancaster's " Colindian " twisted oval bore, and Bland's " Euoplia " with " invisible " undulating rifling. All these weapons fire heavy bullets more or less accurately up to loo yds., are also used as shot-guns, and are made double- or single-barrelled and of various calibres, i2-bore being the most common. There is also Greener's " under and over," the rifle barrel being topmost (usually i6-bore shot-gun barrel and -450 rifle barrel). The Morris tube also enables a shot-gun to be utilized as a small-bore rifle or a large rifle as a saloon rifle fdr gallery practice. The automatic principle has not yet been applied to sporting rifles. Miniature Rifles. — In 1905 a War Office miniature or cadet rifle for instruction purposes was officially adopted by the British military authorities. The details of this rifle were determined by a committee, upon which the National Rifle Association and the Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs were represented. It is a single-loading bolt-action rifle of -22 calibre with military sights (the aperture sight being barred), shooting a rim-fire cartridge having a 4O-gr. bullet propelled by 5 grs. of black gunpowder or its equivalent in some smokeless explosive. It is used at ranges from 25 yds. up to a maximum of 200 yds. The official adoption of such a rifle was largely due to the civilian rifle club movement, which was the outcome of the South African War, and in which the Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs has played an important part. Until the recent official adoption of the miniature rifle, the council of the N.R.A. regarded marksmanship with the service rifle as its main object of en- couragement, and the service rifle itself as the orthodox weapon. The Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs, on the other hand, makes the encouragement of the use of low-power rifles its special object, with few restrictions as to type of sights, rifle or ammuni- tion. Numerous civilian rifle clubs have adopted the -22 calibre rifle, in many cases with aperture sights, with marked success, and British rifle-makers were encouraged to cater for this new demand for low-power rifles. Such weapons can be far more widely and generally used than the ordinary service weapon, owing to their smaller cost, cheaper ammunition, absence of recoil, and their convenience for use at short covered ranges in crowded centres of population. In many parts of Great Britain there is practically no alternative between low-power short-range practice and no shooting at all. The N.R.A. has now admitted the miniature -22 calibre rifle upon equal terms with the service rifle. The miniature rifle has, to some extent, taken the place of the Morris tube and " adaptors " previously used for rifle practice at short ranges.1 The Morris tube consists of a small-rifled barrel, usually chambered for the 2g7/23o-bore cartridge, and capable of being fitted inside the barrel of the ordinary service weapon, which thus becomes available as a miniature rifle for short-range practice. The Morris tube has been adopted by the British War Office, and affords an excellent means of training the recruit. " Adaptors " are dummy cartridge-cases fitted into the breech of the ordinary rifle, by means of which a shorter cartridge firing a lighter charge of powder, but with a bullet of the same calibre as the rifle, can be used for short-range practice. One of the first English miniature target rifles was the " Sharpshooters' Club " rifle, on the Martini principle, of -310 calibre, manufactured and introduced by W. W. Greener, and suitable for ranges from 50 to 300 yds. This rifle was adopted by many rifle clubs, and in 1901 established a record in the miniature rifle competition at Bisley. Miniature rifle shooting has been much encouraged throughout the United Kingdom by the establishment of the Light Rifle Championship competition under the auspices of the Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs. In 1907 Queen Alexandra presented a cup for this event. (H. S-K.) RIFLEMAN-BIRD, or RIFLE-BIRD, names given by the English in Australia to a very beautiful inhabitant of that country,2 probably because in coloration it resembled the well- known uniform of the rifle-regiments of the British army, while in its long and projecting hypochondriac plumes and short tail a further likeness might be traced to the hanging pelisse and the jacket formerly worn by the members of those corps. The cock bird is clothed in velvety-black generally glossed with rich purple, but having each feather of the abdomen broadly tipped with a chevron of green bronze, while the crown of the head is covered with scale-like feathers of glittering green, and on the throat gleams a triangular patch of brilliant bluish emerald, a colour that reappears on the whole upper surface of the middle pair of tail-quills. The hen is greyish-brown above, the crown striated with dull white; the chin, throat and a streak behind the eye are pale ochreous, and the lower parts deep buff, each feather bearing a black chevron. According to James Wilson (///. Zoology, pi. xi.), specimens of both sexes were obtained by Sir T. Brisbane at Port Macquarie, whence, in August 1823, they were sent to the Edinburgh Museum, where they arrived the following year; but the species was first described by W. Swainson in January 1825 (Zool. Journal, i. 481) as the type of a new genus Ptiloris, more properly written Ptilorrhis,3 and it is generally known in ornithology as P. paradisea. It inhabits the northern part of New South Wales and southern part of Queensland as far as Wide Bay, beyond which its place is taken by a kindred species, the P. victoriae of J. Gould, which was found by John Macgillivray on the shores and islets of Rockingham Bay. Farther to the north, in York Peninsula, occurs what is considered a third species, P. alberti, 1 In the military forces short-range practice now takes two forms — practice with Morris tube or miniature rifle, and practice with the full-sized rifle and ammunition on specially protected 3O-yd. ranges. 2 Curiously enough, its English name seems to be first mentioned in ornithological literature by Frenchmen — R. P. Lesson and Garnot — in 1828, who say (Voy. " Coquille," Zoologie, p. 669) that it was applied "pour rappeler que ce fut un soldat de la garnison [of New South Wales] qui le tua le premier " — which seems to be an insufficient reason, though the statement as to how the first specimen was ob- tained may be true. 3 Some writers have amended Swainson's faulty name in the form Ptilornis, but that is a mistake. RIGA— RIGAUD 337 very closely allied to and by some authorities thought to be identical with the P. magnified (Vieillot) of New Guinea — the "Promerops" of many writers. From that country a fifth species, P. wilsoni, has also been described by Mr Ogden (Proc. Acad. Philadelphia, 1875, P- 45*, pi- 25). Little is known of the habits of any of them, but the rifleman-bird proper is said to get its food by thrusting its somewhat long bill under the loose bark on the boles or boughs of trees, along the latter of which it runs swiftly, or by searching for it on the ground beneath. During the pairing-season the males mount to the higher branches and there display and trim their brilliant plumage in the morning sun, or fly from tree to tree uttering a note which is syllabled " yass " greatly prolonged, but at the same time making, apparently with their wings, an extraordinary noise like that caused by the shaking of a piece of stiff silk stuff. Verreaux informed D. G. Elliot that he believed they breed in the holes of trees and lay white eggs; but on that score nothing is really known. The genus Ptilorrhis, thought by Gould to be allied to Climacteris, has been generally placed near Epimachus, which is now considered, with Drepanornis and Seleucides, to belong to the Passerine Paradiseidae, or birds- of-paradise, and in his Monograph of that family all the species then known are beautifully figured by D. G. Elliot. (A. N.) RIGA (Esth. Ria-Lin), a seaport of Russia, 366 m. by rail S.W. of St Petersburg, the capital of the government of Livonia. The Gulf of Riga, too m. long and 60 m. in width, with shallow waters of inconsiderable salinity (greatest depth, 22 fathoms), freezes to some extent every year. The town is situated at the southern extremity of the gulf, 8 m. above the mouth of the Dvina, which brings Riga, by means of inland canals, into water communication with the basins of the Dnieper and the Volga. Below the town the river divides into several branches, among islands and sandbanks, receiving before it enters the sea the Bolderaa river, and expanding towards the east into wider lacustrine basins. Having direct railway communication with the fertile parts of southern and south-eastern Russia, Riga has become the second port for foreign trade on the Baltic, ranking next after St Petersburg. The port freezes on an average 127 days every year. The larger ships cannot reach Riga, and are unloaded at Ust-Dvinsk (formerly Dunamiinde). By no means all the trade with the interior is transported by the railways; no inconsiderable portion of the goods is carried by water. Riga consists of four parts — the old town and the St Peters- burg and Moscow suburbs on the right bank of the Dvina, and the Mitau suburb on the left bank, the two sides being connected by a floating bridge, which is removed in winter, and by a viaduct, 820 ft. long. The old town still preserves its Hanseatic features — high storehouses, with spacious granaries and cellars, flanking the narrow, winding streets. The only open spaces are the market-place and two other squares, one of which, facing the citadel, is adorned with a granite column erected (1818) in commemoration of the defeat of Napoleon I. in 1812. The suburbs, with their broad and quiet boulevards on the site of the former fortifications, are steadily growing. The St Petersburg suburb is the seat of the German aristocracy and merchant community. Few antiquities of the medieval town remain. The oldest church, the Dom (St Mary's), founded in 1215, was burned in 1547, and the present building dates from the second half of the 1 6th century, but has been thoroughly restored since 1883. Its organ, dating from 1883, is one of the largest in the world. St Peter's church, with a beautiful tower 412 ft. high, was erected in 1406-9. The castle, built in 1494-1515 by the master of the Knights of the Sword, Walter von Plettenberg — a spacious building often rebuilt — is the seat of the Russian authorities. The " House of the Black Heads," a corporation or club of foreign merchants, was founded in 1330, and subsequently became the meeting-place of the wealthier youth of the place. Of the recent erections, the polytechnic, the exchange, the monument of the German writer, Johann Gottfried von Herder, who lived at Riga towards the end of the i8th century, the gymnasiums (schools) of Lomonosov and Alexander I. and the large bonded warehouse are worthy of notice. The esplanade (where a Greek cathedral built in 1877-84 now stands), the Wohrmann Park and the Imperial Park are much visited. Riga gives name to an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church and to an episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Church, and is the headquarters of the XX. army corps. IB the environs, Dubbeln and the sea-bathing resorts of Bilderlingshof and Majorenhof have numerous visitors in summer. The population, which was 102,590 in 1867, increased to 168,728 in 1881 and to 282,943 in 1897, so that Riga now ranks seventh in the empire in order of population; 47% of the inhabitants are Germans, 25% Russians and 23% Letts, with a small admixture of Esthonians, Jews, &c. The city has a commercial school (1903), a municipal library, the Dom museum, an art museum with picture gallery (1904-5), technical and theological middle schools and a pilot and navigation school. Industrial activity has developed and includes railway-carriage works, works for the manufacture of machinery, oil mills and breweries. Owing to its communication by water and rail with the forests of White Russia and Volhynia, Riga is a great mart for timber. Flax and linseed also occupy a prominent place, Riga being the chief Russian port for _ the extensive flax-producing region of north-west Russia. Owing to the great railway which crosses the country from Riga to Smolensk, afterwards dividing into two branches, to Orenburg and Tsaritsyn on the lower Volga respectively, Riga is the store- house and place of export for hemp coming by rail from west central Russia, and for corn, Riga merchants sending their buyers as far east as Tambov. Oats, in particular, are extensively exported to England from the central provinces. Wheat, barley, eggs, butter, oilcake, hides, tallow, leather, tobacco, rugs, feathers and other items add considerably to the total value of the exports, which increased from if million sterling in 1851-60. to 8-14 millions sterling in 1901-5. The imports, consisting chiefly of salt, fish, wine, cotton, metals, machinery, coal, oils, fruits and tobacco, are also rapidly increasing: whereas in 1851-60 they were valued at about i million sterling, in 1901-5 they reached 6-nJ millions sterling. History. — Riga was founded in 1158, as a storehouse at the mouth of the Diina (Dvina), by a few Bremen merchants. About 1190 the Augustinian monk Meinhard erected a monastery there, and in 1199-1201 Bishop Albert I. of Livonia obtained from Pope Innocent III. permission for German merchants to land at the new settlement, and chose it for his seat, exercising his power over the neighbouring district in connexion with the Teutonic Knights. As early as the first half of the I3th century the young city obtained the right of electing its own magistracy, and enlarged the walls erected during Albert I.'s time. It joined the Hanseatic League, and from 1253 refused to recognize the rights of the bishop and the knights. In 1420 it fell once more under the rule of the bishop, who maintained his authority until 1 566, when it was abolished in consequence of the Reformation. Sigismund II., king of Poland, took Riga in 1547, and in 1558 the Russians burned its suburbs and many ships in the river. In 1561 Gotthard Ketteler publicly abdicated his mastership of the order of the Teutonic Knights, and Riga, together with southern Livonia, became a Polish possession; after some unsuccessful attempts to reintroduce Roman Catholicism, Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, recognized the religious freedom of the Protestant population. Throughout the I7th century Riga was a bone of contention between Sweden, Poland and Russia. In 1621 Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, took it from Poland, and held it against the Poles and the Russians, who besieged it in 1656. During the Northern War between Sweden and Russia, it was courageously defended (1700), but after the battle of Poltava it succumbed, and was taken in July 1 710 by the Russians. In 1781 it was made by Russia the capital of the Riga viceroyalty, but fifteen years later, the viceroyalty having been abolished, it was made the capital of Livonia. In 1812, the approach of the French being apprehended, the suburbs were burned. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) RIGAUD, HYACINTHE (1650-1743), French painter, born at Perpignan on the 2oth of July 1659, was the descendant of a line of artists. Having early lost his father, he was sent by his mother to Montpellier, where he studied under Pezet and was helped by Ranc, then to Lyons, and in 1681 to Paris. There, whilst following the regular course of academical instruction, 338 RIGBY— RIGGING Rigaud produced a great number of portraits so good that Le Brun advised him to give up going to Rome and to devote himself wholly to this class of work. Rigaud, although he had obtained the Grand Prix, followed this advice, and for sixty-two years painted at the rate of thirty to forty portraits a year, all carried through with infinite care by his own hand. His portraits of himself, of the sculptor Desjardins (Louvre), of Mignard and of Le Brun (Louvre) may be cited as triumphs of a still more attractive, if less imposing, character than that displayed in his grand representations of Bossuet (Louvre) and Louis XIV. (Louvre), while his beautiful portraits of his mother, Marie Serre (Louvre), must for ever remain amongst the master- pieces of French art. Rigaud, although the great successes to which he owed his fame were won without exception in portrait- painting, persisted in pressing the Academy to admit him as an historical painter. This delayed his reception, and it was not until January 1700 that he succeeded in obtaining his desire. He presented as his diploma works a St Andrew (Louvre) and the portrait of Desjardins already mentioned, exhibited at the salon of 1704, and filled in turn all the various posts of academical distinction. He died on the 27th of December 1743, having never recovered from the shock of losing his wife in the previous year. He had many pupils, and his numerous works had the good fortune to be reproduced by the greatest of French engravers — Edelinck, Drevet, Wille, Audran and others. RIGBY, RICHARD (1722-1788), English politician, was the only son of Richard Rigby (d. 1730) of Mistley Hall, Essex, a mer- chant who made a fortune through his connexion with the South Sea Company. Young Rigby became an associate of Frederick, prince of Wales, and entered parliament in 1745. He is chiefly known to fame through his connexion with John Russell, 4th duke of Bedford, and the " Bloomsbury gang," his audacity earning for him the title of the " brazen boatswain " of the "crew." In 1758 he became secretary to Bedford, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland, and in the following year he was given the sinecure office of master of the rolls for Ireland. Following the political fortunes of the duke he became vice- treasurer of Ireland in 1765, and in 1768 he obtained the lucrative position of paymaster-general of the forces. Rigby often spoke in parliament, and in 1 769 he shared in the opposition to Wilkes. In 1784 he was obliged to resign his position as paymaster- general, and he was somewhat surprised and embarrassed when he was requested to pay over the large sum of public money which was in his possession. He left a great fortune when he died at Bath on the 8th of April 1788. A rapacious and un- scrupulous politician, Wraxall says Rigby " possessed talents for addressing a popular assembly which were sustained by a confidence that nothing could abash." RIGG, JAMES HARRISON (1821-1909), English Noncon- formist divine, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the i6th of January 1821. His father was a Wesleyan minister and sent his son to the Old Kingswood School, Bristol, where he subse- quently became an assistant teacher. In 1845 he entered the Wesleyan ministry, and during the agitation of 1849-52 wrote successfully in exposition and defence of the polity of Methodism. In 1857 he published Modern Anglican Theology, an acute criticism of the writings of Coleridge, Hare, Maurice, Kingsley and Jowett. The book was timely and well received, and though Kingsley at first resented the criticism he afterwards became a cordial friend of the writer. Rigg had now become a leading figure in his own church, and in 1868 was appointed Principal of the Westminster Wesleyan Training College for day-school teachers, a post which he held with growing dis- tinction for 35 years. In 1870 he was elected on the first School Board for London, one of the most remarkable assemblies of modern times, and took, an important part in providing the syllabus of religious instruction and framing the religious settlement for teachers. In 1873 he wrote National Education in its Social Conditions and Aspects. A resolute opponent of secular education, he main- tained that the state ought not to compete with the churches, but welcome their aid in the work of national education. He was also strongly against the adoption of a rigid universal code. In 1886 he sat on the Royal Commission of Education, and was brought into close contact with Matthew Arnold, and with Dean Stanley, Bishop Temple and other Anglican prelates, who held him in high esteem. In 1877 he became chairman of the second London district of Methodism, and for fourteen years helped to make the history of his church in the home counties. In 1878 he was elected president of conference — and again in 1892. From 1881 he was ministerial treasurer of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, taking an active part in its work. He resigned his principalship in 1903 and died at Brixton on the I7th of April 1909. Dr Rigg was universally honoured as the Nestor of Wesleyan Methodism, in the development of which he had taken a foremost part for over 60 years. His Connexional Economy is a standard work, and his Living Wesley a most discriminating study of the character and work of its subject. His Oxford High Anglicanism (1895) showed how keenly he followed modern developments in the Church of England. His lifelong principle was that Methodism is " a church friendly to all, but owing allegiance to none." See Life by John Telford (London, 1909). RIGGING (A.S. wrigan or wrihan, to clothe), the general term, in connexion with ships, for the whole apparatus of spars (including both masts and yards), sails and cordage, by which the force of the wind is utilized to move the hull against the resistance, and with the support, of the water. (See also SHIP and SHIPBUILDING). The word is often used as meaning the cordage only, but this is a too limited, and even an irra- tional, use of the term. A ship is not rigged until she is pro- vided with all the spars, sails and cordage required to move and control the hull. The straight or curved pieces of wood or metal, called davits, from which the boats carried along the bulwarks are hung, belong to the rigging. All are fastened directly or indirectly to the hull, and all are required to com- plete her " clothing." Vessels of all classes, from the smallest sailing-boat up to the largest ship, are classed according to the particular combination of their spars, sails and cordage. " Cutter," " brig," or " ship," are only convenient abbrevia- tions for " cutter-rigged," " brig-rigged," or " ship-rigged." They are of such or such a " rig." It is strictly correct to speak of the rigging of a mast or a yard, or of a boom, when all that is meant is the special set of ropes, of whatever size or material, required to keep them in their place, or withdraw them from it, when they have to be moved in the ship. In such cases the part is looked upon as a whole, and is mentally abstracted from the total of the vessel's rigging. The basis of all rigging is the mast (q.v.), whether it be com- posed of one or of many pieces of wood or metal. The mast is held up and controlled by ropes, which are classed together as the " standing rigging," because they are " that part (of the whole rigging) which is made fast, and not hauled upon " (Admiral Smyth, Sailor's Word-Book). This must be under- stood subject to the restriction that in the case of a mast com- posed of several parts, including topmast and topgallant mast, these subdivisions may be, and often are, lowered. The back- stays, and other ropes which keep the top and topgallant masts in place, are therefore only " comparative fixtures. " The bowsprit, though it does not rise from the deck but projects from the bow, is in fact a mast. The masts, including the bowsprit, support all the sails, whether they hang from the " yards," which are spars slung to the mast, or from " gaffs," which are spars projecting from the mast, or, as in the case of the " jibs," are triangular sails, travelling on ropes called " stays," which go from the foremast to the bowsprit and suspended by halliards. The bowsprit is subdivided like other masts. The bowsprit proper corresponds to the lower fore-, main- or mizzen-mast. The jib-boom, which is movable and projects beyond the bowsprit, corresponds to a topmast; the flying jib-boom, which also is movable and projects beyond the jib-boom, answers to a topgallant mast. The whole body of ropes by which the yards, booms and sails are manipulated RIGGING 339 constitute the " running rigging," since they are " in constant use, to trim yards, and make or shorten sail " (Admiral Smyth, op. cit.). The rigging must also provide the crew with the means of going aloft, and with standing ground to do their work when aloft. Therefore the shrouds (see below) are utilized to form ladders of rope, of which the steps are called ratlines,' by which the crew can mount. Near the heads of the lower masts are the tops — platforms on which men can stand — and in the same place on the topmasts are the " cross- trees," of which the main function is to extend the topgallant shrouds. The yards are provided with ropes, extending from the middle to the extremities or arms, called horses, or foot- ropes, which hang about 2 or 3 ft. down, and on which men can stand. The material of which the cordage is made has differed, and still differs greatly. Leather has been used. must be adapted to resist two kinds of pressure, the longitudinal, whether applied by the wind or by the motion of the vessel when pitching (i.e. plunging head and stern alternately into the hollow of the sea), and the lateral, when the wind is blow- ing on the side and she is rolling. The longitudinal pressure is counteracted by the bobstays, stays and backstays. A reference to fig. i will show that the bobstays hold down the bowsprit, which is liable to be lifted by the tug of the jibs, and of the stays connecting it with the" fore-topmast. If the bowsprit is lifted the fore-topmast loses part of its support. In the case of a small vessel, the lifting of a bowsprit would wreck her whole system of rigging in an instant. If fig. i is followed from the bow to the mizzenmast, it will be seen that a succession of stays connect the masts with the hull of the ship or with one another. All pull together to resist pressure from FIG. I. — The Spars and Rigging of a Frigate. References are not repeated for each mast where the names and functions are identical, i, bowsprit; 2, bobstays, three pairs; 3, spritsail-gaffs, projecting on each side of the bowsprit — the ropes at the extremities are jib-guys and flying jib-guys; 4, jib-boom; 5, martingale- stay, and below it the flying-jib martingale; 6, back-ropes; 7, flying jib-boom; 8, fore-royal stay, flying jib-stay and halliards; 9, fore-topgallant-stay, jib-stay and halliards; 10, two fore-topmast-stays and fore-topmast staysail halliards; n, the foretop-bowlines, stopped into the top and two fore-stays; 12, two fore-tacks; 13, fore-truck; 14, fore-royal mast, yard and lift; 15, topgallant mast, yard and lift; 16, fore-top mast! topsail-yard, lift and reef-tackle; 17, foretop, fore-lift, and topsail-sheet; 18, foremast and fore-shrouds, nine pairs; 19, fore- sheets; 20, fore-gaff; 21, fore-topmast backstays and topsail tye; 22, royal and topgallant backstays; 23, fore-royal-braces and main-royal-stay; 24, fore-topgallant braces and main-topgallant-stay; 25, standing parts or fore-topsail-braces and main- topmast-stays; 26, hauling parts of fore-topsail-braces and main-top-bowlines; 27, fore parts of fore-braces; 28, mainstays; 29, main-tacks; 30, main-truck; 31, main-royal-braces; 32, mizzen-royal-stay and mizzen-royal-braces ; 33, main-topgallant- braces and mizzen-topgallant-braces; 34, standing parts'of main-topsail-braces and mizzen-topmast-stay ; 35, mizzen-topsail- braces; 36, hauling parts of main-topsail-braces, mizzen-top-bowlines and cross-jack-braces; 37, main-braces and mizzen- stay; 38, standing part of peak halliards; 39, vangs, similar on each gaff; 40, ensign staff; 41, spanker-boom; 42, quarter- boat's davits; 43, one of the davit topping-lifts and wind-sail; 44, main-yard-tackle; 45, a bull-rope. During historic times, however, the prevailing materials have been hemp or esparto grass (Machrocloa, or Stipa tenacissima) , and in recent days chain and wire. As the whole of the rigging is divided into standing and running, so a rope forming part of the rigging is divided into the " standing part " and the " fall." The standing part is that which is made fast to the mast, deck or block. The fall is the loose end or part on which the crew haul. The block is the pulley through which the rope runs. " Standing " in sea language means " fixed " — thus the standing part of a hook is that which " is attached to block, chain or anything which is to heave the hook up, with a weight hanging to it; the part opposite the point " (Smyth, sub voce). " Tackle " is the combination of ropes and blocks; the com- bination of cables and anchors constitutes the " ground tackle.'' The function of all cordage may be said to be to pull, for the purpose either of keeping the masts in their places, or of moving spars and sails. The standing rigging which supports the masts in front. Pressure from behind is met by the backstays, which connect the topmasts and topgallant masts with the sides of the vessel. Lateral pressure is met by the shrouds and breast- backstays. A temporary or " preventer " backstay is used when great pressure is to be met. Seamen have at all times had recourse to special devices to meet particular dangers. When Dundonald, then captain of the " Pallas " frigate, was chased by a French squadron in stormy weather, he fortified his masts by ordering " all the hawsers " (large ropes a little less strong than the cables which hold the anchor) " in the ship to be got up to the mast heads, and hove taut," i.e. made fast to the side. Thus she was able to carry more sail than would have been possible with her normal rigging. The running rigging by which all spars and sails are hoisted, or lowered and spread or taken in, may be divided into those which lift and lower — the lifts, jeers, halliards (haulyards) — and those which hold down the lower corners of the sails — the tacks and sheets. A 340 RIGGING long technical treatise would be required to name the many combinations of cordage and spars which make up the total rigging. All that is attempted here is to give the main lines and general principles or divisions. The vessel dealt with here is the fully rigged ship of three or more masts. But she includes all the others and the principles are the same. The simplest of all forms of rigging is the dipping lug, a quadrangular sail hanging from a yard, and always hoisted on the side of the mast opposite to that on which the wind is blowing (the lee side). When the boat is to be tacked so as to bring the wind on the other side, the sail is lowered and rehoisted. One rope can serve as halliard to hoist the sail and as a stay when it is made fast on the weather side on which the wind is blowing. The difference between such a craft and the fully rigged ship is that between a simple organism and a very complex one; but it is one of degree, not of kind. The steps in the scale are innumerable. Every sea has its own type. Some in eastern waters are of extreme antiquity, and even in Europe vessels are still to be met with which differ very little if at all from the ships of the Norsemen of the gth and loth centuries. For a full account of these varieties of rigging the reader may be referred to Mast and Sail in Europe and Asia (London, 1906), by H. Warington Smyth. When the finer degrees of variation are neglected the types of rigging may be reduced to comparatively few, which can be classed by the shape of their sail and the number of their masts. At the bottom of the scale is such a craft as the Norse herring boat (fig. 2). FIG. 2. — Norse Herring Boat. She has one quadrangular sail suspended from a yard which is hung (or slung) by the middle to a single mast which is placed (or stepped) in the middle of the boat. She is the direct representative of the ships of the Norsemen. Her one sail is a " course " such as is still used on the fore and mainmasts of a fully developed ship; a topsail may be added (as in fig. 3) and then we have the beginning FIG. 3.— Nordland Boat. of a fully clothed mast. A very similar craft called a Humber keel is used in the north of England. The lug sail is an advance on the course, since it is better adapted for sailing on the wind, with the wind on the side. When the lug is not meant to be lowered, and rehoisted on the lee side, as in the dipping lug mentioned above, it is slung at a third from the end of the yard, and is called a standing lug. A good example of the lug is the Chinese junk (fig. 4). The FIG. 4. — Four-masted Junk. lug is a " lifting sail," and does not tend to press the vessel down as the fore and aft sail does. Therefore it is much used by fishing vessels in the North Sea. The type of the fore and aft rig is the schooner (fig. 5). The sails on the masts have a gaff above and a boom below. These spars have a prong called " the jaws," which fit to the mast, and are held in place by a " jaw rope " on which are threaded beads called trucks. Sails of this shape are carried by fully rigged ships on the mizzen- mast, and can be spread on the fore and main. They are then called try- FIG. 5.— Schooner. I, bowsprit, with sails and are used only in martingale to the stem; 2, fore- bad weather when little topmast-stay, jib and stay-foresail; sail can be carried, and 3, fore-gaff-topsail; 4, foresail and are hoisted on the trysail mainstays; 5, main-gaff-topsail; 6, mast, a small mast attached mainsail; 7, end of boom, to the great one. The Lateen (Latin) sail (fig. 6) is a triangular sail akin to the lug, and is the prevailing type of the Mediterranean. These original types, FIG. 6. — Lateen Rig. even when unmodified by mixture with any other, permit of large variations. The number of masts of a lugger may vary from one to five, and of a schooner from two to five or even seven. A small lug may be carried above the large one, and a gaff topsail added to the sails of a schooner. A small-masted fore-and-aft-rigged vessel may be a cutter (fig. 7) or sloop. But the pure types may be com- bined, in topsail schooner, brigantines, barquentines and barques, when the topsail, a quadrangular sail hanging from and fastened to a yard, slung by the middle, is combined with fore and aft sails. The lateen rig has been combined with the square rig to make such a rigging as the xebec — a three-masted vessel square rigged on the main, and lateen on the fore and mizzen. Triangular sails of the RIGGING 34* FIG. 7. — Cutter Yacht. I , bow- sprit and martingale; 2, jib — behind it is the foresail; 3, cross-trees and topmast- shroud; 4, pennant desig- nating the club to which she belongs; 5, gaff -topsail; 6, peak of gaff, hoisted by peak and throat halyards; 7, mainsail ; 8, end of boom and topping-lift. From Sir George V. C. llolmes's Ancient and Modem Skips, Part I., by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. FIG. 8.— Sail Plan of the " Santa Maria." •same type as the jibs can be set on the stays between the masts of a fully rigged ship, and are then known as staysails. But it can only be repeated that the variations are innumerable. Studding- sails are pieces added to increase the breadth (spread) of sails, and require the support of special yards, booms and tackle. The development of the rigging of ships is a very obscure subject. It was the work of centuries, and of practical men who wrote no treatises. It has never been universal. A comparison of the four - masted junk given above with the figures of ships on medieval seals shows at least much similarity. Yet by selecting a few lead- ing types of succes- sive periods it is possible to follow the growth of the fully rigged ship, at least in its main lines, in modern times. Fig. 8 gives the sail plan of the " Santa Maria," the flagship of Columbus. It is a modern reconstruc- tion, made in 1893 in Spain at the Carraca arsenal, but is based on good authority. She has only the fixed bowsprit, with a yard and a sail hanging from it, the spritsail ¥ird and spritsail. he foremast has one course, the mainmast a course and topsail, the mizzen a _ lateen sail. Fig. 9 is the " Sovereign of the Seas," a British warship of 1637. She still has only the fixed bowsprit, but a small upright mast has been erected at the end, which serves to spread a sprit topsail. In some cases at least a sprit topgallant sail was used. The mizzenmast still carries a lateen sail, but topsails have been added, and the whole rigging has multiplied and developed. Between the " Sovereign of the Seas " and the fully developed ship given in fig. I the most apparent differences are in the rigging of the bowsprit and the mizzenmast. The sprit topmast has disappeared, and is replaced From Sir George V. C Holmes's Ancient and Modem Ships, Part I., by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. FIG. 9. — The " Sovereign of the Seas." 342 RIGHT ASCENSION— RIGHTS OF MAN by the jib-boom. The square spritsail, which could not be trained fore and aft, and was of feeble effect in keeping the ship's head from turning to windward, has been replaced by the jib. The spritsail yard (which continued in use till after 1850) has disappeared and has been replaced by the spritsail gaffs, two fixed spars which slope downwards and help to support the " jib-guys," the lateral supports of the booms. For a time, and after the use of spritsails had been given up, the spritsail yard continued to be used to discharge the function now given to the gaffs (see Smyth, Sailor's Word-Book, sub voce). The changes in the mizzen have an obscure history. About the middle of the i8th century it ceased to be a pure lateen. The yard was retained, but no sail was set on the forearm. Then the yard was given up and replaced by a gaff and a boom. The new sail was called the spanker. It was, however, comparatively narrow, and when a greater spread of sail was required, a studding- sail (at first called a " driver ") was added. At a later date " spanker " and " driver " were used as synonymous terms, and the studding-sail was called a " ringtail." The studding-sails are the representatives of a class of sail once more generally used. In modern times a sail is cut of the extreme size which is capable of being carried in fine weather, and when the wind increases in strength it is reefed — i.e. part is gathered up and fastened by reef points, small cords attached to the sail. Till the I7th century at least the method was often to cut the courses small, so that they could be carried in rough weather. When a greater spread of sail was required, a piece called a bonnet was added to the foot of the sail, and a further piece called a drabbler could be added to that. It is an example of the tenacious conservatism of the sea that this practice is still retained by the Swedish small craft called " lodjor " in the Baltic and White Sea. It will be easily understood that no innovation was universally accepted at once. Jib and sprit topsail, lateen, mizzen and spanker, and so forth, would be found for long on the sea together. The history of the development of rigging is one of adjustment. The size of the masts had to be adapted to the ship, and it was necessary to find the due proportion between yards and masts. As the size of the medieval ship increased, the natural course was to increase the height of the mast and of the sail it carried. Even when the mast was subdivided into lower, top and topgallant, the lower mast was too long, and the strain of the sail racked the hull. Hence the constant tendency of the ships to leak. Sir Henry Manwayring, when giving the proper proportions of the masts, says that the Flemings (i.e. the Dutch) made them taller ("taller" and "taunt" were for long used to mean the same thing) than the English, which again forced them to make the sails less wide. A tall sail could not be cut so wide as a lower one without putting an excessive strain on the mast. He says that the Flemings found an advantage in working to windward, but that they " wronged " (i.e. racked) their ships. The English preferred a less lofty mast and a wider spread of sail. It is very difficult to say what changes in the proportions of masts and yards took place in English ships between the early 1 7th and the igth centuries. The difficulty arises largely not only from insufficient knowledge of the earlier period, but from the fact that a scale was fixed only after trials, and by degrees. Manwayring, for instance, when giving the proportion of the topmasts to lower masts, says: " The topmasts are ever half so long as the masts into which they belong; but there is no absolute proportion in these, and the like things, for if a man will have his mast short, he may the bolder make his topmast long." In some respects the change was certainly slight. In the early iyth century, in England at least, the length of the mainmast was fixed by taking four-fifths of the breadth of the ship and multiplying by three. Two centuries later the method was to take the length of the lower deck and the extreme breadth, add them together, and divide by two. If we take a 74-gun ship of about the year 1820, which was 176 ft. long on the lower deck and 48 ft. 8 in. wide, she would have, by the system then used, a mainmast of 112 ft. Manwayring's system would have given her one of 117 ft. But in the proportions of the masts to one another there was a change. In the I7th century the foremast was four-fifths of the main, and the bowsprit was of the same length as the foremast. In the igth the foremast was eight- ninths of the mainmast, while the bowsprit was seven-elevenths of the mainmast in the largest ships, and three-fifths in the others. When we come to the relative proportions of masts and yards the difficulty increases, for the standard was not the same. The seamen of the 1 7th century calculated the length of the mainyard not by the size of the mast but by the length of the keel. The mainyard, which was the standard for the others, ought according to " the best and most absolute " estimate to be five-sixths of the length of the keel. But Manwayring again explains that " the proportion is not absolute." If it was followed, the yards of a 17th-century ship must have been rather longer than in a vessel of a hundred and fifty and two hundred years later, when the mainyard was eight-ninths of the mainmast, and a regular scale was fixed through- out. Even so Manwayring's warning that " the proportion was not absolute " must be borne in mind. Changes were constant. The development of the famous American clippers made a considerable one. So has the growth of the vast four- and five-masted iron sailing ships of recent days. Individual captains have fitted ships according to ideas of their own. It has always happened that extra sails have been invented and set by ingenious devices for particular purposes. One large sail requires more men to handle it than several small ones. For this reason it is that in recent times the topsails of merchant ships have been divided into upper and lower, with a great loss of beauty, but an increase of convenience. To the same cause, the wish to economize in the size of the crew, is to be attributed the introduction of machinery for reefing sail from the deck, which is also an easier and a safer process than going aloft to reef them by hand. In a general way it may be said that the development of the rigging has been towards establishing a fair balance between the fore and after spread of canvas. Until the jib was invented in the l8th century, a ship which was sailing on the wind was subject to a disproportionate pressure aft. If she was at all given to " griping " — that is to say, inclined to turn head to wind (and all ships are liable to have ways and manners which are mysterious in origin and not seldom incurable), the mizzen-sail could not be used, for if it had been she would never have been " put of the wind." Therefore when close-hauled (sailing with the wind on the side and somewhat from before her centre) she lost the use of part of her sail. The spritsail which could not be trained fore and aft was no use " on the wind." A few words may be added concerning the tops. In the earlier form of ships the -top was a species of crow's nest placed at the head of the mast to hold a look-out, or in military opera- tions to give a place of advantage to archers and slingers. They appear occasionally as mere bags attached to one side of the mast. As a general rule they are round. In the i6th century there were frequently two tops on the fore- and main- masts, one at the head of. the lower, another at the head of the topmast, where in later times there have only been the two traverse beams which make the crosstrees. The upper top dropped out by the I7th century. The form was round, and so continued to be till the i8th century when the quadrangular form was introduced. In quite recent times the military tops of warships have resumed the circular form. AUTHORITIES. — The present writer is indebted to Admiral Sir Cyprian A. G. Bridge, G.C.B., whose practical acquaintance with the older type of sailing ship as well as with the modern steamship makes his authority specially valuable, for the correction or confirmation of the technical details in the above article. Among the literature of the subject, reference may be made to the following works: Sir Henry Manwayring, The Seaman's Dictionary (London, 1644) ; Darcy Lever, The Young Sea Officer's Sheet Anchor (London, 1808); Sir George Nares, Seamanship (Portsmouth, 1882); Vice- Admiral Edmond Paris, La Musee de marine du Louvre (Paris, 1883). (D. H.) RIGHT ASCENSION, in astronomy, that co-ordinate of a heavenly body defined by the angle which the meridian passing through it makes with the" prime meridian through the vertical equinox (see ASTRONOMY). RIGHTS OF MAN AND OF THE CITIZEN, DECLARATION OF, a sort of manifesto issued in 1789 by the Constituent Assembly in the French Revolution, to be inscribed at the head of the constitution when it should be completed. It stated the fundamental principles which inspired the revolution. Historians have traced a connexion with the declarations of rights which preceded the constitution of some of the states of the American Union, especially of Virginia, but the situation in France at the time, and the influence of the writings of the philosophes made the proposal for such a statement very natural. The declaration overturned the political and social principles upon which the existent regime stood. It has served as a base for modern civil legislation and is still a force in European history. The final text voted by the Assembly was accepted by the king on the 5th of October 1789, at first conditionally, then with modifications. It contains a preamble and 17 articles. They proclaim and define political equality and liberty in its various manifestations, determine the character of the law and the conditions of its application, and state at the same time the restrictions upon the individual will which are necessary RIGORD— RIMBAUD 343 for the benefit of society: Similar declarations were attached to the constitution of 1793 and to that of the year III. See E. Blum, La Declaration des droits de I'homme el du citoyen, text with commentary (Paris, 1902) ; L. Bourgeois and A. Metin, Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen, 1789 (Paris, 1901) ; G. Jellinck, Die Erkldrung der Menschen und Biirgerrechte (Leipzig, 1895). This study has been translated into English by Rudolf Tombo (New York), and has aroused considerable controversy; see E. Boutmy, " La Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen et M. Jellinck," in Annales des sciences politiques for the I5th of July 1902; also E. Walsh, La Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen et I'assemblee constituant, Travaux preparatoires (Paris, RIGORD (c. 1150-c. 1209), French chronicler, was probably born near Alais in Languedoc, and became a physician. After- wards becoming a monk he entered the monastery of Argenteuil, and then that of St Denis, and described himself as regis Francorum chronographus. Rigor wrote the Gesta Philippi Augusti, dealing with the life of the French king, Philip Augustus, from his coronation in 1179 until 1206. The work, which is very valuable, was abridged and continued by William the Breton (q.v.). The earlier part of the Gesta speaks of the king in very laudatory terms, but in the latter part it is much less flattering in its tone. It is published in tome xvii. of Dom Bouquet's Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France (Paris, 1738-1876); and with introduction by H. F. Delaborde (Paris, 1882-85). A French translation of the Gesta is in tome xi. of Guizot's Collection des memoires relatifs a I'histoire de France (Paris, 1825). Rigord also wrote a short chronicle of the kings of France. See A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica (Berlin, 1896); and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris, 1903). RIGORISM. (Lat. rigor, stiffness, firmness), a philosophical term applied by Kant specially to those moralists who take up an anti-hedonist or ascetic standpoint. In general the term is opposed to " latitudinarianism " or " indifferentism,"- respectively a morality of compromise and a morality of pure indifference, — and signifies insistence upon the strictest inter- pretation of a principle, rule or criterion. Thus, in Roman Catholic theology, a rigorist holds that in cases of conscience the proper course is to adhere to the strict wording of the law in question. RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB (1853- ), American poet, was born in Greenfield, Indiana, in 1853. He spent several years as an itinerant sign-painter, actor and musician. During this vagabond experience he had opportunities to revise plays and compose songs, and was brought into close touch with the rural folk of Indiana, becoming familiar with their life and speech. About 1873 he first contributed verses, especially in the Hoosier dialect, to the papers, and he soon became local editor of the Anderson (Ind.) Democrat. In August 1877, over the initials " E.A.P.," he printed in the Kokomo (Indiana) Dispatch a poem, Leonainie, in the manner of Poe.1 The press throughout the country copied the • poem, .and many critics of acknowledged authority believed it to have been' actually written by Poe, until the hoax was explained by the paper in which it first appeared. To the Indianapolis Daily Journal Riley contributed many poems, the best known being a series in dialect which purported to have been written by one " Ben- jamin F. Johnson, of Boone," a farmer. These he published in book form, under the same pen-name, as The Old Swimmin' Hole and 'Leven More Poems (1883). He wrote short stories and sketches, some of unusual merit, but is known almost exclusively as a poet. Of his poems some are in conventional English, many others in the Hoosier dialect of the Middle- West. His materials are the homely incidents and aspects of village and country life, 1 The poem was accompanied by a statement from the editor of the paper that it was " from the gifted pen of the erratic poet, Edgar Allan Poe," and by a circumstantial story to the effect that the poem had been found written on the fly-leaf of an old Latin- English dictionary then owned by " an uneducated and illiterate man " in Kokomo, who had received it from his grandfather, in whose tavern, near Richmond, Va., it had been left by " a young man who showed plainly the marks of dissipation." especially of Indiana, and his manner is marked by delicate imagination and naive humour and tenderness. The bulk of his work appeared in The Boss Girl and Other Sketches (1886), republished in 1891 as Sketches in Prose; Afterwhiles (1887); Pipes o' Pan at Zekesbury (1888); Rhymes of Childhood (1890); Neighborly Poems (1891); The Flying Islands of the Ni%ht (1891), a fantastic blank verse drama; Green Fields and Running Brooks (1892); Poems Here at Home (1893); Armazindy (1894), which contains the poem " Leonainie "; A Child-World (1896), reminiscent of his own boyhood; The Rubdiydt of Doc Sifers (1897); Home Folks (1900); The Book of Joyous Children (1902); His Pa's Romance (1903); A Defective Santa Claus (1904); and in several books of selections, such as Old Fashioned Roses (1889), published in England; Child Rhymes (1808); Love Lyrics (1899); The Golden Year (1899), published in England; Farm Rhymes (1901); An Old Sweetheart of Mine (1902); Out to Old Aunt Mary's (1904); Songs o' Cheer (1905) ; Morning (1907) ; and Songs of Summer (1908). RIMBAUD, JEAN ARTHUR (1854-1891), French poet and adventurer, was born at Charleville, in the Ardennes, on the 2Oth of October 1854. He was the second son of a captain in the French army, who in 1860 abandoned his wife and family. From early childhood Arthur Rimbaud, who was severely brought up by his mother, displayed rich intellectual gifts and a sullen, violent temperament. He began to write when he was ten, and some of the poems which now appear in his works belong to his fifteenth year. Before he was sixteen, in consequence of a violent quarrel with his mother, the boy escaped from Charleville with a packet of his verse, was arrested as a vagabond, and for a fortnight was locked up in the Mazas prison, Paris. A few days after being taken home Rimbaud escaped again, into Belgium, where he lived for some time as a tramp, Almost starved, but writing verses with feverish assiduity. In February 1871 he left his mother for a third time, and made his way to Paris, where he knew no one, and whence, after very nearly dying of hunger and exposure, he begged his way back to Charleville. There he wrote in the same year the extraordinary poem of Le Bateau ivre, which is now hailed as the pioneer of the entire " symbolist " or " decadent " movement in French literature in all its forms. He sent it to Verlaine, who encouraged the boy of seventeen (whom he supposed to be a man of thirty) to come again to Paris. Rimbaud spent from October 1871 to July 1872 in the capital, partly with Verlaine, partly as the guest of Theodore de Banville, and served in the army of the Commune. With Verlaine he travelled for thirteen months, after the fall of the Commune, through England and Belgium, where in 1873 he published the only work which he ever printed, Une Saison en Enfer, in prose; in this he gives an allegorical account of his extravagant relations with Verlaine, which ended at Brussels by a double attempt of the latter to murder his young companion. On the second occasion Rimbaud was dangerously wounded by Verlaine's revolver, and the elder poet was imprisoned at Mons for two years. Meanwhile Rimbaud, deeply disillusioned, determined to abandon Europe and literature, and he ceased at the age of nineteen to write poetry. He settled for a while at Stuttgart, studying German, and in 1875 he disappeared. He set out on foot for Italy, and after extraordinary adventures found employ- ment as a day-labourer in the docks at Leghorn. Returning to Paris, he obtained a little money from his mother, and then definitely vanished. For sixteen years nothing whatever was heard of him, but it is now known that he embarked as a Dutch soldier for the Sunda Isles, and, presently deserting, fled to Sumatra and then to Java, where he lived for some time in the forest. Returning to Europe, after a vagabond life in every capital, he obtained in 1880 some menial employment in the quarries of Cyprus, and then worked his way to Aden and up into Abyssinia, where he was one of the pioneers of European commercial adventure. Here he settled, at Harrar, as a trader in coffee and perfumes, to which he afterwards added gold and ivory; for the next eleven years, during which he led many commercial expeditions into unknown parts of northern Africa, Shoa and Harrar were his headquarters, and he lived almost entirely with the natives, and as one of themselves. From 1888 to 1891, having prospered greatly as a merchant, he became a sort of semi-independent chieftain, intriguing for France, just 344 RIME ROYAL— RIMINI outside the borders of civilization. From documents which were first produced in 1902 it appears that from 1883 to 1889 Rimbaud was in close relations with the Ras Makonnen and with Menelek, then only king of Shoa. At the death of the Negus John, in 1888, he was concerned in the formation of the empire of Ethiopia. From this time Rimbaud had a palace in the town of Harrar, and intrigued with the French government in favour of Menelek and against Italy. Meanwhile, in 1886, believing Rimbaud to be dead, Verlaine had published his poems, under the title of Les Illuminations, and they had created a great sensation in Paris. In this collection appeared the sonnet on the vowels, attributing a different colour to each: "A noir, E blanc, I rouge, U vert, O bleu wyelles." But the author, in his Abyssinian hut of palm-leaves, was, and remained, quite unconscious of the fact. In March 1891 a tumour in his knee obliged Rimbaud to leave Harrar and go to Europe for surgical advice. He reached Marseilles, but the case was hopeless ; the leg had to be amputated, and Rimbaud died there in hospital on the loth of November 1891. The poems of Rimbaud all belong to his earliest youth. Their violent originality, the influence which they have exercised upon younger writers, the tumultuous existence of their author, and the strange veil of mystery which still hangs over his character and adventures, have given to Rimbaud a remarkable fascination. His life has been written by M. Paterne Berrichon (1897), and valuable reminiscences by his sister, Mile Isabella Rimbaud. His (Euvres were collected in 1898 by MM. Berrichon and Delahaye, and in 1901 his statue was unveiled at Charleville. (E. G.) See also Lettres de Jean Arthur Rimbaud (Egypte, Arabic, Athiopie}, 1899, edited by P. Berrichon; Paul Verlaine, Les Poetes maudits (1884); George Moore, Impressions and Opinions: Two Unknown Poets (1891) ; and A. Symons, The Symbolist Movement in Literature (1900). RIME ROYAL, the name given to a strophe or stanza-form, which is of Italian extraction, but is almost exclusively identi- fied with English poetry from the fourteenth to the early seventeenth centuries. It appears to be formed out of the stanza called Ottava rima (q.v.), by the omission of the fifth line, which reduces it to seven lines of three rhymes, arranged ababbcc. It was earliest employed with skill, if not, as seems probable, invented, by Chaucer, who composed his long romantic poem of Trotius and Cressida in rime royal, of which the following is an example: — " And as the new-abashecl nightingale, Thet stinteth first when she beginneth sing, When that she heareth any herde tale, Or in the hedges any wight stirring, And, after, siker doth her voice out-ring,— Right so Cresseyda, when her drede stint, Opened her heart, and told all her intent." The " Prioress' Tale," in the Canterbury Tales, offers another particularly beautiful proof of Chaucer's skill in the use of the rime royal. In the fifteenth century this stanza was habitually used, in preference to heroic verse, by Hoccleve and Lydgate, and, with more melody and grace, by the unknown writer of The Flower and the Leaf. In the sixteenth century, rime royal was chosen by Hawes as the vehicle of his Pastime of Pleasure (1506) and by Barclay in his Ship of Fools (1509); it was now regarded as the almost exclusive classical form for heroic poetry in England, and it had long been so accepted in Scotland, where The King's Quair of King James I., the Fables of Henry- son and The Thistle and the Rose of Dunbar had closely followed Chaucer's pattern. The greater part of that huge poetic mis-, cellany, The Mirror for Magistrates (1550-1610), was written in rime royal, Sackville's momentous Induction among the rest. The seven-line stanza began to go out of fashion with the revival of Elizabethan poetry, but we find it still used in Spenser's Hymn of Heavenly Beauty, Shakespeare's Lucrece and the Orchestra of Sir John Davys. After 'the first decade of the seventeenth century rime royal went out of fashion. Since then it has been occasionally revived, but not in poems of great length or particular importance. Rime royal should always be written in iambic metre, and be formed of seven lines of equal length, each containing ten syllables. RIMINI, a town and bishop's see of Italy, in the province of Forli, Emilia, on the Adriatic coast, 69 m. S.E. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 18,022; commune, 46,801. The city is bounded on three sides by water. It faces the Adriatic to the north, has the torrent Aprusa, now called Ausa, on the east and the river Marecchia on the west. It stands 'n a fertile plain, which on the southern side soon swells into pleasant slopes backed by the jagged peaks of the Umbrian Apennines. The foremost foothill of the range is the steep crag of Mons Titanus, crowned by the towers of the republic of San Marino. Rimini attracts numerous visitors for the sea-bathing at Porta Marina. It has mineral springs, and the industries comprise fisheries, ironworks and foundries, sulphur furnaces, silk- mills, rope walks, match factories, brickworks, flourmills and furniture. Its main interest, however, is historical. Apart from the ancient buildings, &c., referred to below, Rimini can boast of a good public library, founded by the jurist Gam- balunza in 1617, a municipal picture gallery, an archaeological museum, a technical school (1882) and a bronze statue of Pope Paul V. The ancient castle of Sigismondo Malatesta, now dilapidated, has in recent years been used as a prison. History. — Rimini is the ancient Ariminum (q.v. for its early history and remains). During the middle ages the history of Rimini has no importance. Alternately captured by Byzan- tines and Goths, it was rigorously besieged by the latter in A.D. 538. They were, however, compelled to retreat before the reinforcements sent by Belisarius and Narses; thus the Byzan- tines, after various vicissitudes, became masters of the town, appointed a duke as its governor, and included it in the exarchate of Ravenna. It afterwards fell into the power of the Longo- bards, and then of the Franks, who yielded it to the pope, for whom it was governed by counts to the end of the loth century. Soon after this period the imperial power became dominant in Rimini. In 1157 Frederick I. gave it, by imperial patent, the privilege of coining money and the right of self-government; and in the I3th century we find Rimini an independent com- mune waging war on the neighbouring cities. In the year 1216, Rimini, being worsted by Cesena, adopted the desperate plan of granting citizenship to two members of the powerful Malatesta tribe, Giovanni and Malatesta, for the sake of their aid and that of their vassals in the defence of the state and the conduct of the war. This family quickly struck root in the town and gave birth to future tyrants; for in 1237 Giovanni was named podesta, and this office was the first step towards the sovereign power afterwards assumed by his descendants. Meanwhile, Rimini was torn by the feuds of Guelf and Ghibelline. The latter were the dominant party in the days of Frederick II., although very unpopular on account of the grievous taxes imposed by the empire. Accordingly, the majority of the urban nobles joined the Guelfs and were driven into exile. But before long, as the Swabian power declined in Italy, the Guejf party was again predominant. Then followed a long period of confusion, in which, by means of conspiracies and crimes of every kind, the Malatesta succeeded in becoming masters and tyrants of Rimini. Giovanni Malatesta had died in 1247 and been succeeded by his son Malatesta, born in 1212, and surnamed Malatesta da Verrucchio. This chieftain, who lived to be a hundred years old, had ample time to mature his ambitious designs, and was the real founder of his house. Seizing the first suitable moment, he placed himself at the head of the exiled Guelfs, and restored them to Rimini. Then, as the empire acquired fresh strength in Italy, he quietly bided his time and, on the descent of the Angevins, again assumed the leadership of the Guelfs who now had the upper hand for a long time. Being repeatedly elected podesta for lengthy terms of office, he at last became the virtual master of Rimini. Nor was he checked by Rome. Pope Boniface VIII. was fully aware of the rights and traditional pretensions of the Holy See, but preferred to keep on good terms with one who had so largely contributed to the triumph of the Guelfs in Romagna. Accordingly he not only left Malatesta unmolested, but in 1299 conferred on him fresh honours and estates, so that RIMINI 345 his power went on increasing to the day of his death in 1312- Four sons had been born to Malatesta — Malatestino, Giovanni the Lame, Paolo the Handsome, and Pandolfo; but only the oldest and youngest survived him. Giovanni the Lame (Sciancato), a man of a daring impetuosity only equalled by his ugliness, had proved so useful a general to Giovanni da Polenta of Ravenna as to win in reward the hand of that potentate's beautiful daughter, known to history as Francesca da Rimini. But her heart had been won by the handsome Paolo, her brother-in-law; and the two lovers, being sur- prised by Giovanni, were murdered by him on the spot (1285). This episode of the story of the Malatesta has been imnlortalized in Dante's Inferno. Giovanni died in 1304. Thus in 1312 Malatestino became lord of Rimini, and on his decease in 1317 bequeathed the power to his brother Pandolfo. Pandolfo died in 1326, leaving two heirs, Malatesta and Galeotto. The former was nicknamed Guastafamiglia, because, although at first willing to let his brother share his power, he rid himself by violence and treachery of other kinsmen who claimed their just rights to a portion of the state. His intent was to become sole lord and to aggrandize his tiny principality. But the reigning pope, Innocent VI., despatched the terrible Cardinal Albornoz to Romagna, and it was speedily reduced by fire and sword. In 1355 the Malatesta shared the fate of the other potentates of the land. Nevertheless, it was the cardinal's policy to let existing governments stand, provided they promised to act in subordination to the papal see. Thus he granted the Malatesta brothers the investiture of Rimini, Pesaro, Fano and Fossombrone, and they arranged a division of the state. Guastafamiglia took Pesaro, which was held by his descendants down to the brothers Carlo and Galeazzo. The former of these, who died in 1439, was father to the Parisina beheaded in Ferrara, whose tragic love story has been sung by Byron. The latter won the title of " Flnetto " (the In- capable) by the foolish sale of his rights over Pesaro to the Sforza in 1447. Galeotto, on the other hand, retained the lordship of Rimini, ruling tranquilly and on good terms with the popes, who allowed him to add Cervia, Cesena and Bertinoro to his states. Dying in 1385 at the age of eighty, he left two sons — Carlo, who became lord of Rimini, and Pandolfo, who had Fano for his share. Carlo (1364-1429) was energetic, valiant and a friend of the popes, who named him vicar of the church in Romagna. He was a patron of letters and the arts, and during his reign his court began to be renowned for its splendour. As he left no issue, his inheritance was added to that of his brother Pandolfo, and Fano was once more united to Rimini. Pandolfo (1370-1427) had led the life of a condottiere, taking a prominent part in the Lombard wars following on the death of Galeazzo Maria Visconti, and held rule for some time in Brescia and Bergamo. He left three natural sons < who were declared legitimate by Pope Martin V. Theeldest, Galeotto (1411-1432), was an ascetic, gave little or no attention to public business, and, dying early, bequeathed the state to his brother Sigis- mondo Pandolfo. The third son, Novello Malatesta (1418-1465) ruled over Cesena. Sigismondo (1417-1468) is the personage to whom Rimini owes its renown during the Renaissance, of which indeed he was one of the strangest and most original representatives. He was born in Brescia, and when called to the succession, at the age of fifteen, had already given proofs of valour in the field. His knowledge of antiquity was so profound as to excite the admira- tion of all the learned men with whom he discoursed, even when, as in the case of Pius II., they chanced to be his personal enemies. To him is due the erection of the church of St Francis, or temple of the Malatesta, one of the rarest gems of the Renaissance and the greatest of Rimini's treasures (see below for description) . Of so dissolute a life that, although married, he had children by several mistresses at the same time, he gave vent to all his passions with a ferocity that was bestial rather than human. And — as the crowning contradiction of his strange nature — from his youth to the day of his death he remained the devoted lover of the woman for whose sake he became a poet, whom he finally made his wife, and whom he exalted in every way, even to the point of rendering her almost divine honours. Yet this love never availed to check his excesses. On assum- ing power in 1432, Sigismondo was already affianced to the daughter of Count Carmagnola; but when that famous leader was arraigned as a traitor by the Venetians, and igno- miniously put to death, he promptly • withdrew from his engagement, under the pretext that it was impossible to marry the child of a criminal. In fact, he aimed at a higher alliance, for he espoused Ginevra d'Este, daughter of the duke of Ferrara, and his entry into Rimini with his bride in 1434 was celebrated by splendid festivities. In 1437 a son was born to him, but died within the year, and in 1440 the young mother followed it to the grave. Every one declared that she died by poison administered by her husband. This, however, was never proved. The duke of Ferrara remained his friend, nor is it known what motive Sigismondo could have for wishing to get rid of his wife. Two years afterwards he married Polissena, daughter of the famous condottiere Francesco Sforza, who in 1443 bore him a son named Galeotto Roberto. But by this time he was already madly in love with Isotta degli Atti, and this was the passion that endured to his death. The lady succeeded in gaining an absolute ascendancy over him, which increased with time. She bore him several children, but this did not prevent his having others by different concubines. Such being the nature of the man, it is not astonishing that, as his ardour for Isotta increased, he should have little scruple in ridding himself of his second wife. On the ist June 1450 Polissena died by strangling, and on the 3oth of the same month Isotta's offspring were legitimated by Nicholas V. It is only just to record that, although Malatesta's intrigue with Isotta had long been notorious to all, and he had never sought to conceal it, no one ever accused her of either direct or indirect complicity in her lover's crimes. Isotta's history, however, is a strange one, and opens up many curious questions. She was of noble birth and seems to have attracted Sigismondo's notice as early as 1438, for at the age of twenty he produced verses of some merit in praise of her charms. She was indeed widely celebrated for her beauty and intellect, culture, firmness and prudence; and even Pope Pius II. proclaimed her worthy to be greatly loved. When Sigismondo was absent she governed Rimini wisely and well, and proved herself a match for the statesmen with whom she had to deal. The leading poets of the court dedicated to her a collection of verses entitled Isollaei, styled her their mistress and the chosen of Apollo. Artists of renown perpetuated her features on canvas, on marble and on many exquisite medals, one of which has a- closed book graven on the reverse, with the inscription " Elegiac " in allusion to poems she was said to have written. Nevertheless, Yriarte, in his book on the Malatesta and Rimini, asserted that there was documentary evidence to prove that Isotta was unable to sign her own name. But it is not at all surprising that Isotta should have her letters written and signed by another hand, when such was by no means an uncommon practice among the princes and nobilities of her day. Lucrezia Borgia, for instance, frequently did the same. It is besides simply incredible that a woman of the Italian Renaissance of Isotta's birth, standing and reputation should have been unable to write. Her marriage with Malatesta did not take place until 1456; but of the ardent affection that had long bound them together there are stronger proofs than the lover's juvenile verses, or than even the children Isotta had borne to him. For, more than all else, the temple of St Francis has served to transmit to posterity the history of their loves. Malatesta decided on building this remarkable church as a thankoffering for his safety, during a dangerous campaign undertaken for Pope Eugenius IV. about the year 1445. The first stone was laid in 1446, and the work was carried on RIMINI •with so much alacrity that mass was performed in it by the close of 1430. Sigismondo entrusted the execution of his plans to Leo Battista Alberti, who had to encase in a shell of classic architecture a 13th-century Franciscan church. The original edifice being left intact, it was a difficult question how to deal with the windows and the Gothic arches of the interior. Alberti solved the problem with marvellous skill, blending the old architecture with the new style of the Renaissance, and giving it variety without destroying its unity of effect. Being eager to adorn his temple with the most precious marbles, Sigismondo's veneration for antiquity did not prevent him from pillaging many valuable classical remains in Rimini, Ravenna and even in Greece. Such was the zeal with which Alberti pursued his task that the exterior of the little Rimini church is one of the finest and purest achievements of the Renaissance, and surpasses in beauty and elegance all the rest of his works. But it is much to be deplored that he should have left the upper part of the facade unfinished. Alberti came to Rimini, made his design, saw the work begun and then left it to be carried out by very skilful artists, on whom he impressed the necessity of faithfully preserving its general character so as " not to spoil that music." The internal decorations, especially the enormous quantity of wall ornaments, consisting chiefly of scrolls and bas-reliefs, were executed by different sculptors under the personal direction of Malatesta, who, even when engaged in war, sent continual instructions about their work. It is difficult to give an exact idea of this extraordinary church to those who have no personal acquaintance with it. The vault was never finished, and still shows its rough beams and rafters. The eight side chapels alone are complete, and their pointed arches spring from Renaissance pilasters planted on black marble elephants, the Malatesta emblems, or on baskets of fruit held by children. The surface of the pilasters is divided into compartments encrusted with bas-reliefs of various subjects and styles. Every- where— on the balustrades closing the chapels, round the base of the pilasters, along the walls, beneath the cornice of both the exterior and the interior of the church — there is one ornament that is perpetually repeated, the interwoven initials of Sigis- mondo and Isotta. This monogram is alternated with the portrait and arms of Malatesta; and these designs are en- wreathed by festoons linked together by the tyrant's second emblem, the rose. The most singular and characteristic feature of this edifice is the almost total absence of every sacred emblem. Rather than to St Francis and the God of the Christians it was dedicated — and that while Sigismondo's second wife still lived — to the glorification of an unhallowed attachment. Nature, science and antiquity were summoned to celebrate the tyrant's love for Isotta. The bas-reliefs of one of the chapels represent Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Mars and Diana, together with the signs of the zodiac. And these sub- jects are derived, it appears, from a poem in which Sigismondo had invoked the gods and the signs of the zodiac to soften Isotta's heart and win her to his arms. The pageants of Mars and Diana seem to have been suggested by the Trionfi of Petrarch. Elsewhere we see prophets and sibyls, personifications of the theological virtues and of the sciences. The delicate bas-reliefs of botany and medicine, history and astronomy, have been judged by some writers to be Grecian, on account of the ancient appearance of their marble, their inscriptions in Greek and Latin, and others that have never been deciphered. But a moment's examination of the sculptures is enough to destroy this hypothesis. Besides, some of the inscriptions are very easily read and record " Apollo Ariminaeus " and " Jupiter Ariminaeus." In the first chapel on the left is the family tomb of the Malatesta, with sculptured records of their triumphs and of their alleged descent from Scipio Africanus. Better worthy of notice is the third chapel to the right, known as that of the Angels, on account of the angels and children carved on its pillars. It is nominally dedicated to the archangel Michael, whose statue is enshrined in it; but the figure has the face of Isotta, the ruling deity of this portion of the church. For here is the splendid and fantastic tomb erected to this lady, during her life and previous to the death of Sigismondo's second wife. No monument, be it remarked, is raised over the burial-place of Ginevra and Polissena. The urn of Isotta's sarcophagus is supported by two elephants, and bears the inscription, " D. Isottae Ariminensi B. M. Sacrum, MCCCCL." The "D." has been generally interpreted as " Divae " and the "B. M." as " Beatae Memoriae." But some, unwilling to credit such profanity, allege that the letters stand for " Bonae Memoriae." Nevertheless, all who have seen the church must admit the improbability of similar scruples. The numerous artists employed on the interior of the church were under the direction of the proto-maestro Matteo de Pasti the celebrated medallist. And indeed the peculiar and fantastic character of the sculptures in this chapel frequently recalls the designs of his famous works. .All this decoration is in strange contrast with the grandly austere simplicity of the facade and outer walls of the church. There no ornament disturbs the harmony of the lines. The frieze beneath the cornice, re- producing the lovers' initials and the Malatestian ensigns, is in such very low relief that it only enhances the perfection of " that music " produced by the marvellous skilJ of Alberti. Also the colour of the stone, a soft creamy white, adds to the general beauty of effect. And everything both within and without contributes to the profane and pagan character which it was Sigismondo's purpose to impress on the Christian church. On each of its outer walls are seven arched recesses, intended to contain the ashes of the first literati and scientists of his court. In the first, to the right, is the urn of the poet Basinio, one of his pensioners, in the second that of Giusto de' Conti, author of some rhymes on the Bella Ma.no, while the third bore the more famous name of Gemisthus Pletho. This well- known Byzantine philosopher was the diffuser of Platonism in Florence during the time of Cosimo de' Media, and had faith in the revival of paganism. Returning to his own people, he had died in the Morea. Sigismondo, having gone there in command of the Venetian expedition against the Turks, exhumed the philosopher's bones as holy relics, and brought them to Rimini for worthy sepulture in his Christian pantheon. All]this is solemnly recorded in the inscription, which is dated 1465. The fourth sarcophagus was that of Roberto Valturio (d. 1489), the engineer, author of De Re Militari, who had been Sigismondo's minister and had aided him in the construction of the castle of Rimini. The other urns on this side were placed by Malatesta's successors, and the arches on the left wall remained untenanted. Sigismondo understood the science of fortification. He was also the first to discard the use of wooden bomb-shells, and substitute others cast in bronze. As a soldier his numerous campaigns had shown him to be possessed of all the best qualities and worst defects of the free captains of his time. He began his military career in 1432 in the service of Eugenius IV.; but, when this pope doubted his good faith and transferred the command to another, he sided with the Venetians against him, though at a later date he again served under him. On the decease of Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447 he joined the Aragonese against Venice and Florence; but, presently changing his flag, fought valiantly against Alphonso of Aragon and forced him to raise the siege of Piombino. In 1454 he accepted a command from the Sienese; but suddenly, after his usual fashion, he made peace with the enemies of the republic, and had to save himself by flight from arrest for his perfidy. It was then that the letters from Isotta were confiscated. After this he began scheming to hasten the coming of the Angevins, and took part in new and more hazardous campaigns against adversaries such as the duke of X^rbino, Sforza of Milan, Piccinino, and, worst of all, the Sienese pope, Pius II., his declared and mortal foe. This time Sigismondo had blundered; for the cause of Anjou was hopelessly ruined in Italy. He was therefore driven to make his submission to the pope, but, again rebelling, was summoned to trial in Rome (1460) before a tribunal of hostile cardinals. All the old charges against him were now revived RIMMER 347 and eagerly confirmed. He was pronounced guilty of rapine, incendiarism, incest, assassination and heresy. Consequently he was sentenced to the deprivation of his state (which was probably the main object of the trial), and to be burnt alive as a heretic. This sentence, however, could not easily be executed, and Sigismondo was only burnt in effigy. But the pope marked the intensity of his hatred by causing the dummy to be carved and dressed with such lifelike resemblance that he was almost able to persuade himself that his hated enemy was really con- sumed in the flames. Malatesta could afford to laugh at this farce, but he nevertheless prepared in haste for a desperate defence (1462). He knew that the bishop Vitelleschi, together with the duke of Urbino and his own brother Novello Malatesta, lord of Cesena, were advancing against him in force; and, being defeated by them at Pian di Marotta, he was driven to Rome in 1463 to again make submission to the pope. This time he was stripped of all his possessions excepting the city of Rimini and a neighbouring castle, but the sentence of excommunication was withdrawn. The once mighty tyrant of Rimini found himself reduced to penury with a state chiefly composed of a single town. He therefore took service with the Venetians, and in 1464 had the command of an expedition to the Morea. Here his movements were so hampered by the interference of the commissioners of the republic that, with all his valour, he could achieve no decisive success. In 1466 he was able to return to Rimini, for Pius II. was dead, and the new pope, Paul II., was less hostile to him. Indeed, the latter offered to give him Spoleto and Foligno, taking Rimini in exchange; but Malatesta was so enraged by the proposal that he went to Rome with a •dagger concealed on his person, on purpose to kill the pope. But, being forewarned, Paul received him with great ceremony, and surrounded by cardinals prepared for defence; whereupon Sigismondo changed his mind, fell on his knees and implored forgiveness. His star had now set for ever. For sheer subsist- ence he had to hire his sword to the pope and quell petty rebellions with a handful of men. At last, his health failing, he returned to his family, and died in Rimini on the 7th of October 1468, aged fifty-one years. He was succeeded, according to his desire, by Isotta and his son Sallustio. But there was an illegitimate elder son by another mother, named Roberto Malatesta, a valiant and unscrupulous soldier. Befriended by the pope, this man undertook to conquer Rimini for the Holy See, but came there to further his own ends instead (zoth October 1469), and, while feigning a desire to share the government with Isotta and her son, resolved, sooner or later, to seize it for himself. This aroused the pope's wrath, and Roberto instantly prepared for defence. Finding an ally in the duke of Urbino, whose eyes were now opened to the aggressive policy of the church, he was able to repulse its forces. Paul II. died soon after, and was succeeded by Sixtus IV. Roberto's position was now mere secure, and in order to strengthen his recent alliance he betrothed himself to the daughter of the duke of Urbino. The next step was to dispose of his rival kindred. On the 8th of August 1470 Isotta's son was found murdered in a well belonging to the Marcheselli family; and a bloodstained sword, placed in their courtyard by Roberto, made it appear as though they had been guilty of the crime. Towards the end of the same year Isotta died also, apparently of a slow fever, but really, it was believed, by poison. Another of her sons, Valerio, born in 1453, still lived, but he was openly put to death by Roberto on a trumped-up charge of treason. In 1475 the new tyrant celebrated his nuptials with the duke of Urbino's daughter, and, being again taken into favour by the pope, valiantly defended him in Rome against the attacks of the duke of Calabria, and died there in 1482 of the hardships endured in the war. His widow was left regent during the minority of his son Pandolfo, who was nicknamed Pandolfaccio on account of his evil nature. Directly he was of age, he seized the reins of government by killing some relations who had plotted against Mm, and crushed another conspiracy in the same way. A daring soldier, he distinguished himself at the battle of the Taro against the French; but his tyranny made him hated by his subjects. In 1 500, when Ccsare Borgia fell on Romagna with violence and fraud, this Malatesta shared the fate of other petty tyrants and had to fly for his life. After the fall of the Borgia he returned, but, being bitterly detested by his people, decided to sell his rights to the Venetians, who had long desired to possess Rimini, and who gave him in exchange the town of CittadeUa, some ready money, and a pension for life. This arrangement was naturally disapproved by Rome, and especially by Julius II.; he therefore contrived the league of Cambray on purpose to ruin the Venetians, who were crush- ingly defeated in 1509. Thereupon the pope, having accom- plished his own ends, made alliance with the Venetians, who were now prostrate at his feet, and, with them, the Spaniards and the Swiss, fought against the French at Ravenna in 1512. Here the French were victors, but owing to their heavy losses and the death of their renowned leader, Gaston de Foix, were compelled to retreat. Thus Julius became master of Rimini and the other coveted lands. Malatesta made more than one attempt to win back his city, but always in vain, for his subjects preferred the papal rule, and in 1528 Pope Clement VII. became definite master of the town. Thus, after two hundred and fifty years, the sway of the Malatesta came to an end, and Pandolfo was reduced to beggary. He died in 1534, leaving a daughter and two sons in great poverty. The elder, Sigis- mondo, after various military adventures, died at Reggio d'Emilia in 1543; and Malatesta, the younger, went to fight in the Scotch and English wars, and was never heard of again. Sigismondo had left male heirs who made another attempt to regain Rimini in 1555, but Pope Paul IV. declared them deposed in perpetuity in punishment of Pandolfaccio's mis- deeds. From that time the Malatesta became citizens of Venice; their names were inscribed in the Golden Book, and they were admitted to the grand council. With the death, in 1716, of Christina Malatesta, the wife of Niccolo Boldu, the Rimini branch of the family became extinct. The descendants of Giovanni, brother of Malatesta da Verrucchio, who married one of the Sogliano, were known as the Sogliano-Malatesta. The representatives of this branch settled in Rome. The history of Rimini practically ends with its independence. It fell into obscurity under the rule of the popes, and was not again mentioned in history until, in 1831 and 1845, it began taking a prominent part in the revolutionary movements against papal despotism and in favour of Italian independence. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Battaglini, Memorie Storiche di Rimini e de' suoi signori, pubblicati con note di G. A. Zanetti (Bologna, 1789); Fossati, Le tempi di Malatesta di Rimini (Foligno, 1794); Moroni, Dizionario di erudizione storico-ecclesiastica (vol. Ivii., s.v. " Rimini ") ; Ch. Yriarte, Rimini: Un Condottiere au XV. Siecle: Etudes sur lei lettres et les arts a la cour des Malatesta (Paris, 1882); Tonini, Storia di Rimini (Rimini, 1848-62) ; E. Hutton, Sigismondo Malatesta (London, 1906). (P. V.) RIMMER, WILLIAM (1816-1879), an American artist, was born in Liverpool, England, on the 2oth of February 1816. He was the son of a French refugee, who emigrated to Nova Scotia, where he was joined by his wife and child in 1818, and who in 1826 removed to Boston, where he earned a living as a shoe-maker. The son learned the father's trade; at fifteen became a draughtsman and sign-painter; then worked for a lithographer; opened a studio and painted some ecclesiastical pictures; in 1840 made a tour of New England painting portraits; lived in Randolph, Mass., in 1845-55 as a shoe- maker, for the last years of the decade practising medicine; practised in East Chelsea and received a diploma from the Suffolk County Medical Society; and in 1855 removed to East Milton, where he supplemented his income by carving busts from blocks of granite. In 1860 he made his head of St Stephen (now in the Boston Athenaeum) and in 1861 his " Falling Gladiator " (since 1880 in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts), which Truman H. Bartlett calls " the most remarkable 348 RIMSKY-KORSAKOV— RINDERPEST work of sculpture that has yet [1882] been produced in this country . . . powerful, wonderful, but not alluring." Rimmer's sculptures, except those mentioned and " The Fighting Lions " (now in the Boston Art Club), " A Dying Centaur " (in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts), and a statue of Alexander Hamil- ton (made in 1865 for the city of Boston), were soon destroyed. He worked in clay, not modelling but building up and chiselling; almost always without models or preliminary sketches ; and always under technical disadvantages and in great haste ; but his sculpture is anatomically remarkable and has an " early- Greek " simplicity and strength. He published Elements of Design (1864) and Art Anatomy (1877), but his great work was in the class-room, where his lectures were illustrated with blackboard sketches. His studies in line suggest William Blake in their imaginative power. He died on the 2oth of August 1879. See Truman H. Bartlett, The Art Life of William Rimmer (Boston, 1882). RIMSKY-KORSAKOV, NICOLAS ANDREIEVICH (1844- 1908), Russian composer, was born at Tikhvin, Novgorod, on the i8th (N.S.) of March 1844. He was one of the musical amateurs who, with Borodin, Cui and Moussorsky, gathered round Balakirev in St Petersburg in the days when Wagner was still unknown. By 1865 he had written a symphony (in E minor) which in that year was performed — the first by a Russian composer — under Balakirev's direction, and in 1873 he definitely retired from the navy, having been appointed a professor in the St Petersburg Conservatoire. The same year witnessed his marriage to a talented pianist, Nadejda Pourgold, and the production of his first opera, Pskovitianka. This was followed by May Night, (1878), The Snow Maiden (1880), Mlada (1892), Christmas Eve (1894), Sadko (1895), Mozart and Salieri (1898), The Tsar's Bride (1899), Tsar Saltana (1900), Servilia (1902), Kostchei the Immortal (1902), Kites (1905). But his operas attracted less attention abroad than his symphonic compositions, which show a mastery of orchestral effect combined with a fine utilization of Russian folk-melody and a happy feeling for " programme music," his writing being peculiarly individual and distinctive in its restraint and avoidance of violent methods. Notable among these works are his first symphony, his second (Op. 9) Antar, his third (Op. 32), and his orchestral suites and overtures, his Spanish Capriccio (1887) being particularly appreciated. He also wrote a number of beautiful songs, pianoforte pieces, &c., and he eventually took Balakirev's place as the leading conductor in St Petersburg, never sparing himself in assisting in the musical development of the Russian school. He died there on the 2oth of June 1908. RINDERPEST (German for " cattle-plague," which is the English synonym), one of the most infectious and fatal diseases of oxen, sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, deer, &c.; a virulent eruptive fever which runs its course so rapidly and attacks such a large percentage of ruminants when it is intro- duced into a country, that from the earliest times it has ex- cited terror and dismay. It is an Asiatic malady, and has prevailed extensively in south Russia, central Asia, China, Indo-China, Burma, India, Persia, Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago. Thence it has at times been carried into Europe, and towards the end of the I9th century into South Africa. It appeared in Egypt in 1844 and 1865, Abyssinia in 1890, Japan in 1892, and the Philippines in 1898. It has been noted that its irruptions into Europe in the earlier centuries of our era always coincided with invasions of barbarous tribes in the east of Europe; and even at a later period the disease accompanied the events of war, when troops with their commissariat moved from the east towards the west, or cattle, when they were carried in the same direction. One of the earliest recorded irruptions of cattle-plague into western Europe occurred in the 5th century after the sanguinary in- vasion of the Huns under Attila, the expulsion of the Goths from Hungary, and the fierce internecine wars of the whole Germanic population. The disease appears then to have been carried from Hungary through Austria to Dalmatia, while by Brabant it obtained access to the Low Countries, Picardy, and so on to the other provinces of France. In the curious poem De Mortibus Bovum written by St Severus, who lived at that period, the course and destructiveness of the disease are specially alluded to. Many invasions of Europe are de- scribed, and in several of these Britain was visited by it — as in 809-10, 986-87, 1223-25, 1513-14, and notably in 1713, I74S, 1774, I799- In 1865 and 1872 it was imported direct from Russia. In 1870-71 it destroyed 70,000 cattle in France, 30,000 in Alsace-Lorraine, and 10,000 in Germany. In England an outbreak occurred in 1877, when it was imported from Germany, where the disease continued until 1879. The infective agent has not been positively identified, but it is known to exist in all the various secretions and excretions, in the flesh, blood and various organs of the body. Contagion may be direct or indirect, and the disease may be conveyed to healthy cattle by contaminated fodder, litter, water, clothing, pasture, sheds, railway wagons, hides, horns and hoofs. Attend- ants, cats, dogs, birds, vermin and flies may spread the infection. Definite symptoms of the disease may not be recognized until the expiration of three to six days after exposure, the period of incubation. Symptoms. — Like some other general diseases, this does not offer any exclusive or pathognomonic symptoms, but is rather characterized by a group of functional and anatomical altera- tions. An exact knowledge of its symptoms and necroscopical appearances is of the utmost importance, as its extension and consequent ravages can only be arrested through its timely recognition and the immediate adoption of the necessary sanitary measures. Intense fever, diarrhoea or dysentery, croupous in- flammation of the mucous membranes in general, sometimes a cutaneous papular eruption, and great prostration mark the course of the affection, which is frequently most difficult to diagnose during life, especially if its presence is not suspected. Its introduction and mode of propagation can, hi many instances, be ascertained only at a late period, and when great loss may already have been sustained. In the majority of cases the examination of the carcase of an animal which has died or been purposely killed is the best' way to arrive at a correct diagnosis. Indeed, this is practically the only certain means of concluding as to the presence of the malady, as there are considerable varia- tions in the chief symptoms with regard to their intensity as well as in the secondary symptoms or epiphenomena. Among cattle indigenous to the regions in which this malady may be said to be enzootic the symptoms are often compara- tively slight, and the mortality not great. So much is this the case that veterinary surgeons who can readily distinguish the disease when it affects the cattle of western Europe, can only with difficulty diagnose it in animals from Hungary, Bessarabia, Moldavia, or other countries where it is always more or less prevalent. In these the indications of fever are usually of brief duration, and signs of lassitude and debility are, in some in- stances, the only marks of the presence of this virulent disorder in animals which may, nevertheless, communicate the disease in its most deadly form to the cattle of other countries. Slight diarrhoea may also be present, and a cutaneous eruption, accompanied by gastric disturbance, running at the eyes, and occasional cough. In the more malignant form the fever runs high, 106° to 107° Fahr., and all the characteristic symptoms. are well marked: dulness, sunken eyes, eruption on the skin, discharges from eyes, nose and mouth, shivering fits, difficult breathing, dry, harsh cough, miliary eruptions on the gums, accumulation of bran-like exudate within the lips, fetid breath, with certain nervous phenomena, and dysenteric dejections. Death generally occurs in four or five days, the course of the disorder being more ra^pid with animals kept in sheds than with those living in the open, and in summer than in winter. The post-mortem appearances are most marked in the digestive canal, and comprise red spots and erosions on the palate, lips, tongue and pharynx; intense congestion of the lining of the fourth stomach, which in places is covered with a grey or reddish pultaceous deposit, under which the membrane is deeply RING 349 ulcerated. Similar lesions are seen in the small intes- tine, caecum and rectum. The membrane lining the air passages is congested throughout, and the lungs are emphy- sematous. In recent years much has been done in Russia and India towards the prevention of rinderpest by inoculation and the use of immunizing sera. In South Africa the bile method (or the injection of bile obtained from cattle dead of rinderpest), discovered by Koch, in 1896; bile with admixture of glycerine, recommended by Edington; the simultaneous injection of serum and rinderpest blood, introduced by Turner and Kolle in 1897, and repeated injection of fortified serum alone, have been employed, more or less successfully, in conferring immunity. But elsewhere the main line of action has been in the direction of preventing the introduction of the disease by prohibiting the importation of cattle from infected countries. RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages,1 and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. dpKos or Kpucos, Skt. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "), in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used for various purposes, but, particularly, a circular band of gold, silver or other precious or decorative material used as an orna- ment, not only for the finger, but also for the ear (see EARRING), or even for the nose, where it is still worn by certain races in India and Africa. The word is also used of many objects which in structure take the shape of a circle or hoop, such as the tracheal rings, the circular-shaped bands of cartilage in the walls of the windpipe, the " annual rings," or concentric layers of wood produced each year in the trunks of trees, &c. In transferred senses " ring " is also applied to an enclosed space, whether circular, oval or otherwise: hence to the arena of a circus or hippodrome, the enclosure for a boxing contest, or to the place on a racecourse reserved for the bookmakers for the purpose of betting. A particular application in a transferred sense is that to a combination of persons in trade for the purpose of con- trolling markets, prices, etc. In the art sense (see also GEMS), the English and German " ring " corresponds to the Gr. SaxruXios, Lat. anntdus, Fr. anneau. The enlarged part of a ring on which the device is engraved is called the " bezel," the rest of it being the " hoop." To decorate the human finger with a ring, if possible with one combining beauty, value and a distinctive character, was a widely spread natural impulse. At an early period, when the art of writing was known to but very few, it was commonly the custom for men to wear rings on which some distinguishing sign or badge was engraved (€Trl and even tnese were forbidden to slaves. Ambassadors were the first who were privileged to wear gold rings, and then only while performing some public duty. Next senators, consuls, equites and all the chief officers of state received the jus annuli aurei. In the Augustan age many valuable collections ' of antique rings were made, and were frequently offered as gifts in the temples of Rome. One of the largest and most valuable of the dactyliothecae was dedicated in the temple of Apollo Palatinus by Augustus's nephew Marcellus (Pliny, H.N. xxxvii. 5). The temple of Concord in the Forum contained another; in this collection was the celebrated ring of Polycrates, king of Samos, the story of which is told by Herodotus; Pliny, however, doubts the authenticity of this relic (H.N. xxxvii. 2). Different laws as to the wearing of rings existed during the empire: Tiberius made a large property qualification necessary for the wearing of gold rings in the case of those who were not of free descent (Pliny, H.N. xxxiii. 8) ; Severus conceded the right to all Roman soldiers; and later still all free citizens possessed the jus annuli aurei, silver rings being worn by freedmen and iron by slaves. Under Justinian even these restrictions passed away. In the rings of the Roman period the decoration is no longer an accessory of the bezel alone. It modifies the form of the hoop, which may be polygonal or angular (see fig. 6). The ring here figured is set vlth an eye, as an amulet, capable of turning on a swivel. In the 3rd and 4th centuries Roman rings were made en- graved with Christian symbols. Fig. 7 shows two silver rings of the latter part of the 4th century which were found in 1881 concealed in a hole in the pavement of a Roman villa at Fifehead FIG FIG. 8. FIG. 7. — Roman silver rings. Neville, Dorset, together with some coins of the same period. Both have the monogram of Christ, and one has a dove within an olive wreath rudely cut on the silver bezel. These rings are of special interest, as Roman objects with any Christian device have very rarely been found in Britain. Fig. 8 is a choice example of a gold key-ring of the Christian period, with good wishes inscribed in pierced gold work — accipe dulcis, multis annis (Brit. Mus.). Part of FIG. 9. Part of FIG. 9. Fig. 9 is a gold ring from Smyrna (Brit. Mus.) with seven incised intaglio medallions, with a figure of Christ on the bezel. Assigned to the 5th century. Large numbers of gold rings have been found in many parts of Europe in the tombs of early Celtic races. They are usually of very pure gold, often penannular in form — with a slight break, that is, in the hoop so as to form a spring. They are often of gold wire formed into a sort of rope, or else a simple bar twisted in an ornamental way. Some of the quite plain penannular rings were used in the place of coined money. Throughout the Middle Ages the signet ring was a thing of great importance in religious, legal, commercial and private matters. The episcopal ring1 was solemnly conferred upon the newly made bishop together with his crozier, a special formula for this being inserted in the Pontifical. In the earliest references to rings worn by bishops, there is nothing to distinguish them from other signet rings. In A.D. 610 the first mention has been found of the episcopal ring as a well-understood symbol of dignity. It is clear that it was derived from the signet. It was only in the i2th century and onwards that it was brought into mystical connexion with the marriage ring. In the time of Innocent III. (1194) the ring was ordered to be of pure gold mounted with a stone that was not engraved; but this rule appears not to have been strictly kept. Owing to the custom of burying the episcopal ring in its owner's coffin, a great many fine examples still exist. Among the splendid collection of rings formed by the dis- tinguished naturalist Edmund Water- ton, and now in the South Kensington Museum, is a fine gold episcopal ring decorated with niello, and inscribed with the name of Alhstan, bishop of Sherborne from 824 to 867 (see fig. 10). In many cases an antique gem FIG. I0- — Ring of Bishop was mounted in the bishop's ring, and Alhstan. often an inscription was added in the gold setting of the gem :o give a Christian name to the pagan figure. The monks of Durham, for example, made an in- taglio of Jupiter Serapis into a portrait of St Oswald by adding the legend CAPVT s. OSWALDI. In other cases the engraved gem appears to have been merely regarded as an ornament with- out meaning — as, for example, a magnificent gold ring found in the coffin of Seffrid, bishop of Chichester (1125-1151), in which is mounted a nostic intaglio. Another in the Water- ton collection bears a Roman cameo n plasma of a female head in high relief; the gold ring itself is of the 1 2th century.' More commonly the episcopal ring was set with a large sapphire, ruby or other stone cut en cabochon, that is, without :acets, and very magnificent in effect (see fig. n). It was 1 See a paper by Edm. Waterton in Arch. Jour. xx. p. 224, also Cabrol, Diet, d'arch. chretienne, s.v. " Anneaux." FIG. 11. — 13th-century episcopal ring of Italian workmanship, of gold, set with a sapphire en cabochon. RING-GOAL Papal Hags. worn over the bishop's gloves, usually on the forefinger of the right hand; and this accounts for the large size of the hoop of these rings. In the isth and i6th centuries bishops often wore three or four rings on the right hand in addition to a large jewel which was fixed to the back of each glove. The papal " Ring of the Fisherman " (annulus piscatoris) bears the device of St Peter in a boat, drawing a net from "Rlngot the water. The first mention of it, as the well-under- the stood personal signet ring of the pope, that has been Fisher- found, occurs in a letter of Clement IV. in 1265. After the middle of the isth century it was no longer used as the private seal of the popes, but was always attached to briefs. After the death of a pope the ring is broken. A new ring with the space for the name left blank is taken into the con- clave, and placed on the finger of the newly elected pontiff, who thereupon declares what name he will assume, and gives back the ring to be engraved (see Waterton, Archaeologia, 40, p. 138). The so-called papal rings, of which many exist dating from the isth to the I7th centuries, appear to have been given by the popes to new-made cardinals. They are very large thumb rings, usually of gilt bronze coarsely worked, and set with a foiled piece of glass or crystal. On the hoop is usually engraved the name and arms of the reigning pope, the bezel being without a device. They are of little intrinsic value, but magnificent in appearance. The giving of a ring to mark a betrothal was an old Roman custom. The ring was probably a mere pledge, pignus, that Betrothal tne contract would be fulfilled. In Pliny's time and conservative custom still required a plain ring of iron, wedding but the gold ring was introduced in the course of the flags. 2n£j century. This use of the ring, which was thus of purely secular origin, received ecclesiastical sanction, and formulae of benediction of the ring exist from the nth century. The exact stages by which the wedding ring developed from the betrothal ring can no longer be traced. Gemel or gimmel rings, from the Latin gemellus, a twin, were made with two hoops fitted together, and could be worn either together or singly; they were common in the l6tn an<* T7tn centuries, and were much used as betrothal rings. Posy rings, so called from the " poesy " or rhyme engraved on them, were specially common in the same centuries. The name " posy ring " does not occur earlier than the i6th century. A posy ring inscribed with " Love me and leave me not " is mentioned by Shakespeare (Mer. of Yen., act v. sc. i). The custom of inscribing rings with mottoes or words of good omen dates from a very early time. Greek and Roman rings exist with words such as ZHCAIC, XAIPE, KAAH, or wtis mels Claudia vivas. In the Middle Ages many rings were inscribed with words of cabalistic power, such as anamzapta, or Caspar, Melchior and Balthasar, the supposed names of the Magi. In the i?th century they were largely used as wedding ring?, with such phrases as " Love and obaye," " Fear God and love me," " No gift can show the love I owe," " God above increase our love " or " Mulier viro subjecta esto." In the same century memorial rings with a name and date of death were frequently made of very elaborate form, en- amelled in black and white; a not unusual design was two skeletons bent along the hoop, and holding a coffin which formed the bezel. Cramp rings were much worn during the Middle Ages as a preservative against cramp. They derived their virtue from being blessed by the king; a special form of service was used for this, and a large number of rings were consecrated at one time, usually when the sovereign touched patients for the king's evil. Decade rings were not uncommon, especially in the isth century; these were so called from their having ten knobs along the hoop of the ring, and were used, after the rtn^" manner of rosaries, to say nine aves and a paternoster. In some cases there are only nine knobs, the bezel of the ring being counted in, and taking the place of the gaude Posy riags. in a rosary. The bezel of these rings is usually engraved with a sacred monogram or word. In the isth and i6th centuries signet rings engraved with a badge or trademark were much used by merchants and others; these were not only used to form scab, but Mer- the ring itself was often sent by a trusty bearer as cbmni*' the proof of the genuineness of a bill of demand.1 lia**' At the same time private gentlemen used massive rings wholly of gold with their initials cut on the bezel, and a graceful knot of flowers twining round the letters. Other fine gold rings of this period have coats of arms or crests with graceful lambrequins. Poison rings with a hollow bezel were used in classical times; as, for example, that by which Hannibal killed himself, and the poison ring of Demosthenes. Pliny records that, after Crassus had stolen the gold treasure from under Hag*. the throne of Capitoline Jupiter, the guardian of the shrine, to escape torture, " broke the gem of his ring in his mouth and died immediately." The medieval anello delta morte, supposed to be a Venetian invention, was actually used as an easy method of murder. Among the elaborate ornaments of the bezel a hollow point made to work with a spring was concealed; it communicated with a receptacle for poison in a cavity behind, in such a way that the murderer could give the fatal scratch while shaking hands with his enemy. This device was probably suggested by the poison fang of a snake. A very large and elaborate form of ring is that used during the Jewish marriage service. Fine examples of the i6th and 1 7th centuries exist. In the place of the bezel is a model, minutely worked in gold or base metal, of a rlag*. building with high gabled roofs, and frequently movable weathercocks on the apex. This is a conventional representation of the temple at Jerusalem. Perhaps the most magnificent rings from the beauty of the workmanship of the hoop are those of which Benvenuto Cellini produced the finest examples. They are of gold, richly chased and modelled with caryatides or grotesque figures, and are decorated with coloured enamels in a very skilful and elaborate way. Very fine jewels are sometimes set in these magnificent pieces of 16th-century jewellery. Thumb rings were commonly worn from the I4th to the 1 7th century. Falstaff boasts that in his youth he was slender enough to " creep into any alderman's rings. thumb ring" (Shakes., Hen. IV., Pt. I., act ii. sc. 4). The finest collections of rings formed in Britain have been those of Lord Londesborough, Edmirnd Waterton (now in the Victoria and Albert Museum) and the collection in the British Museum, which was greatly augmented in 1897 by the bequest of the late Sir A. W. Franks. Bibliography. — Licetus, De Anulis antiquis (Udine, 1645); Kirch- mann, De Annulis (Schleswig, 1657); King, Antique Gems and Rings, 1872; Marshall, Catalogue of Finger Rings in the British Museum, 1907; Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne, s.v. "Anneaux"; articles of Waterton in Archaeologia and Archaeo- logical Journal. (J. H. M. ; A. H. SM.) RING-GOAL, a game for two persons played on a ground, or indoor rink, 78 ft. long by 10 ft. wide, with a ring of split cane about 75 in. in diameter and weighing about 3$ oz., which is propelled in the air by means of two sticks, resembling miniature billiard-cues, which are held inside the ring. The goals corisist of two uprights 8 ft. high and 10 ft. apart, from which a net is stretched on an incline, so that its base will be a few feet behind the goal-line, and the object of the game is to drive the ring into these goals, each goal made scoring one point. The ring must be propelled by the server and caught by his opponent, on one or both of his sticks, if he can, and so returned alternately, and a point is scored for either player if it be stopped by his opponent in any other manner. A point is also scored for the receiver if the server, who begins the game, throw the ring so that it falls to the ground before •The celebrated ring given to Essex by Queen Elizabeth was meant to be used for a similar purpose. It is set with a fine cameo portrait of Elizabeth cut in sardonyx, of Italian workmanship. 352 RINGWOOD— RIO CUARTO the receiver can catch it between the creases, which are lines drawn across the court 6 ft. from the goal-lines, or the ring be driven out of court. Eleven points constitute a game. Ring-goal was invented by an under-graduate of Keble College, Oxford, about 1885, and was played at Oxford, but without attracting any wide popularity. RINGWOOD, a market town in the New Forest parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 103^ m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South- Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4629. It lies pleasantly on the river Avon, which here divides into numerous branches, flowing through flat meadow land. The church of SS. Peter and Paul, which was almost entirely reconstructed in 1854, the town hall and corn exchange are the chief buildings. A large agricultural trade and manufactures of agricultural implements, linen goods and woollen gloves are carried on. RINGWORM (or TINEA TONSURANS), a disease of the scalp (especially common within the tropics); it consists of bald patches, usually round, and varying in diameter from half an inch up to several inches, the surface showing the broken stumps of hairs and a fine whitish powdering of desquamated epidermic scales. In scrofulous subjects matter is sometimes produced, which forms crusts, or glues the hair together, or otherwise obscures the characteristic appearance. The disease is due to a parasite, Trichophyton tonsurans, which exists mostly in the form of innurrierable spores (with hardly any mycelium), and is most abundant within the substance of the hairs, especially at their roots. If a piece of the hair near the root be soaked for a time in dilute liquor potassae and pressed flat under a cover-glass, the microscope will show it to be occupied by long rows of minute oval spores, very uniform in size, and eacl* bearing a nucleus. The same fungus sometimes attacks the hairs of the beard, producing a disease called " sycosis." Sometimes it invades the hairless regions of skin, forming " tinea circinata "; circular patches of skin disease, if they be sharply defined by a margin of papules or vesicles, may be suspected of depending on the tinea-fungus. Interesting varieties of tinea are found in some of the Pacific and East Indian islands. Among the best remedial agents are various mercurial preparations. But in modern practice much success has been found in X-raying the patch in order to remove the dead and diseased hairs, thus leaving a free channel for the passage of antiseptic applications to the follicles. The exposures are followed by inunction of a mercurial preparation or of a lotion of tincture of iodine with methylated spirit. See also FAVUS. RINTOUL, ROBERT STEPHEN (1787-1858), British journalist, was born at Tibbermore, Perthshire, in 1787, and educated at the Aberdalgie parish school. After serving his apprenticeship to the printing trade he became the printer and subsequently the editor of the Dundee Advertiser. In 1826 he came to London, and in July 1828, with the assistance of friends, founded The Spectator. In it Rintoul strongly supported the Reform Bill, and to him was due the catch- phrase " The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill." After conducting The Spectator for more than thirty years, he sold it shortly before his death, which occurred on the 22nd of April 1858. RINUCCINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1592-1653), archbishop of Fermo, was born in Rome on the isth of September 1592, being the son of a senator. He studied at several Italian universities, became chamberlain to Pope Gregory XV., and in 1625 was made archbishop of Fermo. His participation in Irish politics, which is his chief title to fame, began during the later stages of the Civil War when Ireland was the scene of universal disorder. In 1645 P°pe Innocent X. despatched him to that country as papal nuncio; he landed at Kenmare with -arms and money in October 1645, and took up his residence at Kilkenny. Before this time the Roman Catholics had banded themselves together for defence. Called the Confederate •Catholics, they had set up a provisional government, and when the nuncio reached Kilkenny they were engaged in negotiating for peace with the lord lieutenant, the marquess, afterwards duke, of Ormonde. Rinuccini took part in the proceedings, but as his demands were ignored he refused to recognize the peace which was concluded in March 1646, and gaining the support of the Irish general, Owen Roe O'Neill, he used all his influence, both ecclesiastical and political, to prevent its acceptance by others. To a large extent he succeeded. Meet- ing at Waterford, the clergy condemned the treaty and several towns took up the same attitude. The nuncio's most pliant helper was now Edward Somerset, earl of Glamorgan, after- wards marquess of Worcester, who had been sent to Ireland by Charles I., and who had entered into communication with Rinuccini when the latter first arrived in that country. Gla- morgan bound himself to carry out all the wishes of the nuncio, who intended that he should supplant Ormonde. In September 1646 Rinuccini took over the conduct of affairs. He im- prisoned his opponents on the council and tried to arrange for an attack on Dublin. ' But there was no harmony among his subordinates, his military plans failed and soon all parties were tacitly ignoring him. Leaving Kilkenny he stayed for some time in Galway, and in February 1649 he left Ireland. After visiting Rome he returned to Fermo in 1650 and died on the 5th of December 1653. See G. Aiazzi, La Nunziatura in Irlanda (Florence, 1844), English translation as The Embassy in Ireland, by A. Hutton (Dublin, 1873) ; and S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, vols. iii. and iv. (I905)- RIOBAMBA or ROYABAMBA, a town of Ecuador, capital of the province of Chimborazo, on the railway between Guaya- quil and Quito, about 85 m. E.N.E. of the former. Pop. (1900, estimate) 12,000. It stands in a barren, sandy basin of the great central plateau, drained by the Chambo, a tributary of the Pastaza, on the old road running southward from Quito into Peru, 9039 ft. above sea-level, and in full view of the imposing heights of Chimborazo, Carahuairazo (Carguairazo), Tunguragua and Altar. Though 300 ft. lower than Quito, its climate is considerably colder, owing, perhaps, to its more exposed situation and the vicinity of so many snow-clad peaks. It is a town of unusually wide streets and one-storeyed adobe houses, being so laid out and built because of earthquakes. It has very little importance as a commercial or industrial centre, having only a small trade and a few unimportant in- dustries. The present town dates from 1797, when the great earthquake of that year destroyed the old town then situated 12 m. W., near the existing village of Cajabamba. The ruins of the old town indicate that it was much larger and finer than its successor. RIO CUARTO, a town of Argentina in the province of Cordoba, 119 m. S. of the city of that name, and about 500 m. N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimate) 12,000. It stands 1440 ft. above sea-level and about half-way across the great Argentine pampas, on the banks of a river of the same name which finds an outlet through the Carcaranal into the Parana near Rosario. The town is built on the open plain and is surrounded with attractive suburbs. It is the commercial centre of a large district and has a large and lucrative trade. Its geographical position gives it great strategical importance, and the government maintains here a large arsenal and a garrison of the regular army. The surrounding country belongs to the partially arid pampa region and is devoted to stock- raising — cattle, horses, sheep and goats. Irrigation is em- ployed in its immediate vicinity. Previous to 1872 this region was overrun by the Ranqueles, a warlike tribe of Indians, but the vigorous reprisals of General Ivanovski in that year, supplemented by the tactful intervention of the Franciscan missionaries, who have a convent in this town, put an end to these hostile forays and gave full opportunity for the industrial development of the country. There are some manufacturing industries in the town. The National Andine railway passes through Rio Cuarto, and branch lines connect with the Buenos Aires and Pacific line — all of which give railway communication RIO DE CONTAS— RIO DE JANEIRO with Buenos Aires, Rosario, Tucuman, Cordoba, San Luis and Mendoza. RIO DE CONTAS, or VILLA DE CONTAS, a town of Brazil in the state of Bahia, 230 m. S.W. from the city of Bahia, on the Brumado (Contas-Pequeno), a head stream of the Rio de Contas (Jussiape), which rises on the eastern slope of the neigh- bouring Serra das Almas, and flows S.E. and E. to the Atlantic coast at Barra do Rio de Contas. Pop. (1890), including rural districts, 17,318. The surrounding country is fertile and produces sugar, cotton, mandioca and tobacco, but has lost much of its prosperity through the droughts that have devastated the interior of the state, and because of the costs of transporting produce to market. Stock-raising was at one time an important industry here. The town was founded in 1715 by some " Paulistas " who discovered gold there in the sands of the river. It became a " villa " in 1724, but was soon afterward moved down the river 5 m. to a more convenient site on the high road between Bahia and Goyaz. RIO DE JANEIRO, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. by Minas Geraes, E. by Espirito Santo and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic, and W. by Sao Paulo. It is one of the smaller states of the republic and has an area of 26,635 sq.m.; pop. (1900) 926,585. The state is traversed longitudinally by the Serra do Mar, which divides it into a low, narrow, irregular coastal zone, and a broad elevated river valley through which the Parahyba flows eastward to the Atlantic. The eastern part of this valley widens out into a great alluvial plain on which are to be found some of the richest sugar estates of Brazil. The central mountainous region is heavily wooded, the coast region is hot and in places malarial, but the valleys are fertile and well watered. The Parahyba valley has long been celebrated for its fertility, and was for many years the centre of the coffee-producing industry. The exhaustion of the soil and antiquated methods of cultivation have caused a great decline in this industry, and many of its coffee plantations are now either abandoned or are producing but a fraction of earlier crops. Stock-raising has been slowly developing since the abolition of slavery (1888) and the decline in coffee pro- duction, and the state now possesses large herds of cattle and droves of swine. The state's agricultural and pastoral products are coffee, sugar, rum, Indian corn, mandioca (both bitter and sweet), cotton, tropical fruits, cattle, hogs, butter, cheese, fresh milk and lard. The state is well watered by the Parahyba (q.v.) and its tributaries and by numerous short streams flowing from the Serra do Mar to the coast. Manufacturing has been developed largely because of the fine water power supplied by the mountain streams, and among the manufactures are cotton, woollen, silk and jute fabrics, brick, tile and rough pottery, sugar, rum, vehicles, furniture, beer and fruit conserves. The state is well provided with railways, which include the Central do Brazil, Leopoldina, Melhoramentos and Rio do Ouro. The Central line runs from the city of Rio de Janeiro N.N.W. across the Serra do Mar to the Parahyba valley, where it divides into two branches at the station of Barra do Pirahy, one running westward to Sao Paulo, and the other eastward and northward into Minas Geraes. Besides these there are a number of short railways called the Theresopolis, Uniao Valen- ciana, Rio das Flores, Bananal, and Vassourense lines. The total extension of these railways in the state in 1907 was 1445 m. Other than Nictheroy, the ports of the state are Sao Joao da Barra, Macahe' or Imbetiba, Cabo Frio and Paraty, but they are visited only by the smaller coasting vessels. The capital of the state is Nictheroy on the E. side of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, and other cities and towns, with their populations in 1890 except where otherwise stated, are: Campos (estimate, in 1907, 35,000), on the lower Parahyba in the midst of a rich sugar-producing region; Rio Bonito (19,321); Ita- borahy (17,817); Barra Mansa (14,449), on the upper Parahyba; Rezende (14,370), in a fertile district of the upper Parahyba; Petropolis (q.v.); Cantagallo (about 9000), in a rich coffee district of the Serra do Mar; Paraty (10,765), a small port on the W. side of the bay of Angra dos Reis; Valenga (11,965); Vassouras (9666); Sao Fidelis (11,770), a river port on the lower Parahyba having steamboat communication with Campos; Macahe (about 7000 in 1900), an old port on the eastern coast of XXIII. 12 353 the state at the mouth of the Macah6 river whose original anchorage has been filled with silt, and that of Imbctiba, in the vicinity, with which it is connected by tramway, is now used by vessels both for the town and the Macah6 and Campos railway; Barra do Pirahy (7750), an important station and junction of the Central do Brazil railway on the N. side of the Serra do Mar, with large manufacturing and commercial interests; Parahyba do Sul (7343), in a fertile, long-settled district in the N.E. part of the state; Marica (10,373); Cabo Frio (10,382); Pirahy (10,429); Saquarema (12,489); Nova Friburgo (9857); and Araruama (9087). RIO DE JANEIRO (in full, SXo SEBASTIAO DO Rio DE JANEIRO, colloquially shortened to Rio), a city and port of Brazil, capital of the republic, and seat of an archbishopric, on the western side of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, or Guanabara, in lat. 25°54'23"S.,long. 43°8;34*W. (the position of the Observatory). The city is situated in the S.E. angle of the Federal District (Districto Federal) formerly known as the Neutral Municipality (Municipio Neulro), an independent district or commune with an area of 538 sq. m., which was detached from the pro- vince of Rio de Janeiro in 1834. The city stands in great part on an alluvial plain formed by the filling in of the western shore of the bay, which extends inland from the shore-line in a north-westerly direction between a detached group of mountains on the S. known as the Serra da Carioca, and the imposing wooded heights of the Serra do Mar on the N. The spurs of the Carioca range project into this plain, in some places, closely up to the margin of the bay, forming picturesque valleys within the limits of the city. Some of the residential quarters follow these valleys up into the mountains and extend up their slopes and over the lower spurs, which, with the hills covered with buildings rising in the midst of the city, give a picturesque appearance. At the entrance to the bay is the Sugar Loaf (Pao de Assucar), a conical rock rising 1212 ft. above the water- level and forming the terminal point of a short range between the city and the Atlantic coast. The culminating point of that part of the Carioca range which projects into and partly divides the city is the Corcovado (Hunchback), a sharp rocky peak 2329 ft. high overlooking the Botafogo suburb and ap- proachable only on the wooded N.W. side. These spurs are covered with luxuriant vegetation, excepting their perpendi- cular faces and the slopes occupied by the suburbs. Consider- ably beyond the limits of the city on its S.W. side, but within the municipality, is the huge isolated flat-topped rock known as the Gavea, 2575 ft. high, which received its name from its resemblance to the square sail used on certain Portuguese craft. The sky-line of this range of mountains, as seen by the ap- proaching traveller some miles outside the entrance to the bay, forms the rough outline of a huge reclining figure called " the sleeping giant," the facial profile of which is also known as " Lord Hood's nose." The entrance to the bay, between the Sugar Loaf on the W. and the Pico on the E., with fortress of Santa Cruz on one side and the fort of Sao Joao on the other, is about a mile wide and free from obstructions. Almost midway in the channel are the little island and fort of Lage, so near the level of the sea that the spray is sometimes carried completely over it. On the W. is the semicircular bay of Botafogo, round which are grouped the residences of one of the richest suburbs; on the E., the almost land-locked bay of Jurujuba (see NICTHEROY). The bay extends northward nearly i6j nautical miles, with a maximum breadth of n m. and a minimum, between the arsenal of war (Ponla do Calaboufo) and the opposite Ponta da Gravata, of about 3500 yds. The shore-line is irregular, and has been modified by the construction of sea-walls and the filling in of shallow bays. Close to the shore are the islands of Villegaignon (occupied by a fort), Cobras (occupied by fortifications, naval storehouses, hospital and dry docks), Santa Barbara and Enxadas, the site of the Brazilian naval school. A small island just above the lower anchorage, which is occupied by port officials, was once known as Rat island, and is now called Ilha Fiscal. There is one lake 354 RIO DE JANEIRO within the urban limits, the Lag6a de Rodrigo de Freitas, near the Botanical Garden, separated from the sea by a narrow sand beach, which is being gradually filled in. Several small streams from the hills are conspicuous only in times of heavy rains. The oldest part of the city, which includes the commercial section, lies between Castle and Santo Antonio hills on the S. and Sao Bento, Conceicao and Livramento hills on the N., and extends inland to the Praca da Republica, though the defensive works in colonial times followed a line much nearer the bay. This section during the past century has extended southward along the bay shore in a string of suburbs known as the Cattete and Botafogo, with that of Larangeiras behind the Cattete in a pretty valley of the same name, and thence on or near the Atlantic coast as Largo dos Leoes, Copacabana and Gavea, the last including the Botanical Garden. The greatest development has been northward and westward, where are to be found the suburbs of Cidade Nova, Sao Christovao, Engenho Novo, Praia Formoso, Pedregulho, Villa Isabel, Tijuca, and a number of smaller places extending far out on the line of the Central railway. The extreme length of the city along lines of communication is little less than 20 m. Streets. — Some of the most modern streets on the plain have been laid out with Spanish-American regularity, but much the greater part seems to have sprung into existence without any plan. Most of the streets of the old city are parallel and cross at right angles, but they are narrow and enclose blocks of unequal size. Each suburb is laid out independently, with straight streets where the ground permits, and crooked ones where the shore-line or mountain contour compels. Since the beginning of the 2Oth century large sums have been borrowed and expended on new avenues, the widening and straightening of old streets, and the improvement of the water-front between the Passeio Publico and the southern extremity of the Praia de Botafogo by the construc- tion of a grand boulevard, partly on reclaimed land. One of these improvements consists of a central avenue cut across the old city from a point on the water-front near the Passeio Publico northward to the Saude water-front. The shore-line boulevard, called the Avenida Beira-Mar, is about 43 m. long, the. wider parts being filled in with gardens. It was undertaken in 1903, during the administration of President Rodrigues Alves, as part of a vast scheme to improve the sanitary and traffic conditions of the city, including the construction of a new shore-line and filling in the shallow parts of the shore, which had long been considered one of the prime causes of the unhealthy state of the city. Another improvement was the completion and embellishment of the Mangue canal, originally designed as an entrance to a central market for the boats plying on the bay, but now destined for drainage purposes and as a public pleasure ground. This canal, as completed, is nearly 2 m. long, enclosed with stone walls, crossed by a number of iron bridges and bordered by lines of royal palms. The most famous street of the old city is the Rua do Ouvidor, running west- ward from the market-place to the Largo de Sao Francisco de Paula, and lined with retail shops, caf<5s and newspaper offices. It has long been a favourite promenade, and fills an important part in the social and political life of the city. The principal business street is the Rua Primeiro de Marc.o, formerly called Rua Direita, which extends from the Praga 15 de Novembro northward to Sao Bento Hill. All these old streets, excepting the last, are narrow and paved with squared granite blocks, and have their vehicle traffic regulated to go in one direction only. The side walks are very narrow, and the gas lamps are attached to the walls of the buildings. The streets and suburbs are served by five groups of tramway lines — Jardim Botanico, Santa Thereza, Sao Christovao, Villa Isabel, and Carris Urbanos — all using electric traction but the last. The streets are lighted with electricity and gas, the Ouvidor and some other narrow streets having a great number of gas-pipe arches across them for decorative illumination on fescal occasions. Parks. — The public parks and gardens are numerous and include the Botanical Garden with its famous avenue of royal palms (Oreodoxa regia); the Passeio Publico (dating from 1783), a small garden on the water-front facing the harbour entrance; the Jardim d'Acclamacao, forming part of the Prac.a da Republica (once known as the Campo de Sant' Anna) with its artistic walks and masses of shrubbery; the Praca Tiradentes (the old Largo do Rocio, after- wards rechristened Praga da Constituicao) with its magnificent equestrian statue of Dom Pedro I. executed by the French sculptor Luiz Rochet; the Praca 15 de Novembro on the water-front facing the old city palace; and a number of smaller squares with and without gardens. Water Supply and Sewerage Drainage. — The water supply is derived from three sources: the small streams flowing down the mountain sides which serve small localities; the old Carioca aqueduct, dating from colonial times, which collects a considerable supply from the small streams of the Serra da Carioca and brings it into the city through a covered conduit which once crossed the gap between Santa Thereza and Santo Antonio hills on two ranges of stone arches (now used as a viaduct by the Santa Thereza Tramway Company); and the modern Rio do Ouro waterworks, which brings in an abundant supply from the Serra do Tinqua, N.W. of the city — the length of the iron mains being 33 m. between the principal collecting reservoir and the main distributing reservoir at Pedregulho, near the Ponta do Caju. There are three other distributing reservoirs in different parts of the city, and the supply, which has been augmented since the works were inaugurated in 1885, is good and ample. An extensive system of sewers was con- structed by the City Improvements Co., an English corporation, which initiated the work in 1853; and a separate system of rain-water drains. The Leicester system is used because the greater part of the sewers are below sea-level, and it is necessary to use powerful pumps. Climate. — The climate of Rio de Janeiro is hot, humid and debilitating, the temperature ranging from 50° to 99-5° F. in the shade, with an average for the year of 74°, and the rainfall being about 44 in. The greater part of the city is only 2 or 3 ft. above sea-level, is surrounded by mountains, and has large areas of water, swamp and wet soil in its vicinity. But the unhealthiness of Rio de Janeiro in past years may be charged to insanitary conditions and not to the climate. Yellow fever, whose first recorded appearance was in December 1849, was for many years almost a regular yearly visitant, and the mortality from it has been terrible. Smallpox also is prac- tically endemic, owing in great part to negligent sanitary super- vision. Since 1900 there have been several mild outbreaks of bubonic plague. These dangerous diseases are slowly disappear- ing as sanitary conditions are improved. The death-rate from tuberculosis, however, is high, and apparently shows no abate- ment. This is undoubtedly due to constitutional weakness arising from bad nutrition and the habit of sleeping in closed or badly ventilated apartments. Malarial fevers , are also common, and diseases of the digestive organs, in great part easily preventible, figure among the principal causes of death. According to official returns for the five years 1900-1905, the average number of deaths was 15,926, or 20^4 per 1000. Among the deaths 2789 were from tuberculosis, 1200 from smallpox, 778 from malarial diseases, 331 from la grippe, and 106 from beri-beri. There were no unusual epidemics during those years, and the rate given may be considered normal. Buildings. — There remain many public edifices and dwellings of the colonial period, severely plain in appearance, with heavy stone walls and tile roofs. The old city palace facing upon Praga 15 de Novembro, once the residence of the fugitive Portuguese sovereign Dom Joao VI., is a good example. The igth century brought no important modifications until near its close, when French and Italian styles began to appear, both in exterior decora- tion and in architectural design. The new Praca do Commercio (Merchants' Exchange) and Post Office on Rua 1° de Mar?o, and the national printing office near the Largo da Carioca, are notable examples. Since then exterior ornamentation and architectural eccentricities have run riot, and the city is now a mixture of the plain one-storey and two-storey buildings of the Portuguese type, and fanciful modern creations, embellished with stucco and over- topping the others by many storeys. Although a metropolitan see, Rio has no cathedral, the old imperial chapel facing the Praca 15 de Novembro being used for that purpose. The foundations were once laid for a great cathedral on the Largo de Sao Francisco de Paula, but the building stone was taken for a neighbouring theatre, and the foundations were afterwards used for the Poly- technic School. The most noteworthy church is the Candelaria church, in the commercial district, whose twin towers and graceful dome form one of the most conspicuous landmarks of the city. It was begun in 1775, but was not finished until near the end of the igth century. Its fine proportions, however, are concealed by commercial buildings and by the narrow streets. Among many other churches, usually plain and bare of interior decoration, are the popular Sao Francisco de Paula church, on the square of that name; the Carmo church in Rua 1° de Marc.o; the Cruz dos Militares church in the same street; the Rosario church in the RIO DE JANEIRO street of that name, belonging to a fraternity of negroes and once occupied by the episcopal chapter; and the prettily situated octagonal Gloria church on a hill of that name overlooking the lower bay. Another church of the same name faces on the Largo do Machado and shows the peculiar combination of a Greek temple surmounted by a modern spire. The British residents have an unpretentious chapel in Rua Evaristo da Veiga, the Methodists a more modern structure on the Largo do Cattete and the Presby- terians a chapel near Praca Tiradentes. There is religious tolera- tion in Brazil, but down to the organization of the republic no non-Catholic church or chapel was permitted to have a spire or other outward symbol of a place of worship. Among public buildings of an official character the following are noteworthy. The old city palace facing on Praca 15 de Novembro, dates from 1743 and was the residence of the royal governors and Dom Joao VI., but is now used by the national telegraph offices. The Sao Christovao palace, in the suburb of that name, was the residence of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. It is a rambling structure now occupied by the National Museum. The Cattete palace, on the street of that name, originally a private residence, is now the official residence of the President, richly decorated within and partly sur- rounded by a handsome park. The Itamaraty palace near the Praca da Republica, a typical private residence of the better class, was purchased for and occupied by the first presidents and is now occupied by the ministry of foreign affairs. The palace of justice, on Rua Primeiro de Margo, is one of the finest edifices in the city; and the ministry of industry and public works, on the south side of the Praca 15 de Novembro may be noticed. The ministry of war has its offices in the immense military quartel (barracks) on the north side of the Praca da Republica, and the ministry of marine in the naval arsenal at the foot of Sao Bento Hill. The ministry of finance is in the Treasury building on Rua do Sacramento — an immense structure of no special architectural merit. The Senate occupies a plain unattractive building on the west side of the Praca da Republica, and the Chamber of Deputies an ugly colonial building in Rua da Misericordia, originally used as a city hall and jail. A new legislative palace is designed to occupy the block on the west side of the Praca Tiradentes. There are a number of theatres, but the city had no large theatre of architectural merit previous to the construction of the Municipal Theatre at the inter- section of the Avenida Central with Rua 13 de Maio, with an elegant marble facade in the French Renaissance style. Bull-fights have never been popular in Rio de Janeiro, but horse-racing is a favourite sport, and the Jockey Club maintains a racecourse in the Sao Fran- cisco Xavier suburb. Other notable buildings are the ornate Monroe palace at the intersection of the Central and Beira-Mar avenues, the Praca do Commercip (Commercial Exchange) on Rua 1° de Margo, the Caixa da Amortizagao on the Avenida Central, the custom-house with its extensive warehouses, the terminal station of the Central railway at the N.W. angle of the Praca da Republica, and the library building of the Gabinete Portuguez da Leitura with its exquisite " Manuelino " facade of Lisbon marble. Education. — Although much money is given to hospitals and asylums, Rio de Janeiro has no great educational institu- tions either public or private. The Medical School may be considered the only distinctively professional school in the city. The Polytechnic School, occupying an interesting old building on the Largo de Sao Francisco de Paula, is chiefly devoted to civil engineering. The Gymnasio Nacional, formerly the Collegio D. Pedro II., is a boys' college of a high school grade, located on Rua Floriano Peixoto, with an internato or boarding-school in Rua de S. Francisco Xavier. The college dates from 1735, when it was founded as an asylum for orphan boys destined for the Church. In 1837 it became a state institution and took the name of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. One of the most noteworthy schools of the city is the Lycen de Artes e Officios, located on Rua 13 de Maio, opposite the opera- house; it dates from 1858 and has been the means of giving instruction to a multitude of clerks, artisans and others, through its night classes. Another important school, partly of this class, is the Instituto Benjamin Constant, located in a fine new edifice on the Praia da Saudade, Botafogo. The public schools of Rio de Janeiro are defective both in organiza- tion and administration; the non-attendance of children from the higher classes, and the antagonism of the Church to schools under purely secular administration, must be held responsible for the backwardness of these schools. The episcopal seminary on Castle Hill, called the " Seminario Episcopal de Sao Jose," founded in 1739 and devoted exclusively to the education of priests, is the best classical school in the city. There are a number of charitable institutions devoted to the education of orphans, the blind and the deaf and dumb, which are admirably 355 equipped and administered. Among other educational in- stitutions are a conservatory of music, school of fine arts, normal school, a national library with upwards of 260,000 volumes and a large number of manuscripts, maps, medals and coins, the national observatory on Castle Hill, the national museum now domiciled in the Sao Christovao palace in the midst of a pretty park, a zoological garden in the suburb of Villa Isabel, and the famous Botanical Garden founded by Dom Joao VI. in 1808 and now a horticultural experiment station. Hospitals, &c. — Rio de Janeiro is well provided with hospitals, asylums and benevolent institutions. Chief of these is the Miseri- cordia Hospital, popularly known as the " Santa Casa," belonging to a religious brotherhood dating from 1591. In addition to a large income from rentals, the Santa Casa receives the product of certain port taxes in return for opening its wards to the crews of all vessels in port. Other public hospitals are a lepers' hospital in Sao Chris- tovao, the military and naval hospitals, the Sao Sebastiao hospital and the isolation and contagious diseases hospitals in Jurujuba. There are also a number of private hospitals maintained by church brotherhoods and charitable associations; among them are the Portuguese hospital in Rua de Santo Amaro and the Strangers' Hospital (American and British) in Botafogo. Most prominent among the asylums is the Hospicio Nacional for the insane, on the Praia da Saudade, Botafogo, which was erected 1842-52, and is one of the most completely equipped institutions of its class in the world. There are two public cemeteries: Sao Francisco de Xavier, in Sao Christovao, and Sao Joao Baptista, in Botafogo, the former having an unconsecrated section for Protestants. Be- sides these there are five private cemeteries, the one belonging to the British colony being on a hill overlooking the Gambda shore- line. Harbour, Communications and Commerce.-^-The port and harbour of Rio de Janeiro are the largest and most important in the republic. The entrance is open to vessels of the largest draught, and there is sufficient deep-water anchorage inside for the navies of the world. The lower anchorage, where the officers of health visit vessels, is below Ilha Fiscal, and the upper, or commercial anchorage, is in the broad- part of the bay above Ilha das Cobras, the national coasting vessels occupying the shallower waters near the Saude and Gamb6a districts. The custom-house occupies a considerable part of the shore-line in front of the old city, and has a protected basin for the discharge of lighters. The new port works, under construction since 1903, consist of a new water-front for the Saude, Gamboa and Sacco de Alferes districts, in which the shipping interests are centred, and a continuation of the sea-wall across the shallow Sao Christovao bay to the Ponta do Caju, the large reclaimed area to be filled in by the removal of some small hills. The commercial quays are built in deep water and permit the mooring alongside of the largest vessels. The total length of the commercial quays is about 3800 yds. Railway and tram- way connexions are provided and both electric and hydraulic power are available. Special surtaxes are levied on imports to meet the interest and redemption charges on the loans raised for the execution of these important works. Another improvement is the extension of the sea-wall southward from the ferry -slips (Praca 15 de Novembro) to the Ponta do Cala- bouco (war arsenal), providing protected basins for the arsenal and enclosing small reclaimed • areas. With the completion of these improvements the water-front of the city will consist entirely of deep-water walls from Botafogo to the Ponta do Caju, with the exception of a short section between the Ponta do Calabouco and the Avenida Central. The port is in regular communication with the principal ports of Europe and America. The coastwise service is good, though rates are high. Railway communication with the interior is maintained by the Central do Brazil (formerly the Dom Pedro II.), Leopoldina and Melhora- mentos lines, besides which there is a short passenger line up to the Corcovado about z| m. long, an electric line to Tijuca, and a narrow-gauge line running out to the Rio do Ouro water- works. There is daily communication with Petropolis by a branch line of the Leopoldina system, and also by a steamer to the head of the bay and thence by rail up the serra. Ferry-- boats cross the bay to Nictheroy at intervals of 20 minutes, and smaller craft provide communication with the islands of Gober- nador and Paqueta. 356 RIO DE JANEIRO Rio de Janeiro is the seaport for a large area of the richest, most productive and most thickly settled parts of Brazil, including the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes and a small part of eastern Sao Paulo. Its exports include coffee, sugar, hides, cabinet woods, tobacco and cigars, tapioca, gold, diamonds, manganese and sundry small products. Rio is also a distributing centre in the coasting trade, and many imported products, such as jerked beef (fame secca), hay, flour, wines, &c., appear among the coastwise exports, as well as domestic manufactures. The total exports for 1905 were officially valued at 62,572,033 milreis gold, or a little over one-sixth the exportation of the whole country. Formerly Rio led all other ports in the export of coffee, but the enormous increase in production in the state of Sao Paulo has given Santos the lead. The exports of coffee from Rio in 1908 amounted to 3,062,268 bags of 60 kilogrammes each, officially valued at about $27,846,000. The coffee-producing area tributary to this port is slowly decreasing, owing to the exhaustion of the soil and the greater productiveness of Sao Paulo. The imports include wheat, our, Indian corn, jerked beef (carne secca), lard, bacon, wines and liquors, butter, cheese, conserves of all kinds, coal, cotton, woollen, linen and silk textiles, boots and shoes, earthen- and glasswares, railway material, machinery, furniture, building material, including pine lumber, drugs and chemicals, and hardware. The imports For 1905 aggregated 103,874,724 milreis gold, or about two-fifths the importation of the whole republic. The shipping arrivals in 1908 were as follows: from foreign ports, 1195 steamers of 3,479,357 tons and 75 sailing vessels of 84,474 tons; from national ports, 243 foreign steamers of 582,633 tons, 773 national steamers of 475,587 tons and 294 national sailing vessels of 20,250 tons — in all 2580 vessels of 4,642,301 tons. Manufactures. — The industrial activities of Rio Janeiro have been largely increased since the organization of the republic through increased import duties on foreign products. There were a number of protected industries before this, but they made slight impression on imports. Rio de Janeiro has manufactures of flour from imported wheat, cotton, woollen and silk textiles, boots and shoes, ready- made clothing, furniture, vehicles, cigars and cigarettes, chocolate, fruit conserves, refined sugar, biscuits, macaroni, ice, beer, artificial liquors, mineral waters, soap, stearine candles, perfumery, feather flowers, printing type, &c. There are numerous machine end repair shops, the most important of which are the shops of the Central railway. One of the most important industrial enterprises in the city is the electric plant belonging to the Rio de Janeiro Light and Power Company, which supplies electric currents for public and private lighting, and power for the tramways and many industries. The hydro-electric works are situated about 50 m. N.W. of the city in a valley of the Serra do Mar, where a large reservoir has been created by building a dam across the 'Rio das Lages. Government. — Rio de Janeiro is governed by a prefect, who represents the national government, and a municipal council which represents the people. The prefect is appointed by the President of the republic for a term of four years, and the appointment must be confirmed by the Senate. There are seven direclorias, or boards, under the prefect, each one assigned to a special field of work, chief among which are education, health and public assistance, public works and transportation, and finance. The municipal council is elected by direct suffrage for a term of two years, and is composed of 15 members. The funded debt of the city on the 3Oth of June 1907 was £7,000,677, a part of which is guaranteed by the national government. There is some confusion in administration and accounts, however, and it is sometimes difficult to determine the exact situation. The Federal District is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 10 deputies, and is credited with the rights and privileges of citizenship. On the other hand, the city is a garrison town and a district under the direct administration ol the national executive, who appoints its chief executive, controls its police force, and exercises part control over its streets, squares and water front. In the work of improving the city, the national government assumed the expense of the commercial quays, the filling of the Sao Christovao bay, the opening of the Mangue canal and its embellishment, the opening of the Avenida Central, the extension of the sewage system and the addition of new sources to the water supply, while the city was responsible for the Avenida Beira-Mar, the opening of a new avenue from the Largo da Lapa westward to Rua Frei Caneca, the removal of the Morro do Senado, the widening of some streets crossing the Avenida Central and the opening and straightening of other streets. History. — The discovery of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro is attributed by many Portuguese writers to Andre Goncalves, who entered its waters on the ist of January 1502, and believed that it was the mouth of a great river, hence the name Rio de Janeiro (River of January). Another Portuguese navigator, Martim Affonso de Souza, visited it in 1531, but passed on to Sao Vicente, near Santos, where he established a colony. The first settlement in the bay was made by an expedition of French Huguenots under the command of Nicholas Durand Villegaignon, who established his colony on the small island that bears his name. In 1560 their fort was captured and destroyed by a Portuguese expedition from Bahia under Mem de Sa, and in 1567 another expedition under the same commander again destroyed the French settlements, which had spread to the mainland. The victory was won on the zoth of January, the feast-day of St Sebastian the Martyr, who became the patron saint of the new settlement and gave it his name — Sao Sebastiao do Rio de Janeiro. The French had named their colony La France Antarctique, and their island fort had been called Fort Coligny. In 1710 a French expedition of five vessels and about looo men under Duclerc attempted to regain possession, but was defeated; its commander was captured and later assassinated. This led to a second French expedition, under Duguay Trouin, who entered the bay on the 1 2th of September 1711, and captured the town on the 22nd. Trouin released Duclerc's imprisoned followers, exacted a heavy ransom and then withdrew. The discovery of gold in Minas Geraes at the end of the I7th century greatly increased the importance of the town. It had been made the capital of the southern captaincies in 1680, and in 1762 it became the capital of all Brazil. In 1808 the fugitive Portuguese court, under the regent Dom Joao VI., took refuge in Rio de Janeiro, and gave a new impulse to its growth. It was thrown open to foreign commerce, foreign mercantile houses were permitted to settle there, printing was introduced, industrial restrictions were removed, and a college of medicine, a military academy and a public library were founded. Dom Joao VI. returned to Portugal in 1821, and on the 7th of September 1822 Brazil was declared independent and Dom Pedro I. became its first emperor. There was no resistance to this declaration in Rio de Janeiro. There were some political disorders during the reign of Dom Pedro I., who was finally harassed into an abdica- tion in favour of his son, Dom Pedro II., on the 7th of April 1831. The regency that followed was one of many changes, and led in July 1840 to a declaration of the young prince's majority at the age of fifteen. A long and peaceful reign followed, disturbed only by the struggles of rival political factions. In 1839 a steamship service along the coast was opened, but direct com- munication with Europe was delayed until 1850, and with the United States until 1865. These services added largely to the prosperity of the port. The first section of the Dom Pedro II. railway was opened in 1858, and the second or mountain section in 1864, which brought the city into closer relations with the interior. In 1874 submarine communication with Europe was opened, which was soon afterwards extended southward to the Platine republics. The first coffee tree planted in Brazil was in a convent garden of Rio de Janeiro. On the 1 5th of November 1889 a military revolt in the city under the leadership of General Deodoro da Fonseca led to the declaration of a republic and the expulsion of the imperial family, which was accomplished without resistance or loss of life. Disorders followed, a naval revolt in 1891 causing the resignation of President Deodoro da Fonseca, and another in 1893-94 causing a blockade of the port for about six months and the loss of many lives and much property from desultory bombardments. There have been since that time some trifling outbreaks on the part of agitators allied with the extreme republican element, but at no time was the security of the government in danger. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Nearly all books relating to Brazil devote some attention to its capital city. The history of its settlement and colonial development will be found in Robert Southey, History of Brazil (3 vols., London, 1810-^19). For descriptions of the city, the customs and manners of its people and some of the larger political events during the first three-quarters of the igth century, see R. Walsh, Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829 (2 vols., London, 1830); Thomas Ewbank, Life in Brazil (New York, 1856); M. D. Moreira de Azevedp, O Rio de Janeiro (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1877) ; and J. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians (gth ed., Boston, 1879), especially chapters iv. to xiy. For later descriptions, see A. J. Lamoureux, Hand-Book of Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1887); Frank Vincent, Around and About South America (New York, 1890), chapters xxv. to xxix. ; Marguerite Dickins, Alon$ Shore with a Man-of-V/ar (Boston, 1893); Arthur Dias, // Brasile Attuale (Nivelle, Belgium, 1907; also in French and, Portuguese), pp. 367-449. RIO DE ORO— RIO GRANDE DO 357 RIO DE ORO, a Spanish possession on the N.W. coast of Africa. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, E. and S. by Saharan territory under French protection. The northern frontier, where the protectorate adjoins the territory of the semi-independent tribes south of Morocco, is undefined. The most northerly point claimed by Spain on the coast is Cape Bojador. The southern and eastern boundaries were defined by a Franco- Spanish convention in 1900. The frontier traverses the middle of the Cape Blanco promontory, then runs eastward along the parallel of 21° 20' N. till it meets the meridian of 13° W., whence it turns first N.W. and afterwards N.E., meeting the tropic of Cancer at 12° W. and thereafter runs due N. Forming part of the Sahara, Rio de Oro is nearly waterless. Oases are few and the sparse population consists almost entirely of nomad Arabs and Berbers. They are Mahommedans. In the south is the hilly country called Adrar Suttuf, not to be confounded with Adrar Temur (see ADRAR and SAHARA). The estimated area of the protectorate is 70,000 sq. m. The peninsula of Rio de Oro, where is the principal Spanish settlement, occupies the central part of the coast-line in 23° 50' N., 16° W., and is united to the mainland by a sandy isthmus. Its length is 23 m., its breadth ij to 2 m. and it is on an average about 20 ft. above sea-level. The bay between peninsula and mainland — the so-called Rio de Oro — is 22 m. long, 5 broad, navigable over two-thirds of its extent, with good anchorage in most of the channel, but the bar at its mouth is not always easy to pass in rough weather. The peninsula has very sparse vegetation, except in its southernmost part near Cape Durnford. At the head of the bay is a small island — Isla Herne. The climate is generally temperate, and not unhealthy except in the autumn. Esparto grass and manzanilla are grown in many places, but European plants are not easily acclimatized. On the peninsula and in the neighbouring country there are many wolves, foxes, hyenas, gazelles, lizards, hares, pelicans and large crows. The natives rear cattle, sheep, camels, and have but few horses. In contrast with the sterility of the land the sea throughout the coast of Rio de Oro abounds in fish, especially cod. The fishing industry is in the hands of the Canary Islanders and of the French. The estuary between the mainland and the peninsula was taken by its Portuguese discoverers in the middle of the i5th century for a river, and, obtaining there a quantity of gold dust from the natives, they named it Rio d'Ouro (Gold River), Rio de Oro being the Spanish form. At a spot about 50 m. inland from the head of the estuary a Portuguese trading station was estab- lished, of which ruins exist, but the activity of the Portuguese was before long transferred to the true auriferous regions of the Gulf of Guinea. Spain's interest in the Saharan coast dates from the i3th century, but was particularly directed to that part nearest the Canary Islands, a strip of coast over which she now exercises no sovereignty. The site of the fort of Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena, established in 1476, though not identified, was north of Capo Bojador. The protection of the Canary Islanders engaged in the fisheries south of that point occasioned, however, the presence of Spanish warships in these waters, and small trading stations were formed at Rio de Oro, Cape Blanco and elsewhere. To preserve the interests thus acquired, Spain in January 1885 took the territories on the coast between capes Blanco and Bojador under her protection. The year before the Hispano- American Company had built a trading station on Rio de Oro peninsula, but in 1885 it was destroyed by the natives. The company renewed its operations, but subsequently ceded its rights to the Transatlantic Company of Barcelona. The exten- sion inland of Spanish influence was opposed by France, which claimed a protectorate over the Sahara. The conflicting claims of the two powers were finally settled by the convention of 1900, which fixed the frontier in the manner stated. The administra- tion is carried on under the control of the captain-general of the Canary Islands. RIO GRANDE, a North American river, which rises in the San Juan Mountains of southern Colorado, flows S.E. and S. in Colorado, S. by W. and S.E. through New Mexico, and S.E. between Texas and Mexico to the Gulf of Mexico. Its length is approximately 2200 m., and for about 1300 m. it forms the international boundary between the United States and Mexico. It presents many features of a complex physiographic type, being first a river of the Rocky Mountains, then of the in- terior deserts and then of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. It also presents a complicated geological history, as it includes what were originally several distinct streams. The Mexicans call it the Rio del Norte in its upper course, the Rio Bravo in the " Big Bend," from the mouth of the Conchas river to the mouth of the Devils river, and the Rio Grande only in its course through the Coastal Plain. From its headwaters, 12,000 ft. above the sea, it rushes rapidly down a mountain canyon to San Luis Valley, in Colorado. It flows with moderate speed through this broad valley, enters a long canyon with a maximum depth of 400 ft., about 4 m. above the boundary between Colorado and New Mexico, and is hemmed in between canyon walls rising as high as 1000 ft. or between the sides of narrow mountain • valleys throughout its course through New Mexico. It passes through a series of picturesque canyons, some of them 1750 ft. in depth, in the " Big Bend," and becomes a silt-laden stream with a shifting channel in its passage through the Coastal Plain. Except in the flood season of May and June, the quantity of water which, for irrigation and by evaporation, is taken from the Rio Grande between its entrance to the San Luis Valley and the mouth of the Conchas, is greater than that received, and as a con- sequence it is an intermittent stream in this region. The flow of the Conchas is constant, and in the'" Big Bend " the volume of the Rio Grande is enhanced by springs which break out in the bed. The total flow of the Rio Grande is ten times greater in some years than in others, and when its waters have been highest there have been great floods in its lower course and so much shifting of its banks as to cause international complications. Even in its course through the Coastal Plain its channel is so much obstructed by sand bars that it is of little importance for navigation. As the increasing diversion of the water of the Upper Rio Grande for irrigation in Colorado and New Mexico resulted in a scarcity of water for this purpose in Mexico, that country complained, and to remedy the evil the Reclamation Service of the United States proposed the construction by the United States of a storage dam across the river near Engle, New Mexico, which would form a storage reservoir having a capacity of 2,000,000 acre-feet and from which Mexico should be furnished with 60,000 acre-feet of water annually. Mexico agreed to this proposal and a treaty covering the matter was proclaimed in January 1907. The principal towns and cities on the river are: Brownsville, Texas; Matamoros, Mexico; Laredo, Texas; El Paso, Texas; and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. RIO GRANDE DO SUL, a southern frontier state of Brazil, bounded N. by the state of Santa Catharina, E. by the Atlantic, S.. by Uruguay and W. by Uruguay and Argentina — the Uruguay river forming the boundary line with the latter. Area, 91,333 sq. m. Pop. (1000) 1,149,070, an increase of 251,615 since 1890. The northern part of the state lies on the southern slopes of the elevated plateau extending southward from Sao Paulo across the states of Parana and Santa Catharina, and is much broken by low mountain ranges whose general direction across the trend of the slope gives them the appearance of escarpments. A range of low mountains extends southward from the Serra do Mar of Santa Catharina and crosses the state into Uruguay. West of this range is a vast grassy plain devoted principally to stock-raising — the northern and most elevated part being suitable in pasturage and climate for sheep, and trje southern for cattle. East of it is a wide coastal zone only slightly elevated above the sea; within it are two great tide-water lakes — Lagda dos Patos and Lagda Mirim — which are separated from the ocean by two sandy, partially barren peninsulas. The coast is one great sand beach, broken only at one point — that of the outlet of the two lakes, called the Rio Grande, which affords an entrance to navigable inland waters and several ports. There are two RIO GRANDE DO SUL distinct river systems in Rio Grande do Sul — that of the eastern slope draining to the tide-water lakes, and that of the La Plata basin draining westward to the Uruguay. Fully one-third of the state belongs to the La Plata drainage basin. The larger rivers of the eastern group are the Jacuhy, Sinos, Cahy, Gravatahy and Camaquam, which flow into the Lagoa dos Patos, and the Jaguarao which flows into the Lag6a Mirim. All of the first named, except the Camaquam, discharge into one of the two arms or estuaries opening into the northern end of Lag6a dos Patos, which is called the Rio Guahyba, though in reality it is not a river. It is broad, comparatively deep and about 35 m. long, and with the rivers discharging into it affords upwards of 200 m. of fluvial navigation. The Jacuhy is one of the most important rivers of the state, rising in the ranges of the Coxilha (Cuchilla) Grande of the North and flowing S. and S.E. to the Guahyba estuary, with a course of nearly 300 m. It has two large tributaries — the Vaccacahy from the S. and the Taquary from the N. — besides many small streams. The Jaguarao, which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay, is navigable 26 m., up to and beyond the town of Jaguarao. Of the many streams flowing northward and westward to the Uruguay, the largest are the Ijuhy- guassu, of the plateau region, the Ibicuhy, which has its source in the central part of the state, near Santa Maria, and flows westward to the Uruguay a short distance above Uruguayana and the Quarahim, or Quarahy, which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay. The Uruguay river itself is formed by the confluence of the Rio das Canoas and Rio Pelotas in about long. 51° 30' W. With its southern confluent, the Rio Pelotas, which has its source in the Serra do Mar, on the Atlantic coast, it forms the northern and western boundary line of the state down to the mouth of the Quarahim, on the Uruguayan frontier. In addition to the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim there are a number of small lakes on the sandy, swampy peninsulas that lie between the coast and these two, and there are others of a similar character along the northern coast. The largest lake is the Lagoa dos Patos (Lake of the Patos — an Indian tribe inhabiting its shores at the time of the discovery), which lies parallel with the coast-line, N.E. and S.W., and is about 133 m. long exclusive of the two arms at its northern end, 25 and 35 m. long respectively, and of its outlet, the Rio Grande, about 24 m. long. Its width varies from 22 to 36 m. The lake is comparatively shallow and filled with sand banks, making its navigable channels tortuous and difficult. The Lag6a Mirim occupies a similar position farther S., on the Uruguayan frontier, and is about 108 m. long by 6 to 22 m. wide. It is more irregular in outline and discharges into Lag&a dos Patos through a navigable channel known as the Rio Sao Goncalo. A part of the lake lies in Uruguayan territory, but its navigation, as determined by treaty, belongs exclusively to Brazil. Both of these lakes are evidently the remains of an ancient depression in the coast-line shut in by sand beaches built up by the combined action of wind and current. They are of the same level as the ocean, but their waters are affected by the tides and are brackish only a short distance above the Rio Grande outlet. Rio Grande lies within the South Temperate zone and has a mild, temperate climate, except in the coastal zone where it is semi-tropical. There are only two well-marked seasons, though the transition periods between them (about two months each) are sometimes described as spring and autumn. The winter months, June to September, are characterized by heavy rains and by cold westerly winds, called minuanos, which sometimes lower the temperature to the freezing point, especially in the mountainous districts. Snow is unknown, but ice frequently forms on inland waters during cold winter nights, only to disappear with the first rays of the sun. In summer, which is nominally a dry season, light rains are common, northerly and easterly winds prevail, and the temperature rises _to 95° in the shade. Cases of insolation are not rare. Malaria is unusual and the state has a high reputation for healthiness, though insanitary conditions are responsiole for various diseases in large communities. The principal industry of the state is stock-raising, especially on the southern plains, where large estancias (ranches) are to be found. This industry originated with the Jesuit missions on the Uruguay early in the ijth century, and its development here has been much the same as in Argentina and Uruguay. No general effort was made before the 2oth century to improve the herds by the importa- tion of better breeds, and the industry was practically in a state of decay until higher tariff rates were imposed on imported came secca (jerked beef) toward the end of the 1 9th century. The export of live-stock is insignificant, the practice being to sell the cattle to the xarqueadas or saladeros where they are slaughtered for xarque, charqui or carne secca, which is usually prepared by salting and drying in the sun. The jerked beef is largely exported to other Brazilian states for consumption, while the hides and other by- products are exported to Europe and the United States. The importance of the industry is shown in the exports of 1905, in kilogrammes, viz.: jerked beef, 37,555,951; dry hides, 4,735,987; salted hides, 12,141,779; beef extract, 16,712; ox-tongues, 498,577; tallow, 6,174,189; and large quantities of leather, horns, hoofs, bone-ash and preserved meats. Horses, mules, sheep, goats and swine are also raised; the raising of sheep being fostered by the building of woollen factories, and that of swine by the higher duties on imported pork and lard. In some parts of the state agriculture claims much attention, especially in the forested districts of the north where colonies of foreign immigrants have been established. The principal products are wheat, Indian corn, rice, beans, pease, onions, garlic, farinha de mandioca (cassava flour), potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage, fruit, tobacco and peanuts— all of which find a ready market on the coast. Grapes are grown in several localities (Sao Leopoldo, Alegrete, Bage, &c.) for wine-making, and the industry has become important — the export in 1905 being 2,092,417 litres. The forest products include herva matte or Paraguay tea (Ilex paraguayensis), timbers and lumber, and vegetable fibre (crina vegetal). Coal of an inferior quality is mined at Sao Jeronymo, on a small tributary (Arroio dos Ratos) of the Jacuhy river, and has been discovered in other localities. Lime is burned at Cacapava, and at some other places. Gold, copper and iron are said to exist, but are not mined. Considerable progress has been made in manu- facturing industries, among whose products are: woollen, cotton and jute textiles, leather, wheat, flour, boots, shoes and sandals (tamnacos), wines and liquors, beer, macaroni, biscuits and other prepared foods, cigars and cigarettes, hats, matches, soap, candles and wrapping paper. Much of this diversity in production is due to the foreign element in the population. The railway lines in the state are: the Porto Alegre to Novo Hamburgo (27 m.), with an extension to Taquary (28 m.); Porto Alegre to Uruguayana, completed from Margem do Taquary ( Bank of the Taquary) to Cacequy (232 m.) ; Santa Maria to Passo Fundo (221 m.); Rio Grande to Bag6 (175 m.), with 14 m. in branches at Rio Grande; an extension from Cacequy to Bag6 (129 m.); and the Quarahim to Itaquy (109 m.). All these except the last have been taken over by the national government and leased to the Belgian " Compagnie auxiliare de Chemin de Fer au Br6sil," which has undertaken to complete the line from Cacequy to Uruguayana (161 m.), from Margem do Taquary to Neustadt, on the Novo Hamburgo jine (60 m.), and some other branches. The Quarahim to Itaquy line belongs to an English company and runs from the Uruguayan frontier, where it connects with the North-Western of Uruguay, northward to Uruguayana and the naval station of Itaquy. The population in 1900 was 1,149,070. There is a large foreign element: in 1905 the total number of foreigners residing in the state was estimated at 400,000 (not including children born in the country), and of Germans at 250,000. The first German colony was founded in 1824 and settled in 1825 in the rich forested country N. of Porto Alegre, and many large and prosperous communities have been established since then in spite of the wars and political agitations in the state. Several of these colonies, such as Sao Leopoldo, Novo Hamburgo and Conde d'Eu (now Garibaldi), have become important towns and are no longer under colonial administration. Italian colonies were subsequently established, also with good results, but an Irish colony founded at Monte Bonito, near Pelotas, about 1851, failed completely. The capital of Rio Grande do Sul is Porto Alegre at the northern extremity of Lag&a dos Patos, and its two next most important cities are Rio Grande and Pelotas, both at the southern extremity of the same lake. Among other important cities and towns, with population returns for 1900, are Alegrete (11,438), prettily situated in the W. part of the state on the Porto Alegre to Uruguayana railway; Bage (13,463), about 173 m. by rail N.W. of Rio Grande in a picturesque mountainous region, 702 ft. above sea-level; Jaguarao (9000), on a river of the same name and opposite the Uruguayan town of Artigas, with steamboat communication with Rio Grande; Cacapava (8781 in 1890) in a fine grazing district in the central part of the state, 1732 ft. above sea-level; Quarahim, or Quarahy (about 6500), a town of much commercial RIO GRANDE DO SUL 359 importance on the Quarahim river opposite the Uruguayan town of Santo Eugenio, and surrounded by a rich grazing country which supports one of the largest saladeros in the state; Sao Leopoldo; Santa Maria da Bocca do Monte; and Uruguayana. The territory was first settled along the Uruguay river by the Jesuits when they were compelled to abandon their missions on the upper Parana. Between 1632 and 1707, they founded on the E. side of the Uruguay seven missions — all under Spanish jurisdiction — which became highly prosperous, and at the time of their transfer from Spanish to Portuguese rule by a treaty of 1750 had an aggregate population of about 14,000, living in villages and possessing large herds of cattle and many horses. A joint effort of the two powers in 1753 to enforce the treaty, remove the Indians to Spanish territory, and mark the boundary line, led to resistance and a three years' war, which ended in the capture and partial destruction of the missions. On the coast the first recognized settlement — a military post at Estreito, near the present city of Rio Grande — was made in 1737. Before this, and as early as 1680, according to some chroniclers, the region S. of Santa Catharina was occupied by settlements, or penal colonies, of degradados (banished men) and immoral women from Santos, Sao Vicente and Sao Paulo, and was known as the " Continente de Sao Pedro." In 1738 the territory (which included the present state of Santa Catharina) became the Capitania d'El Rei and was made a dependency of Rio de Janeiro. Territorial dis- putes between Spain and Portugal led to the occupation by the Spanish of the town of Rio Grande (then the capital of the capitania) and neighbouring districts from 1763 to 1776, when they reverted to the Portuguese. The capture of Rio Grande in 1 763 caused the removal of the seat of government to Y'iamao at the head of Lagoa dos Patos; in 1773 Porto dos Cazaes, re- named Porto Alegre, became the capital. In 1801 news of war between Spain and Portugal led the inhabitants of Rio Grande to attack and capture the seven missions and some frontier posts held by the Spaniards since 1763; since 1801 the boundary lines established by treaty in 1777 have re- mained unchanged. The districts of Santa Catharina and Rio Grande had been separated in 1 760 for military convenience, and in 1807 the latter was elevated to the category of a capi- lania-geral, with the designation of " Sao Pedro do Rio Grande," independent of Rio de Janeiro, and with Santa Catharina as a dependency. In 1812 Rio Grande and Santa Catharina were organized into two distinct comarcas, the latter becoming an independent province in 1822 when the empire was organized. In 1835 a separatist revolution broke out in the province and lasted ten years. It was reduced more through the use of money and favours than by force of arms; but the province had suffered terribly in the struggle and did not recover its losses for many years. An incident in this contest was the enlist- ment of Garibaldi for a short time with the forces of the separa- tists. In 1865 a Paraguayan army invaded the state and on the 5th of August occupied the town of Uruguayana. On the 1 8th of September following, the Paraguayan general (Esti- garribia) surrendered without a fight — an unusual occurrence in the remarkable war that followed. Political agitations have been frequent in Rio Grande do Sul, whose people have some- thing of the temperament of their Spanish neighbours, but no important revolution occurred after the " ten years' war " (1835-45) until the presidency at Rio de Janeiro of General Floriano Peixoto, whose ill-considered interference with the state governments led to the revolt of 1892-94, under Gumers- indo Saraiva. In this struggle the revolutionists occupied Santa Catharina and Parana, capturing Curityba, but were eventually overthrown through their inability to obtain munitions of war. An incident in this struggle was the death of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, one of the most brilliant officers of the Brazilian navy and one of the chiefs of the naval revolt of 1893-94, who was killed in a skirmish on the Uruguayan frontier at the close of the war. RIO GRANDE DO SUL, or SAO PEDRO DO Rio GRANDE DO SUL (sometimes SAO PEDRO and commonly Rio GRANDE), a city and port of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, on the western side of the Rio Grande (as the outlet of the Lagoa dos Patos is called), about 6 m. from its mouth and nearly 780 m. S.W. of Rio de Janeiro, in lat. 32° 7' S., long. 52° 8' W. Pop. (1800) of the municipio (area, about 656 sq. m.) 24,653; of the city, including its suburbs, 20,193; (1000, estimate) of the city, 22,000, and of the city and its suburbs, 30,000. Rio Grande is the coast terminus of the Rio Grande to Bage railway, which now forms part of the railway system of the state leased to the Belgian Compagnie Auxiliare de Chemin de Fer au Bresil. Some of the principal streets are served by tramways, and the Rio Grande to Bage railway has an extension to its shipping wharf called " Estacao Maritima " (ij m.), a branch to some points on the river (1} m.), and a branch to Costa do Mar, on the ocean coast (n m.). The city is a port of call for several steamship lines, and has direct communication with European ports. The bar at the mouth of the river, however, restricts traffic to vessels of light draught, not exceeding 12 to 15 ft. Ex- tensive improvements, at an estimated cost of about 13$ millions of dollars, were undertaken in 1908 for deepening the bar to admit vessels of 30 ft. draught. The city is built on a low sandy peninsula, barely 5 ft. above sea-level, formed by two arms of the Rio Grande projecting westward from the main channel, the peninsula being part of a large sandy plain extending southward along the coast to Lagoa Mirim. The level of the plain is broken by ranges of sand dunes, some of which rise not far from the city on the south-and south-east. The openness of the surrounding country and the proximity of the sea give to Rio Grande unusually healthy conditions, which, however, are largely counteracted by defective sanitary arrangements. Not infrequently the deaths exceed the births, and epidemics of contagious diseases make deadly inroads upon the population. The city has been de- veloped irregularly, but the streets are for the most part broad, and the principal ones are well paved. Gas lighting was introduced about 1871, and in 1908 acetylene was used for public lighting. In one of the public squares is a shaft com- memorating the abolition of slavery, and said to be the only monument in Brazil of that character. There is a notable scarcity of shade trees in the streets and squares, though dowers, shrubbery and some kinds of fruit trees are grown. In pleasing contrast to the drifting sands which surround the city is the fertile Ilha dos Marinheiros (Sailor's Island) lying directly in front of the port; it is highly cultivated and supplies the market with fruit and vegetables. The water-front has been improved by substantial stone walls, which permit the mooring of light-draught vessels alongside. Among noteworthy public buildings and institutions are the municipal palace, the parochial church of Sao Pedro, dating from the l8th century, the modern church of N.S. de Bomfim, the beauti- ful Protestant Episcopal church (Gothic), the public hospital (Hospital de Caridade), the hospital of the Beneficencia Portugueza, the public library (Bibliotheca Riograndense), created and main- tained by private effort and containing about 30,000 volumes, the old custom-house and the quartel-gercU (military barracks). Rio Grande is wholly a commercial and industrial city. Its exports include salted jerked beef (carne secca. or xarque), preserved meats, tongues, hides, horns, hoofs, woollen fabrics, Paraguay tea, beans, onions, fruit, flour, farinha de mandioca (cassava flour), lard, soap, candles and leather. Its manufactures include cotton, woollen and jute fabrics, wheat flour, biscuits, cigars and cut tobacco, beer, artificial drinks, boots, shoes and sandals (alpergatas) , soap and candles, fireworks, ice, earthenware, hats, cast-iron and leather. The pioneer woollen factory in Brazil, and one of the largest in the country, is in Rio Grande. Rio Grande was founded in 1737 by Jos6 da Silva Paes, who built a fort on the river near the site of the present city and called it Estreito. In 1745 the garrison and settlement was removed by Gomes Freire d'Andrade to its present site, which became a " villa," in 1751, with the name of Sao Pedro do Rio Grande, and a " cidade " (city) in 1807. It was the capital of the captaincy down to 1763, when it was captured by a Spanish force from Buenos Aires under the command of its governor, Don Pedro Zeballos, the seat of government being then removed to Viamao at the northern end of Lag6a dos 36° RIOJA— RIOT Patos. The city was occupied by the national forces in the ten years' war which began in 1835, and in 1894 it was unsuccess- fully besieged by a small insurgent force that had attempted to overthrow the government at Rio de Janeiro. RIOJA, LA, an Andine province of Argentina, bounded N. by Catamarca, E. by Catamarca and Cordoba, S. by San Luis and San Juan and W. by San Juan and Chile. Area, 34,546 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 69,502; (1902, estimate) 82,099. The province is traversed from N. to S. by eastern ranges of the Andes and is separated from Chile by the Cordillera itself. The western part of the province is drained by the Bermejo, which flows south- ward into the closed lacustrine basin of Mendoza. The eastern side of the province is arid, but in the extreme N. some small streams flow northward into Catamarca. The scanty waters of these streams are used for irrigation purposes. The principal industry of the province is that of mining, its mineral resources including gold, silver, copper, nickel, tin, cobalt, coal, alum and salt. Its best known mines are those of the Sierra de Famatina, 16,400 ft. above sea-level, where an aerial wire line is used for transportation to Chilecito in the valley below. The develop- ment of mining industries is seriously hindered by lack of water. For the same reason, agriculture is in a very backward condition. The climate is hot and dry, and there is no cultivation of the soil except in the valleys of the Cordillera and a few other places where irrigation is possible. Under these conditions, there are grown wheat (a limited extent), grapes, oranges, olives and tobacco. Alfalfa is grown to a considerable extent and is used for feeding the herds of cattle driven across country to Chile. The capital of the province is La Rioja (pop., 1904, about 6000), on the eastern flank of the Sierra de Velasco, about 1770 ft. above sea- level and near the gorge of Sanagasta, through which a small stream, also called Rioja, flows northward and affords water for the gardens, vineyards and orchards that surround it. The wines of Rioja are highly esteemed and are an important source of income for the district. The town is connected by rail with Cordoba and Catamarca. It was founded in 1591 by Velasco and in 1894 was destroyed by an earthquake from which it has only partially recovered. The most important town in the province is the mining centre of Chilecito, or Villa Argentina (pop., 1904, about 4000), about 2950 ft. above sea-level near the Famatina mines. RIOM, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Puy-de-D&me, 8 m. N. by E. of Clermont- Ferrand by rail. Pop., town, 7839; commune, 10,627. Riom is situated on the left bank of the Ambene, on an eminence rising above the fertile plain of Limagne. It is surrounded with boule- vards and has wide streets, but the houses, being built of black lava, have a sombre appearance. Some belong to the isth and i6th centuries, and have turrets and carved stonework. The church of St Amable, of Romanesque and early Gothic archi- tecture, dates from the I2th century, but has been restored in modern times. It has fine carved woodwork of the I7th century. The church of Notre-Dame du Marthuret (isth century) has a well-known statue of the Virgin at its western entrance. The Sainte-Chapelle of the i4th and isth centuries is a relic of the palace of Jean de Berry, duke of Auvergne, and contains fine stained glass. Near it stands a statue of the chancellor Michel de I'H&pital, who was born near Riom. The rest of the site of the palace is occupied by the law courts. Other interesting buildings are the belfry of the i6th century and a mansion of the same period known as the Maison des Consuls. The town possesses numerous fountains, some of which are of the Renaissance period. Riom is the seat of a court of appeal, a court of assizes and a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and commerce and a communal college. It has a state manufactory of tobacco, and carries on the preparation of fruit preserves. Trade is in grain, wine, vegetables, fruit, nut-oil and Volvic stone. Riom (Ricomagus or Ricomum of the Romans) was long the rival of Clermont. Along with Auvergne it was seized for the crown by Philip Augustus, and it was the capital of this province under the dukes of Berry and Bourbon. RIO NEGRO, a territory of Argentina lying between the Colorado river and the 42nd parallel S. lat., within the geographical area formerly known as Patagonia, bounded N. by the territories of Neuquen and La Pampa, E. by the province of Buenos Aires and the Atlantic, S by the territory of Chubut and W. by Chile and Neuquen. Area, about 75,924 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 9241; (1904, estimate) 18,648. That part of it lying between the Colorado and Negro rivers has much of the formation and characteristics of the " sterile pampas," but with irrigation the greater part of it can be utilized for agriculture and grazing. South of the Negro the country is arid, barren and lies in great shingle-covered terraces sloping eastward to the Atlantic; its larger part is practically uninhabitable, only the river valleys and the foot-hills of the Andes having a regular water supply. The rivers of the territory are the Colorado, which forms a part of its northern boundary, and the Negro, formed by the con- fluence of the Limay (which forms part of the western boundary) and Neuquen on the boundary between Rio Negro territory and the territory of Neuquen. These rivers have no tributaries of im- portance within the territory, but the Limay receives some small streams from the Andean slopes. Lake Nahuel-Huapi lies partly in this territory (see NEUQUEN), and there are several small lakes scattered over the shingly steppes. The Atlantic coast-line of the territory has one deep indentation — the Gulf of San Matias — but, owing to the arid surroundings, there are no ports or towns upon it. The only industry of importance is grazing, cattle being raised for export to Chile, and a few sheep for their wool. The capital is Viedma (pop. in 1895, estimate, 1500), on the right bank of the Rio Negro, 22 m. from its mouth and opposite Carmen de Patagones, a town and port of Buenos Aires. There are other small settlements on the Rio Negro, which is navigable up to the Neuquen frontier (about 450 m.), but the only place of importance is General Roca (about 2300), a military and supply station situated a few miles below the confluence of the Limay and Neuquen rivers and connected with Bahia Blanca and Buenos Aires by a branch of the Great Southern railway. RIO PARDO (formerly Villa do Rio Pardo), a town of Brazil in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the left bank of the Jacuhy at its confluence with the Pardo. Area (of the municipality) 1737 sq. m. Pop. (1890) of the municipality, 19,346; (1908, estimated) of the town, 3500. The town is about 80 m. due west of Porto Alegre, with which it is connected by rail and steamer. The Jacuhy is navigable by small steamers to this place, which was once an important military station and commercial centre. Its military importance has considerably declined through railway extension. The surrounding districts are fertile but only slightly cultivated, and stock-raising is its chief industry. The town had its origin in a frontier fort built at this point by the Portuguese in 1751, but did not reach the dignity of a " villa " until 1809. RIOT (O. Fr. riote, of uncertain etymology), the gravest kind of breach of the peace, short of treason, known to the English law. It consists in a tumultuous disturbance of the peace by an assemblage of three or more persons who, with intent to help one another against any one who opposes them in the execution of some enterprise, actually execute that enterprise in a violent and turbulent manner, to the terror of the people. It is not necessary that violence should be used to any person or damage done to any property. Whether the enterprise itself is lawful or unlawful is not material, the gist of the offence lying in the mode in which the enterprise is carried out (The Trafalgar Square Riots, 1888, 16 Cox. Cr. Cas. 420, 427; Stephen, Dig. Crim. Law, 6th ed., art. 77). Nor is it material whether the enterprise is of a private or a public nature, though in the latter case the rioters may also be guilty of sedition or treason. An assembly in its inception perfectly lawful may become a riot if the persons assembled proceed to form and execute a common purpose in the manner above stated, although they had no such purpose when they first assembled. Riot differs from " Affray " in the number of persons necessary to constitute the offence, from an " Un- lawful Assembly " in that actual tumult or violence is an RIOT 361 essential element, and from " Rout," which may be described as a beginning or endeavour to create a riot. It was considered as early as the I4th century that the English common law gave an insufficient remedy against riot. In 1360 the statute of 34 Edward III. gave jurisdiction to justices to restrain, arrest and imprison rioters. In 1393 the statute of 17 Richard II. conferred similar powers on the sheriff and posse comitatus. Numerous other acts extending the common law were passed, especially in the Tudor reigns (see Stephen, History of the Criminal Law, vol. i. p. 202). Both these acts above mentioned are still on the statute book, but the earliest act now in force of real importance as to this offence is the Riot Act (1716), which creates certain statutory offences for riot attended by circumstances of aggravation. That act makes it the duty of a justice, sheriff, mayor or other authority, wherever twelve persons or more are unlawfully, riotously and tumultuously assembled together, to the disturbance of the public peace, to resort to the place of such assembly and read the following proclamation: " Our Sovereign Lord the King chargeth and commandeth all persons being assembled immediately to dis- perse themselves, and peaceably to depart to their habitations or to their lawful business, upon the pains contained in the act made in the first year of King George for preventing tumultuous and riotous assemblies. God save the King." It is a felony to obstruct the reading of the proclamation or to remain or continue together unlawfully, riotously and tumultu- ously for one hour after the proclamation was made or for one hour after it would have been made but for being hindered. The act requires the justices to seize and apprehend all persons continuing after the hour, and indemnifies them and those who act under their authority from liability for injuries caused thereby. The punishment for the felony is penal servitude for life or for a term of not less than three years, or imprison- ment with or without hard labour for not more than two years. Prosecutions for an offence against the act must be commenced within twelve months after the offence. By s. ii of the Malicious Damage Act 1861 (which is a re- enactment of a similar provision made in 1827 in consequence of the frame-breaking riots) , it is a felony for persons riotously and tumultuously assembled together to the disturbance of the public peace to unlawfully and with force demolish or begin to demolish or pull down or destroy any building, public building, machinery or mining plant. The punishment is the same as for a felony under the Riot Act. By s. 12 it is a misdemeanour to injure or damage such building, &c. The punishment is penal servitude from three to seven years, or imprisonment as in the case of the two felonies above described. Under the Shipping Offences Act (1793) a riotous assemblage of three or more seamen, ship's carpenters and other persons, unlawfully and with force preventing and hindering or obstruct- ing the loading or unloading or the sailing or navigation of any vessel, or unlawfully and with force boarding any vessel with intent to prevent, &c., is punishable on a first conviction as a misdemeanour by imprisonment from six to twelve months, and on a second conviction as a felony by penal servitude from three to fourteen years. And under the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (s. 40) summary penalties are provided for forcible interference with seamen in the exercise of their lawful occupation. Besides these enactments there are others aimed at similar offences, such as smuggling, forcible entry and detainer, tumultuous petitioning (1661, 13 Charles II.), holding large political meetings within a certain distance of Westminster Hall during the sitting of parliament (Seditious Meetings Act 1817). For these offences see Stephen, Dig. Cr. Law, 6th ed., arts. 81-87. It is the duty of a magistrate at the time of a riot to assemble subjects of the realm, whether civil or military, for the purpose of quelling the riot. In this duty he is aided by the common law, and a statute of 1414 (Henry V.), under which all subjects of the realm are bound to assist on reasonable warning, and by various enactments enabling the authorities to call out the militia, yeomanry and reserve forces for the suppression of riot, and to close public-houses where a riot is apprehended (Licensing Act 1872). It is his duty to keep the peace; if the peace be broken, honesty of intention will not avail him if he has been guilty of neglect of duty. The question is whether he did all that he knew was in his power and which could be expected from a man of ordinary prudence, firmness and activity. The law as thus stated is gathered from the opinions of the judges on the trials of the lord mayor of London and the mayor of Bristol on indictments for neglect of duty at the time of the Gordon riots of 1780 and the Bristol riots in 1831.* In addition to his liability to an indictment at common law, a defaulting magistrate is subject under the provisions of acts of 1411 (Henry IV.) and 1414 (Henry V.) to a penalty of £100 for every default, the default to be inquired of by commission under the great seal. A matter of interest is the extent of the protection afforded by the Riot Act to soldiers acting under the commands of their officers. The question was dealt with by Lord Bowen and his fellow-commissioners in the report on the Featherstone riots (Parl. Paper, 1893-1894, c. 7234). The substance of their views is as follows: — By the law of England every one is bound to aid in the suppression of riotous assemblages. The degree of force, how- ever, which may be lawfully employed in their, suppression depends on the nature of each riot, for the force used must always be moderated and proportioned to the circumstances of the case and to the end to be attained. The taking of life can only be justified by the necessity for prdtecting persons or property against various forms of violent crime, or by the necessity of dispersing a riotous crowd which is dangerous unless dispersed, or in the case of persons whose conduct has become felonious through disobedience to the provisions of the Riot Act, and who resist the attempt to disperse or apprehend them. The necessary prevention of such outrage on person or property justifies the guardians of the peace in the employment against a crowd of even deadly weapons. Officers and soldiers are under no special privileges and subject to no special re- sponsibilities as regards the principle of the law. A soldier for the purpose of establishing civil order is only a citizen armed in a particular manner. He cannot because he is a soldier be exonerated if without necessity he takes human life. The duty of magistrates and peace officers to summon or abstain from summoning the assistance of the military depends in like manner on the necessities of the case. A soldier can act only by using his arms. The weapons he carries are deadly. They cannot be employed at all without danger to life or limb, and in these days of improved rifles and perfected ammunition without some risk of danger to distant and possibly innocent bystanders. To call for assistance against rioters from those who can interfere only under such grave conditions ought, of course, to be the last expedient of the civil authorities. But when the call for help is made and a necessity for assistance from the military has arisen, to refuse such assistance is in law a misdemeanour. The whole action of the military when once called in ought from first to last to be based on the principle of doing, and doing without fear, that which is absolutely necessary to prevent serious crime, and of exercising care and skill with regard to what is done. No set of rules exists which governs every instance or defines beforehand any contingency that may arise. The presence of a magistrate is not essential, but is usual, and of the highest value to aid the commander of the troops by local knowledge. But his presence or absence has no legal effect on the duties or responsibilities of the military to use their arms when it becomes necessary to do so, and without recklessness or negligence and with reasonable care and caution; and where they have so acted the killing of a rioter is justifiable homicide, and the killing of an innocent bystander is homicide by mis- adventure. It is not usual to resort to extremities with rioters until after reading the proclamation under the Riot Act (1716), 1 Reports of these trials will be found in the State Trials, New Series, vol. iii. pp. I, 1 1. Most of the important cases of riot are collected or referred to in that series. 362 RIO TINTO but this preliminary is by no means a condition precedent to the exercise of the common-law powers of suppressing riots. The crown cannot charge upon the local rates the expense of maintaining soldiers called into a district by the magistrates to suppress a riot (re Glamorgan County Council, L.R. 1899, 2 Q.B. 536); but the cost of extra police drafted in for the like purpose falls on the rates of the district into which they are drafted (see Police Act 1890, s. 25). Until 1886 persons whose property was damaged by riot had a civil remedy of an exceptional character by action against the hundred in which the riot took place. This remedy was a survival of the pre-Conquest liability of the hundred to guarantee the orderly conduct of its inhabitants. The hundred was made liable in case of robbery by the Statute of Winchester (i285).1 That and subsequent acts were repealed in the reign of George IV., and their provisions were consolidated by an act of 1827 which gave a remedy against the hundred in the case of felonious demolition of churches, chapels, houses, machinery, &c., being feloniously demolished by rioters. The last instance of the use of this exceptional remedy was in the case of a riot at Worthing, and the remedy was abolished in 1886. When the Piccadilly riots occurred in that year no one knew that the injured shops were in the hundred of Ossulston, and difficulties arose in applying the old procedure. So an ex post facto statute was passed "(the Metropolitan Police Compensation Act 1886) for a special settlement of the claims, and the old statutes were repealed and replaced by the Riot Damage Act 1886. Under this act compensation is payable where rioters have injured or destroyed houses, shops, buildings, fixed or movable machinery and appliances prepared or used for or in connexion with manufactures or agriculture, or for mines or quarries, or vessels stranded or in distress (see WRECK), or have injured, stolen, or destroyed property in houses, shops or buildings. The compensation is payable out of the police rate for the district in which the damage is done; or if it was done afloat, for the district nearest to the scene of action. The claim is made on the police authority for the district. The time and form for making claims and the mode of fixing the amount of compensation is regulated by rules made by the Home Secretary on the 3oth of June 1894 (Stat. R. and O. 1894, No. 636). In adjusting the amount regard is had to the conduct of the claimant, viz. as to precautions taken by him, his share, if any, in the riot, or provocation offered to the rioters. Failure to carry out a programme for athletic sports has been held to debar a claimant from compensation for damage done by a riot among the disappointed spectators who had paid to see the sports. The claimant must give credit for insurance money, or any other compensation received in respect of the damage; but the insurers or persons who paid such com- pensation may file a claim against the police rate for the amount paid by them. Persons dissatisfied with the award of the police authority may sue for the recovery of their claim subject to a liability to pay all the costs if they do not get judgment for more than the amount awarded. The action, if it is not for more than £100, is to be brought in the county court. The remedy is available in the case of stranded ships plundered by rioters (s. 515 of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894). The Riot Act does not extend to Ireland, but similar provisions are contained in an act of the Irish Parliament passed in 1787 as amended by acts of 1831 and 1842. These acts create a special offence punishable by penal servitude for life, viz. sending notices, letters or messages inciting or tending to riot. Under the Criminal Procedure Ireland Act 1887 (a temporary act) summary proceedings may be taken against rioters. The civil remedy against the county or borough for malicious injury to property, real or personal, including ships in distress and their cargo, is wider than in England or Scotland, but it includes malicious injury by rioters where 1 There is a curious exception still on the Statute-book depriving persons robbed while travelling on the Lord's Day of any right to compensation from the hundred (Lord's Day Act 1677, s. 5). the injury is a crime within the Malicious Damage Act of 1861. Claims are now dealt with in the county court, and not as formerly by the grand jury and judge of assize (Local Government Ireland Act 1898, s. 5). In Scotland a riot may be either " rioting and mobbing " or " rioting and breach of the peace." The first is much the same as riot in English law. Mobbing consists in the assembling of a number of people and then combining against order or peace to the alarm of the lieges (Alison, Cr. Law of Scotland, vol. i. p. 509; Macdonald, Criminal Law, 180). The second offence occurs when concourse or a common purpose are wanting. Numerous acts against rioting and unlawful convoca- tion were passed by the Scottish parliament, beginning in 1487. The Riot Act (1716) applies to Scotland. There is a civil remedy against the county or burgh in which a riot takes place in respect of damage done by the rioters to houses, churches, buildings and ships, and buildings or engines used in trade or manufacture. The remedy is given by a series of statutes of 1716, 1812, 1816, 1817 and 1894. The procedure for its enforcement is now regulated by the Riotous Assemblies (Scotland) Act 1822, and amending statutes. The county or burgh authorities may adjust claims without litigation, and pay them out of the general assessments. British Dominions. — In India the offence of riot, as defined by s. 146 of the Penal Code, consists in the use of force or violence by an unlawful assembly (which must consist of at least five persons, s. 141), or by any member thereof in the prosecution of the common object of such assembly (see Mayne, Ind. Criminal Law, ed. 1896, p. 489). In Ceylon and the Straits Settlements provisions based on the Indian Code are in force. In most of the settled Colonies the English law as to riot applies subject to local legislation. The Criminal Codes of Canada (1892, ss. 79-86), New Zealand (1893, ss. 83-89) and Queensland (1899, ss. 61-67) adopt the substance of the English law as to riot, in terms borrowed from the English draft Code of 1880. In those of the West Indies whose common law is based on that of France, Holland or Spain, the English law as to riot has been applied by ordinance, e.g. in British Guiana (Criminal Code 1893, tit. xix), and St Lucia (Criminal Code 1888, tit. xxv). In the South African colonies the English law of riot does not apply, but under the Dutch Roman law there exists a similar offence, known as " public violence " (vis publica), i.e. the use of violence and force by which the public rest and order is endangered and the authority of the lawful authorities and officials is set at naught. The offence was capital (see Van Leeuwen, Roman-Dutch Law, tr. by Kotze, 1886, vol. ii. p. 294; Morice, English and Roman-Dutch Law, 1903, p. 334). Similar provisions based on the French Penal Code are in force in Mauritius (Penal Code of 1838). United States. — In the United States the law is based upon that of England (see Bishop, Amer. Cr. L., 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. s. 534, vol. ii. ss. 1143 et seq.). In some states there is a statutory proclamation for the dispersion of rioters in terms almost identical with those of the British Riot Act. The city, town, or county is by the statutes of many states rendered liable for damage caused by rioters, with or without a remedy over against the persons who did the damage (see revised Laws of Massachusetts, ed. 1902, chap. 211, sects. 2, 8). RIO TINTO (MiNAS DE Rio TINTO), a mining town of south- western Spain, in the province of Huelva; near the source of the river Tinto, and at the terminus of a light railway from the port of Huelva. Pop. (1900) 11,603. Ri° Tinto is one of the greatest copper-mining centres in the world; and it is from the discoloration of its waters by copper ore that the river derives its name. Besides the town of Minas, several villages are peopled by the native miners, whose numbers exceed 10,000; and one is occupied solely by British mine officials. The surrounding country is covered for miles with heaps of slag, and has been reduced to a desert. In 1903 the output of the mines included 840,000 tons of copper ore, worth more than £$00,000, besides a relatively small quantity of iron and manganese. Almost the entire product is despatched to Huelva for shipment to Great RIOU— RIPON, IST MARQUESS OF Britain. Rio Tinto was probably first exploited by the Cartha- ginians; vestiges of later Roman workings may still be seen. After the Moorish conquest, in 711, it was neglected until 1725, when the mines were leased to a Swede named Wolters. Their modern importance dates from 1872, when a syndicate of London and Bremen capitalists purchased them from the Spanish government for nearly £4,000,000. RIOU, EDWARD (1758 ?-i8oi), British sailor, entered the navy at an early age. In 1780 he was promoted lieutenant, and nine years later he was in command of the " Guardian " when that vessel, crowded with convicts, struck a hidden rock off the African coast. Riou, after parting with as many of his men as the boats would hold, not only successfully navigated his half- sinking ship 400 leagues to the Cape of Good Hope, but kept order amongst the panic-stricken convicts, an achievement which had few parallels in naval annals, and won Lieutenant Riou's immediate promotion. He did not long remain a com- mander and in 1791 he was posted. Under Sir John Jervis he was present at the operations about Martinique and Guadeloupe in 1 794, and in the "Amazon" he accompanied the expedition under Sir Hyde Parker to the Baltic in 1801. His frigate led the way through the Channel at Copenhagen, and in the battle he was attached as commodore of a light squadron to Nelson's division. Through the grounding of three ships of the line, Riou and his frigates found themselves opposed to the full force of the great Trekroner battery. Early in the fight he was wounded, but refused to leave the deck, and, as he was sitting on a gun-carriage and directing his men's fire, he was cut in two by a cannon ball. Nelson, who had not known him before this expedition, had conceived a great affection for Riou, and spoke of his loss as " irreparable." Brenton, the naval historian, declared that he had all the qualities of a perfect officer. Parliament com- memorated the memory of the " gallant good Riou " by a memorial in St -Paul's Cathedral. RIOUW, RHIOUW or BINTANG, an archipelago of the Dutch East Indies, E. of Sumatra, and separated from the Malay Peninsula by the Straits of Singapore. With the Lingga, Karimon, Tambelan, Anambas andNatuna Islands, to the N.E., E. and S., and the territory of Indragiri in Sumatra, it forms the Dutch residency of Riouw and dependencies. The seat of government is at Tanjong Pinang, a small port of 4060 inhabit- ants (including 160 Europeans and about 2000 Chinese), on the S.W. coast of the chief island, Bintang or Riouw. The total area of the residency is about 17,550 sq. m., and its population (1905) 112,216, of whom considerably over a quarter are Chinese. These cultivate gambier and pepper successfully in Bintang, and there is a considerable trade in wood. Bintang has an area of about 440 sq m., and is surrounded by many rocks and small islands, making navigation dangerous. The soil is not fertile, and much of it is swampy. There is an assistant residency of Lingga, to which belongs the island of Singkep, where extensive tin-deposits are worked. Geologically the Riouw and Lingga Islands are appendages of the Malay Peninsula, not of Sumatra. Bintang is mentioned by Marco Polo under the name of Pentam, which is not far from the genuine Malay name Bentan, said to mean a half-moon. After the Portuguese conquest of Malacca (1511), the expelled Mahommedan dynasty took up its residence on Bintang, where it long fostered piracy. RIPLEY, GEORGE (1802-1880), American critic and man of letters, was born at Greenfield, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of October 1802. He graduated first in his class at Harvard in 1823. From 1826 to 1840 he was pastor of a Unitarian church in Boston, subsequently retiring from the active ministry alto- gether. It was during those years that there grew up in New England that form of thought or philosophy known as Tran- scendentalism. Ripley was prominent, if not the leader, in all practical manifestations of the movement; and it was largely by his earnestness and practical energy that certain of its more tangible results were brought about. The first meeting of the Transcendental Club was held at his house in September 1836. He was a founder and a chief supporter of the magazine, the Dial, which was the organ of the school from 1841 to 1844. Most important of all, however, he was the originator of " The Brook Farm Institute of Education and Agriculture." Until the abandonment of this experiment in 1847, Ripley was its leader, cheerfully taking upon himself all kinds of tasks, teaching mathematics and philosophy in the school, milking cows and attending to other bucolic duties, and after June 1845 editing the weekly Harbinger, an organ of " association," which he continued to edit in New York from 1847 until it was dis- continued in 1849. The failure of Brook Farm (q.v.) left Ripley poor and feeling keenly the defeat of his project; but the event forced him at last to devote himself to that career of literary labour in which the real success of his life was achieved. In 1849 he joined the staff of the New York Tribune, and in a short time became its literary editor. This position, which, through his steadiness, scholarly conservatism and freedom from caprice as a critic, soon became one of great influence, he held until his death in New York City on the 4th of July 1880. During the greater part of the time of his connexion with the Tribune, Ripley was also an adviser of a prominent publishing house, an occasional contributor to the magazines, and a co- operator in several literary undertakings. The chief of these was the American Cyclopaedia, which as the New American Cyclopaedia — so named to distinguish it from Francis Lieber's Encyclopaedia Americana — was issued, under the editorship of Ripley and Charles A. Dana, in 1857-63, a revised edition, with the word " new " dropped from the title, being issued under the same editorship in 1873-76. He also issued, in translation, a series of Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature (14 vols., 1838-42). Ripley was twice married, first in 1827 to Miss Sophia Willard Dana (d. 1861), a daughter of Francis Dana and a conspicuous figure at Brook Farm; and second, in 1865, to a young German widow, Mrs Augusta Schloss- berger, who survived him and subsequently married Alphonse Pinede. A biography of Ripley (Boston, 1882), written by the Rev. O. B. Frothingham, forms one of the volumes of the " American Men of Letters Tl series. (E. L. B.) RIPLEY, a market town in the Ilkeston parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 10 m. N. by E. of Derby, on a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) io,m. It lies on high ground between the valleys of the Derwent and the Erewash. In the neighbourhood there are extensive collieries, and coke is largely manufactured. Besides iron foundries, blast furnaces and boiler works, the town possesses silk and cotton mills. The charter for the market was granted by Henry III. The district has a large industrial population. To the west of Ripley lies the township of HEAGE (pop. 2889). RIPON, GEORGE FREDERICK SAMUEL ROBINSON, IST MARQUESS OF (1827-1909), British statesman, only son of the ist earl of Ripon and his wife Lady Sarah, daughter of Robert Hobart, 4th earl of Buckinghamshire, was born in London on the 24th of October 1827. The Robinson family was descended from an eminent Hamburg merchant, William Robinson (1522-1616), who represented York in parliament in Elizabeth's reign. His great-grandson was in 1660 created a baronet. Thomas Robinson, ist Baron Grantham (1695- 1770), son of a later holder of the baronetcy, was created a peer in 1761, having been an indefatigable diplomatist pleni- potentiary at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and secretary of state. The 2nd Baron Grantham (1738-1786), ambassador at Madrid, and foreign secretary under Lord Shelburne, had two sons. The elder of these, succeeding as 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859), became in 1833 2nd Earl de Grey, in right of his maternal aunt, and assumed the surname of de Grey; he was lord-lieutenant of Ireland (1841-44). The younger, Frederick John (1782-1859), created Viscount Code- rich in 1827 and earl of Ripon in 1833, was the well-known " Prosperity Robinson " who was chancellor of the exchequer from 1823 to 1827; as Lord Goderich he became prime minister (and a peculiarly weak one) from August 1827 to January 1828, colonial secretary in 1831 and 1832, lord privy RIPON seal (1833-34), president of the Board of Trade (1841-43), and president of the India board (1843-46). His son, the future marquess, began his political life as altachS to a special mission to Brussels in 1849. In 1851 he married Henrietta Vyner (d. 1907), and their eldest son, after- wards known as Earl de Grey, was born in 1852. Under his courtesy title of Viscount Goderich he was returned to the House of Commons for Hull in 1852 as an advanced Liberal. In 1853 he was elected for Huddersfield, and in 1857 for the West Riding of Yorkshire. In January 1859 he succeeded to his father's title, and in November of the same year to that of his uncle, Earl de Grey. A few months after entering the Upper House he was appointed under-secretary for war, and in February 1861 under-secretary for India. Upon the death of Sir George Cornewall Lewis in April 1863 he became secre- tary for war, with a seat in the cabinet. In 1866 he was ap- pointed secretary of state for India. On the formation of the Gladstone administration in December 1868, Lord Ripon was appointed lord president of the council, and held that office until within a few months of the fall of the government in 1873, when he resigned on purely private grounds. In 1869 he was created a Knight of the Garter. In 1871 Lord Ripon was appointed chairman of the High Joint-Commission on the Alabama claims, which arranged the treaty of Washington. In recognition of his services he was elevated to a marquessate (1871). In 1874 he became a convert to Roman Catholicism, and this involved his resignation of the office of grand master of the English Freemasons. On the return of Gladstone to power in 1880 Lord Ripon was appointed viceroy of India, the appointment exciting a storm of controversy, the marquess being the first Roman Catholic to hold the viceregal office. He went out to reverse the Afghan policy of Lord Lytton, and Kandahar was given up, the whole of Afghanistan being secured to Abdur Rahman. The new viceroy was also called upon to decide grave questions between the native population and the resident British, and he resolved upon a liberal policy towards the former, among his measures being the repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, the extension of local government and the appointment of an Education Commission. He extended the rights of the natives, and in certain directions curtailed the privileges of Europeans. Several of the viceroy's measures, notably the Ilbert Bill of 1883 — so named after its author Sir Courtenay Ilbert — irritated the Anglo-Indian population, and it was fiercely assailed. The purpose of this bill was disclosed in the statement that " the government of India had decided to settle the question of jurisdiction over European British subjects in such a way as to remove from the code, at once and completely, every judicial disqualification which is based merely on race distinctions," in fact to subject Europeans in certain cases to trial by native magistrates. This announcement raised a storm of indignation among the European community in India, and the government were obliged virtually, though not avowedly, to abandon their measure. Act III. of 1884 was a compromise, which, while subjecting Europeans to the jurisdiction of native district magis- trates or sessions judges, reserved to them the right to demand trial by a jury of which at least half should be Europeans. There probably never was a viceroy so unpopular among Anglo-Indians or so popular with the natives. On Lord Ripon's departure from India in November 1884 there were extraordinary manifestations in his favour on the part of the Hindu population of Bengal and Bombay, and more than a thousand addresses were presented to him. On his arrival in England the marquess delivered a number of vigorous speeches in defence of his admins tration. In 1886 he became first lord of the admiralty in the third Gladstone ministry; and on the return of the Liberals to power in 1892 he was appointed colonial secretary, which post he continued to hold until the resignation of the government in 1895. He was included in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet at the close of 1905 as lord privy seal, an office which he retained in 1908 when Mr Asquith formed his new ministry, but which he resigned later in the same year. He died at his seat, Studley Royal, near Ripon, on the gth of July 1909, when his only son, Earl de Grey, who has been treasurer of the queen's household since 190-1, became the 2nd marquess. For many years Lord Ripon was president of the Yorkshire College of Science at Leeds, and chairman of the West Riding County Council. RIPON, a cathedral city and municipal borough in the Ripon parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 214 m. N.N.W. from London, on the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 8230. It is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the streams Laver and Skell with the river Ure, which is crossed by a fine bridge of nine arches. The streets are for the most part narrow and irregular, and, although most of the houses are comparatively modern, some of them retain the picturesque gables characteristic of earlier times. The cathedral, although not ranking among those of the first class, is cele- brated for its fine proportions, and is of great interest from the various styles of architecture which it includes. Its entire length from E. to W. is 266 ft., the length of the transepts 130 ft., and the width of the nave and aisles 87 ft. Besides a large square central tower, there are two western towers. The cathedral was founded on the ruins of St Wilfrid's abbey about 680, but of this Saxon building nothing now lemains except the crypt, called St Wilfrid's Needle. The present building was begun by Archbishop Roger (1154-81), and to this Tran- sition period belong the transepts and portions of the choir. The western front and towers, fine specimens of Early English, were probably the work of Walter de Grey, archbishop of York (d. 1255), and about the close of the century the eastern portion of the choir was rebuilt in the Decorated style. The nave, portions of the central tower, and two bays of the choir are Perpendicular, having been rebuilt towards the close of the isth century. Earlier than the rest of the fabric (except the crypt) is part of the chapter-house and the vestry, adjoining the south side of the choir, and terminating eastward in an apse. This is pure Norman work, and there is a crypt of that period beneath, which was formerly filled with unburied bones. There are a number of monuments of historical and antiquarian interest. The diocese includes rather less than one-third of the parishes of Yorkshire, and also a small part of Lancashire. The bishop's palace, a modern building in Tudor style, is situated in extensive grounds about a mile from the town. In the vicinity is the domain of Studley Royal, the seat of the marquess of Ripon, which contains the celebrated ruins of Fountains Abbey (q.v.). The principal secular buildings are the town hall, the public rooms, and the mechanics' institution (1894) where technical and other classes are held. There are several old charities, including the hospital of St John the Baptist, founded in 1109 but modernized; the hospital of St Anne, founded probably in the reign of Henry VI. by an unknown benefactor; and the hospital of St Mary Magdalene for women. This last was founded by Thurstan, archbishop of York (1114-41), as a secular community, one of the special duties of which was to minister to lepers. In the i3th century a master and chaplain took the place of the lay brethren, and in 1334 a chantry was founded. The chapel remains, with its interesting Norman work, its low side-windows, said to have allowed the lepers to follow the services, and its pre-Reformation altar of stone, a rare example. There is a considerable trade in varnish, and the saddle-trees and other leather goods pro- duced here are in high repute. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors. Area, 1809 acres. Ripon (In Rhypum, Ad Ripam) owed its origin to the mon- astery founded in the 7th century. A certain king, Alchfrith, is said to have given the site of the town to Eata, abbot of Melrose, to found a- monastery, but before it was completed Eata was deposed for refusing to celebrate Easter according to the Roman usage, and St Wilfrid was appointed the first abbot. Another version of the story, however, says that the land was given to St Wilfrid, who himself built the monastery. Ripon is said to have been made a royal borough by Alfred the Great, and King ^Ethelstan, after his victory at Brunanburh RIPON— RIPPERDA 365 in 937, is stated to have granted to the monastery sanctuary, freedom from toll and taxes, and the privilege of holding a court, although both charters attributed to him are known to be spurious. At the same time he is said to have given the manor to Wulfstan, archbishop of York. About 950 the monastery and town were destroyed by King Edred during his expedition against the Danes, but the monastery was rebuilt by the arch- bishops of York, and about the time of the Conquest was changed to a collegiate church. In 1318, when the Scots in- vaded England, Ripon only escaped being burnt a second time by the payment of 1000 marks. The custom of blowing the wakeman's horn every night at nine o'clock is said to have originated about A.D. 700. It was probably at first a means of calling the people together in case of a sudden invasion, but was afterwards a signal for setting the watch. A hom with a baldric and the motto " Except the Lord keep the city the watchman waketh but in vain " forms the mayor's badge. The archbishops of York as lords of the manor had various privileges in the town, among which were the right of holding a market and fair, and Archbishop John, being summoned in the reign of Henry I. to answer by what right he claimed these privileges, said that he held them by prescription and by the charter of King ^Ethelstan. Henry I. afterwards granted or confirmed to Archbishop Thomas a fair on the feast of St Wilfrid and four following days. The fairs and markets be- longed to the archbishops of York until they were transferred to the bishop of Ripon in 1837. In 1857 they were transferred to the ecclesiastical commissioners, from whom they were purchased by the corporation of Ripon in 1880. From before the Conquest until the incorporation charter of 1604 Ripon was governed by a wakeman and 12 elders, or aldermen, but in 1604 the title of wakeman was changed to mayor, and 12 aldermen and 24 common councilmen were appointed. The manufacture of cloth was at one time carried on in Ripon, but was almost lost in the i6th century when the town was visited by Leland. The making of spurs succeeded the cloth manu- facture and became so noted that the saying " as true as Ripon rowells " was a well-known proverb. This manufacture died out in the i8th century. Ripon was summoned to send two members to parliament in 1295, and occasionally from that time until 1328-29. The privilege was revived in 1553, after which the burgesses continued to send two members until 1867, when they were allowed only one. This latter privilege was taken away by the Redistribution Bill of 1885, and it now gives its name to one of the divisions of the county. See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; and W. Harrison, Ripon Millenary: a Record of the Festival and a History of the City, arranged under its Wakemen and Mayors from the year 1400 (1892). RIPON, a city of Fond du Lac county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on Silver Creek, about 22 m. W. of Fond du Lac, and about 75 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 3358; (1900), 3818, of whom 885 were foreign-born; (1905), 3811; (1910), 3739- Ripon is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. The city has a Carnegie library, which also houses the library of the Ripon Historical Society, and is the seat of Ripon College (non- sectarian, co-educational), which was founded in 1850 as the Lyceum of Ripon, and was named Ripon College in 1864; in 1908 it had 23 instructors and 279 students. There are grain elevators and various manufactories, among the products of which are cheese and other creamery products, flour, knit goods, pickles and canned goods, woodenware, washing machines and gloves. The site of Ripon was purchased in 1838 by John Scott Horner (1802-1883), of Virginia, secretary and acting-governor of Michigan Territory in 1835, and the first secretary of Wis- consin Territory in 1836-37, who named the village when it was established in 1849 from the seat of his ancestors in Yorkshire. In May 1844 a settlement, named Ceresco or " the Wisconsin Phalanx," a Fourierist community,1 organized 'The charter, granted by the legislature in 1845, contained the following features: (i) property to be held in common; in Southport (now Kenosha), had been established in the vicinity. A " Long House," 400 ft. in length, was erected, which contained tenements, an amusement or lecture hall, and a dining-room where all ate at a common table, and where board was provided at cost, sometimes as low as sixty-three cents per week. The " class of usefulness " was divided into three groups, agricultural, mechanical and educational, with such subdivisions as necessity dictated, and an exact account of labour was kept. The community prospered materially from the start. In the second season it consisted of thirty families with property valued at $27,725; in 1846 there were 180 resident members, and the net profit for the year was $9029. Eventually differences of opinion arose as to the division of labour, and the common dining-hall did not prove popular. Rivalry developed with the village of Ripon, and the community gave up its charter at the close of 1850, dividing property valued at $40,000 among the share- holders. On the whole it was one of the most successful ex- periments in communism ever tried in America. In 1858 Ripon absorbed the village of Ceresco and was chartered as a city. At Ripon started one of the disconnected movements that resulted in the founding of the Republican party. See D. P. Mapes, History of Ripon (Milwaukee, Wis., 1873); Consul W. Butterfield, History of Fond du Lac County (1880) ; W. A. Hinds, American Communities and Co-operative Colonies (3rd ed., Chicago, 1908), and F. A. Flower, History of the Republican Parly (1884). RIPPERDA, JOHN WILLIAM, BARON, and afterwards duke of (1680-1737), political adventurer and Spanish minister, was a native of Groningen in the Netherlands. According to a story which he himself set going during his adventures in Spain, his family was of Spanish origin. But there does not appear to be any foundation for this assertion. The name was not uncommon in Groningen, and was borne by several persons of some note in the i6th and i7th centuries, one of whom was a follower of William the Silent. They were people of some position, possessing " lordships " at Jansinia, Poelgast, and other places, and some at least of them were Roman Catholics. John William, if he was, as he asserted, born a Roman Catholic, conformed to Dutch Calvinism in order to obtain his election as delegate to the states-general from Groningen. In 1715 he was sent by the Dutch government as ambassador to Madrid. Saint-Simon says that his char- acter for probity was even then considered doubtful. The fortune of Orry, Alberoni and other foreigners in Spain, showed that the court of Philip V. offered a career to adventurers. Ripperda — whose name is commonly spelt. Riperda by the Spaniards — devoted himself to the Spanish government, and professed himself a Roman Catholic. He first attached himself to Alberoni, and after the fall of that minister he became the agent of Elizabeth Farnese, the restless and intriguing wife of Philip V. Though perfectly unscrupulous in money matters, and of a singularly vain and blustering disposition, he did under- stand commercial questions, and he has the merit of having pointed out that the poverty of Spain was mainly due to the neglect of its agriculture. But his fortune was not due to any service of a useful kind he rendered his masters. He rose by undertaking to aid the queen, whose influence over her husband was boundless, in her schemes for securing the succession to Parma, Plasencia and Tuscany for her sons. Ripperda was sent as special envoy to Vienna in 1725. He behaved with ridiculous' violence, but the Austrian government, which was under the influence of its own fixed idea, treated him seriously. The result of ten months of very strange diplomacy was a treaty by which the emperor promised very little, but and shares to be sold at $25; (2) land to be limited to 40 acres for each member of the corporation; (3) a unanimous vote of the managers necessary for admission; (4) an annual settlement of profits on the basis of one-quarter credit to dividend on stock, and three-quarters credit to labour; (5) free public schools, capital paying three-quarters and labour one-quarter of cost; and (6) complete religious toleration and no involuntary • taxation for church support. 366 RISHANGER— RISTITCH Spain was bound to pay heavy subsidies, which its exhausted treasury was quite unable to afford. The emperor hoped to obtain money. Elizabeth Farnese hoped to secure the Italian duchies for her sons, and some vague stipulations were made that Charles VI. should give his aid for the recovery by Spain of Gibraltar and Minorca. When Ripperda returned to Madrid at the close of 1725 he asserted that the emperor expected him to be made prime minister. The Spanish sovereigns, who were overawed by this quite unfounded assertion, allowed him to grasp the most important posts under the crown. He excited the violent hostility of the Spaniards, and entered into a complication of intrigues with the French and English governments. His career was short. In 1726 the Austrian envoy, who had vainly pressed for the payment of the promised subsidies, came to an explanation with the Spanish sovereigns. It was discovered that Ripperda had not only made promises that he was not authorized to make, but had misappropriated large sums of money. The sovereigns who had made him duke and grandee shrank from covering themselves with ridicule by revealing the way in which they had been deceived. Ripperda was dismissed with the promise of a pension. Being in terror of the hatred of the Spaniards, he took refuge in the English embassy. To secure the favour of the English envoy, Colonel William Stanhope, afterwards Lord Harrington, he betrayed the secrets of his government. Stanhope could not protect him, and he was sent as a prisoner to the castle of Segovia. In 1728 he escaped, probably with the connivance of the govern- ment, and made his way to Holland. His last years are obscure. It is said that he reverted to Protestantism, and then went to Morocco, where he became a Mahommedan and commanded the Moors in an unsuccessful attack on Cejuta. But this story is founded on his so-called Memoirs, which are in fact a Grub- street tale of adventure published at Amsterdam in 1740. All that is really known is that he did go to Morocco, and that he died at Tetuan in 1737. See Arnold Ritter von Arneth, Prinz Eugen von Savoyen (Vienna, 1864), for the negotiations of 1725, and Gabriel Syveton, Une Cour et un aventurier au XVIII' siecle (Paris, 1896). His Memoirs were translated into English by J. Campbell, London, I750- RISHANGER, WILLIAM (c. 1250-0. 1312), English chronicler, made his profession as a Benedictine at St Alban's abbey in 1271, of which he perhaps became the official chronicler. The most important of his writings is the Narratio de bellis apud Lewes et Evesham. Though written many years afterwards and drawn from other sources, it is a spirited account of the barons' war. He ,is so great an admirer of Simon de Montfort that this work has been called a hagiography. He is credited with the authorship of a chronicle covering the period 1250- 1306; this has been disputed, but the work is printed under his name by Riley. Another work of his, of not much im- portance, is a chronicle entitled Recapilulalis brevis de gestis domini Edwardi, &c. He is probably not the author of other works commonly attributed to him. AUTHORITIES. — Wilhelmi Rishanger chronica et annales, Rolls Series, Introduction ed. H. T. Riley; the Narratio de bellis apud Lewes et Evesham, ed. J. O. Halliwell, Camden Society, 1840. RISK, hazard, chance of danger or loss, especially the chance of loss to property or goods which an insurance company undertakes to make good to the insurer in return for the re- current payment of a sum called the premium (see INSURANCE). The word appears late in English, and in the I7th century in the Fr. form risque or It. risco or risgo, for risico, risigo; cf. Sp. riesgo. The Med. Lat. riscus, rischium, and risicum are found, according to Du Cange (Gloss., qq.v.), as early as the I3th century. Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1910) accepts Diez's sugges- tion that the word is originally a sailor's term, and is to be referred to Sp. risco, a steep rock, from Lat. resecare, to cut back, shut off; thus Sp. arriesgar, to run into danger, means literally " to go against a rock." RIST, JOHANN VON (1607-1667), German poet, was born at Ottensen in Holstein on the 8th of March 1607; the son of the Lutheran pastor of that place. He received his early training in Hamburg and Bremen; after studying theology at Rinteln and Rostock, he became in 1633 private tutor in a family of Heide, and two years later (1635) was appointed pastor of the village of Wedel on the Elbe, where he laboured until his death on the 3ist of August 1667. Rist first made his name known to the literary world by a drama, Perseus (1634), which he wrote while at Heide, and in the next succeeding years he produced a number of dramatic works of which the allegory Das friedewiinschende TeutsMand (1647) and Das friedejauchzends Teutschland (1653) (new ed. of both by H. M. Schletterer, 1864) are the most interesting. Rist soon became the central figure in a school of minor poets, and honours were showered upon him from every side. The emperor Ferdinand III. crowned him laureate in 1644, ennobled him in 1653, and invested him with the dignity of a Count Palatine, an honour which enabled him to crown, and to gain numerous poets for the Elbschwanen order, a literary and poetical society which he founded in 1656. He had already, in 1645, been admitted, under the name " Daphnis aus Cimbrien," to the literary order of Pegnitz, and in 1647 he became, as " Der Rustige," a member of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft. It is, however, as a writer of church hymns (see HYMNS) that Rist is best known to fame. Among these several are still retained in the evangelical hymn book: e.g. O Eivigkeit, du Donnerwort and Ermunt're dich, mein schwacher Geist. Collections of his poems appeared under the titles Musa Teutonica (1634) and Himmlische Lieder (1643)- Selections of Rist's writings have been published by W. Miiller in vol. viii. of his Bibliothek deutscher Dichter des 17. Jahrh. (1822- 1838), and by K. Goedeke and E. Goeze (1885). See T. Hansen, Johann Rist und seine Zeit (1872); K. T. Gaedertz, J. Rist als niederdeutscher Dramatiker (Jahrb.f. niederdeutsche Sprache, vol. vii., 1881); and M. von Waldberg's article in the Allg. deutsche Bio- graphie. RISTITCH (or RISTICH), JOVAN (1831-1899), Servian states- man, was born at Kragugevats in 1831. He was educated at Belgrade, Heidelberg, Berlin and Paris. After failing to obtain a professorship in the high school of Belgrade, he was appointed in 1861 Servian diplomatic agent at Constantinople. His reputation was enhanced by the series of negotiations which ended in the withdrawal of the Turkish troops from the Servian fortresses in 1867. On his return from Constanti- nople he was offered a ministerial post by Prince Michael, who described him as " his right arm," but declined office, being opposed to the reactionary methods adopted by the prince's government. He had already become the recognized leader of the Liberal party. After the assassination of Prince Michael in 1868, he was nominated member of the council of regency, and on the 2nd January 1869 the first Servian con- stitution, which was mainly his creation, was promulgated. When Prince Milan attained his majority in 1872, Ristitch became foreign minister; a few months later he was appointed prime minister, but resigned in the following autumn (1873). He again became prime minister in April 1876, and conducted the two wars against Turkey (July i87O-March 1877 and December i877-March 1878). At the congress of Berlin he laboured with some success to obtain greater advantages for Servia than had been accorded to her by the treaty of San Stefano. The provisions of the treaty of Berlin, however, disappointed the Servians, owing to the obstacles now raised to the realization of the national programme; the Ristitch government became unpopular, and resigned in 1880. In 1887 King Milan (who had assumed the royal title in 1882), alarmed at the threatening attitude of the Radical party, recalled Ristitch to power at the bead of a coalition cabinet; a new constitution xwas granted in 1888, and in the following year the king abdicated in favour of his son, Prince Alexander. Ristitch now became head of a council of regency, entrusted with power during the minority of the young king, and a Radical ministry was formed. In 1892, however, Ristitch transferred the government to the Liberal party, with which he had always been connected. This step and the subsequent RISTORI— RITSCHL, A. 367 conduct of the Liberal politicians caused serious discontent in the country. On the ist (i3th) of April 1893 King Alexander, by a successful stratagem, imprisoned the regents and ministers in the palace, and, declaring himself of age, recalled the Radicals to office. Ristitch now retired into private life. He died at Belgrade on 4th September 1899. Though cautious and deliberate by temperament, he was a man of strong will and firm character. He was the author of two published works: The External Relations of Servia from 1848 to 1867 (Belgrade, 1887) and A Diplomatic History of Servia (Belgrade, 1896). 0- D. B.) RISTORI, ADELAIDE (1822-1906), Italian actress, was born at Cividale del Friuli on the 3oth of January 1822, the daughter of strolling players. As a child she appeared upon the stage, and at fourteen made her first success as Francesca da Rimini in Silvio Pellico's tragedy. She was eighteen when for the first time she played Mary Stuart in an Italian version of Schiller's play. She had been a member of the Sardinian company and also of the Ducal company at Parma for some years before her marriage (1846) to the marchese Giuliano Capranica del Grille (d. 1861); and after a short retirement she returned to the stage and played regularly in Turin and the provinces. It was not until 1855 that she paid her first professional visit to Paris, where the part of Francesca was chosen for her debut. In this she was rather coldly received, but she took Paris by storm in the title r61e of Alfieri's Myrrha. Furious partisanship was aroused by the appearance of a rival to the great Rachel. Paris was divided into two camps of opinion. Humble playgoers fought at gallery doors over the merits of their respective favourites. The two famous women never actually met, but the French actress seems to have been convinced that Ristori had no feelings towards her but those of admiration and respect. A tour in other countries was followed (1856) by a fresh visit to Paris, when Ristori appeared in Montanelli's Italian translation of Legouve's Medea. She repeated her success in this in London. In 1857 she visited Madrid, playing in Spanish to enthusiastic audiences, and in 1866 she paid the first of four visits to the United States, where she won much applause, particularly in Giacometti's Elizabeth, an Italian study of the English sovereign. She finally retired from professional life in 1885, and died on the gth of October 1906 in Rome. She left a son, the marchese Georgio Capranica del Grillo. Her Studies and Memoirs (1888) provide a lively account of an interesting career, and are particularly valuable for the chapters devoted to the psychological explanation of the characters of Mary Stuart, Elizabeth, Myrrha, Phaedra and Lady Macbeth, in her interpretation of which Ristori com- bined high dramatic instinct with the keenest and most critical intellectual study. See also Kate Field, Adelaide Ristori: A Biography (New York, 1867) ; E. Peron Kingston, Adelaide Ristori: A Sketch of her Life (1856); Daily Telegraph (London, Oct. 10, 1906). RITCHIE, CHARLES THOMSON RITCHIE, IST BARON (1838-1906), English politician, was born at Dundee, and educated at the City of London school. He went into business, and in 1874 was returned to parliament as Conservative member for the Tower Hamlets. In 1885 he was made secretary to the Admiralty, and from 1886 to 1892 president of the Local Govern- ment Board, in Lord Salisbury's administration, sitting as member for St George's in the East. He was responsible for the Local Government Act of 1888, instituting the county councils; and a large section of the Conservative party always owed him a grudge for having originated the London County Council. In Lord Salisbury's later ministries, as member for Croydon, he was president of the Board of Trade (1895-1900), and home secretary (1895-1900); and when Sir Michael Hicks-Beach retired in 1902, he became chancellor of the exchequer in Mr Balfour's cabinet. Though in his earlier years he had been a " fair-trader," he was strongly opposed to Mr Chamberlain's movement for a pre- ferential tariff (see the articles on BALFOUR, A. J., and CHAMBER- LAIN, J.), and he resigned office in September 1903. In December 1905 he was created a peer, but he was in ill-health, and he died at Biarritz on the 9th of January 1906. RITCHIE, DAVID GEORGE (1853-1903), Scottish philosopher, was born at Jedburgh, son of the Rev. George Ritchie, D.D. He had a distinguished university career at Edinburgh, and Balliol College, Oxford, and after being fellow of Jesus and tutor of Balliol was elected professor of logic and metaphysics at St Andrews. He was president of the Aristotelian Society in 1898. Among his works are: Darwinism and Politics (1889); Prin- ciples of Stale Interference (1891); Darwin and Hegel (1893); Natural Rights (1895); a translation with R. Lodge and P. E. Matheson of Bluntschli's Theory of the State (1885) ; many articles in Mind, Philosophical Review, &c. His Philosophical Studies was edited with a memoir by R. Latta (1005). RITSCHL, ALBRECHT (1822-1889), German theologian, was born at Berlin on the 25th of March 1822. His father, Georg Karl Benjamin Ritschl (1783-1858), became in 1810 pastor at the church of St Mary in Berlin, and from 1827 to 1854 was general superintendent and evangelical bishop of Pomerania. Albrecht Ritschl studied at Bonn, Halle, Heidelberg and Tubingen. At Halle he came under Hegelian influences through the teaching of Julius Schaller (1810-1868) and J. H. Erdmann (b. 1805). In 1845 he was entirely captivated by the Tubingen school, and in his work Das Evangelium Marcions und das kanonische Evangelium des Lukas, published in 1846, he appears as a disciple of F. C. Baur. This did not last long with him, however, for the second edition (1857) of his most important work, on the origin of the old Catholic Church (Die Entstehung der alt-kathol. Kirche), shows considerable divergence from the first edition (1850), and reveals an entire emancipation from F. C. Baur's method. Ritschl was professor of theology at Bonn (extraordinarius 1852; ordinarius 1859) and Gottingen (1864; Consistorialrath also in 1874), his addresses on religion delivered at the latter university snowing the impression made upon his mind by his enthusiastic studies of Kant and Schleier- macher. Finally, in 1864, came the influence of Rudolf Lotze. He wrote a large work on the Christian doctrine of justification and atonement, Die Christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung, published during the years 1870-74, and in 1880-86 a history of pietism (Die Geschichte des Pietismus). His system of theology is contained in the former. He died at Gottingen on the 2oth of March 1889. His son, OTTO RITSCHL (b. 1860), after studying at Gottingen, Bonn and Giessen, became professor at Kiel (extraordinarius) in 1889 and afterwards at Bonn (extraordinarius 1894; or- dinarius 1897). He has published, amongst other works, Schleiermachers Stellung zum Christentum in seinen Reden iiber die Religion (1888), and a Life of his father (2 vols., 1820-96). Ritschl claims to carry on the work of Luther and Schleier- macher, especially in ridding faith of the tyranny of scholastic philosophy. His system shows the influence of Kant's destruc- tive criticism of the claims of Pure Reason, recognition of the value of morally conditioned knowledge, and doctrine of the kingdom of ends; of Schleiermacher's historical treatment of Christianity, regulative use of the idea of religious fellowship, emphasis on the importance of religious feeling; and of Lotze's theory of knowledge and treatment of personality. Ritschl's work made a profound impression on German thought and gave a new confidence to German theology, while at the same time it provoked a storm of hostile criticism: his school has grown with remarkable rapidity. This is perhaps mainly due to the bold religious positivism with which he assumes that spiritual experience is real and that faith has not only a legiti- mate but even a paramount claim to provide the highest inter- pretation of the world. The life of trust in God is a fact, not so much to be explained as to explain everything else. Ritschl's standpoint is not that of the individual subject. The objective ground on which he bases his system is the religious experi- ence of the Christian community. The " immediate object of theological knowledge is the faith of the community," and from this positive religious datum theology constructs a " total view of the world and human life." Thus the essence of Ritschl's work is systematic theology. Nor does he painfully work up to his master-category, for it is given in the knowledge 368 RITSCHL, F. W. of Jesus Christ revealed to the community. That God is love and that the purpose of His love is the moral organization of humanity in the " Kingdom of God " — this idea, with its immense range of application — is applied in Ritschl's initial datum. From this vantage-ground Ritschl criticizes the use of Aristotel- ianism and speculative philosophy in scholastic and Protestant theology. He holds that such philosophy is too shallow for theology. Hegelianism attempts to squeeze all life into the categories of logic: Aristotelianism deals with " things in general " and ignores the radical distinction between nature and spirit. Neither Hegel- ianism nor Aristotelianism is " vital " enough to sound the depths of religious life. Neither conceives " God " as correlative to human " trust " (cf. Theologie und Metaphysik, esp. p. 8 seq.). But Ritschl's recoil carries him so far that he is left alone with merely " practical " experience. " Faith " knows God in His active relation to the " kingdom," but not at all as " self-existent." His limitation of theological knowledge to the bounds of human need might, if logically pressed, run perilously near phenomenalism ; and his epistemology ( we only know things in their activities ") does not cover this weakness. In seeking ultimate reality in the circle of " active conscious sensation," he rules out all " meta- physic." Indeed, much that is part of normal Christian faith — e.g. the Eternity of the Son — is passed over as beyond the range of his method. Ritschl's theory of "value-judgments" (Werthur- theile) illustrates this form of agnosticism. Religious judgments of value determine objects according to their bearing on our moral and spiritual welfare. They imply a lively sense of radical human need. This sort of knowledge stands quite apart from that produced by " theoretic " and " disinterested " judgments. The former moves in a world of " values," and judges things as they are related to our " fundamental self-feeling. ' The latter moves in a world of cause and effect. (N.B. Ritschl appears to confine Metaphysic to the category of Causality.) The theory as formulated has such grave ambiguities, that his theology, which, as we have seen, is wholly based on uncompromising religious realism, has actually been charged with individualistic subjectivism. If Ritschl had clearly shown that judgments of value enfold and transform other types of knowledge, just as the " spiritual man " includes and trans- figures but does not annihilate the " natural man," then within the compass of this spiritually conditioned knowledge all other know- ledge would be seen to have a function and a home. The theory of value-judgments is part too of his ultra-practical tendency: both " metaphysic " and " mysticism " are ruthlessly condemned. Faith-knowledge appears to be wrenched from its bearings and sus- pended in mid-ocean. Perhaps if he had lived to see the progress of will-psychology he might have welcomed the hope of a more spiritual philosophy. A few instances will illustrate Ritschl's positive systematic theo- logy. The conception of God as Father is given to the community in Revelation. He must be regarded in His active relationship to the " kingdom," as spiritual personality revealed in spiritual pur- posiveness. His " Love " is His will as directed towards the realiza- tion of His purpose in the kingdom. His " Righteousness " is His fidelity to this purpose. With God as " First Cause " or " Moral Legislator" theology has no concern; nor is it interested in the " speculative " problems indicated by the traditional doctrine of the Trinity. " Natural theology " has no value save where it leans on faith. Again, Christ has for the religious life of the community the unique value of Founder and Redeemer. He is the perfect Revelation of God and the Exemplar of true religion. His work in founding the kingdom was a personal vocation, the spirit of which He communicates to believers, " thus, as exalted king," sustaining the life of His Kingdom. His Resurrection is a necessary part of Christian belief (G. Ecke, pp. 198-99). "Divinity" is a predi- cate applied by faith to Jesus in His founding and redeeming activity. We note here that though Ritschl gives Jesus a unique and unapproachable position in His active relation to the kingdom, he declines to rise above this relative teaching. The " Two Nature " problem and the eternal relation of the Son to the Father have no bearing on experience, and therefore stand outside the range of theology. Once more, in the doctrine of sin and redemption, the governing idea is God's fatherly purpose for His family. Sin is the contra- diction of that purpose, and guilt is alienation from the family. Redemption, justification, regeneration, adoption, forgiveness, reconciliation all mean the same thing— the restoration of the broken family relationship. All depends on the Mediation of Christ, who maintained the filial relationship even to His death, and communicates it to the brotherhood of believers. Everything is defined _ by the idea of the family. The whole apparatus of " forensic " ideas (law, punishment, satisfaction, &c.) is summarily rejected as foreign to God's purpose of love. Ritschl is so faithful to the standpoint of the religious community, that he has nothing definite to say on many inevitable questions, such as the relation of God to pagan races. His school, in which J. G. W. Herrmann, Julius Kaftan and Adolf Harnack are the chief names, diverges from his teaching in many directions; e.g. Kaftan appreciates the mystical side of religion, Harnack's criticism is very different from Ritschl's arbitrary exegesis. They are united on the value of faith- knowledge as opposed to " metaphysic." See A. Ritschl, Die Christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung (3rd ed., 1889) ; Unterricht in der Christltchen Lehre (very many editions) ; and Theologie und Metaphysik (2nd ed., 1887), give his main position. Many historical and other works besides. — E. Bertrand, Une nouvelle conception de la redemp- tion. La Doctrine de la justification el de la reconciliation dam le systeme de Ritschl (1891); H. Schoen, Les Origines historiques de la theologie de Ritschl (1893); G. Ecke, Die theologische Schule, A. Ritschl's und die evangelische Kirche der Gegenwart (1897); James Orr, The Ritschlian Theology and the Evangelical Faith (London, 1898); and A. E. Garvie, The Ritschlian Theology (Edinburgh, 1899), in both of which the bibliography of the movement is given. Cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in Germany since Kant (1890). The German literature on the subject is very large; see article in Herzog-Hauck, vol. xvii. RITSCHL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1806-1876), German scholar, was born in 1806 in Thuringia. His family, in which culture and poverty were hereditary, were Protestants who had migrated several generations earlier from Bohemia. Ritschl was fortunate in his school training, at a time when the great reform in the higher schools of Prussia had not yet been thoroughly carried out. His chief teacher, Spitzner, a pupil of Gottfried Hermann, divined the boy's genius and allowed it free growth, applying only so much either of stimulus or of restraint as was absolutely needful. After a wasted year at the university of Leipzig, where Hermann stood at the zenith of his fame, Ritschl passed in 1826 to Halle. Here he came under the powerful influence of Reisig, a young " Her- mannianer " with exceptional talent, a fascinating personality and a rare gift for instilling into his pupils his own ardour for classical study. The great controversy between the " Realists " and the " Verbalists " was then at its height, and Ritschl naturally sided with Hermann against Boeckh. The early death of Reisig in 1828 did not sever Ritschl from Halle, where he began his professorial career with a great reputation and brilliant success, but soon hearers fell away, and the pinch of poverty compelled his removal to Breslau, where he reached the rank of " ordinary " professor in 1834, and held other offices. The great event of Ritschl's life was a sojourn of nearly a year in Italy (1836-37), spent in libraries and museums, and more particularly in the laborious examination of the Ambrosian palimpsest of Plautus at Milan. The remainder of his life was largely occupied in working out the material then gathered and the ideas then conceived. Bonn, whither he removed on his marriage in 1839, and where he remained for twenty-six years, was the great scene of his activity both as scholar and as teacher. The philological seminary which he controlled, although nominally only joint-director with Welcker, became a veritable officina litterarum, a kind of Isocratean school of classical study; in it were trained many of the fore- most scholars of the last forty years. The names of Georg Curtius, Ihne, Schleicher, Bernays, Ribbeck, Lorenz, Vahlen, Hiibner, Biicheler, Helbig, Benndorf, Riese, Windisch, who were his pupils either at Bonn or at Leipzig, attest his fame and power as a teacher. In 1854 Otto Jahn took the place of the venerable Welcker at Bonn, and after a time succeeded in dividing with Ritschl the empire over the philological school there. The two had been friends, but after gradual estrange- ment a violent dispute arose between them in 1865, which for many months divided into two hostile forces the universities and the press of Germany. Both sides were steeped in fault, but Ritschl undoubtedly received harsh treatment from the Prussian government, and pressed his resignation. He ac- cepted a call to Leipzig, where he died in harness in 1876. Ritschl's character was strongly marked. The spirited element in him was^powerful, and to some at times he seemed overbearing, but his nature was noble at the core; and, though intolerant of inefficiency and stupidity, he never asserted his personal claims in any mean or petty way. He was warmly attached to family and friends, and yearned continually after sympathy, yet he established real intimacy with only a few. He had a great faculty for organization, as is shown by his RITSON— RITTER, H. 369 administration of the university library at Bonn, and by the eight years of labour which carried to success a work of infinite complexity, the famous Priscae Latinitatis Monumenla Epi- graphica (Bonn, 1862). This volume presents in admirable facsimile, with prefatory notices and indexes, the Latin in- scriptions from the earliest times to the end of the republic. It forms an introductory volume to the Berlin Corpus Inscrip- tionum Lalinarum, the excellence of which is largely due to the precept and example of Ritschl, though he had no hand in the later volumes. The results of Ritschl's life are mainly gathered up in a long series of monographs, for the most part of the highest finish, and rich in ideas which have leavened the scholarship of the time. As a scholar, Ritschl was of the lineage of Bentley, to whom he looked up, like Hermann, with fervent admiration. His best efforts were spent in studying the languages and literatures of Greece and Rome, rather than the life of the Greeks and Romans. He was sometimes, but most unjustly, charged with taking a narrow view of " Philologie." That he keenly ap- preciated the importance of ancient institutions and ancient art both his published papers and the records of his lectures amply testify. He devoted himself for the most part to the study of ancient poetry, and in particular of the early Latin drama. This formed the centre from which his investigations radiated. Starting from this he ranged over the whole remains of pre-Ciceronian Latin, and not only analysed but augmented the sources from which our knowledge of it must come. Before Ritschl the acquaintance of scholars with early Latin was so dim and restricted that it would perhaps be hardly an exaggeration to call him its real discoverer. To the world in general Ritschl was best known as a student of Plautus. He cleared away the accretions of ages, and by efforts of that real genius which goes hand in hand with labour, brought to light many of the true features of the original. It is infinitely to be regretted that Ritschl's results were never combined to form that monumental edition of Plautus of which he dreamed in his earlier life. Ritschl's examination of the Plautine MSS. was both laborious and brilliant, and greatly extended the knowledge of Plautus and of the ancient Latin drama. Of this, two striking examples may be cited. By the aid of the Ambrosian palimpsest he recovered the name T. Maccius Plautus, for the vulgate M. Accius, and proved it correct by strong extraneous arguments. On the margin of the Palatine MSS. the marks C and DV continually recur, and had been variously explained. Ritschl proved that they meant " Canticum " and " Diverbium," and hence showed that in the Roman comedy only the conversations in iambic senarii were not intended for the singing voice. Thus was brought into strong relief a fact without which there can be no true appreciation of Plautus, viz. that his plays were comic operas rather than comic dramas. In conjectural criticism Ritschl was inferior not only to his great predecessors but to some of his contemporaries. His imagination was in this field (but in this field only) hampered by erudition, and his judgment was unconsciously warped by the desire to find in his text illustrations of his discoveries. But still a fair proportion of his textual labours has stood the test of time, and he rendered immense service by his study of Plautine metres, a field in which little advance had been made since the time of Bentley. In this matter Ritschl was aided by an accomplishment rare (as he himself lamented) in Germany the art of writing Latin verse. In spite of the incompleteness, on many sides, of his work Ritschl must be assigned a place in the history of learning among a very select few. His studies are presented principally in his Opuscula collected partly before and partly since his death. The Trinummus (twice edited) was the only specimen of his contemplated edition of Plautus which he completed. The edition has been continued by some of his pupils — -Goetz, Loewe and others. The facts of Ritschl's life may be best learned from the elaborate biography by Otto Ribbeck (Leipzig, 1879). An interesting and discriminating estimate of Ritschl's work is that by Lucian Mueller (Berlin, 1877). (J. S. R.) RITSON, JOSEPH (1752-1803), English antiquary, was born at Stock ton-on-Tees, of a Westmorland yeoman family, on the 2nd of October 1752. He was educated for the law, and settled in London as a conveyancer when twenty-two. He devoted his spare time to literature, and in 1782 published au attack on Warton's History of English Poetry. The fierce and insulting tone of his Observations, in which Warton was treated as a showy pretender, and charged with cheating and lying to cover his ignorance, made a great sensation in literary circles. In nearly all the small points with which he dealt Ritson was in the right, and his corrections have since been adopted, but the unjustly bitter language of his criticisms roused great anger at the time, much, it would appear, to Rit son's delight. In 1783 Johnson and Steevens were assailed in the same bitter fashion as Warton for their text of Shakespeare. Bishop Percy was next subjected to a furious onslaught in the preface to a collection of Ancient Songs (printed 1787, dated 1700, published I7Q2). The only thing that can be said in extenuation of Ritson's unmatchable acrimony is that he spared no pains himself to ensure accuracy in the texts of old songs, ballads and metrical romances which he edited. His collection of the Robin Hood ballads is perhaps his greatest single achievement. Scott, who admired his industry and accuracy in spite of his temper, was almost the only man who could get on with him. On one occasion, when he called in Scott's absence, he spoke so rudely to Mrs Scott that Leyden, who was present, threatened to " thraw his -neck " and throw him out of the window. Spelling was one of his eccentricities, his own name being an example: Ritson is short pronunciation for Richardson. As early as 1796 Ritson showed signs of mental collapse, and on the icth of September 1803 he became completely insane, barricaded himself in his chambers at Gray's Inn, made a bonfire of manuscripts, and was finally forcibly removed to Hoxton, where he died on the 23rd of the month. RITTENHOUSE, DAVID (1732-1796), American astronomer, was born at Germantown, Pennsylvania, on the 8th of April 1732. First a watchmaker and mechanician he afterwards became treasurer of Pennsylvania (1777-89), and from 1792 to 1795 director of the U.S. mint (Philadelphia). He was largely occupied in 1763 and in 1779-86 in settling the boundaries of several of the states. He was a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the American Philosophical Society; and was elected president of the latter society in 1791. As an astronomer, Rittenhouse's principal merit is that he introduced in 1 786 the use of spider lines in the focus of a transit instrument. His priority with regard to this useful invention was acknow- ledged by E. Troughton, who brought spider lines into universal use in astronomical instruments (see von Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz, vol. ii. p. 215), but Felice Fontana (1730- 1805), professor of physics at the university of Pisa, and afterwards director of the museum at Florence, had already anticipated the invention in 1775, though no doubt this fact was unknown to Rittenhouse. His researches were published in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (1785- 1799). He died at Philadelphia on the 26th of June 1796. See Memoir (1813) by William Barton. RITTER, HEINRICH (1791-1869), German philosopher, was born at Zerbst on the 2ist of November 1791, and died at Gottingen on the 3rd of February 1869. He studied philosophy and theology at Gottingen and Berlin until 1815. In 1824 he became extraordinary professor of philosophy at Berlin, whence he was transferred to Kiel, where he occupied the chair of philosophy from 1833 to 1837. He then accepted a similar position at the university of Gottingen, where he remained till his death. His chief work was a history of philosophy (Geschichte der Philosophic) published in twelve volumes at Hamburg from 1829 to 1853. This book is the product of a wide and thorough knowledge of the subject aided by an impartial critical faculty, and its value is demonstrated by the 37° RITTER, K.— RITUAL fact that it has been translated into almost all the languages of Europe. He wrote also accounts of ancient schools of philosophy, the lonians, the Pythagoreans and the Megarians. Beside these important historical works, he published a large number of treatises of which the following may be mentioned: Versuch zur Verstandigung iiber die neuesle deutsche Philosophic zeit Kant (1853); Die christliche Philosophic bis auf die neuesten Zeiten (2 vols., 1858-59), a work which supplemented the Geschichte; Abriss der philosophischen Logik (1824); Ueber das Verhaltnis der Philosophic zum Leben (1835); Historia philosophiae Graeco-Romanae (in collaboration with Preller, 1838; 7th ed., 1888); Kleine philosophische Schriften (1839-40); System der Logik und Metaphysik (1856); Encyklopddie der philosophischen Wissenschaften (1862-64); Ernest Renan, uber die Naturwissenschaften und die Geschichte (1865); Ueber das Base und seine Folgen (1869). Of these latter, the one best known in England is the History of Greek and Roman Philosophy, which, by reason of the excellence of its arrangement and its judicious quotations and notes, is almost indispensable to the student of ancient philosophy. RITTER, KARL (1779-1859), German geographer, was born at Quedlinburg on the 7th of August 1779, and died in Berlin on the 28th of September 1859. His father, a physician, left his family in straitened circumstances, and Karl was received into the Schnepfenthal institution then just founded by Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744-1811) for the purpose of testing his educational theories. The Salzmann system was practically that of Rousseau; conformity to natural law and enlightenment were its watchwords; great attention was given to practical life; and the modern languages were carefully taught, to the complete exclusion of Latin and Greek. Ritter already showed geographical aptitude, and when his schooldays were drawing to a close his future course was determined by an introduction to Bethmann Hollweg, a banker in Frankfort. It was arranged that Ritter should become tutor to Hollweg's children, but that in the meantime he should attend the university at his patron's expense. His duties as tutor in the Hollweg family began at Frankfort in 1798 and continued for fifteen years. The years 1814-19, which he spent at Gottingen in order still to watch over the welfare of his pupils, were those in which he began to devote him- self exclusively to geographical inquiries. He had already travelled extensively in Europe when in 1817-18 he brought out his first masterpiece, Die Erdkunde im Verhaltnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte des Menschen (Berlin, 2 vols., 1817- 1818). In 1819 he became professor of history at Frankfort, and in 1820 professor extraordinarius of history at Berlin, where shortly afterwards he began also to lecture at the military college. He remained in this position till his death. The second edition of his Erdkunde (1822-58) was conceived on a much larger scale than the first, but he completed only the sections on Africa and the various countries of Asia. The service rendered to geography by Ritter was especially notable because he brought to his work a new conception of the subject. Geography was, to use his own expression, a kind of physiology and comparative anatomy of the earth: rivers, mountains, glaciers, &c., were so many distinct organs, each with its own appropriate functions; and, as his physical frame is the basis of the man, determinative to a large extent of his life, so the structure of each country is a leading element in the historic progress of the nation. Moreover, Ritter was a scientific compiler of the first rank. Among his minor works may be mentioned Vorhalle europaischer Volkergeschichten vor Herodot (Berlin, 1820); Die Stupas . . . an der indobaktrischen Konigsstrasse und die Kolosse von Bamiyan (1838); Einleitung zur allgemeinen vergleichenden Geographie (Berlin, 1852); " Bemerkungen iiber Veranschaulichungsmittel raumlicher Ver- haltnisse bei graphischen Darstellungen durch Form u. Zahl," in the Trans, of the Berlin Academy, 1828. After his death selec- tions from his lectures were published under the titles Geschichte der Erdkunde (1861), Allgemeine Erdkunde (1862), and Europa (1863). Several of his works (e.g. the " Palestine " volumes of his Erdkunde) were translated into English. " Karl Ritter " foundations were established in his memory at Berlin and Leipzig, for the furtherance of geographical study. See G. Kramer, Karl Ritter, ein Lebensbild (Halle, 1864 and 1870; 2nd ed., 1875) ; W. L. Gage, The Life of Karl Ritter (London, 1867) ; F. Marthe, " Was bedeutet Karl Ritter fiir die Geographie," in Zeitsch. derGes.f. Erdk. (Berlin, 1879). All Ritter' s works mentioned above were published at Berlin. RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom), a term of religion, which may be defined as the routine of worship. This is a " minimum definition "; " ritual " at least means so much, but may stand for more. Without some sort of ritual there could be no organized method in religious worship. Indeed, viewed in this aspect, ritual is to religion what habit is to life, and its rationale is similar, namely, that by bringing subordinate functions under an effort- less rule it permits undivided attention in regard to vital issues. This analogy — for it is safer to regard such applications of individual psychology to social phenomena as only analogies — may be carried a step further. Just as the main business of habit is to secure bodily equilibrium in order to allow free play to the mental life, so the chief task of routine in religion is to organize the activities necessary to its stability and con- tinuance as a social institution, in order that all available spontaneity and initiative may be directed into spiritual channels. Such organization will naturally affect far more than the forms of worship; but these at least, to judge from the past history of religion, cannot but submit extensively to its influence. The nature of religion, as the sociologist under- stands it, is bound up with its congregational character. In order that inter-subjective relations should be maintained between fellow-worshippers, the use of one or another set of conventional symbols is absolutely required; for example, an intelligible vocabulary of meet expressions, or (since this is, perhaps, not indispensable) at any rate sounds, sights, actions and so on, that have come by prescription to signify the common purpose of the religious society, and the means taken in common for the realization of that purpose. In this sense, the term " ritual," as meaning the prescribed ceremonial routine, is also extended to observances not strictly religious in character. But, whilst ritual at least represents routine, it tends, his- torically speaking, to have a far deeper significance for the religious consciousness. A recurrent feature of religion, which many students of its phenomena would even consider constant and typical, is the attribution of a more or less self-contained and automatic efficacy to the ritual procedure as such. Before proceeding to considerations of genesis, it will be convenient briefly to analyse the notion as it appears in the higher religions. Two constituent lines of thought may be distinguished. Firstly, there is the tendency to pass beyond the purely petitionary attitude which as such can imply no more than the desire, hope or expectation of divine favour, and to take for granted the consummation sought, a deity that answers, a grace and blessing that are communicated. Only when such accomplish- ment of its end is assumed can efficacy be held to attach to the act of worship. Secondly, there is the tendency to identify such a self-accomplishing act of worship with its objective expression in the ritual that for purposes of mutual under- standing makes the body of worshippers one. The Magical Element in Ritual. — Exactly similar tendencies — to impute efficacy, and to treat the ritual procedure as the source of that efficacy — are typically characteristic of magic, and their reappearance in religion can hardly be treated as a coincidence, seeing that magic and religion would appear to have much in common, at any rate during the earlier stages of their development. In magic a suggestion is made orally, or by dramatic action, or most often in both ways together, that is held ipso facto to bring about its own accomplishment. A certain conditionality attaches to the magical operation, inasmuch as each magician is subject to interference on the part of other magicians who may neutralize his spell by a RITUAL 371 counter spell of equal or greater power; nevertheless, the in- trinsic tone is that of a categorical assertion of binding force and efficacy. Again, in magic the self-realizing force is apt to seem to reside in the suggestional machinery rather than in the spiritual qualifications of the magician, though this is by no means invariably the case. On the whole, however, spells and ceremonies are wont to be regarded as an inheritable and transferable property containing efficacy in themselves. And what is true of magic is equally true of much of primitive, and even of relatively advanced, religion. Dr J. G. Frazer has pronounced the following to be marks of a primitive ritual: negatively, that there are no priests, no temples and no gods (though he holds that departmental, non-individual " spirits " are recognized) ; positively, that the rites are magical rather than propitiatory (The Golden Bough, and ed. ii. 191). If we leave it an open question whether, instead of " spirits," it would not be safer to speak of " powers " (to which not a soul-like nature, but simply a capacity for exercising magic, is attributed), this characterization may be accepted as apply- ing to many, if not to all, the rites of primitive religion. Thus the well-known totemic ceremonies of Central Australia afford a striking example of rites of a deeply religious import — in the sense that the purpose they embody is that of consecrating certain functions of the common life (see RELIGION) — yet almost wholly magical in form. They resolve themselves on analysis into (i) direct acts of magical suggestion, and (2) acts commemorative of the magical doings of mythical ancestors, the purport of which may be regarded as indirectly and con- structively magical, on the principle that in magic to mention a thing's origin is to control it, to recount another's wonder- working is to reproduce his power, and so on. It is to be noted, however, that other Australian rites are found, notably those that accompany initiation in the south-eastern region, over which anthropomorphic beings having enough individuality to rank as " gods " undoubtedly preside; but even here, though traces of propitiatory worship may be discernible (the evidence being scanty and conflicting), acts of pure magic are decidedly to the fore. And what is true of the most primitive and unreflective forms of cult remains true of more advanced types which have become relatively self-conscious. There is little or no felt opposition between processes imply- ing control and processes of a propitiatory character in the religion of the Pueblo Indians, which American ethnologists have been so successful in expounding, or, to mount to a still higher level, in the Vedic, Assyrian or Egyptian cults. The leading idea, we may even say, is that expressed so happily by a character in Kenan's Le Pretre de Nemi: " L'ordre du monde depend de 1'ordre des rites qu'on observe " (cf. A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion, 2nd ed. i. 251). As regards the most developed forms of religion, whilst the old procedure largely survives unchanged, its original intention is disowned by theologians, though it may be doubted if the popular mind is always strong enough to withstand the appeal of prima facie appearance. This proneness to impute efficacy to ritual is immensely reinforced by another social proclivity, more or less distinct in its ultimate nature, which causes the rite to rank as a divine ordinance or command. Naturally if the god manifests himself by means of certain forms, if he is reputed to have founded or revealed them, or if he has been known to evince displeasure at departures from them, there is strong reason to think that such forms are efficacious, and that in a sense of themselves, namely, by being what they are. At the sociological level of thought this divine sanction has to be treated as the echo of a social sanction which ratifies and protects religious custom. In early society the influence of what Walter Bagehot (in Physics and Politics, gth ed. p. 102) calls the " persecuting tendency " in enforcing custom is on the whole not markedly in evidence. The lact is that imitation in a homogeneous group produces such unanimity that, with the help of some education, notably the instruction given at the time of initiation, all non- conformity is nipped in the bud. Of the Central Australian ceremonies we read that they " had to be performed in precisely the same way in which they had been in the Alcheringa (lit. ' dream-time ' = age of mythical tribal ancestors). Everything was ruled by precedent; to change even the decoration of a per- former would have been an unheard-of thing; the reply, ' It was so in the Alcheringa,' was considered as perfectly satisfactory by way of explanation " (B. Spencer and F. Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia, 324). Here we perceive the social sanction of public opinion insensibly merging in a supernatural sanction. The tribe is a religious partnership with a divine past with which it would not willingly break. As Mr Lang well puts it, " Ritual is preserved because it preserves luck " (loc. cit.). Given an intrinsic sacredness, it is but a step to associate definite gods with the origin or purpose of a rite, whose interest it thereupon becomes to punish omissions or innovations by the removal of their blessing (which is little more than to say that the rite loses its efficacy), or by the active infliction of disaster on the com- munity. In the primitive society it is hard to point to any custom to which sacredness does not in some degree attach, but, naturally, the more important and solemn the usage, the more rigid the religious conservatism. Thus there are indications that in Australia, at the highly sacred ceremony of circumcision, the fire-stick was employed after stone implements were known; and we have an exact parallel at a higher level of culture, the stone implement serving for the same operation when iron is already in common use (Spencer and Gillen, ib. 401 : cf. E. B. Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 3rd ed. p. 217). The Interpretation of Ritual. — A valuable truth insisted on by the late W. Robertson Smith (Religion of the Semites, 17 sqq.) is that in primitive religion it is ritual that generates and sustains myth, and not the other way about. Sacred lore of course cannot be dispensed with; even Australian society, which has hardly reached the stage of having priests, needs its Oknirabata or " great instructor " (Spencer and Gillen, ib. 303) . The function of such an expert, however, is chiefly to hand on mere rules for the performance of religious acts. If his lore include sacred histories, it is largely, we may suspect, because the description and dramatization of the doings of divine persons enter into ritual as a means of magical control. Similarly, the sacred books of the religions of middle grade teem with minute prescrip- tions as to ritual, but are almost destitute of doctrine. Even in the highest religions, where orthodoxy is the main requirement, and ritual is held merely to symbolize dogma, there is a remark- able rigidity about the dogma that is doubtless in large part due to its association with ritual forms many of them bearing the most primeval stamp. As regards the symbolic interpretation of ritual, this is usually held not to be primitive; and it is doubtless true that an unreflective age is hardly aware of the difference between " outward sign " and " inward meaning," and thinks as it were by means of its eyes. Nevertheless, it is easier to define fetishism (a fetish " differing from an idol in that it is worshipped in its own character, not as the symbol, image or occasional residence of a deity," New English Dictionary, Oxford, 1901) than it is to bring such a fetishism home to any savage people, the West African negroes not excluded (cf . A. B . Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Cold Coast of W. Africa, 192). It is the magic power, virtue or grace residing in, and proceeding from, the material object — a power the communica- bility of which constitutes the whole working hypothesis of the magico-religious performance — that is valued in those cases where native opinion can be tested. Moreover, it must be remembered that in the act of magic a symbolic method is consciously pursued, as witness the very formulas employed: " As I burn this image, so may the man be consumed," or the even more explicit, " It is not wax I am scorching; it is the liver, heart and spleen of So-and-so that I scorch " (W. W. Skeat. Malay Magic, 570) ,where appearance and reality are distinguished in order to be mystically reunited. Now it is important to observe that from the symbol as embodying an imperative to the symbol as expressing an optative is a transition of meaning that involves no change of form whatever; and, much as theorists love to contrast the suggestional and the petitionary attitudes, 372 RITUAL it is doubtful if the savage does not move quite indifferently to and fro across the supposed frontier-line between magic and religion, interspersing " bluff " with blandishment, spell with genuine prayer. Meanwhile the particular meanings of the detailed acts composing a complicated piece of ritual soon tend to lose themselves in a general sense of the efficacy of the rite as a whole to bring blessing and avert evil. Nay, unintelligibility is so far from invalidating a sacred practice that it positively supports it by deepening the characteristic atmosphere of mystery. Even the higher religions show a lingering predilection for cabalistic formulas. Changes in Ritual. — Whilst ritual displays an extraordinary stability, its nature is of course not absolutely rigid; it grows, alters and decays. As regards its growth, there is hardly a known tribe without its elaborate body of magico-religious rites. In the exceptional instances where this feature is relatively absent (the Masai of E. Africa offer a case in point), we may suspect a disturbance of tradition due to migration or some similar cause. Thus there is always a pre-existing pattern in accordance with which such evolution or invention as occurs proceeds. Unconscious evolution is perhaps the more active factor in primitive times; imitation is never exact, and small variations amount in time to considerable changes. On the other hand, there is also deliberate innovation. In Australia councils of the older men are held day by day during the performance of their ceremonies, at which traditions are repeated and procedure determined, the effect being mainly to preserve custom but undoubtedly in part also to alter it. Moreover, the individual religious genius exercises no small influence. A man of a more original turn of mind than his fellows will claim to have had a new ceremony imparted to him in a vision, and such a ceremony will even be adopted by another tribe which has no notion of its meaning (Spencer and Gillen, ib. 272, 278, 281 n.). Meanwhile, since little is dropped whilst so much is being added, the result is an endless complication and elaboration of ritual. Side by side with elaboration goes systematization, more especially when local cults come to be merged in a wider unity. Thereupon assimilation is likely to take place to one or another leading type of rite — for instance, sacrifice or prayer. At these higher stages there is more need than ever for the expert in the shape of the priest, in whose hands ritual procedure becomes more and more of a conscious and studied discipline, the naive popular elements being steadily eliminated, or rather transformed. Not but what the trans- ference of ritualistic duties to a professional class is often the signal for slack and mechanical performance, with consequent decay of ceremonial. The trouble and worry of having to comply with the endless rules of a too complex system is apt to operate more widely — namely, in the religious society at large — and to produce an endless crop of evasions. Good examples of these on the part alike of priests and people are afforded by Toda religion, the degenerate condition of which is expressly attributed by Dr W. H. R. Rivers to " the over-development of the ritual aspect of religion" (The Todas, 454-55). It is interesting to observe that a religion thus atrophied tends to revert to purely magical practices, the use of the word of power, and so on (ib. ch. x.). It is to be noted, however, that what are known as ritual substitutions, though they lend themselves to purposes of evasion (as in the well-known case of the Chinese use of paper money at funerals), rest ultimately on a principle that is absolutely fundamental in magico-religious theory — namely, that what suggests a thing because it is like it or a part of it becomes that thing when the mystic power is there to carry the suggestion through. The Classification of Rites. — More than one basis of division has suggested itself. From the sociological point of view perhaps the most important distinction in use is that between public and private rites. Whilst the former essentially belong to religion as existing to further the common weal, the latter have from the earliest times an ambiguous character, and tend to split into those which are licit — " sacraments," as they may be termed — and those which are considered anti-social in tendency, and are consequently put beyond the pale of religion and assigned to the " black art " of magic. Or the sociologist may prefer to correlate rites with the forms of social organization — the tribe, the phratry, the clan, the family and so on. Another interesting contrast (seeing how primary a function of religion it is to establish a calendar of sacred seasons) is that between periodic and occasional rites — one that to a certain extent falls into line with the previous dichotomy. A less fruitful method of classing rites is that which arranges them according to their inner meaning. As we have seen, such meaning is usually acquired ex post facto, and typical forms of rite are used for many different purposes; so that attempts to differentiate are likely to beget more equivocations than they clear up. The fact is that comparative religion must be content to regard all its classifications alike as pieces of mere scaffolding serving temporary purposes of construction. Negative Rites. — A word must be added on a subject dealt with elsewhere (see TABOO, GENNA), but strictly germane to the matter in hand. What have the best, if not the sole, right to rank as taboos are ritual interdictions (see M. Mauss in L' Annie sociologique, ix. 249). Taboo, as understood in Polynesia, the home of the word, is as wide as, and no wider than, religion, representing one side or aspect of the sacred (see RELIGION). The very power that can help can also blast if approached improperly and without due precautions. Taboos are such precautions, abstinences prompted, not by simple dread or dislike, but always by some sort of respect as felt towards that which in other circumstances or in other form has healing virtue. Thus the negative attitude of the observer of taboo involves a positive attitude of reverence from which it becomes in practice scarcely distinguishable. To keep a fast, for instance, is looked upon as a direct act of worship. It must be noted, too, that, whereas taboo as at first conceived belongs to the magico-religious circle of ideas, implying a quasi-physical transference of sacredness from what has it to one not fit to receive it, it is very easily reinterpreted as an obligation imposed by the deity on his worshippers. The law observed by a primitive religious community abounds in negative precepts, and if early religion tends to be a religion of fear it is because the taboo-breaker provides the most palpable objective for human and divine sanctions. In the higher religions, to be pure remains amongst the most laudable of aspirations, and, even though the ceremonial aversion of a former age has be- come moralized, and a purity of heart set up as the ideal, it is on " virtues of omission " that stress is apt to be laid, so that a timorous propriety is too often preferred to a forceful grappling with the problems of life. There are signs, however, that the religious consciousness has at length come to appreciate the fact that the function of routine in religion as elsewhere is to clear the way for action. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A comprehensive study of ritual as such from the comparative standpoint remains yet to be written. Some leading ideas on the subject are struck out by E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture' (1903), ch. 18; and A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion2 (1899); whilst the whole of J. G. Frazer's vast collection of facts in The Golden Bough'' (1900) illustrates ritual, more especially on its magical side; see also W. Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (1889). A very valuable work of restricted range but embodying a method that might fruitfully be applied to the whole subject of ritual is H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et sur la fonctipn du sacrifice" in L'Annee sociologique, ii.; in close connexion with the above should be studied S. Levi, La Doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brahmanas (1899); W. Caland and V. Henry, L'Agnistoma, description complete de la forme normale du sacrifice de Soma dans le culte vcdique (1906); see also H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda (1894); A. Hillebrant, Ritual Litteratur: Vedische Opfer und Zauber (1896). Admirable descriptions of Australian ritual are to be found in B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia (1899) and The Northern Tribes of Central Australia (1904). On North American rituals very excellent studies exist in A. C. Fletcher, "The Hako: A Pawnee Ceremony," in zznd Report of Bureau of American Ethnology; see also various papers by the same authoress in Peabody Reports; likewise in J. W. Fewkes, " Tusayan Katchinas," in Ifth Rep. of B. of A. Eth.; and id., " Hopi Katchinas," in 2ist Rep.; M. C. Stevenson, "_The Zuni Indians, in 2$rd Rep.; cf. F. H. Gushing, "Zuni Fetiches," in 2nd Rep. The following works pay special attention to ritual RITUAL MURDER— RIVE-DE-GIER 373 features: L. R. Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States (1896-1907); A. Moret, Le Rituel du culte divin journalier en Egypte (1902) ; A. de Marchi II culto private di Roma antica (1902). (R. R. M.) RITUAL MURDER, a general term for human sacrifice in connexion with religious ceremonies. False accusations as to the practice of ritual murder by Jews and Christians have often been made. " The Christians of the second and third centuries suffered severely under them " (Strack). Justin Martyr (150-160) in his Second Apology (ch. 12) vigorously defends the Christian community against this charge; Octavius, Minucius Felix, Tertullian, Origen and other Church Fathers all refer to the subject and indignantly repudiate the atrocious libel that the Eucharist involved human sacrifice. The myth was revived against the Montanists, and in the later middle ages against various sects of heretical Christians. In recent years the accusation has been again levelled against " foreigners " during the disturbances in China. The chief sufferers, however, from the charge were the Jews. The charge was never coherently defined, but a notion prevailed that at the Passover Christian blood was used in Jewish rites. For this belief there is no foundation whatever, as is proved in the classical treatise1 on the subject by Hermann L. Strack, Regius Professor of Theology at Berlin University. The first occasion on which the medieval Jews were accused of the murder of a Christian child was at Norwich in 1144. In the following century other instances of the charge occurred on the Con- tinent, and by this time (middle of the I3th century) the legend had grown into a belief that " the Jews of every province annually decide by lot " which congregation or town is to be the scene of the mythical murder. It is easy to understand how in ages when the Jews were everywhere regarded with superstitious awe, such stories to their detriment would find ready credence, but the revival of the myth in recent times by the anti-Semite is a deplorable instance of degeneration. It is only necessary here to refer to the Lincoln case (1255), the Trent case (1475) and more recently the Damascus case (1840), the Tisza-Eszlar affair (1882), the Xanten charge (1891) and the Polna case (1899). All of these charges— sometimes invented by malicious seceders from the Jewish fold — were followed by spoliation and tragic persecution of the Jews. On the other hand many Jewish proselytes to Christianity have strenuously defended the Jews from the charge, among them may be particularly named Prof. D. Chwolson (Blutan- klage, 1901). In 1840 a protest against the charge was signed by 58 Jewish-Christians, the list being headed by M. S. Alex- ander, Anglican bishop at Jerusalem. Further testimonies of a similar kind are collected in Strack (op. cit. p. 239). Many of the popes have issued bulls exonerating the Jews (cf. Strack, p. 250); similarly temporal princes have often taken a similar step (ibid. p. 260). Many Christian scholars and ecclesiastics have felt it their duty to utter protests in favour of the Jews. Among them have been the most eminent Christian students of Rabbinism of recent times, e.g. Professors Alexander McCaul, P. Lagarde, Franz Delitzsch, A. Merx, T. Noldeke, C. Siegfried, A. Wunsche, G. H. Dalman and J. von Dollinger. A careful examination of the evidence (with a complete acquittal of the Jews) is contained in a notable work by a Catholic priest, F. Frank, Der Rilualmord wr dem Gerichtshofen der Wahrheit und der Gerechtigkeit (1901, 1902). The literature on the other side is entirely antisemitic and in no instance has it survived the ordeal of criticism. The most notorious exponent of the charge was A. Rohling, the worthlessness of whose writings on the subject is exposed by (among many others) Strack (op. cit. pp. 155 seq.). A list of some of the most "important of the cases is given by J. Jacob in the Jewish Encyclopedia, iii. 266-67. (I. A.) RIVA, a fortified district town of Tirol, Austria, near the Italian frontier. Pop. (1900) 7550. It is a lake port anc steamship station at th,e northern extremity of the Lago d Garda. There are two forts on the Monte Brione a little over 1 Das Blut im Glauben und Aberglauben (Eng. trans., The Jew and Human Sacrifice, London, 1909). a mile north-east of the town, and the old castle of La Rocca was reconstructed and extended in accordance with modern requirements in 1850. The Minorite Church (1603), with altar pictures by Guido Reni and other Italian painters, is much frequented as a place of pilgrimage. In addition to its ransit trade and the entertainment of visitors, the principal resources of the town are the manufacture of paper, iron wares and pottery, the cultivation of the silk-worm and the olive ;ree, and a considerable commerce in timber, planks and coal. Riva is connected with the Ledro valley by a picturesque road which passes in a series of tunnels and galleries along the rocky and precipitous west shore of the lake. RIVAL, one who competes with another, one who strives :o out-do or excel another or to gain an object or end before or in preference to another. The Latin rivalis, which was !n classical Latin used of a competitor in love, meant by de- rivation one who used the same brook or stream (rivus) as another, hence a neighbour; thus in the Digest, xliii. 20, i. 26, " si inter rivales, id est qui per eundem rivum aquam ducunt, sit contentio de aquae usu." The term naturally applied more particularly to those who lived on opposite sides of a stream which would be a frequent subject of dispute as to rights. RIVAROL, ANTOINE DE (1753-1801), French writer and epigrammatist, was born at Bagnols in Languedoc on the 26th of June 1753, and died at Berlin on the nth of April 1801. It seems that his father was an innkeeper but a man of cultivated tastes. The son assumed the title of comte de Rivarol, and asserted his connexion with a noble Italian family, but his enemies said that the name was really Riverot, and that the family was not noble. After various vicissitudes he appeared in Paris in 17.77. After winning some academic prizes, Rivarol distinguished himself in the year 1784 by a treatise Sur I'universalite de la langite franfaise, and by a translation of the Inferno. The year before the Revolution broke out he, with some assistance from a man of similar but lesser talent, Champcenetz,2 compiled a lampoon, entitled Petit Almanack de nos grands hommes pour 1788, in which some writers of actual or future talent and a great many nobodies were ridiculed in the most pitiless manner. When the Revolution developed the importance of the press, Rivarol at once took up arms on the Royalist side, and wrote in the Journal politique of Antoine Sabatier de Castres (1742-1817) and the Actes des Apdtres of Jean Gabriel Peltier (1770-1825). But he emigrated in 1792, and established himself at Brussels, whence he removed successively to London, Hamburg and Berlin. Rivarol has had no rival in France except Piron in sharp conversational sayings. These were mostly ill-natured, and mostly have a merely local application. Their brilliancy, however, can escape no one. His brother, Claude Frangois (1762-1848), was also an author. His works include Isman, ou le fatalisme (1795), a novel; Le Veridique (1827), comedy; £550} sur les causes de la revolution }ran$aise (1827). The works of Antoine de Rivarol were published in five volumes (Paris, 1805); selections (Paris, 1858) with introductory matter by Sainte-Beuve and others, and that edited in 1862 (2nd ed., 1880) by M. de Lescure, may be specified. See also M. de Lescure's Rivarolet la societe franc.aise pendant la revolution el f emigration (1882), and Le Breton's Rivarol, sa vie, ses idfes (1895). RIVE-DE-GIER, a town of east-central France, in the department of Loire, 14 m. E.N.E. of St Etienne, on the railway to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 15,338. Situated on the Gier and the Canal de Givors, it is principally dependent on the coal industry, giving its name to a coal- basin which is a continuation of that of St Etienne. It has glass works, the products of which are celebrated on account of the fineness and purity of the sand found on the banks of 1 Louis Rene Quantin de Richebourg, Chevalier de Champcenetz (1760-1794), died on the scaffold. He is not to be confounded with Louis Pierre, marquis de Champcenetz, governor of the Tuilcries in 1789, who escaped in 1792 through the protection of Mme. Elliott, mistress of the due d'Orleans. 374 RIVER— RIVER ENGINEERING the Rhone and the Sa6ne. There are also iron and steel works where iron goods and ironmongery of all kinds are manufactured. Rive-de-Gier is a place of some antiquity, as appears from remains of Gallo-Roman buildings, and mosaics and coins found at various times. In the time of Henry IV. the working of the mines had already given to the locality a measure of importance. RIVER, any considerable stream of water flowing in a defined channel. The origin and subsequent formation of rivers and the valleys along which they flow are considered under GEOGRAPHY, § Principles of Geography, and GEOLOGY, § viii. The word " river " is an adaptation of the 0. Fr. rivere (mod. riviere), which descends through Med. Lat. rivera, Low. Lat. riparia, in the sense of river-bank and river, from ripa, bank. The Latin for a stream or river is rivus, whence rivulas, a small stream, Eng. " rivulet," which is, therefore, distinct in origin from " river," though probably the sense of rivus influenced the Med. Lat. rivera. The etymology of rivus and ripa is disputed; some scholars refer both to the root ri-, to drop, flow; others take ripa to be from the root seen hi Gr. epdirtiv, to tear, English " rive," the sense being a broken cliff or steep bank. RIVER BRETHREN, the name of a group of three Christian communities in the United States of America, descended from Swiss settlers near the Susquehanna river in Pennsylvania in 1750. The first pastor was Jacob Engle, who became head of the community in 1770. Their system is based on literal obedience to the commands of the New Testament, and they have points of similarity both with the Mennonites and with the Dunkards. They practise foot-washing and baptism by trine immersion; are strict Sabbatarians and simple in their manner of life. The three branches are: (i) The Brethren in Christ, who are the most, elaborately organized and are numerous in Ohio, Pennsylvania and Kansas; they have also formed churches in New York and in Canada, and missions in South Africa, India and Texas. In 1909 they had 174 ministers, and 65 churches with 3675 communicants. (2) The Old Order, or Yorker Brethren, consists of a small body which separated from the main body in 1843 and maintained more strictly the original practice. They are found specially in York county, Pennsylvania (whence the name " Yorkers "). In 1909 they had 24 ministers, 9 churches, and 423 com- municants. (3) The United Zion's Children date from 1853, when a small body left the parent communion on minor questions of administration. They had in 1909 22 ministers and 28 churches with 749 communicants, all in Pennsylvania. RIVER ENGINEERING. Before undertaking works for the improvement of rivers, either with the object of mitigating the effects of their inundations, or for increasing and extending their capabilities for navigation, it is most important that their physical characteristics should be investigated in each case, for these vary greatly in different rivers, being dependent upon the general configuration of the land, the nature of the surface strata and the climate of the country which the rivers traverse. Physical Characteristics of Rivers The size of rivers above any tidal limit and their average fresh- water discharge are proportionate to the extent of their basins, and the amount of rain which, falling over these basins, reaches the river channels in the bottom of the valleys, by which it is conveyed to the sea. River Basins. — The basin of a river is the expanse of country, bounded by a winding ridge of high ground, over which the rainfall flows down towards the river traversing the lowest part of the valley; whereas the rain falling on the outer slope of the encircling ridge flows away to another river draining an adjacent basin. River basins vary in extent according to the configura- tion of the country, ranging from the insignificant drainage-areas of streams rising on high ground very near the coast and flowing straight down into the sea, up to immense tracts of great con- tinents, when rivers, rising on the slopes of mountain ranges far inland, have to traverse vast stretches of valleys and plains before reaching the ocean. The size of the largest river basin of any country depends on the extent of the continent in which it is situated, its position in relation to the hilly regions in which rivers generally rise and the sea into which they flow, and the distance between the source and the outlet of the river drain- ing it. Great Britain, with its very limited area, cannot possess large river basins, its largest being that of the Thames with an area of 5244 sq. m. Even on the mainland of Europe, river basins augment in extent on proceeding eastwards with the increasing width of the continent; in France the largest basin is that of the Loire with an area of 45,000 sq. m., while the Rhine has a basin of 86,000 sq. m. with a length of 800 m., the Danube a basin of 312,000 sq. m. with a length of 1700 m., and the Volga a basin of 563,000 sq. m. with a length of 2000 m. The more extensive continents of Asia, Africa and North and South America possess still larger river basins, the Obi in Siberia having a basin of about 1,300,000 sq. m. and a length of 3200 m., the Nile a basin of 1,500,000 sq. m. with a length of over 4000 m., and the Missis- sippi, flowing from north to south, having a basin of 1,244,000 sq. m. with a length of 4200 m. The vast basin of the Amazon of 2,250,000 sq. m. is due to the chain of the Andes almost bordering the Pacific coast-line, so that the river rising on its eastern slopes has to traverse nearly the whole width of South America at its broadest part before reaching the Atlantic Ocean. Available Rainfall. — The rainfall varies considerably in different localities, both hi its total yearly amount and in its distribution throughout the year; also its volume fluctuates from year to year. Even in small river basins the variations in rainfall may be considerable according to differences in elevation or distance from the sea, ranging, for instance, in the Severn basin, with an area of only 4350 sq. m., from an average of under 30 in. in the year to over 80 in. The proportion, moreover, of the rain falling on a river basin which actually reaches the river, or the available rainfall in respect to its flow, depends very largely on the nature of the surface strata, the slope of the ground and the extent to which it is covered with vegetation, and varies greatly with the season of the year. The available rainfall has, indeed, been found to vary from 75% of the actual rainfall on impermeable, bare, sloping, rocky strata, down to about 15% on flat, very permeable soils. Fall of Rivers. — The rate of flow of rivers depends mainly upon their fall, though where two rivers of different sizes have the same fall, the larger river has the quicker flow, as its retardation by friction against its bed and banks is less in proportion to its volume than that of the smaller river. The fall of a river corre- sponds approximately to the slope of the country it traverses; and as rivers rise close to the highest part of their basins, gener- ally in hilly regions, their fall is rapid near their source and gradually diminishes, with occasional irregularities, till, in tra- versing plains along the latter part of their course, their fall usually becomes quite gentle. Accordingly, in large basins, rivers in most cases begin as torrents with a very variable flow, and end as gently flowing rivers with a comparatively regular discharge. Variations in the Discharge of Rivers. — The irregular flow of rivers throughout their course forms one of the main difficulties in devising works, either for mitigating inundations or for increasing the navigable capabilities of rivers. In tropical countries, subject to periodical rains, the rivers are in flood during the rainy season and have hardly any flow during the rest of the year; whilst in temperate regions, where the rainfall is more evenly distributed throughout the^year, evaporation causes the available rainfall to be much less in hot summer weather than in the winter months, eo that the rivers fall to their low stage in the summer and are very liable to be in flood in the winter. In fact, with a temperate climate, the year may be divided into a warm and a cold season, extending from May to October and from November to April respectively; the rivers are low and moderate floods are of rare occurrence during the first period, and the rivers are high and subject to occasional heavy floods after a RIVER ENGINEERING 375 considerable rainfall during the second period in most years. The only exceptions are rivers which have their sources amongst mountains clad with perpetual snow, and are fed by glaciers; their floods occur in the summer from the melting of the snows and ice, as exemplified by the Rhone above the Lake of Geneva, and the Arve which joins it below. But even these rivers are liable to have their flow modified by the influx of tributaries subject to different conditions, so that the Rhone below Lyons has a more uniform discharge than most rivers, as the summer floods of the Arve are counteracted to a great extent by the low stage of the Saone flowing into the Rhone at Lyons, which has its floods in the winter when the Arve on the contrary* is low. Transportation of Materials by Rivers. — Another serious ob- stacle encountered in the improvement of rivers consists in the large quantity of detritus brought down by them in flood-time, derived mainly from the disintegration of the surface-layers of the hills and slopes in the upper parts of the valleys by glaciers, frost and rain. The power of a current to transport materials varies with its velocity, so that torrents with a rapid fall near the sources of rivers can carry down rocks, boulders and large stones, which are by degrees ground by attrition in their onward course into shingle, gravel, sand and silt, simultaneously with the gradual reduction in fall, and, consequently, in the transporting force of the current. Accordingly, under ordinary conditions, most of the materials brought down from the high lands by the torrential water-courses are carried forward by the main river to the sea, or partially strewn over flat alluvial plains during floods; and the size of the materials forming the bed of the river or borne along by the stream is gradually reduced on proceeding seawards, so that in the Po, for instance, pebbles and gravel are found for about 140 m. below Turin, sand along the next 100 m., and silt and mud in the last no m. When, however, the fall is largely and abruptly reduced, as in the case of rivers emerging straight from mountainous slopes upon flat plains, deposit necessarily occurs, from the materials being either too large or too great in volume to be borne along by the enfeebled current ; and if the impeded river is unable to spread this detritus over the plains, its bed becomes raised by deposit, causing the river in flood-time to rise to a higher level. The materials, moreover, which are carried in suspension or rolled along the bed of the river to the sea, tend to deposit when the flow of the river slackens and is finally brought to rest on encountering the great inert mass of the sea, especially in the absence of a tide and any littoral current, and this is the cause of the formation of deltas with their shallow outlets, barring the approach to many large rivers. Influence of Lakes on Rivers. — Sometimes a peculiar depression along part of a valley, with a rocky barrier at its lower end, causes the formation of a lake in the course of the river flowing down the valley. The intervention of a lake makes the river, on entering at the upper end, deposit all the materials with which it is charged in the still waters of the lake; and it issues at the lower end as a perfectly clear stream, which has also a very regular discharge, as its floods, in flowing into the lake, are spread over a large surface, and so produce only a very slight raising of the level. This effect is illustrated by the river Rhone, which enters the Lake of Geneva as a very turbid, torrential, glacier stream, and emerges at Geneva as a sparkling, limpid river with a very uniform flow, though in this particular case the improvement is not long maintained, owing to the confluence a short distance below Geneva of the large, rapid, glacial river, the Arve. The influence of lakes on rivers is, indeed, wholly beneficial, in consequence of the removal of their burden of detritus and the regulation of their flow. Thus the Neva, conveying the outflow from Lake Ladoga to the Baltic, is relieved by the lake from the detritus brought down by the rivers flowing into the lake; and the Swine outlet channel of the Oder into the Baltic is freed from sediment by the river having to pass through the Stettiner Haff before reaching its mouth. The St Lawrence, again, deriving most of its supply from the chain of Great Lakes of North America, possesses a very uniform flow. River Channels. — The discharge of the rainfall erodes the beds of rivers along the lowest parts of the valleys; but floods occur too intermittently to form and maintain a channel large enough to contain the flow. A river channel, indeed, generally suffices approximately to carry off the average flow of the river, which, whilst comprising considerable fluctuations in volume, furnishes a sufficiently constant erosive action to maintain a fairly regular channel; though rivers having soft beds and carrying down sediment erode their beds during floods and deposit alluvium in dry weather. As the velocity of a stream increases with its fall, the size of a channel conveying a definite average flow varies inversely with the fall, and the depth inversely with the width. A river channel, accordingly, often presents considerable irregularities in section, forming shallow rapids when the river flows over a rocky barrier with a con- siderable fall, and consisting of a succession of pools and shoals when the bed varies in compactness and there are differences in width, or when the river flows round a succession of bends along opposite banks alternately. A river flowing through a flat alluvial plain has its current very readily deflected by any chance obstruction or by any difference in hardness of the banks, and generally follows a winding course, which tends to be intensified by the erosion of the concave banks in the bends from the current impinging against them in altering its direction round the curves. Some- times also a large river, bringing down a considerable amount of detritus, shifts its course from time to time, owing to the obstruction produced by banks of deposit, as exemplified by the Po in traversing the portion of the Lombardy plains between Casale and the confluence of the Ticino. Floods of Rivers. — The rise of rivers in flood-time depends not merely on the amount of the rainfall, but also on its dis- tribution and the nature of the strata on which it falls. The upper hilly part of a river basin consists generally of imperme- able strata, sometimes almost bare of vegetation; and the rain flowing quickly down the impervious, sloping ground into the water-courses and tributaries feeding the main river produces rapidly rising and high floods in these streams, which soon pass down on the cessation of the rain. The river Marne, draining an impermeable part of the Upper Seine basin, is subject to these sudden torrential floods in the cold season, as illustrated by a diagram of the variations in height of the river at St Dizier from November to March 1903-4 (fig. 2). On the contrary, rain falling on permeable strata takes longer in reaching the rivers; and the floods of these rivers rise more gradually, are less high, continue longer and subside more slowly than in rivers draining impervious Strata, as indicated by the diagram of the Little Seine at Nogent during the same period, which has a permeable basin (fig. i). A main river fed by several tributaries, some from impermeable and others from permeable strata, experiences floods of a mixed character, as shown by the diagram of the same floods in 1903-4 of the Seine at Paris, below the confluence of the torrential Marne and Yonne, where the floods of the gently flowing Upper Seine and other tributaries with permeable basins also contribute to the rise of the river (fig. 3). High floods are caused by a heavy rainfall on land already sodden by recent rains at a period of the year when evaporation is inactive, and especially by rain falling on melting snow. A fairly simultaneous rainfall over the greater part of a moderate- sized river basin is a tolerably common occurrence; and under such conditions, the floods coming from the torrential tri- butaries reach their maximum height and begin to subside before the floods from the gently flowing tributaries attain their greatest rise. Exceptional floods, accordingly, only occur in a main river when a heavy rainfall takes place at such periods over different parts of the basin that the floods of the various tributaries coincide approximately in attaining their maximum at certain points in the main river. Mitigation of Floods and Protection from Inundations. — As the size of the channel of a river is generally quite inadequate to carry down the discharge of floods, the river overflows its RIVER ENGINEERING banks in flood-time and inundates the adjacent low-lying lands to an extent depending upon the level of the ground and the HOf* OCCC.MKH . ilANUAHY. FCBRUARY. HAHCH. a Z3 30. S 10 15 20 2,3 31 S IO IS SO SS 3/. S IO IS SO S3 29. J to IS 20 2S 3i / l^=- In. - ^7 fO ns 7 -s orr V rn •— •. • — f 'f ,x- — ^, "»«» ;- ^ /• ~7 -— -> HOIf" DECEMBER. JANUARY. FEBRUARY. MARCH. --/ \- /fl in \ d w * ^ orr. me £ - /- - "\ \ - - — — - / \ "-~, \ — /-v. J v< *^*. — -. J MOV" DtCEMtER. JANUARY. FEBRUARY. MARCH. /SAT 10 s 0 0 T S 2 1. - In y i /ft ^ 0 2 Hi S J 7W . , •) I Cc O '2 rrn n< s- \ 5' i S J /SfZ 10 S / \ \ f\ \r- ^ •^ / r V V ~\ / "* — X. —s >\ J ^ Flood Diagrams, Seine basin, 1903-1904. FIG. i. — Little Seine at Nogent. FIG. 2. — Marne at St Dizier. FIG. 3. — Seine at Paris. volume and height of the flood. An enlargement of the bed of the river, principally by deepening it, in order to increase its discharging capacity sufficiently to prevent inundations, is precluded by the cost, and also, in rivers bringing down sediment, by the large deposit that would take place in the enlarged channel from the reduction in the velocity of the current when the flood begins to subside. Where, however, the depth of a tidal river has been considerably increased by dredging for the extension of its sea-going trade, the enlarge- ment of its channel and the lowering of its low-water line have greatly facilitated the passage of land floods from the river above for some distance up, and consequently reduced their height; for instance, the Glasgow quays along the deepened Clyde are no longer subject to inundation, and the lands and quays bordering the Tyne have been relieved from flooding for nearly 10 m. above Newcastle by the deepening of the river from Elswick to the sea (fig. 18). Sometimes works are carried out in a river valley for dim- inishing the height of floods by delaying the discharge of part of the rainfall into the main river; whilst others are designed to increase the discharging efficiency of the river channels. In certain cases, moreover, it is very important to restrict or to prevent the inundation of some riparian districts by embank- ments; and occasionally low-lying lands are so unfavourably situated that pumping has to be resorted to for the removal of their drainage waters. Works in River Valleys for diminishing Floods. — Rain falling on bare, impervious, hilly slopes rapidly flows into the nearest water-course, carrying with it any loose soil or disintegrated materials met with in its rush down the ravines, thereby in- tensifying the torrential character of the river, increasing the height of its floods and adding to the sediment obstructing its course to the sea. By encouraging the growth of vegetation and restricting its use for pasturage, and by planting trees on the mountain slopes, which have often been denuded of their natural covering by the reckless clearing of forests, the flow of the rain off the slopes is retarded; the soil, moreover, is bound together by the roots of the plants, and the surface strata are protected from disintegration by the covering of grass and leaves, so that the amount of detritus carried down into the river is greatly reduced. Proposals have sometimes been made to reduce the height of floods in rivers and restrict the resulting inundations by impounding some of the flood discharge by the construction of one or more dams across the upper valley of a river, and letting it out when the flood has passed down. This arrangement, however, is open to the objection that in the event of a second flood following rapidly on the first, there might not be time to empty the reservoir for its reception. The cost, moreover, of the formation of such reservoirs could rarely be justified merely far the purpose of reducing' the flood-level along an ordinary river valley. Nevertheless, when this provision against floods can be combined with the storage of water- supply for a town, it becomes financially practicable. Thus two masonry dams erected across the narrow valley of the river Furens, a torrential tributary of the Loire, form two reservoirs for the supply of the town of St Etienne, in which the water is kept down several feet below the full level in order to provide for the reception of the surplus flood-waters, and thereby protect St Etienne from inundation. Storage reservoirs also, formed solely for water-supply or irrigation, provided adequate compensation water is discharged from them during dry weather, are advantageous, like lakes, in regulating the flow of the river below. When a river flowing through flat plains has a very small fall, it requires a proportionately large channel to carry away the drainage waters of the valley; and, accordingly, the low- lying lands bordering the river are very subject to inundations if the rainfall over the higher ground is allowed to flow straight down into the bottom of the valley. By intercepting, how- ever, the flow off the high parts of the valley in small channels excavated along the slopes, termed " catch-water drains," the ample fall available from this higher elevation can be utilized for conveying the flow farther down the valley; and the congested river is thereby relieved for a certain part of its length from the rainfall over the higher ground. Methods of increasing the Discharging Efficiency of River Channels. — The discharging efficiency of a river within the limits of its bed depends on the fall and the cross-section of the channel. The only way of increasing the fall is to reduce the length of the channel by substituting straight cuts for a winding course. This involves some loss of capacity in the channel as a whole, and in the case of a large river with a considerable flow it is very difficult to maintain a straight cut, owing to the tendency of the current to erode the banks and form again a sinuous channel. Even if the cut is preserved by protecting the banks, it is liable to produce changes, shoals and a raising of the flood-level in the channel just below its termination. Never- theless, where the available fall is exceptionally small, as in lands originally reclaimed from the sea, such as the English fen districts, and where, in consequence, the drainage is in a great measure artificial, straight channels have been formed for the rivers; and on account of the importance of preserving these fertile, low-lying lands from inundation, additional straight channels have been provided for the discharge of the rainfall, known as drains in the fens. Except where a town is exposed to inundations, a considerable modification of the course of a river and an enlargement of its channel do not produce a reduction in the damage from its floods com- mensurate with the expenditure involved. The removal of obstructions, whether natural or artificial, from the bed of a river furnishes a simple and efficient means of increasing the discharging capacity of its channel, and, consequently, of lowering the height of floods; for every impediment to the flow, in proportion to its extent, raises the level of the river above it so as to produce the additional arti- ficial fall necessary to convey the flow through the restricted channel, thereby reducing the total available fall. Accidental obstructions, brought down by floods, such as trunks of trees, boulders and accumulations of gravel, require to be periodic- ally removed. In the absence of legal enactments for the RIVER ENGINEERING 377 conservancy of rivers, numerous obstructions have in many cases been placed in their channel, such as mining refuse, sluice- gates for mills, fish-traps, unduly wide piers for bridges and solid weirs, which impede the flow and raise the flood-level. Stringent prohibitions with regard to refuse, the enlargement of sluice-ways and the compulsory raising of their gates for the passage of floods, the removal of fish-traps which are fre- quently blocked up by leaves and floating rubbish, a reduction in the number and width of the piers of bridges when rebuilt, and the substitution of movable weirs for solid weirs, greatly facilitate the discharge of a river, and consequently lower its flood-level. Prediction of Floods in Rivers. — By erecting gauges in a fairly large river and its tributaries at suitable points, and keeping continuous records for some time of the heights of the water at the various stations, the rise of the floods in the different tributaries, the periods they take in passing down to definite stations on the main river, and the influence they severally exercise on the height of the floods at these places, are ascer- tained. With the help of these records, by observing the times and heights of the maximum rise of a particular flood at the stations on the various tributaries, the time of arrival and height of the top of the flood at any station on the main river can be predicted with remarkable accuracy two or more days beforehand. By telegraphing these particulars about a high flood to places on the lower river, the weir-keepers are enabled to open fully beforehand the movable weirs for the passage of the flood, and the riparian inhabitants receive timely warning of the impending inundation. Embankments along Rivers to prevent Inundations. — Where portions of a riverside town are situated below the maximum flood-level, or when it is important to protect land adjoining a river from inundations, the overflow of the river must be confined within continuous embankments on both sides. By placing these embankments somewhat back from the margin of the river-bed, a wide flood-channel is provided for the dis- charge of the river directly it overflows its banks, whilst leaving the natural channel unaltered for the ordinary flow. Low embankments may be sufficient where only exceptional summer floods have to be excluded from meadows. Occasionally the embankments are raised high enough to retain the floods during most years, whilst provision is made for the escape of the rare exceptionally high floods at special places in the embank- ments, where the scour of the issuing current is guarded against, and the inundation of the neighbouring land is least injurious. In this manner, the increased cost of embankments raised above the highest flood-level of rare occurrence is saved, and the danger of breaches in the banks from an unusually high flood-rise and rapid flow, with their disastrous effects, is avoided. Both the above methods afford the advantage of relieving the embanked channel of some of the sediment deposited in it by the confined flood-waters, when the surplus flow passes over the embankments. When complete protection from inundations is required, the embankments have to be raised well above the highest flood-level, after allowing for the additional rise resulting from the confinement of the flood within the embankments, instead of spreading over the low-lying land; and they have to be made perfectly watertight and strong enough to resist the water-pressure and current of the highest floods. The system has been very extensively adopted where large tracts of fertile alluvial land below flood-level stretch for long dis- tances away from the river. Thus the fens of Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire and Norfolk are protected from inundations by embankments along their rivers and drains; a great portion of Holland is similarly protected; and the plains of Lombardy are shut off from the floods of the Po by embankments along each side of the river for a distance of about 265 m., ex- tending from Cornale, 89 m. below Turin, to its outlet. The system has been developed on a very extensive scale along the alluvial valley of the Mississippi, which is below the high flood-level of the river from Cape Girardeau, 45 m. above Cairo, to the Gulf of Mexico, and has a length of 600 m. in a straight line with a width ranging between 20 and 80 m., and an area of 20,790 sq. m. These embankments, having been begun by the French settlers in Louisiana, are called levees, and have a total length of 1490 m. They, however, do not afford complete protection from inundations, as they are not quite continuous and are not always strong enough to withstand the water-pressure of high floods, which have at Vicks- burg a maximum rise of 59 ft. above the lowest stage of the river, and tend to increase in height owing to the improved drainage following on the extension of cultivation. Breaches, or crevasses as they are termed in the United States, resulting from a deficiency in the strength or consistency of the banks, or from their being overtopped or eroded by the current, produce a sudden rush of the flood-waters through the opening, which is much more damaging to the jand in the neighbourhood of the breach than a gradual jnundation. Moreover, the velocity of the outflowing water is intensified by the sloping down of the land on these alluvial plains for some distance away from the river, owing to the raising of the ground nearest the river by the gradual deposit of layers of sediment from the flood-waters when they begin to overflow the river banks. The levees on the Mississippi are breached in weak places every year during the spring floods, and are liable to be destroyed along con- siderable lengths by the rapid erosion resulting from their being overtopped by exceptional floods at intervals of about ten years; and in places they are undermined and overthrown by changes in the course of the river from the caving-in of concave banks at bends, necessitating reconstruction some distance back from the river at points thus threatened. When towns have been established below the flood-level of an adjoining river, like New Orleans on the Mississippi and Szegedin on the Theiss in Hungary, the channel of the river should be improved to facilitate the passage of floods past the town. The town also must be enclosed within very solid embankments, raised above the highest possible flood-level, to obviate the contingency of an exceptional flood, or a gradually raised flood-level, overtopping the protecting bank at a Tow part, leading to an inevitable breach and a catastrophe such as overwhelmed the greater part of Szegedin in March 1879. Effect of Embankments in raising the River Bed. — A most serious objection to the formation of continuous, high em- bankments along rivers bringing down considerable quantities of detritus, especially near a part where their fall has been abruptly reduced by descending from mountain slopes on to alluvial plains, is the danger of their bed being raised by deposit, producing a rise in the flood-level, and necessitating a rais- ing of the embankments if inundations are to be prevented. Longitudinal sections of the Po taken in 1874 and 1901 show that its bed was materially raised in this period from the confluence of the Ticino to below Caranella, in spite of the clearance of sediment effected by the rush through breaches; and therefore the completion of the embankments, together with their raising, would only eventually aggravate the injuries of inundations they have been designed to prevent, as the escape of floods from the raised river must sooner or later occur. The periodical devastating floods of the Hwang Ho or Yellow River in China are due to the raising of the bed of its embanked channel by detritus brought down from the hills, followed by the raising of the banks, whereby the river is forced to flow above the level of the plains. When the river was first embanked, a consider- able space was left between it and its banks on each side, which allowed for deviations in the channel, and also afforded a fair area for the deposit of detritus away from its bed, and a good width for the discharge of floods. Later, however, in order to appropriate and bring under regular cultivation the riparian land thus prudently left within the embankments and exposed to every flooa, lines of inner embankments were formed close to the river, thereby greatly confining the flood-waters, and, consequently, raising the flood-level and the river-bed, besides exposing these embankments to under- mining by merely a moderate change in position of the river channel. This reckless policy of securing additional land regardless of con- sequences has greatly contributed to the more frequent occurrence of the very widespread inundations resulting from the bursting of the vast volume of pent-up flood-waters through breaches in the banks, which descend with torrential violence upon the plains below, causing great destruction of life and property. The restriction of the floods on the lower Mississippi by the levees, placed about double the width apart of the ordinary channel, has caused the river to enlarge its very soft alluvial bed, resulting in a lowering of the water-line at the low stage; and it is, therefore, anticipated that the further scour by floods when the levees have been made continuous will, in this instance, prevent any material raising of the flood-level by the levees. Protection of Vessels during Floods. — On large open rivers, where vessels during high floods are exposed to injury from 378 RIVER ENGINEERING large floating debris and ice floes, shelter can be provided for them in refuge ports, formed in a recess at the side under the protection of a solid jetty or embankment constructed in the river parallel to the bank, these ports being closed against floods at their upper end and having their entrance at the lower end facing down-stream. Many such ports have been provided on several German and North American rivers; where the port, being near a town, is lined with quay walls, it can also be used for river traffic, a plan adopted at the refuge port on the Main just below Frankfort (fig. 8). Regulation of Rivers for Navigation. As rivers flow onward towards the sea, they experience a considerable diminution in their fall, and a progressive increase in the basin which they drain, owing to the successive influx of their various tributaries. Thus gradually their current becomes more gentle and their discharge larger in volume and less subject to abrupt variations; and, consequently, they become more suitable for navigation. Eventually, large rivers, under favourable conditions, often furnish important natural highways for inland navigation in the lower portion of their course, as, for instance, the Rhine, the Danube and the Mississippi; and works are only required for preventing changes in the course of the stream, for regulating its depth, and especially for fixing the low-water channel and concen- trating the flow in it, so as to increase as far as practicable the navigable depth at the lowest stage of the water-level. Regulation works for increasing the navigable capabilities of rivers can only be advantageously undertaken in large rivers with a moderate fall and a fair discharge at their lowest stage; for with a large fall the current presents a great impediment to up-stream navigation, and there are generally great varia- tions in water-level, and when the discharge becomes very small in the dry season it is impossible to maintain a sufficient depth of water in the low-water channel. Removal of Shoals. — The possibility of securing uniformity of depth in a river by the lowering of the shoals obstructing the channel depends upon the nature of the shoals. A soft shoal in the bed of a river is- due to deposit from a diminution in velocity of flow, produced by a reduction in fall and by a widening of the channel, or to a loss in concentration of the scour of the main current in passing over from one concave bank to the next on the opposite side. The lowering of such a shoal by dredging merely effects a temporary deepening, for it soon forms again from the causes which produced it. The removal, moreover, of the rocky obstructions at rapids, though increasing the depth and equalizing the flow at these places, produces a lowering of the river above the rapids by facilitating the efflux, which may result in the appearance of fresh shoals at the low stage of the river. Where, however, narrow rocky reefs or other hard shoals stretch across the bottom of a river and present obstacles to the erosion by the current of the soft materials forming the bed of the river above and below, their removal may prove a permanent improvement by enabling the river to deepen its bed by natural scour. The deepening of the bed of a non-tidal river along a considerable length by dredging merely lowers the water-level of the river during the low stage; and though this deepening facilitates the passage of floods in the first instance, it does not constitute a permanent improvement even in this respect, for the deposit of the detritus brought down by the river as the floods abate soon restores the river to its original condition. Nevertheless, where sand-banks obstruct and divert the low-state channel of a river at its low stage, as in parts of the Mississippi below Cairo, it has been found possible before the river has fallen to its lowest level to form a channel through these sand-banks, with a depth of 9 or 10 ft. and 250 ft. wide, by suction dredgers, aided by revolving cutters or water-jets (see DREDGING), which discharge the sand through floating tubes into a part of the river away from the channel ; and the navigation can thus be maintained throughout the low stage at a reasonable cost. Though, however, these channels across the shoals, connect- ing the deeper parts of the river, can be easily kept open on the Mississippi till the return of the floods, they are obliterated by the currents in flood-time, and have to be dredged out again afresh every year on the abatement of the floods. Regulation of the Low-Water Channel. — The capability of a river to provide a waterway for navigation during the summer or throughout the dry season depends upon the depth that can be secured in the channel at the lowest stage. Owing to the small discharge and deficiency in scour during this period, it is important to restrict the width of the low-water channel, and concentrate the flow in it, and also to fix its position so that, forming the deepest part of the bed along the line of the strongest current, it may be scoured out every year by the floods, instead of remaining an undefined and shifting channel. This is effected by closing subsidiary low-water channels with dikes across them, and narrowing the channel at the low stage by low-dipping cross dikes extended from the river banks down the sfope, and pointing slightly up-stream so as to direct the water flowing over them into a central channel (figs. 4 and 5). The contraction also of the channel is often still more effectually accomplished at some parts, though at a greater cost, by low Regulation Works. FIGS. 4 and 5. — River Rhone. FIG. 6. — River Rhine. longitudinal dikes placed along either side of the low-water channel, some distance forward from the banks but connected with them generally at intervals by cross dikes at the back to prevent the current from scouring out a channel behind them during floods (figs. 4 and 6). By raising these dikes only slightly above the surface of the bed of the river, except where it is expedient to produce accretion for closing an old. disused channel or rectifying the course of the river, the capacity of the channel for discharging floods is not affected; for the slight obstruction to the flow pro- duced by the dikes at the sides is fully compensated for by the deepening of the low-water channel in the central course of the river. This system of obtaining a moderate increase in depth during the low stage of a river, whilst leaving the river quite open for navigation, has been adopted with satisfactory results on several large rivers, of which the Rhone, the Rhine and the Mississippi furnish notable examples. Regulation works were preferred on the Rhone to canalization from Lyons nearly to its outlet, in spite of its large fall, which reaches in some places I in 250, on account of the considerable quantities of shingle and gravel carried down by the river; the comparative regularity of the discharge, owing to the flow being derived from tributaries having their floods at different times of the year, has aided the effects of the works, which have produced an increase of about 3! ft. in the available navigable depth below Lyons at the lowest water-level. Owing, however, to the unfavour- able natural condition of the river, the depth does not exceed 5 ft. at this stage; and the rapid current forms a serious impediment to up-stream navigation. The Rhine is much better adapted for improvement by regulation works than the Rhone, for it has a basin more than double the area of the Rhone basin, and its fall does not exceed 3-1 ft. per mile up at Strassburg and 2-5 ft. per mile through the rocky defile from Bingen to Kaub, and is much less along most of the length below Strassburg. These works systematically carried out in wide shallow reaches between the Dutch frontier and Mainz, aided by dredging where necessary, have secured a navigable depth at the low stage of the river of 10 ft. from the frontier to Cologne, 8J ft. from Cologne to Kaub, and 6j ft. through the rocky defile up to Bingen, beyond which the same depth is maintained up to Phihppsburg, 22j m. above Mannheim. Works, moreover, are in progress by which it is anticipated that the minimum depth of 63 ft. will be extended up to Strassburg by 1916. The Mississippi also, with its extensive basin and its moderate fall in most parts, is well suited for having its navigable depth increased RIVER ENGINEERING 379 by regulation works, which have been carried out below St Paul in shallow and shifting reaches, with the object of obtaining a mini- mum navigable depth during the low stage of 6 ft. along the upper river from St Paul to St Louis just below the confluence of the Missouri, and 8 ft. thence to Cairo at the mouth of the Ohio. Various materials are used for the regulation works according to the respective conditions and the materials available in the locality. On the Rhone below Lyons with its rapid current, the dikes have been constructed of rubble-stone, consolidated above low water with concrete. The dikes on the Rhine consist for the most part of earthwork mounds protected by a layer of rubble-stone or pitch- ing on the face, with a rubble mound forming the toe exposed to the current; but occasionally fascines are employed in conjunction with stone or simple rubble mounds. The dams closing subsidiary channels on the Mississippi are almost always constructed of fascine mattresses weighted with stone; but whereas the regulating dikes on the upper river are usually similar in construction, a common form for dikes in the United States consists of two parallel rows of piles filled in between with brushwood or other materials not affected by water, and protected at the sides from scour by an apron of fascines and stone. Other forms of dikes sometimes used are timber cribs filled with stone, single rows of sheet piling, permeable dikes composed of piles supporting thin curtains of brushwood for promoting silting at the sides, and occasionally rubble-stone in places needing special protection. Protecting and Easing Bends. — Unless the concave banks of a river winding through wide, alluvial plains are protected from the scour of the current, the increasing curvature presents serious impediments to navigation, sometimes eventually becoming so intensified that the river at last makes a short cut for itself across the narrow strip of land at the base of the loop it has formed. This, however, pro- duces considerable changes in the channel below, and disturbances in the navigable depth. Protection, accordingly, of concave banks is necessary to prevent excessive curvature of the channel and changes in the course of a river. On the Mississippi the very easily ordinary summer level has to be raised by impounding the flow with weirs at intervals across the channel (see WEIR), while a lock (see CANAL and DOCK) has to be provided alongside the weir, or in a side channel, to provide for the passage of vessels (fig. 8). A river is thereby converted into a succession of fairly level reaches rising in steps up-stream, providing a comparatively still- water navigation like a canal; but it differs from a canal in the introduction of weirs for keeping up the water-level, in the provision for the regular discharge of the river at the weirs, and in the two sills of the locks being laid at the same level instead of the upper sill being raised above the lower one to the extent of the rise at the lock, as usual on canals. Canalization secures a definite available depth for navigation; and the discharge of the river generally is amply sufficient for maintaining the impounded water- level, as well as providing the necessary water for locking. The navigation, however, is liable to be stopped during the descent of high floods, which in many cases rise above the locks (fig. 7); and it is necessarily arrested in cold climates on all rivers by long, severe frosts, and especially on the break-up of the ice. Instances of Canalized Rivers. — Many small rivers, like the Thames above its tidal limit, have been rendered navigable by canalization, and several fairly large rivers have thereby provided a good depth for vessels for considerable distances inland. Thus the canalized Seine has secured a navigable depth of loj ft. from its tidal limit up to Paris, a distance of 135 m., and a depth of 6J ft. up to Mon- tereau, 62 m. higher up. Regulation works for improving the river Main, from its confluence with the Rhine opposite Mainz up FRANKFORT. OFFENBACH. OKRIFTEL. KOSTHEIM. VERTICAL SCALE 1,000 o 50 24MIUS FIG. 7. — Canalized River Main. eroded banks are protected along their upper, steeper part by stone pitching or a layer of concrete, and below low-water level by fascine mattresses weighted with stone, extended a short distance out on the bed to prevent erosion at the toe. Dikes, also, projecting into the channel from the banks reduce the curvature of the navigable channel by pushing the main current into a more central course ; whilst curved longitudinal dikes placed in the channel in front of concave banks (figs. 4 and 6) are still more effective in keeping the current away from the banks, which is sometimes still further pro- moted by dipping cross dikes in front (fig. 5). Regulation of Depth. — The regulation works at bends, besides arresting erosion, also reduce the differences in depth at the bends and the crossings, since they diminish the excessive depth round the concave banks and deepen the channel along the crossings, by giving a straighter course to the current and concentrating it by a reduction in width of the channel between the bends (figs. 4 and 5). Where there are deep pools at intervals in a river, shoals are always found above them, owing to the increased fall which occurs in the water line on approaching the pool, to compensate for the very slight inclination of the water-line in crossing the pool, which serves for the discharge of the river through the ample cross-section of this part of the river-bed. These variable depths can be regulated to some extent by rubble dikes or fascine mattress sills deposited across the bed of the pool, so as to reduce its excessive depth, but not raised high enough to interfere at all with the navigable depth. These obstructions in the pool raise the water-line towards its upper end, in order to provide the additional fall needed to effect the discharge through the pool with its diminished cross section; and this raising of the water-line increases the depth over the shoal above the pool, so that the general depth in these irregular parts of a river is rendered more uniform, with benefit to navigation. Canalization of Rivers. Rivers whose discharge is liable to become quite small at their low stage, or which have a somewhat large fall, as is usual in the upper part of rivers, cannot be given an adequate depth for navigation by regulation works alone; and their to Frankfort, having failed to secure a minimum depth of 3 ft. at the low stage of the river, canalization works were carried out in 1883-86 by means of five weirs in the 22 m. between the Rhine and Frankfort, and provided a minimum depth of 6J ft. (figs. 7 and 8). FIG. 8. — Locks, Weir and Haven near Frankfort. This depth was subsequently increased by dredging the shoaler portion towards the upper end of each reach, due to the rise of the river-bed up-stream, so as to attain a minimum depth of ^\ ft. just below the lowest lock, and 7f to 8J ft. in the other reaches: whilst a sixth weir was erected at Offenbarh above Frankfort (fig. 7). The Great Kanawha, Ohio, and other rivers, furnish instances of canalization works in the United States. Limits to Canalization.— On ascending a river it becomes increas- ingly difficult to obtain a good depth by canalization in the upper part, owing to the progressive inclination of the river-bed ; thus, even on the Seine, with its moderate fall, whereas a depth of loj ft. has been obtained on the Lower Seine by weirs placed on the average I3J m. apart, on the Upper Seine weirs are required at intervals of only about 4! m. to attain a depth of 6J ft. Accordingly, the higher parts of rivers are only suitable for floating down trunks of trees felled on the hills, or rough rafts of timber, conveying small loads of produce, which are broken uo on reaching their destination. Moreover, sometimes an abrupt fall or rocky shoals make it necessary to abandon a section of the nver and to continue the navigation by lateral canal. Small River Outlets exposed to Littoral Drift. Rivers with a small discharge flowing straight into the sea on an exposed coast are more or less obstructed at their outlet 38o RIVER ENGINEERING by drift of shingle or sand carried along the coast by the waves in the direction of the prevailing winds. When the flow falls very low in dry weather, the outlet of a river is sometimes completely closed by a continuous line of beach, any inland or tidal waters merely trickling through the obstruction; and it is only on the descent of floods that the outlet is opened out. In rivers which always have a fair fresh- water discharge, or a small fresh-water flow combined with a tidal flow and ebb, the channel sometimes has its direct outlet closed, and is deflected parallel to the shore till it reaches a weak place in the line of beach, through which a new outlet is formed; or, where the current is strong enough to keep the outlet open, a bar is formed across the entrance by the littoral drift, reducing the navigable depth. Jetties at River Outlets. — The bar formed by littoral drift across the outlet of a river not charged with sediment and flowing into a tideless sea can be lowered by carrying out solid jetties on each side of the outlet across the foreshore, so as to scour the bar by con- centrating the issuing current over it. Thus by means of jetties, aided by dredging, the depth at the entrance to the Swine mouth of the Oder has been increased from 7 ft. to 22j ft. ; the approach channels to the river Pernau (fig. q) and other Russian rivers flowing into the Baltic have been deepened by jetties, and the outlet channels of some of the rivers flowing into the Great Lakes of North America have been improved by crib-work jetties and dredging. Where the littoral drift is powerful enough to divert the outlet of a river, as in the case of the river Yare, which at one time was driven to an outlet $ m. south of its direct course into the sea at Yarmouth, and the river Adour in France, whose outlet, owing to the FIG. 9.- -Jetty Outlet into Baltic : River Pernau. violent storms of the Bay of Biscay, was liable to be shifted 18 m. from its proper position, it has proved practicable to fix as well as to deepen the outlet by means of jetties (fig. 10). In such cases, F.TIpoo o Sooo la/BOoFI FIG. 10. — Shifting Outlet, fixed by Jetties: River Yare. however, where the rivers flow into tidal seas, it is important to place the jetties sufficiently apart to avoid any loss of tidal influx, since the tidal flow assists the fresh-water discharge in keeping the outlet open; whereas, with rivers flowing into tideless seas, a moderate restriction of the width between the jetties increases the scour. The tortuous and somewhat shifting outlet channel of the Scheur branch of the river Maas, emerging on to a sandy coast where the rise of tide is small, and obstructed at its mouth by a bar, has been replaced by a straight cut across the Hook of Holland, and by an outlet guided across the foreshore and fixed in position by fascine mattress jetties (see JETTY), the maintenance of the depth at the mouth by the tidal and fresh waters being aided by frequent dredging (figs. II and 12). Deltaic Outlets of Tideless Rivers. Large rivers heavily charged with sand and silt, when their current is gradually arrested on entering a tideless sea, deposit these materials as a constantly advancing fan-shaped shoal in front of their mouths, through which comparatively shallow diverging channels, almost devoid of fall, have to force their way in order to convey the fresh-water discharge • HlLU. »7««4»alO FIGS. II and 12. — Jetty Outlet into North Sea: River Maas. into the sea (fig. 13). These deltaic channels deposit their burden of sediment in front of their outlets, forming bars which MILCS.S to MILES. FIG. 13. — Mississippi Delta. advance with the delta and whose rate of progress seawards and distance in front of each outlet are proportionate to the discharge of the several channels. A channel simply dredged on the bar in front of one of the outlets of a deltaic river is only maintained for a moderate period on account of the large volume of deposit continually accumulating at the outlet. Thus the channel in front of the outlet of the south-west pass of the Mississippi delta, when deepened from 13 ft. to 18 ft. over its bar by dredging many years ago, was soon silted up again on the discontinuance of the dredging; whilst the depth of the outlet channel of one of the branches of the Volga delta, which was increased from 4 ft. to 8 ft., could only be maintained by regular yearly dredging. Parallel Jetties at Delta Outlets. — In order to procure and maintain for some time an adequate deepening across the bar in front of the outlets of delta channels, recourse has been had to the scour of the issuing current concentrated and extended out to the bar by parallel jetties, forming prolongations seawards of the banks of the channel. The requisite conditions for the success of this system of improve- ment are a good depth in the sea beyond the bar, allowing of a considerable deposit of alluvium before the increased depth is interfered with, and a littoral current carrying a portion of the alluvium away from the outlet, both of which retard the progression of the delta in front of the outlet and the inevitable eventual forma- tion of a new bar farther out. The rate of advance of a delta depends also on the proportion of solid matter contained in the river water and on fhe specific gravity and size of the particles of alluvium discharged into the sea ; for the heavier and coarser materials, and especially those which are rolled along the bed of the channels, come first to rest. Moreover, as the larger channels of_a delta bring down a larger volume of alluvium on account of their larger discharge, and as their bars form farther seawards from their outlets owing to the issuing current being less rapidly arrested in proportion to the volume discharged, the rate of advance of the RIVER ENGINEERING delta in front of an outlet is proportionate to the size of the channel, and the length of the jetties required for lowering the bar by scour in front of any channel is proportionate to the discharge of the channel. Consequently, the conditions are more unfavourable for the improvement of the outlets of the larger delta channels than of the smaller ones; though, on the other hand, the larger channels crossing the delta are generally more suitable for navigation on account of their size, and the natural depth over their bars is greater owing to the larger discharge. The discharge of the mam branch of the Rhone, which formerly flowed into the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Foz through six „. mouths, was in 1852-57 concentrated in the direct eastern channel by embankments along sides, which closed all the lateral channels. The entire flow of the river, being thus discharged through the eastern outlets, increased fora time the depth over its bar from 4i ft. to 9} ft. ; but as the great volume of alluvium brought down, including an unusually large proportion of sand rolled along the bed of the river, was also all discharged through the one outlet, the bar soon formed again farther out, and naturally advanced with the delta in front of the outlet more rapidly than formerly when the deposit was distributed through six divergent mouths. Accordingly, the very moderate deepening produced by the embankments was not long maintained, and the average depth over the bar has not exceeded 6$ ft. for many years past ; the St Louis Canal was con- structed to provide a deeper outlet for the navigation.1 This want of success was due to the selection of an outlet opening on a sheltered, somewhat shallow bay, instead of a southern outlet discharging into deep water in the Mediterranean and having a deep littoral current flowing across it, and also resulted from the closing of all the other outlets, whereby the whole of the deposit, as well as all the discharge, was concentrated in front of the badly situated eastern outlet. The southern Roustan branch was reopened in 1893 to prevent the silting-up of the outlet of the St Louis Canal. The Danube traverses its delta in three branches, the northern one of which, though conveying nearly two-thirds of the discharge _ . of the river, is unsuitable for improvement owing to its splitting up along portions of its course into several channels, and eventually flowing into the sea through twelve mouths of a small independent delta advancing about 250 ft. annually across a shallow foreshore. The central Sulina branch was selected for improvement in 1858 in preference to the southern St George's branch, which had a more favourably situated outlet and a better channel through the delta, on account of the much smaller expenditure required for carrying out jetties to the bar in front of the Sulina outlet, which was only half the distance from the shore of the bar of the St George's outlet, owing to the much smaller discharge of the Sulina branch.2 The jetties, begun provisionally in 1858 and subsequently consolidated and somewhat extended, were finally completed in 1877. They increased the depth over the bar from an average of about 9 ft. previously to 1858 up to 2oJ ft. in 1873, which was maintained for many years. In 1893, however, the increasing draught of vessels rendered a greater depth necessary; the wide inshore portion of the jetty channel was therefore narrowed by inner parallel jetties, and a powerful dredger was set to work in the jetty channel and outside, whereby the depth was increased to 24 ft. in 1897, and was fairly maintained up to 1907, when a second dredger became necessary to cope with the shoaling. The somewhat small ratio of sediment to discharge in the Danube, the fineness of the greater portion of this sediment, its comparatively moderate amount owing to the small proportion of the discharge flowing through the Sulina branch, and its partial dispersion by the southerly littoral current and wave action, have prevented the rapid formation of a shoal in front of the Sulina outlet. Nevertheless, the lines of sound- ings are gradually advancing seawards in the line of the outlet channel, and there are signs of the formation of a new bar farther out, whilst the deposit to the south by the current and waves has deflected the deepest channel northwards. Accordingly, a pro- longation of the jetties will eventually be necessary, notwithstanding the removal of a portion of the deposit from the outlet channel by dredging. The selection of the outlet of the south pass of the Mississippi delta for improvement by parallel jetties in 1876—79, in spite of the „. . m south-west pass possessing a larger channel and a better , . " depth over its bar, was due, as at the Danube, to motives of economy, as the bar of the south-west pass was twice as far off from the shore as that of the south pass (fig. 13). There fascine mattress jetties, weighted with limestone, and with large concrete blocks at their exposed ends (see JETTY), 2\ and i\ m. long, and curved slightly southwards at their outer ends to direct the sedi- ment-bearing current more directly at right angles to the westerly littoral current, increased the depth of 8 ft. over the bar in 1875 up to 31 ft. between the jetties and out to deep water (fig. 14). The prolonged current of the river produced by the jetties has, as at the Sulina outlet, carried the main portion of the heavier sedi- ment into fairly deep water, so that the greatest advance of the 1 L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 187-90, plate 5, figs. I and 9. 2 Ibid, plate 5, figs. 2, 3, 4 and 10. foreshore in front of the south pass has occurred in the 7o-ft. line of soundings, though the shallower soundings have also advanced. CAJT FT I moor JCTTICS. MIAM LOW TIOI. o i a 9 MILIS. FIG. 14.— Deltaic Jetty Outlet, South Pass, Mississippi. The shoaling, however, in the jetty channel necessitated its reduction in width by mattresses and spurs from 1000 ft. to 600 ft., and also dredging to maintain the stipulated central depth of 30 ft., and 26 ft depth for a width of 200 ft., out to deep water; whilst the outer channel was deflected to the east and narrowed by the alluvium carried westwards by the littoral current and also deposited in front of the jetty outlet. Accordingly, dredging has been increasingly needed to straighten the channel outsioe and maintain its depth and width ; and since the United States engineers took in hand its maintenance in 1901, the available depth of the outlet channel has been increased from 26 ft. up to 28 ft. by extensive suction dredging. In order to provide for the increasing requirements of sea-going vessels, the dredging of a channel 35 Ft. deep and 1000 ft. wide, cut from the large south-west pass outlet to deep water in the gulf, was begun at the end of 1903; and jetties of fascine mattresses weighted with stone and concrete blocks have been carried out about 4 and 3 m. respectively from the shore on each side of the outlet for maintaining the dredged channel ' (fig. 15). These works differ FT 5,000. FIG. 15.— Deltaic Jetty Outlet, South-West Pass, Mississippi. from the prior improvement of the south pass in the adoption mainly of suction dredging for the formation of the channel in place of scour alone, so that it will be unnecessary to restrict the width of the jetty channel to secure the desired depth; whilst as the dis- charge through the south-west pass is rather more than three times the discharge through the south pass, and the bar is double the distance seawards of the outlet, the slightly converging jetties, in continuation of the south-west pass, are placed about 3400 ft. apart at their outer ends, and have been given about twice the length of the south pass jetties. As soon as the dredging of the channel has been completed (which depends on the appropriations granted by Congress) the south pass will be abandoned, and the south-west pass will form the navigable approach. Dredging will be required for preserving the depth of the outlet of the south-west pass; and when the large volume of sand and other alluvium dis- charged by the pass accumulates in front sufficiently to begin forming a bar farther out, an extension of the jetties will be necessary to maintain the elongated channel free from drift, and extend the scour, especially in flood-time. Improvement of Tidal Rivers for Navigation. Whereas the size of tideless rivers depends wholly on their fresh-water discharge, the condition of tidal rivers is due to the configuration of their outlet, the rise of tide at their mouth, the distance the tide can penetrate inland, and the space available for its reception. Accordingly, tidal rivers sometimes, even when possessing a comparatively small fresh-water discharge, develop under favourable conditions into large rivers in their lower tidal portion, having a much better natural navigable channel at high tide than the largest deltaic rivers, as shown by a comparison of the Thames, the Humber and the Elbe with the Danube, the Nile and the Mississippi. Tidal water is, indeed, unlimited in volume; but, unlike the drainage waters which must be discharged into the sea, it only flows up rivers where there is a channel and space available for its * Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1906, pp. 382 and 1296 and charts. 382 RIVER ENGINEERING reception. Consequently, it is possible to exclude the tide by injudicious works, such as the sluices which were erected long ago across the fen rivers to secure the low-lying lands from the inroads of the sea; the tidal influx is also liable to be reduced by accretion in an estuary resulting from training works. The great aim, on the contrary, of all tidal river improvement should be to facilitate to the utmost the flow of the flood-tide up a river, to remove all obstructions from the channel so as to render the scouring efficiency of the flood and ebb tides as great as possible, and by making the tidal flow extend as far up the river as possible to reduce to a minimum the period of slack tide when deposit takes place. Tidal Flow in a River. — The progress of the flood-tide up a river and the corresponding ebb are very clearly shown by a diagram giving a series of simultaneous tidal lines obtained from simultaneous observations of the height of the river Hugh during a high spring- tide in the dry season, taken at intervals at several stations along the river, and exhibiting on a very distorted scale the actual water- level of the river at these periods (fig. 16). The steep form assumed ^ "162 MILES "S 75 59 53 35 FIG. 1 6. — Simultaneous Tidal Lines: River Hugli. by the foremost part of the flood-tide lines from the entrance to beyond Chinsura, attaining a maximum in the neighbourhood of Konnagar and Chinsura, indicates the existence of a bore, caused by the sand-banks in the channel obstructing the advance of the flood-tide, till it has risen sufficiently in height to rush up the river as a steep, breaking wave, overcoming all obstacles and producing a sudden reversal of the flow and abrupt rise of the water-level, as observed on the Severn, the Seine, the Amazon and other rivers. A bore indicates defects in the tidal condition and the navigable channel, which can only be reduced by lowering the obstructions and by the regulation of the river. No tidal river of even moderate length is ever completely filled by tidal water; for the tide begins to fall at its mouth before the flood-tide has produced high water at the tidal limit, as most clearly shown in the case of a long tidal river by the Hugli tidal diagram. Every improvement of the channel, however, expedites and increases the filling of the river, whilst the volume of water admitted at each tide is further augmented by the additional capacity provided by the greater efflux of the ebb, as indicated by the lowering of the low-water line. Deepening Tidal Rivers by Dredging. — The improvement of tidal rivers mainly by dredging is specially applicable to small rivers which possess a sufficient navigable width, like the Clyde and the Tyne; for such rivers can be considerably deepened by an amount of dredging which would be quite inadequate for producing a similar increase in depth in a large, wide river, with shifting channels. Both the Clyde below Glasgow and the Tyne below Newcastle were originally insignificant rivers, almost dry in places at low water of spring-tides; and the earliest works on both rivers consisted mainly in regulating their flow and increasing their scour by jetties and training works. They have, however, been brought to their present excellent navigable condition almost wholly, since 1840 on the Clyde and 1861 on the Tyne, by continuous systematic dredging, rendered financially practicable by the growing importance of their sea-going traffic. The Clyde has been given a minimum depth of about 22 ft. at low water of spring-tides up to Glasgow, and can admit vessels of 27 to 28 ft. draught. In the Tyne (figs. 17 and 18), it was decided in 1902 to provide a minimum dredging depth in the river channel at low water of 25 ft. from the sea to the docks, of 20 ft. thence to Newcastle and of 18 ft. up to Scotswood, the rise of spring-tides increasing these depths by 15 ft. In 1906 it was determined to make the channel 30 ft. deep at low water of spring- tides from the sea to the docks, and in 1908 to deepen it between the docks and Newcastle swing bridge from 20 to 25 ft., and also between the swing bridge and Derwenthaugh from 18 to 25 ft. The natural scour of these rivers has been so much reduced by such an exceptional enlargement of their channels that a considerable amount of dredging will always be required to preserve the depth attained. Regulation and Dredging of Tidal Rivers. — Considerable improve- ments in the navigable condition of tidal rivers above their outlet or estuary can often be effected by regulation works aided by dredg ing, which ease sharp bends, straighten their course and render Miiu.ii FIGS. 17 and 18. — Improvement of Tidal River by dredging: River Tyne. their channel, depth and flow more uniform. Examples are the Nervion between Bilbao and its mouth (figs. 19 and 20), and the FlGS. 19 and 20. — Training Tidal River and protection of Outlet: River Nervion. Weser from Bremen to Bremerhaven at the head of its estuary (figs. 21 and 22). These works resemble in principle the regulation works on large rivers with only a fresh-water discharge, previously described; but on tidal rivSrs the main low-water channel should alone be trained with an enlarging width seawards to facilitate the tidal influx, and the tidal capacity of the river above low water should be maintained unimpaired. To secure a good and fairly uniform depth on a tidal river, it is essential that the flood and ebb tides should follow the same course, in order to combine their scouring efficiency, and form a single, continuous deep channel. In wide, winding reaches, however, the flood tide in ascending a river follows as direct a course as practic- able; and on reaching a bend, the main flood-tide current, in being deflected from its straight course, hugs the concave bank, and, keeping close alongside the same bank beyond the bend, cuts into the shoal projecting from the convex bend of the bank higher up, forming a blind shoaling channel, as clearly indicated near the Moyapur Magazine in fig. 23, and a little below Shipgunj Point in fig. 24. This effect is due to the flood-tide losing its guidance, and consequently its concentration, at the change of. curvature beyond the termination of the concave bank, where it spreads out and passes gradually over, in its direct course, to the next concave bend above along the opposite bank. The ebb tide, on the contrary, descending the river, follows the general course of the fresh-water discharge in all rivers, its main current in the Moyapur reach keeping close along the concave bank between Ulabana and Hiragunj Point, and crossing over opposite the point to the next concave bank below (fig. 23) ; whilst in the James and Mary reach the main ebb-tide current runs alongside the concave bank in front of Ninan and Nurpur, and crosses over near Hugli Point to the opposite concave bank below Gewankhali (fig. 24). The main currents, accordingly, \>i the flood and ebb tides in such reaches act quite independently between the bends, forming channels on opposite sides of the river and leaving a central intervening shoal. The surveys of the two reaches of the Hugli, represented in figs. 23 and 24, having been taken in the dry season, exhibit the flood-tide channels at their deepest phase, and the ebb-tide channels in their worst and least continuous condition. In tidal rivers the main ebb-tide current, being reinforced by RIVER ENGINEERING 383 •REMCN. IntNIRHAVCN. 57MILE5. FIGS. 21 and 22. — Training Tidal River at Estuary: River Weser. the fresh-water discharge, generally forms the navigable channel, which is scoured out during floods. Narrowing the river between the bends to bring the two channels together would unduly restrict the tidal flow; and in a river like the Hugli dependent on the tidal influx for the maintenance of its depth for two-thirds of the year, and with channels changing with the wet and dry seasons, so that deepening by dredging in the turbid river could not be permanent, training works below low water to bring the ebb-tide current into the flood-tide channel, which latter must not be obstructed at all, offer, aided by dredging, the best prospects of improve- ment. FIG. 23. — Moyapur Reach, River Hugli, Jan. 1896. FIG. 24. — James and Mary Reach, River Hugli, April 1890. The average rate of enlargement adopted for the trained channel ot the Nervion, in proportion to its length, is I in 75 between Bilbao and its mouth, and I in 71 for the Weser from Bremen to Bremer- haven; and these ratios correspond very nearly to the enlargement of the regulated channel of the Clyde from Glasgow to Dumbarton of I in 83, and of the Tyne from Newcastle to its mouth of I in 75. Accordingly, a rate of enlargement comprised between I in 70 and i in 80 for the regulated or trained channel of the lower portion of a tidal river with a fairly level bed may be expected to give satis- factory results. Works at the Outlet of Tidal Rivers. — Tidal rivers flowing straight into the sea, without expanding into an estuary, are subject to the obstruction of a bar formed by the heaping-up action ol the waves and drift along the coast, especially when the fresh-water discharge is small; and the scour of the currents is generally concentrated and extended across the beach by parallel jetties for lowering the bar, as at the outlets of the Maas (figs. 1 1 and 12) and of the Nervion (figs. 19 and 20). In the latter case, however, the trained outlet was still liable to be obstructed by drift during north-westerly storms in the Bay of Biscay ; and, except in the case of large rivers, the jetties have to be placed too close together, if the scour is to be adequate, to form an easily accessible entrance on an exposed coast. Accordingly, a harbour has been formed in the small bay into which the Nervion flows by two converging breakwaters, which provides a sheltered approach to the river and protects the outlet from drift (fig. 19), and a similar provision has been made at Sunderland for the mouth of the Wear; whilst the Tynemouth piers formed part of the original design for the improvement of the Tyne, under shelter of which the bar has been removed by dredging (fig. 17). Training Works through Sandy Estuaries. — Many tidal rivers flow through bays, estuaries or arms of the sea before reaching the open sea, as, for instance, the Mersey through Liverpool Bay, the Tees through its enclosed bay, the Liffey through Dublin Bay, the Thames, the Ribble, the Dee, the Shannon, the Seine, the Scheldt, the Weser and the Elbe through their re- spective estuaries, the Yorkshire Ouse and Trent through the Humber estuary, the Garonne and Dordogne through the Gironde estuary, and the Clyde, the Tay, the Severn and the St Lawrence through friths or arms of the sea. These estuaries vary greatly in their tidal range, the distance inland of the ports to which they give access, and the facilities they offer for navigation. Some possess a very ample depth in their outer portion, though they generally become shallow towards their upper end ; but dredging often suffices to remedy their deficiencies and to extend their deep-water channel. Thus the St Lawrence, which possesses an ample depth from the Atlantic up to Quebec, has been rendered accessible for sea- going vessels up to Montreal by a moderate amount of dredging; whilst dredging has been resorted to in parts of the Thames and Humber estuaries, and on the Elbe a little below Hamburg, to pro- vide for the increasing draught of vessels; and the Mersey bar in Liverpool Bay, about 1 1 m. seawards of the actual mouth of the river, has been lowered by suction dredging from a depth of about 9 ft. down to about 27 ft. below low water of equinoctial spring tides, to admit Atlantic liners at any state of the tide. Some estuaries, however, are so encumbered by sand banks that their rivers can only form shallow, shifting channels through them to the sea ; and these channels require to be guided or fixed by longitudinal training walls, consisting of mounds of rubble stone, chalk, slag or fascines, in order to form sufficiently deep stable channels to be available for navigation. The difficulty in such works is to fix the wandering channel adequately, and to deepen it RIVER ENGINEERING sufficiently by the scour produced between the training walls, without placing these walls so close together and raising them so high as to check the tidal influx and produce accretion behind them, thereby materially reducing the volume of tidal water entering and flowing out of the estuary at each tide. The high training works in the Dee estuary, carried out in the i8th century with the object of land reclamation, unduly narrowed the channel, and led it towards one side of the estuary; and though they effectually fixed the navigation channel, they produced very little increase in its depth, but caused a very large amount of sand to accumulate in the estuary beyond, owing to the great reduction in tidal volume by the reclamations, and diminished considerably the channel through the lower estuary in width and depth without checking its wanderings.1 The training of the channel of the Kibble through its estuary below Preston, for improving its depth and rendering it stable, was begun in 1839, and has been gradually extended at intervals; but the works have not yet been carried out to deep water, and a shifting, shallow channel still exists through the sand banks, between the end of the training walls and the open sea. The high training walls adopted along the upper part of the channel enabled the upper end of the estuary on both sides to be tide (figs. 2§ and 26). The channel, however, was made too narrow between Aizier and Berville and was subsequently enlarged, and large tracts of land were reclaimed in the upper estuary. The reduction in tidal capacity by the reclamations, together with the fixing and undue restriction in width of the channel, occasioned very large accretions at the back of the lower portions of the training walls and at the sides of the estuary beyond them, and an extension of the sand banks seawards. Moreover, the channel has always remained shallow and unstable beyond the ends of the training walls down to deep water near the mouth of the estuary.1 Conclusions about Training Works in Estuaries. — Experience has proved that training works through sandy estuaries, by stopping the wanderings of the navigable channel, produce an increase in its depth, and, consequently, in the tidal scour for main- taining it. This scour, however, being concentrated in the trained channel, is withdrawn from the sides of the estuary, which in its natural condition is stirred up periodically by the wandering channel ; and, therefore, accretion takes place in the parts of the estuary from which the tidal scour and fresh-water discharge have been permanently diverted, especially where an abundance of sand from outside, put in suspension by the action of the prevalent HARFLEUB GALE 600 600. HAVRE. HONFLEUR H.W.C.T. HO* BERVILLE. LA ROOUE. QUIILEBEUF. SCALE TO PLAN AND HORIZONTAL SCALE TO SXCTI 10 IS ( 30 VERTICAL SCALE to SECTION 800 . FT So e So loo FT i i i i t i i i FIGS. 25 and 26. — Training Works in Sandy Estuary : Rivi r Seine. aaMiLts. reclaimed for a length of 4 m.; whilst the half-tide training walls below, placed unduly close together, have led to considerable accretion at the sides of the estuary and some extension of the sand banks seawards. Moreover, by fixing the channel near the northern shore they have enabled the landowners to carry out large reclamations on the southern foreshore. These works, however, besides fixing the navigable channel, have increased its depth, especially in the upper part, and augmented the tidal scour along it by lowering the low-water line; and the trained channel is further deepened by dredging. The training works in the Weser estuary have been confined to constructing a single low training wall at the upper end, which forms a trumpet-shaped outlet for the river below Bremerhaven, and to guiding the navigable channel by occasional low dikes at the side and closing minor channels, so as to concentrate the tidal scour and fresh-water discharge in it, whilst additional depth is obtained by dredging (fig. 21). A remarkable improve- ment has been effected in the navigable condition of the upper portion of the Seine estuary by training works, begun in 1848; for in place of a shallow, intricate channel through shifting sand banks, whose dangers were at times intensified by a bore, a stable deep channel has been provided down to about half-way between Berville and St Sauveur, rendering access easy to the river above at high 1 L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 289- 293, and plate 9, figs. 13 and 14. winds blowing into the estuary, is brought in by the flood-tide, as in the cases of the estuaries of the Dee, the Ribble and the Seine. This accretion reduces the tidal capacity of the estuary, and, pro- ducing a diminution in the tidal volume passing through the outlet, promotes the extension of the sand banks seawards, as indicated by the difference in the outer portions of the longitudinal sections of different dates of the Weser and Seine estuaries (figs. 22 and 26). To prevent as far as possible the reduction in tidal capacity, the training walls should not be raised more above low-water level than absolutely necessary to fix the channel; and the rate of enlarge- ment of their width apart should not be less than I in 80 at the upper end, and should increase considerably towards the mouth of the estuary so as to form a trumpet-shaped outlet. The loss of scour in the channel resulting from this enlargement must be com- pensated for by dredging to attain the requisite depth. Training works partially carried out through an estuary have the advantage of reducing the length of shallow channel to be traversed between deep water and the entrance to the deepened river; but as these works produce no influence on the channel for any distance beyond their termination, a shallow, shifting channel is always found be- tween the end of the trained channel and deep water. Accordingly, when training works are started at the head of a sandy estuary, provision should always be made in their design for their eventual 1 Id. pp. 293-300, and plate 9, figs, n and 12. RIVER-HOG—RIVERS, 4TH EARL 385 prolongation to deep water at the mouth of the estuary, to ensure the formation of a stable, continuous, navigable channel. Experi- ments with a model, moulded to the configuration of the estuary under consideration and reproducing in miniature the tidal ebb and flow and fresh-water discharge over a bed of very fine sand, in which various lines of training walls can be successively inserted,1 are capable in some cases of furnishing valuable indications of the respective effects and comparative merits of the different schemes proposed for works which have often evoked very conflicting opinions and have sometimes produced most unexpected results. (L. F. V.-H.) RIVER-HOG, a sportsman's name for the African wild "pigs of which the southern representative is known to the Boers as the bosch-vark (" bush-pig "). They constitute a genus, Potamochoerus, nearly allied to the typical pigs of the genus Sus (see SWINE), from which they are distinguishable by the presence in the males of a long horny ridge below the eye; while they are further characterized by their thick coat of bristly and often brightly coloured hair, and by tufts of long bristles at the tips of the elongated and pointed ears. The southern P. choeropotamus, of southern and east Africa, is typically a greyish-brown animal, but one of its eastern representatives is orange-red. . In north-east Africa occurs the allied P. johnstoni, while in Kordofan and Abyssinia this is in turn replaced by P. hassama. The most remarkable member of the group is, however, the red river-hog, P. porcus, which is a heavy, short-legged species remarkable for its bright red colour, the great length of the ear-tufts and the white rings round the eyes. It is a native of the great forest-tracts, ex- tending from Senegambia, Liberia and Angola on the W., to Monbuttu in the E. Very noteworthy is the occurrence of a small yellow-haired representative of the group (P. lanatus) in Madagascar, which evidently must have reached its present habitat from the mainland. (R. L.*) RIVERINA, a large tract of pastoral country between the rivers Murray and Darling in New South Wales, Australia. It gives name to the see of an Anglican bishop who has his seat at Hay. The chief towns are Deniliquin, Hay, Moulamein, Oxley and Booligal. RIVERS, EARL, an English title held in succession by the families of Woodville or Wydeville, Darcy and Savage. In 1299 John Rivers, or de Ripariis, was summoned to parliament as a baron, and his son John was similarly summoned by Edward II. The earldom was created for Sir Richard Wood- ville in 1466 and remained in this family until 1491. (For the three earls of his line see below.) As borne by the Wood- villes the title was not derived from the name of a place, but from an ancient family name, Redvers, or Reviers, members of this family, whose arms are quartered on the Rivers shield, having been sometime earls of Devon. From 1626 to his death in 1640 the earldom was held by Thomas Darcy, Viscount Colchester, from whom it descended by special remainder to his grandson John (c. 1610-1654), the son of his daughter Elizabeth (d. 1651) by her marriage with Sir Thomas Savage (d. 1635), who was created Viscount Savage in 1626. John's son Thomas (c. 1626-1694) was the 3rd earl, and his grandson Richard the 4th earl (see below). The title became extinct when John, the 5th earl, died about 1735. A new barony of Rivers, held by the family of Pitt and its later representative, that of Pitt-Rivers, was in existence from 1776 to 1880. RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442-1483), statesman and patron of literature, and author of the first book printed on English soil, was born probably in 1442. He was the son of Richard de Wydeville and his wife, Jacquetta de Luxemburg, duchess of Bedford. His father was raised to the peerage in his son's infancy, and was made earl of Rivers in 1466. Anthony, who was knighted before he became of age, and fought at Towton in 1461, married the daughter of Lord Scales, and became a peer jure uxoris in 1462, two years after the death of that nobleman. Being lord of the Isle of Wight at the time, he was in 1467 appointed one of the ambassadors to treat with the duke of 1 Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 327-342, and plate 10. xxiii. 13 Burgundy, and he exalted his office by challenging Anthony, comte de la Roche, the bastard of Burgundy, to single fight in what was one of the most famous tournaments of the age (see the elaborate narrative in Bcntley's Excerpta Hislorica, 176- 182). In 1469 Anthony was promoted to be lieutenant of Calais and captain of the king's armada, while holding other honorary posts. His father and brother were beheaded after the battle of Edgecot, and he succeeded in August of that year to the earldom. He accompanied Edward in his temporary flight to the Continent, and on his return to England had a share in the victory of Barnet and Tewkesbury and defended London from the Lancastrians. In 1473 he became guardian and governor to the young prince of Wales, and for the next few years there was no man in England of greater responsibility or enjoying more considerable honours in the royal service. It is now that for the first time we become aware of Lord Rivers's literary occupations. His mother, the duchess, died in 1472, and his first wife in 1473; in 1475 and the following year he went on pilgrimage to the holy places of Italy; from this time forth there was a strong tincture of serious reflection thrown over his character; he was now, as we learn from Caxton, nominated " Defender and Director of the Siege Apostolic for the Pope in England." Caxton had in 1476 rented a shop in the Sanctuary at Westminster, and here had set up a printing- press. The first MS. which he undertook in London was one sent to him by " the noble and puissant lord, Lord Antone, Erie of Ryvyers," consisting of a translation " into right good and fayr Englyssh " of Jean de Teonville's French version of a Latin work, " a glorious fair mirror to all good Christian people." In 1477 Caxton brought out this book, as Dictes and Sayengis of the Philosophers, and it is illustrious as the first production of an English printing-press. To this succeeded the Moral Proverbs of Christine de Pisan, in verse, in 1478, and a Cordial, in prose, in 1479. The original productions of Lord Rivers, and, in particular, his Balades against the Seven Deadly Sins, are lost. In 1478 a marriage was arranged between him and Margaret, sister of King James III. of Scotland, but it was mysteriously broken off. Rivers began to perceive that it was possible to rise too high for the safety of a subject, and he is now described to us as one who " conceiveth well the mutability and the unstableness of this life." After the death of Edward IV., he became the object of Richard III.'s peculiar enmity, and was beheaded by his orders at Pontefract on the 25th of June 1483. He was succeeded by his brother Richard, the 3rd and last earl of the Wydeville family, who died in 1491. Lord Rivers is spoken of by Commines as " un tres- gentil chevalier," and by Sir Thomas More as " a right honour- able man, as valiant of hand as politic in counsel." His protection and encouragement of Caxton were of inestimable value .to English literature, and in the preface to the Dictes the printer gives an account of his own relations with the statesman which illustrates the dignity and modesty of Lord Rivers in a very agreeable way. Rivers was one of the purest writers of English prose of his time. " Memoirs of Anthony, Earl Rivers " are comprised in the His- torical Illustrations of the Reign of Edward the Fourth (ed. W. H. B[lack]). (E. G.) RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660-1712), was the second son of Thomas, 3rd earl; and after the death about 1680 of his elder brother Thomas, styled Viscount Colchester, he was designated by that title until he succeeded to the peerage. Early in life Richard Savage acquired notoriety by his dare-devilry and dissipation, and he was, too, one of the most conspicuous rakes in the society of the period. After becoming Lord Colchester on his brother's death he entered parliament as member for Wigan in 1681 and procured a commission in the Horseguards under Sarsfield in 1686. He was " the first nobleman and one of the first persons " who joined the prince of Orange on his landing in England, and he accompanied William to London. Obtaining promo- tion in the army, he served with distinction in Ireland and in the Netherlands, and was made major-general in 1693 and 386 RIVERS, EARL— RIVES lieutenant-general in 1702. In 1694 he succeeded his father as 4th Earl Rivers. He served abroad in 1702 under Marl- borough, who formed a high opinion of his military capacity and who recommended him for the command of a force for an invasion of France in 1706. The expedition was eventually diverted to Portugal, and Rivers, finding himself superseded before anything was accomplished, returned to England, where Marlborough procured for him a command in the cavalry. The favour shown him by Marlborough did not deter Rivers from paying court to the Tories when it became evident that the Whig ascendancy was waning, and his appointment as constable of the Tower in 1710 on the recommendation of Harley and without Marlborough's knowledge was the first unmistakable intimation to the Whigs of their impending fall. Rivers now met with marked favour at court, being entrusted with a delicate mission to the elector of Hanover in 1710, which was followed by his appointment in 1711 as master-general of the ordnance, a post hitherto held by Marlborough himself. Swift, who was intimate with him, speaks of him as " an arrant knave "; but the dean may have been disappointed at being unmentioned in Rivers's will, for he made a fierce comment on the earl's bequests to his mistresses and his neglect of his friends. In June 1712 Rivers was promoted to the rank of general, and became commander-in-chief in England; he died a few weeks later, on the i8th of August 1712. He married in 1679 Penelope, daughter of Roger Downes, by whom he had a daughter Elizabeth, who married the 4th earl of Barrymore. He also left several illegitimate children, two of whom were by Anne, countess of Macclesfield. Rivers's intrigue with Lady Macclesfield was the cause of that lady's divorce from her husband in 1701. Richard Savage, the poet, claimed identity with Lady Macclesfield's son by Lord Rivers, but though his story was accepted by Dr Johnson and was very generally believed, the evidence in its support is faulty in several respects. As Rivers left no legitimate son the earldom passed on his death to his cousin, John Savage, grandson of the 2nd earl, and a priest in the Roman Catholic Church, on whose death, about 1735, all the family titles became extinct. See William Coxe, Memoirs of Marlborough (3 vols., London, 1818); Letters and Despatches of Marlborough, 1702—1712, vol. v., edited by Sir G. Murray (5 vols., London, 1845); Gilbert Burnet, History of his own Time (6 vols., Oxford, 1833) ; F. W. Wyon, History of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne (2 vols., London, 1876) ; G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (London, 1895). RIVERS, RICHARD WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, EARL (d. 1469), was a member of a family of small importance long settled at Grafton in Northamptonshire. His father, Richard Woodville, was a squire to Henry V., and afterwards the trusted servant of John of Bedford, in whose interest he was constable of the Tower during the troubles with Humphrey of Gloucester in 1425. The younger Richard Woodville was knighted by Henry VI. at Leicester in 1426. He served under Bedford in France, and after his master's death married his widow Jacquetta of Luxemburg. The mesalliance caused some scandal, but Woodville enjoyed the king's favour and continued to serve with honour in subordinate positions in France. He also distinguished himself at jousts in London (Chronicles of London, 146, 148). On the gth of May 1448 Henry VI. created him Baron Rivers. His associations made him a strong Lancastrian. For some years he was lieutenant of Calais in Henry's interests. In 1459, when stationed at Sandwich to prevent a Yorkist landing, he was surprised by Sir John Dinham, and taken prisoner with his son Anthony to the earl of Warwick at Calais. He was, however, released in time to fight for Henry VI. at Towton. Early in the reign of Edward IV. Rivers recognized that the Lancastrian cause was lost and made his peace with the new king. The marriage of his eldest daughter, Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey of Groby, to Edward on the ist of May 1464, secured the fortunes of his family. Rivers was appointed treasurer on the 4th of March 1466, and a little later created earl. Elizabeth found great alliances for her younger brothers and sisters, and the Wood - ville influence became all-powerful at court. The power of this new family was very distasteful to the old baronial party, and especially so to Warwick. Early in 1468 Rivers's estates were plundered by Warwick's partisans, and the open war of the following year was aimed to destroy the Woodvilles. After the king's defeat at Edgecot, Rivers and his second son, John, were taken prisoners at Chepstow and executed at Kenilworth on the 1 2th of August 1469. Rivers had a large family. His third son, Lionel (d. 1484), was bishop of Salisbury. All his daughters made great marriages: Catherine, the sixth, was wife of Henry Stafford, 2nd duke of Buckingham (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chief contemporary authorities are the Paston Letters, ed. Dr James Gairdner, The Chronicles of London, ed. C. L. Kingsford (1905), and the Chronicles of Commines and Waurin. See also some notices in Calendars of State Papers, Venetian, ed. Rawdon Browne. For modern accounts see Sir James Ramsay's Lancaster and York (1892), The Political History of England, vol. iv., by Professor C. Oman, and The Complete Peerage, by G. E. Qokayne]. For Earl Anthony's connexion with Caxton consult William Blades's Life of Caxton (1861-63). (C. L. K.) RIVERSIDE, a city of southern California, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Riverside county, situated on the Santa Ana river, in the San Bernardino valley. Pop. (1890) 4683; (1900) 7973 (!525 foreign-born); (1910) 15,212. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Southern Pacific and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways'. The city occupies a slope (about 800-1000 ft. above sea-level), rising toward the east is beautifully built and is a winter and health resort. In the Albert S. White Park there is a notable collection of cacti; and Huntington Park is high and rocky, is well planted with trees and has a finely shaded automobile drive. Magnolia Avenue, bordered with pepper-trees, is 10 m. long and 130 ft. wide; and Victoria Avenue is similarly parked and lined with semi-tropical trees. Riverside is the seat of an important (non-reservation) boarding-school for Indians, Sherman Institute (1903), which in 1908 had 699 students. Riverside is devoted to the cultivation of oranges, lemons and other subtropical fruits, and has a large trade in these products. It is in the centre of the finest orange district of the state; near Huntington Park is the state citrus experiment station (1906), with an experimental orchard of 20 acres. The cultivation of navel oranges was first introduced from Brazil into the United States at Riverside in 1873; the two original trees, protected by an iron railing, were still standing in 1909. The domestic water supply is obtained from artesian wells. In 1870 the site of the present city, then called Jurupa Rancho, the name of the old Spanish grant, was purchased by the Southern California Colony Association. The settlement was chartered in 1883 as a city, with limits including about 56 sq. m. Riverside county was not organized until ten years later. From 1895 there were no saloons in the city. RIVES, WILLIAM CABELL (1793-1868), American political leader and diplomat, was born in Nelson county, Virginia, on the 4th of May 1793. He attended Hampden-Sidney and William and Mary colleges, was admitted to the bar, and practised in Nelson county (till 1821) and afterwards in Albemarle county. In politics a Democrat, he served in the state constitutional con- vention in 1816, in the Virginia House of Delegates in 1817-19 and in 1822. and in the Federal House of Representatives in 1823-29. From 1829 to 1832 he was minister to France; in 1833 he entered the United States Senate, but in the following year resigned. From 1836 to 1845 he again served in the Senate, and in 1849-53 ne was again minister to France. In February 1861 he was a delegate to the Peace Conference in Washington; he opposed secession, but was loyal to his state when it seceded, and was one of its representatives in the Confederate Congress during the Civil War. He died at the country estate of Castle Hill, Albemarle county, Virginia, on the 25th of April 1868. Rives was the author of several books, the most important being his Life and Times of James Madison (3 vols., Boston, 1850-68), the completion of which was prevented by his death. He was the father of Alfred Landon Rives (1830-1903), an engineer of some prominence, whose daughter, Amelie Rives (1863- ), became well known as a novelist, her best known book being The RIVET— RIVOLI VERONESE 38? Quick or the Dead? (1888); she married John A. Chanler in 1888, and after their divorce married in 1896 Prince Pierre Troubetzkoy of Russia. RIVET (O. Fr. rivet, from river, to fix, fasten together, of unknown origin; Skeat compares Icel. rifa, to stitch together), a metal pin or bolt used to fasten metal plates together. A rivet, made of wrought iron, copper or other malleable substance, is usually made with a head at one end, the other end being hammered out after passing through the plates so as to keep them closely fastened together. A " bolt " differs from a rivet in that one or both ends have screw-threads to hold a nut (see SHIPBUILDING). RIVIERA, the narrow belt of coast which lies between the mountains and the sea all round the Gulf of Genoa in the north of Italy, extending from Nice on the W. to Spezia on the E. It is usually spoken of as Riviera di Ponente (" the coast of the setting sun "), the portion between Nice and the city of Genoa; and as Riviera di Levante (" the coast of the rising sun "), the portion from Genoa to Spezia. All this district, being open to the S. and sheltered from the N. and E. winds, enjoys a remarkably mild climate (winter mean, about 49° Fahr.); so much so that the vegetation in many places par- takes of a subtropical character (e.g. the pomegranate, agave, prickly pear, date, palm and banana). Large numbers of flowers, especially roses, violets, hyacinths, &c., are grown near Nice, Mentone, Bordighera and other towns, and sent to the London and Paris markets. Bordighera is particularly noted for its noble groves of date-palms, one of the few places in Europe where these trees grow. The uncommon mildness of the climate, conjoined with the natural beauty of the coast scenery, — the steep sea-crags, the ruined towers and the range of the Maritime Alps, — attracts thousands of invalids and convalescents to spend the winter in the chain of towns and villages which stretch from the one end of the Riviera to the other, while these resorts are frequented for sea-bathing in summer by the Italians. Proceeding from W. to E. the following are the places to which visitors principally resort: Nice, Monaco (an independent principality), Monte Carlo, Mentone (the last town on the French Riviera), Ventimiglia, Bordighera, Ospedaletti, San Remo, Porto Maurizio, Oneglia, Diano Marina, Alassio, Arenzano, Pegli (in the Riviera di Ponente), and Nervi, Santa Margherita, Rapallo, Chiavari, Sestri Levante, Levanto, Spezia, and San Terenzo (Lerici) in the Riviera di Levante. The Riviera labours, however, under the grave drawback of being liable to earthquakes. In the igth century there were four such visitations, in 1818, 1831, 1854 and 1887, which especially affected the western Riviera. A railway runs -close along the shore all through the Riviera, the distance from Nice to Genoa being 116 m., and the distance from Genoa to Spezia 56 m. In the latter stretch the line burrows through the many projecting headlands by means of more than eighty tunnels. The pearl of the eastern Riviera is the stretch (6 to 7 m.) between Rapallo and Chiavari. Lord Byron and Shelley both lived and wrote on the shores of the Gulf of Spezia, and Dickens wrote The Chimes at Genoa. RIVIERE, BRITON (1840- ), English artist, was born in London on the I4th of August 1840. His father, William Riviere, was for some years drawing-master at Cheltenham College, and afterwards an art teacher at Oxford. He was educated at Cheltenham College and at Oxford, where he took his degree in 1867. For his art training he was indebted almost entirely to his father, and early in life made for him- self a place of importance among the artists of his time. His first pictures appeared at the British Institution, and in 1857 he exhibited three works at the Royal Academy, but it was not until 1863 that he became a regular contributor to the Academy exhibitions. In that year he was represented by "The Eve of the Spanish Armada," and in 1864 by a "Romeo and Juliet." Subjects of this kind did not, however, attract him long, for in 1865 he began, with a picture of a " Sleeping Deerhound," that series of paintings of animal-subjects which has sincte occupied him almost exclusively. Among the most memorable of his productions are: "The Poacher's Nurse" (1866), "Circe" (1871), "Daniel" (1872), "The Last of the Garrison" (1873), "Lazarus" (1877), " Persepolis " (1878), " In Manus Tuas, Domine " (1879), " The Magician's Doorway " (iSSz), " Vae Victis " (1885), " Rizpah " (1886), " An Old-Worlu Wanderer " (1887), " Of a Fool and his Folly there is no End " (1889), " A Mighty Hunter before the Lord " (1891), " The King's Libation " (1893), " Beyond Man's Foot- steps " (1894), now in the National Gallery of British Art; "Phoebus Apollo" (1895); "Aggravation" (1806), " St George " (1000), and " To the Hills " (1001). He has also painted portraits; and at the outset of his career made some mark as an illustrator, beginning with Punch. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1878, and R.A. in 1881, and received the degree of D.C.L. at Oxford in 1891. See Sir Walter Armstrong, " Briton Riviere, R.A. ; His Life and Work," Art Annual (1891). RIVINGTON, CHARLES (1688-1742), British publisher, was born at Chesterfield, Derbyshire, in 1688. Coming to London as apprentice to a bookseller, he took over in 1711 the publish- ing business of Richard Chiswell (1630-1711), and, at the sign of the Bible and the Crown in Paternoster Row, he carried on a business almost entirely connected with theological and educational literature. He also published one of Whitefi^ld's earliest works, and brought out an edition of the Imitation of Christ. In 1736 Rivington founded the company of book- sellers who called themselves the " New Conger," in rivalry with the older association, the " Conger," dating from about 1700. In 1741 he published the first volume of Richardson's Pamela. Charles Rivington died on the 22nd of February 1742, and was succeeded by his two sons, John (1720-1792) and James (1724-1802). James emigrated to America, and pursued his trade in New York (see NEWSPAPERS, U.S.A .) ; John carried on the business on the lines marked out by his father, and was the great Church of England publisher of the day. In 1760 he was appointed publisher to the Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge, and the firm retained the agency for over seventy years. Having admitted his sons Francis (1745-1822) and Charles (1754-1831) into partnership he undertook for the " New Conger " Association the issue of a standard edition of the works of Shakespeare, Milton, Locke and other British classics; also Cruden's Concordance. John Rivington died on the i6th of January 1792. In 1810 John (1779-1841), the eldest son of Francis, was admitted a partner. In 1827 George (1801-1858) and Francis (1805-1885), sons of Charles Rivington, joined the firm. Rivington contracted further ties with the High Church party by the publication (1833, &c.) of Tracts for the Times. John Rivington died on the zist of November 1841, his son, John Rivington (1812- 1886) having been admitted a partner in 1836. George Riving- ton died in 1858; and in 1859 Francis Rivington retired, leaving the conduct of affairs in the hands of John Rivington and his own sons, Francis Hansard (b. 1834) and Septimus (b. 1846). In 1890 the business was sold to Messrs Longmans (q.v.). A business of the same character was, however, carried on from 1889 to 1893 by Mr Septimus Rivington and Mr John Guthrie Percival, as Percival & Co. This was changed in 1893 to Rivington, Percival & Co.; and in 1897 the firm revived its earlier title of Rivington & Co., maintaining its reputation for educational works and its connexion with the Moderate and High Church party. See The House of Rivington, by Septimus Rivington (1894); alsc the Publishers' Circular (isth January 1885, 2nd June 1890). RIVOLI VERONESE, a village of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Verona, on a hill on the right bank of the Adige, 13 m. N.W. of Verona, 617 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 1340. It is celebrated as the scene of the battle in which, on the isth of January 1797, Napoleon inflicted a decisive defeat upon the Austrians commanded by Josef Alvintzi, Baron von Barberek (1735-1810) (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). A famous street in Paris (Rue de Rivoli) commemorates 388 RIXDORF— ROADS AND STREETS the victory, and under the empire Marshal Massena received the title of duke of Rivoli. The strong positions around Rivoli, which command the approaches from Tirol and the upper Adige into the Italian plain, have always been celebrated in military history as a formidable obstacle, and Charles V. and Prince Eugene of Savoy preferred to turn them by difficult mountain paths instead of attacking them directly. Minor engagements, such as rearguard actions and holding attacks, have consequently often taken place about them, notably in the campaign of 1796-97. An engagement of this character was fought here in 1848 between the Austrian and the Pied- montese troops. RIXDORF, a town of Germany, lying immediately south of Berlin, of which it practically forms a suburb, though retaining its own civic administration. Pop. (1880) 18,729; 0895) S9)495> (I9°5) 153>65o. It is connected with the metropolis by a railway (Ring-bahn) and by an electric tramway. It contains no public buildings of any interest, and is almost entirely occupied by a large industrial and artisan population, engaged in the manufacture of linoleum, furniture, cloth, pianos, beer, soap, &c. Rixdorf is chiefly interesting as a foundation of Moravian Brethren from Bohemia, who settled here in 1737 under the protection of King Frederick William I. German Rixdorf, which is now united with Bohemian Rixdorf, was a much more ancient place, and appears as Richardsdorf in 1630 and as Riegenstorp in 1435. Before 1435 it belonged to the order of the Knights of St John. RIZZIO, or RICCIO, DAVID (c. 1533-1566), secretary of Mary ( instead of his hood, he shall FIG. 2. — Sir John wear a cloak closed upon his right shoulder, Cassy, chief baron all the other ornaments of a Serjeant still re- of the Exchequer maining; saving that a justice shall wear no (c. 1400). party-coloured vesture, as a serjeant may, and his cape is furred with miniver, whereas the Serjeant's cape is furred with white lamb (budge)." This description of Fortescue's is borne out by some illuminations from a 15th-century MS. representing sittings of the four superior of the I3th and I4th century, showing the coif worn by both clerks and laymen. 1 Prol. line 210 (ed. Skeat, Clarendon Press) : " Jit houed there an hondreth in houues of silke, seriauntz it seemed that serveden atte barre " ; and iii. 293: " Shal no seriaunt for here seruyse were a silk howue, Ne no pelure in his cloke, for pleding atte barre." * Prol. line 382 (ed. Morris, Clarendon Press) : " He rood but homely in a medlee cote Girt with a ceint of silk, with barres smale ; of his array te(le I no longer tale." 3 The effigy " supposed to represent Sir Richard de Willoughby, chief justice of the king's bench " temp. Edward III., illustrated by Fairholt, p. 201, wears a long gown with girdle and skull-cap, no distinctively judicial dress. The figure of Robert Grymbald (temp. Henry II.), engraved from his seal by Dugdale, wears the ordinary dress of the time. 4 See also that of Sir Hugh de Holes (1415; see Haines, Brasses, i. xc), and a stone effigy of Sir William Gascoigne in Harwood Church, Yorks (d. 1419, see Planch6, Cyclopaedia, i. 427). Of serjeants-at-law, an early example is the brass of Nichol Rolond at Cople, Beds. (c. 1410, see Druitt, Costume in Brasses, p. 221); also that of Thomas Rolf at Gosfield, Essex (c. 1440, see Haines, p. 85), who wears a gown, tabard, tippet, hood and coif, with two bands showing below the hood, like the Ellesmere MS. figure. The inscription calls Rolf " legi professus," which Haines takes to mean " professor of law," Boutell and Clark (Archaeological Journal, vol. i. pp. 203-4) consider that he is a serjeant-at-law. Druitt (p. 224) remarks on the likeness of his tabard to that of a Master of Arts, but compares a figure on a 15th-century cope, who also appears to be a serjeant- at-law and wears a tabard. That a tabard sometimes formed part of the dress of a Serjeant, can be seen in the extract from the Liber famelicus of Sir James Whitelocke. quoted by Druitt, p. 225, footnote. courts in the time of Henry VI. (reproduced in A rchaeologia, vol. xxxix. p. 358, &c., with an article by G. R. Corner; see plate). In them we see the scarlet robes of the judges furred with min:ver, and the party-coloured rayed gowns, tippets and hoods of the Serjeants, besides the costume of the minor officials of the court. Both Serjeants and judges wear the coif, certain of the judges also wearing furred caps or turban-like head-dresses. The colour of the Serjeants' party-coloured robes seems to have varied;5 in these illuminations they are blue and green, but by the 1 7th century, to quote Dugdale, Origines Juridiciales, cap. 38 : " The robes they now use do still somewhat resemble those of the justices of either bench, and are of three distinct colours, viz. murrey, black, furred with white, and scarlet ; but the robe which they usually wear at their creation only is of two colours, viz. murrey and mouse colour; whereunto they have a hood suitable, as also a coif of white silk or linen." (See also Pulling, p. 218, and Druitt, p. 225.) Sir E. Brabrook (Proceedings of the Soc. of Antiquaries, 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 414) quotes descriptions of calls of Serjeants showing that as late as 1700 the Serjeants wore party-coloured gowns at their creation and during the year following, and stating on what occasions they wore their black, scarlet or purple gowns (the last with scarlet or purple hoods). At the last general call (1736), and at the creation of a serjeant in 1762, party-coloured robes were still worn, but at a creation of 1809 they are no longer found. Until their final abolition the Serjeants wore purple robes at their creation, and on ordinary occasions a black cloth or silk gown, with a scarlet robe for state occasions. Illustrations of judicial cos- tumes in the i6th century are to be found in vol. i. of Vetusta Monumenta (Soc. of Antiquaries, 1747), in which are reproduced, firstly, a ' painted table in the King's Exchequer," temp. Henry VII., on which the officials of the Exchequer are shown wearing long gowns, furred tippets and mantles, with coifs (see fig. 3) ; and secondly, a sitting of the Court of Wards and Liveries, temp. Elizabeth, in which are shown Serjeants wearing party-coloured gowns, tippets, hoods and coifs (see also Pulling, facing pp. 86 and 214). About this time the square cap, otherwise known as the cornered, black or sentence cap (the last from the fact of its being put on by the judge when pronouncing sentence of death), begins to be seen in monuments (cf. that of Sir Richard Harpur, temp. Mary; Fairhold, p. 223). Sometimes this cap is worn over the coif only, sometimes over the coif and skull-cap (cf. the portrait of Sir Edward Coke, in Pulling, facing p. 180). The form also varies; sometimes, as in the portrait of Coke, it has no ear-flaps, some times, as in its present form, it has. The form with ear-flaps is held by some to be a combination of the square cap and skull-cap. The square cap was a mark of dignity, worn or carried on solemn occasions, hence its use when pronouncing sentence of death, to mark the solemnity of the moment. Among the State Papers of 1625 is a " Discourse on what robes and apparel the judges are to wear, and how the serjeants-at-law are to wear their robes, and when," and on the 4th of July 1635 there was a " solemn decree and rule made by all the judges of the courts at Westminster," which is quoted in Dugdale (loc. cit.) and Pulling (p. 215, footnote). This costume is illustrated in Hollar's engraving of the coronation procession of Charles II. Towards the end of the I7th century the judges took to wearing wigs, and have continued to wear them ever since. The wearing of wigs naturally concealed the coif and velvet skull-cap, so a device had to be invented by which they could still be displayed. The expedient was hit upon of putting a round patch of white stuff, with a black spot in the middle of it, on the crown of the wig of certain of the judges, to represent the coif and skull-cap. The rank of serjeant no longer existing, this round patch has now disappeared, the only trace of it left being the circular depression on the crown of the wig. The costume of judges of the High Court at the present day differs very little from that given in the order of 1635; but the cap is carried in the hand as a part of the full dress, and only worn when a judge is passing sentence of death.6 The 'They were probably originally liveries; see G. R. Corner in Archaeologia, also Pulling, op. cit. pp. 211—12. 6 See an essay by Sir Herbert Stephen in Unwritten Laws and Ideals, ed. E. H. Pitcairn (Smith, Elder, 1899), from which the following paragraph is largely condensed. From the Standard of Weights and Measures (temp. Henry VIII.), in VtHisIa Monu- menla (Soc. of Antiquaries), vol. i. FIG. 3. — Figures wearing coif. ROBES. PLATE III. One of four illuminations belonging to a law treatise, temp. Hrnry f'l, found at Whaddon Hall, Bucks, depicting five presiding judges of the Court of King's Bench, wearing coifs and scarlet robes; below the King's Coroner, Attorney and Masters of the Court; two ushers at table swearing the jury; a tipstaff in charge of a fettered' prisoner, two sergeants at law in coif on either side; in foreground six prisoners. From Archteologia XXXIX. ROBES 411 dress worn when trying criminal cases, attending church officially, and on " red letter days" in the courts, consists of a scarlet gown, with a broad black belt, a tippet trimmed with white fur, known by courtesy as " ermine " (this is worn only on state occasions), and a scarlet casting-hood, always worn with the scarlet gown, the end of which is passed under the belt. For summer the robes are of thinner stuff, faced with slate-coloured silk instead of ermine. The full-bottomed wig is worn on state occasions; at other times a wig is worn similar to that of barristers, except that it has one vertical curl just above the tail of the wig instead of the three rows of horizontal curls going all the way round. The judges of the King's Bench Division have also a black gown, trimmed with ermine, which may be worn with the scarlet casting-hood when they sit two or more together. The summer equivalent of the black robes is in thin blue stuff, faced with silk. A costume like that of King's Counsel, namely, a black silk gown, with black cloth court suit, is the dress of judges when sitting alone to try civil actions, and of vice- chancellors and judges of the Chancery Division, but Sir Herbert Stephen remarks that of late years certain of the judges have preferred on grounds of comfort the black or blue gown with scarlet casting-hood. The court dress of the judges of the High Court and of Indian and colonial judges consists of a black damask tufted gown, without train, worn over a black velvet court suit, with full-bottomed wig, lace bands and three-cornered silk hat.1 The Lord Chancellor, when in the House of Lords, and sitting on Appeals, wears a black silk trained gown, over a black cloth court suit, with full-bottomed wig; he has also his peer's robe (see above), and his state robe of black damask with gold lace, worn over a velvet court suit, with full-bottomed wig, lace bands, &c.; the purse is carried on state occasions when in the royal presence. The state robe of the Master of the Rolls, the Lords Justices of the Court of Appeal, and the President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Divisions is the same, except that they have not the purse, and similar to it is the full-dress gown of the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, &c. The Lords Justices of the Court of Appeal sit in court in a costume similar to that of King's Counsel. The Lords of Appeal have no official robes, but sit in ordinary civilian dress. On state occasions they wear their peers' robes. The robes of state of the Lord Chief Justice of England are the same as those of the judges of the High Court, except that his are trained, and he wears the gold chain of office, the " collar of SS." The Scottish judges have two sets of robes, one for Justiciary (i.e. the criminal court), which is also their full dress, and one for civil causes (Court of Session). The dress for the President and Ordinary Lords of Session was fixed in 1610 by an order of James I., and was of purple cloth, faced with crimson satin, with hood to match, the President's gown having crimson velvet instead of satin. The four " extraordinary Sessionaries " were to wear black velvet, satin, or silk gowns, lined with black. The Lord Justice General wore a scarlet gown lined with ermine and an ermine hood, the Lord Justice Deputy and Lord Justice Clerk black gowns with crimson satin facings and hoods (see Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 612). At the foundation of the High Court of Justiciary (1672) it was enacted " that for the splendour of that court, all the judges sit in red robes, faced with white, that of the Justice Generalls being lined with ermine for distinction from the rest " (see Acts of Parliament of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 88). The present full dress of the Lord Justice General is a scarlet silk robe with tippet and hood, the hood falling down the back; the collar is of ermine, with which the tippet, sleeves and gown are edged 1 Minute details of court and Iev6e dress, judicial and legal, will be found in Dress worn at Court (pp. 60-61), issued with the authority of the Lord Chamberlain, and ed. H. A. P. Trendell, of the Lord Chamberlain's department (London, 1908), — also details of mourning costume. and the hood lined. The Lord Justice Clerk wears a scarlet cloth robe and hood, and a white silk tippet lined with scarlet, the silk being perforated with small holes to imitate ermine, as also on the sleeves and edges of the gown. In front of the tippet on each side are two crosses in scarlet silk, and on each side of the gown six crosses. The ordinary Lords Commis- sioners of Justiciary have robes the same as those of the Lord Justice Clerk, except that the satin is not perforated. Instead of the bands worn by English judges, the Scottish judges wear a long fall in front. The Bar. — There appears to have been no official costume for the bar until the end of the tyth century. Druitt (Costume in Brasses, pp. 232-33) gives a list of several brasses of in lege perili, or apprenticii ad legem, most of whom wear ordinary civilian costume, occasionally with the addition of a high cap. In the i6th and I7th centuries they wear the false-sleeved gown worn by civilians. Before the iyth century the costume worn by students at the Inns of Court and by " Utter Barristers " consisted of a stuff gown, and sometimes, in term-time, a round cap, which was worn in hall and in church (see Herbert, History of the Inns of Court (1804), p. 230). In Westminster Hall (see Pulling, p. 223) the same costume was worn, Benchers and Readers having a more elaborate gown with facings of black velvet and tufts of silk. Frequent laws were passed in the i6th century and later, forbidding the wearing of swords, cloaks, boots and spurs, &c., in hall, and insisting on the wearing of gowns by students of the Inns of Court when walking in the city. In the I7th century, barristers, like the judges, adopted wigs, the full-bottomed wigs being confined to judges, " King's Counsellors," &c., and ordinary counsellors wearing small wigs. In Hollar's engraving of the coronation of Charles II. the King's Counsel, the King's Attorney and Solicitor, and the Master of the Rolls wear a laced gown with hanging sleeves. The silk gown, full-bottomed wig and black court dress now worn by King's Counsel is generally held to date from the funeral of Queen Mary II., being the mourning dress worn by the wish of King William for a considerable period after the queen's death, and adopted as a convenient costume ever since. There is a well- known jest of Chief Baron Pollock to the effect that " the Bar went into mourning at the death of Queen Anne, and never came out again," which bears out this theory as to the origin of the costume. At the present time barristers wear black stuff gowns, with small wigs having three rows of curls round the head. King's Counsel wear black silk gowns over a cloth court suit (cp. the expression " to take silk," i.e. to become a K.C.); on full-dress occasions they wear a full-bottomed wig-, and at court a black damask tufted gown over a velvet court suit. This is also the dress for state occasions of the Attorney- General, Solicitor-General, &c. Municipal and Civic Robes. — The word " livery," the use of which is now practically confined to the costume of the " livery companies," the dress of men-servants, &c., originally meant an allowance of food or clothing granted to certain persons (Lat. liber ata, Fr. livrfe). It is still used of the allowances of food made to the fellows of certain colleges. As early as the i3th century, according to Matt. Paris (Chron. Maj.; Rolls Series, III. 337), we find the citizens of London assuming a uniform dress to do honour to some great occasion, as, e.g., when in i 236 a body of them rode out to meet Henry III. and Queen Eleanor, " sericis vestimentis ornati, cicladibus auro textis circumdati, excogitatis mutatoriis amicti," or when 600 citizens rode out to meet Queen Margaret, wife of Edward I., " in one livery of red and white, with the cognizances of their misteries embroidered upon their sleeves " (see Stow's Survey, ed. Morley, p. 444). By the i4th century there is evidence of the adoption of liveries by the trades and fraternities. At the celebrations of the birth of Edward III. (see Riley's Mem- orials, p. 105) the mayor and aldermen were " richly arrayed in suits of robes," while the drapers, mercers and vintners were also " in costume." This need not, however, refer to liveries. G. Unwin (The Gilds of London, 1908) quotes a chron- icler who records that by the year 1319 " many of the people 412 ROBES of the trades of London were arrayed in livery," and an ordin- ance of 1347 of the fraternity of the Mercers commanding that " all those of the said mistery shall be clothed of one suit once a year at the feast of Easter," and Riley (op. cit. p. 516) quotes an order of 1389 allowing the sheriffs, on grounds of expense, to proceed to Westminster by boat instead of on horseback, " without there being any arraying of men of the trades in like suit for that purpose; except that such men of the trades as should wish to accompany them should walk in such suit of vestments of the livery of their respective trade as they might then have. " As to the liveries of the religious frater- nities, Chaucer (Prol. 361) describes: — " An Haberdasher and a Carpenter A Webbe, a Dyere, and a Tapicer," As, " clothed alle in a liveree Of a solempne and greet fraternitee." In 1389 there was a petition against the giving of liveries by the fraternities, on the ground that these gatherings were centres of political agitation, but in the statutes of Edward III. and Richard II. against liveries members of guilds were expressly excepted from these prohibitions. However, it was doubtless deemed prudent to make sure of the privilege, and so, when the livery companies were incorporated, they took care to have their liveries authorized by their charters. These liveries consisted of a gown and hood, though the hood only was sometimes given; thus the Grocers' Company had in 1430 55 members in the full livery, 17 in hoods and 42 not in livery. It was also customary for such of the companies as wished it to present liveries to outsiders, for instance, to the mayor, should he belong to another company. Thus in 1399 the Tailors gave liveries to the king, the prince and the mayor, and hoods to the sheriffs.. But in 1415 and 1423 the mayor and aldermen were forbidden to receive any livery except that of their own company. A similar custom was that by which a member of any company might send to the mayor a certain sum, receiving in return a suit of the livery of the mayor's company. The colours of the various liveries varied very much from time to time. Thus in 1414 the Grocers wore liveries of scarlet and green, which were changed in 1418 to scarlet and black, in 1428 to scarlet and blue and in 1450 to "violet in grain," with party-coloured hoods of violet and crimson. At first both gowns and hoods were party-coloured, but later a party-coloured hood was worn with a gown of one colour. The gowns were also lined and edged with *"*' fur. An early illustration of the liveries is to be found on the first charter of the Leathersellers' Company, granted them in 1444 by Henry VI., where the members of the company FIG. 4.— Liverymen of the Leather- are depicted kneeling sellers' Company, from the charter before the king in short of the Company granted by Henry party-coloured gowns of red and blue, edged at the neck, wrists and round the bottom with fur and with white girdles (see fig. 4, Jfrom a coloured reproduction in W. H. Black's History and Antiquities of the Leathersellers' Co.). In the reign of Henry VIII., Holbein's picture of the king giving a charter to the Barber-Surgeons' Company shows the members of the latter wearing gowns of rich stuff, with red and black party-coloured hoods, three of the figures also in coifs. The form of gown which has survived, practically unchanged, till the present day, may be seen on the second charter of the Leathersellers' Company, granted them by James I. in 1604 (see fig. 5, and for coloured plate see W. H. Black, op. cit.). Here we see them in flat caps, long black furred gowns, with false sleeves, and having on the right shoulder party-coloured hoods Sed FIG. 5. — Liverymen of sellers' Company, from of James I. (1604). Leather- a charter of scarlet and black, the end of which is cast over the left shoulder and hangs down nearly to the edge of the gown. Besides the liveries of the city companies, and those of the mayor and sheriffs, there was often a special livery adopted by all the citizens on some great occasion, such as a visit of the sovereign to the City. W. St John Hope (Cor- poration Plate and In- signia, ii. 141) quotes a number of such cases, showing that the city livery was sometimes green, sometimes blue, sometimes violet, some- times red and white, the city colours par ex- cellence. As to the costume of the mayor, aldermen, sheriffs, &c., we have seen above the mayor " richly costumed," and the alder- men " in like suits of robes," at the birth of Edward III., and Riley (op. cit.) gives an order of 1378, that the aldermen are to ride to Westminster in the mayor's proces- sion, " arrayed in a cloak and hood at least, that are party- coloured with red, scarlet and white, the red on the right side ; while he quotes (from Letter -book H. fol. cxlvi) the amusing sentence passed by his fellow-aldermen in 1382 on one John Seley, for disregarding the order to have his green cloak for the Whitsuntide procession lined with green taffeta. Thus before the I5th century the aldermen apparently had not yet their scarlet robes, but on state occasions wore the ordinary city livery. For the early 15th century we have the Liber Albus (written c. 1419; Rolls Series, ed. Riley), where we are told (p. 35) that "The Mayor, Sheriff and Aldermen were wont to array themselves in like suits of robes twice in the year, viz. when the mayor rode to Westminster to take the oath, and on the day following the feast of SS. Simon and Jude; and this raiment was trimmed with fur as befitting their honourable rank; and they would also dress themselves in suits of robes against the feast of Pentecost, these robes having a lining of silk." The scarlet, violet and black robes, still worn by the Lord Mayor, aldermen, &c., were early in use. There is an order of 142 1 (8 Henry V.) that the aldermen should use " togis et armilausis de scarleto," and in numerous accounts of royal receptions and other solemn occasions in the City we are told that the mayor and alder- men were in scarlet (W. St John Hope, in Corporation Plate and Insignia, i., Introd. Ixxxv seq., and ii. 138-147, quotes a number of these, and treats the whole subject of mayors', &c., robes very fully) . The Liber Albus (i. i, ch. vi.) also shows us the mayor and alder- men assembled at the Guildhall on the day of the election of the new mayor induti togis de violet. As to the form of the dress in the 1 4th and 1 5th century, we can see from brasses of lord mayors and aldermen (see Haines, Manual, pp. cc-cci ; and Cotman, Norfolk Brasses. There is a fine series of brasses of mayors, &c., at Norwich) that it consisted of a long gown, a mantle fastened on the right shoulder and a hood. As to the provincial mayors and aldermen there is evidence that at quite an early date many of them followed the fashion of London ; e.g. the Royal Charter of Nottingham, of 1448, contains the words: " that the Aldermen of the same town forever . . . may use gowns, hoods and cloaks of one suit and one livery together with furs and linings suitable to these cloaks, in the same manner and form as the Mayor and Aldermen of our city of London do use, the Statute of Liveries . . . notwithstanding " (see Nottingham Records, ii. 205), while the charter granted by Henry VI. to Kingston-on-Hull in 1440 contains practically the same words (see St J. Hope, i. Ixxxvi). The costume of provincial mayors, &c., is shown by St John Hope (loc. cit.) to have generally consisted of a scarlet furred gown and cloak, with tippet or scarf of black velvet. The colour was not, however, invariably scarlet, but varied to violet, blue and black, sometimes even for the mayor. An account of the robes of modern provincial mayors will be found in St J. Hope, p. Ixxxix seq. and under the accounts of the various boroughs, passim. There is some doubt as to when the Lord Mayor first began to wear his robe of estate of crimson velvet. Stow (Survey, ed. Strype, 1720, ii. 165) says that at the reception of Henry VI. at Eltham the mayor was in crimson velvet, the aldermen in scarlet with " sanguine " hoods, but at the coronation of Edward V. (see St J. Hope) he wore scarlet. At the coronation of Anne Boleyn (see ^riothesley's Chronicle, loc. cit. supr., and Hall's Chronicle) the mayor wore his crimson velvet robe of state, the aldermen and sheriffs scarlet; and at the entry of Anne of Cleves into London the mayor was again in his crimson velvet robe with his collar of gold, the aldermen and councilmen in robes of black velvet with chains of gold (but see ROBES PLATE IV. Lord Chief Justice of England in full robes, scarlet and ermine, with collar of S. S. Judge of the Supreme Court of the United States of America. The Lord High Chancellor of Knirliuid, in robes of State. Lord Mayor of London, in full robes. Judge of the High Court, England, in black robes. Aldeen worn, while the large hind feet are webbed. The typical //. chrysogaster is a large brown rat with an orange belly, which feeds on small fishes and insects. Limnomys, from New Guinea, is a type less specialized for swimming, the hind-feet being much less twisted than in Hydromys, and not so fully webbed. Still less specialized are Chrotomys and Xeromys, which include Philip- pine land-rats, while Crunomys, from the same area, retains the third molars, and thus connects the group with the Murinae. Finally, the Philippine Rhynchomys is represented by a rat with two pairs of molars and a long shrew-like nose, the zygomatic arch of the skull being also placed unusually far backward. Strand-Moles. — With the so-called strand-moles of South Africa, forming the section Bathyergoidea, and the family Bathyergidae, which were formerly placed with the Spalacidae, we come to the first of two sections in which the lower jaw has a totally different form to that obtaining in all the preceding groups. In the rodents now to be considered, the angular process of the lower jaw arises from the outer side of the sheath of the incisor. The malleus and incus i.f the internal ear are united, and there is no transverse canal in the skull. At least one pair of premolars is present in each jaw; and these teeth and the molars typically have one outer and one inner enamel fold. There is no foramen at the lower end of the humerus, and no horny layer in the stomach. In the Bathyergoidea the scaphoid and lunar of the carpus arc separate, the tibia and fibula united and the clavicles normal. The masseter muscle does not pass through the narrow infra-orbital canal, and the temporal muscle is large. All the Bathyergidae are African, and adapted to a burrowing life, having minute ears and eyes, a short tail and the thumb armed with a large claw. The largest species represents the genus Bathyergus, while several smaller kinds are included in Ceorychus. The former construe t> its tunnels in the sandy flats near the shore at the Cape, but the latter generally frequent higher ground. In both genera there is only a single pair of premolars in each jaw, but in the smaller Myoscalops there are usually three pairs of these teeth. The most remarkable members of the family are the sand-rats of Somaliland and Shoa, forming the genera Heterocephalus and Fornarina, in which the premolars may be reduced to two pairs. They ha\c large heads, projecting incisors, no ears, almost functionless eyes and moderately long tails; the skin, with the exception of a few hairs on the body and frinres on the feet, being naked. They spend their whole time buried in the hot desert sand, in which they construct burrows, throwing up at intervals small hillocks. Porcupines. — In the second section, or Hystricoidea, including several families, the skull (fig. 14) is characterized by the heavy FIG. 14.— Skull of the Capybara (Hydrochaerus capybara), reduced. zygomatic arch, the middle portion of which is formed by the more or less straight and horizontal jugal, and the large infra-orbital canal, traversed by a portion of the masseter muscle. The tibia and fibula are separate, but the scaphoid and lunar are united, and the clavicles are generally incomplete. There is never more 444 RODENTIA than one pair of premolars, and the original ridges of all the cheek- teeth have become obscured and complicated by the development of secondary enamel-folds. The majority of these rodents, many o! which are of large size, are terrestriaj, but a few are burrowing others arboreal and two or three aquatic. The Old World porcupines, constituting the family Hystricidae, are terrestrial, stoutly built rodents, with limbs of subequal length in front and behind, and the skin covered with strong spines. The upper lip is cleft, the jugal lacks an inferior angle, the fore part of the skull is short and broad; the cheek-teeth are partially rooted, with external and internal enamel-folds, the soles of the feet are smooth, there are six pairs of teats, the clavicles are imperfect and the tail is not prehensile. In the typical genus Hystrix, which FIG. 15. — The Brazilian Tree-Porcupine (Synetheres (or Coendu) prehensilis). is represented in all the three great continents of the Old World, and extends as far east as Flores and Celebes, the skull is swollen and convex, the spines are cylindrical, and the tail is short and covered with spines and slender-stalked open quills. In Atherura fasciculate, of the Malay Peninsula the spines are flattened, and the tails long and scaly, with a tuft of compressed bristles. A closely- allied species, A. africana, inhabits Western Africa. The third genus is Trichys (see PORCUPINE). American Porcupines. — All the New World porcupines, repre- senting the family Erethizontidae (or Cpendidae) are arboreal in their habits, and have the upper lip undivided, the cheek-teeth rooted, the clavicles complete, the soles of the feet tuberculated and three pairs of teats. Erethizon dorsatus, the urson, is distributed all over the forest regions of North America; Synetheres (or Coendu') pre- hensilis, the prehensile-tailed porcupine of South America (fig. 15), represents a genus in which the whole upper surface of the body is protected by long white-tipped spines; Chaetomys subspinosus is clothed with strong wavy bristles. In the last two genera the feet have four toes, in place of the five of Erethizon (see PORCUPINE). Cavy Group. — In the family Caviidae, typified by the cavies (or guinea-pigs), may be included a large number of South and Central American rodents, among which the agoutis and pacas are often ranked as a family (Dasyproctidae) by themselves. The Caviidae, in the present more comprehensive sense, include the giants of the rodent order. Many of them, like ungulates, are specialized for swift running, and have unusually long limbs, with ridges developed on the articular surfaces of the lower bones; the clavicles are more or less reduced; the thorax is more compressed than usual, with a narrower breast-bone; and there is a marked tendency to the reduction or loss of the lateral toes, more especially in the hind limb. Since these rodents walk more or less entirely on their toes, in such a manner that the edges of the claws or nails come in contact with the ground, these tend to assume somewhat of a hoof-like character; while the foot-pads are more or less horny. The tail is generally very short, and its basal vertebrae are often fused with the sacrum. In the skull the lachrymal bone is large, the par- occipital process is directed vertically downwards and the tympanic bulla is hollow. In the soft parts the caecum is very large, the penis is armed with a pair of barbed horny claspers and the scrotum is spiny. Special interest attaches to the most aberrant member of the family, the Peruvian Dinomys, known for more than thirty years only by a single specimen taken in a house in Lima, and only lately rediscovered. It is a large rodent known to the Tupi Indians as the paca-rana, or false paca, in allusion to the resemblance of its coloration to that of the true paca, from which it differs by its well- developed tail, the absence of cheek-pouches, the full development of all five toes and the wider thorax. The Tupi name may be adopted as the popular title of the species. Dr E. Goeldi states that the paca-rana is a rodent of phlegmatic and gentle disposition, which may account, perhaps, for its rarity, if, indeed, it be really scarce in its native home, which is probably the eastern slopes and tablelands of the Bolivian and Peruvian foot-hills bordering on Brazil, inclusive of the headwaters of the Purus, Acre and Jurua rivers. In the true pacas, Coelogenys (or Agouti), the first front toe is small, and both the first and fifth digits of the hind-foot are much inferior in size to the olher three. The most remarkable feature of the genus is, however, the extraordinary development of the zygomatic arches of the skull, which are enormously expanded vertically, forming great convex bony capsules on the sides of the face, enclosing on each side a large cavity lined with mucous membrane internally, and communicating by a small opening with the mouth. C. paca is a white-spotted rodent, about 2 ft. long, and lives generally in the forests or along the banks of rivers (see PACA). The Agoutis, Dasyprocta, include several species of slender-limbed rodents, with three hind-toes, inhabiting Central and South America, one (D. cristata) extending into the West Indian islands. The members of both Coelogenys and Dasyprocta are terrestrial in their habits, and have the fore- and hind-limbs subequal, hoof-like claws, short or obsolete tail and rudimentary clavicles. The masseteric ridge of the lower jaw is obsolete, the palate broad, the incisors long and the molars semi-rooted, with external and internal enamel-folds (see AGOUTI). The remaining and more typical members of the family, one of which is aquatic, are characterized by their short incisors, the strong masseteric ridges on the sides of the lower jaw, the long and curved par-occipitals and the palate contracted in front. Fore-feet with four digits, hind-feet with three; clavicles imperfect; molars divided by enamel-folds inta transverse lobes; milk-teeth shed before birth. In the true cavies, or couies, Cavia, the fore- and hind-limbs are short and of subequal length, the ears are short and there is no tail. They include several species widely distributed throughout South America, extending even to the straits of Magellan, from one of which (C. cutleri of Peru) the guinea-pig is derived. The maras (Dolichotis) have the limbs and ears long and the tail very short. D. pata- gonica is a large species, nearly 3 ft. long, inhabiting the gravelly plains of Patagonia, while D. salinicola is a much smaller rodent from the salt-lagunas of Argentina. The palate is so much contracted in front that the premolars of opposite sides touch by their antero-internal edges. Hydrochaerus, in which all the feet are fully webbed, includes a single species, the capybara, or carpincho, the largest of living rodents. The skull (fig. 14) is distinguished not only by its great size, but by the enormous development of the par-occipital processes and the complex structure and large size of the last molars (see CAVY and CAPYBARA). Chinchilla Group. — The family, Chinchillidae, typified by the well- known chinchilla, includes a small number of South American rodents with large ears and proportionately great auditory bullae in (he skull, elongated hind-limbs, bushy tails, very soft fur and perfect clavicles. The jugal is without an inferior angle, and extends forwards to the lachrymal; the palate is contracted in front and deeply emarginate behind; the incisors are short, and the molars divided by continuous folds into transverse plates; and the two halves of the lower jaw are welded together in front. It includes three existing genera, represented by some five species. Of these the true chinchilla, Chinchilla lanigera, C. brevicaudata, Lagidium peruanum and L. pallipes, are restricted to the alpine zones of the Andes from the northern boundary of Peru to the southern parts of Chili; while Lagostomus trichodactylus (or Viscaccia viscaccia), the viscacha, is confined to the pampas from the Uruguay river to the Rio Negro. In Chinchilla the fore-feet have five and the hind Four digits, the tail is long and bushy, and the auditory bullae are enormous, appearing on the top of the skull ; Lagidium has four digits :n both fore- and hind-feet, and Lagostomus three only in the hind- :eet, while the auditory bullae are much smaller (see CHINCHILLA and VISCACHA); Hutia Group. — The three remaining families of the Hystricoidea, of which one is African while the other two are chiefly South American, are very closely allied and often brigaded in a single family group. In the Capromyidae, which includes only the South American and West Indian hutias, the South American coypu and the African cane-rats, the tympanic bulla of the skull is hollow, the Dar-occipital process straight, the lachrymal small, and the cheek- :eeth rooted, with deep enamel-folds; the first front toe teing occasionally absent. Of the few living representatives of the Croup, the genus Myocastor (or Myopotamus) is represented only )y the South American coypu, M. coypu, which is aquatic in its labits, and measures about 2 ft. in length, being the largest member of the group. It has a long tail, brown fur and red ncisors, and lives in burrows near water, feeding on aquatic plants. RODENTIA 445 The hutia (Capromys pilorides) is nearly as large, arboreal in habits, and a native of Cuba, where it is the largest indigenous mammal. Other species occur in Cuba, Jamaica and the Bahamas, while a Venezuelan species, Procapromys geayi, represents a separate genus. In one kind the tail is prehensile. All these rodents are remarkable for the manner jn which the liver is divided into minute lobules. Plagiodontia aedium, another member of the group, is peculiar to Hayti. The African cane-rats, Thryonomys (or Aulacodus), are large terrestrial rodents, ranging from the centre of the continent to the Cape, easily recognized by their deeply fluted incisors (see COYPU). The Octodontidae, which are exclusively South American, differ from the preceding family by the tympanic bulla being filled with cellular bony tissne, and by the par-occipital process curving beneath it, while the cheek-teeth are almost or com- pletely rootless and composed of parallel plates. The first front toe may be absent. The more typical members of the family are rat-like_ burrowing rodents, living in communities. The typical genus is represented by the dcgu (Oclodon degus) and several nearly related species; other genera being Ctenomys, Octodontomys (Nepctodon), Aconaemys, Spalacopus and Abrocoma; the latter taking its name from its unusually soft fur. Among these, the tuco-tucos (Ctenomys) are characterized by their burrowing habits, almost rudimentary ears, small eyes, short tails and the kidney- shaped grinding-surfaces of their cheek-teeth. They take their name of tuco-tuco from their cry, which resembles the blows of a hammer on an anvil, and may be heard all day as the little rodents move in their burrows, generally formed m sandy soil. In some districts the ground is undermined by these burrows, in which stores of food are accumulated. The species of Octodon have larger ears, longer, tufted tails and the sides of the cheek- teeth indented by plates of enamel ; they are chiefly found in hedgerows and bushes, where they burrow. In Abrocoma the tail has no tuft, the ears are still larger and the lower cheek-teeth more complex than the upper ones. Aconaemys is an allied Chilean genus in which the enamel-folds meet across the molars. Several of these rodents live in the Andes, where the ground is covered for months with snow. The second group of the family is formed by the genera Lonckeres, Dactylomys, Echi[no}mys, Proechimys and a few others, the members of which are rat-like rodents, with long scaly or furry tails, and frequently flattened spines mingled with the fur of the back. Most species are brown above and whitish beneath, but in some the lighter tints extend on to the sides, shoulders and head, communicating a coloration somewhat like that of a guinea-pig (see OCTODON). The North African gundis (Ctenodactylus gundi and Ct. vali) are the types of an African family, which also includes the genera Massoutiera, Pectinator and Petromys. In the gundi the two inner toes of the hind-foot are furnished with a horny comb and bristles for the purpose of cleaning the fur, and the tail is very short ; but in Pectinator the tail is longer. Petromys has a still longer and more bushy tail, and no comb to the hind-feet. The gundi is a diurnal species, inhabiting rocky districts, and having habits very similar to those of a jerboa. Of these Ctenodactylus and Pectinator are characterized by the union of the incus and malleus of the internal ear, the free fibula and the almost rootless cheek-teeth. The premolar is very small, thus showing an approximation to the Myoidea, although in other respects Petromys appears to ap- proximate to the Hystricidae. Picas and Hares. — The remaining rodents, which include two families — the picas (Ochotonidae) and the hares and rabbits (Leporidae) — constitute a second sub-order, the Duplicidentata, differing from all the foregoing groups in possessing two pairs of incisors in the upper jaw (of which the second is small, and placed directly behind the large first pair), the enamel of which extends round to their postcricr surfaces. At birth there are three pairs of incisors, but the outer one is soon lost. The incisive foramina are large and usually confluent; the bony palate is very narrow from before backwards; there is no alisphenoid canal; the fibula is welded to the tibia, and articulates with the calcaneum; and the testes are permanently external. All are terrestrial, and in many cases burrowing, in their habits, and some of them are of extreme fleetness. The Ochotonidae are represented at the present day only by the single genus Ochotona (Lagomys), which includes all the picas, or mouse-hares. They are small rodents with com- plete clavicles, fore- and hind-limbs of nearly equal length, no external tails and short ears. Skull depressed, frontals contracted and without post-orbital processes; p. } or f; molars rootless, with transverse enamel-folds. In some cases the molar-formula is |. The genus includes about a score of species of guinea-pig-like animals, inhabiting chiefly the mountainous parts of Northern Asia (from 11,000 to 14,000 ft.), one species only being known from South-east Europe and several from the Rocky Mountains and Alaska. From the picas the hares and rabbits (Leporidae) are distinguished by the imperfect clavicles, the more or less elongated hind-limbs, short recurved tail (absent in one case) and generally long ears. The skull is compressed, with large wing-shaped post-orbital processes (fig. 16); p. |. With the exception of Australasia, the family has a cosmopolitan distribution; and its numerous species resemble one another more or less closely in general external characters. In all the fore-limbs have five and the hind four digits; and the soles of the feet are densely clothed with hairs similar to those covering the legs; the inner surface of the cheeks being hairy. Although the family has such a wide dis- tribution, the greater number of the species are restricted to Europe, north- ern and cen- tral Asia and North America ; South America having very few. Till within the last few years the majority of naturalists fol- FIG. 16.— Skull of the Common Hare lowed the prac- europaeus). tice of including all the members of the family in the genus Lepus. It is true that Mr E. Blyth long ago proposed the name Caprolagus for the remarkable spiny rabbit of the western Himalayas, while the generic name Oryctolagus was suggested later for the rabbit, and Sylvilagus for the American cotton-tails " ; but none of these was accorded general acceptation. Of late years, however, zoologists have come to the conclusion that generic sub- divisions of the Leporidae are advisable. In 1899 L)r Fcrsyth Major proposed a classification of the family in which a number of species were grouped with the spiny rabbit in the genus Capro- lagus, whilst Oryctolagus was taken to include not only the common raobit, but likewise the Cape hare. A more recent classification is that of Mr M. W. Lyon, in which by far the largest number of species of the family are retained in the original genus Lepus, which has also the widest geographical distribution of all the genera. It is typified by the blue hare (Lepus timidus), next to which comes the common hare (L. europaeus) and certain other allied forms. The jackass-hares of Mexico, &c., such as L. californicus, fcrm a second sub-group; while these are in turn followed by the American hare (L. americanus) and its immediate relatives. The cotton- tails, or wood-rabbits, of North and South America are regarded as forming a genus, Sylvilagus, by themselves, which includes the Brazilian and Paraguay hares, and appears to be chiefly dis- tinguished by a certain feature in the parietal region of the skull. Under the name of Oryctolagus cuniculus, the rabbit is considered to represent a genus by itself, specially characterized by the short- ness of the ears and hind-feet. The swamp-rabbit (L. palustris) and water-hare (L. aqualicus) of the southern United States form the group Limnolragus, characterized by the harsher fur, the shorter ears, tail and hind-feet, and the complete fusion of the post-orbital process (which is so distinct in the typical hares) with the adjacent parts of the skull, so that neither notches nor perforations are developed in this region. The short-tailed rabbit of the western United States (Brachylagus idahoensis) is the sole member of a group allied in general characters to the typical Lepus, but dis- tinguished by the unusually short tail. Another group is Prono- lagus, typified by the Cape thick-tailed hare, the so-called Lepus crassicaudatus , which is externally similar to Lepus proper, but has the skull and teeth of the general type of the next group. The tail- less rabbit of Mount Popocatepetl, Mexico, originally described as a distinct generic type, under the name of Romerolagus nelsoni, is broadly distinguished by the entire absence of the tail, and the short ears and hind-feet, its general form being like that of the Liu-Kiu rabbit, while, as in the latter, the post-orbital process of the skull is small, and represented only by the hinder half. Next come three remarkable rabbits from the Indo-Malay countries, all closely allied, although regarded as representing three generic groups, Nesolagus, Caprolagus and Pentalagus. In all three the skull is of the type of Romerolagus. The first is represented by the Sumatran rabbit, the so-called N. netscheri, which apparently differs from the spiny rabbit mainly by the pattern of the cheek- teeth. The spiny rabbit, separated from Lepus by Blyth in 1845 under the name of Caprolagus hispidus, is an inhabitant of Assam and the adjacent districts, and distinguished by its harsh, bristly fur and short ears and tail. In the Liu-Kiu rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi) the coat is equally harsh, but the ears and hind-feet are shorter, and there are only five (in place of the usual six) pairs of upper cheek-teeth. In the loss of the last upper molar, the Liu-Kiu rabbit approximates to the picas, as does the tailless rabbit in the abortion of its caudal appendage. Mr Lyon's scheme seems to be the best attempt to explain the affinities of the members of the group. Whether all his genera be adopted, or all the species be included in Lepus, must largely be a matter of individual opinion. 44-6 RODERICK— RODEZ If the latter course be followed, Mr Lyons's genera must be reduced to the rank of sub-genera, and his sub-generic divisions of Lepus and Sylvilagus ignored. (See HARE and RABBIT.) EXTINCT RODENTS Among extinct rodents, only a few of the more important types may be noticed. As to the origin of the order, we are still to a great extent in the dark; and even the relations of the Duplicidentata to the Simplicidentata are not yet fully understood. With regard to the latter point, it is, however, considered probable that both are branches of a common stock, which diverged from each other before all the typical rodent characters were acquired. As to the ancestral stock of the order, it has been suggested that this is re- presented by certain Lower Eocene European and North American mammals, at one time regarded as primitive Primates. In Europe these include Plesiadapis and Protoadapis, and in North America Mixodecles, Microsyops and Cynodontomys; the last three consti- tuting the family Mixodectidae. Possibly the European forms, in which the dental formula has been given as i. f, c. J, p\, m.\, and there is a gap between the incisors and the cheek-teeth, are more nearly related to modern rodents than the American types, and may indeed belong to the same order. On the other hand, the American forms, which have one pair of large chisel-like incisors in the lower jaw, also possess a lower canine, and show no marked gap in front of the cheek-teeth, nor any indication of the characteristic rodent backwards movement of the lower jaw. On these grounds, while admitting that they are allied to the rodents, it has been pointed out that they can scarcely be included in the Rodentia, and the order Proglires has in consequence been proposed for their reception. Whatever may be the true affinity of these problematical mammals, undoubted rodents are known from the Lower Eocene of both Europe and North America. In Europe these form the genus Ischyromys and the family Ischyromyidae, and have premolars f, and all the cheek-teeth low-crowned, with simple cusps or ridges. Possibly they are akin to the Sciuridae. In America, Paramys, with transversely ridged molars, is allied ; and the European Sciuromys should perhaps find a place in the same neighbourhood. A more advanced phase is represented in the European Lower Oligocene by the Pseudosciuridae, with the genera Pseudosciurus, Sciuroid.es, Trechomys, Theridomys, &c., in which part of the masseter passes through the broad infra-orbital canal, and the premolars are } ; the molars being low-crowned, many-rooted and either cusped or ridged. These rodents are thought to be allied to the Anomaluridae ; and it is partly on their evidence that the family Pedetidae is placed next the latter. Here it may be mentioned that Leithia, from the Pleistocene of Malta, originally regarded as a giant dormouse, seems near akin to Anomalurus. In the highly specialized mastoid region of the skull, the North American Oligocene Protoptychus approaches to Dipopodomys, while the contemporary Gymnoptychus and En- toplychus likewise appear referable to the Geomyidae. The Upper Oligocene Cricetodon in Europe and Ewnys in America are the earliest known forerunners of the cricetine Muridae; while at the same time primitive beavers appear in the form of Steneofiber, to be succeeded in the European Pleistocene by the gigantic Trogontherium. The still larger North American Pleistocene Castoroides, known by one species of the size of a bear, and the allied West Indian Amblyrhiza, appear to be specialized beavers, although they have been referred to a family by themselves. Near akin is the North American Miocene family Mylagaulidae, typified by Mylagaulus, but including Mesogaulus and Protogaulus. Although showing some dental characters approximating to the porcupines, these rodents are regarded as allied to the Castoridae, although forming an isolated type. The prominent feature, writes Mr E. S. Riggs, is the unusual development of the premolar to the exclusion of the posterior teeth. Associated with this is the strength and sharpness uf the lower jaw, the prominence and anterior position of the masseteric ridge, and the depth of the ramus from the alveolar line to the angle. These indicate unusual capacity for crushing or grinding; while the last premolar is a crushing implement, which has reached the highest degree of specialization known in Rodentia. It is suggested that these teeth may have been employed for cracking nuts or hard seeds, although also used for grinding. The remarkable North American Ceratogaulus , with a large bony nasal horn, belongs to the same family. To discuss the remaining Miocene and later fossil Simplicidentata would be doing little more than adding to the generic names referable to the various existing families. It may be mentioned, however, that the distribution of these later Tertiary types accords very closely with that of their existing re- latives; the families of South American hystricoids being repre- sented by a number of extinct genera in the formations of Argentina and Brazil. Special mention may be made of Megamys, from the caves of Brazil, which, while apparently allied to the living viscacha, attained dimensions approximating to those of a hippopotamus. As regards the Duplicidentata, it appears that the families Ocho- tonidae and Leporidae had become differentiated as early as the Lower Miocene. Titanomys is the earliest form, from the Middle Miocene, succeeded by Lagopsis, and then by the modern Ochotona. In this line there is a tendency to lose the last upper molar, but in Prolagus, which ranges in the Pliocene from Sardinia and Corsica to Spain, and forms a side-branch, the corresponding lower tooth has likewise disappeared. In contradistinction to Titanomys, in which the cheek-teeth are rooted, is the North American Upper Oligocene Palaeolagus, where they are rootless. In general dental characters, especially the retention of three pairs of molars, this genus approximates to the Leporidae, although in the absence of post-orbital processes and the pattern of the molars it departs less widely from the modern Ochotonjdae than does Prolagus. AUTHORITIES. — The above article is partly based on that by G. E. Dobson in the gth edition of this work. See also H. Winge, Jord Fundene og Nulevende Gnadere (Rodentia), E. Museo Lundi (1888); C. J. Forsyth-Major, " On some Miocene Squirrels, with Remarks on the Dentition and Classification of the Sciuridae," Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1893); " On Fossil and Recent Lagomorpha," Trans. Linnean Soc. London, vol. vii. (1899); T. S. Palmer, "A List of the Generic and Family Names of Rodents," Proc. Zool. Soc. Washing- ton, vol. xi. (1897) ; O. Thomas, " On the Genera of Rodents," Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1896); T. Tuhlberg, Uber das System der Nagethiere (Upsala, 1899); H. F. Osbcrn, "American Eocene Primates, and the Supposed Rodent Family Mixodectidae," Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. xvi. (1902); W. Lyon, " Classification of the Hares and their Allies," Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, vol. xlv. (1903). Also numerous papers by O. Thomas, in Proc. Zool. Soc. London and Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist., and by several American naturalists in transatlantic zoological serials. (R. L.*) RODERICK, or RUADRI (d. 1198), king of Connaught and high king of Ireland, was the son of Turlough (Tordelbach) O'Connor, king of Connaught, who had obtained the over- kingship in 1151, but had lost it again in 1154 through the rise of Muirchertach O'Lochlainn in Ulster. Roderick succeeded to Connaught in 1156, and after ten years' fighting won back the title of high king. His ill-advised persecution of Dermot (Diarmait MacMurchada), king of Leinster, furnished the pretext for the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland. Roderick endeavoured to expel the invaders, but was driven behind the Shannon. He delayed his submission to Henry II. until 1175, when a treaty was concluded at Windsor. Roderick, under this agreement, held Connaught as the vassal of England, and exercised lordship over all the native kings and chiefs of Ireland; in return he undertook to pay an annual tribute. The treaty did not put an end to the wars of the Norman adven- turers against Connaught and Roderick's dependants. He held out till 1191; but then, weary of strife, retired to the cloister. He died in 1198, the last of the high kings of Ireland. See Giraldus Cambrensis, Opera, vol. v. (Rolls Series) ; G. Orpen's Song of Dermot and the Earl (1892) ; W. Stubbs's edition of Benediclus Abbas (Rolls Series); Miss K. Norgate's England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (1887). RODEZ, a town of southern France, capital of the department of Aveyron, 51 m. N.N.E. of Albi by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 11,076; commune, 15,502. Rodez is situated on the southern border of the Causse of Rodez, on an isolated plateau bordered on the E. and S. by the river Aveyron. The cathedral was built between 1277 and 1535. A great Flamboyant rose- window and a gallery in the same style are the chief features of the principal facade, which is flanked by two square towers and has no portal. Each transept has a fine Gothic doorway. On the north side of the building rises a tower (1510-1526) of imposing height (253 ft.). The three upper stages are richly decorated, and the whole is surmounted by a colossal statue of the Virgin. In the cathedral are a fine rood-loft, some good wood-carving and the tombs of several bishops. Other interest- ing buildings are the episcopal palace (i?th and 1 9th centuries), flanked by a massive tower, relic of an older palace; the church of St Amans, of Romanesque architecture, restored in the i8th century; and, among other old houses, the hotel d'Armagnac built in the Renaissance period on the site of the old palace of the counts. The ruins of a Roman amphitheatre still exist in Rodez, which is supplied with water by a Roman aqueduct. About 6 m. to the north of Rodez is the chasm of Tindoul de la Vayssiere, leading to a subterranean river issuing in the springs of the picturesque village of Salles-la-Source. The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and commerce, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a lycee training college for both sexes and an ecclesiastical seminary. The industries include wool-spinning and the weaving of woollen goods. RODGERS— RODNEY Rodez, called Segodunum under the Gauls, and Ruthena under the Romans, was the capital of the Rutheni, a tribe allied to the Arverni and was afterwards the principal town in the district of Rouergue In the 4th century it adopted the Christian faith, and St Amans its first bishop, was elected in 401. During the middle ages contests were rife between the bishops, who held the temporal power in the cite, and the counts in the " bourg." The Albfgenses were defeated near Rodez in 1210. The countship of Rodez, detachec from that of Rouergue at the end of the nth century, belongec first to the viscounts of Carlat, and from the beginning of the I4th century to the counts of Armagnac. From 1360 to 1368 the English held the town. After the confiscation of the estates of the Armagnacs '" '475 the countship passed to the dukes of Alengon and then to the D'Albrets. Henry IV. finally annexed it to the crown of France RODGERS, JOHN (1771-1838), American sailor, was born in Harford county, Maryland, on the iith of July 1771. He entered the United States navy when it was organized in 1798. He was second in command to Commodore James Barren (1760-1851) in the expedition against the Barbary pirates, and succeeded him in the command in 1805. In this year he brought both Tunis and Tripoli to terms, and then returned to America. In 181 1 he was in command as commodore of the U.S. frigate " President " (44) off Annapolis when he heard that an American seaman had been " pressed " by a British frigate off Sandy Hook. Commodore Rodgers was ordered to sea " to protect American commerce," but he may have had verbal instructions to retaliate for the impressment of real or supposed British subjects out of American vessels, which was causing much ill-feeling and was a main cause of the War of 1812. On the i6th of May 1811 he sighted and followed the British sloop " Little Belt " (22), and after some hailing and counter- hailing, of which very different versions are given on either side, a gun was fired, each side accusing the other of the aggression, and an action ensued in which the " Little Belt " was cut to pieces. The incident, which was represented as an accident by the Americans, and believed to be a deliberate aggression by the British navy, had a share in bringing on war. When hostilities broke out Rodgers commanded a squadron on the coast of America, and was wounded by the bursting of one of his guns while pursuing the British frigate " Belvedere." He was subsequently President of the Board of Navy Commissioners in 1815-1824 and in 1827-1837, and acting secretary of the navy in 1823 for two weeks. He died in Philadelphia on the ist of August 1838. His brother, George Washington Rodgers (1787-1832), a brother-in-law of Commodore Perry, served in the War of 1812 and in the war with Algiers (1815). Rear-Admiral John Rodgers (1812-1882), a son of Commodore John Rodgers, served in the Union navy and in 1877-1882 was superintendent of the Naval Observatory at Washington. G. W. Rodgers had two sons who were naval officers, Christopher Raymond Perry Rodgers (1819-1892) and George Washington Rodgers (1822-1863). RODIN, AUGUSTE (1840- ), French sculptor, was born in 1840, in Paris, and at an early age displayed a taste for his art. He began by attending Barye's classes, but did not yield too completely to his influence. From 1864 to 1870, under pressure of necessity, he was employed in the studio of Carrier- Belleuse, where he learnt to deal with the mechanical difficulties of a sculptor. Even so early as 1864 his individuality was manifested in his " Man with a Broken Nose." After the war, finding nothing to do in Paris, Rodin went to Brussels, where from 1871 to 1877 he worked, as the colleague of the Belgian artist Van Rasbourg, on the sculpture for the outside and the caryatides for the interior of the Bourse, besides exhibiting in 1875 a " Portrait of Gamier." In 1877 he contributed to the Salon " The Bronze Age," which was seen again, cast in bronze, at the Salon of 1880, when it took a third-class medal, was purchased by the State, and is now in the museum of the Luxembourg. Between 1882 and 1885 he sent to the Salons busts of " Jean-Paul Laurens " and " Carrier-Belleuse " (1882), " Victor Hugo " and " Dalou " (1884), and " Antonin Proust " (1885). From about this time he chiefly devoted himself to a great decorative composition six metres high, which was not finished for twenty years. This is the " Portal of Hell," the 447 most elaborate perhaps of all Rodin's works, executed to order for the Musee des arts decoratifs. It is inspired mainly by Dante's Inferno, the poet himself being seated at the top, while at his feet, in under-cut relief, we see the writhing crowd of the damned, torn by the frenzy of passion and the anguish of despair. The lower part consists of two bas-reliefs, in their midst two masks of tormented faces. Round these run figures of women and centaurs. Above the door three men cling to each other in an attitude of despair. After beginning this titanic undertaking, and while continuing to work on it, Rodin executed for the town of Damvillers a statue of " Bastien- Lepage "; for Nancy a " Monument to Claude le Lorrain," representing the Chariot of the Sun drawn by horses; and for Calais " The Burgesses of Calais " surrendering the keys of the town and imploring mercy. In this, Rodin, throwing over all school tradition, represents the citizens not as grouped on a square or circular plinth, but walking in file. This work was exhibited at the Petit Gallery in 1889. At the time of the secession of the National Society of Fine Arts, or New Salon, in 1890, Rodin withdrew from the old Society of French Artists, and exhibited in the New Salon the bust of his friend " Puvis de Chavannes " (1892), " Contemplation " and a " Caryatid," both in marble, and the " Monument to Victor Hugo " (1897), intended for the gardens of the Luxembourg. In this the poet is represented nude, as a powerful old man extending his right arm with a sovereign gesture, the Muses standing behind him. In 1898 Rodin exhibited two very dissimilar works, " The Kiss," exhibited again in 1900, a marble group represent- ing Paolo Malatesta and Francesca da Rimini, and the sketch in plaster for a " Statue of Balzac." This statue, a commission from the Society of Men of Letters, had long been expected, and was received with vehement dissensions. Some critics regarded this work, in which Balzac was represented in his voluminous dressing-gown, as the first-fruits of a new phase of sculpture; others, on the contrary, declared that it was incomprehensible, if not ridiculous. This was the view taken by the society who had ordered it, and who " refused to recognize Rodin's rough sketch as a statue of Balzac, " and withdrew the commission, giving it to the sculptor Falguiere. Falguiere exhibited his model in 1899. In the same Salon, Rodin, to prove that the conduct of the society had made no change in his friend- ship with Falguiere, exhibited a bust in bronze of his rival, as well as one of " Henri Rochefort." In 1000, the city of Paris, to do honour to Rodin, erected at its own expense a building close to one of the entrances to the Great Exhibition, in which almost all of the works of the artist were to be seen, more especially the great " Portal of Hell," still quite incomplete, the " Balzac," and a host of other works, many of them unfinished or mere rough sketches. Here, too, were to be seen some of Rodin's designs, studies and water-colour drawings. He has also executed a great many etchings and sgraffiti on porcelain for the manufactory at Sevres. His best-known etching is the portrait of Victor Hugo. Many of Rodin's works are in private collections, and at the Luxembourg he is represented by a " Danai'd " (in marble), a " Saint John " (in bronze, 1880), " She who made the Helmet " (bronze statuette), the busts of " J. P. Laurens " and of " A Lady " and other works. In the Musee Galliera is a very fine bust of Victor Hugo. Rodin's " Hand of God " was exhibited in the New Gallery, London, in 1905. In 1904 Mr Ernest Beckett (Lord Grimthorpe) pre- sented the British nation with the sculptor's " Le Penseur." [n the same year Rodin became president of the International Society of Sculptors, Painters and Engravers, in succession to James McNeill Whistler. See SCULPTURE (Modern French) ; also Geffroy, La Vie arlislique Taris, 1892, 1893, 1899, 1900); L. Maillard, Rodin (Paris, 1899); ^a, Plume, Rodin el son ceuvre (Paris, 1900); Alexandra, Le Bal-.ac de Rodin (Paris, 1898); H. Boutet, Dix dessins choisis de Auguste Rodin (1904); R. Dircks, Auguste Rodin (1904); H. Duhem, August Rodin (1903); C. Black, Auguste Rodin: the Man, his Ideas and his Works (1905). RODNEY, GEORGE BRYDGES RODNEY. BARON (1718- 1792), English admiral, second son of Henry Rodney of 448 RODOMONTADE— RODOSTO Walton-on-Thames, was born in February 1718. His father had served in Spain under the earl of Peterborough, and on quitting the army served as captain in a marine corps which was dis- banded in 1713. George was sent to Harrow, being appointed, on leaving, by warrant dated the 2ist of June 1732, a volunteer on board the " Sunderland." While serving on the Mediter- ranean station he was made lieutenant in the " Dolphin," his promotion dating the isth of February 1739. In 1742 he attained the rank of post-captain, having been appointed to the " Plymouth " on the gth of November. After serving in home waters, he obtained command of the " Eagle " (60), and in this ship took part in Hawke's victory off Ushant (i4th October 1747) over the French fleet. On that day Rodney gained his first laurels for gallantry, under a chief to whom he was in a measure indebted for subsequent success. On the gth of May 1749 he was appointed governor and com- mander-in-chief of Newfoundland, with the rank of commodore, it being usual at that time to appoint a naval officer, chiefly on account of the fishery interests. He was elected M.P. for Saltash in 1751, and married his first wife, Jane Compton (1730-1757), sister of the 7th earl of Northampton, in 1753. During the Seven Years' War Rodney rendered important services. In 1757 he had a share in the expedition against Rochefort, commanding the " Dublin " (74). Next year, in the same ship, he served under Boscawen at the taking of Louisburg (Cape Breton). On the igth of May 1759 he became a rear-admiral, and was shortly after given command "of a small squadron intended to destroy a large number of flat-bottomed boats and stores which were being collected at Havre for an invasion of the English coasts. He bombarded the town for two days and nights, and inflicted great loss of war-material on the enemy. In July 1760, with another small squadron, he succeeded in taking many more of the enemy's flat-bottomed boats and in blockading the coast as far as Dieppe. Elected M.P. for Penryn in 1761, he was in October of that year appointed commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands station, and within the first three months of 1762 had reduced the important island of Martinique, while both St Lucia and Grenada had surrendered to his squadron. During the siege of Fort Royal (now Fort de France) his sea- men and marines rendered splendid service on shore. At the peace of 1763 Admiral Rodney returned home, having been during his absence made vice-admiral of the Blue and having received the thanks of both houses of parliament. In 1764 Rodney was created a baronet, and the same year he married Henrietta, daughter of John Clies of Lisbon. From 1765 to 1770 he was governor of Greenwich Hospital, and on the dissolution of parliament in 1768 he successfully contested Northampton at a ruinous cost. When appointed commander- in-chief of the Jamaica station in 1771 he lost his Greenwich post, but a few months later received the office of rear-admiral of Great Britain. Till 1774 he held the Jamaica command, and during a period of quiet was active in improving the naval yards on his station. Sir George struck his flag with a feeling of disappointment at not obtaining the governorship of Jamaica, and was shortly after forced to settle in Paris. Election ex- penses and losses at play in fashionable circles had shattered his fortune, and he could not secure payment of the salary as rear-admiral of Great Britain. In February 1778, having just been promoted admiral of the White, he used every pos- sible exertion to obtain a command, to free himself from his money difficulties. By May he had, through the splendid generosity of his Parisian friend Marshal Biron, effected the latter task, and accordingly he returned to London with his children. The debt was repaid out of the arrears due to him on his return. The story that he was offered a French com- mand is fiction. Sir George was appointed once more commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands late in 1779. His orders were to relieve Gibraltar on his way to the West Indies. He captured a Spanish convoy off Cape Finisterre on the 8th of January 1780, and eight days later defeated the Spanish admiral Don Juan de Langara off Cape St Vincent, taking or destroying seven ships. On the 1 7th of April an action, which, owing to the careless- ness of some of Rodney's captains, was indecisive, was fought off Martinique with the French admiral Guichen. Rodney, acting under orders, captured the valuable Dutch island of St Eustatius on the 3rd of February 1781. It had been a great entrepot of neutral trade, and was full of booty, which Rodney confiscated. As large quantities belonged to English merchants, he was entangled in a series of costly lawsuits. After a few months in England, recruiting his health and defending himself in Parliament, Sir George .returned to his command in February 1782, and a running engagement with the French fleet on the gth of April led up to his crowning victory off Dominica, when on the i2th of April with thirty- five sail of the line he defeated the comte de Grasse, who had thirty-three sail. The French inferiority in numbers was more thag counterbalanced by the greater size and superior sailing qualities of their ships, yet five were taken and one sunk, after eleven hours' fighting. This important battle saved Jamaica and ruined French naval prestige, while it enabled Rodney to write: " Within two little years I have taken two Spanish, one French and one Dutch admirals." A long and wearisome controversy exists as to the originator of the man- osuvre of " breaking the line " in this battle, but the merits of the victory have never seriously been affected by any differ- ence of opinion on the question. A shift of wind broke the French line of battle, and advantage was taken of this by the English ships in two places. Rodney arrived home in August to receive unbounded honour from his country. He had already been created Baron Rodney of Rodney Stoke, Somerset, by patent of the iglh of June 1782, and the House of Commons had voted him a pension of £2000 a year. From this time he led a quiet country life till his death, which occurred on the 24th of May 1792, in London. He was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son, George (1753-1802), from whom the present baron is descended. Rodney was unquestionably a most able officer, but he was also vain, selfish and unscrupulous, both in seeking prize money, and in using his position to push the fortunes of his family. He made his son a post-captain at fifteen. He was accused by his second-in-command, Hood, of sacrificing the interest of the service to his own profit, and of showing want of energy in, pursuit- of the French on the i2th of April 1782. It must be remembered that he was then prematurely old and racked by disease. See General Mundy, Life and Correspondence of Admiral Lord Rodney (2 vols., 1830); David Hannay, Life of Rodney; Rodney letters in gth Report of Hist. MSS. Com., pt. iii.; " Memoirs," in Naval Chronicle, i. 353-93; and Charnock, Biographia Navalis, v. 204-28. Lord Rodney published in his lifetime (probably 1789) Letters to His Majesty's Ministers, &c., relative to St Eustatius, &c., of which there is a copy in the British Museum. Most of these letters are printed in Mundy's Life, vol. ii., though with many variant readings. RODOMONTADE, or RHODOMONTADE, a term for boastful, extravagant language or any inflated bragging speech. The word refers to the brave but boastful Saracen leader Rodomonte in Ariosto's Orlando Furioso. The name (in the form Roda- mante) appears earlier in Boiardo's Orlando Innamoralo. It is supposed to represent a compound of rodare, to roll, and monte, mountain. RODOSTO (Turkish, Tekir Dagh), a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople, on the coast of the Sea of Marmora, 78 m. W. of Constantinople. Pop. (1905) about 35,000, of whom half are Greeks. The picturesque Bay of Rodosto is enclosed by the great promontory of Combos, a spur about 2000 ft. in height from the hilly plateau to the north. The church of Panagia Rheumatocratissa contains the graves, with long Latin inscriptions, of the Hungarians who were banished from their country in 1686 by the imperialist captors of Buda. Rodosto was long a great depot for the produce of the Adrianople district, but its trade suffered when Dedeagatch became the terminus of the railway up the Maritza, and the town is now RODRIGUEZ— ROE, E. P. dependent on its maritime trade, especially its exports to Constantinople. It is the administrative centre of a district (sanjak) producing and exporting barley, oats, spelt and canary seed, and largely planted with mulberry trees, on which silk- worms are fed. White cocoons are exported to western Europe (394 cwt. in 1901), silkworms' eggs to Russia and Persia. Rodosto is the ancient Rhaedestus or Bisanthe, said to have been founded by Samians. In Xenophon's Anabasis it is mentioned as in the kingdom of the Thracian prince Seuthes. Its restoration by Justinian in the 6th century A.D. is chronicled by Procopius. In 813 and again in 1206 it was sacked by the Bulgarians, but it continues to appear as a place of considerable note in later Byzantine history. ' RODRIGUEZ (officially RODRIGUES), an island in the Indian Ocean in 19° 41' S., 63° 23' E.; the most important dependency of the British colony of Mauritius, from which it is distant 344 nautical miles. It is a station on the " all-British " cable route between South Africa and Australia, telegraphic communication with Mauritius being established in 1902. With a length of 13 m. E. and W., and a breadth of 3 to 6 m. N. and S., it has an area estimated at 42! sq. m. On all sides it is surrounded by a fringing reef of coral, studded with islets. This reef, only 100 yds. wide at the eastern end of the island, extends westward 3 m., and both N. and S. forms a flat area partly dry at low water. Two passages through the reef are available for large vessels — these leading respectively to -Port Mathurin on the N. coast and to Port South-East. The island was at one period believed to consist of granite over- laid with limestone and other modern formations, and its supposed formation caused it to be regarded as a remnant of the hypothetical continent of Lemuria. The investigations made by an expedition sent by the British government in 1874 showed, however, that the island is a mass of volcanic rock, mainly a doleritic lava, rich in olivine. The land consists largely of a series of hills. The main ridge, which runs parallel to the longest diameter, rises abruptly on the east, more gradually on the west, where there is a wide plain of coralline limestone, studded with caves, some stalactitic. Of several peaks on the main ridge the highest is Mt. Limon, 1300 ft. above the sea. The ridge is deeply cut by ravines, the upper parts of which show successive belts of lava separated by thin beds of cinders, agglomerate and coloured clays. In places the cliffs rise 300 ft. and exhibit twelve distinct lava flows. The climate is like that of Mauritius, but Rodriguez is more subject than Mauritius to hurricanes during the north-west monsoon (November to April). Flora and Fauna. — When discovered, and down into the I7th century, Rodriguez was clothed with fine timber trees; but goats, cattle and bush-fires have combined to destroy the great bulk of the old vegetation, and the indigenous plants have in many cases been ousted by intrusive foreigners. Parts are, however, still well wooded, and elsewhere there is excellent pasturage. The sweet potato, manioc, maize, millet, the sugar-cane, cotton, coffee and rice grow well. Tobacco is also cultivated. Wheat is seldom seen, mainly because of the parakeets and the Java sparrows. Beans (Phaseolus lunatus), lentils, gram (Cicer arietinum), dholl (Cajanus indicus) and ground-nuts are all grown to a certain extent in spite of ravages by rats. Mangoes, bananas, guavas, pine- apples, custard-apples, and especially oranges, citrons and limes flourish. Of the timber trees the most common are Elaeodendron orientate, much used in carpentry and for pirouges, and Latania Verschaffelti (Leguat's plantane). At least two species of screw-pine (Pandanus heterocarpus, Balf. fil., and P. tenuifolius) occur freely throughout the island. The total number of known species, accord- ing to Professor I. B. Balfour, is 470, belonging to 85 families and 293 genera. The families represented by the greatest number of species are Gramineae, Leguminosae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae, Rubiaceae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Liliaceae, Compositae. Mathurina penduliflora (Turneraceae) is interesting, as its nearest congener is in Central America. Of 33 species of mosses 17 are peculiar. Variability of species and heterophylly are characteristic of the flora to quite an unusual degree. At present the only indigenous mammal is a species of fruit- eating bat (Pteropus rodericensis), and the introduced species are familiar creatures as deer, pig, rabbit, rat, mouse, &c. ; but down to a recent period the island was the home of a very large land- tortoise (Testudo Vosmaeri or rodericensis), and its limestone caves have yielded a large number of skeletons of the dodo-like solitaire (Pezophaps solitanus), which still built its mound-like nest in the island in the close of the I7th century, but is now extinct (see DODO). Deer, once plentiful, had become very scarce by the beginning of the 2Oth century, having been indiscriminately hunted by the inhabitants. Of indigenous birds 13 species have been registered. The guinea-fowl (introduced) has become exceedingly abundant, partly owing to a protective game-law; and a francolin (F. poniicerianus), popularly a xxni. 15 partridge," is also common. 449 marine fish-fauna docs not differ from that of Mauritius, and the freshwater species, with the exception of Muf.il rodericensis and Myxus caecuticus, are common to all the Mascarenes. Thirty-five species of crustaceans are known. The insects (probably very imperfectly registered) comprise 60 species of Coleoptera, 15 Hymen- optera, 21 Lepidoptera, 15 Orthoptera, and 20 Hemiptera. Forty- nine species of coral have been collected, showing a close affinity to those of Mauritius, Madagascar and the Seychelles. History.— Rodriguez or Diego Ruy's Island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1645. In 1690 Duquesne prevailed on the Dutch Government to send a body of French Huguenots to the Island of Bourbon, at that time, he believed, abandoned by the French authorities. As the refugees, however, found the French in possession, they proceeded to Rodriguez, and there eight of their number were landed on the joth of April 1691 with a promise that they should be visited by their compatriots within two years. The two years were spent without misadventure, but, instead of waiting for the arrival of their friends, the seven colonists (for one had meanwhile died) left the isjand on the 8th of May 1693 and made their way to Mauritius, where they were treated with great cruelty by the governor. The account of the enterprise by Francis Leguat — Voyages et avcntures (London, 1708), or, as it is called in the English translation, A New Voyage to the East Indies (London, 1708) — is a garrulous and amusing narrative, and was for a long time almost the only source of information about Rodriguez. His description of the solitaire is unique. From the Dutch the island passed to the French, who colon- ized it from Mauritius. Large estates were cultivated, and the islanders enjoyed considerable prosperity. In 1800-10 Rodri- guez was seized by the British, in whose possession it has since remained. The abolition of slavery proved disastrous to the prosperity of the island, and in 1843 the population had sunk to about 250. Since that time there has been a gradual recovery in the economic condition and a steady increase in population. In 1881 the inhabitants numbered 1436; in 1904 the total had risen to 3681. In 1907 the total population was 4231. The inhabitants are mainly of African origin, being descendants of slaves introduced by the French and negro immigrants direct from Africa. There are a few families of European descent (besides the comparatively large staff maintained by the Eastern Telegraph Company) and a small colony of Indians and Chinese. The bulk of the people are French-speaking and Roman Catholics. There are two small settlements, Port Mathurin, the capital, and Gabriel, in the centre of the island. The chief industries are fisheries and cattle-rearing. Salt fish is the principal export, next in importance coming goats, pigs and horned cattle and tobacco. The value of the exports for the four years 1903-06 was £50,894; of the imports for the same period, £54,710. The island is administered by a magistrate appointed by the governor of Mauritius, and the laws are regulations issued by the governor in executive council. The revenue, some £1000 a year, is about half the expenditure in- curred, the balance being furnished from the Mauritian treasury. The government maintains a hospital and schools, and pays the salary of a Roman Catholic priest. Leguat 's Voyage, edited by Capt. P. Oliver, forms vols. 82 and 83 of the Hakluyt Soc. publications (1891). See also C. Grant, Hist, of Mauritius and the Neighbouring Islands (1801); Higgin, in Jour. R. G. Soc. (1849) ; the Reports of the Transit of Venus Expedition, 1874-75, published as an extra volume of the Philosophical Trans- actions (clxviii., London, 1879) (Botany, by I. B. Balfour; Petrology, by N. S. Maskelyne, &c.); Behm, in Petermann's Mittheilungen (1880); and the annual reports on Mauritius. ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888), American novelist, was born in Moodna, Orange county, N.Y., on the 7th of March 1838. He studied at Williams College and at Auburn Theo- logical Seminary; in 1862 became chaplain of the Second New York Cavalry, U.S.V., and in 1864 chaplain of Hampton Hospital, at Hampton, Virginia. In 1866-74 he was pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Highland Falls, N.Y. In 1874 he removed to Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, where he devoted himself to the writing of fiction and to horticulture. He died on the 19th of July 1888. During the Civil War he wrote weekly 45° letters to the New York Evangelist, and subsequently lectured on the war and wrote for periodicals. Among his novels were Barriers Burned Away (1872), which first appeared as a serial in the Evangelist and made him widely known; What Can she Do? (1873), Opening of a Chestnut Burr (1874), From Jest to Earnest (1875), Near to Nature's Heart (1876), A Knight of the Nineteenth Century (1877), A Face Illumined (1878), A Day of Fate (1880), Without a Home(iSSi), Nature's Serial Story (1884), A Young Girl's Wooing (1884), An Original Belle (1885), He Fell in Love with his Wife (1886), The Earth Trembled (1887) and Miss Lou (left unfinished, 1888). He wrote also Play and Profit in My Garden (1873), Success with Small Fruits (1881) and The Home Acre (1887). His novels were very popular in their day, especially with middle-class readers in England and America, and were translated into several European languages. Their strong moral and religious purpose, and their being written by a clergyman, did much to break down a Puritan prejudice in America against works of fiction. See E. P. Roe-: Reminiscences of his Life (New York, 1899), by his sister, Mary A. Roe. ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581-1644), English diplo- matist, son of Robert Rowe, and of Elinor, daughter of Robert Jermy of Worstead in Norfolk, was born at Low Leyton near Wanstead in Essex, and at the age of twelve (1593) matriculated at Magdalen College, Oxford. Shortly afterwards he joined one of the inns of court, and was made esquire of the body to Queen Elizabeth. He was knighted by James I. in 1605, and became intimate with Henry, prince of Wales, and also with his sister Elizabeth, afterwards queen of Bohemia, with whom he maintained a correspondence and whose cause he cham- pioned. In 1610 he was sent by Prince Henry on a mission to the West Indies, during which he visited Guiana and the river Amazon, but failed then, and in two subsequent expedi- tions, to discover the gold which was the object of his travels. In 1614 he was elected M.P. for Tamworth, and in 1621 for Cirencester. His permanent reputation was mainly secured by the success which attended his embassy in 1615-18 to the court at Agra of the Great Mogul, Jahangir, the principal object of the mission being to obtain protection for an English factory at Surat. Appointed ambassador to the Porte in 1621, which he even then describes as being " irrevocably sick," he distinguished himself by further successes. He obtained an extension of the privileges of the English merchants, concluded a treaty with Algiers in 1624, by which he secured the liberation of several hundred English captives, and gained the support, by an English subsidy, of the Transylvanian Prince Bethlen Gabor for the European Protestant alliance and the cause of the Palatinate. Through his friendship with the patriarch of the Greek Church, Cyril Lucaris, the famous Codex Alexandrinus was presented to James I., and Roe himself collected several valuable MSS. which he subsequently pre- sented to the Bodleian library. In 1629 he was again suc- cessful in another mission undertaken to arrange a peace between Sweden and Poland. Subsequently Roe negotiated treaties with Danzig and Denmark, returning home in 1630, when a gold medal was struck in his honour. In January 1637 he was appointed chancellor of the Order of the Garter, with a pension of £1200 a year. Subsequently he took part in the peace conferences at Hamburg, Regensburg and Vienna, and used his influence to obtain the restoration of the Palatinate, the emperor declaring that he had " scarce ever met with an ambassador till now." In June 1640 he was made a privy councillor, and in October was returned to parliament as member for the university of Oxford, where his unrivalled knowledge of foreign affairs, commerce and finance, together with his learning and eloquence, gained for him in another sphere considerable reputation. He died on the 6th of Novem- ber 1644. He had married Eleanor, daughter of Sir Thomas Carr of Stamford, Northamptonshire. Roe was a distinguished and most successful diplomatist, an accomplished scholar and a patron of learning, while his personal character was unblemished. ROE, SIR T.— ROEBUCK, J. His Journal of the mission to the Mogul, several times printed, has been re-edited, with an introduction by W. Foster, for the Hakluyt Society (1899). This is a valuable contribution to the history of India in the early iyth century. Of his correspondence, Negotiations in his Embassy to the Ottoman Porte, 1621-28, vol. i. was published in 1740, but the work was not continued. Other correspondence, consisting of letters relating to his mission to Gustavus Adolphus, was edited by S. R. Gardiner for the Camden Society Miscellany (1875), vol. vii., and his correspondence with Lord Carew in 1615 and 1617 by Sir F. Maclean for the same society in 1860. Several of his MSS. are in the British Museum collections. Roe published a True and Faithful Relation . . . concerning the Death of Sultan Osman . . . , 1622; a translation from Sarpi, Discourse upon the Resolution taken in the Valteline (1628) ; and in 1613 Dr T. Wright published Quatuor Colloquia, consisting of theological disputations between himself and Roe; a poem by Roe is printed in Notes and Queries, iv. Ser. v. 9. The Swedish Intelligencer (1632-33), including an account of the career of Gustavus Adolphus and of the Diet of Ratisbon (Regensburg), is attributed to Roe in the catalogue of the British Museum. Several of his speeches, chiefly on currency and financial questions, were also published. Two other works in MS. are mentioned by Wood: Compendious Relation of the Proceedings . . . of the Imperial Diet at Ratisbon and Journal of Several Proceedings of the Order of the Garter. ROEBLING, JOHN AUGUSTUS (1806-1869), American civil engineer, was born at Miihlhausen, Prussia, on the 6th of June 1806. Soon after his graduation from the polytechnic school at Berlin he removed to the United States, and in 1831 entered on the practice of his profession in western Pennsylvania. He established at Pittsburg a manufactory of wire-rope, and in May 1845 completed his first important structure, a suspended aqueduct across the Allegheny river. This was followed by the Monongahela suspension bridge at Pittsburg and several suspended aqueducts on the Delaware & Hudson Canal. Removing his wire manufactory to Trenton, New Jersey, he began, in 1851, the erection at Niagara Falls of a long span wire suspension bridge with double roadway, for railway and carriage use (see BRIDGE), which was completed in 1855. Owing to the novelty of its design, the most eminent engineers regarded this bridge as foredoomed to failure; but, with its complete success, demonstrated by long use, the number of suspension bridges rapidly multiplied, the use of wire-ropes instead of chain-cables becoming all but universal. The completion, in 1867, of the still more remarkable suspension bridge over the Ohio river at Cincinnati, with a clear span of 1057 ft., added to Roebling's reputation, and his design for the great bridge spanning the East river between New York and Brooklyn was accepted. While personally engaged in laying out the towers for the bridge, Roebling received an accidental injury, which resulted in his death, at Brooklyn, from tetanus, on the 22nd of July 1869. The bridge was completed under the direction of his son, Washington Augustus Roebling (b. 1837), who introduced several modifications in the original plans. ROEBOURNE, a settlement of De Witt county, Western Australia, 8 m. from the N.W. coast, on the Harding river, 920 m. direct N. of Perth. It is the centre of one of the richest and most varied mineral districts in the colony; gold, silver, tin, lead, copper, diamonds and other precious stones are found. There are extensive pearl fisheries off its port at Cossack Bay. ROEBUCK, JOHN (1718-1794), English inventor, was born in 1718 at Sheffield, where his father had a prosperous manu- facturing business. After attending the grammar school at Sheffield and Dr Philip Doddridge's academy at Northampton, he studied medicine at Edinburgh, where he was imbued with a taste for chemistry by the lectures of William Cullen and Joseph Black, and he finally graduated M.D. at Leiden in 1742. He started practice at Birmingham, but devoted much of his time to chemistry, especially in its practical applications. Among the mostx important of his early achievements in this field was the introduction, in 1746, of leaden condensing chambers for use in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. To- gether with Samuel Garbett he erected a factory at Prestonpans, near Edinburgh, for the production of the acid in 1749, and for some years enjoyed a monopoly; but ultimately his methods became known, and, having omitted to take out patents for ROEBUCK, J. A.— ROEDERER them at the proper time, he was unable to restrain others from making use of them. Engaging next in the manufacture of iron, he in 1760 established the ironworks which still exist at Carron, in Stirlingshire. There he introduced various improve- ments in the methods of production, including the conversion (patented in 1762) of cast iron into malleable iron " by the action of a hollow pit-coal fire " urged by a powerful artificial blast. His next enterprise was less successful. He leased a colliery at Bo'ness to supply coal to the Carron works, but in sinking for new seams encountered such quantities of water that the Newcomen engine which he used was unable to keep the pit clear. In this difficulty he heard of James Watt's engine and catered into communication with its inventor. This engine, then at an early stage of its development, also proved in- adequate, but Roebuck became a strong believer in its future and in return for a two-thirds share in the invention assisted Watt in perfecting its details. His troubles at the colliery, however, aggravated by the failure of an attempt to manu- facture alkali, brought him into pecuniary straits, and he parted with his share in Watt's engine to Matthew Boulton in return for the cancellation of a debt of £1200 which he owed the latter. Subsequently, though he had to give up his interest in the Bo'ness works, he continued to manage them and to reside at the neighbouring Kinneil House, where he occupied himself with farming on a considerable scale. He died on the 1 7th of July 1794. ROEBUCK, JOHN ARTHUR (1801-1879), British politician, was born at Madras on the 28th of December 1801. After the death of his father, a civil servant, his mother's second marriage transferred him to Canada, where he was chiefly brought up. He came to England in 1824, was called to the bar (Q.C. 1843), became intimate with the leading radical and utilitarian re- formers, was elected M.P. for Bath in 1832, and took up that general attitude of hostility to the government of the day, be it what it might, which he retained throughout his life. At all times conspicuous for his eloquence, honesty and recal- citrancy, he twice came with especial prominence before the public — in 1838, when, although at the time without a seat in parliament, he appeared at the bar of the Commons to protest, in the name of the Canadian Assembly, against the suspension of the Canadian constitution; and in 1855, when, having over- thrown Lord Aberdeen's ministry by carrying a resolution for the appointment of a committee of inquiry into the mismanage- ment in the Crimean War, he presided over its proceedings. In his latter years his political opinions became greatly modified, but with one interruption he retained his seat for Sheffield, which he had won in 1849, until his death in London on the 3oth of November 1879. ROE-BUCK, the smallest of the British deer (a full-grown buck standing not more than 27 in. high at the shoulder), the typical representative of a genus (Capreolus) in which the antlers lack a brow-tine and belong to what is characterized as the forked type, while the tail is rudimentary (see DEER). The antlers are short, upright and deeply furrowed, the beam forking at about two-thirds of its length, and the upper prong again dividing, thus making.three points. The coat in summer is foxy red above and white below; in winter this changes to a greyish fawn, with a white rump-patch. The roe-buck or roe-deer (Capreolus caprea, or C. capreolus) inhabits southern and temperate Europe as far east as the Caucasus, where, as in Syria, it is probably represented by another race or species. It frequents woods, preferring such as have a large growth of underwood and are in the neighbourhood of cultivated ground. The latter it visits in the evening in search of food; and where roe are numerous the damage done to growing crops is consider- able. Pairing takes place in August, but the fawns are not born till the following May. According to one theory, the germ lies dormant until December, when it begins to develop; but it is now believed that this bng gestation is due to slow rather than arrested development. Roe were formerly abundant in all the wooded parts of Great Britain, but were gradually exter- minated, till a century and a half ago they were unknown south of Perthshire. Since then the increase of plantations has led to the partial restoration of the species in the south of Scotland and the north of England; and it was reintroduced into Dorset early in the ipth century. These deer take readily to the water, and they have been known to swim across lochs more than half a mile in breadth. The Siberian roe (C. pygar- gus), which is common in the Altai, is larger and paler than the type species, with shorter and more hairy ears, a larger white rump-patch, and small irregular snags on the inner border of the antlers. The Manchurian roe (Capreolus manchuricus) is about the size of the European species, with antlers of the type of those of the Siberian roe, but more slender, and the coat shorter. Although described in 1889 as a local variety of the Siberian species, the Manchurian roe really appears, both as regards stature, hairiness and the black and white markings on the muzzle, much more nearly related to the European animal. This is the more remarkable seeing that the habitats of the two are separated by such an enormous tract of country. (R. L.*) ROEDERER, PIERRE LOUIS, COMTE (1754-1835), French politician and economist, was born at Metz on the isth of February 1754, the son of a magistrate. At the age of twenty- five he became councillor at the parlement of Metz, and was commissioned in 1787 to draw up a list of remonstrances. His work advocating the suppression of internal customs houses (Suppression des douanes inttrieures) , published the same year, is an elaborate treatise on the la.ws of commerce and on the theory of customs imposts. In 1788 he published Deputation aux £,tats g&neraux, a pamphlet remarkable for its bold exposition of liberal principles, and partly on the strength of this he was elected deputy to the states-general by the Third Estate of the bailliage of Metz. In the Con- stituent Assembly he was a member of the committee of taxes (comite des contributions), prepared a scheme for a new system of taxation, drew up a law on patents, occupied himself with the laws relating to stamps and assignats, and was successful in opposing the introduction of an income tax. After the close of the Constituent Assembly he was elected, on the nth of November 1791, procureur general syndic of the depart- ment of Paris. The directory of the department, of which the due de la Rochefoucauld was president, was at this time in pronounced opposition to the advanced views that dominated the Legislative Assembly and the Jacobin Club, and Roederer was not altogether in touch with his colleagues. Thus he took no share in signing their protest against the law against the non-juring clergy, as a violation of religious liberty. But the directory did not long survive. With the growing anarchy of the capital many of its members resigned and fled, and their places could not be filled up. Roederer himself has left in his Chronique des cinquante jours (1832) an account of the pitiable part played by" the directory of the department in the critical period between the 2oth of June and the loth of August 1792. Seeing the perilous drift of things, he had tried to get into touch with the king; and it was on his advice that Louis, on the fatal loth, took refuge in the Assembly. His conduct arousing suspicion, he went into hiding, and did not emerge again until after the fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he was made a member of the Institute, was appointed to a professorship of political economy, and founded the Journal d'tconomie publique, de morale et de legislation. Having escaped deportation at the time of the coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor, he took part in the revolution of 18 Brumaire, and was appointed by Napoleon member of the council of state and senator. Under the Empire, Roederer, whose public influence was very considerable, was Joseph Bonaparte's minister of finance at Naples (1806), administrator of the grand duchy of Berg (1810), and imperial commissary in the south of France. During the Hundred Days he was created a peer of France. The Restoration government stripped him of his offices and dignities, but he recovered the title of peer of France in 1832. He died on the i~th of December 1835. His son, Baron Antoine Marie Roederer 452 ROEMER, F. A.— ROGATION DAYS (1782-1865), was also a politician of some note in his day. Among P. L. Roederer's writings may be mentioned Louis XII. (1820); Francois I. (1825); Comedies historiques (1827-30); L' Esprit de la revolution de 1789 (1831); La Premiere et la deuxieme annee du consulat de Bonaparte (1802); Chronique des cinquante jours, an account of the events of the loth of August 1792; and Memoire pour servir a Vhistoire de la societe polie en France (1835). See his (Euyres, edited by his son (Paris, 1853 seq.); Sainte- Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. viii. ; M. Mignet, Notices historiques (Paris, 1853). ROEMER, FRIEDRICH ADOLPH (1800-1869), German geologist, was born at Hildesheim, in Prussia, on the I4th of April 1809. His father was a lawyer and councillor of the high court of justice. In 1845 he became professor of mineralogy and geology at Clausthal, and in 186,2 director of the School of Mines. He first described the Cretaceous and Jurassic strata of Germany in elaborate works entitled Die Versteinerungen des N orddeutschen Oolithen-gebirges (1836-39), Die Versteinerungen des N orddeutschen Kreidegebirges (1840- 1841) and Die Versteinerungen des Harzgebirges (1843). He died at Clausthal on the 25th of November 1869. His brother, CARL FERDINAND VON ROEMER (1818-1891), who had been educated for the legal profession at Gottingen, also became interested in geology, and abandoning law in 1840, studied science at the university of Berlin, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1842. Two years later he published his first work, Das Rheinische Ubergangsgebirge (1844), in which he dealt with the older rocks and fossils. In 1845 he paid a visit to America, and devoted a year and a half to a careful study of the geology of Texas and other Southern states. He published at Bonn in 1849 a general work entitled Texas, while the results of his investigations of the Cretaceous rocks and fossils were published three years later in a treatise, Die Kreidebildungen von Texas und ihre organischen Einschliisse (1852), which included also a general account of the geology, and gained for him the title " Father of the geology of Texas." Subsequently he published at Breslau Die Silurische Fauna des westlichen Tennessee (1860). During the preparation of these works he was from 1847 to 1855 " privat-docent " at Bonn, and was then appointed professor of geology, palaeontology and mineralogy in the university of Breslau, a post which he held with signal success as a teacher until his death. As a palaeontologist he made important contributions to our knowledge especially of the invertebrata of the Devonian and older rocks. He assisted H. G. Bronn with the third edition of the Lelhaea geognoslica (1851-56), and subse- quently he laboured on an enlarged and revised edition, of which he published one section, Lethaea palaeozoica (1876- 1883). In 1862 he was called on to superintend the prepara- tion of a geological map of Upper Silesia, and the results of his researches were embodied in his Geologie von Oberschlesien (3 vols., 1870). As a mineralogist he was likewise well known, more particularly by his practical teachings and by the collec- tion he formed in the Museum at Breslau. He died at Breslau on the 1 4th of December 1891. ROEMER, OLE (Latinized OLAUS) (1644-1710), Danish astrono- mer, was born at Aarhuus in Jutland on the 25th of September 1644. He became in 1662 the pupil and amanuensis of Erasmus Bartholinus at Copenhagen, and assisted J. Picard in 1671 to determine the geographical position of Tycho Brahe's observa- tory (Uraniborg on the island of Hveen). In 1672 he accom- panied Picard to Paris, where he remained nine years, occupied with observations at the new royal observatory and hydraulic works at Versailles and Marly. On the 22nd of November 1675 he read a paper before the Academy on the successive propagation of light as revealed by a certain inequality in the motion of the first of Jupiter's satellites. A scientific mission to England in 1679 made him acquainted with Newton, Halley and Flamsteed. In i68i,on the summons of Christian V., king of Denmark, he returned to Copenhagen as royal mathe- matician and professor of astronomy in the university ; and from 1688 he discharged, besides, many important admini- strative functions, including those of mayor (1705), chief of police and privy councillor. He died at Copenhagen on the 23rd of September 1710. Roemer will always be remembered as the discoverer of the finite velocity of light. He showed besides wonderful in- genuity in the improvement of astronomical apparatus. The first transit instrument worthy the name was in 1690 erected in his house. In the same year he set up in the university observatory an instrument with altitude and azimuth circles (for observing equal altitudes on both sides of the meridian) and an equatorial telescope. In 1704 he built, at his own cost, the so-called " Tusculan " observatory at Vridlosemagle, a few miles west of Copenhagen, and equipped it with a meridian circle (the transit instrument and vertical circle combined) and a transit moving in the prime vertical. Roemer thus effectively realized nearly all our modern instruments of precision, and accumulated with them a large mass of observations, all of which unfortunately perished in the great conflagration of the 2ist of October 1728, except the three nights' work discussed by J. G. Galle (0. Roemeri triduum observationum astronomi- carum a. 1706 institutarum, Berlin, 1845). See E. Philipsen, Nordisk Universitets Tidskrift,v. n (1860); P. Horrebow, Basis Astronomiae (Copenhagen, 1735); J. B. J. Delambre, Hist, de I'astr. moderne, ii. 632; J. F. Montucla, Hist, des mathematiques, ii. 487, 579; R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astronomy, p. 461; R. Wolf, Gesch. der Astronomic, pp. 452, 489, 576; J. F. Weidler, Historia Astronomiae, p. 538; W. Doberck, Nature, xvii. 105; C. Huygens, CEuvres completes, t. viii. pp. 30-58; L. Ambronn, Handbuch der astr. Instrumentenkunde, ii. 552, 966 ;T. J. J. See, Pop. Astronomy, No. 105, May 1903. ROERMOND, a town in the province of Lirnburg, Holland, on the right bank of the Maas at the confluence of the Roer, and a junction station 28 m. by rail N.N.E. of Maastricht. Pop. (1900) 12,348. The old fortifications have been dis- mantled and partly converted into fine promenades. At this point the Maas is crossed by a bridge erected in 1866-67, and the Roer by one dating from 1771, replacing an older structure, and connecting Roermond with the suburb of St Jacob. Roermond is the seat of a Roman Catholic episcopal see. The finest building in the town is the Romanesque minster church of the first quarter of the i3th century. In the middle of the nave is the tomb of Gerhard III., count of Gelderland, and his wife Margaret of Brabant. It was formerly the church of a Cistercian nunnery, and in modern times has been elaborately restored. The cathedral of St Christopher is also of note; on the top of the tower (246 ft.) is a copper statue of the saint, and the interior is adorned with paintings by Rubens, Jacob de Wit (1695-1754) and others. The Reformed church was once the chapel of the monastery of the Minorites. There is also a Redemptorist chapel. The old bishop's palace is now the courthouse, and the old Jesuits' monastery with its fine gardens a higher-burgher school. Woollen, cotton, silk and mixed stuffs, paper, flour and beer are manufactured at Roermond. Close to Roermond on the west is the village of Horn, once the seat of a lordship of the same name, which is first mentioned in a document of 1166. The lordship of Horn was a fief of the counts of Loon, and after 1361- of the bishop of Liege; but in 1450 it was raised to a countship by the Emperor Frederick II. On the extinction of the house of Horn in 1540, the countship passed to the famous Philip of Montmorency, who, with the count of Egmont, was executed in Brussels in 1568 by order of the duke of Alva. In the beginning of the next century the countship was forcibly retained by the see of Li6ge, and was incorporated in the French department of the Lower Maas at the end of the i8th century. The ancient castle is in an ex- cellent state of preservation and is sometimes used for the assembly of the states. ROGATION DAYS (Lat. rogatio, from rogare, to beseech; the equivalent of Gr. \iTavfia, litany), hi the Calendar of the Christian Church, the Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday before Ascension Day, so called because long associated with the chanting of litanies in procession (rogationes). The week in which they occur is sometimes called Rogation Week. In 511 ROGER I.— ROGER II. 453 the first Council of Orleans ordered that the three days pre- ceding Ascension Day should be celebrated as rogation days with fasting and rogationes. All work was to be suspended that all might join in the processions. Leo III. (pope 795-816) introduced rogation days, but without the fasting, at Rome. St Augustine had earlier introduced the custom into the English Church, learning it on his way through Gaul. The Council of Clovesho in 747 confirmed Augustine's injunction, and ordered that the rogation days be kept up " according to the way of our fathers." The place-name " Gospel Oak," which occurs in London and elsewhere, is a relic of these rogation processions, the gospel of the day being read at the foot of the finest oak the parish boasted. After the Reformation the processions gradually ceased to be ecclesiastical in England, and are now practically secularized into the perambulation of the parish boundaries on or about Ascension Day. See also PROCESSION and LITANY. ROGER I. (1031-1101), ruler of Sicily, was the youngest son of Tancred of Hauteville. He arrived in Southern Italy soon after 1057. Malaterra, who compares Robert Guiscard (see GTJISCARD, ROBERT) and his brother to " Joseph and Benjamin of old," says of Roger: " He was a youth of the greatest beauty, of lofty stature, of graceful shape, most eloquent in speech and cool in counsel. He was far-seeing in arranging all his actions, pleasant and merry all with men; strong and brave, and furious in battle." He shared with Robert Guiscard the conquest of Calabria, and in a treaty of 1062 the brothers in dividing the conquest apparently made a kind of " condominium " by which either was to have half of every castle and town in Calabria.1 Robert now resolved to employ Roger's genius in reducing Sicily, which contained, besides the Moslems, numerous Greek Christians subject to Arab princes who had become all but independent of the sultan of Tunis. In May 1061 the brothers crossed from Reggio and captured Messina. After Palermo had been taken in January 1072 Robert Guiscard, as suzerain, invested Roger as count of Sicily, but retained Palermo, half of Messina and the north-east portion (the Val Demone). Not till 1085, however, was Roger able to undertake a syste- matic crusade. In March 1086 Syracuse surrendered, and when in February iogi Noto yielded the conquest was complete. Much of Robert's success had been due to Roger's support. Similarly the latter supported Duke Roger, his nephew, against Bohemund, Capua and his rebels, and the real leadership of the Hautevilles passed to the Sicilian count. In return for his aid against Bohemund and his rebels the duke sur- rendered to his uncle in 1085 his share in the castles of Calabria, and in 1091 the half of Palermo. Roger's rule in Sicily was more real than Robert Guiscard's in Italy. At the enfeoff- ments of 1072 and 1092 no great undivided fiefs were created, and the mixed Norman, French and Italian vassals owed their benefices to the count. No feudal revolt of importance therefore troubled Roger. Politically supreme, the count became master of the insular Church. While he gave full toleration to the Greek Churches, he created new Latin bishop- rics at Syracuse and Girgenti and elsewhere, nominating the bishops personally, while he turned the archbishopric of Palermo into a Catholic see. The Papacy, favouring a prince who had recovered Sicily from Greeks and Moslems, granted to him and his heirs in 1098 the Apostolic Legateship in the island. Roger practised general toleration to Arabs and Greeks, allowing to each race the expansion of its own civilization. In the cities the Moslems, who had generally secured such terms of surrender, retained their mosques, their kadis, and freedom of trade; in the country, however, they became serfs. He drew from the Moslems the mass of his infantry, and St Anselm visiting him at the siege of Capua, 1098, found " the brown tents of the Arabs innumerable." Nevertheless the Latin element began to prevail with the Lombards and other Italians who flocked into the island in the wake of the conquest, and the conquest of Sicily was decisive in the steady decline from this time of Mahommedan power in the western Mediterranean. 1 See Chalandon, La Domination normande, vol. i. p. 200. Roger, the " Great Count of Sicily," died on the 22nd of June not in his seventieth year and was buried in S. Trinita of Mileto. His third wife, Adelaide, niece of Boniface, lord of Savona, gave him two sons, Simon and Roger, of whom the latter succeeded him. See E. Caspar, Rarer II. und die Grundung der normannisch- sicilischen Monarchic (Innsbruck, 1904). (E. Cu.) ROGER II. (1093-1154), king of Sicily, son of the preceding, began personally to rule in 1112, and from the first aimed at uniting the whole of the Norman conquests in Italy. In June 1127, William, duke of Apulia, grandson of Robert Guis- card, died childless, having apparently made some vague promise of the succession to Roger. In any case Roger claimed at once, not only all the Hauteville possessions, but also the overlordship of Capua, for which Richard II. in 1098 had sworn homage to Duke Roger. The union of Sicily and Apulia, however, was resisted by Honorius II. and by the subjects of the duchy itself, averse from any strong ducal power, and the pope at Capua (Dec. 1127) preached a crusade against the claimant, setting against him Robert II. of Capua and Ranulf of Alife, or Avellino, brother-in-law of Roger, who proved himself the real leader of the revolt. The coalition, however, failed, and in August 1128 Honorius invested Roger at Bene- vento as duke of Apulia. The baronial resistance, which was backed by Naples, Bari, Salerno and other cities, whose aim was civic freedom, also gave way, and at Melfi (Sept. 1129) Roger was generally recognized as duke by Naples, Capua and the rest. He began at once to enforce order in the Hauteville possessions, where the ducal power had long been falling to pieces. For the binding together of all his states the royal name seemed essential, and the death of Honorius in February 1130, followed by a double election, seemed the decisive moment. While Innocent II. fled to France, Roger, with deep design, sup- ported Anacletus II. The price was a crown, and on the 27th of September 1130 a bull of Anacletus made Roger king of Sicily. He was crowned in Palermo on the 25th of December 1130. This plunged Roger into a ten years' war. Bernard of Clairvaux, Innocent's champion, built up against Anacletus and his " half heathen king " a coalition joined by Louis VI. of France, Henry I. of England and the emperor Lothar. Mean- while the forces of revolt in South Italy drew to a head again. The rebels under Ranulf shamefully defeated the king at Nocera on the 24th of July 1132. Nevertheless, by July 1134 his terrific energy and the savagery of his Saracen troops forced Ranulf, Sergius, duke of Naples, and the rebels to submit, while Robert was expelled from Capua. Meanwhile Lothar's contemplated attack upon Roger had gained the backing of Pisa, Genoa and the Greek emperor, all of whom feared the growth of a powerful Norman kingdom. In February 1137 Lothar began to move south and was joined by Ranulf and the rebels; in June he besieged and took Bari. At San Severino, after a victorious campaign, he and the pope jointly invested Ranulf as duke of Apulia (Aug. 1137), and the emperor then retired to Germany. Roger, freed from the utmost danger, recovered ground, sacked Capua and forced Sergius to acknow- ledge him as overlord of Naples. At Rignano the indomitable Ranulf again utterly defeated the king, but in April 1139 Ranulf died, leaving none to oppose Roger, who subdued piti- lessly the last of the rebels. The death of Anacletus (25 Jan. 1138) determined Roger to seek the confirmation of his title from Innocent. The latter, invading the kingdom with a large army, was skilfully ambushed at Galuccio on the Garigliano (22 July 1139). This secured the king's object; on the 25th July the pope invested him as " Rex Siciliae ducatus Apuliae et principatus Capuae." The boundaries of the " regno" were finally fixed, by a truce with the pope in October 1144, at a line south of the Tronto and east of Terracina and Ceprano. Roger, now become one of the greatest kings • in Europe, made Sicily the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean. A powerful fleet was built up under several " admirals," or 454 ROGER— ROGER OF HOVEDEN " emirs," of whom the greatest was George of Antioch, formerly in the service of the Moslem prince of El Mehdia. Mainly by him a series of conquests were made on the African coast (1135-53) which reached from Tripoli to Cape Bona. The second crusade (1147-48) gave Roger an opportunity to revive Robert Guiscard's designs on the Greek Empire. George was sent to Corinth at the end of 1147 and despatched an army inland which plundered Thebes. In June 1149 the admiral appeared before Constantinople and defied the Basileus by firing arrows against the palace windows. The attack on the empire had, however, no abiding results. The king died at Palermo on the 26th of February 1154, and was succeeded by his fourth son William. Personally Roger was of tall and powerful body, with long fair hair and full beard. " He had," says Romnald of Salerno, " a lion face, and spoke with a harsh voice." With little or none of Robert Guiscard's personal valour, and living at inter- vals the life of an eastern Sultan, he yet showed to the full his uncle's audacity, diplomatic skill and determination. It is Roger II. 's distinction to have united all the Norman con- quests into one kingdom and to have subjected them to a government scientific, personal and centralized. The principles of this are found in the Assizes of the kingdom of Sicily, pro- mulgated at Ariano in 1140, which enforced an almost absolute royal power. At Palermo Roger drew round him distinguished men of various races, such as the famous Arab geographer Idrisi and the historian Nilus Doxopatrius. The king's active and curious mind welcomed the learned; he maintained a complete toleration for the several creeds, races and languages of his realm ; he was served by men of nationality so dissimilar as the Englishman Thomas Brun, a kaid of the Curia, and, in the fleet, by the renegade Moslem Christodoulos, and the Antiochene George, whom he made in 1132 "amiratus amira- torum," in effect prime vizier. The Capella Palatina, at Palermo, the most wonderful of Roger's churches, with Norman doors, Saracenic arches, Byzantine dome, and roof adorned with Arabic scripts, is perhaps the most striking product of the brilliant and mixed civilization over which the grandson of the Norman Trancred ruled. Contemporary authors are: Falco of Benevento, Alexander of Telese, Romuald of Salerno and Hugo Falcandus, all in the Scrittori e cronisli napoletani, ed. Del Re, vol. i. See also E. Caspar, Roger II. und die Grundung der normannisch-sicilischen Monarchic (Innsbruck, 1904). (E. Cu.) ROGER (d. 1139), bishop of Salisbury, was originally priest of a small chapel near Caen. The future King Henry I., who happened to hear mass there one day, was impressed by the speed with which Roger read the service, and enrolled him in his own service. Roger, though uneducated, showed great talent for business, and Henry, on coming to the throne, almost immediately made him chancellor (1101). Soon after Roger received the bishopric of Salisbury. In the Investitures con- troversy he skilfully managed to keep the favour of both the king and Anselm. Roger devoted himself to administrative business, and remodelled it completely. He created the exchequer system, which was managed by him and his family for more than a century, and he used his position to heap up power and riches. He became the first man in England after the king, and was in office, if not in title, justiciar. He ruled England while Henry was in Normandy, and succeeded in obtaining the see of Canterbury for his nominee, William of Corbeil. Duke Robert seems to have been put into his custody after Tinchebrai. Though Roger had sworn allegiance to Matilda, he disliked the Angevin connexion, and went over to Stephen, carrying with him the royal treasure and adminis- trative system (1135). Stephen placed great reliance on him, on his nephews, the bishops of Ely and Lincoln, and on his son Roger, who was treasurer. The king declared that if Roger demanded half of the kingdom he should have it, but chafed against the overwhelming influence of the official clique whom Roger represented. Roger himself had built at Devizes the most splendid castle in Christendom. He and his nephews seem to have secured a number of castles outside their own dioceses, and the old bishop behaved as if he were an equal of the king. At a council held in June 1139, Stephen found a pretext for demanding a surrender of their castles, and on their refusal they were arrested. After a short struggle all Roger's great castles were sequestrated. But Henry of Winchester demanded the restoration of the bishop. The king was considered to have committed an almost unpardon- able crime in offering violence to members of the church, in defiance of the scriptural command, " Touch not mine anointed." Stephen took up a defiant attitude, and the question remained unsettled. This quarrel with the church, which immediately preceded the landing of the empress, had a serious effect on Stephen's fortunes. The moment that the fortune of war declared against him, the clergy acknowledged Matilda. Bishop Roger, however, did not live to see himself avenged. He died at Salisbury in December 1139. He was a great bureaucrat, and a builder whose taste was in advance of his age. But his contemporaries were probably justified in regarding him as the type of the bishop immersed in worldly affairs, ambitious, avaricious, unfettered by any high standard of personal morality. Roger's nephew Alexander (d. 1148), who became bishop of Lincoln in 1123, was a typical secular ecclesiastic of the middle ages, wealthy, proud, ambitious and ostentatious. He founded monasteries, built castles at Newark, Sleaford and Banbury, and restored his cathedral at Lincoln after the fire of 1145. He followed the policy of Roger, whose imprisonment he shared, and died after a visit to Pope Eugenius III. at Auxerre, early in 1 148. See Sir J. Ramsay's Foundations of England, vol. ii., and J. H. Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville. ROGER (d. 1181), archbishop of York, known as Roger of Pont 1'Eveque, was a member of the household of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, where he quarrelled violently with another future archbishop, Thomas Becket. In 1148 he was appointed archdeacon of Canterbury, and soon afterwards chaplain to King Stephen, who sent him on an errand to Rome in 1152; then in October 1154 he was consecrated archbishop of York in Westminster Abbey. When Henry II. entered upon his great struggle with Becket over the immunity of clerks from secular jurisdiction, he managed to secure the support of Roger, and having been appointed papal legate in England, the archbishop visited Pope Alexander III. and the French king, Louis VII., in his master's interests. In June 1 1 70 he crowned the king's son Henry, in spite of prohibitions from the pope and from Becket, and for this act he was suspended. One authority declares that Roger, who was then with Henry II. in Normandy, instigated the murder of the rival archbishop, but he swore he was innocent of this crime. He quarrelled with Richard, the new archbishop of Canterbury, about the respective rights of the two archiepiscopal sees, until 1176, when the king arranged a truce between them; and he was constantly endeavouring to assert his supremacy over the Scottish church. The archbishop died at York on the 2ist of November 1181. He was always loyal to Henry II., to whom he was very useful during the great rising of 1174; but he has been accused of avarice, and he was certainly not lacking in ambition. Another English prelate of this name was ROGER, bishop of Worcester, a younger son of Robert, earl of Gloucester, and thus a grandson of the English king Henry I. In 1163 his cousin Henry II. appointed him bishop of Worcester, but almost alone of the English bishops he supported Thomas Becket and not the king during the quarrel between them in 1166. In 1167 he left England to share Becket's exile, but he soon returned to court, although he appears to have remained oh friendly terms with the archbishop. He died at Tours in 1179. ROGER OF HOVEDEN, or HOWDEN (fl. 1174-1201), English chronicler, was, to judge from his name and the internal evi- dence of his work, a native of Howden in the East Riding of Yorkshire. But nothing is known of him before the year 1174. He was then in attendance upon Henry II., by whom ROGER OF WENDOVER— ROGERS, J. E. T. he was sent from France on a secret mission to the lords of Galloway. In 1175 he again appears as a negotiator between the king and a number of English religious houses. The interest which Hoveden shows in ecclesiastical affairs and miracles may justify the supposition that he was a clerk in orders. This, however, did not prevent him from acting, in 1189, as a justice of the forests in the shires of Yorkshire, Cumberland and Northumberland. After the death of Henry II., it would seem that Hoveden retired from the public service, though not so completely as to prevent him from drawing on the royal archives for the history of contemporary events. About the year 1192 he began to compile his Chronica, a general history of England from 732 to his own time. Up to the year 1192 his narrative adds little to our knowledge. For the period 732-1148 he chiefly drew upon an extant, but unpublished chronicle, the Historia Saxonum sive Anglorum post obitum Bedae (British Museum MS. Reg. 13 A. 6), which was composed about 1150. From 1148 to 1170 he used the Melrose Chronicle (edited for the Bannatyne Club in 1835 by Joseph Stevenson) and a collection of letters bearing upon the Becket controversy. From 1170 to 1192 his authority is the chronicle ascribed to Benedictus Abbas (?.f.), the author of which must have been in the royal household at about the same time as Hoveden. Although this period was one in which Hoveden had many opportunities of making independent observations, he adds little to the text which he uses; except that he inserts some additional docu- ments. Either his predecessor had exhausted the royal archives, or the supplementary searches of Hoveden were languidly pursued. From 1192, however, Hoveden is an independent and copious authority. Like " Benedictus," he is sedulously impersonal, and makes no pretence to literary style, quotes documents in full and adheres to the annalistic method. His chronology is tolerably exact, but there are mistakes enough to prove that he recorded events at a certain distance of time. Both on foreign affairs and on questions of domestic policy he is unusually well informed. His practical experience as an administrator and his official connexions stood him in good stead. He is particularly useful on points of constitutional history. His work breaks off abruptly in 1201, though he certainly intended to carry it further. Probably his death should be placed in that year. See W. Stubbs's edition of the Chronica (Rolls Series) and the introductions to vols. i. and iv. This edition supersedes that of Sir H. Savile in his Scriptores post Bedam (1596). (H. W. C. D.) ROGER OF WENDOVER (d. 1236), English chronicler, was probably a native of Wendover in Buckinghamshire. At some uncertain date he became a monk of St Albans; afterwards he was appointed prior of the cell of Belvoir, but he forfeited this dignity in the early years of Henry III., having been found guilty of wasting the endowments. His latter years were passed at St Albans, where he died on the 6th of May 1236. He is the first of the important chroniclers who worked in the scriptorium of this house. His great work, the Flares Historiarum, begins at the creation and extends to 1235. It is of original value from 1202. Some critics have supposed, but on inconclusive evidence, that Wendover copied, up to 1189, an earlier compilation, the work of John de Cella, the twenty-first abbot of St Albans (1195-1214). Wendover's work is known to us through one 13th-century manuscript in the Bodleian library (Douce MS. 207), a mutilated 14th- century copy in the British Museum (Cotton MS. Otho B. v.), and the edition prepared by Matthew Paris which forms the first part of that writer's Chronica Majora (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols.). The best edition of Wendover is that of H. O. Coxe (4 vols., London, 1841-42); there is another (from 1154) in the Rolls Series by H. G. Hewlett (3 vols., 1886-89). Wendover is a copious but inaccurate writer, less prejudiced but also less graphic than Matthew Paris. Where he is the sole authority for an event, he is to be used with caution. See Luard's prefaces to vols. i., ii., iii. and vii. of the Chronica Majora; and the Monumenta Germaniae Hislorica. Scriplores, Band xxviii. pp. 3-20. (H. W. C. D.) 455 ROGERS, HENRY (1806-1877), English Nonconformist divine, was bom at St Albans on the i8th of October 1806, and was educated privately and by his father, a surgeon of considerable culture. Rogers was meant to follow his father's profession, but the reading of John Howe turned him to theology, and after qualifying at Highbury College he accepted a call to the Congregational Church at Poole in 1829. In 1832 he was appointed lecturer in logic at Highbury, in 1836 professor of English at University College, London, and in 1839 professor of English, mathematics and mental philosophy at Spring Hill College, Birmingham. In 1836 appeared his Life and Character of John Howe, and in 1837 The Christian Correspondent, a collection of some 400 religious letters " by eminent persons of both sexes." His contributions to the Edinburgh Review began in 1839 and were collected in volume form in 1850, 1855 and 1874. His most famous book, The Eclipse of Faith, or a Visit to a Religious Sceptic, was published anonymously in 1852 and went through six editions in three years. It drew a Reply from F. W. Newman, which Rogers answered in a Defence (1854). Two volumes of imaginary letters, Selections from the Correspondence of R. E. H. Grey son (an anagram for his own name), appeared in 1857 and show his style at its best. In 1858 he became principal and professor of theology at the Lancashire Inde- pendent College, where he edited the works of John Howe (6 vols., 1862-63) and wrote for the British Quarterly. He retired in 1871, and died at Machynlleth. on the 2ist of August 1877. Rogers was widely read, and as a Christian apologist carried on the traditions of the i8th century as illustrated by Butler. See Memoir by Dr R. W. Dale, prefixed to the 8th edition of The Supernatural Origin of the Bible Inferred from Itself (the Congrega- tional Lecture for 1873, delivered by Rogers). ROGERS, HENRY DARWIN (1808-1866), American geologist, was born at Philadelphia on the ist of August 1808. At the age of twenty-one he was chosen professor of chemistry and natural philosophy at Dickinson College, Pennsylvania. After holding this post for three years, he went to Europe and took up the study of geology. Subsequently he was engaged for twenty-two years in the State surveys of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, his Reports on which were published during the years 1836-41. In 1842 he and his brother WILLIAM BARTON ROGERS (1805-1882), who had been similarly occupied in Virginia (his Reports were published in 1838-41, and he wrote also on the connexion between thermal springs and anticlinal axes and faults), brought before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists their conclusions on the physical structure of the Appalachian chain, and on the eleva- tion of great mountain chains. The researches of H. D. Rogers were elaborated in his final Report on Pennsylvania (1858), in which he included a general account of the geology of the United States and of the coal-fields of North America and Great Britain. In this important work he dealt also with the structure of the great coal-fields, the method of formation of the strata, and the changes in the character of the coal from the bituminous type to anthracite. In 1857 he was appointed professor of natural history and geology at Glasgow. One of his later essays (1861) was on the parallel roads of Lochaber (Glen Roy), the origin of which he attributed to a vast inundation. He died at Glasgow on the 29th of May 1866. ROGERS, JAMES EDWIN THOROLD (1823-1800), English economist, was born at West Meon, Hampshire, in 1823. He was educated at King's College, London, and Magdalen Hall, Oxford. After taking a first-class degree in 1846, he was ordained, and was for a few years a curate in Oxford. Subse- quently, however, he resigned his orders. For some time the classics were the chief field of his activity. He devoted himself a good deal to classical and philosophical tuition in Oxford with success, and his publications included an edition of Aristotle's Ethics (in 1865). Simultaneously with these occupations he had been diligently studying economics, with 456 ROGERS, J. the result that in 1859 he was appointed professor of statistics and economic science at King's College, London, a post which he filled till his death. From 1862 to 1867 he also held the position of Drummond professor of political economy at Oxford. During that period he published (in 1866) the first two volumes of his History of Agriculture and Prices in England, dealing with the period 1250-1400, a minute and masterly record of the subject, and the work upon which his reputation mainly rests. Two more volumes (1401-1582) were published in 1882, a fifth and sixth (1583-1702) in 1887, and he left behind him at his death copious materials for a seventh and eighth. In 1868 he published a Manual of Political Economy, and in 1869 an edition of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. In 1875 he collected and edited the Protests of the Lords. An intimate acquaintance with Cobden and John Bright led Rogers to take an active part in politics: he represented Southwark in parliament from 1880 to 1885, and Bermondsey from 1885-86, as an advanced Liberal. In 1888, on the death of Professor Bonamy Price, who had succeeded him at Oxford as professor of political economy, he was re-elected to the post, and held it till his death. Previously (in 1883) he had been appointed lecturer in political economy at Worcester College, Oxford. His latter years were mainly spent at Oxford, where he died on the I2th of October 1890. He was celebrated as a caustic wit and humqrist. Of his miscellaneous economic and historical writings, which were numerous, the most note- worthy is his Six Centuries of Work and Wages, published in 1884. As an economist, Thorold Rogers did much to promote the historical study of his subject. He was, however, apt to be guided too frequently by political prejudice, and the value of his work suffered from his aggressively contentious spirit. ROGERS, JOHN (1627-*;. 1665), English preacher, second son of Nehemiah Rogers, a royalist and Anglican clergyman, was born at Messing in Essex, and became a servitor and student of medicine at King's College, Cambridge. When still a youth the violence of his religious despair led him to attempt suicide and ended in his joining the extreme sect of the Puritans. Deprived of his home in 1642, he walked to Cambridge, and found the college establishment broken up; he nearly starved, but obtained in 1643 a scholastic post in Lord Brudenel's house in Huntingdonshire, and subsequently at St Neot's free school. He became known as a preacher, received Presbyterian ordination in 1647, married a daughter of Sir Robert Payne of Midloe in Huntingdonshire, and obtained the living of Purleigh in Essex. Subsequently he came to London, joined the Independents, became lecturer at St Thomas Apostle's, and attracted attention by the violence of his political sermons. He was appointed preacher to Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin by the parliament in 1651, and while there served in the field, returning in 1652 to St Thomas Apostle's on account of religious dissensions. In 1653 his parishioners at Purleigh, where he had hitherto managed to retain the living, successfully pro- ceeded against him for non-residence. In the quarrel between the army and the parliament Rogers had naturally sided with the former, and he was one of the first to join the Fifth Mon- archy movement. He approved of the expulsion of the Long Parliament, and addressed two letters to Cromwell on the subject of the new government to be inaugurated, but the establishment of the Protectorate at once threw the Fifth Monarchy men into antagonism. Rogers addressed a warning letter to Cromwell, and boldly attacked him from the pulpit on the 9th of January 1654. Thereupon his house was searched and his papers seized, and Rogers then issued another denuncia- tion against Cromwell, Mene, Tekel, Perez: a Letter lamenting over Oliver Lord Cromwell. On the 28th of March, on which day he had proclaimed a fast for the sins of the rulers, he preached a violent sermon against the protector, which occa- sioned his arrest in July. He confronted Cromwell with great courage when brought before him on the sth of February 1655, and was imprisoned successively at Windsor and in the Isle of Wight, being released in January 1657. He returned to London, and, being suspected of a conspiracy, was again imprisoned by Cromwell in the Tower from the 3rd of February 1658 till the i6th of April. On the protector's death and the downfall of Richard Cromwell, the ideals of the Fifth Monarchy men seemed nearer realization, but Rogers was engaged in political controversy with Prynne and became a source of embarrass- ment to his own faction, which endeavoured to get rid of him by appointing him " to preach the gospel " in Ireland. On the outbreak of Sir George Booth's royalist insurrection, how- ever, he became chaplain in Charles Fairfax's regiment, and served throughout the campaign. He obtained a lectureship at Shrewsbury in October and was in Dublin in January 1660, being imprisoned there by order of the army faction and released subse- quently by the parliament. At the Restoration he withdrew to Holland, studied medicine at Leiden and Utrecht, and obtained from the latter university the degree ofM.D.ini662. He returned to England the same year and resided at Bermondsey, was admitted to the degree of M.D. at Oxford in 1664, and is supposed, in the absence of further record, to have died soon afterwards. Besides the pamphlet already cited, Rogers wrote in 1653 Ohel or Bethshemesh, a Tabernacle for the Sun, in which he attacked the Presbyterians, and Sagrir, or Doomesday drawing nigh, from his new standpoint as a Fifth Monarchy man, and was the author of Challah, the Heavenly Nymph (1653) ; Dod, or Chathan; the Beloved or the Bride- groom going forth for his Bride . . . (1653) ; Prison-born Morning Beams (1654) ; Jegar Sahadutha . . . (1657) ; Mr Prynne' s Good Old Cause slated and stunted 10 Year ago . . . (1609); £uairo\iTtla., a Christian Concertation (1659) ; Mr Harrington's Parallel Unparalleled (1659); A Vindication of Sir H. Vane (1659); Disputatio Medica Inauguralis (1662). AUTHORITIES.— Life and Opinions of a Fifth Monarchy Man, by Ed. Rogers (1867), compiled from Rogers's own works; Wood, Athenae Oxonienses and Fasti; Calendars of State Papers (Domestic). See also " English Ancestry of Washington," Harper's Magazine, xxi. 887 (1891); "John Rogers of Purleigh," The Nation, vol. 53, p. 314 (1891). ROGERS, JOHN (c. 1500-1555), English Protestant martyr, was born in the parish of Aston, near Birmingham, and was educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1526. Six years later he was rector of Holy Trinity, Queenhithe, London, and in 1534 went to Antwerp as chaplain to the English merchants. Here he met William Tyndale, under whose influence he abandoned the Roman Catholic faith, and married an Antwerp lady. After Tyndale's death Rogers pushed on with his predecessor's English version of the Old Testament, which he used as far as 2 Chronicles, employing Coverdale's translation (1535) for the remainder and for the Apocrypha. Tyndale's New Testament had been published in 1526. The complete Bible was put out under the pseudonym of Thomas Matthew in 1537; it was printed in Antwerp, and Richard Grafton published the sheets and got leave to sell the edition (1500 copies) in England. Rogers had little to do with the translation, but he contributed some valuable prefaces and marginal notes. His work was largely used by those who prepared the Great Bible (1539-40), out of which in turn came the Bishop's Bible (1568) and the Authorized Version of 1611. After taking charge of a Protestant congregation in Wittenberg for some years, Rogers returned to England in 1548, where he published a translation of Melanchthon's Considerations of the Augsburg Interim. In 1550 he was presented to the crown livings of St Margaret Moyses and St Sepulchre in London, and in 1551 was made a prebendary of St Paul's, where the dean and chapter soon appointed him divinity lecturer. He courage- ously denounced the greed shown by certain courtiers with reference to the property of the suppressed monasteries, and defended himself before the privy council. He also declined to wear the prescribed vestments, donning instead a simple round cap. On the accession of Mary he preached at Paul's Cross commending the " true doctrine taught in King Edward's days," and warning his hearers against " pestilent Popery, idolatry and superstition." Ten days after (i6th August 1553), he was summoned before the council and bidden to keep within his own house. His emoluments were taken away and his prebend was filled in October. In January 1554 Bonner, the new bishop of London, sent him to Newgate, where he lay with ROGERS, J.— ROGERS, S. John Hooper, Laurence Saunders, John Bradford and others for a year, their petitions, whether for less rigorous treatment or for opportunity of stating their case, being alike disregarded. In December 1554 parliament re-enacted the penal statutes against Lollards, and on January 22nd, 1555, two days after they took effect, Rogers with ten others came before the council at Gardiner's house in Southwark, and held his own in the examination that took place. On the 28th and 29th he came before the commission appointed by Cardinal Pole, and was sentenced to death by Gardiner for heretically denying the Christian character of the Church of Rome and the real presence in the sacrament. He awaited and met death (on the 4th of February 1555 at Smithfield) cheerfully, though denied even an interview with his wife. Noailles, the French ambassador, speaks of the support given to Rogers by the greatest part of the people: "even his children assisted at it, comforting him in such a manner that it seemed as if he had been led to a wedding." He was the first Protestant martyr of Mary's reign, and his friend Bradford wrote that " he broke the ice valiantly." The following divines of the same name may be distinguished: — JOHN ROGERS (i572?-i6o3), Puritan vicar of Dedham, Essex, " one of the most awakening preachers of the age." — JOHN ROGERS (1610-1680), ejected vicar of Croglin, Cumberland, and the founder of Congregational churches in Teesdale and Weardale, where he evangelized the lead miners. — JOHN ROGERS (1679-1729), one of George II. "s chaplains, famous for his share in the Bangorian con- troversy (1719), his Vindication of the Civil Establishment of Religion (1728), and his Persuasives to Conformity, addressed to Dissenters (1736) and to Quakers (1747). — JOHN ROGERS (i74O?-i8i4), leader of the Irish seceding divines, minister of Cahans, Co. Monaghan. — JOHN ROGERS (1778-1856), rector of Mawnan, Cornwall, and the owner of the Penrose and Helston estates; a good botanist and mineralogist, and a distinguished Hebrew and Syriac scholar. ROGERS, JOHN (1820-1904), American sculptor, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 3oth of October 1829. In 1848 he became an apprentice in a machine shop at Manchester, New Hampshire, and remained there for about ten years. During the latter part of this time he had done some modelling in clay in his leisure hours, and, having decided to become a sculptor, he spent eight months in Rome and Paris in 1858-59. Becoming discouraged, he returned to America and obtained employment as a draughtsman in the office of the city surveyor of Chicago; but soon afterwards, owing to the favourable reception of his group of small figures, " The Checker Players," he resumed sculptural work, confining himself to these small figures, known as " Rogers Groups," which had an enormous popular success and were extensively reproduced. The Civil War in America gave him patriotic themes that increased his vogue and prosperity, and in 1863 he became a National Academician. His subjects were familiar scenes and incidents of home life known to the masses, and the reproductions of his groups were sold in the most remote districts as well as in the larger cities. He executed several life-sized statues, including " General John F. Reynolds " and a seated figure of Lincoln, both in Philadelphia; but it is by his statuettes that he is best remembered, and these were • characterized by sentiment and human interest rather than any genuine artistic feeling. He died at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 27th of July 1904. ROGERS, ROBERT. (1727-1784?), American frontier soldier, was born of Irish parentage in 1727, probably at Methuen, Massachusetts, whence his father, James Rogers (often con- fused with James Rogers, an early settler of Londonderry, N.H.), removed in 1739 to Starktown (now Dunbarton), New Hamp- shire. During the Seven Years' War he raised and commanded a force of militia, known as Rogers' Rangers, which won a wide reputation for its courage and endurance in the campaigns about Lake George. He took part in Wolfe's expedition against Quebec, and on the 4th of October 1759 he destroyed an Abnaki Indian village on the St Francis river near its mouth and killed about 200 of its inhabitants. After the Montreal campaign of 1760, in which he served, he was sent by General Amherst to take possession of the north-western posts, occupied Detroit on the 29th of November, and later returned to the east. In 1763, during the Pontiac uprising, he accom- 457 panied the relief expedition under James Dalyell to Detroit and took part in the battle of Bloody Bridge on the 3ist of July (see PONTIAC). Soon after this he went to England, and in 1765 published in London a Concise Account of North America, containing a Description of the Several British Colonies . . . also an Account of the Several Nations and Tribes of Indians (new edition, Albany, 1883). In 1766-68 he was commandant of Michilimackinac. He spent the next few years in England, and after 1772 was in the service of the dey of Algiers. At the beginning of the War of Independence he returned to America, and in spite of his protestations of patriotism was considered by Washington and others a Loyalist spy. He was arrested by agents of Congress, but was paroled. His re- arrest he considered a release from his parole. He then openly joined the British, and under a commission from General Howe organized a regiment of Loyalists which was known as the Queen's Rangers, and which after his return to England in 1776 was commanded by Capt. John G. Simcoe. In 1779 he was commissioned to raise a regiment to be called the King's Rangers, and he returned for a short time to America; but the command of the Rangers, which soon became a part of the garrison of St John's, Quebec, was taken by his brother James (d. 1792), who had formerly served under Robert. Rogers died in London probably in 1784. In addition to the Concise Account of North America, he published his Journals (London, 1765), and is supposed to have written, at least in part, Ponteach, or the Savages of America, a Tragedy (London, 1766). See also his " Journal " in the Diary of 'the Siege of Detroit in the War with Pontiac (Albany, 1860; new edition, 1883), edited by F. B. Hough; and Francis Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (2 vols., Boston, 1884). ROGERS, SAMUEL (1763-1855), English poet, was born at Newington Green, London, on the 3Oth of July 1763. His father, Thomas Rogers, was the son of a Stourbridge glass manufacturer, who was also a merchant in Cheapside. Thomas Rogers had a place in the London business, and married Mary, the only daughter of his father's partner, Daniel Radford, becoming himself a partner shortly afterwards. On his mother's side Samuel Rogers was connected with the two well-known Nonconformist divines Philip and .Matthew Henry, and it was in Nonconformist circles at Stoke Newington that he was brought up. He was educated at private schools at Hackney and Stoke Newington. He wished to enter the Presbyterian ministry, but at his father's desire he joined the banking business in Cornhill. ' In long holidays, necessitated by delicate health, Rogers became a diligent student of English literature, par- ticularly in Johnson, Gray and Goldsmith. Gray's poems, he said, he had by heart. He had already made some contri- butions to the Gentleman's Magazine, when in 1786 he published a volume containing some imitations of Goldsmith and an " Ode to Superstition " in the manner of Gray. In 1788 his elder brother Thomas died, and Samuel's business responsi- bilities were increased. In the next year he paid a visit to Scotland, where he met Adam Smith, Henry Mackenzie, the Piozzis and others. In 1791 he was in Paris, and enjoyed a hurried inspection of the art collection of Philippe Egalite at the Palais Royal, many of the treasures of which were later on to pass into his possession. With Gray as his model, Rogers took great pains in polishing his verses, and six years elapsed after the publication of his first volume before he printed his elaborate poem on The Pleasures of Memory (1792). This poem may be regarded as the last embodiment of the poetic diction of the i8th century. Here is carried to the extremest pitch the theory of elevating and refining familiar themes by abstract treatment and lofty imagery. In this art of " raising a sub- ject," as the 18th-century phrase was, the Pleasures of Memory is much more perfect than Thomas Campbell's Pleasures of Hope, published a few years later in imitation. The acme of positive praise for the fashionable serious poetry of the time was given by Byron when he said, " There is not a vulgar line in the poem." In 1793 his father's death gave Rogers the principal share in the banking house in Cornhill, and a considerable income. 458 ROGERS, W.— ROGIER He left Newington Green in the same year and established himself in chambers in the Temple. In his circle of friends at this time were " Conversation " Sharp and the artists Flaxman, Opie, Martin Shee and Fuseli. He also made the acquaintance of Charles James Fox, with whom he visited the galleries in Paris in 1802, and whose friendship introduced him to Holland House. In 1803 he moved to 22 St James's Place, where for fifty years he entertained all the celebrities of London. Flax- man and Stothard had a share in the decorations of the house, which Rogers had almost rebuilt, and now proceeded to fill with pictures and other works of art. His collections at his death realized £50,000. An invitation to one of Rogers's breakfasts was a formal entry into literary society, and his dinners were even more select. His social success was due less to his literary position than to his powers as a conver- sationalist, his educated taste in all matters of art, and no doubt to his sarcastic and bitter wit, for which he excused himself by saying that he had such a small voice that no one listened if he said pleasant things. Above all, he seems to have had a genius for benevolence. " He certainly had the kindest heart and unkindest tongue of any one I ever knew," said Fanny Kemble. He helped the poet Robert Bloomfield, he reconciled Moore with Jeffrey and with Byron, and he relieved Sheridan's difficulties in the last days of his life. Moore, who refused help from all his friends, and would only be under obligations to his publishers, found it possible to accept assistance from Rogers. He procured a pension for H. F. Gary, the translator of Dante, and obtained for Wordsworth his sinecure as distributor of stamps. It is difficult to realize the length of time that Rogers played the part of literary dictator in England. He made his repu- tation by The Pleasures of Memory when Cowper's fame was still in the making. He became the friend of Wordsworth, Scott and Byron, and lived long enough to give an opinion as to the fitness of Alfred Tennyson for the post of poet laureate. Alexander Dyce, from the time of his first introduction to Rogers, was in the habit of writing down the anecdotes with which his conversation abounded. From the mass of material thus accumulated he made a selection which he arranged under various headings and published in 1856 as Recollections of the Table- Talk of Samuel Rogers, to which is added Porsoniana. Rogers himself kept a notebook, in which he entered impressions of the conversation of many of his distinguished friends — Charles James Fox, Edmund Burke, Henry Grattan, Richard Person, John Home Tooke, Talleyrand, Lord Erskine, Sir Walter Scott, Lord Grenville and the duke of Wellington. They were published by his nephew William Sharpe in 1859 as Recollec- tions by Samuel Rogers; and Reminiscences and Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers, Banker, Poet, and Patron of the Arts, 1763- 1855 (1903), by G. H. Powell, is an amalgamation of these two authorities. Rogers held various honorary positions: he was one of the trustees of the National Gallery; and he served on a commission to inquire into the management of the British Museum, and on another for the rebuilding of the Houses of Parliament. Meanwhile his literary production was slow. A poem of some autobiographical interest, An Epistle to a Friend (Richard Sharp), published in 1798, describes Rogers's ideal of a happy life. This was followed twelve years later by The Voyage of Columbus (1810), and by Jacqueline (1814), a narrative poem, written in the four-accent measure of the newer writers, and published in the same volume with Byron's Lara. His reflective poem on Human Life (1819), on which he had been engaged for twelve years, is written in his earlier manner. In 1814 Rogers made a tour on the Continent with his sister Sarah. He travelled through Switzerland to Italy, keeping a full diary of events and impressions, and had rnade his way to Naples when the news of Napoleon's escape from Elba obliged him to hurry home. Seven years later he returned to Italy, paying a visit to Byron and Shelley at Pisa. Out of the earlier of these tours arose his last and longest work, Italy. The first part was published anonymously in 1822; the second, with his name attached, in 1828. The production was at first a failure, but Rogers was determined to make it a success. He enlarged and revised the poem, and commissioned illustrations from J. M. Turner, Thomas Stothard and Samuel Prout. These were engraved on steel in the sumptuous edition of 1830. The book' then proved a great success, and Rogers followed it up with an equally sumptuous edition of his Poems (1838). In 1850, on Wordsworth's death, Rogers was asked to succeed him as poet laureate, but declined the honour on account of his great age. For the last five years of his life he was confined to his chair in consequence of a fall in the street. He died in London on the i8th of December 1855. A full account of Rogers is given in two works by P. W. Clayden, The Early Life of Sarr.uel Rogers (1887) and Rogers and his Contem- poraries (2 vols., 1889). One of the best accounts of Rogers, con- taining many examples of his caustic wit, is by Abraham Hayward in the Edinburgh Review for July 1856. See also the Aldine edition (1857) of his Poetical Works, and the Journals of Byron and of Moore. ROGERS, WILLIAM (1819-1896), English clergyman and educational reformer, was born in London on the 24th of November 1819, the son of a barrister. Educated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford, he entered Durham University in 1842, to study theology, and was ordained in 1843. In 1845 he was appointed to St Thomas Charterhouse, where he remained for eighteen years, throwing himself passionately into the work of education of his poor, degraded and often criminal parishioners. He began by establishing a school for ragamuffins in a blacksmith's abandoned shed, and with the generous help of friends he gradually extended its scope until the whole parish was a network of schools. In 1858 he was appointed a member of the Royal Commission to inquire into popular education, and he was returned a representative of the London School Board after the passing of Forster's Act in 1870. In 1863 the bishop of London gave him the living of St Botolph Bishopsgate. Rogers was also made a prebendary of St Paul's, and in 1857 he had been appointed Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen. Having largely solved at St Thomas's the problem of elementary educa- tion, at Bishopsgate Rogers tackled the no- less difficult one of middle-class schools. He believed in secular education, leaving doctrinal training to parents and clergy. To the cry against " godless education," Rogers impulsively replied, " Hang theology; let us begin "; and his nickname of " Hang-theology Rogers " stuck to him for the rest of his life. The Cowper Street Schools, costing £20,000, were the practical result of his energy. His next great work was the reconstruction of Edward Alleyn's charity at Dulwich. The new college was opened in 1870; new buildings were erected for the lower school, and the lion's share of the work fell upon Rogers. The culmination of his labours was the opening, on his seventy-fifth birthday, of the Bishops- gate Institute, including a hall, with accommodation for 500 people and a reference and lending library. On the same day a portrait and gift of plate was made him at the Mansion House, before a distinguished gathering. Lord Rosebery, then Prime Minister, observed in his speech that though bishoprics and deaneries had not been the rector's lot, there was not a poor Jew in Houndsditch or Petticoat Lane whose face would not brighten when he saw him coming. When he died, on the igth of January 1896, this might have served as an appropriate epitaph. ROGIER, CHARLES LATOUR (1800-1885), Belgian states- man, descended from a Belgian family settled in the department of the Nord in France, was born at St Quentin on i7th August 1800. His father, an officer in the French army, perished in the Russian campaign of 1812; and the family moved to Liege, where the eldest son, Firmin, held a professorship. Charles, after being called "to the Bar, founded, in collaboration with his lifelong friends, Paul Devaux and Joseph Lebeau, the journal Mathieu Laensberg (afterwards Le Politique), which by its ardent patriotism and its attacks on the Dutch administra- tion soon acquired a widespread influence. When the insurrec- tion of 1830 broke out at Brussels, Rogier put himself at the head of 150 Liegeois, and inscribing on his banner the motto, ROGUE— ROHAN (FAMILY) " Vaincre ou mourir pour Bruxelles," he obtained arms from a local factory, and marched upon the capital. Here he took his place at once among the leaders of the revolutionary party. His influence saved the town-hall from pillage on igth September. On the 24th a commission administrative was formed, of which Rogier became president. The energetic measures of this body and of its successor, the gouvernement provisoire,soon freed the greater part of the country from the Dutch troops. Rogier was sent in October to suppress an outbreak among the colliers of Hainaut, and then as delegate of the provisional government to Antwerp, where the citadel still held out for Holland. He suc- ceeded in arranging an armistice, and then, in the exercise of the absolute power with which he was invested, reorganized the entire administration of the city. He sat for Liege in the National Congress, voted for the establishment of a hereditary monarchy, and induced the congress to adopt the principle of an elective second chamber. In the long-drawn debates on the be- stowal of the crown he ranged himself on the side of Louis Philippe : he first supported the candidature of Otto of Bavaria, and on his rejection declared for the due de Nemours. Finally, when Louis Philippe declined the crown on behalf of his son, Rogier voted with the majority for Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In June 1831 he was appointed governor of the province of Antwerp, a post rendered exceptionally difficult by the continued presence of Dutch troops in the citadel. In October 1832 he was made minister of the interior in the Goblet-Devaux cabinet. In the following June he intervened in a quarrel in the chamber of deputies between Devaux and the Opposition leader, Alexandre Gendebien, claimed a prior right to give satisfaction, and fought a duel, in which he was severely wounded. During his term of office he carried, in the teeth of violent opposition, a law that established in Belgium the first railways on the continent of Europe, and thus laid the foundation of her industrial develop- ment. Owing to dissensions in the cabinet, he retired in 1834, together with Lebeau, and resumed the governorship of Antwerp. On Lebeau's return to power in 1840, Rogier became minister of public works and education. The proposals that he made in the latter capacity were defeated by the determined opposi- tion of the Clerical party, and on the resignation of the ministry in 1841, Rogier gave his support to a compromise on the subject of education, which passed into law in 1842. He led the Liberal party in Opposition till 1847, when he formed a cabinet in which he held the ministry of the interior. He at once embarked on a programme of political and economic reform. He took effective steps to remedy the industrial distress caused by the decay of the Flemish linen trade. The limits of the franchise were extended ; and as the result of the liberal policy of the govern- ment Belgium alone escaped the revolutionary wave that spread over the Continent in 1848. He passed a law in 1850 organizing secondary education under the control of the State, and giving the clergy only the right of religious instruction. The Clerical party, though unable to defeat this measure, suc- ceeded in shaking the position of the cabinet; and it was finally undermined, after Prince Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat of 1851, by the hostility of the French government, which found its political exiles welcomed by the liberal cabinet at Brussels. Rogier retired in October 1852, but was brought back into office by the liberal reaction of 1857. He again became president of the council and minister of the interior in a cabinet of which Frere-Orban was the most conspicuous member. The first important measure passed by the ministry was one for the fortification of Antwerp. In 1860 the fear of French designs on the independence of Belgium led to a movement of reconciliation with Holland, and inspired Rogier to write the only one of his numerous poems that is likely to survive, his national anthem, " La Nouvelle Brabanconne." Some of the ministers resigning in 1861, on the question of recognizing the kingdom of Italy, the cabinet was reconstructed, and Rogier exchanged the ministry of the interior for that of foreign affairs. In this capacity he achieved a diplomatic triumph in freeing the navigation of the Scheldt, and thus enabling Antwerp to become the second port on the mainland of Europe. Defeated at 459 Dinant, he sat for Tournai from 1863 till his death. His younger and more energetic colleague, Frere-Orban, gradually over- shadowed his chief, and in 1868 Rogier finally retired from power. He continued, however, to take part in public life, and was elected president of the extraordinary session of the chamber of representatives in 1878. From this limit his age, his devoted patriotism and the unassuming simplicity of his life made him the idol of all classes. The fiftieth anniversary of the kingdom of Belgium in 1880, and two years later that of his entry into parliament, were the occasion of demonstrations in his honour. He died at Brussels on the 27th of May 1885, and his remains were accorded a public funeral. See T. Juste, Charles Rogier, 1800-1885, d'apres des documents inedits (Verviers, 1885). ROGUE, a word which came into use about the middle of the i6th century as a slang or " cant " term for a vagrant vagabond, answering to the modern " tramp," and was adopted into English legal phraseology together with " vagabond " in the Statute of Elizabeth 1572, "rogue and vagabond" and " incorrigible rogue " remaining as legal terms for certain classes of persons amenable to the law under the Vagrancy Acts (see VAGRANCY). The act of Elizabeth defined " rogues, vagabonds and sturdy beggars " as including " idle persons going about and using subtle craft and unlawful games and all persons whole and mighty in body, but having neither land nor master, nor able to give an account how they get their living and all common labourers using loitering and refusing to work for the wages commonly given " (Sir G. Nicholls' History of the English Poor Law, ed. 1898 by H. G. Willink, vol, i. 159). The word has now the general meaning of a knave or rascal, though also used (by meiosis) as a term of playful or tender banter and in various special applications (e.g. a " rogue " elephant, one who has been driven out by the herd and lives a solitary life, becoming very savage and destructive. Gardeners also apply the word to a plant which does not come true from seed, showing some variation from the type). The derivation of the word has been much disputed. It has usually been referred to Fr. rogue, meaning proud, arrogant, which is variously derived from the Icelandic hroke, rook, long-winded talker, or Breton rok, proud, haughty; cf. Irish and Gaelic rucas, pride. The New English Dictionary, however, rejects this de- rivation, and considers possible a connexion with another early " cant " word " roger," a begging vagabond pretending to be a poor university scholar. ROHAN, the name of one of the most illustrious of the feudal families of France, derived from that of a small town in Morbi- han, Brittany. The family appears to have sprung from the viscounts of Porhoet, and claims connexion with the ancient sovereigns of Brittany. Since the i2th century it held an important place in the history of Brittany, and strengthened its position by alliances with the greatest houses in France. It was divided into several branches, the eldest of which, that of the viscounts of Rohan, became extinct in 1527. Of the younger branches the most famous is that of Guemenee, from which sprang the branches of Montbazon, Soubise and Gii. The seigneurs of Frontenay, an offshoot of this last branch, inherited by marriage the property of the eldest branch of the house. Hercule de Rohan, due de Montbazon (1568-1654) served Henry III. and Henry IV. against the League, and was made by Henry IV. governor of Paris and the Isle of France, and master of the hounds. His grandson, Louis de Rohan- Guemenee, the chevalier de Rohan, who was notorious for his dissolute life, conspired with the Dutch against Louis XIV. and was beheaded in Paris in 1674. In the i8th century the Soubise branch furnished several prelates, cardinals and bishops of Strassburg, among others the famous cardinal de Rohan, the hero of the affair of the diamond necklace. The seigneurs of Gie, a branch founded by Pierre de Rohan (1453- 1513), a cadet of the branch of Gue'me'ne'e and marshal of France, were conspicuous on the Protestant side during the wars of religion. Ren€ de Rohan, seigneur of Pontivy and Frontenay, commanded the Calvinist army in 1570, and 460 ROHAN, DUG DE— ROHAN, CARDINAL DE defended Lusignan with great valour when it was besieged by the Catholics (1574-75)- His son Henry, the first duke of Rohan, also distinguished himself in the Protestant army. His only child, Marguerite de Rohan, married in 1645 Henri Chabot, a cadet of a great family of Poitou. This marriage was opposed by her mother, Marguerite de Bethune, who put forward a rival heir called Tancred, whom she claimed to be her son by the duke of Rohan. This Tancred perished in the Fronde in 1649. The property and titles of Henry de Rohan thus passed to the Chabot family, which under the name of Rohan-Chabot produced some distinguished soldiers and a cardinal archbishop of Besancon. The male line of the Rohans is now represented by an offshoot of the Rohan- Guemenee branch. ROHAN, HENRI, Due DE (1570-1638), French soldier, writer and leader of the Huguenots, was born at the chateau of Blain, in Brittany, in 1579. His father was Rene II., count of Rohan (1550-86), and head of one of the oldest and most distinguished families in France, which was connected with many of the reigning houses of Europe. He was educated by his mother, who was a woman of exceptional learning and force of character. Rohan was by birth the second son, but his elder brother Rene dying young he became the heir of the name. He appeared at court and in the army at the age of sixteen, and was a special favourite with Henry IV., after whom, failing the house of Conde, he might be said to be the natural chief of the French Protestants. Having served till the peace of Vervins, he travelled for a considerable time over Europe, including England and Scotland, in the first of which countries he received the not unique honour of being called by Elizabeth her knight, while in the second he was godfather at Charles I.'s christening. On his return to France he was made duke and peer at the age of twenty-four, and two years later (1603) married Marguerite de Bethune, the due de Sully's daughter. He served in high command at the celebrated siege of Jiilich in 1610, but soon afterwards he fell into active or passive opposition to the govern- ment over the religious disputes. For a time, however, he abstained from actual insurrection, and he endeavoured to keep on terms with Marie de' Medici; he even, despite his dislike of De Luynes, the favourite of Louis XIII., reappeared in the army and fought in Lorraine and Piedmont. It was not till the decree for the restitution of church property in the south threw the Bearnese and Gascons into open revolt that Rohan appeared as a rebel. His authority and military skill were very formidable to the royalists; his constancy and firm- ness greatly contributed to the happy issue of the war for the Huguenots, and brought about the treaty of Montpellier (1623). But Rohan did not escape the results of the incurable factious- ness which showed itself more strongly perhaps among the French Huguenots than among any other of the numerous armed oppositions of the I7th century. He was accused of lukewarmness and treachery, though he did not hesitate to renew the war when the compact of Montpellier was broken. Again a hollow peace was patched up, but it lasted but a short time, and Rohan undertook a third war (1627-20), the first events of which are recounted in his celebrated Memoirs. This last war (famous for the defence of La Rochelle by Soubise, Rohan's younger brother) was one of considerable danger for Rohan. In spite of all efforts he had in the end to sign a peace, and after this he made his way quickly to Venice. Here he is said to have received from the Porte the offer of the sovereignty of Cyprus. It is more certain that his hosts of Venice wished to make him their general-in-chief, a design not executed owing to the. peace of Cherasco (1631). At Venice he wrote his Memoirs; at Padua, Le Parfait Capitaine. But when France began to play a more conspicuous part in the Thirty Years' War Rohan was again called to serve his lawful sovereign, and entrusted with the war in the Valtelline. The campaign of 1633 was completely successful, but Rohan was still considered dangerous to France, and was soon again in retirement. At this time he wrote his Traite du gouvernement des treize cantons. Rohan fought another Valtelline campaign, but without the success of the first, for the motives of France were now held in suspicion. The unfortunate commander retired to Geneva and thence went to the army of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. He received a mortal wound at the battle of Rheinfelden on the z8th of February 1638, and died at the abbey of Konigsfeld, canton Berne, on the i3th of April. His body was buried at Geneva, and his arms were solemnly handed over to the Venetian government. With his daughter Marguerite the honours of the family of Rohan-Gie passed to the house of Chabot. Rohan's Memoires sur les chases qui se sent passees en France, &c., rank amongst the best products of the singular talent for memoir writing which the French noblesse of the 1 6th and I7th centuries possessed. Alike in style, in clearness of matter and in shrewd- ness, they deserve very high praise. The first three books, dealing with the civil wars, appeared in 1644; the fourth, containing the narrative of the Valtelline campaigns, not till 1758. Some suspicions were thrown on the genuineness of the latter, but, it would seem, groundlessly. His famous book on the history and art of war, Le Parfait Capitaine, appeared in 1631 and sub- sequently in 1637 and 1693 (see also Quincy, Art de la guerre, Paris, 1741). It treats of the history and lessons of Caesar's cam- paigns and their application to modern warfare, and contains appendices dealing with phalangite and legionary methods of fighting and the art of war in general. He also wrote an account of his travels, the book on Switzerland mentioned above, De I'inleret des princes et etats de la chretiente, etc. The Memoirs may be conveniently found in the collection of Michaud and Poujoulat, vol. 19. See Fauvelet de Foix, Histoire du Due Henri de Rohan (Paris, 1667) ; Schybergson, Le Due de Rohan et la charte du parti protestant en France (Paris, 1880); Biihring, Venedig, Gustaf Adolf, und Rohan (Halle, 1885); Laugel, Henri de Rohan, son role politique et militaire (Paris, 1889); Veraguth, Herzog Rohan und seine Mission in Grau- bunden (Berne, 1894); and Shadwell, Mountain Warfare. ROHAN, LOUIS RENfc fiDOUARD, CARDINAL DE (1734- 1803), prince de Rohan-Guemenee, archbishop of Strassburg, a cadet of the great family of Rohan (which traced its origin to the kings of Brittany, and was granted the precedence and rank of a foreign princely family by Louis XIV.), was born at Paris on the 2$th of September 1734. Members of the Rohan family had filled the office of archbishop of Strassburg from 1704 — an office which made them princes of the empire and the compeers rather of the German prince-bishops than of the French ecclesiastics. For this high office Louis de Rohan was destined from his birth, and soon after taking orders, in 1760, he was nominated coadjutor to his uncle, Constantine de Rohan- Rochefort, who then held the archbishopric, and he was also consecrated bishop of Canopus. But he preferred the elegant life and the gaiety of Paris to his clerical duties, and had also an ambition to make a figure in politics. He joined the party opposed to the Austrian alliance, which had been cemented by the marriage of the archduchess Marie Antoinette to the dauphin. This party was headed by the due d'Aiguillon, who in 1771 sent Prince Louis on a special embassy to Vienna to find out what was being done there with regard to the partition of Poland. Rohan arrived at Vienna in January 1772, and made a great noise with his lavish fetes. But the empress Maria Theresa was implacably hostile to him; not only did he attempt to thwart her policy, but he spread scandals about her daughter Marie Antoinette, laughed at herself, and shocked her ideas of propriety by his dissipation and luxury. On the death of Louis XV. in 1774, Rohan was recalled from Vienna, and coldly, received at Paris; but the influence of his family was too great for him to be neglected, and in 1777 he was made grand almoner, and in 1778 abbot of St Vaast. In 1778 he was made a cardinal on the nomination of Stanislaus Ponia- towski, king of Poland, and in the following year succeeded his uncle as archbishop of Strassburg and became abbot of Noirmoutiers and^ Chaise-Dieu. His various preferments brought him in an income of two and a half millions of livres; yet the cardinal was restless and unhappy until he should be reinstated in favour at court and had appeased the animosity which Marie Antoinette felt against him. In pursuit of this object he fell into the hands of a gang of intriguers, the comtesse de Lamotte, the notorious Cagliostro and others, whose actions ROHILKHAND— ROHTAK 461 form part of the " affair of the diamond necklace." This story is disentangled elsewhere (see DIAMOND NECKLACE), and diverging views are still taken of it. Rohan certainly was led to believe that his attentions to the queen were welcomed, and that his arrangement by which she received the famous necklace was approved. He was the dupe of others, and at the trial in 1786 before the parlement his acquittal was received with universal enthusiasm, and regarded as a victory over the court and the unpopular queen. He was deprived, however, of his office as grand almoner and exiled to his abbey of Chaise-Dieu. He was soon allowed to return to Strassburg, and his popularity was shown by his election in 1789 to the states-general by the clergy of the bailliages of Haguenau and Weissenburg. He at first declined to sit, but the states-general, when it became the national assembly, insisted on validating his election. But as a prince of the church in January 1791 he refused to take the oath to the constitution, and went to Ettenheim, in the German part of his diocese. In exile his character improved, and he spent what wealth remained to him in providing for the poor clergy of his diocese who had been obliged to leave France; and in 1801 he resigned his nominal rank as archbishop of Strassburg. On the 1 7th of February 1803 he died at Ettenheim. See the Mimoires of his secretary, the abb6 Georgel, of the baroness d'Oberkirch, of Beugnot, and of Madame Campan; and works cited under DIAMOND NECKLACE. ROHILKHAND, a tract in the United Provinces of India. The name is associated with the Rohilla tribe (?.».), but in its historical significance it covers an area almost coincident with the modern division of Bareilly, for which it is a common alternative title. This division has an area of 10,720 sq. m., and comprises the districts of Bareilly, Bijnor, Budaun, Mora- dabad, Shahjahanpur and Pilibhit. Pop. (1901) 5,479,688. Political control over the state of Rampur is exercised by the commissioner for the division. ROHILLA (a Pushtu word for " mountaineer "), a tribe of Afghan marauders, who, towards the beginning of the i8th century, conquered a district of Hindostan, giving it the name of Rohilkhand, which still survives as an alternative title of the Bareilly division of the United Provinces. The Rohillas are chiefly notable for their association with Warren Hastings, which formed one of the main counts in his impeachment. Having been driven into the mountains by the Mahrattas, they had appealed for aid to Shuja-ud-Dowlah, wazir of Oudh, and ally of the British. The wazir promised to assist them in return for a sum of money; but when the Mahrattas were driven off the Rohilla chiefs refused to pay. The wazir then decided to annex their country, and appealed to Hastings for assistance, which was given in return for a sum of forty lakhs of rupees. Hastings justified his action on the ground that the Rohillas were a danger to the British as uncovering the flank of Oudh; and while he would never involve the company in an unjust war, neither did he desire an unprofitable one. The Rohillas were defeated by Colonel Champion in April 1774, and the majority of them fled across the Ganges; but the charges of destroying a nation, brought against Hastings by Burke and Macaulay, were greatly exaggerated. The Rohillas were never a nation, but consisted of a small body of Mahommedans, who had imposed an alien rule upon a million Hindus; and one of their chiefs was left in possession of a tract which now forms the state of Rampur (q.v.). See Charles Hamilton, History of the Rohilla Afghans (1787) ; and Sir J. Strachey, Hastings and the Rohilla War (Oxford, 1892). ROHLFS, FRIEDRICH GERHARD (1831-1896), German explorer of the Sahara, son of a physician, was born at Vege- sack, near Bremen, on the I4th of April 1831. After the ordinary course at the gymnasium of Osnabruck he entered the Bremen corps in 1848, and took part as a volunteer in the Schleswig-Holstcin campaign, being made an officer after the battle of Idstedt (July 1850). He became a medical student at the universities of Heidelberg, Wurzburg and then Got- tingen; but his natural inclination was for travelling, and in 1855 he went to Algeria and enlisted in the Foreign Legion. He took part in the conquest of Kabylia, and was decorated for bravery as Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Having made himself master of Arabic and gained a thorough knowledge of native customs, Rohlfs went to Morocco in 1861; presenting himself as a Mussulman, he gained the favour of the enlightened sherif of Wazzan, and was thus enabled to travel over the length and breadth of the country. He then entered the Sahara and traversed the entire extent of the Wad Draa, being the second European (the first being Ren6 Caillie) to visit Tafilet. On leaving Tafilet he was robbed by his guides and left for dead; but two marabouts charitably succoured him and he was able to reach Algeria. When scarcely re- covered from his wounds he started once more for the Sahara (August 1862) by way of Algeria. Compelled by tribal dis- turbances to turn back, he went to Tangier and thence in March 1864 made a fresh start. Crossing the Atlas by an eastern route he again visited Tafilet, and thence made his way across the desert to the oasis of Tuat, which he was the first European to describe. Returning by Ghadames and Tripoli he spent three months in Germany, and then (March 1865) went back to Tripoli, intending to explore the highlands of the Ahaggar; being prevented, however, by a war among the Tuareg, he went from Ghadames to Mur/.uk, where he spent five months, and thence across the Sahara to Bornu, mapping en route the oasis of Kawar. Rohlfs passed through Mandara and its ancient capital Mora, and struck out for the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. He reached the Benue by way of the Bauchi highlands, and descended that river -to its confluence with the Niger, which he ascended to Rabba. Thence he made his way on horseback to Lagos, reaching Liverpool on the 2nd of July 1867. In the following year he accompanied the British expedition against Theodore of Abyssinia, and on his return went once more to Tripoli, whence he traversed the Cyrenaica, reaching Egypt by way of the oasis of Siwa ( 1 869) . Returning home, he married and settled down in Weimar. He did not rest long, however, for in 1873-74 he took command of an expedition sent by the Khedive Ismail into the Libyan Desert, which made investigations of great value to science. In 1878 Rohlfs and Dr Sleeker were commissioned by the German African Society to go to Wadai. They succeeded in reaching the oasis of Kufra, one of the chief centres of the Senussites, but being attacked by the Arabs, they were obliged to retreat, making their way to the coast at Benghazi, reached in October 1879. In 1880 Rohlfs accompanied Dr Sleeker in an exploring expedition to Abyssinia; but after delivering a letter from the German emperor lo the Negus, he relurned to Europe. In 1885, when the rivalry belween Ihe British and Germans in Easl Africa was very keen, Prince Bismarck appointed Rohlfs consul al Zanzibar, which island Bismarck desired lo secure for Germany. Rohlfs, unlrained in diplomacy, was no match for Sir John Kirk, the British Agenl, and he was soon recalled, and did not again visit Africa. He died at Riingsdorf, near Bonn, on the 2nd of June 1896. Rohlfs visited many regions not before traversed by Europeans, and the value of his work was recognized in 1868 by the Royal Geographical Society, which bestowed on him the Patron's Medal. Accounts of each of his expeditions, and other works on Africa were published by Rohlfs, including Mein Erster Aufenthalt in Marokko (Bremen, 1873; English edition, Travels in Morocco, London, 1874); Reise durch Marokko (Bremen, 1868); Over durch Afrika (Leipzig, 1874-75); Von Tripolis nach Alexandrien (Bremen, 1871); Expedition zur Erforschung der Libyschen Waste (Cassel, 1875-76); Kufra: Reise von Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra (Leipzig, 1881); Land und Volk in Afrika (Bremen, 1870); Quid novi ex Africa? (Cassel, 1886). See also a biographical notice by Dr W. Wolkenhauer in the Deutsche geo. Blatter for 1896. ROHTAK, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of Ihe Punjab. The lown, which is of great antiquity, became Ihe headquarters of a British district in 1824. Viewed from the sandhills to the south, Rohtak, with ils white mosque in the centre, a fort standing out boldly to the east, is striking and picturesque. It has a station on the Southern Punjab 462 ROJAS ZORRILLA— ROLAND, J. M. railway, 44 m. N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901) 20,323. It is an important trade centre, with factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and a speciality in muslin turbans. The district of Rohtak has an area of 1797 sq. m. It is situated in the midst of the level tableland between the Jumna and the Sutlej, forming one unbroken plain of hard clay copi- ously interspersed with light yellow sand, and covered in its wild state by a jungle of scrubby brushwood. The only natural reservoir for its drainage is the Najafgarh jhil, a marshy lake lying within the boundaries of Delhi. The Sahibi, a small stream from the Ajmere hills, traverses a corner of the district, and the northern portions are watered by the Rohtak and Butana branches of the Western Jumna canal; but the greater portion of the central plain, comprising about two-thirds of the district area, is entirely dependent upon the uncertain rainfall. The climate, though severe in point of heat, is gener- ally healthy; the rainfall averages annually about 20 in. The population in 1901 was 630,672, showing an increase of 6-8% in the decade. The principal crops are millets, wheat, barley, pulses, cotton and sugar-cane. The district is traversed by the line of the Southern Punjab railway from Delhi to Jind, and also touched by the Rewari-Ferozepore branch of the Rajputana railway. It is peculiarly exposed to drought, suffering in the famine of 1896-97, and yet more severely in 1899-1900, when the highest number of persons relieved was 33,632 in March 1900. Rohtak was formerly included within the region known as Hariana. The district, with the other possessions of Sindhia west of the Jumna, passed to the British in 1803. Until 1832 Rohtak was under the administration of a political agent, resident at Delhi, but in that year it was brought under the general regulations and annexed to the North-Western Pro- vinces. The outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 led to its abandon- ment, when the mutineers attacked and plundered Rohtak, destroying every record of administration. It was not until after the fall of Delhi that the authority of the British govern- ment was permanently restored. Rohtak was then transferred to the Punjab. ROJAS ZORRILLA, FRANCISCO DE (i6o7~e. 1660), Spanish dramatist, was born at Toledo; the only circumstance recorded of his life is that he became a knight of Santiago in 1644. The exact date of his death is unknown. His plays were published in 1640-45; the best of his dramatic compositions, Del Rey abajo Ninguno, is not included in the collection and was printed separately under the title of Garcia del Castanar. Of his other pieces, apart from their intrinsic merit, an international interest attaches to No hay padre siendo rey, which was borrowed by Rotrou for his Venceslas; to Donde hay agravios no hay zelos and the A mo criado, which were imitated by Scarron in his Jodelet Soufflete and Mailre Valet; to Entre Bobos anda el juego, the source of Thomas Corneille's Don Bertrand de Cigarral, as well as of Scarron's Don Japhel d'Armenie; to Obligados y ofcndidos, from which are derived Les Genereux Ennemis by Boisrobert, Les Illustres Ennemis by Thomas Corneille, and Scarron's Ecolier de Salamanque; and to La traicidn busca el casligo, upon which are based Vanbrugh's False Friend and Le Sage's Trattre puni. Rojas Zorrilla's power of conveying a tragic impression is manifest in Garcia del Castanar; his chief defect is his persistent preciosity of diction. ROKITANSKY, CARL, FREIHERRVON (1804-1878), thefounder of the Vienna school of pathological anatomy, was born on the 1 9th of February 1804 at Koniggratz in Bohemia. He studied medicine at Prague and at Vienna, graduating at the latter place in 1828. Soon afterwards he became assistant to Johann Wagner, the professor of pathological anatomy, and suc- ceeded him in 1834 as prosector, being at the same time made extraordinary professor. It was not until ten years later (1844) that he reached the rank of full professor. To his duties as a teacher he added in 1847 the onerous office of medico-legal anatomist to the city, and from 1863 he filled an influential office in the ministry of education and public worship, wherein he had to advise on all routine matters of medical teaching, including patronage. A seat in the upper house of the Reichs- rath rewarded his public labours in 1867, and on his retirement from all his offices in 1874 he was made a commander of the Order of Leopold. He joined the Imperial Academy of Sciences as a member in 1848, and became its president in 1869. He was president also of the medical society of the Austrian capital and an honorary member of many foreign societies. On his retire- ment at the age of seventy his colleagues celebrated the occasion by a function in the aula of the university, where his bust was unveiled. In his leave-taking speech he said that work had always been a pleasure to him and pleasures mostly a toil. His death in Vienna on the 23rd of July 1878 elicited many genuine expressions of affection and of esteem for his upright character. Two of his sons became professors at Vienna, one of astronomy and another of medicine, while a third gained distinction on the lyric stage. With Rokitansky's name is associated the second great period of the medical school of Vienna, its first success having been identi- fied with the liberal patronage of it by Maria Theresa and with the fame of Van Swieten, whom the empress had attracted thither from Leiden. The basis of its second reputation was morbid anatomy, together with the precision of clinical diagnosis de- pendent thereon, and associated with the labours of Rokitansky's lifelong friend, Joseph Skoda (1805-1881). The anatomical vogue had begun under Wagner while Rokitansky was still a student ; but it reached its highest point while the latter was assistant in the dead-house and afterwards prosector and professor. The enthusiasm for the post-mortem study of disease brought one very serious con- sequence at the outset, in the enormous increase of the death- rate from puerperal fever in the lying-in wards of the general hospital. A comparison between the slight mortality in the wards that were afterwards reserved for the training of midwives and the excessive mortality in those set apart for the training of students proved that the cause was the conveyance of infection from the dead-house by the hands of the latter. The precautions introduced by I. P. Semmelweiss in 1847 proved adequate in removing that grave reproach from the study of morbid anatomy. Another and more lasting consequence of the assiduous pursuit of post-mortem study, counterbalancing somewhat the advantage of a more precise and localized diagnosis, was the loss of faith in the power of drugs to remedy the textural changes — the so-called " nihilism " of the Vienna school. The immediate outcome of Rokitansky's close application to the work of the dead-house was his Handbuch der paihologisclien Anatomic (1842—46), in 3 vols., of which the first was published last. The value of the work lies in the second and third volumes, containing succinct descriptions of the visible changes and abnormalities in the several organs 'and parts of the body. Whenever Rokitansky touched the vital problems of general path- ology, as he did in the postponed first volume, he revealed a meta- physical bent, which was strong in him behind all his undoubted powers of outward observation and accurate description. Being a few years too soon to profit by the microscopic movement which led to the cellular pathology, he endeavoured to reconcile the old humoral doctrine with his anatomical observations, and to read a new meaning into the doctrine of the various dyscrasias. In 1862 he entered into possession of a new pathological institute, in which he found means, for the first time, to display his extensive collection of specimens in a museum. Although he had no direct share in the newer developments of pathology, he was far from indifferent or reactionary towards them; indeed, the laboratories and chairs for microscopic and experimental pathology and for pathological chemistry were warmly encouraged and aided by him. Next to his Handbuch, of which the Sydenham Society published an English translation in 4 vols. (1849-52), his most important writings were four memoirs in the Denkschriften of the Vienna Academy of Sciences (on the anatomy of goitre, cysts, diseases of arteries, and defects in the septa of the heart), the last as late as 1875. Other papers of less importance brought up the total of his writings to thirty-eight, including three addresses of a philosophical turn, on " Freedom of Inquiry " (1862), " The Independent Value of Knowledge " (1867) and " The Solidarity of Animal Life " (1869). ROLAND [ROLAND DE LA PLATIERE], JEAN MARIE (1734- 1793), French statesman, was born at Thizy on the i8th of February 1734. He received a good education, and early formed the studious habits which remained with him through life. Proposing to -seek his fortune abroad, he went on foot to Nantes, but was there prostrated by an illness so severe that all thoughts of emigration were perforce abandoned. For some years he was employed as a clerk; thereafter he joined a relative who was inspector of manufactures at Amiens, and he himself speedily rose to the position of inspector. To these two employments may be ascribed those qualities of assiduity and ROLAND, J. M. 463 accuracy, and that familiarity with the commerce of the country, which distinguished his public career. In 1781 he married Manon Jeanne Phlipon (1754-1793), and the name of MADAME ROLAND is famous in history. She was the daughter of Gratien Phlipon, a Paris engraver, who was ambitious, speculative and nearly always poor. From her early years she showed great aptitude for study, an ardent and enthusiastic spirit, and un- questionable talent. She was to a considerable extent self- taught; and her love of reading made her acquainted first with Plutarch — a passion for which author she continued to cherish throughout her life — thereafter with Bossuet, Massillon, and authors of a like stamp, and finally with Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. These studies marked stages of her development, and as her mind matured she abandoned the idea of a convent which for a year or two she had entertained, and added to the enthusiasm for a republic which she had imbibed from her earlier studies not a little of the cynicism and the daring which the later authors inspired. She almost equalled her husband in knowledge, and infinitely excelled him in talent and in tact. Through and with him she exercised a singularly powerful in- fluence over the destinies of France from the outbreak of the Revolution till her death. For four years after their marriage Roland lived at Amiens, he being still an inspector of manufactures; but his knowledge of commercial affairs enabled him to contribute articles to the Encyclopedic Nouvelle, in which, as in all his literary work, he was assisted by his wife. On their removal to Lyons the in- fluence of both became wider and more powerful. Their fervent political aspirations could not be concealed, and from the be- ginning of the Revolution they threw in their lot with the party of advance. The Courrier de Lyon contained articles the success of which reached even to the capital and attracted the attention of the Parisian press. They were from the pen of Madame Roland and were signed by her husband. A corre- spondence sprang up with Brissot and other friends of the Revolution at headquarters. In Lyons their views were publicly known; Roland was elected a member of the municipality, and when the depression of trade in the south demanded representa- tion in Paris he was deputed by the council of Lyons to ask the Constituent Assembly that the municipal debt of Lyons, which had been contracted for the benefit of the state, should be re- garded as national debt. Accompanied by his wife, he appeared in the capital in February 1791. He remained there until September, frequenting the Society of the Friends of the Con- stitution, and entertaining deputies of the most advanced opinions, especially those who later became the leading Giron- dists. Madame Roland took an active part in the political discussions in these reunions. In September 1791, Roland's mission being executed, they returned to Lyons. Meanwhile the inspectorships of manu- factures had been abolished; he was thus free; and they could no longer remain absent from the centre of affairs. In December they again reached Paris. Roland became a member of the Jacobin Club. They had made many and influential friends in advance, and Madame Roland's salon soon became the rendezvous of Brissot, Petion, Robespierre and other leaders of the popular movement, above all of Buzot, whom she loved with platonic enthusiasm. In person Madame Roland was attractive though not beautiful; her ideas were clear and far-reaching, her manner calm, and her power of observation extremely acute. It was almost inevitable that she should find herself in the centre of political aspirations and presiding over a company of the most talented men of progress. The rupture had not yet been made evident between the Girondist party and that section still more extreme, that of the Mountain. For a time the whole left united in forcing the resignation of the ministers. When the crisis came the Girondists were ready, and on the 23rd of March 1792 Roland found himself appointed minister of the interior. As a minister of the crown Roland exhibited a bourgeois brusqueness of manner and a remarkable combination of political pre- judice with administrative ability. While his wife's influence could not increase the latter, it was successfully exerted to foment and embitter the former. He was ex officio excluded from the Legislative Assembly, and his declarations of policy were thus in writing — that is, in the form in which she could most readily exert her power. A great occasion was invented. The decrees against the emigrants and the non-juring clergy still remained under the veto of the king. A letter was penned by Madame Roland and addressed by her husband to Louis. It remained unanswered. Thereupon, in full council and in the king's presence, Roland read his letter aloud. It contained many and terrible truths as to the royal refusal to sanction the decrees and as to the king's position in the state; but it was inconsistent with a minister's position, disrespectful if not insolent in tone. Roland's dismissal followed. Then he completed the plan: he read the letter to the Assembly; it was ordered to be printed, became the manifesto of disaffection, and was circulated everywhere. In the demand for the rein- statement of the dismissed ministers were found the means of humiliation, and the prelude to the dethronement, of the king. After the insurrection of the loth of August, Roland was recalled to power, one of his colleagues being Danton. But now he was dismayed by the progress of the Revolution. He was above all a provincial, and was soon in opposition to the party of the Mountain, which aimed at supremacy not only in Paris but in the government as well. His hostility to the insurrectional commune of Paris, which led him to propose transferring the government to Blois, 'and his attacks upon Robespierre and his friends rendered him very unpopular. His neglect to seal the iron chest discovered in the Tuileries, which contained the proofs of Louis XVI.'s relations with the enemies of France, led to the accusation that he had destroyed a part of these documents. Finally, in the trial of the king he demanded, with the Girondists, that the sentence should be pronounced by a vote of the whole people, and not simply by the Convention. He resigned office on the 23rd of January 1793, two days after the king's execution. Although now extremely unpopular, the Rolands remained in Paris, suffering abuse and calumny, especially from Marat. Once Madame Roland appeared personally in the Assembly to repel the falsehoods of an accuser, and her ease and dignity evoked enthusiasm and compelled acquittal. But violence succeeded violence, and early on the morning of the ist of June she was arrested and thrown into the prison of the Abbaye. Roland himself escaped secretly to shelter in Rouen. Released for an hour from the Abbaye, she was again arrested and thrown among the horrors of Sainte-Pelagie. Finally, she was transferred to the Conciergerie. In prison she won the affections of the guards, and was allowed the privilege of writing materials and the occasional visits of devoted friends. She there wrote her A ppel & I'impartiale posliritS, those memoirs which display a strange alternation between self-laudation and patriotism, between the trivial and the sublime. On the 8th of November 1793 she was conveyed to the guillotine. Before yielding her head to the block, she bowed before the clay statue of Liberty erected in the Place de la Revolution, uttering her famous apostrophe — "O Liberty! what crimes are committed in thy name! " When Roland heard of his wife's condemnation, he wandered some miles from his refuge in Rouen; maddened by despair and grief, he wrote a few words expressive of his horror at those massacres which could only be inspired by the enemies of France, protesting that " from the moment when I learned that they had murdered my wife I would no longer remain in a world stained with enemies." He affixed the paper to his breast, and unsheathing a sword-stick fell upon the weapon, which pierced his heart, on the loth of November 1793. Madame Roland's Mtmoires, first printed in 1820, have been edited among others by P. Faug^re (Paris, 1864), by C. A. Dauban (Paris, 1864), by T. Claretie (Paris, 1884), and by C. Perroud (Paris, 1905). Some of her Lettres intdites have been published by C. A. Dauban (Paris, 1867), and a critical edition of her Lettres by ROLAND, LEGEND OF C. Perroud (Paris, 1900-2). See also C. A. Dauban, £tude sur Madame Roland et son temps (Paris, 1864); V. Lamy, Deux femmes celebres, Madame Roland et Charlotte Corday (Paris, 1884); C. Bader, Madame Roland, d'apres des letlres et des manuscrits inedits (Paris, 1892); A. J. Lambert, Le mariage de Madame Roland, trots annees de correspondance amoureuse (Paris, 1896); Austin Dobson, Four Frenchwomen (London, 1890); and articles by C. Perroud in the review La Revolution fran faise (1896-99). t ROLAND, LEGEND OF. The legend of the French epic hero Roland (transferred to Italian romance as Orlando) is based on authentic history. Charlemagne invaded Spain in 778, and had captured Pampeluna, but failed before Saragossa, when the news of a Saxon revolt recalled him to the banks of the Rhine. On his retreat to France through the denies of the Pyrenees, part of his army was cut off from the main body by the Basques, who had ambushed in a narrow defile, and now drove the rear- guard into a valley where it was surrounded and entirely destroyed. The Basques, after plundering the baggage, made good their escape, favoured by the darkness and by their knowledge of the ground. The incident is related in the Annales (Pertz i. 159) commonly ascribed to Einhard, and with more detail in Einhard's Vita Karoli (cap. ix.; Pertz ii. 448), where the names of the leaders are given. " In this battle were slain Eggihard, praepositus of the royal table; Anselm, count of the palace; and Hruodland, praefect of the Breton march. . . ." The scene of the disaster is fixed by tradition at Roncevaux, on the road from Pampeluna to Saint Jean Pied de Port. There is no foundation in this story for the fiction of the twelve peers, which may possibly arise from a still earlier tradition. In 636-37, according to the Chronicles of Fredegarius (ed. Krusch p. 159), twelve chiefs, whose names are given, were sent by Dagobert against the Basques. The expedition was successful, but in an engagement fought in the valley of Subola, or Robola, identified with Mauleon, which is not far from Roncevaux, the Duke Harembert, with other Prankish chiefs, was slain. Later fights in the same neighbourhood and under similar circum- stances are related in 813 (Vita Hludowici; Pertz ii. 616), and especially in 824 (Einhard's Annales; Pertz i. 213). These incidents no doubt served to strengthen the tradition of the disaster to Charlemagne's rear-guard in 778, the importance of which was perhaps underrated by the Frankish historians and was certainly magnified in popular story. The author of the Vita Hludowici, writing sixty years after the battle of Roncevaux, thought it superfluous to give the names of the fallen chiefs, as being matter of common report. Growth of the Legend. — The choice of Roland or Hruodland as the hero of the story probably points to the borders of French Brittany as the home of the legend. The exaggeration of a rear-guard action into a national defeat; the substitution of a vast army of Saracens, the enemies of the Frankish nation and the Christian faith, for the border tribe mentioned by Einhard;1 and the vengeance inflicted by Charlemagne, where in fact the enemy escaped with complete impunity — all are in keeping with the general laws of romance. Charlemagne himself appears as the ancient epic monarch, not as the young man he really was in 778. The earliest version of the legend which we possess dates no earlier than the nth century, but there is abundant evidence of the existence of a continuous tradition dating from the original event, although its methods of transmission remain a vexed question. Roncevaux lay on the route to Compostella, and the many pilgrims who must have passed the site from the middle of the gth century onwards may have helped to spread the story. Whether the actual cantilena Rottandi chanted by Taillefer at the battle of Hastings (William of Malmesbury, De gestis regum angl. iii. 242, and Wace, Brut. ii. 1 1, 8035 seq.) was any part of the existing Chanson de Roland cannot be stated, but the choice of the legend on this occasion by the trouvere is proof of its popularity. The oldest extant forms of the legend are: (a) chapters xix.-xxx. of the Latin chronicle, known as the Pseudo-Turpin, 1 It is noteworthy, however, that an Arab historian, Ibn-al-Athir, states that Charles's assailants were the Arabs of Saragossa, by whom he had been originally invited to interfere in Spain. which purports to be the work of Turpin, archbishop of Reims, who died about 800, but probably dates from the I2th century; (b) Carmen de proditione Guenonis, a poem in Latin distichs; and (c) the Chanson de Roland, a French chanson de geste of about 4000 lines, the oldest recension of which is in the Bodleian Library, Oxford (MS. Digby 23). It is in assonanced tirades, of unequal length, many of them terminated with the refrain Aoi. This MS. was written by an Anglo-Norman scribe about the end of the I2th century, and is a corrupt copy of a text by a French trouvere of the middle of the nth century. It con- cludes with the words: " Ci fait la geste, que Turoldus declinet." There was a Turold (d. 1098) who was abbot of Peterborough; another was tutor to William the Conqueror and died in 1035. Even if we could identify this personage, we cannot tell whether he was the poet, the minstrel or the scribe of the MS., but it seems likely that he was merely the scribe. The poem, which was first printed by Francisque Michel (Oxford, 1837), is the finest monument of the heroic age of French epic. In its fundamental features it evidently dates back to the reign of Charlemagne, who is not represented as the capricious despot of the later chansons de geste, but as governing in accordance with Frankish custom, accepting the counsel of his barons, and carrying out the curious procedure of Frankish law. Roland represents the monarchical idea, and was evidently, in its primitive form, written before the feudal revolts which weak- ened the power of Charlemagne's successors. Its unity of conception, the severity and conciseness of the language, the directness, vividness and sobriety of the narrative, place it far above the chansons of later trouveres, with their wordiness and their loose, episodic construction. With the exception of the small place allotted to Aide, women have practically no place in the story, and the romantic element is thus absent. Roland's master-passions are daring and an exaggerated con- ception of honour, the extravagance of which is the cause of the disaster. His address to Oliver before the battle is typical of the warlike spirit of the poem: — " Notre empereur qui ses Francs nous laissa, Tels vingt mille hommes a pour nous mis a part, Qu'il sait tres bien que pas un n'est couard. Pour son seigneur grands maux on souffrira, Terribles froids, grands chauds endurera, Et de son sang, de sa chair on perdra! Brandis ta lance; et moi, ma Durendal, Ma bonne epee, que le Roi me donna. Et si je meurs, peut dire qui 1'aura C'etait 1'epee d'un tres noble vassal." (tr. Petit de Julleville xi. 1114 seq.) The Story as related in the Chanson de Roland. — Charlemagne, after fighting for seven years in Spain, had conquered the whole country with the exception of Saragossa, the seat of the Saracen king Marsile. He was encamped before Cordova when he received envoys from the Saracen king, sent to procure the evacuation of Spain by the Franks through false offers of sub- mission. Charlemagne held a council of his barons, Naimes of Bavaria, Roland, Oliver, Turpin, Ogier, Ganelon and the rest. Roland, the emperor's nephew, was eager for war; the peace party was headed by Ganelon of Mayence.2 The Franks were weary of campaigning, and Ganelon's counsels won the day. At the suggestion of Roland, Ganelon, who was his stepfather, was entrusted with the embassy to Marsile — a sufficiently perilous errand, since two former envoys had been beheaded by the Saracens. Ganelon, inspired by hatred of Roland and Oliver, agreed with Marsile to betray Roland and his com- rades for ten mule-loads of gold. He then returned to Charle- magne bearing Marsile's supposed assent to the Frankish terms. The retreat began. Roland, at Ganelon's instigation, was placed in commartd of the rear-guard. With him were the rest of the famous twelve peers,3 his companions-in-arms, Oliver, Gerin, Gerier, Oton, Berengier, Samson, Anseis, Girard 2 Ganelon may perhaps be identified with Wenilo, archbishop of Sens, whose treason against Charles the Bald is related in the Annales Bertiniani (anno 859). 3 The lists vary in different texts. ROLANDSECK— ROLL, A. P. 465 de Roussillon, Engelier the Gascon, Ivon and Ivoire, and the flower of the Prankish army. They had nearly reached the summit of the pass when Oliver, who had mounted a high rock, saw the advancing army of the Saracens, 400,000 strong. In vain Oliver begged Roland to sound his horn and summon Charlemagne to his aid. A description of the battle, a series of single combats, follows. Oliver, with his sword Hautecldre, rivalled Roland with Durendal. After the first fight, a second division of the pagan army appears, then a third. Roland's army was reduced to sixty men before he consented to sound his horn. Presently all were slain but Roland and Oliver, Turpin and another. Finally, when the Saracens, warned of the return of Charlemagne, had retreated, Roland alone sur- vived on the field of battle. With a last effort he blew his horn once more, and heard before he died the sound of Charle- magne's battlecry of " Montjoie." Charlemagne pursued the enemy, and destroyed their army. The raising of a second army by Baligant, the emir of Babylon, and its defeat by the emperor, who slays Baligant in single combat, is obviously an interpolation in the original narrative. The trouvere then relates the return of the Franks, the burial of the heroes of Roncevaux, and, at great length, the trial of Ganelon at Aix, his execution, and that of his thirty kinsmen, and the death of Aide, Roland's betrothed and Oliver's sister, when she heard the news of Roland's death. The trial of Ganelon is one of the most curious parts of the story, providing, as it does, a full account of the Prankish criminal procedure. Relations between the Earlier Forms of the Legend. — The Pseudo- Turpin represents a different recension of the story, and is throughout clerical in tone. It was the trouvere of the Chanson de Roland who developed the characters into epic types; he invented the heroic friendship of Roland and Oliver, the motives of Ganelon's treachery, and many other details. The famous fight between Roland and the giant Ferragus appears in the Pseudo-Turpin (chapter xviii.), but not in the poem. The Chanson de Roland presupposes the existence of a whole cycle of epic poetry, probably in episodic form; it contains allusions to many events outside the narrative, some of which can be explained from other existing chansons, while others refer to narratives which are lost. In lines 590-603 of the poem Roland gives a list of the countries he has conquered for Charles, from Constantinople and Hungary on the east to Scotland on the west. Of most of these exploits no trace remains in extant poems, but his capture of Bordeaux, of Nobles, of Carcassonne, occur in various compilations. Roland was variously repre- sented by the romancers as the son of Charlemagne's sister Gilles or Berte and the knight Milon d'Anglers. The romantic episode of the reconciliation of the pair with Charlemagne through Roland's childish prattle (Berte et Milon) is probably foreign to the original legend. In the Scandinavian versions Roland is the son of Charlemagne and his sister, a recital prob- ably borrowed from mythology. His enfances, or youthful exploits, were, according to Aspremonl, performed in Italy against the giant Eaumont, but in Girais de Viane his first taste of battle is under the walls of Vienne, where Oliver, at first his adversary, becomes his brother-in-arms. Other Versions. — Most closely allied to the Oxford Roland are (a) a version in Italianized French preserved in a I3th or I4th century MS. in the library of St Mark, Venice (MS. Fr. iv.) ; (6) the Ruolantes Liet (ed. W. Grimm, Gottingen, 1838) of the Swabian priest Konrad (fl. 1130), who gave, however, a pious tone to the whole;1 (c) the 8th branch of the Karlamagnus-saga (ed. C. Unger, Christiania, 1860), and the Danish version of that compilation. In the 1 2th century the Chanson de Roland was modernized by replacing the assonance by rhyme, and by amplifications and 1 A proof of the popularity of the legend in Germany is supplied by the so-called Roland statues, of which perhaps the most famous example is that of Bremen. Mention of a statua Rolandi is made in a privilegium granted by Henry V. to the town of Bremen in I in. The Rolands-saule were probably symbolic of the judicial rights possessed by the towns where they are found, and it has been suggested that the word arises from false etymology with Rothland-sdule, red-land-pillar, the symbol of the possession of the power of life and death. additions. Several MSS. of this rhymed recension, sometimes known as Roncevaux, are preserved. In the prose compilations of Calien and in David Aubert's Conqutles de Charlemagne (1458) the story kept its popularity for many centuries. In England the story was understood in the original French, and the English romances of Charlemagne (q.v.) are mostly derived from late and inferior sources. In Spain the legend underwent a curious transformation. Spanish patriotism created a Spanish ally of Marsile, Bernard del Carpio, to be the rival and victor of Roland. It was in Italy that the Roland legend had its greatest fortune : Charlemagne and Roland appear in the Paradise (canto xviii.) of Dante; the statues of Roland and Oliver appear on the doorway of the cathedral of Verona; and the French chansons de geste regularly appeared in a corrupt Italianized French. The Roland legend passed through a succession of revisions, and, as the Spagna, forming the 8th book of the great compilation of Carolingian romance, the Reali di Francia, kept its popularity down to the Renaissance. The story of Roland (Orlando) in a greatly modified form is the subject of the poems of Luigi Pulci (Morgante Maggiore, 1481), of Matteo Boiardo (Orlando innamorato, 1486), of Ariosto (Orlando furioso, 1516), and of Francesco Berni (Orlando, 1541). AUTHORITIES. — For a complete bibliography of the editions of the various MSS. of the Chanson de Roland, of the foreign versions, and of the enormous literature of the subject, see Leon Gauticr, Les Epopees franfaises (2nd ed., vol. iii., 1880), and the same author's Bibliographic des chansons de geste (1897). Among critical editions of the Chanson are those by Wendelin Foerster in the Altfrans. Bibliotek, vols. yi. and vii. (Heilbronn, 1883-86), and by E. Stengel, Das altfranzosische Rolandslied (Leipzig, 1900, &c.). The most popular edition is La Chanson de Roland (Tours, 1872. and numerous subsequent editions), by L£on Gautier, with text, translation, intro- duction, notes, variants and glossary. L. Petit de Julleville published in 1878 an edition with the old French text, and a ittodern French translation in assonanced verse. There are various other transla- tions in French ; in English prose by I. Butler (Boston, Mass., 1904) ; and a partial English verse translation by A. Way and F. Spencer (London, 1895). Consult further G. Paris, Hist. poet, de Charle- magne (reprint, 1905), and De Pseudo Turpino (Paris, 1865); P. Rajna, Le Origini dell' epopea francese (Florence, 1884) and Le Fonti dell' Orlando Furioso (2nd ed., Florence, 1900); F. Picco, Rolando nella storia e nella poesia (Turin, 1901); G. Paris, " Roncevaux," in Legendes du moyen age (1903), on the topography of the battle- field. ROLANDSECK, a village of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, delightfully situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 8 m. above Bonn, with a station on the railway Cologne-Coblenz. The place consists almost entirely of villas and is a favourite summer resort. Crowning the vine-clad hills behind it lie the ruins of the castle, a picturesque ivy-covered arch, whence a fine view is obtained of the Siebengebirge and the Rhine valley as far as Bonn. Immediately below Rolandseck in mid-river is the island of Nonnenwerth, on which is a nursing school under the conduct of Franciscan nuns, established in 1850. The convent which formerly stood here was founded in 1122 and secularized in 1802. Tradition assigns the foundation of the castle of Rolandseck to Charlemagne's paladin, Roland. It was certainly built at a very early date, as it was restored by Frederick, archbishop of Cologne, in 1 1 20, and it was a fortress until the end of the isth century. ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846- ), French painter, was born in Paris on the ist of March 1846. Pupil of Ger&me and Bonnat at the ficole des Beaux Arts, he made his debut at the Salon in 1870 with " Environs of Baccarat " and " Evening," and attracted the widest attention in 1875 by his colossal painting of " The Flood at Toulouse " (now at the Havre Museum). All his early work is imbued with the spirit of romanticism under the influence of Geiicault, whilst his colour tended to Bolognese heaviness with a strong leaning towards dark shadows in the flesh painting, in which he closely followed Courbet. In 1877 he showed at the Salon the " Fete of Silenus " (now at the Ghent Museum), a painting of such vivid colour -and exuberant life that it recalls the work of Jordaens. About this time he began to devote himself to the realistic rendering of modern life, especially among the working classes, and together with romantic subjects he abandoned his earlier heavy colouring, and devoted himself to the study of free light. His " Miners' Strike " of 1880 (now at the Valen- ciennes Museum) placed him in the front rank of modern French painters, and from that date his career was one of continuous and brilliant success. He became " official painter " to the 466 ROLL— ROLLE DE HAMPOLE French government, and was entrusted with numerous com- missions for the decoration of public buildings and for com- memorative pictures, like the " President Carnot at Versailles at the Centenary of the Etats Generaux " (now at Versailles Palace), and " The Tzar and President Faure laying the Founda- tion Stone of the Alexandre III. Bridge." For the H6tel de Ville he executed " The Pleasures of Life " and " The Rosetime of Youth." Besides the pictures already mentioned, a vast number of his works are to be found in the public galleries of France. The museum of the Hotel de Ville in Paris owns his " National Fete at Paris in 1880 "; the Cognac Museum, " Labour, Works at Suresnes "; the Luxembourg, his " War " and " Manda Lametrie, farm-hand." At Avignon Museum is the "Don Juan and Haidee"; at Laval Museum, "Halt!"; at Fontainebleau Palace, "In Normandy "; at Pau Museum, " Roubey, cementer" ; and at the Museum of Geneva, " Marianne Offrey, crieuse de vert." In portraiture he is known by his " Yves Guyot," " Coquelin cadet," " Jules Simon," &c., but his greatest success was the group of " Fritz Thaulow and his Wife." In 1905 he replaced Carolus-Duran as president of the Societe Nationale des Beaux-Arts, of which he was one of the founders. ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. rdle, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel) , something rolled or wound up in a cylindrical form on an axis, or something which " rolls," that is, moves or is moved along a service by a turning motion. Primarily the word is used of a piece of writing material, such as parchment or paper, rolled up for the purpose of convenient storage, handling, &c. This is the meaning of the Med. Lat. rotulus, denned by Du Cangeas " Scheda, charta in speciem rotulaeseurotaeconvoluta." It was thus the convenient name for any document kept in this form as an official record, and hence for any register, record, catalogue or official list. " The Rolls " was the name of the building where the records of the Chancery Court were kept, the keeper of which was the Master (q.v.) of the Rolls, now the title of the third member of the English Supreme Court of Judicature. Other familiar examples of the use of the word in this sense are the list of those admitted as qualified solicitors, whence the phrase " to strike off the rolls, " of removal by the court of a solicitor for offences or delinquencies. There are numerous applications of the word to other objects packed in a cylindrical form, such as tobacco, cloth, &c., and particularly to a small loaf of bread rolled over before baking, the crust being thin and crisp and the crumb spongy. In architecture a " roll " or " scroll " moulding is a moulding resembling a section of a roll or scroll of parchment with the end overlapping; a " roll and fillet " moulding is a section of a cylindrical moulding with a square fillet running along the centre of the face (see LABEL). For the sense of an object that rolls, the word " roller " is more general, but " roll " is frequent in technical usage for revolving cylinders, especially when working in fixed bearings. For the rolling of steel see ROLLING MILL. HOLLAND, JOHN (fl. 1560), Scottish poet, appears to have been a priest of the diocese of Glasgow, and to have been known in Dalkeith in 1555. He is the author of two poems, the Court of Venus and a translation of the Seven Sages. The former, which was printed by John Ros in 1575, may have been written before 1560. The latter was translated from a Scots prose version at the suggestion of an aunt (" ane proper wenche "), who had found his treatment of the courtly allegory involved and uninteresting. The Court of Venus was edited by Walter Gregor for the S.T.S. in 1884. See W. A. Craigie's long list of corrections of that edition in the Modern Language Quarterly (March 1898). The Seven Sages was printed in 1578, and frequently during the earlier decades of the 1 7th century. It was reprinted by David Laing for the Banna- tyneClub (1837). Sibbald, in his Chronicle of Scottish Poetry (iii. 287), hinted that Holland may be the author of the Thrie Priestis of Peblis. There is not a scrap of evidence in support of this; and there are many strong reasons against the ascription. ROLLE DE HAMPOLE, RICHARD (d. 1349), English hermit and author, was born near the end of t.he i3th century, at Thornton (now Thornton Dale), near Pickering, Yorkshire. His father, William Rolle, was perhaps a dependant of the Neville family. Richard was sent to Oxford at the expense of Thomas de Neville, afterwards archdeacon of Durham. At Oxford he gave himself to the study of religion rather than to the subtleties of scholastic philosophy, for which he professed a strong distaste. At the age of nineteen he returned to his father's house, and, making a rough attempt at a hermit's dress out of two kirtles of his sister's and a hood belonging to his father, he ran away to follow the religious vocation. At Dalton, near Rotherham, he was recognized by John de Dalton, who had been at Oxford with him. After satisfying himself of Rolle's sanity, Dalton's father provided him with food and shelter and a hermit's dress. Rolle then entered on the con- templative life, passing through the preliminary stages of puri- fication and illumination, which lasted for nearly three years, and then entering the stage of sight, the full revelation of the divine vision. He is very exact in his dates, and attained, he says, the highest stage of his ecstasy four years and three months after the beginning of his conversion. Richard belonged to no order and acknowledged no rule. He left the Daltons, and wandered from place to place, resting when he found friends to provide for his wants. He seems to have desired to form a rule of hermits, but met with much opposition. The pious compilers of his " office " evidently thought it necessary to defend him against the charge of mere vagrancy. He nowhere says himself that his preaching made many converts, but his example was followed by many recluses in the north of England. After some years of wandering he gave up his more energetic propaganda, contenting himself with advising those who sought him out. He began also to write the songs and treatises by which he was to exert his widest influence. He settled in Richmondshire, twelve miles from the recluse Margaret Kirkby, whom he had cured of a violent seizure. To her some of his works are dedicated. Finally he removed to Hampole, near Doncaster, invited by an inmate of the Cistercian nunnery of St Mary. There he died on the 29th of September 1349. Many miracles were wrought at his shrine, and, in view of an expected canonization, an office was drawn up giving an account of his life and the legends connected with it. Richard Rolle had a great influence on his own and the next generation. In his exaltation of the spiritual side of religion over its forms, his enthusiastic celebration of the love of Christ, and his assertion of the individualist principle, he represented the best side of the influences that led to the Lollard movement. He was himself a faithful son of the church, and the political activity of the Lollards was quite foreign to his teaching. The popularity of his devotional writings is attested by the numerous existing editions and by the many close imitations of them. A very full list of his Latin and English works is given (pp. 36-43) in Dr Carl Horstmann's edition (1895-96) of his works in the Library of Early English Writers. Some of his works exist in both English and Latin, and it is often not easy to say which is the original version. The most considerable of them are The Pricke of Conscience and his Commentary on the Psalter. The Pricke of Conscience is a long religious poem, in rhyming couplets, dealing with the beginning of man's life, the instability of the world, why death is to be dreaded, of doomsday, of the pains of hell, and the joys of heaven, the two latter subjects being treated with uncompromising realism. Rolle wrote in the northern dialect, but southern transcripts are also found, and the poem exists in a Latin version (Stimulus conscientiae). The sources of this work in- cluded the De Contemplu Mundi sive de miseria humanae condilionis of Pope Innocent III., and Rolle also showed a knowledge of Bartholomew Glanyille, Thomas Aquinas and Honorius of Awtun. His English devotional commentary on the Psalms follows very closely his Latin Expositio Psalterii, which he based partly on Peter Lombard's Catena. It often agrees with the English metrical Psalter preserved in three MSS. in the British Museum (Cotton Vesp. D. yii., Egerton 614, and Harl. 1770). Dr R. F. Littledale in his edition (1873) of J. M. Neale's Commentary on the Psalms called it a " terse mystical paraphrase, which often comes very little short in beauty and depth of Dionysius the Carthusian himself." There is no complete and accessible edition of his works. The best collection is by C. Horstmann, Yorkshire Writers: Richard Rolle of Hampole; An English Father of the Church and his Followers ROLLER— ROLLIN (2 yols., 1895-96), in the " Library of Early English Writers." This includes many English prose treatises by Rolle, some beautiful examples ot his lyric poems, and other treatises in prose and verse from northern MSS., some of which are attributed to Rolle and others to his followers. Wynkyn de Worde printed in one volume, m 1506, Rycharde Rolle Hermyte of Hampull in his contemplac yons of the drede and love of God . . . and the Remedy ayenst the troubles of temptacyons. Neither of these are accepted by Dr Horstmann as Kolle s work. His Latin treatises, De emendatione vilae and De tncendw amons, the latter one of the most interesting of his works because it is obviously largely autobiographical, were translated (1434-35) by Richard Misyn (ed. R. Harvey, Early English Text Soc., 1896). The Pncke of Conscience was edited (1863) by Richard Morns for the Philological Society. His Commentary on the Psalms was edited by the Rev. H. R. Bramley (Oxford, 1884). Ten prose treatises by Richard Rolle from the Thornton MS.( c. 1440, Lincoln Cathedral Library) were edited by Canon George Perry for the Early English Text Society in 1866. Partial editions of his Latin works are dated Pans (1510), Antwerp (1533), Cologne (1535-36), Paris (I6I8); and in vol. xxvi. of the Bibliotheca Patrum Maxima " (Lyons, 1677). The office, which forms the chief authority for Kolle s life, was printed in the York Breviary, vol. ii. (Surtees Soc., 1882), and in Canon Perry's edition referred to above. See also Percy Andreae, who collated eighteen MSS. in the British Museum in his Handschriften des Pricke of Conscience (Berlin 1888); Sludwn iiber Richard Rolle von Hampole unter besonderer Berucksichttgung seiner Psalmencommentare, by H. Middendorff (Magdeburg, 1888), with a list of MSS., sources, &c.; j. Zupitza in Englische Studien (Heilbronn, vols. vii. and xii.); A. Hahn Quellenuntersuchungen zu Richard Rolle's Englischen Schriften (Halle' 1900) ; and for his prosody, G. Saintsbury, Hist, of English Prosody vol. i. ROLLER, a very beautiful bird, so called from its way of occasionally rolling or turning over in its flight,1 somewhat after the fashion of a tumbler-pigeon. It is the Coracias garrulus of ornithology, and is widely though not very numer- ously spread over Europe and Western Asia in summer, breeding so far to the northward as the middle of Sweden, but retiring to winter in Africa. It occurs almost every year -in some part or other of the British Islands, from Cornwall to the Shetlands, while it has visited Ireland several times, and is even recorded from St Kilda. But it is only as a wanderer that it comes, since there is no evidence of its having ever attempted to breed in- Great Britain; and indeed its conspicuous appear- ance— for it is nearly as big as a daw and very brightly coloured ^-would forbid its being ever allowed to escape a gun. Except the back, scapulars and tertials, which are bright reddish- brown, the plumage of both sexes is almost entirely blue — of various shades, from pale turquoise to dark ultramarine — tinted in parts with green. The bird seems to be purely in- sectivorous. The genus Coracias, for a long while placed by systematists among the crows, has really no affinity whatever . to them, and is now properly considered to belong to the hetero- geneous group of birds now associated as Coracnformes, in which it forms the type of the family Coraciidae; and its alliance to the bee-eaters (Meropidae) and king-fishers (Alce- dinidae) (q.v. ) is very evident. Some eight other species of the genus have been recognized, one of which, C. leucocephalus or C. abyssinicus, is said to have occurred in Scotland. India has two species, C. indicus and C. qffinis, of which thousands upon thousands used to be annually destroyed to supply the demand for gaudy feathers to bedizen ladies' dresses. One species, C. temmincki, seems to be peculiar to Celebes and the neighbouring islands, but otherwise the rest are natives of the Ethiopian or Indian regions. Allied to Coracias is the genus Eurystomus with some half-dozen species, of similar distribution, but one of them, E. pacificus, has a wider range, for it inhabits Australia and reaches Tasmania. Madagascar has four or five very remarkable forms which have often been considered to belong to the family Coraciidae; and, according to A. Milne-Edwards, no doubt should exist on that point. Yet if any may be entertained it is in regard to one of them, 467 1Gesner in 1555 said that the bird was thus called, and for this reason, near Strassburg, but the name seems not to be generally used in Germany, where the bird is commonly called Rake, apparently from its harsh note. The French have kept the name Rollier. It is a curious fact that the roller, notwithstanding its occurrence in the Levant, cannot be identified with any species mentioned by Aristotle. Leptosomus discolor, which, on account of its zygodactylous feet some authorities place among the Cuculidac, while others have considered it the type of a distinct family Lcptosomatidae. The genera Brachypteractas and Atelornis present fewer structural differences from the rollers, and perhaps may be rightly placed with them; but the species of the latter have long tarsi, and are believed to be of terrestrial habit, which rollers generally certainly are not. These very curious and in some respect* very interesting iorms, which are peculiar to Madagascar, arc admirably described and illustrated by a series of twenty plates in the great work of A orandidier and A. Milne-Edwards on that island (Oiseaux, pp. 223- 250) while the whole family Coraciidae is the subject of a mono- graph hry H. E. Dresser, as a companion volume to his monograph on the Meropidae. (A. N.) ROLLER. For agricultural purposes the roller formerly consisted of a solid cylinder of timber or stone attached to a frame and shafts, but to facilitate turning two or more iron cylinders revolving on an axle are now generally used. The simplest form has a smooth surface. The diameter of the drum should be as great as possible— 30 in. being a good size— because the larger this is the more easily it is pulled (within certain limits), while rollers of small diameter are heavier of draught and do their work less efficiently. The implement is used in spring and summer as an aid in pulverizing and cleaning the soil, by bruising clods and lumps of tangled roots and earth which the cultivator or other implement has brought .to the surface; in smoothing the surface for the reception of small seeds or the better operation of the mower or reaper; in consolidating soil that is too loose in texture and pressing it down about the roots of young plants. In the case of young plants the roots are close to the surface, which must therefore be kept moist. This end is attained by the compression by the roller of the top-soil of which the capillarity, i.e. the power of drawing water from the sub-soil is thereby increased. On the other hand, when it is desired to conserve the soil-moisture, the roller may be followed by the harrow, which, by pulverizing the surface-soil, breaks the capillarity. Of the variations on the common smooth roller, the clod-crusher and the Cambridge roller are the most important. The clod-crusher combines weight with breaking power. The best-known form was patented about 1841 by Crosskill, and consists of a number of disks with serrated edges threaded loosely on an axle round which they revolve. The Cambridge roller carries on its axle a number of closely packed wheels, the rims of which narrow down to a wedge shape. The tubular roller, instead of drums, has tubes arranged longitudinally, producing a corrugated surface which is reproduced in the condition of the soil after it has been rolled. ROLLER-SKATING, a pastime which, by the use of small wheels instead of a blade on the skate, has provided some of the pleasures of skating on ice without having ice as the surface (see SKATING). Wheeled skates were used on the roads of Hol- land as far back as the i8th century, but it was the invention of the four-wheeled skate, working on rubber springs, by J. L. Plimp- ton of New York, in 1863, that made the amusement popular. Still greater advance was made by the Raymond skate with ball and cone bearings. The wheels or rollers were first of turned boxwood, but the wearing of the edges was a fault which has been surmounted by making them of a hard com- position or of steel. The floor of the rink on which the skating takes place is either of asphalt or of wood. The latter is that always used in newly made rinks. The best floors are of long narrow strips of maple. Figure-skating on roller-skates is in some respects easier to learn than on ice-skates, the four points of contact given by the wheels rendering easier the holding of an edge; but some figures, such as loops, are more difficult. ROLLIN, CHARLES (1661-1741), French historian and educationist, was born at Paris on the 3Oth of January 1661. He was the son of a cutler, and at the age of twenty-two was made a master in the College du Plessis. In 1694 he was rector of the university of Paris, rendering great service among other things by reviving the study of Greek. He held that post for two years instead of one, and in 1699 was appointed principal of the College de Bcauvais. Kollin held Jansenist 468 ROLLINAT— ROLLING-MILL principles, and even went so far as to defend the miracles supposed to be worked at the tomb of Francois de Paris, commonly known as Deacon Paris. Unfortunately his religious opinions deprived him of his appointments and disqualified him for the rectorship, to which in 1719 he had been re-elected. It is said that the same reason prevented his election to the French Academy, though he was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. Shortly before his death (i4th December 1741) he protested publicly against the acceptance of the bull Unigenitus. Rollin's literary work dates chiefly from the later years of his life, when he had been forbidden to teach. His once famous Ancient History (Paris, 1730-38), and the less generally read Roman History, which followed it, were avowed compilations, uncritical and somewhat inaccurate. But they instructed and interested generation after generation almost to the present day. A more original and really important work was his Traite des 6tudes (Paris, 1726-31). It contains a summary of what was even then a reformed and innovating system of education, including a more frequent and extensive use of the vulgar tongue, and discarded the medieval traditions that had lingered in France. See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. vi. ROLLINAT, MAURICE (1853-1903), French poet, was born at Chateauroux in 1853. His father represented Indre in the National Assembly of 1848, and was a friend of George Sand, whose influence is very marked in young Rollinat's first volume, Dans les brandes (1877). The volume, however" attracted little attention, and it was with his second publica- tion, very different in manner, that he made his reputation. In Les Neuroses, with the sub-title Les Ames, Les Luxures, Les Refuges, Les Spectres, Les Tenebres, he showed himself as a disciple of Charles Baudelaire. He constantly returns in these poems to the physical horrors of death, and is obsessed by unpleasant images. Less outre in sentiment are L'Abime (1886), La Nature, and a book of children's verse, Le Livre de la Nature (1893). He was musician as well as poet, and set many of his songs to music. He lost his reason in consequence of his wife's death from hydrophobia, and died on the 26th of October 1903. ROLLING-MILL, a term which includes several types of machines used for producing the sectional forms (fig. i) in which wrought iron and steel are required for the use of boiler-makers, platers and bridge-builders, and for construc- tional work generally. The production of wrought iron has been a diminishing industry for many years, while that of steel increases. Though the plant employed for both is alike in essential principles of design, the growth in the use of steel has revolutionized the practice, chiefly on account of the more massive dimensions in which steel sections are rolled. Iron sections are relatively small, and many are produced by piling, i.e. by building up with small portions of malleable puddled metal. There is no limit in reason to the dimensions in which steel sections can be rolled, and they are never piled, however large, but always rolled from soh'd cast ingots. When steel ingots are rolled into sectional forms the reduction in transverse dimensions is very great. The work begins at nearly a white heat, and continues until a low red is reached. Obviously the stresses to which the material is subjected are very severe. For this reason the process of reduction has to be effected very gradually, and especially so in those cases where reduction is being done in two directions at right angles with each other, as in channel sections (fig. 6) and joist or beam sections (figs. 7 and 8). It might be thought, since steel is always cast previously to rolling, that it might be cast at once into the sectional forms required. But sound results could not be obtained in this way, because the gases occluded in the metal form blow-holes which are sources of weakness. The material itself, even in the solid portions, is not homogeneous. By removing the head of the ingot where the blow-holes chiefly congregate and rolling the remainder at a white or red heat, the metal is improved by consolidation, and by the work done upon it. To this practice there is no exception. Rolling-mills are known as " two-high," or " three-high," according as two or three rolls are mounted one over the othel JLZII FIG. I. — Forms of the Principal Rolled Sections, i, 2, Flats. 3, Flat with bevelled edges. 4, 5, Flats with rounded edges. 6, Bulb bar. 7, Wedge bar. 8, Scree or -grate bar. 9, Square. 10, Triangular. II, Hexagonal. 12, Round. 13, Oval. 14, Hollow half-round. 15, Half-round. 16, Convex. 17, Square-edged convex. 18, Vee. 19, O.G. 20, Angle iron. 21, Square root, or square throat angle. 22, Round-backed angle. 23, Unequal-sided angle. 24, Acute angle. 25, Obtuse angle. 26, Bulb angle. 27, Tee. 28, Bulb tee. 29, 30, Beams or joists, or girders, or H-irons. 31, Channel. 32, Zed. 33, Cruciform section. 34, Pillar section. 35, Troughing. 36, 37, 38, Rail- way rail. 39, Tramway rail. 40, Heavy crane rail. (figs. 2 and 3). In the two-high type the two rolls revolve in opposite directions, so that an ingot, slab or bloom pre- sented to the entering side is drawn in and between the rolls, which reduce its thickness. In the case of rolls which are two perfectly plain cylinders (plate-rolls) the shape produced is that of broad, long and flat plates or sheets. Several passages (passes) are required to effect the reduction required, because this must be gradual. To regulate the amount the top roll is set down bodily by means of screws pressing on its bearings which slide in the end supports (housings). In the case of plate-rolls, which are plain cylinders, this setting down must be equal at each end. The mass of the top roll is balanced, to avoid shock when a plate is entering. The rolls are made of cast iron, and are either grain rolls or chilled rolls. The first are formed from a tough strong grade of iron, the quality which is used for all the roughing down and general work. The second are made of a highly mottled iron, cast against a cold mould (chill) of cast iron, by which a steely surface is obtained. These are used for fine finishing, or for imparting a polished surface to a section already nearly reduced to size in grain rolls. In later heavier practice, rolls of cast steel and forged steel are becoming common. They are more costly than iron, but more durable and much lighter for equal strength. They are essential in armour plate rolls. The length of rolls should not exceed about four times their diameter, for otherwise they are liable to spring and produce plates thicker at the centre than towards the edges. From this elementary design several types are derived. In the two-high mill it is clear that if the direction of the rotation of the rolls is always the same, then the plate being rolled must be taken back after each " pass " to the front of the rolls. Hence there is one " lost pass " for every reduction in thickness. This is the case in the " pull-over " mill, nearly obsolete. In the two-high reversing mill, introduced to avoid this " lost pass," as soon as a plate has gone through, the direction of rotation of the rolls is reversed, and the plate is rolled again on the backward journey, so avoiding the lost ROLLING-MILL 469 aotLe* COOLING SUNK ri tor uw FIG. 2. — General Arrangement of 12-in. Merchant and Guide-Mill Plant. (Thomas Perry & Son Ltd., Bilston.) A, First roughing rolls. B, Second ditto. C, Guide rolls for ovals or diamonds. D, Ditto for rounds or squares. E, Driving pinions. ' Engine, 30 in. X 22 in. cylinder, direct- coupled to rolls. Runs from loo to 180 revolutions per minute to suit work. The shears are used for cutting the smaller sections, the hot saw for cutting the merchant iron. FIG. 3. — 12-in. Merchant Guide-Mill and Engine. Four-set mill. A, B, Three-high sets. C, Works either three-higher two-high; a, being a dummy roll. D, Two- high set (guide rolls). E, Coupling pieces. F, Housings. G, Pinions. The mill is capable of rolling rounds, squares, flats, angles, tees or similar sections by changing the rolls. The guide rolls D are used for small sections, and the second set B for merchant iron (larger sections). pass. An alternative is the three- high mill, in which three rolls are used. Here the plate is run through the lower rolls and back through the upper ones, so that there is no reversal of direction of the mill as a whole, but the lower and upper 'rolls draw the plates in opposite directions (see also IRON AND STEEL, § 129). Plate-Mills. — In Great Britain plate- mills are generally two-high reversing mills, in America three-high mills. Another difference is that in British practice two stands of rolls are used, in America one only. In the two-stand design there are two sets of rolls coupled endwise, one set being grain-rolls for roughing, and the other chilled rolls for finishing. Sets of live rollers conduct the plates to and from the separate rolls. The plate-mills proper are those which roll from } in. to about 2 in. thick. Armour plate-mills are a special design for massive plates and sheet-mills are for thin plates or sheets having a less thickness than } in. Armour plate-mills are of two- high reversing type usually, with forged steel rolls. They are of immense proportions, the rollers ranging from 10 to 14 ft. in length, by from 3 to 4 ft. in diameter. In sheet-mills, on the other hand, the rolls seldom exceed 30 in. in diameter, and they are chilled. The size of sheet-mills has within the last few years been consider- ably increased (since the introduction of steel sheets), and all new mills are made from 28 to 30 in. diameter. The mills are of the two- high type and are almost the only instance of the retention in present practice of the non-reversing mill. It is found more con- venient in this case than the reversing or the three-high mills, because two men roll two pieces at once, one handing over a sheet just rolled to his fellow just as the latter has entered a sheet between the rolls on his side. Strip-mills are a smaller but similar type, used for rolling the thin narrow strips required for the hoops of barrels, ties for cotton bales, &c. The details of these mills cannot be discussed here, nor the numerous arguments in favour of the two systems. English practice retains the two-high reversing mill for all heavy work, the exceptions being those just noted. American practice retains the three-high mill. Grooved Rolls. — In the mills designed for rolling various sectional forms the same distinction between two-high and three-high re- mains, but new problems arise. By " sectional forms " is meant all those which are i*>t plates and sheets, such as bars of round and square section, angles, channels, rails and allied sections (fig. l), for the production of which grooved rolls are required. _ The shapes and proportions of these grooves are such that reduction is effected very gradually. When metal is squeezed or hammered, one effect is to spread it laterally, since the metal cannot be appreciably squeezed in on itself. But the lateral extension is very much less than 470 ROLLOCK the longitudinal. The most marked effect of reduction in thickness is extension in length. But as there is some lateral extension, three courses are open: one is to gauge the exact amount of width re- quired for extension ; another is to turn a bar over at intervals in order to exercise pressure on the portions extended laterally and obliterate them (open passes) ; and a third is to allow the extensions to take the form of fin to be cut off subsequently (closed passes). The first is generally impracticable. The second can be illustrated by diagrams representing roll sections. The work of reduction is generally divided between three sets of rolls. The first are the cogging-, or blooming-rolls, as they are termed in America, in which ingots are reduced to blooms with dimensions suitable for rolling the various sections. In these an ingot of say 14 in. square may be reduced to a bloom of 6 in. square. The grooves form rectangular sections (box passes). The top roll being raised, the ingot is passed through the largest groove; then the roll is lowered and it is passed through a second time. Then it is turned round through 90° and re-rolled. Afterwards the same processes are gone through till the last groove is reached. There is a great difference between, say, a plate and a rail, but the cogging-rolls have to be so designed as to produce blooms for varied forms. There are three principal forms: the box just noticed, the gothic and the diamond (fig. 4), all open passes. For plates, A, Box Pass. B FIG. 4. B, Gothic Pass. C, Diamond Pass. provision is made in " slabbing " rolls for roughing out, first in a box pass, and then in a broad flat groove, alternating with the square groove for correction of the edges. Gothic passes and diamond passes produce blooms which are subsequently used for various shapes having little resemblance to each other. These shapes are simple, and little difficulty arises in the work of drawing down. The rolls make 40 to 50 revolutions per minute; the difference in the area of the cross section (draught) between adjacent grooves is from 20 to 25 %. The formative rolls for finished sections are of two classes: roughing and finishing. The roughing-rolls approximate much more closely to the finished sections than the cogging-rolls, but the aim is to make them do duty for a wide range of sections, in order to change them as seldom as possible. Thus the gothic pass (fig. 4) will serve alike for rolling square or round bars. Finishing rolls must be changed for every different section, except when slight differences in thicknesses only are made in the webbed portion of a rolled section. With the exception of rounds, sections are usually roughed and finished in closed passes — that is, the bar is wholly enclosed by the rolls. The groove in the lower roll is flanked by collars slightly deeper than the enclosed bar. These enter into grooves turned on the upper roll, and between them the bar Is confined (fig. 5). It passes through a succession of these grooves, \/ FIG. 5. — Pair of Rolls for producing Angle Sections. (Thomas Perry & Son Ltd., Bilston.) being diminished in area and extended at each pass. A certain amount of fin is squeezed out, and this is obliterated in the succeed- ing pass, and more formed, until in the finishing pass the amount of reduction is very slight, a surface finish being the principal result. Since but a slight amount of lateral extension occurs, it follows that the reduction wholly or mainly in the vertical plane is the most favourable condition. Rounds, squares and flats are wholly reduced in this way and offer no difficulty. The most unfavourable section is the joist or girder, the channels, tees and rails fojlow, and after these the various angles. In rolling a channel or a girder section (figs. 6, 7, 8), a square bloom is taken, and passed in succes- sion through closed passes. The first produce shallow grooves in FIG. 6. — Reduction of Channel Section. FIG. 7. — Reduction of Girder Section in Roughing Rolls. FIG. 8. — Reduction of Girder Section in Finishing Rolls. the opposite faces, gradually deepening until the insides of the flanges assume a definite slope. The angle of slope becomes gradu- ally lessened, and the thicknesses of web and flanges, and also the radius in the corners, are reduced. At the same time the width over the flanges is being gradually increased. While this is going on, the fibres of the flanges, are being strained, because the rolls run at a higher speed at their peripheries than next the body. The metal is being violently thrust and drawn in different ways, so that while economy has to be studied by reducing the number of passes, as much as possible, undue stress must be avoided by making the reductions as easy as is practicable. These things cannot be put into a formula, but the roll-turners work by experience and em- pirical rules gathered by long practice. In order to avoid these deep groovings, and also severe lateral thrusts on the rolls, angle sections are always rolled with the slope of the flanges approximately equalized; so too are zeds (fig. I, No. 32). The reduction is then effected with the minimum of stress to the metal. Variations are readily made in the thicknesses of rolled sections without changing the rolls, by simply varying the distance between their centres. This is effected by the adjustment of the top roll (fig. 5). Differ- ences in thickness are made in j^ths of an inch, up to a maximum of about J in. Another detail of design in closed passes is so to shape the rolls as to make any pass obliterate the fin produced in the previous groove. Sometimes sections are turned over to effect this, but often the bodies of the rolls are turned of suitable diameters to produce the result. Guards are required to prevent the bars from becoming wrapped round the rolls (" collaring "). With the same object the upper roll is always made larger in diameter than the lower. Its speed is therefore slightly greater than that of the lower one. This stretches the plate or bar very slightly on the upper side, and so imparts a downward movement to it towards the floor, which is what is required. The difference in diameter varies with circumstances, ranging from £th to about I in. Besides the standard types of mills noticed, the two-high and three-high, there are special mills. The merchant mill simply denotes either one of the above types used for the production of flat bars. The continuous mills are special designs for rolling small rods to be drawn into wire. In these there are several pairs of rolls placed in series, so that the billet is rolled from one stand to others in succession without re-heating. There are a number of different designs, _one of which is the Belgian looping mill, so called because the rod is bent backward and forward in the form of the letter S in its passage through adjacent sets of rolls. In another design a flying shear is employed, which automatically cuts off billets from the bar while the latter is travelling at the rate of 6 or 8 ft. per second.^ (J. G. H.) ROLLOCK, ROBERT (c. 1555-1599), the first principal of the university of Edinburgh, son of David Rollock of Powis, near Stirling, was born about 1555. He received his early education at the school of Stirling from Thomas Buchanan,, a nephew of George Buchanan, and, after graduating at St Andrews, became a regent there in 1580. In 1583 he was ROMA— ROMAN ARMY appointed by the Edinburgh town council sole regent of the "town's college" (" Academia Jacobi Sexti," afterwards the university of Edinburgh), and three years later he received from the same source the title of " principal, or first master, and was engaged in lecturing on philosophy. When the staff of the young college was increased by the appointment of additional regents, he assumed with consent of the presbytery the office of professor of theology. From 1587 he also preached regularly in the East Kirk every Sunday at 7 a.m., and in 1596 he accepted one of the eight ministerial charges of the city. He took a prominent part in the somewhat troubled church politics of the day, and distinguished himself by gentleness and tact, as well as ability. He was appointed on several occasions to committees of presbytery and assembly on pressing ecclesiastical business. He was elected moderator of the General Assembly held at Dundee in May 1597. In 1598 he was translated to the parish church of the Upper Tolbooth, Edinburgh, and immediately thereafter to that of the Grey Friars (then known as the Magdalen Church). He died at Edinburgh on the 8th of February 1599. Rollock wrote Commentaries on the Epistles tc the Ephesians (1590) and Thessalonians (1598) and Hebrews (1605), the book of Daniel (1591), the Gospel of St John (1599) and some of the Psalms (1598); an analysis of the Epistle to the Romans (1594), arid Galatians (1602); also Questions and Answers on the Covenant of Cod (1596), and a Treatise on Effectual Calling (1597). Soon after his death eleven Sermons (Certaine Sermons upon Several Places of the Epistles of Paul, 1599) were published from notes taken by his students. His Select Works were edited by W. Gunn for the Wodrow Society (1844-1849). A Life by George Robertson and Henry Charteris was reprinted by the Bannatyne Club in 1826. See also the introduction to the Select Works, and Sir Alexander Grant's History of the University of Edinburgh. ROMA, a town of Waldegrave county, Queensland, Australia, 318 m. by rail W.N.W. of Brisbane. It is the centre of a rich pastoral and wheat-growing district, in which oranges and vines are largely grown and much wine is produced. The town was incorporated in 1867. Flour-milling is its chief industry. Pop. (1901) of town, 2371; of the district, 7110. ROMAN, capital of the department of Roman, Rumania, on the main line from Czernowitz in Bukovina to Galatz, and on the left bank of the river Moldova, i\ m. W. of its junction with the Sereth. Pop. (1900) 14,019, including 6099 Jews. The river is here spanned by a fine bridge of iron. Roman has been the seat of a bishop since 401. Its seminary dates from 1402. There are several ancient churches, including a cathedral, built in 1541. Roman has a transit trade in the products of northern Moldavia. A large annual fair is held in August. ROMAN ARMY. In the long life of the ancient Roman army, the most effective and long-lived military institution known to history, we may distinguish four principal stages, (i) In the earliest age of Rome the army was a national or citizen levy such as we find in the beginnings of all states. (2) This grew into the Republican army of conquest, which gradually subdued Italy and the Mediterranean world. A citizen army of infantry, varying in size with the needs of each year, it eventually developed into a mercenary force with long service and pro- fessicnal organization. This became (3) the Imperial army of defence, which developed from a strictly citizen army into one which represented the provinces as well as Italy, and was a garrison rather than a field army. Lastly, (4) the assaults of the Barbarian horsemen compelled both the creation of a field force distinct from the frontier garrisons and the inclusion of a large mounted element, which soon counted for much more than the infantry. The Roman army had been one of foot soldiers; in its latest phase it was marked by that predominance of the horseman which characterized the earlier centuries of the middle ages. So far as we can follow this long development in its details, it was throughout continuous. So unbroken, indeed, is the growth that many of the military technical terms survived in use from epoch to epoch, unchanged in form though deeply modified in meaning, and ordinary readers often miss the diversity which underlies this unchanged-seeming system. The term legio, for example, occurs in all the four stages above outlined. But in each its significance varies. Throughout, it denoted citizen-soldiers: throughout, it denoted also a force which was chiefly, if not wholly, heavy infantry. But the setting of these two constant features varies from age to age. In the first period legio was the " levy," the whole host sum- moned to take the field. In the second period it was not the whole levy, but one of the principal units into which developing organization had divided that levy; the " legion " was now a body of some 3000 men — the number of " legions " varied with the circumstances, and the army included other troops besides citizens, though they were for the most part unim- portant. In the third or Imperial age there were many legions (indeed, a fixed number) quartered in fixed fortresses; there were also other troops, numerous and important, if not yet so formidable as the legionaries. Finally, the legions became smaller units, and the other troops of the army, notably the cavalry, became the real fighting-line of Rome (see LEGION). First Stage. — The history of the earliest Roman army is, as one might expect, both ill-recorded and contaminated with much legend and legal fiction. We read of a primitive force of 300 riders and 3000 foot soldiers, in which the horseman counted for almost everything. But the numbers are clearly artificial and invented, while the pre-eminence accorded to the cavalry has no sequel in later Roman history. We reach firmer ground with the organization ascribed to Servius Tullius. In this system the host included all citizens from 1 7 to 60 years of age, those under 47 for service in the field, those over 46 for garrison duty in Rome. The soldiers were grouped at first by their wealth — that is, their ability to provide their own horses, armour, &c. — into cavalry (i 8 " centuries "), heavy infantry, a remainder which it would be polite to call light infantry, and some artificers. The heavy infantry counted for most. Armed with long spears and divided into the three orders of haslati, principes and triarii (the origins and real senses of these names are lost), they formed a phalanx, and charged in a mass, while the cavalry protected the wings. The men were enrolled for a year — that is, for the summer cam- paign; in the autumn, like all primitive armies, they went home. It has been conjectured that about the time of the fall of the kings the normal Roman army comprised some 8500 infantry under 47 years of age, 5000 seniors, 1000 riders and sco fabri, &c. The evidence for the calculation is un- fortunately inadequate, but the result is not altogether im- probable, and it may help the reader to realize what " may have been." It must be added that this Servian system is closely connected with the political organization (see ROME, History). Second Stage. — From this Servian army a series of changes which we cannot trace in detail produced the Republican army of conquest. Our ancient authorities ascribe the chief reforms to the half-legendary Camillus (?.».), who introduced the beginnings of pay and long service, improved the armour and weapons, abolished the phalanx and substituted for it an open order based on small subdivisions (maniples), each con- taining two centuries. Whatever the truth about Camillus, some such reforms must at some time have been carried through, to convert the Servian system into the army which was engaged for nearly three centuries (from 350 B.C.) in conquering Italy and the world. This army broke in succession the stout native soldiers of Italy and the mountaineers of Spain and overthrew the trained Macedonian phalanx. Once only did it fail — against Hannibal (see PUNIC WARS). But not even Hannibal could oust it from entrenchments, and not even his victories could permanently break its moral. Much of its strength lay in the same qualities which made the Puritan soldiers of Cromwell terrible — the excellent character of the common soldiers, the rigid discipline, the high training. Credit, too, must be given to the genius of the Scipios and to the more commonplace capacities of many fairly able generals. But the organism 472 ROMAN ARMY itself deserves attention, and, as it chances, we know much about it, mainly from Polybius. Its elements were three: — (A) The principal unit was the legion, generally a division of 4500 men — 3000 heavy infantry, 1200 Tighter-armed (velites), 300 horse — though sometimes including as many as 6000 men. The heavy infantry were the backbone of the legion. They were levied from the whole body of Roman citizens who had some private means and who had not already served 16 campaigns, and in effect formed a yeoman force, For battle they were divided into 1200 haslati, 1200 principes and 600 iriarii: all had a large shield, metal helmet, leather cuirass, short Spanish thrusting and cutting sword, and in addition the hastati and principes each carried two short heavy throwing spears (pila), while the triarii had ordinary long spears (see ARMS AND ARMOUR). They were drawn up in three lines: (l) hastati, (2) principes, (3) triarii; the first two were divided into 10 maniples each (of 120 men, when the legicn only counted 4500), the third into 10 maniples of half the strength. According to the ordinary interpretation of our ancient authorities, the maniples were arranged in a chess-board fashion (quincunx'), the idea being that the front row of maniples could retire through the intervals in the second row without disordering it, and the second row could similarly advance. Recent military writers, however, Hastati doubt whether this arrangement can be considered workable, and it is possible that our authorities did not really mean what has been supposed. In any case the procedure in fighting seems to have been simple: the front line discharged a volley of pila and rushed in with the short sword — a sequence much like the volley and bayonet charge of the l8th century — and if this failed, the second line went in turn through the same process: the third line of triarii, armed with spear instead of pilum, was a reserve. The velites, armed with javelins, were either broken up among the heavy- armed centuries or used as skirmishers or as aids to the cavalry. The 300 cavalry, however, were (it seems) of little account — a natural result if, as we have reason to think, the horses were small and stirrups were not used. The officers of the legion consisted of : (a) Six tribunes, in part elected by the comitia, in part appointed by the consuls, and holding .command in rotation. They were either veteran officers, sometimes even ex-magistrates, or young noblemen beginning their career, (b) Sixty centurions, each commanding one century, or, rather, a pair commanding each maniple. They were chosen by the tribunes from among the veteran soldiers serving at the time and were arranged in a complicated hierarchy, by means of which a centurion might move upwards till he became primus pilus, senior centurion of the first maniple of triarii, the chief officer in the legion, (c) There were also standard-bearers and other under-officers, for whom reference must be made to specialist publications. (B) Besides the legions, composed of citizens, the Roman army included contingents from the Italian " allies " (socii), subjects of Rome. These contingents appear to have been large: in many armies we find as many socii as legionaries, but we are ignorant of details. The men were armed and drilled like the legionaries, but they served not in legions but in cohorts, smaller units of 400-500 men, and their conventional positions seem to have been on the wings of the legions. They were principally infantry, but included also a fairly large proportion of cavalry. Despite their numbers, they do not appear to have ranked with the heavy legionary infantry, and they were probably used more as detachments from the main army than as infantry of the line. (C) Besides legionaries and socii, the Roman army included non-Italian troops of special kinds, Balearic slingers, Numidian horsemen, Rhodians, Celtiberians and others: at Trasimene, for example (217 B.C.), the Roman army included 600 Cretan archers. The numbers of these auxilia varied; probably they were not numerous till the latest days of the Republic. Composition and Size of Armies in the Second Stage. — According to the general practice, each of the two consuls, if he took the field alone, commanded an army of two legions with appropriate socii. If the two consuls combined their forces, commanding the joint force in rotation (as often occurred), the total would be — accord- ing to our authorities — four legions, each of 4200 infantry, the same number of " allied " infantry (in all 33,600 infantry), 1200 legionary cavalry and about 3600 " allied " cavalry = 38,400 men. Such, for example, was the Roman army at Trebia (218 B.C.), where (says Polybius) there fought 16,000 legionaries and 20,000 allied infantry. The total number of men in the field could be increased; we even hear of 23 legions serving at one time in the Second Punic War. Just before this war, in 225 B.C., the total strength of Rome was reckoned at three-quarters of a million, of which about 65,000 were in the field and 55,000 were in a reserve at Rome; of the total, 325,000 were Roman citizens and 443,000 (apparently a rough estimate) were allies. The battle order in normal circumstances was simple. In the centre stood the legionary infantry: on each side of that was the allied infantry: on the wings the cavalry. But sometimes the legions were held in reserve and the brunt (and honour) of the fight was left to the allies. Sometimes, when the army was a double force, one commander's troops fought and the others lay in reserve. Frequently the attack was begun by one wing, as by Caesar at Pharsalus. At Ilipa in Spain Scipio put his Spanish auxiliaries in the centre, his Roman troops on the wings, and attacked with both wings. The chief command of the army fell (as stated above) to the consul, if present, or, if two consuls acted together, to them in turn. In default of consuls, a pro- consul, praetor, or propraetor, in charge of a province, would command. Development from the Second Stage to the Third. — Towards the end of the Republic many changes began to work them- selves out in the Roman army. If Camillus began the system of pay and long service, it was effectually developed by long foreign wars in Spain and in the East. Moreover, the growth of Rome as a wealthy state tended to wreck the old theory that every citizen was a soldier, and favoured a division of labour between (e.g.) the merchant and the military, while the increasing complexity of war required a longer training and a more professional soldier. In consequence, the old restriction of legionary service to men with some sort of private property was abolished by Marius about 104 B.C. and the legionaries now became wholly proletariate and professionals. By a second change, also connected with the name of. Marius, the legion was reorganized as a body of 6000 men in 60 centuries, divided into 10 cohorts instead of (as hitherto) into 30 maniples; the unit of tactical action thus became a body of 600 instead of 120. This was probably an adaptation within the legion of the system of cohorts already in use for the con- tingents of the socii. Soon after, the extension of the Roman franchise to all Italians converted allies and subjects into citizens, and the socii into legionaries. A fourth change abolished the legionary cavalry and greatly increased the auxilia (C above). And, finally, the appearance of great military leaders in place of civilian statesmen, and of pretenders to a throne in place of patriots, familiarized the world with the notion of large standing armies commanded by permanent chiefs, and at the same time destroyed discipline and military loyalty. Third Stage. — The Imperial Army of Defence. — The evils of the Civil Wars (49-31 B.C.) furnished the first emperor, Augustus^ with both the opportunity and the necessity for reforming the army. Disorganization had reigned for twenty years. It was needful to restore loyalty and system alike. Augustus did this, as he did all his work, by adapting the past: yet there is some truth in the view of his latest historian, von Domaszewski, that his army reforms were his greatest and most original work. The main lines of his work are simple. The Imperial army consisted henceforward of two classes or grades of troops, about equal in numbers if unequal in importance. The first grade were the legions, recruited from Roman citizens, whether resident in Italy or in the provinces. The second grade was formed by the auxilia, recruited from the subjects (not the citizens) of the Empire in the provinces, organized in cohorts and aloe and corresponding somewhat to both the socii and the auxiliaries (B, C above) of the Republican army. There were also in Rome special " household" troops (see PRAE- TORIANS), and a large body of vigiles who were both fire brigade and police. (A) The legion of the Empire was what Marius had left it — 6000 heavy infantry divided into 10 cohorts: Augustus added only 1 20 horsemen to serve as despatch-riders and the like. The supreme command was no longer in the hands of the six tribunes. According to a practice which had sprung up in the latest Republic it was in the hands of a legatus legionis, deputy of the general (now of the emperor, commander-in-chief of the whole army) and a man usually of senatorial rank and position. The six tribunes assisted him, in theory: in practice they were now little more than young men of good birth learning their business or wasting their ROMAN ARMY 473 time. The real officers of the legion were the 60 centurions, men who (at least in the early Empire) generally served up from the ranks, and who knew their work. The senior centurion, primus pilus, was an especially important officer, and on retirement frequently became praefectus castrorum, " camp adjutant," or obtained other promotion. Below the centurions were under-officers, standard- bearers, optiones, clerks and the like. The men themselves were recruited from the body of Roman citizens (though we may believe that birth-certificates were not always demanded). During the 1st century Italy, and particularly north Italy, provided the bulk of the recruits. After A.D. 70, recruiting in Italy for the legions practically ceased and men were drawn from the Romanized towns of the provinces. After Hadrian, each province seems to have supplied most of the men for the legion (if any) stationed in it, and so many sons of soldiers born during service (castrenses) flocked to the army that a military caste almost grew up. The term of service was, in full, twenty years, at least in theory, but recruiting was voluntary and when men were short discharges were often withheld. On discharge the ex-legionary received a bounty or land: many coloniae (municipalities) were established in the provinces by certain emperors for the special purpose of taking discharged veterans — according to a custom of which the first instances occur in the latest Republican age. On the whole, the legionary was still the typical " Roman " soldier. If he was no longer Italian, he was generally of citizen birth and always of citizen rank, and his connexion with the Empire and the government was real. Each legion bore a title and a number (e.g. II. Augusta, III. Gallica). The custom of using such titles and numbers can be detected sporadically in the latest Republic, and many titles and numbers then borne by legions passed on into the Empire with the legions themselves. As Augustus gradually became master of the world, he found himself with three armies, his own and those of Lepidus and Antony; from the three he chose certain legions to form his new standing army, and he left these with the titles and numbers which they had previously borne, although that concession resulted in three legions numbered III. and two numbered IV., V., VI. and X. respectively. Sirnilar titles and numbers were given to legions raised afterwards either to fill up gaps caused by disaster or to increase the army. Here, as elsewhere in the Roman and above all in the Augustan system, precedent defied logic. (B) Besides the legions Augustus developed a new order of auxilia. Auxiliaries (as is said above) had served occasionally in the Republican armies since about 250 B.C., and in the latest Re- public large bodies of them had been enlisted in the armies of con- tending generals. Thus Caesar in Gaul enrolled a division of native Gauls, free men but not citizens of Rome, which ranked from the first in all but legal status as a legion, the " Alaudae," and in due course was formally admitted to the legionary list (legio V.). But this use of non-citizens had been limited in extent and confined in normal circumstances to special troops such as slingers or bowmen. This casual practice Augustus reduced, or rather extended, to system, following in many details the scheme of the Republican socii and veiling the novelty under old titles. Henceforward, regiments of infantry (cohortes) or cavalry (alae), 500 or 1000 strong, were regularly raised (apparently, by voluntary recruiting) from the non-citizen populations of the provinces and formed a force almost equal in numbers (and perhaps ultimately much more than equal) to the legions. The men who served in these units were less well paid and served longer than the legionaries; on their discharge they received a bounty and the Roman franchise for themselves and wife and children. They were commanded by Roman praefecti or tribuni, and were no doubt required to understand Roman orders; they must have generally become Romanized and fit for the citizenship, but they were occasionally (at least in the 1st century A.D.) permitted to retain tribal weapons and methods of fighting and to serve under the command of tribal leaders, who were at once their chiefs and Roman officers. These auxiliaries provided both the whole of the archers, &c., and nearly the whole of the cavalry of the army; they also included many foot regiments. A peculiar arrangement (to which no exact parallel seems to occur in any other army) was that a cohort of 500 men might include 380 foot and 120 horse and a cohort of 1000 men or 760 foot and 240 horse (cohors equitata), and an ala might similarly include a proportion of foot (ala peditata). Each regiment bore a number and a title, the latter often derived from the officer who had raised the corps (ala Indiana, raised by one Julius Indus) or, still more often, from the tribe which supplied the first recruits (cohors VII. Gallorum, cohors II. Hispanorum and the like). To what extent recruiting remained territorial is uncertain after the 1st century, probably, the territorial names meant in most cases very little. The total number of the auxiliary regiments probably varied from time to time and can at present hardly be guessed. Composition of Armies and Distribution of Troops in the Thira Stage. — If the system of legions and auxilia in the early Empire was novel, the use made of them was no less so. The latest Republic offers to the student the spectacle of large field armies and though it also reveals a counter tendency to assign specia legions to special provinces, that tendency is very feeble Augustus ended the era of large field armies: he could, indeed, eave no such weapons for future pretenders to the throne. By seeping the Empire within set frontiers, he developed the counter tendency. That policy exactly suited the military position in his :ime. The early Roman Empire had not to face — as Britain or France or Germany might have to face to-day — the danger of a war with an equal enemy, needing the mobilization of all its national forces. From Augustus till A.D. 2 50 Rome had no conterminous ioe from whom to fear invasion. Parthia, her one and dangerous equal, was far away in the East and little able to strike home. Elsewhere, her frontiers bordered more or less wild barbarians, who might often harass, but could not do serious harm. To meet this there was need, not of a strong army concentrated in one or two cantonments, but of many small garrisons scattered along each frontier, with a few stronger fortresses to act as military centres adjacent to these garrisons. Accordingly, a system grew up under Augustus and his im- mediate successors whereby the whole army was distributed along the frontiers or in specially disorderly districts (such as N.W. Spain) in permanent garrisons. On the actual frontiers and on the chief roads leading to them were numerous cohorts and alae of auxiliaries, garrisoning each its own caslellum of 3-7 acres in extent. Close behind the frontiers, or even on them, were the twenty-five legions, each (with a few exceptions of early date) holding its own fortress (castra stativa or hiberna) of 50-60 acres. Details varied at different times. Sometimes, where no Rhine or Danube helped, and where outside enemies were many, the frontier was further fortified by a continuous wall of wooden palisades (as in part of Germany, see LIMES) or of earth or stone (as in Britain, see article BRITAIN, ROMAN), or the boundary might be guarded by a road patrolled from forts planted along it (as in part of Roman Africa). The result was a long frontier guard covering Britain, and Europe from the German Ocean to the Black Sea, and the upper Euphrates valley, and the edge of the Sahara south of Tunis and Algeria and Morocco, while the wide Empire behind it was little troubled by the presence of soldiers. The following table shows the disposition of the legions about A.D. 120 and for many decades subsequently. It would be im- possible, even if space allowed, to add the auxiliaries, since the details of their distribution are too little known. But it may be in general assumed that the total number of auxiliaries in any province was little less, and probably rather greater, than the number of legionaries, and the sizes of the various provincial armies can thus be calculated roughly. Thus Britain was held probably by 35,000-40,000 men. Each provincial army was commanded either by the governor of the province or (in a few exceptional cases) by the senior legatus of the legions stationed there: — Britain Lower Germany ( = lower Rhine) Upper Germany Pannonia (Danube to Semlin) Upper Moesia (Middle Danube) ,t ii Dacia (now Transylvania) Lower Moesia (Lower Danube) II. Augusta (Isca Silurum, now Caer- leon). VI. Victrix (Eburacum, York). XX. Valeria Victrix (Deva, Chester). I. Minervia (Bonna, Bonn). XXX. Ulpia Victrix (Vetera, Xanten). XXII. Pnmigenia (Moguntiacum, Mainz). VIII. Augusta (Argentorate, Strassburg). X. Gemina (Vindobona, Vienna). XIV. Gemina (Carnuntum, Petronell). I. Adiutrix (Brigetio, near Komorn). II. Adiutrix (Aquincum, near Buda- pest). IV. Flavia (Singidunvm, Belgrade). VII. Claudia (Vtminacium, Kostolac). XIII. Gemina (Apulum, Karlsburg). I. XI. V. Asia Minor (Cappadocia) XV. XII. Italira (Novae, Sistov). Claudia (Durostorum, Silistria). Macedonica (Troesmis, Iglitza). Apollinaris (Satala, Armenian fron- tier). Fulminata (Melitene, on upper Euphrates). 474 Syria . Judaea Arabia Egypt Africa Spain ROMAN ART XVI. Flavia (Samosata, on upper Euphrates). IV Scythica-i VI. Ferrata > near Antioch (?). III. Gallica ) X. Fretensis (Jerusalem). III. Cyrenaica (Bostra). II. Trajana (near Alexandria — a dis- orderly city). III. Augusta (Lambaesis) . VII. Gemina (Legio, Leon, in N.W. Spain). The total of legionaries may be put at about 180,000 men, the auxiliaries at about 200,000. If we exclude the " house- hold " troops at Rome, the police fleets on the Mediterranean, and the local militia in some districts, we may put the regular army of the Empire at about 400,000 men. This army, as will be plain, was framed on much the same ideas as the British army of the ipth century. It was meant not to fight against a first-class foreign power, but to keep the peace and guard the frontiers of dominions threatened by scattered barbarian raids and risings. Field army there was none, nor any need. If special danger threatened or some special area was to be con- quered— such as southern Britain (A.D. 43) or a little land across the upper Rhine (A.D. 74) — detachments (vexillationes) were sent by legions and sometimes also by auxiliaries in adjacent provinces, and a field force was formed sufficient for the moment and the work. Change from the Third Period to the Fourth. — Two principal causes brought gradual change to the Augustan army. In the first place, the pax Romana brought such prosperity to many districts that they ceased to provide sufficient recruits. The Romans, like the British in India, had more and more to look to uncivilized regions and even beyond their borders. Hence comes, in the 2nd century and after, a new class of numeri or cunei or vexillationes who used (like the earlier auxiliaries) their national arms and tactics and imported into the army a more and more non-Roman element. This tendency became very marked in the 3rd century and bore serious fruit at its close. And, secondly, the old days of mere frontier defence were over. The barbarians began to beat on the walls of the Empire as early as A.D. 160: about A.D. 250 they here and there got through, and they came henceforward in ever-growing numbers. Moreover, they came on horseback, bringing new tactics for the Roman infantry to face, and they came in huge masses. We may doubt if any military system could have permanently stayed this astonishing torrent. But the Empire did what it could. It enlisted barbarians to fight barbarians, and added freely — too freely, perhaps, if there was any choice — to the non- Roman elements of the army. It increased its cavalry and began to form a distinct field force. Fourth Period. — The results are seen in the reforms of Dio- cletian and Constantine the Great (A.D. 284-circa 320). New frontier guards, styled limitanei or riparienses, were established, and the old army was reorganized in field forces which accom- panied or might accompany the emperors in war (comitatenses, palalini). The importance of the legions dwindled; the chief soldiers were the mercenaries, mostly Germans, enlisted from among the barbarians. New titles now appear, and it becomes plain even to the casual reader that in many points the new order is not the old. The details of the system are as compli- cated as all the administrative machinery of that age. Here it is enought to point out that the significance of such officers and titles as the dux and the comes (duke, count) lies ahead in the history of the middle ages, and not in the past, the history of the Roman army itself. War Office, General Staff. — Under the Republic we do not find, and indeed should not expect to find, any central body which was especially entrusted with the development of the army system or military finance or military policy in wars. Even under the Empire, however, there was no such organiza- tion. The emperor, as commander-in-chief, and his more or less unofficial advisers doubtless decided questions of policy. But the army was so much a group of provincial armies that much was left to the chief officers in each province. Here, as elsewhere in the Empire, we trace a love if not for Home Rule, at least for Devolution. There was, however, a central finance office in Rome for the special purpose of meeting the bounties (or equivalent) due to discharged soldiers. This was established by Augustus in A.D. 6 with the title aerarium militare, and had, for receipts, the yield of two taxes, a 5% legacy duty and a i% on sales (or perhaps only on auction- sales). The legacy duty did not touch legacies to near relations or legacies of small amount. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Liebenam, " Exercitus," in Pauly-\Vissowa, Realencydopadie; Von Domaszewski, in Mommsen-Marquardt's Handbuch der romischen Altertumer (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1884), vol. v, pp. 319-612; H. Delbruck, Geschichte der Kriegskunst, vol. i., 2nd ed. (Berlin, 1907) ; E. Lammert, " Die Entwicklung der romischen Taktik," in Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum, ix. 100-28, 169-87; Cagnat's article "Legio" in Daremberg and Saglio, Diction- naire des antiquites grecques et romaines; E. G. Hardy, Studies in Roman History (London, 1906^-9); Th. Mommsen, " Das romische Militarwesen seit Diocletian," in Hermes, xxiv. 195-279. (F. J. H.) ROMAN ART. (i) Introductory: History of Recent Research. — The scientific study of ancient Roman art dates from a com- paratively recent period. The great artists of the Renaissance, headed by Raphael and Michelangelo, showed no lack of apprecia- tion for such models as the bas-reliefs of Trajan's Column; and it is sufficient to name Mantegna's " Triumph of Caesar " in order to recall the influence exerted by Roman historical sculpture upon their choice and treatment of monumental •subjects; but their eyes were fixed on the Greek ideal, however imperfectly represented by monuments then accessible, and the supremacy of this standard became established beyond challenge. In the i8th century Winckelmann, the founder of the science of classical archaeology, directed the gaze of students and critics towards the glories of classical Greek art, which he divined behind the copies which filled the palaces and museums of modern Rome;1 and the rediscovery of the extant remains of that art, which began early in the igtb century and still continues, has naturally absorbed the attention of the great majority of classical archaeologists. Neverthe- less, towards the close of the igth century, when the main lines of Greek artistic development had been firmly traced and interest was aroused in its later offshoots, critics were led to examine more closely the products of the Roman period. As early as 1874 Philippi had published a study of Roman triumphal reliefs;2 but his intention was to show that they were derived from the paintings exhibited on the occasion of a triumph — a theory which can no longer be maintained — and not to determine their place in the history of art. In 1893, however, Alois Riegl published a series of essays on the history of ornament under the title of Stilfragen, in one of which he expressed the opinion that " there was in the antique art of the Roman Empire a development along the ascending line and not merely a decadence, as is universally believed." This thesis was taken up two years later by Franz Wickhoff in a preface contributed to the reproduction in facsimile of the illustrated MS. of Genesis in the imperial library at Vienna. Wickhoff contended that, whilst the art of the Augustan period was the culmination of that which had flourished under the Hellenistic monarchies, it was succeeded by an outburst of genuinely Roman artistic effort, which reached the height of its achievement in the reliefs and portrait-sculpture of the Flavian period, and gave birth in the 2nd century A.D. to the monuments of the " continuous " style of representation ex- emplified by the imperial columns. Wickhoff's work has become familiar to English readers through Mrs Strong's 1 The eleventh book of Winckelmann's Geschichte der Kunst, which deals with art under the Romans, contains notable proofs of the author's sureness of vision; for example, he divined the true date and affinities of the reliefs in the Villa Borghese, after- wards .wrongly attributed to the time of Claudius (see below). " t)ber die romischen Triumphalreliefs und ihre Stellung in der Kunstgeschichte " (Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften, vi., 1874). ROMAN ART 475 excellent translation, with copious illustrations, which ap- peared in 1900; in the following year Riegl published the first (which, by reason of his untimely death, remains the only) volume of his Late Roman Industrial Art in Austria and Hungary, in the opening chapters of which he endeavours to show that the later transformations of Roman art in the 2nd and suc- ceeding centuries after Christ continue to mark a definite advance. On the other hand, the originality of Roman art under the Empire was called in quesion by Josef Strzygowski, whose first important work on the subject, Orient oder Rom, appeared in 1901. Strzygowski holds that even in the imperial period, Rome was receptive rather than creative; that what is termed " Roman imperial art " is in reality the latest phase of Hellenistic art, whose chief centres are to be sought in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt; and that this late Hellenistic art was itself gradually transformed by the invading spirit of the East into that Byzantine art which is half Greek and half Oriental, but wholly un-Roman. The problem thus stated will presently be discussed; in the meantime it is to be noted that the principal monuments which fall within our province have been at length rendered accessible to students by a series of adequate reproductions. In sculpture, the reliefs of Trajan's Column have been published by Cichorius, and those of the column of Marcus Aurelius by Petersen and others; in metal- work, the treasure of Bosco Reale has been reproduced in the Monuments Plot, and that of Hildesheim has been published by the authorities of the Berlin Museum; a series of repro- ductions, including all the important examples of Roman painting, is issued by the firm of Bruckmann under the super- vision of Paul Herrmann; and the ancient paintings preserved in the Vatican library, which include some of the most famous examples of the art, were published and described by Dr Nogara in 1907. The discussion of the date to be assigned to the Trophy of Trajan at Adam-Klissi in the Dobruja, initiated by Adolf Furtwangler, has led to a closer study of the remains of Roman provincial art; and the discovery of the founda- tions of the Ara Pacis Augustae at Rome, together with addi- tional remains of its sculptured decoration, has given an impulse to the study of Roman historical monuments. In this field important contributions to knowledge have been made by members of the British school at Rome, which will be noticed below. Finally, the history of Roman sculpture has for the first time been systematically and comprehensively treated by Mrs Strong in a handbook whose copious and well-chosen illustrations add greatly to its value. Thus the necessary equipment has been furnished for students of the problem presented by Roman art. (2) National Roman Art; Landmarks of its History. — It is impossible to speak of a specifically Roman national art until we approach the latest period of Republican history. The germs of artistic endowment which existed in the Roman character were not developed until her political institutions were matured and her supremacy in the Mediterranean established. Up to that time such works of art as were produced in, or imported into, Rome were without exception Greek or Etruscan. Both in Etruria and in Latium Greek artists were commissioned to decorate the temples in which wood and terra-cotta took the place of the marble which Greece alone could afford to use. In 496 B.C., according to tradition, two Greek artists, Damophilos and Gorgasos, decorated the temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera with paintings and sculpture; when the temple was restored by Augustus their terra-cotta reliefs were carefully removed and framed.1 But most of the early sculpture preserved in Rome doubtless belonged to the " Tuscan " school, whose works Pliny 2 quotes as evidence that there was an art of statuary native to Italy. It is true that Etruscan art was dependent for its motives and technique on Greek models; but in its portraiture — notably in the reclining figures which adorn Etruscan sarcophagi — we can trace the uncompromising realism and close attention to detail which are native to Italian 1H.N. xxxv. 154. *H.N. xxxiv. 34; cf. 43; and see Quint.^xli. 10, I. soil; the fragments of temple-sculptures which have been preserved are of less value, since, if not the work of Greeks, they are entirely Greek in conception. Roman portraiture undoubtedly continues the Etruscan tradition. It was a common custom in Etruria to decorate the urn containing the ashes of the dead with a lid in the form of the human head (such urns are called canopi), and the same desire to record the features of the departed produced the waxen masks, or imagines, which were preserved in the houses of the Roman aristocracy. In architecture, too, Roman builders learnt much from their Etruscan neighbours, from whom they borrowed the character- istic form of their temples, and perhaps also the prominent use of the arch and vault. But the stream of Etruscan influence was met by a counter-current from the south, where the Greek colonies in Campania provided a natural channel by which Hellenic ideas reached the Latin race; and Roman architects soon abandoned the purely Etruscan type of temple for one which closely followed western Greek models. The conquests of the later Republic, however, brought them into more direct contact with the art of Greece proper. Beginning from 212 B.C., when Marcellus despoiled Syracuse of its principal statues, every victorious general adorned his triumph with masterpieces of Greek art, whether of sculpture or of painting, and, when Philhellenism became the ruling fashion at Rome, wealthy connoisseurs formed private collections drawn from the Greek provinces — Greek craftsmen, moreover, were employed in the decoration of the palaces of the Roman nobles and capitalists, which scarcely differed from those of the great Hellenistic cities. Except in portraiture, there was nothing character- istically Roman in the art which flourished in Rome in the time of Caesar and Cicero. But the remains of an altar, preserved partly at Munich and partly in the Louvre (Plate II. fig. 10), which is believed with good reason to have been set up by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus shortly before 30 B.C., furnish an early example of the historical, or, to speak more exactly, commemorative art, to whose development the Empire gave so powerful an impulse. On the one face of the altar we find a Greek subject — the marriage of Poseidon and Amphitrite, — on the other a Roman sacrifice, the suovelaurilia, with other scenes from the life of the army. Augustus enlisted art, as he did literature, in the service of the new order. The remarkable technical dexterity which characterizes all forms of art in this period — silver plate and stucco decoration, as well as sculpture in the round or in relief — is purely Greek; but the form is filled with a new content. For Augustus determined to enlist art as well as literature in the service of the new regime, and this purpose was served not only by public monuments, such as the Ara Pacis Augustae (Plate II. figs. 11-13), but by the masterpieces of the silversmith's and gem-engraver's art (Plate VII. figs. 32-37). In the art, as in the literature of the Augustan age, classicism was the dominant note, and the naturalism so congenial to the Italian temperament was repressed, though never extinguished. The result of this was that under the Julio-Claudian dynasty academic tradition filled the place of inspiration, and Roman art failed to discover its vocation. A change came under the Flavian emperors. The painters who decorated with fairy landscapes the walls of Roman palaces, untrammelled by the conventions of official art, introduced into Rome a summary method of working, which has much in common with that of the modern impressionist school; and the sculptors of the Flavian period laid to heart the lesson taught by their successful " illusionism " (to borrow Wickhoff's term). We shall see that this is true of all forms of sculpture — historical sculpture, portraiture and decorative ornament; and we are entitled to rank this Flavian art as the specific creation of imperial Rome, whatever may have been the precise nationality of the individual workers who adorned the new capital of the world. But this phase was of short duration; and the Roman spirit, which in harmony with that of Greece had produced such brilliant results, triumphed under Trajan and found its characteristic expression in the " epic in stone " with which his column is adorned. Wickhoff claims the " continuous " 476 ROMAN ART style in which the artist recounts the Dacian campaigns of Trajan as a creation of the Roman genius. W« shall see that the term is not altogether a happy one; but there is good reason (as will be shown below) for the belief that the designer of the column, however profoundly influenced in his selection of motives and in his composition of individual scenes by Greek tradition, nevertheless worked out his main principles for himself. The realism of the Roman is shown in the minute rendering of details, which makes the reliefs a priceless source of information as to military antiquities. Historical art achieved no less a triumph in the great frieze from Trajan's Forum (Plate II. fig. 16), and in the panels of the arch at Benevento. Imposing as these works are, they suffer from the defects incidental to an art which endeavours to express too much. Overcharged with detail, and packed with meanings which reveal themselves only to patient study, they lack the spacious and reposeful character of Greek art; while, if we regard only their decorative function, we must admit that the excess of ornamental surface mars the effect of the buildings which they adorn. Along the path thus marked out, Roman art continued to progress; it is true that under the influence of Hadrian there was a brief renaissance of classicism which gave birth to the idealized type of Antinous, and to certain eclectic works which belong to Greek rather than to Roman art; but the historical reliefs which survive from the Antonine period, and more especially the sarcophagi, which reproduce scenes of Greek mythology with a close adherence to the letter but a fresh artistic spirit, show that the new leaven was at work. The main fact underlying the changes of the time was the loss of the true principles of plastic art, which even in Hellenistic times had become obscured by the introduction of pictorial methods into relief-sculpture. Colour, rather than form, now took the highest place in the gamut of artistic values. Painting, indeed, so far as our scanty knowledge goes, was not practised with conspicuous success; but the art of mosaic was carried to an extraordinary degree of technical perfection; and in strictly plastic art the choice of material was often determined by qualities of colour and transparency. For example, por- phyry, basalt and alabaster of various hues were used by the sculptor in preference to white marble; and new conventions, such as the plastic rendering of the iris and pupil of the eye, were dictated by the ever-growing need for contrasts of light and shadow. This great revolution in taste has been traced, and doubtless with justice, to the permeation of the Graeco- Roman world of the 2nd century by oriental ideas. The East has always preferred colour to form, and richness of ornament to significance of subject; and in art, as in religion, the West was now content to borrow. Roman official art, however, continued to produce the historical monuments which the achievements of the time demanded; but the principles of figure-composition were less fully grasped. The reliefs of the Aurelian Column form a less intelligible series than those of the Column of Trajan; and the panels of the Arch of Septimius Severus, with their bird's-eye perspective, have not inaptly been compared to Flemish tapestries. The extravagance and pomp of the dynasty founded by Septimius Severus filled Rome with such works as the art of the time could produce; and the busts of Caracalla show that in portraiture Roman crafts- men retained their cunning. Even during the anarchy which followed masterpieces such as the portrait of Philip the Arabian were produced; and during the reign of Gallienus (A D. 253-268), which saw the dismemberment of the Empire, there was a note- worthy outburst of artistic activity, whose products are seen in the naturalistic portraits of the emperor and the court.1 But by the close of the 3rd century a further transformation had taken place, which coincided with the political revolution by which the absolute monarchy of Diocletian succeeded to the principate of Augustus. The portraits of Constantine and his house can no longer be termed naturalistic; they are *It is very remarkable that the coin-portraits of the Gallic usurper Postumus (A.D. 258-68) are executed in precisely the same style ; the coins were struck either at Trier or at Cologne. monumental, both in scale and in conception, and, above all, their rigid " frontality " carries us back at a bound to the primitive art of the East. The classical standard set by the Greek genius had ceased to govern art, although the fund of types which Hellenism had created still furnished subjects to the artist, or was made the vehicle by which the new ideas derived from Christianity were expressed. The Roman spirit was still strong enough to maintain that interest in the human form and the representation of dramatic events which was lacking in the Oriental; but in the monuments of the Constan- tinian period, such as the narrow friezes of the Arch of Con- stantine, we can see nothing but the work of artists who had lost touch with true plastic principles, in spite of the ingenious arguments adduced by Riegl. If we are to seek for signs of progress, it must be rather in the domain of architecture, which had never ceased to make advances in dealing with the spatial and constructive problems presented by the great building works of the Empire; it was now called upon to face a fresh task in providing Christians with a fit place for public worship. In the solution of this problem the architects of the 4th century showed a wonderful fertility of resource; but to describe their achievements would be to pass the confines of Roman art in the proper sense of the word. (3) Individual Arts, (a) Architecture. — This branch of the subject may be studied in the article ARCHITECTURE, and illus- trations will be found in other articles (CAPITAL; COLUMN; ORDER; TRIUMPHAL ARCH; &c.). Architecture, regarded as a fine art, had been brought by the Greeks to the highest perfection of which it was capable under the limitations which they imposed upon themselves. The Greek temple appeals to the aesthetic sense by the simplicity and harmony of its proportions as well as by the rational correspondence between function and decoration in its several members. On these lines there was no room for progress. It is true that the Etruscans modified the type of the Greek temple and profoundly influenced Roman construction in this respect. The Etruscan temple was not approached on all sides by a low flight of steps, but raised on a high platform (podium) with a staircase in the front; it was broad in proportion to its depth, indeed, in many cases, square; and the temple itself (cello) was faced by a deep portico, which often occupied half the platform. Moreover, as the use of marble for building was unknown in early Italy, wood was employed in construction and terra-cotta in decoration, and this change of material led to a wider spacing of the columns than was possible in Greece. But these alterations in the system of proportions were disadvantageous to aesthetic effect; and the Romans — though they soon ceased (under the influence of the western Greeks) to build temples of purely " Tuscan " type — preserved certain of their features, such as the high platform and deep portico (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 26). Nor can we regard as felicitous the design of certain Roman temples, such as that of Concord overlooking the Forum, and the sup- posed temple of Augustus (see ROME), which have a broad front (approached in the temple of Concord by a central portico) and narrow sides. The great temples of the Empire were (in general) inspired by Greek models, and need not therefore concern us; but we may notice Hadrian's peculiar design for the double temple of Venus and Rome, with twin cellae placed back to back. To the orders (see ORDER) of Greek architecture the Etruscans added the " Tuscan," a simplified Doric, of which an early example has been found at Pompeii, enclosed within the wall of the Casa del Fauno.2 This column, which can scarcely be later than the 6th century B.C., has a smooth shaft with pronounced entasis, a heavy capital with a scotia between abacus and echinus, and a plain circular base. To the Romans we owe the " Composite " crder, so called because it contains features distinctive of the Corinthian and Ionic orders (see ORDER, fig. 14). It is really a variety of the Corinthian, with Ionic volutes inserted in the capital; the earliest known example of its use is seen in the Arch of Titus. The Romans, moreover, made frequent use of the figured capital, which, as 2Romische Mitteilungen (1902), pi. vii. ROMAN ART PLATE L Photo, Alinari. FIG. i.— DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS (SO CALLED). Photo, Anderson. FIG. 2.— SCIPIO AFRICANUS (SO CALLED). Photo, Alinari. FIG. 3.— UNKNOWN WOMAN. Photo, Alinari. FIG. 4.— VESPASIAN. Photo, F. Bruckmann, Munich. FIG. 5.— UNKNOWN PHYSICIAN. Photo, Ciraudon. FIG. 6.— ANTINOCS. Photo F. Bruckmann, Munich. FIG 7.— UNKNOWN ROMAN. XXIII. 476. Photo, Giraudon. FIG. 8.— GALLIENUS. Photo, F. Bruckmann, Munich. FIG. 9.— UNKNOWN MAN CENTURY). Photo, Giraudnn, FIG. io.— ALTAR OF D AUGUSTUS AND THE ROYAL FAMILY. CLAUDIA FIGS. 11-13.— PORTIONS OF THE DECO By permission of the Italu By permission of the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction. FIG. 14.— RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS: TRIUMPH OF TITUS AND THE SPOILS OF JERUSALEM. ART PLATE H. TIUS AHENOBARBUS. IILY. DN OF THE ARA PACIS AUGUSTAE. stry of Public Instruction. THE EARTH GODDESS AND THE SPIRITS OF AIR AND WATER. / atom. i..— PILASTER. By permission of the Italian Ministry of PtMic In slruction. FIG. 16.— RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE: ROMAN CAVALRY CHARGE. PLATE III. ROMAN ART Photo, Anderson. FIG. 17.— CAESAR AUGUSTUS. Photo, Anderson. FIG. 18— MEDALLION, ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. Photo, A nderson. CONSTANTINE DISTRIBUTING A DOLE. Photo, Anderson. CONSTANTINE ON THE ROSTRUM. FIG. 19.— BAS-RELIEFS ON THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. ROMAN ART 477 the remains of Pompeii show, was an invention of the later Hellenistic age. Reduced copies of statues are found in the decoration of such capitals in the baths of Caracalla ; the capitals with Victories and trophies in S. Lorenzo Fuori also belonged to a building of pagan times. But the specific achievement of the Roman architect was the artistic application of a new set of principles — those which are expressed 'in the arch, the vault and the dome. The recti- linear buildings of the Greeks, with their direct vertical supports, gave place to vaulted structures in which lateral thrust was called into play. The aesthetic effect of the curves thus brought into prominence was well understood by the Romans; and they were the inventors of the decorative combination of the Greek orders with the arcade. More than this, the erection of vaults and domes of wide span, rendered possible by the use of concrete, gave to the Roman architect the opportunity of dealing artistically with internal spaces. A simple yet grandiose example of this may be found in the Pantheon of Hadrian. Circular buildings were a common feature in Italian archi- tecture;1 the temple of Vesta, which doubtless represented the primitive hut or dwelling of the king, always had this form, and the theme was repeated with many variations, from the well-known circular temple in the Forum Boarium to the fantastic structure with broken outlines at Baalbek. But in the Pantheon the artist lays stress, not on the exterior, which possesses no special effect, but on the interior, whose proportions are carefully determined and give a most impressive result. The same may be said of the great halls of the Imperial Thermae, and as time went on more elaborate architectural schemes were devised to meet the requirements of the Christian Church. (b) Sculpture. — It was pointed out above that in the late Republican period specifically Roman art was practically con- fined to portraiture. Of this we have many fine examples, such as the so-called Domitius Ahenobarbus of the Braccio Nuovo (Plate I. fig. i); and there is a series of busts which possess a special interest in that some of them have been claimed as portraits of Scipio Africanus. The example in the Museo Capitolino (Plate I. fig. 2), with a modern inscription, though executed in the 2nd century A.D., is clearly copied from a famous Republican original. The baldness of the head has been thought to be derived from the technique of the waxen imagines, in which the hair was painted; the presence of a scar above the temple, which has given rise to various theories, merely betokens the unsparing realism of the Republican artist. In monumental sculpture our earliest datable example is the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, already referred to (Plate II. fig. 10). The ceremonial scene of the suovetaurilia fills the centre of the composition; to the left we see the dismissal of veterans for whom diplomata are being prepared; to the right the troops on active service, both horse and foot, are represented. The artist was clearly inspired by statuary and other types of earlier date, which are grouped in a somewhat loose composition. Augustan art is adequately represented by the Prima Porta statue of the emperor, dis- covered in 1863 in the Villa of Livia and now in the Braccio Nuovo (Plate III. fig. 17). The attitude of the figure is that of an imperator addressing his army; but there is a character- istic blending of the real with the ideal, for the emperor is not only bareheaded but barefoot, and beside him is a tiny cupid riding on a dolphin, which indicates the descent of the Julian house from Venus. We note, too, how the Roman artist — or the Greek artist interpreting the wishes of the Roman — is scarcely more concerned for the total effect of his work than for the significant details of the decoration. The chasings of the corselet display, as a central subject, the restoration by the Parthian in 20 B.C. of the standards taken from Crassus at Carrhae (53 B.C.). Not content with this, the artist has added a group of personifications indicating sunrise — Sol, Caelus, Aurora and the goddess of the morning dew — as well as Apollo, Diana, Mars and the earth goddess, and two figures symbolical of the western provinces, Gaul and Spain. It is also to be 1 See Altmann, Die italischen Rundbauten (1906). noted that the statue shows abundant traces of its original polychrome tints — brown, yellow, blue, red and pink. It must have been executed later — probably not much later — than 13 B.C., when Augustus returned from the West, and therefore belongs to the same period as the Ara Pacis Augustae, dedicated January 30, 9 B.C. This altar stood in a walled enclosure with two entrances, measuring nj by ioj metres. The walls, with their plinth, were about 6 metres in height, and were decorated internally with a frieze of garlands and bucrania, and externally with two bands of relief, the lower consisting of conventional scrolls of acanthus varied with other floral motives, and teeming with bird and insect life, the upper showing processions (Plate II. fig. n) passing from east to west. The most interesting of these is that on the south wall, which included Augustus himself, the flamines and the imperial family.2 On the western face, towards which the processions are directed, we find a scene of sacrifice, with a landscape background, in which the ideal figures of senate and people appear. To the east front (apparently) belongs the beautiful group of the earth goddess (Tellus) and the spirits of air and water (Plate II. fig. 13). It is impossible to deny the incongruity of this composition with the realistic procession which adjoins it, and we can only suppose that the artist bor- rowed the group from some Hellenistic precursor and used it in that blend of the real and ideal which, as we saw, was the keynote of the new imperial art. The lack of public monuments which can be assigned to the Julio-Claudian period is only in part supplied by those of private significance; the most important of these are the sepulchral cippi and other altars, decorated sometimes with figure-subjects, but largely with plant and animal forms rendered with the utmost naturalism. The altar with plane- leaves in the Museo delle Terme (fig. 38), though perhaps not Redrawn from a photo by Anderson. FIG. 38. — Altar with Plane-leaves. later than Augustus, is typical of the spirit in which vegetable forms were treated under the first dynasty. We may take a female portrait discovered in a ist-century house on the right bank of the Tiber (Plate I. fig. 3) as an example of the por- traiture of this period, which shows great technical merit but a touch of conventionality. The sculpture of the Flavian period finds its best-known example in the reliefs of the Arch of Titus. This has but a single archway; the piers had no sculptured decoration, and the narrow frieze which surmounts the architrave is perfunc- torily executed. But the long panels on either side of the passage, which represent the triumph of Titus and the spoils of Jerusalem, have been deemed (by Wickhoff) worthy of a place in the history of art beside the masterpieces of Velazquez —the " Hilanderas " and the " Surrender of Breda "; and * Some doubt has recently been cast on the identification of the emperor and his family. ROMAN ART though we cannot subscribe to his view that the artist calculated the effect of natural illumination upon the relief, it remains true that they are eminently pictorial compositions in respect of their depth of focus, yet without sacrifice of plastic effect (Plate II. fig. 14). So far as bas-relief is concerned, the problem of representing form in open space is here solved. Equally admirable in technique, though of less historical importance, are the circular medallions (tondi) which now adorn the Arch of Constantine, but originally belonged (as the present writer has shown)1 to a monument of the Flavian period, perhaps the " temple of the Flavian house " erected by Domitian. The one shown (Plate III. fig. 18) is remarkable in that the head of the emperor has been replaced by a portrait, not of Constantine, but (in all probability) of Claudius Gothicus (A.D. 268-70), who was the first to divert these sculptures from their original destination. Flavian portraits,2 of which two are here figured, — a bust of Vespasian in the Museo delle Terme (Plate I. fig. 4) and a bust, now in the Lateran, found in the tomb of the Haterii, which, as is shown by the snake, represents a physician (Plate I. fig. 5), — must rank as the masterpieces of Roman art. Their extraordinarily lifelike character is due to the fact that the artist, without accumulating unnecessary detail, has contrived to catch the characteristic expression of his subject, and to render it with the utmost technical virtuosity. These portraits differ from the works of the Greek masters, who always subordinated the individual to the type, and therefore gave a less complete impression of reality than the Roman artists. The same tendency has been noted in ornamental work which may be dated to the Flavian period. Wickhoff selected a pilaster from the monument of the. Haterii (Plate II. fig. 15) upon which a column entwined with roses is carved. The flowers are not in fact represented with precise fidelity to nature, but the illusion of reality is no less great than in more accurately worked examples. Roman sculpture soon passed the zenith of its achievement. We are not able to assign any historical monuments to the earlier years of Trajan's reign, but the portraits of the emperor betray a certain hardness of touch which makes them less interesting than those of the Flavian period. To the latter part of the reign belong a number of monuments which represent Trajanic art at its best. First and foremost come the reliefs, colossal in scale, which appear to have decorated the walls of Trajan's Forum. Four slabs were removed by Constantine's order and used to adorn the central passage and the shorter sides of the attic of his arch. The first of these (Plate II. fig. 16) shows the victorious charge of the Roman cavalry, with the emperor at its head, against their Dacian enemies. Other fragments of this frieze are extant in the Louvre,3 and a much-restored relief, walled up in the garden of the Villa Medici, shows a Dacian on horseback swimming the Danube with Trajan's Bridge in the background. The composition of the battle-scene is very fine, and the heads of the Dacians are full of character; but, although details of armour, &c., are carefully and accurately reproduced, we see clear signs of technical decadence, both in the fact that the human eye is in many cases represented as though in full face on heads which are shown in profile, and also in the naive attempt to render several files of troops in perspective by means of superposed rows of heads.4 The reliefs of the spiral 1 Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iii. pp. 229 ff. Sieve- king (Rom. Mitth. (1907) pp. 345 ff.) believes that four of the medallions only belong to the Flavian period and the rest to Hadrian's reign. 2 On this subject see Mr Crowfoot's paper in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xx. (1900) pp. 31 ff. A list of examples is given by Mr Wace in Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iii. pp. 290 ff. 3 Mr Wace has recently identified the reliefs which show an emperor sacrificing before the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus as a part of the frieze (Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. pp. 229 ff.). 4 These features make it clear that the reliefs in the Villa Borghese, formerly supposed to belong to an arch of Claudius, are Trajanic; see Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. pp. 215 ff. (Stuart Jones). column in the Basilica Ulpia tell the same tale. The designer borrowed certain motives from Hellenistic art; e.g. we find the suicide of the Dacian king Decebalus represented in precisely the same way as that of a Gallic chief on the well- known sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum representing a battle between Greeks and Gauls; again, the symmetry of the scene in which the fall of Sarmizegetusa (the Dacian capital) is depicted recalls that of Greek monuments — particularly the painting of the fall of Troy by Polygnotus, described by Pausanias at Delphi. But the loving care with which the arms and accoutrements of the Roman troops — both regular and irregular — are rendered 6 betrays the nationality of the artist; and his technical deficiencies, especially in the matter of perspective, point in the same direction. It seems probable, moreover, that the artistic conception of a column ornamented with a band of relief was new, and that the designer had to find his own solution for the problem. We find, in fact, that he tells his story in more than one way: (a) Considerable portions of the narrative, e.g. Trajan's march in the opening campaign, consist in a series of isolated and successive scenes; the divisions are usually marked by some conventional means, such as the insertion of a tree, or a change of direction in the action. (b) At other times the scenes unfold themselves against a continuous background, and merge almost insensibly into those which succeed them; to this form of narrative the term " continuous style," brought into use by Wickhoff, more properly applies, (c) The direct progress of the narrative is sometimes broken by passages which can only be called " panoramic "; the great composition showing the siege and fall of Sarmizegetusa falls under this head, and the " con- tinuous " narration of Trajan's journey at the outset of the second war is followed by an extensive panorama illustrating the operations in Moesia in A.D. 105. The reliefs (as already indicated) tell the story of both of Trajan's wars with the Dacians, a formal division between the two narratives being made by a figure of Victory setting up a trophy; and the design of the second series shows a decided advance in artistic and dramatic effect on that of the first. Clearly the artist learnt the laws of composition applicable to his problem in the course of his work. Before leaving the Trajanic period a word must be said as to the arch erected at Benevento (see TRIUMPHAL ARCH, fig. 2), from which point a new road — the Via Trajana — ran to Brun- disium. The inscription on this arch bears the date A.D. 114, but the prominence given to Hadrian has led to the supposition that the reliefs were executed after his accession. We have already noted that the use of relief as ornament is here carried to excess in the artist's desire to present a summary of Trajan's achievements at home and abroad.6 The arrangement of the panels is calculated and significant. On the side which faces the town of Benevento the subjects have reference to Trajan's work in Rome. On the attic we see, to the left, a group of gods with the Capitoline triad — Jupiter, Juno and Minerva — in the foreground; to the right, Trajan welcomed at the entrance to the Capitol by the goddess Roma, the penates and the con- suls. He is accompanied by Hadrian, who is designated by the gesture of Roma as the emperor's successor. The two lowest panels likewise form a single picture. To the right Trajan appears at the entrance of the Forum, where he is welcomed by the praefectus urbi; to the left, with the Curia as background, we see the representatives of senate, knights and people. The central panels symbolize the military and civil aspects of Trajan's government — veterans to left, merchants to right, are the recipients of imperial favour. On the other 6 Thus Cichorius, in his publication of the reliefs, has been able to identify several of the corps which took part in the war; e.g. the " cohorts of Roman citizens " are distinguished from the bar- barian auxiliaries by the national emblems on their shields. 6 The significance of these reliefs was first demonstrated by Domaszewski (Jahreshefte des osterreichischen archdologischen Instituts, ii. 1899, pp. 173 ff.); a full account will be found in Mrs Strong's Roman Sculpture, ch. 9. ROMAN ART 479 face of the arch we have a series of panels relating to Trajan's work in the provinces. On the attic the gods of the Danube provinces appear to the left, the submission of Mesopotamia on the right; the lowest panels represent negotiations with Ger- mans (left) and Parthians (right); in the centre (as on the other face) we have a military scene (recruiting in the provinces) to left, balancing the foundation of colonies and growth of the proles Romana on the right. As the above description will show, this arch is, in respect of its significance, the most im- portant monument of Roman historical art. Technically, the reliefs fall somewhat short of the best work of the Flavian period — the long panels of the archway, which represent a sacrifice offered by Trajan and his benefactions to the municipia of Italy, have not the verse of those from the Arch of Titus, but are at least as fine as the works executed for Trajan's Forum. With the accession of Hadrian — the " Greekling," as he was called by his contemporaries — a short-lived renaissance of classicism set in. The eclectic modifications of Greek statuary types which it called forth do not fall within our province; but it should be noticed that in portraiture the most important work of this period was the idealized type of Antinous, here represented by a famous example (Plate I. fig. 6) in the Louvre, which invests the favourite of Hadrian with a divinity expressed in the terms of Hellenic art as well as a pathos which belongs to his own time.1 The historical monuments of this and the following reign are few in number, and lack the preg- nancy of meaning and vigour of execution which distinguish those of the Trajanic period; mention may be made of three reliefs in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, one of which represents the apotheosis of an empress, and of the panels in the Palazzo Rondinini shown by the analogy of a medallion of Antoninus Pius to belong to his time. .This is also the place to take note of the ideal figures symbolical of the subject peoples of the Empire. Under Trajan Roman sculptors had produced the fine statues of Dacian captives which now adorn the Arch of Con- stantine; to the Hadrianic period belong the idealized figures of provinces, classical in pose and motive, several of which arc in the Palazzo de Conservatori.2 We pass on to the period of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, in which Roman art underwent a further transformation. The earliest monument of the time which calls for our attention is the base of the column (now destroyed) erected in honour of Antoninus Pius. Two of its faces are here shown (Plate IV. figs. 21 and 22), and the contrast is remarkable between the classicistic representation of the apotheosis of Antoninus and Faustina, witnessed by the ideal figures of Rome and the Campus Martius (holding an obelisk), and the realistic treatment of the decursio, a ceremony performed by detachments of the prae- torian guard on horse and foot. We note the endeavour of the Roman sculptor to express more than his medium will allow, and his inadequate grasp of the laws of proportion and per- spective. Discarding the classical standard and its conven- tions, the artist disposes his figures like a child's toys, and, when confronted with the problem of the background, waves it aside and reduces the indication of the place of action to a few projecting ledges on which his puppets are supported. The reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius suffer by comparison with those of Trajan's Column. The story which the designer had to tell was doubtless less definite in outline; we cannot trace, as in the former instance, the march of events towards a dramatic climax, and there is some reason to think that, although the two bands of relief, separated (as on Trajan's Column) by a figure of Victory, correspond generally with the " Germanic " and " Sarmatic " wars of Marcus down to A.D. 175, the narrative is not strictly chronological; thus the fall of rain ascribed by Christian tradition to the prayers of the " Thundering " Legion 1 It is in the portraits of the Hadrianic period that we first meet with the plastic rendering (in marble) of the iris and pupil of the eye ; on the significance of this convention see above. 2 On these see Lucas's article in Jahrb. des k. deutschen arch. Instituts (1900), pp. I ff., and Mrs Strong, Roman Sculpture, pp. 243 ff. (Plate IV. fig. 24) is represented at a very early stage, whereas our historians place it towards the close of the war. The figures are smaller and at the same time more crowded than those upon Trajan's Column, and the landscape is less intelli- gently rendered. The type of the rain-god, which is without doubt the creation of the Roman sculptor, is boldly conceived but scarcely artistic. Still the reliefs show that the designers of the time were making vigorous efforts to think for them- selves, and for this reason possess a higher value than the more conventional panels now distributed between the attic of the Arch of Constantine and the Palazzo dei Conservatori, which seem to have decorated a triumphal arch set up in or after A.D. i y6.3 The portraiture of the time also shows the invasion of new principles. Even before the reign of Marcus we find a tendency to emphasize the contrast between hair and flesh, the face often showing signs of high polish. In the latter half of the 2nd century the contrast is heightened by a new method of treating the hair, which is rendered as a mass of curls deeply undercut and honeycombed with drill-holes; a fine example is the Commodus of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. The aim of the sculptor is to obtain an ornamental effect by the violent contrast of light and dark — an adaptation for the purposes of plastic art of the chiaroscuro which more properly belongs to painting. This tendency may be seen at work in all branches of sculpture. The sarcophagi of the Antonine and later periods, with their crowded compositions and deep shadows, have the same pictorial effect; and in pure ornament the vivid illusion ism of Flavian art disappears, and, though plant-forms are lavishly used — from the time of Trajan onwards we note a growing distaste for pure outlines, which are hidden beneath all-per- vading acanthus foliage — the interest of the sculptor comes to lie more and more in intricacy of pattern, pro- duced by the complemen- tary effect of lights and shadows. An instance of this may be found in a pilaster now in the Lateran Museum (fig. 39), which Wickhoff justly contrasts with the rose-pillar from the monu- ment of the Haterii. It is all-important to remember that (as Strzygowski has pointed out) 4 it is not true shadow which is contrasted with the high lights in later Roman ornament; if so, the plastic effect of the free members would be height- ened, whereas the reverse is actually the case, for even the figures on sarco- phagi, worked in the round though they be, do not stand out from the back- ground— which indeed is practically abolished — but seem rather to form ele- ments in a pattern. The reason is that pure darkness is set off against lights, and the whole surface being thus broken remains no impression of depth. Under Septimius Severus and his successors, Roman art drifts steadily in its new direction. The reliefs of his arch at the entrance to the Forum represent the emperor's campaigns in the East in a compromise between bird's-eye perspective and the " continuous " style which cannot be called successful; 1 This series of panels is discussed in Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iii. p. 251 ff. 4 Jahrbuch der preussischen Kunstsammlungen (1904), p. 271. (Drawn from photo, Mosckmi ) FIG. 39. — Pilaster with Oak Leaf Ornament. the high up, there 480 ROMAN ART a better example of the art of this period is to be seen in the relief (Plate IV. fig. 20) now in the Palazzo Sacchetti, recently published by Mr A. J. B. Wace,1 which probably represents the presentation of Caracalla to the senate as the destined successor of his father. The squat figures of the senators, their grouping, which, though not lacking in naturalism and a certain effective- ness, is not in its main lines aesthetic, and the lavish use of deeply drilled ornament, are features which leave no doubt as to the period to which this work should be assigned. Rome, however, could still boast a school of portrait-sculptors, whose work was of no ordinary merit. The bronze statue of Sep- timius Severus, which passed into the Somzee collection, has been pronounced by Furtwangler to be of much earlier date, except for the head of the emperor, and we cannot therefore feel confidence in using it as a measure of the artistic achieve- ments of Severus's reign; but the busts of Caracalla, which represent the tyrant in his later years, are masterly both in conception and in execution. In the second quarter of the 3rd century A.D., when the Empire was torn by internal strife, threatened in its very existence by the inroads of barbarism, and hastening towards economic ruin, art could no longer flourish, and monuments of sculpture become scarce, if we except portraits and sar- cophagi. The busts of this period are easily distinguished by the treatment of the hair and beard, which seem to have been closely clipped, and are indicated by a multitude of fine chisel strokes on a roughened surface. But, rough as these technical methods may seem, the artists of the time used them with wonderful effect, and the portraits of the emperor Philip (A. D. 244-49) m the Braccio Nuovo, and an unknown Roman in the Capitoline Museum (Plate I. fig. 7), are hardly to be surpassed in their delineation of craft and cruelty. Amongst the sarcophagi of the 3rd century we select, in preference to those adorned with scenes of Greek mythology, the fine example in the Museo delle Terme (formerly in the Ludovisi collection) decorated with a melee of Romans and Orientals (Plate IV. fig. 23); the principal figure — whose portrait is also to be seen in the Capitoline Museum — has been identified by Mr A. H. S. Yeames as C. Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus, the minister and father-in-law of Gordian III. (d. A.D. 244). Even after the middle of the century, when the Empire was for a time dismembered, portrait-sculpture put forth fresh evidences of life and vigour. Gallienus, who was himself a dilettante and doubtless largely endowed with personal vanity, seems to have called into being a naturalistic school of sculptors, who harked back to the models of the later Antonine period, so that it is not always easy to distinguish the busts of his time from those of a much earlier date. The Louvre bust of the emperor (Plate I. fig. 8) will serve as a type of these works. But this singular renaissance was as short-lived as the eclectic revival of classicism under Hadrian. It is remarkable that the portrait of Gallienus is the last which can be identified by truly individual traits. The period of storm and stress which followed his death has left little or no monumental material for the historian of sculpture; and when the curtain again rises on the art of the new monarchy founded by Diocletian and perfected by Constantine, we seem to move in a new world. The East has triumphed over the West. Just as in Egyptian and, speaking generally, in all oriental art, before the revela- tion of true plastic principles, which we owe to the Greek genius, the law of " frontality " was universally operative, i.e. the pose of sculptured figures was rigidly symmetrical and without lateral curvature, so the portraits of Constantine and his successors are discerned at a glance by their stiff pose and fixed and stony stare. The fact is that the secret of organic structure has been lost; the bust (or statue) is no longer a true portrait, a block of marble made to pulsate with the life of the subject represented, but a monument. It was thus that the absolute monarchs of the Empire, before whom their subjects prostrated themselves in mute adoration, preferred to 1 Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. pi. xxxiv., from which fig. 15 is taken. be portrayed; and we cannot help recalling Ammianus's description2 of the entry of Constantius II. into Rome (A.D. 356). The emperor rode in a golden chariot, turning his head neither to the right nor to the left, but gazing impassively before him " tanquam figmentum hominis." The description fits such a portrait as that of an unknown personage of the 4th century in the Capitoline Museum (Plate I. fig. 9), which has found a panegyrist in Riegl. It remains to note that the narrow bands of relief on the Arch of Constantine, some of which probably date from the reign of Diocletian,3 partake of the same monumental character as the single statues of the time. Where the nature of the subject permits, as in the case of the reliefs here represented (Plate III. fig. 19), the frontality of the central figure, and the strict symmetry of the grouping, which imparts an almost geometrical regularity to the main lines of the composition, are calculated for architectonic rather than for plastic effect. The breath of organic life has ceased to inspire the marble. We have confined ourselves in the above section to tracing the course of development in what we may call official Roman sculpture, represented in the main, as is natural, by the monuments of the capital. The products of local schools cannot here be treated in detail. The difficult problems which they raise are best illustrated by the case of " Trajan's trophy " at Adam-Klissi in the Dobruja. Although the very name of the monument might seem to furnish sufficient evidence of its date, the late Professor Furtwangler stoutly maintained that Trajan did but restore a monument dating from 29 B.C.* He called attention to the uniformity in style of the grave- monuments of soldiers from north Italy, serving in the legions of the Rhine and Danube; these date from the early imperial period, and represent (according to Furtwangler) a traditional " legionary style." It may be admitted that they are eminently Italian in their hard realistic character; but the tradition was not extinct in the Trajanic period, so that the analogy between these monuments and its rudely carved figures is inconclusive, and the ornament of the trophy, which is far from being homogeneous, contains, as Studniczka5 has observed, oriental elements which could not possibly be found in sculpture of the ist century B.C. Local tradition may also be traced, e.g. in southern France, where the Hellenic influence which penetrated by way of Massilia was still strongly felt under the Julio-Claudian dynasty, as the sculptures of the tomb of the Julii at St Remy and the triumphal arches of Orange and Carpentras suffice to prove. Gallo-Roman art, on the other hand, has a physiognomy of its own, whose outlines have been traced by M. Salomon Reinach (Antiquites nationales; bronzes figures de la Gaule romaine, Introduction). In the Rhineland we find, at a later period, a singular school of realistic sculptors at work; the museum at Trier contains a number of their grave-monuments decorated with scenes of daily life.6 Nor must we omit to mention the Palmyrene sculptors of the 3rd century A.D., whose portrait-statues give us the clue to the origin of the " frontal " style of the Constantinian period.7 (c) Painting and Mosaic. — The arts whose proper medium is colour enjoyed a popularity with the ancients and with the Romans, no less than with the Greeks, at least as great as that of sculpture; we need go no further for evidence of this than the statement of Pliny8 that Julius Caesar paid eighty talents (£20,000) for the " Ajax and Medea " of Timomachus of Byzantium, which he placed in his newly built forum. But we are in a difficult position when we try 2 Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. 10. 3 See Mr Wace's article in Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. pp. 270 ff. 4 His view is accepted by Mrs Strong (Roman Sculpture, p. 99). 6 " Tropaeum Trajani " (Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften, xxii., pp. 88 ff.). 6 Hettner, Illustrierter Fiihrer durch das National Museum zu Trier (1903), pp. 2 ff. ' Some fine examples are in the Jacobsen collection ; see Arndt- Bruckmann, Griechische und romiscne Portraits, pis. 59, 60. 8 H.N. xxxv. 136. ROMAN ART PLATE IV. By permission oftlte British School of Rome. FIG. 20.— PRESENTATION OF CARACALLA TO THE SENATE. Photo, Afoscioni. FIG. 21.— BASE OF COLUMN OF ANTONINUS. Photo, Mosciani. FIG. 22.— BASE OF COLUMN OF ANTONINUS. By permission of the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction. FIG. 23.— MELEE OF ROMANS AND ORIENTALS, FROM A SARCOPHAGUS. Photo, Anderson. FIG. 24.— DETAIL OF THE COLUMN OF ANTONINUS. PLATE V. ROMAN ART From Richter & Taylor's Golden Ay of Classic Christian A rl, by permission of the authors and Duckworth & Co. FIG. 25.— MOSAIC, SHOWING CLOUD AND SKY EFFECTS. Photo , Sansaini. FIG. 26.— FRESCO: ODYSSEUS AMONG THE SHADES. Pholo, Brogl. FIG. 27.— FRESCO FROM POMPEII: EVENING BENEDICTION IN FRONT OF THE TEMPLE OF ISIS. Photo, Anderson. FIG. 28.— FRESCO: THE MARRIAGE OF ALDOBRANDINI ROMAN ART 481 to estimate the artistic value of the masterpieces of ancient painting, since time has destroyed the originals, and it is but rarely that . we can even recover the outlines of a famous composition from decorative reproductions. For the history of Greek painting we have in Pliny's Natural History a fairly full literary record; but this fails us when we come to Roman times, nor do original works, worthy to be ranked with the monuments of Roman historical sculpture, supply the want. Painting in Italy was throughout its early history dependent on Greek models, and reflected the phases through which the art passed in Greece. Thus the frescoes which adorn the walls of Etruscan chamber-tombs show an unmistakable analogy with Attic vase-paintings. The neutral background, the use of conventional flesh-tones, and the predominant interest shown by the artists in line as opposed to colour, clearly point to the source of their inspiration; and the fine sarcophagus at Florence1 depicting a combat between Greeks and Amazons, in which we first trace the use of naturalistic flesh-tints, though it bears an Etruscan inscription, can hardly have been the handiwork of native artists. Roman tradition tells of early wall-paintings at Ardea and Lanuvium, which existed " before the foundation of Rome";2 of these the Etruscan frescoes mentioned above may serve to give some impression. We also hear of Fabius Pictor, who earned his cognomen by decorating the temple of Salus on the Quirinal (302 B.C.); and a few more names are preserved by Pliny on account of the trivial anecdotes which attached to them. The chief works of specifically Roman painting in Republican times (other than the frescoes which adorned the walls of temples) were those exhibited by successful generals on the occasion of a triumph; thus we hear that in 263 B.C. M. Valerius Messalla was the first to display in the Curia Hostilia such a battle-piece, representing his victory over Hiero II. of Syracuse and the Carthaginians.3 We may perhaps form some idea of these paintings from the fragment of a fresco discovered in a sepulchral vault on the Esquiline in i88g,4 which appears to date from the 3rd century B.C4. This painting represents scenes from a war between the Romans and an enemy who may almost certainly (from their equipment) be identified as Samnites; the names of the commanders are indicated, and amongst them is a Q. Fabius, probably Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, who played a part in the third Samnite War. The scenes are superposed in tiers; the background is neutral, the colour- scale simple, and there is but little attempt at perspective; but we note the files of superposed heads in the representation of an army, which are found at a later date in Trajanic sculpture. We pass from this isolated example of early Roman painting to the decorative frescoes of Rome, Herculaneum and Pompeii, which introduce us to the new world conquered by Hellenistic artists. The scheme of colour is no longer conventional, but natural flesh- tints and local colour are employed; the " artist understands," as Wickhoff puts it, how to " concentrate the picture in space " instead of isolating the figures on a neutral background; he struggles (not always successfully) with the difficult problems of linear and aerial perspective, and contrives in many instances to give " atmosphere " to his scene; the modelling of his figures is often excellent; finally, he can, when need requires, produce an effective sketch by compendious methods. It must be premised that this style of wall-decora- tion was a new thing in the Augustan period. In the Hellenistic age the walls of palaces were veneered with slabs of many- coloured marble (crustae); and in humbler dwellings these were imitated in fresco. This " incrustation " style is found in a few houses at Pompeii, such as the Casa di Sallustio, built in the 2nd century B.C.; but before the fall of the Republic it had given place to what is known as the " architectural " style. In this the painter is no longer content to reproduce in stucco 1 Journal of Hell. Stud. iv. (1883), pis. xxxvi.-xxxviii. 2 Pliny, H.N. xxxv. 18. ' Ibid. xxxv. 22. * Bullettino Comunale (1889), pis. xi. xii. xxin. 16 the marble decoration of more sumptuous rooms; by intro- ducing columns and other architectural elements he endeavours to give the illusion of outer space, and this is heightened by the landscapes, peopled, it may be, with figures, which form the background. We shall take as an example of such decoration one of the " Odyssey landscapes " discovered on the Esquiline in 1849; these may be amongst the more recent works of this school, but can scarcely, from the character of their surroundings, be later than the reign of Claudius. Amongst the remains of a large private house was a room whose walls were decorated in their upper portion with painted pilasters treated in perspective, through which the spectator appears to look out on a continuous background of land and sea, which is diversified by scenes from the voyage of Odysseus. It is clearly to such works as these that Vitruvius refers in a well-known passage (vii. 5) where, in describing the wall-paintings of his time, he speaks of a class of " paintings on a large scale which represent images of the gods or unfold mythical tales in due order, as well as the battles of Troy or the wanderings of Odysseus through landscapes (topia)." And it is* worthy of note that in a chamber discovered in the 1 8th century below the Flavian state-rooms on the Palatine (see ROME) the tale of Troy seems to have been represented in a very similar manner; drawings of the panel on which the landing of Helen is depicted have been preserved. Of the eight scenes from the Odyssey found on the Esquiline three represent the ad venture- in the country of the Laestrygones; the third forms a transition from this subject to the visit of Odysseus to Circe, which occupies the fourth and fifth panels;' the' two last depict Odysseus among the shades. The second of these, which is here reproduced (Plate V. fig. 26), is only half as wide as the others, and was probably next to a door or window. It is, however, typical in style and treatment. The artist is mainly interested in the landscape, which is sketched with great freedom and br.eadth of treatment. He has clearly no scientific know- ledge of perspective, and commits the natural error of placing the horizon too high. His figures are identified by Greek inscriptions, and we see that artistic considerations weigh more highly with him than close adherence to his poetical text; for the group of the Danaids in the foreground has no counterpart in the Homeric description. The conventional distinction of flesh-tints between the sexes is to be observed. The use of landscape in decoration is expressly stated by Pliny (H.N. xxxv. 1 16) to have become fashionable in Rome in the time of Augustus. He attributes this to a painter named Studius, who decorated walls with " villas, harbours, landscape gardens, groves, woods, hills, fish-ponds, canals, rivers, shores," and so forth, diversified with figures of " persons on foot or in boats, approaching the villas by land on donkeys or in carriages, as well as fishers and fowlers, hunters and even vintagers." Vitruvius, too, in the passage above quoted, speaks of " harbours, capes, shores, springs, straits, temples, groves, mountains, cattle and herdsmen "; and existing paintings fully confirm the statements of ancient writers. In the Villa of Livia at Prima Porta the walls of a room are painted in imitation of a park; from the Villa of Fannius Synistor at Bosco Reale we have a variety of landscapes and perspectives; and in the house dis- covered in the grounds of the Villa Farnesina by the Tiber we find a room decorated with black panels, upon which landscapes exactly conforming to Pliny's description are sketched in with brush-strokes of white. While we have no reason to dispute the accuracy of Pliny's statement, or to refuse credit to the Roman artist for the development of landscape decoration, it is to be noted that the summary methods of impressionist technique which are here employed are probably traceable to Alexandrian influence. Petronius, who puts into the mouth of one of his characters a lament over the decline of art, attributes the de- cadence of painting to the " audacity of the Egyptians " and their discovery of " a short cut to high art " (tarn magnae artis compendiaria). This has been thought to mean no more than the process of fresco-painting, which led to the substitution of 1 The latter of these is so badly preserved that the subject cannot be precisely identified. 482 ROMAN ART mere wall-decoration for elaborate easel-paintings; but this was no new invention. It has been pointed out by Mrs Strong1 that amongst the wall-paintings of Pompeii we can distinguish a group executed in bold dashes of colour — especially white — according to the principles of modern impressionism. The most striking example of this betrays its source of inspiration by its subject — the ceremony of the evening benediction in front of the temple of Isis (Plate V. fig. 27). So far the paintings which we have considered can only be regarded as an extremely ingenious and, in the main, tasteful form of wall-decoration; they tell us little of that which we most wish to know— the style and treatment of substantive works of painting. The gap is in some measure filled by the central panels of Pompeian walls, which are usually adorned with subject-paintings, often mythological in subject, clearly marked off from the rest of the wall and intended to take the place of pictures. In the Architectural style these are usually framed in a species of pavilion or aedicula, painted in per- spective;2 but this motive gradually loses its importance. In the Third style ("ornate") distinguished by -Mau the architectural design ceases to be intelligible as the counterfeit of real construction, and becomes a purely conventional scheme of decoration; and in the Fourth or Intricate style, which again reverts to true architectural forms, however fantastic and bewildering in their complexity, the figure-subjects are plainly conceived as pictures and framed with a simple band of colour. The subjects of these frescoes are for the most part taken from Greek mythology, and it has been argued that in the main we have to deal with reproductions of Hellenistic paintings rather than of contemporary works of art. It is not to be denied that the motives of famous compositions of earlier date may have found their way into the repertory of the Pompeian artists; it is not unnatural, for example, to conjecture that the figure of Medea here reproduced (Plate VI. fig. 30) may have been inspired by the celebrated painting of Timomachus above-mentioned. But there are reasons for thinking that the debt owed by the Pompeian artists to the Greek schools of the Hellenistic age is not so direct as was believed by Helbig, whose Untersuchungen ilber die kampan- ische W andmalerei won a general acceptance for the theory. It seems clear that in the central subjects of walls decorated in the Architectural style we are intended to see, not a picture in the strict sense, but a view of the outside landscape, gener- ally with a small shrine or cult-statue as the centre of the piece; and the importance of the figure-subject was therefore at first subordinate. These subjects are, it is true, taken from Greek mythology, but this only proves that that source of inspiration was as freely drawn upon in the art as in the litera- ture of imperial Rome. In the later styles figure-subjects without landscape are extremely common, but it has been shown that, e.g. in the triclinium of the Casa dei Vettii, which is decorated with a cycle of mythological paintings, the lighting is carefully calculated with a view to illusionistic effect under the local conditions, so that the conception of an outlook into external space is not given up. We sometimes, as in one of the rooms in the " Farnesina " house, find framed pictures directly imitated, and here the models were clearly of a re- latively early period; but this is exceptional. The Pompeian paintings, therefore, may fairly be used as evidence for the methods and aims of art in imperial Rome; and when allowance is made for their decorative character and hasty execution, we must admit that they give token of considerable technical skill — the modelling of figures is often excellent, the colour- scale rich, the " values " nicely calculated. The composition of subject-pictures is somewhat theatrical.. Amongst the wall- paintings which have been preserved are some which from their classicistic style have been thought to represent Greek originals; the most famous is the " Aldobrandini Marriage " (Plate V. fig. 28), now in the Vatican library. As a matter 1 The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art, p. 238. 2 The most striking example is that from the " House of Livia " on the Palatine. of fact, the composition is formed by the juxtaposition of sculpturesque types, after a fashion familiar to Roman wall- painters. Mention may here be made of the combination of ornamental work in plaster with painting which is found at Pompeii, in the work of the Flavian period at Rome, and in tombs of the 2nd century A.D. In the Augustan period we find exquisitely modelled relief-work in plaster, used to ornament vaulted surfaces in the " Farnesina " house; it might seem natural to treat of these under the heading of Sculpture, but in point of fact they are translations from painting into stucco. At a later time both painter and modeller worked in conjunction, with admirable effect; the results are best seen in the tombs on the Latin Way. Little can be said as to Roman portrait-painting. We know that in this branch of art the technique generally used was that called " encaustic." The colours were mixed with liquefied wax and fixed by heat; whether they were applied in a molten state or not has been disputed, but it seems more likely that the pigments were laid on cold, and a hot instrument used afterwards. Several examples of such wax-paintings have been found in Egypt, where it was the custom during the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D. to substitute panel portraits for the plastic masks with which mummy-cases were adorned; but these cannot be described as works of high art, though they sometimes have realistic merit. A good example in the Berlin Museum (Antike Denkmaler, ii. pi. 13) is executed in tempera on primed canvas. The medium used in ancient as in medieval tempera painting appears from the statements of ancient writers to have been yolk of egg mixed with fig-sap or natural gums. To the little we know of purely Roman painting something is added by that which we learn from the remains of the sister art of mosaic, which, being less easily destroyed, have survived in large numbers to the present day. It has been estimated by Gauckler that considerably more than 2000 mosaics with figure-subjects have been discovered; and the number is steadily increasing. For the origin of the art reference may be made to the article MOSAIC, where the reader will also find an explanation of the essential differences of principle between the arts of painting and mosaic. It is to the credit of the Roman artists that they were, generally speaking, alive to this distinction of method, and did not seek to produce the impres- sion of painting executed with a liquid medium by the use of solid materials. Indeed, it seems not improbable that in this respect they had a truer conception of the function of mosaic decoration than their Greek forerunners. Amongst the mosaics of Roman date which employ a large number of exceedingly minute cubes in order to produce an illusion akin to that of painting, the most conspicuous examples are the pavement in the Lateran Museum signed by the Greek Heraclitus, which appears to reproduce the " unswept hall " of Sosos of Per- gamum (see MOSAIC), and the Mosaic of the Doves from Hadrian's Villa, preserved in the Capitoline Museum, which may be supposed to have been inspired by the "drinking dove" of the same artist. The former of these contains about 1 20, the latter as many as 160 cubes to the square inch. As shown in the article MOSAIC, a distinction must be drawn between opus tessellatum, consisting of cubes regularly disposed in geometrical patterns, and opus vermiculalum, in which a picture is produced by means of cubes irregularly placed. The two methods were commonly used in conjunction by the Romans, who recognized that a pavement should emphasize the form of the room to which it belonged by means of a geometrical border, while figure-subjects should be reserved for the central space. A good example is furnished by a mosaic pavement discovered on the Aventine^in 1858, and preserved in the Museo delle Terme (Plate VI. fig. 29). Enclosed within a geometrical framework of guilloches and scroll-work, diversified with still- life subjects and scenic masks which break its monotony, we find a landscape evidently taken from the banks of the Nile, as the hippopotamus and crocodile, as well as the papyrus and lotus, clearly show. These Egyptian scenes are likewise found ROMAN ART 483 at Pompeii, and the celebrated pavement at Palestrina, with a bird's-eye view of the Nile and its surroundings, is the finest, as well as the latest, example of the class. The conclusion to be drawn is that the Roman mosaic-workers of the early Empire owed much to Alexandrian models. Their finer works, how- ever, were restricted in size, and formed small pictures isolated in geometrical pavements. Such mosaic-pictures were called emblemala, and were often transported from the great centres of production to distant provinces, where pavements were prepared for their reception. The subjects of these emblemata, like those of the wall-paintings of Pompeii, were, for the most part, taken from Greek mythology, and it is not easy to deter- mine what degree of originality is to be assigned to Roman artists. We note a certain interest in the great figures of literature and philosophy. A subject of which two somewhat different versions have been preserved, commonly known as " The Academy of Plato," shows us a group of Greek philosophers engaged in discussion. In provincial pavements it is not un- common to find portraits of poets or philosophers used to fill ornamental schemes of decoration, as in the famous mosaic at Trier signed by Monnus. And it is possible to trace the growth of interest in Roman literature at the expense of that of Greece. Fig. 31 (Plate VI.) shows a mosaic discovered in the tablinum of a villa at Sousse (Susa) in Tunis (the ancient Hadrumetum). It represents the poet Virgil seated, with a scroll on his knee, upon which is written Aen. i. 8; beside him stand the muses of tragedy and history. In one of the side-wings (alae) of the atrium was a mosaic representing the parting of Aeneas from Dido, and this was no doubt balanced by another scene from the Aeneid. It has also been shown that the mythological scenes depicted by the mosaic-workers of the later imperial period are frequently inspired, not by Greek poetry or even Greek artistic tradition, but by the works of Ovid; and the popularity of the legend of Cupid and Psyche is doubtless to be traced to its literary treatment by Apuleius. The mosaic shown in fig. 31 is notable for the simplicity of its composition; and it may be laid down as a general rule that the later workers in this field preferred such subjects, consisting of few figures on a neutral background, which lend themselves to broad treatment, and are best suited to the genius of mosaic. The finer pavements discovered in the villas of the landed proprietors of the African provinces, Gaul, and even Britain, are distinguished by the excellent taste with which ornament and subject are adapted to the space at the disposal of the artist. Beside a well-chosen repertory of geometrical patterns, the mosaic-workers make use of vegetable motives taken from the vine, the olive, the acanthus or the ivy, as well as conventional figures, such as the seasons,1 the winds, the months and alle- gorical figures of all kinds, forming elements in a scheme of decoration which, though often of great richness, is never lack- ing in symmetry and sobriety. It is much to be regretted that the destruction, partial or complete, of the great thermae and palaces of the early Empire has deprived us of the means of passing judgment on the opus musivum proper (see MOSAIC), i.e. the decoration of vaults and wall-surfaces with mosaics in glass, enamel or precious materials. Effective as are the pavements constructed with tesserae of marble or coloured stone, they must have been eclipsed by the brilliant hues of the wall-mosaics. We can form but little idea of these from the decoration of fountains at Pompeii and elsewhere, and must depend chiefly on the compositions which adorn the walls and apses of early Christian basilicas. An attempt has, indeed, been made to prove that one of these — the church of S. Maria Maggiore — is nothing else than a private basilica once belonging to a Roman palace, and that its mosaics date from the period of Septimius Severus;2 but it is impossible to accept this theory. The earliest monu- ment of the class which we are now considering is the baptistery of S. Costanza at Rome, built by Constantine in the early years 1 At least fifty examples of these have been found. 2 See Richter and Taylor, The Golden Age of Classic Christian Art (1904). of the 4th century A.D. Unfortunately the mosaics of the cupola were destroyed in the i6th century, and we derive our knowledge of them from drawings made by Francesco d'Olanda. The tambour was decorated with a maritime landscape diversi- fied with islands and filled with a crowd of pulti fishing; and the cupola itself was divided into twelve compartments, con- taining figure-subjects, by acanthus motives and caryatids. The mosaics of the annular vault which surrounds the baptistery are extant, though much restored, and purely pagan in design, showing that the decorative schemes (Eros and Psyche, vine- patterns, medallions, &c.), commonly found in pavements were also used by the musivarii. The mosaic-panels of the nave of S. Maria Maggiore already mentioned are (in the absence of earlier examples) very instructive as to the artistic quality of Roman opus musivum. Richter and Taylor's publication of some of the unrestored portions, which unfortunately form but a small fraction of the whole, serve to show that the musi- varii had an accurate conception of the true function of mosaic destined to be seen at a distance. Their effects are produced by a bold use of simple means; a few large cubes of irregular shape serve to give just the broad impression of a human face or figure which suits the monumental surroundings and subdued light. Very remarkable is the success with which the atmo- spheric backgrounds are treated. To seek delicate gradations of tint by elaborate means would be waste of labour for the mosaic-worker, but the artists of S. Maria Maggiore are able to produce sky and cloud effects (cf. Plate V. fig. 25) of great beauty, when seen from the floor of the church, with the aid of broad masses of colour. Their gamut of tones is of the richest; and it is to be remarked that no gold is used except in the restored parts. Doubtless gold was employed in decorative wall-mosaics before the Consfantinian period; but the Roman musivarius knew the secret of making a true mosaic picture with natural tints alone. (4) Work in Precious Metals. — In the article PLATE the history of this branch of art in ancient times is treated, and it is there shown that it continued to be a living art, capable of producing works of the highest merit, in Roman times. The sections of Pliny's Natural History (xxxiii. 154 sqq.) which treat of caelatura deal Only with the works of Greek artists, and Pliny ends with the statement that, as silver-chasing was in his time a lost art, specimens of embossed plate were valued according to their antiquity; but the extant remains of Roman plate suffice to disprove his statement, and hi a previous passage (xxxiii. 139) he names the principal ateliers where such works were produced. The famous treasure of Bosco Reale (see PLATE) comprises specimens of silver-work belonging to various dates, ^many of which bear the inscription " Maximae "; this doubtless gives the name of the owner of the objects, whose skeleton was found near the treasure. But some of them had passed through other hands; for example, four " salt-cellars," probably of pre-Roman date, are also inscribed with the name of " Pam- philus, the freedman of Caesar." Certain pieces, too, seem older and more worn than others; two ewers, decorated with Victories sacrificing to Athena, are probably of Alexandrian origin — the lotus-flower on their handles most probably points to their Egyptian provenance. On the other hand, the various decorative styles characteristic of Augustan art are well repre- sented,— not merely the elaborate and conventional plant - systems of the Ara Pacis Augustae, teeming with animal life, which adorn two splendid canthari, but also the naturalistic treatment of vegetable forms, of which a cup decorated with sprays of olive furnishes a good example (Plate VII. fig. 32). But the most important pieces in the collection are those which show the silversmith at work on specifically Roman subjects. Amongst the cups with emblemata (for the meaning of the term see PLATE) were two which originally contained small portrait- busts of the master and mistress of the house to which the collection belonged. One of these became detached, and is now in the British Museum; the other is in the Louvre in its original setting. The lady's coiffure resembles that of the empresses of the later Julio-Claudian period; but this is not 484 ROMAN ART conclusive as to date, and the style of the male portrait (which recalls the realistic bronze busts found at Pompeii) points rather to an early Flavian date. Amongst the finest pieces of this collection is a large bowl with an emblema in high relief (Plate VII. fig. 35), which was at first taken to represent the city of Alexandria, on account of the sistrum which appears amongst the attributes of the figure. It seems, however, to be a per- sonification of the province of Africa, which was conventionally represented with a headdress formed by an elephant's scalp with trunk and tusks. We have in this emblema the earliest example of the ideal types which the Roman artists of the Empire called into being to symbolize the subject-countries; the inexhaustible fertility of the African soil is indicated by the cornucopiae and the fruits carried in the bosom of the figure. But there is some trace of that overcharging of sym- bolism to which we drew attention in discussing the Prima Porta statue of Augustus; and, though the bowl was in a very fine state of preservation, there is little doubt that this was due to the care with which it had been kept — it was of course an ornament reserved for the table or sideboard — and that we should date it to the Augustan period. The same is clearly true of the most important pieces comprised in the treasure — the pair of cups reserved by Baron Edmond de Rothschild and forming part of his collection (Plate VII. figs. 33 and 34). In these we have examples of the crustae, or plaques decorated in repousse, which were mounted on smooth silver cups. The manufacture of these — or at least the designing thereof — was a special branch of caelatura, and Pliny mentions an artist named Teucer who achieved distinction therein; we may possibly identify him with the gem-engraver whose signature is read on an amethyst at Florence. Upon one of these (Plate VII. fig. 34), we see a seated figure of Augustus, approached by a processional group on both sides. To the left are three divinities, the foremost of whom presents a statuette of Victory to the emperor; to the right is Mars in full panoply, in whose train follow the conquered provinces, symbolized by female figures, amongst whom we recognize Africa with her elephant headgear (see above). On the other face of the cup we see Augustus again seated, receiving the homage of a group of barbarians ushered into his presence by a Roman commander. The schemes which are here found for the first time, became typical in Roman historical art, and thence passed into the service of Christianity to portray the homage of the Magi. The second cup celebrates the glories of Tiberius, whose triumphal procession appears on the one face, and a finely conceived scene of sacrifice on the other. For the occasion various dates have been suggested (13-12 or 8-7 B.C.); but it seems most likely that the return of Tiberius from Dalmatia in A.D. 9 is here commemorated. The fortunate preservation of the Bosco Reale treasure has enabled us to appraise Roman silverwork at its true value. It also affords some confirmation of the rapid decadence of the art, which Pliny laments. Amongst the cups are two decorated with still-life subjects and signed by an artist who writes a Roman name (Sabinus) in Greek characters, which clearly belong to the last years of Pompeii, and are coarser in execution than the earlier pieces. And the simple emblemata of the classical period, which stand out against the background of the bowl in which they are framed, give place to such a crowded group as we find on a gold patera1 found at Rennes and preserved in the Cabinet des Medailles, where the artist has surrounded the central emblema with a frieze which detracts from its effect. This and still later specimens of Roman silversmiths' work are described in the article PLATE. (5) Gem-Engraving and Minor Arts. — The art of the gem- engraver, like that of the silversmith, was naturally held in high esteem by the wealthy Romans both of the Republic and 1 Works of pure gold have but rarely survived to modern times ; but -traces of gilding remain upon many of the specimens of plate described above. In the law-books we have mention of cups adorned with golden crustae. Empire;2 and the period of its highest excellence coincides almost precisely with that which gave birth to the masterpieces of Roman silver-chasing. By far the greater part of the ancient gems which exist in modern collections belong to the Roman period; and the great popularity of gem-engraving amongst the Romans is shown by the enormous number of imitative works cast in coloured glass paste, which reproduce the subjects represented in more precious materials. Not only were intagli thus produced to suit the popular demand, but fine cameos were at times cut (not cast) in coloured glass; the most notable example of these is a portrait of Tiberius in turquoise-coloured glass bearing the signature of Herophilus (see below). In the style of Roman intagli we can trace each of the phases through which Roman plastic art has been shown to pass.3 A black agate in the Hague Museum (Furtwangler, pi. xlvii. 13) supplies a characteristic portrait of the Cicer- onian age; the splendid cornelian of the Tyszkiewicz collection (Furtwangler, pi. 1. 19) with the signature HOIIIA • AABAN • which portrays Augustus in the guise of Poseidon in a chariot drawn by four hippocamps, is doubtless (as Furtwangler showed) to be referred to the victory of Actium; the classicism of the early Empire is exemplified by a sardonyx in Florence (Furt- wangler, pi. lix. n), which probably displays an empress of the Julio-Claudian line with the attributes of Hera; a sardonyx in the hermitage at St Petersburg (Furtwangler, pi. Iviii. i) is noteworthy because the subject is borrowed from painting and occurs on a Pompeian fresco discovered in 1897; the portraiture of the Flavian epoch is seen at its best in the aquamarine of the Cabinet des Medailles signed by Euhodos, which represents Julia, the daughter of Titus (Furt- wangler, pi. xlviii. 8). Amongst later gems one of the finest is the "Hunt of Commodus " in the Cabinet des Medailles (Furt- wangler, pi. 1. 41), which is engraved in one of the stones most popular with the Roman artists — the " Nicolo," a sardonyx with a bluish-grey upper layer used as background and a dark brown under layer in which the design is cut. But the masterpieces of Roman gem-cutting are to be found in the great cameos, the finest of which no doubt belonged to the treasures of the imperial house. These were engraved in various materials, including single coloured stones such as amethyst or chalcedony; but the stone most fitted by nature for this branch of art was the sardonyx in its two chief varieties — the Indian, distinguished by the warmth and lustre of its tones, and the Arabian, with a more subdued scale of colour. As examples of these we shall take the two master-works of the art — the " Grand camee de France " (Plate VII. fig. 37), and the " Gemma Augustea " (Plate VII. fig. 36), preserved in the imperial collection at Vienna. The latter is attributed by Furtwangler to Dioscorides, the artist who, as Pliny tells us, enjoyed the exclusive privilege of portraying the features of Augustus. We possess several gems inscribed with his name, as well as with those of his sons and pupils — Eutyches, Hero- philus (see above) and Hyllos; and, though several of these are Renaissance forgeries, enough genuine material exists for an appreciation of his style. The Arabian sardonyx was amongst his favourite stones, and the Vienna cameo at least represents the work of his school. Blending the real with the ideal, the artist has represented in the upper zone Augustus and Rome enthroned. Behind them is a group of divine figures — the inhabited Earth, Time and Tellus, according to the most probable interpretation; to the left we see Tiberius descending from a chariot driven by Victory, before which stands a youth, probably Germanicus. We seem to have here, as in the Bosco Reale cup, a scene from the triumphal 2 We first hear of" collections of gems in the last century of the Republic. Pompey dedicated that which had belonged to Mith- ridates the Great on the Capitol; Julius Caesar placed six collec- tions in the temple of Venus Genitrix; and Marcellus dedicated another in the temple of Apollo on the Palatine. 3 The references given in the text are to Furtwangler' s great work, Die antiken Gemmen, in which all ancient gems of any con- siderable importance are reproduced. ROMAN ART PLATE VL AlOOOOOOOO By permission of the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction. FIG. 29— MOSAIC PAVEMENT (MUSEO DELLE TERME). Photo, Brogi. FIG. 30.— MEDEA. XXIII. 484. From Plot's Monuments, by permission of Ernest Leroux. FIG. 31.— THE VIRGIL MOSAIC. PLATE VII. ROMAN ART FIG. 32.— CUP DECORATED WITH SPRAYS OF OLIVE. FIG. 33-— CUP IN THE BARON ROTHSCHILD COLLECTION. FIG. 34.— CUP IN THE BARON ROTHSCHILD COLLECTION. EMBLEM A, IN HIGH RELIEF, PERSONIFICATION OF THE PROVINCE OF AFRICA. FIG. 35— SILVER BOWL (LOUVRE) FIG. 36— THE "GEMMA AUGUSTEA FIG. 37.— THE "GRAND CAMEE DE FRANCE." From Furtwangler, Die Antiten Cemmen, by permission of Gieselte and Devrient. ROMAN ART 485 procession of A.D. 12, in the course of which, as Suetonius tells us, Tiberius stepped down from his car and did homage to his stepfather. In the lower zone we find loosely composed groups of captives and Roman soldiers, some of whom are setting up a trophy. But the supreme triumph of imperial jewelry is attained in the Great Cameo of the Bibliotheque Nationale. This is an Indian sardonyx cut in five layers, the largest extant example of its class. There is a marked advance on the Vienna cameo in composition; the lower zone is reduced to the proportions of an exergue, whilst heaven and earth are kept clearly apart in the main subject, yet at the same time united in a single picture. In the centre are the living members of the Julio-Claudian house — Tiberius and Livia enthroned, together with Germanicus, his mother, and the rising generation — while above them hovers the deified Augustus, together with other deceased members of the family and an ideal figure in Phrygian garb bearing a globe, probably lulus (Ascanius), or even Aeneas himself. The moment depicted is the departure of Germanicus for the East in A.D. 17, and amongst the figures of the central group we note the muse of history, bearing a scroll upon which to record the hero's deeds, and a personification of Armenia. Engraved gems are not the only examples of Roman work in precious materials. Amongst the portraits of the first dynasty none is finer than a small head of Agrippina the younger (recently acquired by the British Museum) in plasma (root-of- emerald), a material much used by Roman gem-cutters. Vases, again, were carved in precious stones, such as the famous onyx vase at Brunswick (Furtwangler, Die antiken Gemmen, figs. 185-88), adorned with reliefs relating to the mysteries of Eleusis. A smaller, but finer, onyx vase in the Berlin Museum (Furtwangler, op. cit., figs. 183, 184) represents the infancy of a prince of the Julian line — a rock surmounted by a small temple recalls the sculptures of the Ara Pacis, and the work seems to be of Augustan date. It was mentioned above that coloured glass was used as a substitute for gems, and it is to the school which produced the cameos of the early Empire that we owe the exquisite vases in white and blue glass j of which the Portland vase is the most famous example.1 Pompeii furnishes a second in the amphora, decorated with vintage scenes, in the Naples Museum. We must also class amongst the fine arts that of the die- sinker. Not only are the imperial portraits found on coins worthy of a place beside the works of the sculptor, but in the " medallions " of the 2nd century A.D. we find figure- subjects, often recalling those of contemporary reliefs, treated with the utmost delicacy and finish. Of the purely industrial arts it is unnecessary to speak at length. The finds made in Gaul, Germany and Britain have enabled archaeologists to trace their history — particularly that of pottery — in some detail; but the chief importance of these discoveries lies in the fact that they prove the gradual diffusion of artistic talent throughout the provinces. In the last century of the republic a flourishing manufacture of red- glazed pottery was established with its chief centre at Arretium (Arezzo); the signatures of the vases enable us to distinguish a number of workshops owned by Romans who employed Greek or Oriental workmen. The repertory of decorative types used by these humble artists reflects the cross-currents of classicism and naturalism which were contending in the decadence of Hellenistic art; but, if we .cannot set a high substantive value on their works, it is important to note that in the ist century A.D. the Italian fabrics were gradually driven out of the market by those of Gaul, where the industry took root in the Cevennes and the valleys of the Rhone and the Allier; and before long north-eastern Gaul and the Rhineland became centres of production in the various minor 1 The tradition that this was found in the well-known sarcophagus of the early 3rd century now in the Capitoline Museum, formerly supposed to contain the ashes of Severus Alexander, is without foundation. arts,2 which continued to flourish until the .breakdown of the imperial system in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. (6) Summary: the Place of Roman Art in History. — Just as the establishment of the Roman Empire gave a political unity to the ancient world, and the acceptance of Christianity by its rulers assured the triumph of a universal religion, so the growth of a Graeco-Roman nationality, due to the freedom of intercourse between the subjects of the emperors, led to a unity of culture which found expression in the art of the time. Yet no sooner was the fusion of the elements which contributed to the new culture complete than the process of disruption began, which issued in the final separation of the Eastern from the Western Empire. In the first, the oriental factors, which produced a gradual transformation in Graeco-Roman art, definitely triumphed; and the result is seen in Byzantine art. But in the West it was otherwise. The realism native to Italy remained alive in spite of the conventions imposed upon it; the human interest asserted itself against the decora- tive. The Christian art of the West, therefore, is the true heir of the Roman, and, through the Roman, of the classical tradition. The mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore, already referred to, show how strongly this tradition was at work in the ist century of the Christian Empire; and monuments of the 5th century A.D., such as the consular diptychs of ivory and the carved doors of S. Sabina at Rome, tell the same tale. As we have seen, Roman art in its specific quality was an historical art; and it was for this reason eminently fitted for the service of an historical religion. The earliest Christian art whose remains are preserved is that of the catacombs; and this is not only devoid of technical merit, but is also dominated by a single idea, which governs the selection of subjects — that of deliverance from the grave and its terrors, whether this be conveyed by scriptural types or by representa- tions of Paradise and its dwellers.* Not until the church's triumph was complete could she command the services of the highest art and unfold her sacred story on the walls of her basilicas; but, when the time came, the monumental art created by the demands of imperial pride was ready to minister ad majorem gloriam Dei. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. Wickhoff's Roman Art (1900), translated by Mrs Strong from the author's Wiener Genesis, is well illustrated and indispensable to the student. A. Riegl's Spdtromische Kunst- industrie in Osterreich-Ungarn (1901) also repays close study. The views of Strzygowski are expressed in a large number of monographs and essays; the most important are Orient oder Rom (1901), Kleinasien, ein Neuland der Kunstgeschichte (1903), " Mschatta " (Jahrbuch der preussischen Kunstsammlungen, 1904), Der Dom zu Aachen und seine Entstellung (1904), and articles in Byzantinischc Zeitschrift, Byzantinische Denkmdler, and other periodicals. A summary of the debate raised by these writers will be found in the Quarterly Review, January 1906 (Stuart Jones). The controversy carried on by Furtwangler and Studniczka as to the date of the Trophy of Adam-Khssi is instructive. Furtwangler's articles appeared in the Transactions of the Munich Academy for 1903-4, Studniczka's (" Tropaeum Trajani ") in Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellschaft der Wissenschajten, xxii. (1904). Of Roman sculpture Mrs Strong's handbook (Roman Sculpture, 1907), which has a great number of excellent illustrations, gives a general survey. Special branches are treated by E. Courbaud (Le Bas-relief remain a representations historiques, 1899), W. Altmann (Die rSmischen Graba.Ua.re der Kaiserzeit, 1905), A. J. Wace (" The Evolution of Art in Roman Portraiture," Transactions of the British and American Archaeological Society of Rome, 1906). _ There has been much recent discussion of historical monuments in Rome in the Papers of the British School at Rome, the Romische Milteilungen of the German Archaeological Institute, the Jahreshefte of the Austrian Archaeological Institute, and the Neue Jahrbucher fur Philologie. Important publications of single monuments are: O. Benndorf (and others), Das Tropaion von Adamklissi (\&)*>); E. Petersen, Ara Pacis Aueustae (1903; further discoveries since this date are discussed by the author in Jahreshefte des osterretch- ischen arch. Instituts (1906), 298 ff., and Sieveking in the same journal (1907), 175 ff.); C. Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssdule (1896-1900), criticized by E. Petersen, Trojans dakische Krtege 'For bronze- work see Willers in Rheinischti Museum (1907). • This principle is consistently applied by von Sybel, Christliche Antike (Marburg, 1907). 486 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH (1899-1903); E. Ferrero, L'Arc d'Aueuste d Suse (1901); E. Petersen (and others), Die Marcussdule (1896). For Roman portraits J. Bernoulli's Romische Ikonographie (4 vols., 1882-94) gives abundant material but little aesthetic criticism. Many of the finest portraits are included in Arndt- Bruckmann's series of Griechische und romische Portrdts, and Brunn-Bruckmann's Denkmaler griechisch-romischer Skulptur con- tain reproductions of several Roman reliefs. The monuments col- lected by T. Schreiber under the title of Hellenistische Reliefbilder (1894) are largely of Roman date. For Roman painting we have as yet no handbook; W. Helbig's Untersuchungen uber die campanische Wandmalerei (1873) are still of great value, though the theory advanced is overstated. His Campaniens Wandgemdlde (1868) gives a catalogue raisonnk of Pompeian paintings, and has been supplemented by A. Sogliano, Le pitlure murali Campane (1879). Those since discovered are de- scribed in the Notizie degli Scavi. A. Mau's Geschichte der Wand- malerei is also indispensable. Hermann-Bruckmann, Denkmaler der Malerei des Alterthums (1907- ), will give reproductions, partly in colour, of all important specimens of ancient painting. Le Nozze Aldobrandine, &c., by B. Nogara (1907), contains both coloured and photographic reproductions of the paintings preserved in the Vatican library. For the Fayum portraits see G. Ebers, Anlike Portrdts (Leipzig, 1893); F. Petrie, Hawara, ch. vii.; and C. Edgar, Catalogue des antiquites du musee du Caire, " Graeco- Egyptian Coffins, ' p. xi. ff. On the technique of ancient painting Otto Donner von Richter's introduction to Helbig's Campaniens Wandgemdlde should be consulted. P. Girard's sketch of ancient painting (La Peinture antique, n.d.) is slight. For the bibliography of mosaics see that article (especially Gauckler in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiques, s.v. " Musivum Opus"); for work in gold and silver see the article PLATE. For gem-engraving, A. Furtwangler's Die antiken Gemmen (3 vols., 1900) is the standard work. The history of Roman pottery is summarized by H. B. Walters, History of Ancient Pottery, vol. ii. 430 ff. ; the most im- portant works are J . Dechelette, Les Vases ornes de la Gaule romaine (1904), and H. Dragendorff's articles on " Terra sigillata " in the Banner Jahrbiicher. Sections on Roman art will be found in general handbooks, such as Springer- Michaelis, Handbuch der Kunsteeschichte (6th ed., 1904) ; L. von Sybel, Weltgeschichte der Kunst (2nd ed., 1902); and C. Gurlitt, Geschichte der Kunst, vol. i. (1902). (H. S. J.) ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, the name generally given to that great branch of the Christian Church which acknow- ledges the pope, or bishop of Rome, as its head, and holds as an article of faith that communion with and submission to the authority of the see of Rome is essential to effective membership of the Catholic Church as founded by Christ. This belief is based upon the commission given by Christ to Peter as " prince of the apostles," " Feed my sheep " (John xxi. 15-17); the saying, " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven " (Matt. xvi. 18, 19). The authority thus conferred upon St Peter is., held by Roman Catholics to be permanently vested in the bishop of Rome, as successor to Peter, first bishop of the imperial see. As such, the pope is regarded as " vicar of Christ, head of the bishops, and supreme governor of the whole Catholic Church, of whom the whole world is the territory or diocese." His peculiar powers as pope he exercises immediately on election. Thus he may grant indulgences, issue censures, give dispensa- tions, canonize saints, institute bishops, create cardinals — in short, perform all the acts of his jurisdiction, even though he be no more than a layman; but by custom certain of his more solemn acts are postponed till after the ceremony of his coronation, from which his pontificate is officially dated. To exercise the actus ordinis of a priest or bishop, however, he must, if not already in orders, be specially ordained and consecrated. Hence his office is a dignity, not of order, but of jurisdiction (see PAPACY and POPE). The most distinctive characteristic of the Roman Catholic Church, at least as contrasted with the various Protestant communions, is its vigorous insistence on the principle of ecclesiastical authority. Of this authority the pope is regarded as the centre and source, so far as the interpretation of the Divine Will to the world is concerned in matters of faith and morals. His pronouncements are held to be infallible when he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals ex cathedra to be held by the universal church (see INFALLIBILITY and VATICAN COUNCIL). The government of the Roman Catholic Church being centred at Rome, an elaborate organization has been developed there for the administration of its affairs. At the head of this is the college of cardinals, who are the princes and senators of the Church, the counsellors of the pope, and his vicars in the functions of the pontificate. By those of them who are members of the various Congregations and other offices of the Curia the greater part of the government of the Church is directed. (For accounts of the organization of the ^oman Curia the reader is referred to the articles CARDINAL and CURIA ROMANA.) The characteristic note of the Roman Curia is its intense conservatism and its slowness to move, whether in approving or condemning new developments of opinion or action. This is explained by the nature of its organization and by the tradition on which it is based. For, just as the Roman Church as a whole preserves in the spiritual sphere the spirit and much of the organization of the Roman Empire, so the administration of the Curia carries on the tradition of Roman government, with its reverence for precedent and its practice of deciding questions, not on their supposed abstract merits, but in accordance with the rules of law as defined in the codes or by previous decisions. Thus the genius of Rome remains, as it always has been, administrative rather than speculative. The great dogmas of the Christian Church were shaped by the interplay of the subtle wits of the theologians of the Oriental Churches. The new dogmas promulgated by the Holy See from time to time have been the outcome of the slow growth of ages, built up from precedent to precedent, and only defined at last when the accumulated weight of evidence in their favour, or the necessity for precise definition to meet the contradictions of heretics, seemed to demand a decision. This temper and the process in which it finds expression are well illustrated in the case of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (q.ii.) and in the authorization given to the cult of the Sacred Heart (q.v.). This conservative spirit and extreme reverence for authority pervades the whole Roman Catholic Church in exact proportion to the degree of effective control which the see of Rome has succeeded in obtaining over its branches in various countries. To pretend to an independent judgment in questions of faith or morals is for a Roman Catholic to commit treason against his Church; and even in the wide sphere of questions lying beyond the dogmas defined as de fide a too curious discussion is dis- couraged, if not condemned. As opposed to the critical and analytical tendencies of the modern world, then, the Roman Catholic Church assumes the function of the champion of moral and intellectual discipline, an attitude defined, in its extremest expression, by Pius IX. 's Syllabus of 1864 (see SYLLABUS), and the famous encyclical Pascendi of Pius X. in 1907. The de- velopment of this attitude, known — in so far as it depends on the full pretensions of the Papacy- — as Ultramontanism, since the definition of the Roman Catholic Church by the council of Trent in 1564, will be found sketched in the historical section attached to this article. The earlier history, which is that of the Latin Church of the West, will be found in the articles PAPACY, CHURCH HISTORY and REFORMATION. Under the supreme authority of the pope the Roman Catholic Church is governed and served by an elaborate hierarchy. This, so far as its polestales ordinis are concerned, is divided into seven orders: the three " major orders " of bishops and priests, deacons, and subdeacons (bishops and priests forming two degrees of the ordj) sacerdotium), and the four "minor orders " of acolytes, exorcists, readers, and door-keepers. These various orders do not derive their potestas ordinis from the pope, but from God, in virtue of their direct ministerial succession from the apostles.1 So far as jurisdiction is concerned, however, those 1 Thus sacraments administered by validly ordained or conse- crated priests and bishops are regarded as valid, even when those who administer them are heretics or schismatics. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 487 members of the hierarchy known as prelates (praelati), who possess this power (potcstasjurisdictionis inforo externo), whether bishops or priests, derive it from the pope. These jurisdictions are of very varied character, and in most cases are not peculiar to the Roman Catholic Church. They include those of patriarchs, archbishops, metropolitans and bishops in the first rank of the hierarchy, with their subordinate officials, such as archdeacons, archpriests, deans and canons, &c., in the lower ranks. All of these will be found described under their proper headings (see also ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION). The basis of the organization of the Church is territorial, the world being mapped out into dioceses or, in countries where the Roman Church is not well developed — e.g. missions in non- Christian lands — into Apostolic Vicariates. The dioceses are grouped in various ways; some are immediately dependent upon the Holy See; some are grouped in ecclesiastical provinces or metropolitanates, which in their turn are sometimes grouped together to form a patriarchate. According to the official Gerarchia Cattolica, published at Rome, there were in 1909 ten patriarchates, with fourteen patriarchal sees (including those of the Oriental rite, i.e. those Eastern com- munities which, though in communion with Rome, have been al- lowed to retain their peculiar ritual discipline). Of these the four greater patriarchates are those of Alexandria (with two p?triarchs, Latin and Coptic); Anticch (with four, Latin, Graeco-Melchite, Maronite and Syriac) ; Constantinople (Latin) and Jerusalem (Latin). The lesser patriarchates are those of Babylon (Chaldaic), Cilicia (Armenian), the East Indies (Latin), Lisbon (Latin), Venice (Latin) and the West Indies (Latin). (See PATRIARCH.) The archiepiscopal sees number 204. Of these 21 are immedi- ately subject to the Holy See, while those of the Latin rite having ecclesiastical provinces number 164. There are 19 of the Oriental rite : 3 with ecclesiastical provinces, viz. Armenian, Graeco- Rumanian and Graeco-Ruthenian respectively; the rest are subject to the patriarchates, viz. 2 Armenian, 3 Graeco-Melchite, 3 Syriac, 2 Syro- Chaldaic, 6 Syro-Maronite. Of episcopal sees of the Latin rite 6 are suburbican sees of the cardinal bishops, 85 are immediately subject to the Holy See, and 662 are suffragan sees in ecclesiastical provinces. Of those of the Oriental rite one (Graeco-Ruthenian) is immediately subject to the Holy See; 9 are suffragan sees in ecclesiastical provinces, viz. 3 Graeco- Rumanian and 6 Graeco-Ruthenian; the rest are subject to the patriarchates, viz. 15 Armenian, 2 Coptic, 9 Graeco-Melchite, 5 Syriac, 9 Syro-Chaldaic, 2 Syro-Melchite. The whole number of these residential sees, including the patri- archates, is 1023. Besides these there are 610 titular sees, formerly called sees in partibus infidelium, the archbishops and bishops of which are not bound to residence. These titles are generally assigned to bishops appointed to Apostolic Delegations, Vicariates and Prefectures, or to the office of coadjutor, auxiliary or adminis- trator of a diocese. (See ARCHBISHOP and BISHOP.) The dioceses are divided into parishes, variously grouped, the most usual organization being that of deaneries. In the parish the authority of the Church is brought into intimate touch with the daily life of the people. The main duties of the parish priest are to offer the sacrifice of the mass (q.v.), to hear con- fessions, to preach, to baptize and to administer extreme unction to the dying. It is true to say that in the " cure of souls " the confessional plays a larger part in the Church than the pulpit (see CONFESSION and ABSOLUTION). For the official costume of the various orders of clergy see the article VESTMENTS. The clergy of the Roman Catholic Church are furthermore divided into regular and secular. The regular clergy are those attached to religious orders and to certain congregations (see MONASTICISM). Of these the former are outside the normal organization of the Church, being exempt from the ordinary jurisdiction of the diocesan bishops, while the more recently formed congregations are either wholly or largely subject to episcopal authority. By far the most powerful of the religious orders are the Jesuits (q.v.). The secular clergy, on the other hand, are bound by no vows beyond those proper to their orders. Both regular and secular clergy (those at least in major orders) are under the obligation of celibacy, which, by cutting them off from the most intimate common interests of the people, has proved a most powerful disciplinary force in the hands of the popes (see CELIBACY). The more complete isolation of the regular clergy, however, together with their direct relation to the Holy See, has made them, not only the more effective instruments of papal authority, but more ob- noxious to the peoples and governments of countries where they have gained any considerable power. Their privileged position, moreover, leads everywhere to a certain amount of friction between them and the secular clergy. In doctrine the Roman Catholic Church is divided from the orthodox communions of the East mainly by the claims of the papacy, which the Orientals reject, and the question of the " Procession of the Holy Ghost " (see CHURCH HISTORY). From the Protestant communities which were the outcome of the Reformation the divergence is more profound, though the central dogmas of the faith are common to Roman Catholics and orthodox Protestants. The difference lies essentially in the belief held as to the means by which the truths denned in these dogmas are to be made effective for the salvation of the world. It was defined in the canons of the council of Trent, as promulgated by Pope Pius IV. in 1564, in which the main theses of the Reformers as to the character of the Church, the sufficiency of Holy Scriptures, the nature of the sacra- ments, and the like were finally condemned (see TRENT, COUNCIL OF). The Roman Catholic Church is by far the most widespread, numerous and powerful of all the Christian communions. It is the dominant Church in the majority of European states, in South and Central America and in Mexico; it is the largest single religious body in the United States of America, while in certain Protestant countries, e.g. Prussia and the United Kingdom, it has great religious and political influence. Any statistics of its membership, however, must necessarily be misleading. Those published are generally based on the principle of deducting the Protestant from the general popula- tion of " Catholic " countries and ascribing the rest to the Roman Church. This may be possible in Germany and other countries where there is a religious census; but it is, at best, a rough-and-ready method where, as in Italy or France, besides the class of " political " or " non-practising " Catholics, large numbers of the people are more or less actively hostile to Christianity itself. (For Roman Catholic missionary work see MISSIONS.) The Unial or United Oriental Churches. — The overwhelming majority of the adherents of the Roman Catholic Church throughout the world belong to the Latin rite, i.e. follow the usages and traditions of the Western Church.1 Ever since the schism of East and West, however, it has been an ambition of the papacy to submit the Oriental Churches to its jurisdiction, and successive popes have from time to time succeeded in detaching portions of those Churches and bringing them into the obedience of the Holy See. This has only been possible owing to the temper of the Oriental mind which, while clinging tenaciously to its rites, values dogma only in so far as it is expressed in rites. The popes, then, or at least the more politic of them, have been content to lay down as the condition of reunion no more than the acceptance of the distinctive dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church, especially the supremacy and infallibility of the pope; the ritus of the Uniat Oriental Churches — liturgies and liturgical languages, ecclesiastical law and discipline, marriage of priests, beards and costume, the monastic system of St Basil — they have been content for the most part to leave untouched. The attempts of Pius IX., who in 1862 established the Congregatio de propaganda fide pro ncgoliis ritus orientalis, to interfere in a Romanizing sense with the rites of the Armenians and Chaldaeans (by the bulls Reverstirvs of 1867 and Cum Ecclesiastica of i86g) led to a schism; and Leo XIII., who more than all his predecessors interested himself in the question of reunion, reverted to and developed the wiser 1 The Latin word ritus covers not only the ordinary meaning of the modern English word " rite," i.e. " a formal procedure or act in a religious or other solemn function," or any " custom or practice of a formal kind," but the sense in which it is now ob- solete in England — except in the religious connotation here used — of " the general or usual custom, habit or practice of a country, people, class of persons, &c." (New English Diet. s.v.). For the liturgies of the Latin and Oriental Churches see LITURGY. 488 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH principle of not aiming at any assimilation of rites, but only at " the full and perfect union of faith " (Encyclical Praeclara gratulationis of June 1804). This principle has even been carried to the extent of recognizing several bishops having jurisdiction over the adherents of various rites in the same see; thus there are three uniat patriarchs of Antioch (Graeco- Melchite, Maronite and Syrian). Exact statistics of the membership of the Churches of the Oriental rite are almost impossible to obtain; the numbers of their adherents, moreover, are apt to vary suddenly with the shifting currents of political forces in the East, for political factors have always played a considerable part in these move- ments towards reunion or the reverse. In 1908 their numbers were estimated at approximately 5,500,000. The Churches of the Oriental rite fall under four main divisions: Greek, Armenian, Syrian, Coptic; and — with the exception of the Armenian — these are again subdivided according to nationality or to peculiarities of cult or language. The Churches may be further grouped according to the character of their constitu- tion, i.e. (i) those having their own rite only in a restricted sense, since they have no hierarchy of their own but are sub- ordinate to Latin bishops, i.e. the Greeks in Italy (Italograeci) , the scattered Bulgarian Uniats, the Abyssinians, some of the Armenians and the "Christians of St Thomas"; (2) those having their own bishops and sometimes their own metro- politans, as in Austria- Hungary; (3) the Eastern patriarchates. Geographically, the Uniat Churches may be grouped as follows: — (A) EUROPE, where their association with the Roman Church is at once the oldest and the most intimate. (1) The Italograeci. These are distributed in scattered groups throughout Italy, but are most compact in Apulia and Sicily, and number in all some 50,000. They are under the jurisdiction of the Latin diocesan bishops, but their priests are ordained by bishops of their own rite specially appointed by the pope. (2) The Uniat Churches of Austria-Hungary. With the excep- tion of the Armenian, these are all of the Greek rite, but are divided according to nationality and ritual language intothefollowinggroups: — -(a) Ruthenian Church. — This, though still the most important numerically of all the Uniat Churches, is but a fragment of the Church which proclaimed its union with Rome at the synod of Brest in Lithuania in 1596, a union which, after long and bitter resistance, was completed by the submission of the dioceses of Lemberg and Luzk in 1700 and 1702. The Church was broken up by the successive partitions of Poland, and those parts of it which fell to Russia were, notably under Catherine II. and Nicholas I., forcibly absorbed into the Orthodox Church. The Church, however, still numbers some 3,000,000 adherents in Galicia, and 500,000 in Hungary. In Galicia it has an independent organization under the Greek-Catholic archbishop of Lemberg, with two suffragan sees: Przemysl, for West Galicia, and Stanislawov for East Galicia. In Hungary there are two bishoprics, Munkacz and Eperies, under the Latin primate of Hungary, the archbishop of Gran. The Serb bishopric of Kreutz in Croatia, under the Latin archbishop of Agram, may be also grouped with the Ruthenian Church, since the rite is identical. Its adherents number from 15,000 to 20,000. The liturgical language of the Uniat Slav Churches is Old Slavonic, and, so far as their rite is concerned, they differ from the Orthodox Slav Churches only in using the Glagohtic instead of the Cyrillic alphabet. (b) Rumanian Church. — This numbers about 1,000,000 adherents and has its own organization under the metropolitan of Fogairasch or Alba Julia, with 'three suffragan sees: Lugos, Gross- Wardein and Szamos-Uvj ar. It has had its own ritual" language since the I7th century, (c) Armenian Church. — This numbers in Austria-Hungary only some 4000 to 5000 members. It has an archbishopric at Lemberg, which has jurisdiction also over the Uniat Armenians at Venice. (3) Uniat Churches in Russia and Turkey in Europe, (a) In Russia the Uniat Ruthenian Church (see above) ceased to exist with the incorporation of the little Polish diocese of Chlem in the Orthodox Russian Church under Alexander II. in 1875. The Holy See, however, has never withdrawn its claim to jurisdiction over it, nor have the Ruthenians ever been wholly reconciled to their absorption in the Russian Church. The ukaz of Nicholas II. (Easter, 1905), granting liberty of worship, produced a movement in the direction of Rome; but this appears to have been checked by the refusal of the government, even now, to recognize in Russia a Roman Catholic Church of the Greek rite. Converts to Rome have, therefore, to accept the Latin rite (see Prince Max of Saxony, Vorlesungen uber die orientalischen Kirchenfragen, 1907). The scattered communities of the Uniat Armenian Church in Russia are subordinate to Latin vicars apostolic. The Uniat Armenian Church in the Caucasus, however, is under the jurisdiction of the patri- archate of Cilicia. (6) In European Turkey the Uniat Churches are represented by tiny groups, scattered about the Balkan Peninsula, attached to Latin " missions." The movement in favour of the union of the Bulgarian Church with Rome, which grew up in 1860, was the outcome of the national opposition to the Greeks, and with the establishment of the Bulgarian exarchate in 1872 it died away. There are not more than 10,000 to 15,000 Uniat Bulgarians, who have been ruled since 1 88;} by three vicars apos- tolic. The Uniat Armenians and Melchites in Constantinople belong to the Eastern patriarchates. (B) ASIA AND AFRICA. — The Uniat Churches in Asia and Africa occupy a peculiar position in so far as Rome has recognized the traditional rights of the patriarchates (see, e.g., Leo XIII. 's en- cyclical Praeclara gratulationis of June 1894), and they therefore enjoy almost complete autonomy; thus the patriarchs nominate their own suffragans and have the right to summon synods for specific purposes (see PATRIARCH). There are six Uniat Patriarchates : — (1) The Patriarchatus Ciliciae Armenorum. The Armenian patriarch, whose jurisdiction embraces the Catholic Armenians in the Balkan Peninsula, in Russian Armenia and in Asiatic Turkey, formerly resided in Lebanon, but has had his seat since 1867 at Constantinople. Under him are 19 dioceses, including a small one in Persia. The number of Catholic Armenians under his juris- diction is, roughly, 100,000 (see ARMENIAN CHURCH). (2) The three patriarchates of Antioch. (a) The Melchite (Patri- archatus Antiochenus Graeco-Melchitarum). The patriarch resides in the monastery of Ain-Traz in the Lebanon and has jurisdiction over all the Uniats of Greek nationality in the Turkish Empire, who number about 120,000. Under him are 3 archbishops and 9 bishops (see MELCHITES). (b) The Marpnites (Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syro-Maronitarum), whose seat is in the Lebanon. The patri- arch has jurisdiction over about 500,000 people (see MARONITES). (c) The Syrian (Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syrorum). The patriarch, who resides at Mardin near Diarbekr on the upper Tigris, is obeyed by from 15,000 to 20,000 people, who represent a secession from the Jacobite Church (see JACOBITE CHURCH). He has 3 archbishoprics and 5 bishoprics under his jurisdiction. (3) The Chaldaeans (Patriarchatus Chaldaeorum Babylonensis) . The patriarch has jurisdiction over the Uniat Nestorian Church, which numbers, roughly, about 50,000 adherents, and is divided, under the patriarch, into 1 1 dioceses (see NESTORIANS). (4) The Coptic (Patriarchatus Alexandrinus Coptorum). This was founded on the 26th of November 1895 by Pope Leo XIII. The patriarch, who was given two suffragan bishops, has his seat at Cairo. The number of Uniat Copts is nominal. (5) The Uniat Abyssinian Church. This has scaracely any ad- herents. Such as there are are under the authority of a vicar apostolic residing at Keren. (6) The Christians of St Thomas (Malabar coast). For these Leo XIII. established in 1887 three special vicariates apostolic ( Vicariatus apostolici Syro-Malabarorum) ; the vicars apostolic are Latins, but have the right to pontificate and to confirm accord- ing to the Syrian rite. The number of Christians of St Thomas in the obedience of Rome is said to be about 100,000.'- (W. A. P.) The Church in Europe since the Reformation. The term " Romish Catholique " is as old as the days of Queen Elizabeth.2 It is not happily chosen, for catholic means universal, and what is universal cannot be peculiar to Rome. But the term is inoffensive to Roman Catholics, since it advertises their claim that communion with the see of Rome is of the essence of Catholicity, and to Protestants, since it serves to emphasize the fact that the religion of modern Rome differs widely in many important respects from that of the undivided medieval Church. The change has brought both good and evil. Protestant controversialists have some show of reason on their side when they argue that Luther saved the Roman Church by forcing it to put an end to many intolerable abuses. On the other hand, under stress of his revolt the papacy could not but develop in a strongly anti-Protestant direction, laying exaggerated emphasis on every point he challenged. The more fiercely he denounced infallibility, the confessional, the sacramental system, the larger these things bulked in the eyes of Rome. Not that this cqnsequence showed itself at once. The Refor- mation was well established before it attracted any serious 1 This account of the Uniat Churches is largely condensed from the excellent article " Unierte Orientalen," by F. Kattenbusch in Herzog-Hauck Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1908), where numerous authorities are given. 2 It was officially adopted in the Relief Act of 1791 in place of the designation " Protesting Catholic Dissenters," to which the vicars apostolic objected. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 489 notice at Rome. The popes of the Renaissance were profoundly uninterested in theology; they were far more at home in an art gallery, or in fighting to recover their influence as temporal Italian princes, gravely shattered during the long residence of the papal court at Avignon in the I4th century. But these secular interests came to an end with the so-called sack of Rome in 1527, when Charles V. turned his arms against Clement VII., and made the pope a prisoner in his own capital. Thence- forward there was no more thought of territorial aggrandise- ment. The popes, as the phrase went, became Spanish chap- lains, with a fixed territory guaranteed to them by Spanish arms; apart from the addition of Ferrara and one or two other petty principalities on the extinction of the reigning house, its boundaries remained unchanged till Napoleonic times. Under Clement's successor, Paul III., a new state of things began to dawn. Hitherto the way had been blocked by a horde of protonotaries, dataries and other officials — purveyors of in- dulgences, dispensations and such-like spiritual favours — to whom reform spelt ruin. Even the Reformation did not move them; if less money came in from Germany, that was all the more reason for leaving things unchanged in France and Spain. But among Paul's cardinals were three remarkable men, the Italians Contarini and Sadolet, and the Englishman Reginald Pole, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury under Mary. All three were disciples of Erasmus, the great apostle of a new, tolerant, scholarly religion very different from the grimy pedantry of the medieval doctors. It was better, he said, to be weak in Duns Scotus, but strong in St Paul — than to be crammed with all the learning of Durandus, and ignorant of the law of Christ. Men trained in this school were not likely to be tender towards vested interests in darkness, least of all when they stood in the way of a reconciliation with the Protestants: for the cardinals thought that the strength of the Reformation lay much less in the attractiveness of Luther's doctrines than in his vigorous denunciations of the vices of the clergy. Once root out abuses with a firm hand, and they believed that a few timely con- cessions on points of doctrine would tempt most Protestants back within the Roman pale. This belief was shared by The Charles V. Together they persuaded the unwilling Council pope to call a general council. It met in December of Trent, j^ at tj,e Tirolese city of Trent, with Pole as one of the three presidents (see TRENT, COUNCIL OF). As a means of reconciliation the council was a signal failure. The Protestants refused to attend an assembly where even the most conciliatory prelate could hardly condescend to meet them on equal terms. Nor was Pole allowed to use the only possible means of overcoming their reluctance. He had wished to begin by reforming abuses before proceeding to sit in judgment on doctrinal errors. But this arrangement was cried down as a revolutionary departure from all established precedent; and he had much ado to secure the compromise that doctrines and practical reforms should be simultaneously discussed. But in the midst of its labours the council was prorogued (March 1547) in consequence of a quarrel between the pope and emperor. In 1551 it met again, only to be again prorogued in 1552. Ten years later it met again for a third and final session, lasting throughout 1562 and 1563. During those ten years great changes had taken place. Charles V. had followed Pole and his peace-loving colleagues to the grave; in his place stood his son, Philip II. of Spain, while the intel- lectual leadership of the council fell to Jaime Laynez, general of the newly founded Society of Jesus. There was no longer any question of ' reconciliation with the Protestants. North Germany, England, Scandinavia were irretrievably lost to Rome; wars of religion had broken out in France. Clearly the one hope was to enter into a desperate struggle for the possession of such countries as still hung in the balance; and that could best be done by striking at the heart of the Reforma- tion. Protestantism centred — or was by Catholics supposed to centre — in a mysterious "right of private judgment"; the council accordingly retorted by hymning the praises of obedience, of submitting to authority and never thinking for oneself. To waverers it held up an absolutely sure and uniform Rule of Faith, contrasting impressively with the already mul- titudinous variations of the Protestant Churches. Moreover, thanks to Laynez, it accomplished this task without running the obvious danger of tying itself hand and foot to the past. When old-fashioned theologians talked about the canons and .councils of antiquity, Laynez answered that the Church was not more infallible at one time than another; the Holy Ghost spoke through the decrees of Trent quite as plainly and directly as through the primitive Fathers.. Thus the council's authority became at once peremptory and elastic. But the real gainer was the pope. Hitherto infallibility had been thought of as the supreme weapon of the Church's armoury, destined only for use at some extraordinary crisis; hence it was naturally con- ceived of as residing only in the extraordinary authority of a general council presided over by the pope. Since the outbreak of the Reformation, however, extraordinary crises, calling for immediate decision, might arise at any moment. It was no longer possible to wait for the assembling of a general council; stronger and stronger grew the tendency to ascribe infallibility to the pope alone, as being always on the spot. Doctrine and discipline once settled at Trent, the work of counter-reformation could begin. Rebels were won back by force wherever force could be applied. In Spain fbe the Inquisition soon snuffed out the few Reformers. Counter- In Italy, though declared Protestants were few, there Kttormm- was widespread sympathy with some of Luther's a°"' ideas; a committee of cardinals at Rome was accordingly organized into an Inquisition, with branches at the chief Italian towns. For half a century trials were many at Venice and elsewhere, but actual executions were only common at Rome; the most illustrious victim was the philosopher Giordano Biuno, burnt in 1600. In the imperial dominions, however, there could be no recourse to the stake. The peace of Augsburg (1555) forbade the German princes to persecute, though it recognized their right to determine to what religion their subjects should belong, and to banish nonconformists. At first this compro- mise had worked in favour of the Reformation, but presently the Catholic princes began to turn it against their Protestant subjects. " Governments learned to oppress them wisely, depriving them of church and school, of pastor and school- master; and by those nameless arts with which the rich used to coerce the poor in the good old days. Fervent preachers came amongst them, widely differing in morality, education, earnestness and eloquence from the parish clergy, whose de- ficiencies gave such succour to Luther. Most of those who, having no taste for controversy, were repelled by scandals were easily reconciled. Others, who were conscious of dis- agreement with the theology of the last thousand years, had now to meet disputants of a more serious type than the adversaries of Luther, and to meet them unsupported by experts of their own. Therefore it was by honest conviction, as well as by calculated but not illegal coercion, that the Reformation was driven back " (Acton, Lectures on Modern History, p. 123). This system was not an unmixed success; for its extension to Bohemia early in the I7th century brought about the Thirty Years' War. But it obliged the authorities to pay anew atten- tion to the training of the clergy. The " seminary system " came into being— that is, the custom of obliging candidates for ordination to spend several years in a theological college, whence lay influences were carefully excluded. But ecclesi- astical learning of a wider type was also promoted. Gregory XIII. (1572-85) and Sixtus V. (1585-90) dreamed of making Rome once more the capital of European culture. Gregory re- formed the Calendar, and founded the university that bears his name. Five years of power were enough for Sixtus to reform the central government of the Church and the administration of the Papal States, to set on foot the Vatican press and issue an official edition of the Vulgate. Their efforts bore fruit in many quarters. In Rome arose Cardinal Baronius, first of 49° ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH modern Church historians; Spain produced Suarez, most philosophical of divines. A generation later the French Oratory became the home of Malebranche and of Richard Simon, father of Biblical criticism. Mabillon and his Benedictines of Saint- Maur paved the way for the systematic investigation of his- torical records. The Flemish Jesuit Bolland brought the light of criticism to bear on the legends of the saints (see BOL- LANDISTS). His French colleague, Petau, better known under his latinized surname of Petavius, opened still wider floodgates when he taught that theological dogmas, like everything else, have a history. Lastly, the Jansenkt " hermitage " at Port Royal contributed the historian Tillemont, whose bigotry Edward Gibbon declares to be overbalanced by his erudition, veracity and scrupulous minuteness. Other such communi- ties and " congregations " — semi-monastic bodies standing in closer touch with the world than did the medieval orders — undertook the diffusion of knowledge. Wherever they went the Jesuits opened grammar-schools, which had the double advantage of being excellent and cheap. An Italian sisterhood, the Ursulines, was founded for the higher instruction of girls; late in the lyth century a French priest started the Christian Brothers, pioneers of elementary education. Other com- munities again devoted themselves to parochial work. Such were the Oratorians of St Philip Neri, founded to evangelize the middle classes of Rome. Such, again, were the Lazarists of St Vincent de Paul, whose duty was to preach in neglected country districts. But the most interesting of all these new foundations was the Sisters of Charity, also founded by St Vincent de Paul. This admirable body represents a signifi- cant departure from medieval ideals. The old-fashioned nun had spent her time behind high walls in prayerful contempla- tion; the one object of the Sister of Charity was the service of her neighbour. Not that medieval ideals were by any means dead; they never burned more brightly than in the Spain of St Teresa (1515-82). Her first idea had been to combat alike the heresies and the worldliness of her time by a return to the austerities of a more heroic age. With this object she founded her order of " Discalced " or barefooted Carmelites; it presently became the refuge of Louise de la Valliere and many another penitent of rank. But mere bodily rigours were not enough for Teresa; she felt the need of rising to a state of complete detachment from all earthly interests and ties. Her whole theology centres in the lines — " The love of God flows just as much As that of ebbing self subsides; Our hearts, their scantiness is such, Bear not the conflict of these rival tides." How, then, subdue the rivalry? Teresa turned to the mystical writers, and learnt from them how to root out the last relics of self-love from the mind by a long discipline of mystical trance and " contemplation." These ideas, in a very modified form, were introduced into France by the great devotional writer, St Francis of Sales; in the latter half of the i7th century they were pushed to the extravagant length known as Quietism by Fenelon, and especially by -Madame Guyon and Michel de Molinos. Meanwhile, the leading conception from which St Teresa started had developed along characteristically different lines in the mind of her compatriot and contemporary, Ignatius Loyola. He quite agreed that self-will was the enemy; but was there no quicker way of checkmating it than an interminable course of ecstasies and austerities? The thoughts of the converted soldier flew back to the military virtue of obedience. In the long-run no self- imposed hardships could prove quite as disagreeable as always being under the orders of some one else. Obedience accordingly became the typical virtue of Ignatius's society (see JESUITS). The individual Jesuit obeyed his superior, who obeyed the rector, who obeyed the provincial, who obeyed the general, who obeyed the pope, who took his orders straight from God Al- mighty. Such a theory was of untold practical value to the Church of Rome, more especially during the era of the Reforma- The Jesuits. tion. Laynez at the council of Trent has given one signal instance of its working, but its operations were by no means confined to the abstract field of dogma. If men were really to be made obedient, it could only be by stopping them from thinking for themselves about the everyday problems of conduct; and the best way to do this was to furnish them beforehand with a ready-made code of answers to such problems, warranted to meet all needs. Hence casuistry and the confessional Casulst loomed large on the Jesuit horizon. The casuist's duty was to apply the general precepts of the Church to par- ticular cases. He explained, for instance, when a man was strictly bound to tell the truth; when he might avail himself of the mild licence of an equivocation; and when the Church placed at his service the greater indulgence of a mental reserva- tion. The confessor brought the casuist's principles to bear on the conscience of his penitents, and thus saved them from the danger of acting on their own responsibility (see CASUISTRY). In its origin this system was a perfectly honest attempt to widen the sphere of obedience by making morality wholly objective and independent of the vagaries of the individual conscience. But what was begun in the interest of obedience was carried on in those of laxity. Experts proverbially differ, and the casuists were no exceptions to the rule. But when great authorities were at variance, it ill became an average priest or penitent to decide. Whatever a grave doctor said must have some solid reasons behind it — aliqua niti pro- babilitate — and humble lay-folk could act upon it without a twinge of conscience. Thus arose lax casuists of the type of Antonio Escobar (1589-1669), the central figure of Pascal's Provincial Letters. Their whole business was to hunt through the older authorities in search of " benign " decisions. Their temptation is easy to understand. Half Europe was full of waverers between Protestantism and Catholicism tolerably certain to decide for the Church that offered them the cheapest terms of salvation; and even in wholly Catholic countries many, especially of the upper class, might easily be scared away from the confessional by severity. Thereby their money and influence would be lost to the Church, and their souls robbed of the priceless benefit of priestly absolution. On the other hand, these " Escobarine morals " by no means passed unchallenged; ever since the foundation of the society the aims and methods of the Jesuits had called forth lively opposi- tion in many parts of Catholic Europe, and not least in Loyola's native land of Spain. But the most effective protest against them was a movement which began when Michel de Bay, a professor at the Flemish university of Louvain, put forward certain theories on grace and free-will in the latter part of the i6th century. In 1640 a much more elaborate statement of the same ideas appeared in a posthumous treatise on the theology of St Augustine from the pen of Cor- nelius Jansen, also a Louvain professor (see JAN- SENISM). Into the technical detail of the controversy there is no need to enter. It is enough to say that two rival doctrines of grace and free-will were struggling for mastery in the Roman Church. One theory emphasized the necessity of grace; having been put together by St Thomas Aquinas, it was known as Thomism, and was especially championed by the Dominicans. The other laid the chief stress on free-will; it was known as Molinism from its inventor, the Jesuit Louis de Molina, and was in great favour with the society. The two orders came into violent collision at Rome between 1588 and 1606. But the quarrel, known as the controversy de auxiliis gratiae, was brought to an end by Pope Paul V., who closed the debates and adjourned his decision sine die. At first sight this abstract question seemed endlessly remote from the practical policy of Escobar; really there is a close connexion between the two. The whole system of the Jesuits rested on a basis of free-will. Their quarry was the average man; and the best way of impressing the average man is to set before him duties that he feels himself fully capable of performing. Then he will really feel morally responsible if he leaves them undone, hence the necessity of free-will. .On ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 49 the other hand, as Jansen pointed out, free-will tends to make the average man's estimate of his own powers into the supreme criterion of all that is good and right. God must perforce be satisfied with whatever common sense thinks it fair and reasonable that He should expect. Jansen accordingly de- nounced free-will as dishonouring to God, and destructive of the higher interests of morality. But, if men threw over common sense, what was to be their guide in life? Jansen answered with his doctrine of Irresistible Grace. This was simply a cumbrous way of saying that God awakens in the righteous heart an intuitive faculty of discerning right from wrong. " This holy taste or relish, " says a follower of Jansen, " distinguishes between good and evil without being at the trouble of a train of reasoning; just as the nature and tendency of a heavy body, let fall from a height, shows the way to the centre of the earth more exactly in a moment than the ablest mathematician could determine by his most accurate observa- tions in a whole day." That being so, the Jansenist obeyed his Inner Light, and paid little heed to the earth-bound standards of unregenerate common sense. Nor was he much more respectful towards the official standards of the Church. Why should he consult a casuist rather than his Inner Light? Thus the Jesuits saw themselves menaced by a grave revolt. What would become of the confessional if penitents were allowed to act on what they fondly took to be a heaven-sent inspiration? In a twinkling they would be off to some spiritual Wonderland, where no confessor could bring them to book. On the other hand, only preach to them a strong doctrine of free-will, and all these dangers vanished. They would feel bound to disregard their sporadic intuitions, and act only for reasons that would be clearly set out in black and white. Their past performances could then be checked, and their future actions forecast by the priest; and there was small danger of their straying beyond the limits marked out by authority. Thus within the spiritual sphere free-will led up to Jesuit obedience. But in the secular world this paradox failed to obtain; there free-will was only too ready to come into conflict with the Church. The isth and i6th centuries had seen the final break-up of the medieval system of reverence for authority and tradition. In art and learning, morals and government, the old wails came crashing down; in the general bankruptcy of authority men were forced to depend on them- selves. And the contemporaries of Machiavelli soon learned to take the fullest advantage of this liberty to pursue their own best interests in the way that pleased them best. But if individuals might be guided by self-interest, why should that privilege be denied to associations of men? On the The ruins of a medieval Christendom, hierarchically Papacy organized under the pope, grew up the " new mon- andthe archy, " or modern state, owning no law but its NewMon- Qwn wjjj Yet the popes laid aside none of their medieval claims, or even their traditional weapons. In 1606 Paul V. laid Venice under an interdict, on the ground that the republic had infringed the immunities of the clergy; the doge replied by threatening with death any one who took any notice of the papal thunders. Thenceforward the thunders continued chiefly on paper. In 1625 Catholic Europe was scandalized by the De Schismate of the Jesuit Santarelli, in which he claimed for the pope an absolute right to interfere in the concerns of secular princes, whenever he chose to declare that the interests of religion were in any way concerned. He could dictate their policy at home and abroad, revise their statute-book, upset the decisions of their law-courts. If they refused to listen he could punish them in any manner he thought fit; in the last resort he could release their subjects from allegiance and head a crusade of Catholic powers against them. These pretensions roused a special burst of indignation in France. There, on the divisions of the wars of religion, had followed an irresistible reaction towards patriotism and national unity. France had suddenly grown to her full stature; like the contemporary England of John Milton, she was become a " noble and puissant nation, rousing herself like a strong man after sleep." Even the clergy were swept away by the current, and meant to be patriots like every one else. " Before my ordination, " said the eminent theologian Edmond Richer, " I was a subject of the king of France: why should that ceremony make me a subject of the pope? " Subjection to the pope implied an Italianization of French religion; and most Frenchmen looked on the Italians as an inferior race. Why, then, should the right to decide ecclesiastical disputes be taken away from their own highly competent fellow-countrymen, and reserved for a set of incapable judges in a foreign land? Germany and Spain might let themselves be bitted and bridled if they chose, but for centuries France had prided herself that, thanks to her Gallican liberties, she stood on a different footing towards Rome. The Liberties in question were certain ancient rights, whose origin was lost in the mists of time. One forbade papal bulls to be published in France without the consent of the crown. Another exempted French subjects from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition and other Roman tribunals — such as the Index of Prohibited Books. In the 1 7th century such immunities were all the more valuable since French statesmen found themselves in an awkward position. The great aim of Henry IV. and Richelieu was to exalt France at the expense of Vienna and Madrid. But Madrid and Vienna were the official champions of the papacy; hence to make war on them was indirectly to make war on the- pope. This was enough to trouble the consciences of many excellent men; and it became necessary to devise a compromise that should set their minds at rest, by showing them that they could be at once good citizens and good Catholics. This compromise is known as Gallicanism. In the hands of Bossuet and other eminent divines it was developed along both theological and political lines. Theological Gallicanism refused to recognize papal decisions on questions of doctrine, until they had been ratified by the bishops of France. Political Gallicanism main- tained that lawful sovereigns held their power directly of God, and not mediately through the pope. Hence no amount of misgovernment, or neglect of Catholic interests, could justify Rome in interfering with them. In other words, Bossuet only answered Santarelli by setting up the divine right of kings. However, this dogma by no means scandalized the subjects of Louis XIV., for the worship of the sovereign was one of their most cherished instincts. And Louis's ecclesiastical policy flattered their national pride. He introduced no theological novelties; all he did was to insist that, in matters of administra- tion, he would be master in his own house. He supported pope and bishops so long as they took their marching orders from him. If they refused he was perfectly ready to make war on the one and send the others to the Bastille. It is eminently characteristic of his methods that, just at the same time as he was turning loose dragoons on his Protestant subjects after the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685), he was employing other dragoons to invade the papal territory at Avignon, to punish Innocent XI. for' having refused institution to some of his nominees to bishoprics. The revocation of the edict of Nantes owes quite as much to the dream of political absolutism, inherited from Richelieu, as to religious bigotry. In the words of Saint-Simon, the Huguenots were " a sect that had become a state within the state, dependent on the king no more than it chose, and ready on the slightest pretext to embroil the whole country by an appeal to arms." So long as they were powerful, the crown had treated with them; but when once their power began to dwindle, it was certain that the crown would crush them. But during Louis's latter years, when the War of the Spanish Succession had brought a rain of disasters thickly upon him, bigotry got the upper hand. The broken old man became feverishly anxious to propitiate offended Heaven, and save himself another Blenheim or Malplaquet, by exterminating the enemies of the Church. And his Jesuit confessors had no doubt 492 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH that the first and foremost of those enemies were the Jansenists. Not only did their doctrine of grace defy the favourite Jesuit principle of obedience to authority, but it bade fair to set aside the whole Catholic machinery of infallibility and sacraments. If God spoke directly to the individual conscience, what was the use of intermediaries? Led by his Jesuits, Louis wrung The Bull from the unwilling Clement XI. the Bull Unigenitus Uaigeal- (1713), which was intended to deprive believers in in- *"•• dividual inspiration of all possible foothold within the Roman Church. The bull caused a violent uproar. Fenelon, although personally an admirer, admits that public opinion credited it with " condemning St Augustine, St Paul, and even Jesus Christ "; and the few Jansenist bishops appealed and " re-appealed " against it. But the government was inexor- able; in 1730 the Unigenitus became part and parcel of the law of the land. Still, to make a law is one thing; to get it administered is quite another. The parlement of Paris was a strongly Galilean body, and had many grievances to avenge on Louis XV. and his ministers. To annoy them, it put every possible difficulty in the way of an execution of the bull. Under the fostering care of the judges, a belief sprang up that to call oneself a " Jansenist, " and oppose the Unigenitus, was to show oneself a lover of civil and religious liberty. This feeling was intensified by the conviction that every blow struck against the bull was a blow against the Jesuits, its authors. For the Society, as befitted the great exponent of authority and the keeper of the consciences of many kings, had always been on the side of political autocracy; and therefore it became in- creasingly unpopular, when once the tide of French intelligence began to set in the direction of revolutionary reform. Nor were the Jesuits in much better odour among other nations. Their perpetual meddling in politics, and even in speculation and finance, stank in the nostrils of every government in Europe; while their high-handedness and corporate greed in the matter of ecclesiastical privileges and patronage alienated the clergy. Their reform was more than once discussed; and death alone prevented Benedict XIV. (1740-58) the most remarkable of the iSth-century popes, from taking some very stringent measures. A year after Benedict's death the Suppres- fifst kl°w feN- P°mbal, the great reforming minister sloa of in Portugal, expelled them from that country on a *Ae charge of having conspired against the life of the Jesuits. king. Two years later the Paris parlement had its chance. La Valette, superior of the Jesuit missions in Marti- nique, had set up as a West-India merchant on a large scale. His enterprises were unsuccessful; in 1761 he became insolvent, and the Society refused to be responsible for his debts. The French courts made the consequent bankruptcy proceedings the excuse for a general inquiry into the Society's constitution, and ended by declaring its existence illegal in France, on the ground that its members were pledged to absolute obedience to a foreigner in Rome. Louis XV. now proposed that the French Jesuits should be placed under some special organiza- tion, less obnoxious to his parlement. The general only made the famous reply: " Sint ut sunt, aut non sint." Thereupon Louis let the judges have their way. In 1762 the Society was suppressed in France; in 1767 it was also declared illegal by Spain, Naples and other Italian powers. Pressure was now put on Clement XIII. to dissolve the Society altogether. He refused; but his successor, Clement XIV., was more pliable, and in 1773 the Jesuits ceased to be. In France the philosophes and the quarrels over the Unigenitus had effectually killed the spirit of religion; nor was the Christi- anity of other countries at a much higher ebb. Spain was utterly dumb; Italian fervour could only boast the foundation of two small orders of popular preachers — the Passionists (i737), and the Redemptorists, instituted in 1732 by St Alfonso Liguori (q.v.), who also won for himself a dubious reputation on the unsavoury field of casuistry. German Catholicism was still in a very raw, unsophisticated state. It is character- istic that, while Paris had its Bossuets and Bourdaloues, Vienna was listening to Abraham a Sancta Clara, the punning Capuchin whom Schiller, regardless of dates, introduces into the opening scene of his Wallenslein. However, from Germany was to come a serious attempt at reform. There the vision of a reunion with the Protestants had haunted many Catholic brains ever since Bossuet and Leibniz had corresponded on the subject. Faithful to the ancient tradition of Contarini and Pole at Trent, these good men persisted in supposing that the Reformation was nothing more than a protest against practical abuses: remove the abuses, and the rest would follow of itself. And, inasmuch as they held that most abuses were due to the slippery and procrastinating greed of Roman officials, the first step should be ruthlessly to curtail the power of Rome and extend that of local Churches. Such was the theme of a book, De statu Ecclesiae, ad reuniendos dis- sidentes in religione Christianas composilus, published by one Justinus Febronius in 1763. The author was Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim (q.v.), suffragan in partibus to the elector- archbishop of Treves. Hontheim's theories could not but prove attractive to the local Churches, more especially when they were governed by bishops who were also temporal great lords. The three ecclesiastical electors and the prince-archbishop of Salzburg met in congress at Ems in 1786, and embodied Hon- theim's proposals, though in a very modified form, in a docu- ment known as the " punctuation of Ems " (see FF.BRONIANISM). Meanwhile, their overlord, the emperor Joseph II. (1780-90), was dealing with the question of a much more radical spirit, and actually abolishing abuses wholesale. The reign of " Brother Sacristan, " the nickname given to Joseph by Frederick the Great, was one continual suppression of superfluous abbeys, feast-days, pilgrimages. More dignified were his attempts to broaden the minds of the clergy. Instead of being brought up in diocesan seminaries, centres of provincial narrowness, candidates for ordination were to be collected into a few large colleges set up in university towns. Still, Joseph only touched the surface; his brother, the grand-duke Leopold of Tuscany, aspired to cut deeper, and provoke a religious revival on the lines of Jansenism. His plans, which made a great stir at the time, were outlined at a synod held at Pistoia in 1786 (see PISTOIA, SYNOD OF). Three years later, however, the world had more important things to think of than Leopold's ecclesiastical reforms. At first the French Revolution was by mo means anti- Ttle Catholic — though the Constituent Assembly remem- Preach bered too much of the quarrels about the Unigenitus Revoiu- not to be bitterly hostile to Rome — and its great aim was to turn the French Church into a purely national body. Hence it decreed the " civil constitution of the clergy. " Bishops and rectors were made elective, with salaries paid by the state; and all priests were required to take an oath of fidelity to the government: those who refused the oath rendered themselves liable to banishment. Three years later the triumph of the Jacobins brought with it the " abolition of Christianity," and a spell of violent persecution, which gradually slackened under the Directory (1795-99). In J799 Napoleon became First Consul, and at once set himself to deal with the ecclesi- astical problem. There must clearly be a Church, and the small success of the Civil Constitution made clear that public opinion would not put up with a Church practically detached from Rome. On the other hand, Napoleon quite agreed with Louis XIV. in wishing to be master in his own house, and to turn the clergy into a supplementary police. Accordingly, in 1801 he negotiated with Pius VII. a Concordat, which remained in force till 1905 (see CONCORDAT). The state undertook to pay the bishops and parochial clergy; it was directly to Prance appoint the one, and to have a veto on the appoint- and the ment of the other. " But for the religious orders no P*P*een Practically settled in favour of the pope, no lafaiii- council had yet formally acknowledged its defeat. binty. Indeed, many prominent French and German divines still denied papal infallibility altogether; and Louis Napoleon had regularly fallen back on Richelieu's old device of stirring up the embers of Gallicanism, whenever the French clergy grew restive about his alliance with Victor Emmanuel. And even the more moderate believers in the pope's infallibility maintained that it was merely negative, a heaven-sent im- munity against falling into error. But Pius and his immediate circle argued that this was not enough. The great need of the age was authority; and authority was most likely to strike the imagination of the faithful if it found a vivid concrete embodi- ment in the person of the pope. He must not simply be immune from error; truth must stream down on his head from heaven, and on his head alone. " We all know only one thing for certain," wrote the great Catholic pamphleteer, Louis Veuillot, " and that is that no one knows anything, except the man with whom God is for ever, the man who carries the thoughts of •God." But this view was too extreme for the council; the most Pius could hope for was to be declared immune from error, instead of positively inspired. Even this negative in- fallibility was stoutly contested by the French and German bishops during the eight months that the council lasted (De- cember 1869 to July 1870). But they were richer in talents than numbers: out of six hundred prelates they only com- manded eighty votes. Most left Rome before the final session ; only two — one from Naples, one from the United States — con- tinued their protest up to the end. On the i8th of July the pope's decrees were declared " irreformable of themselves, irrespectively of the consent of the Church," always provided that they dealt with doctrines of faith and morals, and were delivered ex cathedra — that is, with the intention of binding the consciences of all Catholics. These limitations were the work of the moderate infallibilists, but the real hero of the day was Pius. Theologians might draw their fine-spun dis- tinctions between realms where the pope was actually infallible and realms where he was not; but Pius knew well that loyal Catholic common sense would brush their technicalities aside and hold that on any conceivable question the pope was fifty times more likely to be right than any one else (see VATICAN COUNCIL and INFALLIBILITY). So absolute became the papal sovereignty over conscience that more than one government took alarm. While the council was still sitting the Bavarian minister, Prince Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst, suggested to Bismarck that the Powers would do well to bring its deliberations to an end; and immediately after the publication of its decrees Austria notified the pope that so vast an extension of the Church's claims would necessitate a revision of the concordat. And when the ex- communication of Dollinger and other anti-infallibilist divines (1871) led to the formation of an independent Old ou Catholic Church (see OLD CATHOLICS) Bavaria, c*ttioU- Switzerland and other countries gave it a warm wel- **"*• come. So also did Berlin. The new German empire, con- solidated through wars with Catholic Germany and Catholic France, was of all countries least likely to tolerate Roman attempts to dictate to its subjects. Tension was increased by the fact that the Centre, or Catholic, party in the Reichstag was led by Windhorst, formerly prime minister to the dis- possessed king of Hanover, and thus naturally became identi- fied with the opposition of the smaller German states to the supremacy of Prussia. The quarrel began in 1871 when the Prussian government supported some teachers in state-aided Catholic schools whom the bishops wished to dismiss on account of their anti-infallibilist opinions. A year later, under the ministry of Falk, it developed into what the great scientist, Rudolf Virchow, called a Kidturkampf,oi conflict of civilizations. The famous May laws (1873) were a determined at tempt The to bring the literary education, appointment and dis- KuHur- cipline of the clergy under state control, and to regulate t"apt. the use of such spiritual penalties as deprivation and excom- munication. When the bishops refused to obey, Falk fell back on force. The Jesuits were banished from the German Empire, and most of the other orders from Prussia. The archbishops of Gnesen and Cologne and many minor dignitaries were im- prisoned (1874); and the so-called "Bread-basket Law" was passed to coerce the parish clergy by suspending the salaries of the disobedient. The result of these severities was exactly the opposite of what Falk intended. He had meant only to lop off a few ultramontane extremists; he succeeded in send- ing Catholics of every shade and colour pell-mell into the arms of Rome. And the effect remained long after the cause had died away. On the death of Pius IX. (February 1878) his successor, Leo XIII., at once showed himself willing to come to terms. Negotiations were long and difficult; for Bismarck would not abolish the May laws outright, and Leo had much ado to hold in check the zelanti of the Vatican. But Falk retired in 1879; various mutual concessions were made which led to a gradual abrogation of the May laws. Yet — thanks to its organization, its press, and the elaborate network of alliances spun by Windhorst — the Ultramontane Centre still remains a powerful force in German politics. This conciliatory policy towards Berlin was the first-fruits of a new regime; Leo XIII. was in every way a complete contrast to Pius IX. Pius had fed on inspirations; Leo was a man of calm, deliberate judgment, little likely to '^xill yield to the promptings of his mvnsignori. He was a polished scholar of the old-fashioned type; early in his reign he threw open the Vatican Archives to the students of the world. Having spent his youth in the papal diplomatic service — he was nuncio at Brussels from 1843-46 — he had a certain knowledge of the workings of parliamentary institutions, while the years immediately before his accession had been spent as archbishop of Perugia, so that he was not closely identified with any of the Vatican parties. The results of a change of master were soon seen. Pius IX. had died at war with almost every country in Europe. He had quarrelled with Austria; Russia was persecuting its Catholic subjects; France was under the spell of Gambetta and his doctrine that clericalism was the enemy; Spain and Belgium followed France; even Switzerland was waging a Kulturkampf on a small scale. In a few years Leo had made peace with Austria, pacified Switzer- land and Belgium, opened up negotiations with Russia; while his elevation of Newman to the cardinalate (1879) made a great impression in Great Britain. About 1886 hopes even ran high that he was on the eve of a reconciliation with King Hum- bert at the Quirinal. These hopes were vain. Leo was abso- lutely convinced that a territorial sovereignty was required to 496 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH ensure the moral independence of the papacy; and he believed that the new Italian kingdom was a mushroom growth, that might fall in pieces at any moment. Hence he followed in the steps of Pius IX. and refused to recognize the existence of the de facto government in any way whatsoever; he would not accept the subsidies it offered him, or allow Catholics to take any part in political life. During the earlier years of his reign he undoubtedly had hopes of recovering his lost dominions with the help of Germany, and Bismarck was not the man to discourage such expectations. They were suddenly blasted when Germany, Italy and Austria entered into a Triple Alliance at the end of 1887. Thereafter Leo turned to France. Already in 1884 he had warned the French clergy against meddling in royalist intrigues; in 1892 he issued a much more stringent exhortation to French Catholics to rally to the Republic. An idea got abroad that he was looking to the time when the old dream of Lamennais and Gioberti might become a reality, and Italy would split up into a number of republics, amongst which the temporal power of the pope might find a place. Certainly his public pronouncements took on an increasingly democratic tone. From the first he had shown great interest in social questions; and his encyclicals deal much Socialism ^ess with theology than with citizenship, socialism, labour, the marriage-laws. Under his influence a Christian Socialist movement sprang up in France and Belgium, and soon spread to Italy, Germany and Austria. It had un- doubtedly done much to awaken interest in social problems, and to call forth philanthropic zeal; but the movement soon travelled far beyond the limits that Leo would have set to it. In Germany, in particular, it has grown into a political party connected with the Social Democrats; nor have the democratic socialists been slow to exploit their Christian allies for their own ends. And in other countries the attempt to bring re- ligion into politics has sometimes had the effect of lowering religion, rather than ennobling politics. In an age of universal suffrage public men cannot afford to appeal to pure reason, or even to pure sentiment. Christian socialism becomes a real force when it translates itself into anti-Semitism; and anti-Semitism is at its strongest when it is pursuing one par- ticular Jewish captain in the French artillery. Much on the same lines stands the Italian Catholic attempt to show that the Freemasons are the real founders of Italian independence, and to take the field against them with the help of Leon Taxil and " Diana Vaughan." And, quite apart from their political colouring, such attempts to meet the devotional tastes of the masses as the miracles of Lourdes, or the modern French religious press, lie well within the range of criticism. Nor have they even had the dubious merit of success. Dying in 1903, Leo XIII. was spared from seeing the failure of his policy of reconciliation with the French Republic; for the " de- nunciation of the concordat " (December 1903) and consequent p, x separation of Church and State took place under his successor, Pius X. What results this measure may have on France it must be left to the future to decide. Nor is it yet possible to forecast the result of the only other sensational event that the reign of Pius X. has yet produced— his con- demnation in 1907 of the complex movement known as Modernism. This began as an attempt to break loose from the neo-Scholasticism so ardently patronized both by Pius IX. and Leo XIII., and to supplant the critical methods of the medieval doctors by those of modern scholarship; and its leaders have won special distinction in the fields of Biblical criticism and ecclesiastical history. But Modernism soon broadened into a thoroughgoing revolt against the modes of thought and methods characteristic of the latter- day Vatican; its motto is that Catholicism is the strength of popery, but popery the weakness of Catholicism. By "popery " must here be understood the belief that spiritual doctrines always lend themselves to a precise embodiment in black and white, and can thereafter be dealt with like so many clauses of an act of parliament. Modernists deny that the spirit of religion can be thus imprisoned in an unchangeable formula; Modern- ism. they hold that it is always growing, and therefore in continual need of readjustment and restatement. On the other hand, they maintain that the present always has its roots in the past, and therefore they are opposed to any violent change; they consider, for instance, that northern Europe would have done better to listen to Erasmus than to Luther. But progress can leave little room to individual initiative, if it must always be orderly and systematic; and the Modernists accordingly show little sympathy with Protestantism. The core of their creed is a fervid belief in the infallibility of Catholic instinct, if only Catholic theology can be induced to leave it to develop in peace. Hitherto the theologians have shown small dis- position to hold their hand; and several of the leading Modern- ists have been excommunicated (see especially the article LOISY, A. F.), while the whole movement was condemned in bitter and scathing language by Pius X.'s encyclical (Pascendi gregis) against the Modernists. But ideas are difficult to kill, and it is possible that the Modernist movement may yet prove to be the opening chapter of a mighty revolution within the Church of Rome.1 BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The literature on the Roman Catholic Church is, of course, vast. Many works will be found in the lists of authorities appended to the articles to which cross-reference is made above, notably PAPACY. Here it is only possible to give a few outstanding books of reference. The most compendious of all works of reference on the subject, though partly antiquated, is the Encyclopedic theologique of the Abb6 Migne (1844-^66), Ser. I. 50 vols., Ser. II. 52 vols., Ser. III. 66 vols. This is a series of dictionaries, and contains Fr. P6rinne«'s Dictionnaire de bibliographie catholique, 5 vols. (Paris, 1858-60). A useful systematized bibliography is also given in the Subject Index of the London Library (1909), pp. 945-51. Other encyclopaedias are Watzer and Welter's Kirchenlexikpn, 13 B. (2nd ed., Hergenrother, &c., 1882-1903), Roman Catholic (there is a French translation of the ist edition, ed. T. Goschler, 1870); Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie fur Protestantische Theologie und Kirche (3rd «d., Leipzig, i896_-i9O9), Protestant, but containing articles of universally recognized scientific authority on many aspects of the Roman Catholic Church; the Catholic Encyclopaedia (London and New York, 1907 ff.), invaluable as an authoritative account of Roman Catholicism in all its phases, by eminent Catholics of all nations. All these encyclopaedias are also bibliographies. (ST C.) The Church in England. The origin of the English Roman Catholics as a community separated from the National Church is generally held to date from the accession of Queen Elizabeth in 1558. In the following year was passed an Act of Supremacy, whereby all public officials, clerical and lay, were required to acknow- ledge the supremacy of the queen " as well in spiritual things or causes as temporal." This declaration all the existing bishops, with two exceptions, refused to make; some fled the country, some were imprisoned, others simply deprived and placed under surveillance.8 To the parish clergy the declaration was not systematically tendered; of those deprived of their livings a large number were allowed to remain on as chaplains in private families. From laymen, unless they happened to hold some public office, no declaration was expected; and during the earlier years of Elizabeth's reign most of them continued to attend at their parish church. The line of division became much more acute when Pius V. deposed Elizabeth from her throne (1570); thenceforward her government looked on every Catholic as a potential rebel. Already it had passed a severe act against the Catholics in 1562; this was followed by other measures in 1571, 1580, 1584, 1585, 1593. During the forty-five%years of Elizabeth's reign, however, only about 180 persons suffered death' — less than half the number of those whom the Catholic zeal 1 For a criticism of the modern tendencies of the Roman Catholic Church from an outside point of view see ULTRAMONTANISM. 2 From the Roman- Catholic point of view the ancient English hierarchy came to an end with the death of Thomas Goldwell, some time bishop of St Asaph, at Rome on the 3rd of April 1585. Some six months previously Thomas Watson, formerly bishop of Lincoln, had died in prison in England. 1 Not as heretics, by burning, but as traitors, by hanging, drawing and quartering. But, since to say or hear mass was constructive treason, the distinction was, in many cases, without a difference. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 497 of her sister, Queen Mary, had burnt in one-ninth of the time. Under James I. an attempt was made to distinguish between the loyal and disloyal Catholics, the latter comprising all those who maintained the pope's right to depose sovereigns from their throne. This led to a violent division among the Catholics themselves. Many forswore the deposing power; the majority, acting under imperative orders from Rome, refused to deny it. The government retorted by adding several new penal laws to the statute-book, though less than thirty Catholics were brought to the scaffold during James's reign. Under Charles I. the position of the Catholics was greatly im- proved, largely owing to the king's marriage with a French princess. Although not actually repealed, the penal laws were seldom put in force, and mass was openly celebrated in London and elsewhere. On the outbreak of the Civil War the Catholics naturally sided with the king, and a great many fell fighting for the royalist cause; towards the survivors Cromwell was unexpectedly merciful. Very few were put to death, though a number of estates were confiscated. Under Charles II. came a new period of prosperity; two Catholics, Lords Arlington and Clifford, were admitted to the inner circles of the govern- ment. Protestant suspicion was excited; in 1673 was passed the Test Act, obliging all office-holders to receive the sacrament in the Established Church, and to declare their disbelief in transubstantiation.1 Five years later (1678) popular exaspera- tion found a more savage outlet, and greedily swallowed the tales of Titus Gates about a mythical " popish plot." A number of victims were brought to the scaffold, and Catholics were declared incapable of sitting in either house of parliament. James II., however, was utterly indifferent to the feelings of his subjects. He packed the privy council, the army and the universities with Catholics, and tried to legalize the exercise of their religion by an utterly unconstitutional Declaration of Indulgence. Three years were enough to convince the nation that he was " endeavouring to subvert and extirpate the Protestant religion, and the laws and liberties of this kingdom"; and on his deposition in 1688 Roman Catholics, or persons married to Roman Catholics, were declared incapable of succeeding to the throne. A new oath of allegiance was imposed on all holders of civil or military office; they were required to swear that no foreign prelate had, or ought to have, any jurisdiction, whether civil or ecclesiastical, within the realm. Further, a number of statutes were passed with the object of putting every possible obstacle in the way of Catholics educating their children in their own creed, or of inheriting or buying land. That they remained so long " utterly disabled from bearing any public office or charge " was due to the participation of many of their number in the Jacobite revolts of 1715 and 1745. After Culloden, however, it was seen that all serious danger of a Stuart restoration was passed; and in 1778 Catholics who abjured the Pretender and denied the civil authority of the pope were relieved from their most pressing disabilities. A proposal to extend this measure to Scotland led to violent agitation in that country. Feeling soon spread to England, and culminated in the Gordon riots of 1780. Meanwhile, however, strenuous efforts were being made by the Roman Catholics to obtain relief by establishing a reasonable modus vivendi with the government. Within the Catholic body itself there was even at this time a more or less pronounced anti-Roman movement, a reflection of the Gallican and Febronian tendencies on the continent of Europe, and the " Catholic Committee," consisting for the most part of influential laymen, which had been formed to negotiate with the government, was prepared to go a long 1 This declaration, which denounced the mass as " idolatrous and superstitious," was taken by all office-bearers, including bishops on taking their seats in the House of Lords, until the Relief Act of 1829. It was imposed by the Act of Settlement on the sovereign also, in ofder to make impossible any repetition of the policy of James II. This " Declaration of the Sovereign " formed the subject of heated debate on the accession of kings Edward VII. and George V., and in August 1910 parliament substituted for it a simple declaration of adhesion to the Protestant religion. way in repudiating the extreme claims of the Holy See, some even demanding the creation of a national hierarchy in merely nominal dependence on Rome, and advocating the substitution of English for Latin in the services. This attitude led to a somewhat prolonged conflict between the Committee and the vicars apostolic, who for the most part represented the high ultramontane view. The outcome of the Committee's work was the great Protest, signed by 1500 bishops, priests and leading laymen, in which the loyalty of Catholics to the crown and constitution was strenuously affirmed and the ultramontane point of view repudiated in the startling declara- tion, " We acknowledge no infallibility in the pope." As the result of the negotiations preceding and following this action, the government in 1791 passed a bill relieving from all their more vexatious disabilities those Roman Catholics* who rejected the temporal authority of the pope; and during the first quarter of the ipth century a series of attempts was made to abolish Catholic disabilities altogether. To this, however, George III. and his successors were bitterly opposed; only in 1829 did George IV. give way, and allow the passage of the Catholic Relief Act. This virtually removed all restric- tions on Catholics, except that it left them incapable of filling the offices of Regent, Lord Chancellor, or Lord Lieutenant of Ireland; and it expressly debarred their priests from sitting in the House of Commons. Ecclesiastical Administration. — During the reign of Elizabeth this was necessarily in a chaotic state. As the Marian clergy died out, their place was taken by priests trained at theological colleges established for this purpose at Douai, Rome, Valladolid and other places. These were the " seminary priests," objects of great suspicion to the government. About 1580 Jesuit missionaries began to come, and soon became involved in bitter quarrels with the secular missionaries already at work. Mutual jealousies were only increased when the seculars were grouped together under an arch-priest in 1599. Nor were matters much bettered when* the papacy took advantage of the presence of a Catholic queen in England, and sent over in 1625 a vicar- apostolic3 — that is, a prelate in episcopal orders, but without the full authority of a diocesan bishop. He was soon compelled to withdraw, and the direction of affairs fell to an intermittent series of papal envoys accredited to Henrietta Maria or Catherine of Braganza. On the accession of James II. a new vicar- apostolic — John Leyburne, bishop of Adrumetum in partibus — was at once appointed (1685); three years later England was divided into four districts — the London, Midland, Northern and Western — each under a vicar-apostolic. This arrangement lasted till 1840, when the number of vicariates was doubled by the addition of the Welsh, Eastern, Lancashire and Yorkshire districts. In 1850 came the " restoration of the hierarchy " by Pope Pius IX., when England was mapped out into an arch- bishopric of Westminster4 and twelve suffragan sees, since in- creased to fifteen (sixteen including the Welsh see of Menevia). This " papal aggression " caused great excitement at the time, and an Ecclesiastical Titles Act was passed in 1851, though never put in force, forbidding Roman Catholic prelates to assume territorial designations.* * They were described in the first draft of the bill as " Protesting Catholic Dissenters," but this was changed, in deference to the strenuous remonstrances of the vicars-apostolic, into " Roman Catholics." 3 Richard Smith, bishop of Chalcedon in partibus (d. 1655). 4 Cardinal Wiseman (q.v.) was the first archbishop of Westminster. It was on his advice that Pope Gregory XVI. increased the number of English vicariates-apostolic in 1839, and from 1840 onward, as vicar-apostolic first of the Midland and afterwards of the London district, he was mainly instrumental in bringing the English Roman Catholic Church into closer touch with " the spirit of Rome." .The outward sign of this was the substitution of the Roman ritual for the English ore-Reformation use hitherto followed in the ser- vices, while English Roman Catholicism became increasingly ultra- montane in temper, a tendency much strengthened under Cardinal Manning. 6 The titles of the sees could not by law be the same as those of the Established Church. In several cases, however (e.g. Birmingham, Liverpool, Southwark, Newcastle), sees have since been created by ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH Population. — No trustworthy figures are forthcoming as to the numbers of the English Roman Catholics at the different stages of their history. At the accession of Elizabeth they undoubtedly formed a large proportion of the population. During her reign they greatly decreased, and the decrease continued during the I7th century. A return, made with some apparent care soon after the accession of William III., estimates their total number at barely 30,000. During the i8th century they began to increase; a return presented to the House of Lords in 1780 estimates their number at nearly 70,000. Joseph Berington, himself a distinguished Catholic priest, considers that this number was above the mark; he reports that his co-religionists were most numerous in Lancashire and London; next came Yorkshire, Northumberland and Stafford- shire. In many of the southern counties there were scarcely any Catholics at all. Even in Berington's time, however, there was a certain tendency to increase; and the great number of conversions that followed the Relief Act of 1791 was a stock argument of opponents of the act of 1829. Of late years, notably since the Oxford Movement within the Established Church, the number of converts has been much increased ; for some time past it has aver- aged about 8000 souls a year. But a far more potent factor in swelling the numbers of the Catholics has been the immigration of the Irish, which began early in the igth century, but was enormously stimulated by the famine of 1846. In 1870 Mr Ravenstein reckoned the total number of Roman Catholics in England as slightly under a million, of whom about 750,000 were Irish, and 50,000 foreigners. By 1910 the general total is considered to have risen to about a million and a half. (Sx C.) AUTHORITIES. — Alphons Bellesheim, Cardinal Allen und die Eng- lischen Seminare (Mainz, 1885); Katholische Kirche in Schottland (Mainz, 1886; translated and enlarged by D. O. Hunter-Blair, O.S.B., Edinburgh, 1887); Katholische Kirche in Irland (1890); Charles Dodd (a pseudonym of Hugh Tootell), Church History of England (1737); edited by M. A. Tierney, London, 1839); Joseph Berington, State and Behaviour of the English Catholics (1780); Charles Butler, Historical Memoirs respecting the English, Irish and Scottish Catholics (London, 1819) ; T. F. Knox, The Douay Diaries (1878) and Letters of Cardinal Allen (1882); j. Morris, Catholic England in Modern Times (1892); T. Murphy, Catholic Church in England during the Last Two Centuries (1892); W. J. Amherst, History of Catholic Emancipation (2 vols., London, 1886); F. C. Husenbeth, Life of John [Bishop\Milner (Dublin,l862) ; Wilfrid Ward, Life and Times of -Cardinal Wiseman (2 vols., London, 1897); E. S. Purcell, Life of Cardinal Manning (2 vols., London, 1895); Bernard Ward, Dawn of the Catholic Revival in England, 1781-1803 (2 vols., 1909). For the sufferings under the penal laws see, for general reference, R. Stanton, A Menology of England and Wales (with supplement, London, 1892), and Bishop Challoner's Missionary Priests (1741 ff.), which still remains the standard work on the subject. English Law relating to Roman Catholics. — The history of the old penal laws against Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom has been sketched above and in the article IRELAND, History.1 The principal English acts directed against " popish recusants"2 will be found in the list given in the acts repealing them (7 & 8 Viet. c. 102, 1844; 9 & 10 Viet. c. 59, 1846). The principal Scottish act was 1700, c. 3; the principal Irish act, 2 Anne c. 3. Numerous decisions illustrating the practical operation of the old law in Ireland are collected in G. E. Howard's Cases on the Popery Laws (1775). The Roman Catholic Eman- cipation Act 1829 (10 Geo. IV. c. 7), although it gave Roman Catholic citizens in the main complete civil and religious liberty, at the same time left them under certain disabilities, trifling in comparison with those under which they laboured before 1829. Nor did the act affect in any way the long series of old statutes directed against the assumption of authority by the Roman see in England. The earliest of these which is still law is the Statute of Provisors of 1351 (25 Edw. III. st. 4). The effect of the Roman Catholic Charities Act 1832 is to place Roman Catholic schools, places of worship and education, and charities, and the property held therewith, under the laws applying to Protestant nonconformists. The Toleration Act act of parliament bearing the same titles, so that there are now often two bishops bearing the same style. From the point of view of the State, that of the Roman Cathclic bishop is, of course, only a title of courtesy, the Anglican bishop alone having the legal right to bear it. 1 See also Stephen's History of the Criminal Law, vol. ii. p. 483 ; Anstey, The Law affecting Roman Catholics (1842); Lilly and Wallis, Manual of the Law specially affecting Catholics (1893). 1 A recusant signified a person who refused duly to attend his parish church. does not apply to Roman Catholics, but legislation of a similar kind, especially the Relief Act of 1791 (31 Geo. III. c. 32), exempts the priest from parochial offices, such as those of church- warden and constable, and from serving in the militia or on a jury, and enables all Roman Catholics scrupling the oaths of office to exercise the office of churchwarden and some other offices by deputy. The priest is, unlike the nonconformist minister, regarded as being in holy orders. He cannot, there- fore, sit in the House of Commons, but there is nothing to prevent a peer who is a priest from sitting and voting in the House of Lords. If a priest becomes a convert to the Church of England he need not be re-ordained. The remaining law affecting Roman Catholics may be classed under the following five heads: — (1) Office. — There are certain offices still closed to Roman Catholics. By the Act of Settlement a papist or the husband or wife of a papist cannot be king or queen. The act of 1829 provides that nothing therein contained is to enable a Roman Catholic to hold the office of guardian and justice of the United Kingdom, or of regent of the United Kingdom; of lord chancellor, lord keeper, or lord commissioner of the great seal of Great Britain or Ireland or lord lieutenant of Ireland; of high commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, or of any office in the Church of England or Scotland, the ecclesiastical courts, cathedral founda- tions and certain colleges. The disability in the case of the lord chancellor of Ireland was removed by statute in 1867, with necessary limitations as to ecclesiastical patronage. The act of 1829 pre- served the liability of Roman Catholics to take certain oaths of office, but these have been modified by later legislation (see 29 & 30 Viet. c. 19; 30 & 31 Viet. c. 75; 31 & 32 Viet. c. 72; 34 & 35 Viet. c. 48). Legislation has been in the direction of omitting words which might be supposed to give offence to Roman Catholics. The only offices which Roman Catholics are not legally capable of holding now are the lord chancellorship of England and the lord lieutenancy of Ireland (see, however, Lilly and Wallis, pp. 36-43). (2) Title. — The act of 1829 forbids the assumption by any person, other than the person authorized by law, of the name, style or title of an archbishop, bishop or dean of the Church of England. The Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851 went further, and forbade the assump- tion by an unauthorized person of a title from any place in the United Kingdom, whether or not such place were the seat of an archbishopric, bishopric or deanery. This act was, however, repealed in 1867, but the provisions of the act of 1829 are still in force. (3) Religious Orders. — It was enacted by the act of 1829 that " every Jesuit and every member of any other religious order, community or society of the Church of Rome bound by monastic or religious vows " was, within six months after the commencement of the act, to deliver to the clerk of the peace of the county in which he should reside a notice or statement in the form given to the schedule to the act, and that every Jesuit or member of such religious order coming into the realm after the commence- ment of the act should be guilty of a misdemeanour and should be banished from the United Kingdom for life (with an exception in favour of natural-born subjects duly registered). A secretary of state, being a Protestant, was empowered to grant licences to Jesuits, &c., to come into the United Kingdom and remain there for a period not exceeding six months. An account of these licences was to be laid annually before parliament. The admission of any person as a regular ecclesiastic by any such Jesuit, &c., was made a misdemeanour, and the person so admitted was to be banished for life. Nothing in the act was to extend to religious orders of females. These provisions exist in posse only, and have, it is believed, never been put into force. (4) Superstitious Uses. — Gifts to superstitious uses are void both at common law and by statute. It is not easy to determine what gifts are to be regarded as gifts to superstitious uses. Like con- tracts contrary to public policy, they depend to a great extent for their illegality upon the discretion of the court in the particular case. The act of 23 Hen. VIII. c. 10 makes void any assurance of lands to the use (to have obits perpetual) or the continual service of a priest for ever or for threescore or fourscore years. The act of I Edw. VI. c. 14 (specially directed to the suppression of chantries) vests in the crown all money paid by corporations and all lands appointed to the finding or maintenance of any priest, or any anniversary or obit or other like thing, or of any light or lamp in any church or chapel maintained within five years before 1547. The act may still be of value in the construction of old grants, and in affording ex- amples of what the legislature regarded as superstitious uses. Gifts which the courts have held void on the analogy of those mentioned in the acts of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. are a devise for the good of the soul of the testator, a bequest to certain Roman Catholic priests that the testator may have the benefit of their prayers and masses, a bequest in trust to apply a fund to circulate a book teaching the supremacy of the pope in matters of faith, a bequest to maintain a taper for evermore before the image of Our Lady. The court may ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 499 compel discovery of a secret trust for superstitious uses. Since 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 115 gifts for the propagation of the Roman Catholic faith are not void as made to superstitious uses. It should be noticed that the doctrine of superstitious uses is not confined to the Roman Catholic religion, though the question has generally arisen in the case of gifts made by persons of that religion. The Roman Catholic Charities Act 1860 enables the court to separate a lawful charitable trust from any part of the estate subject to any trust or provision deemed to be superstitious. It also provides that in the absence of any written document the usage of twenty years is to be conclusive evidence of the application of charitable trusts. (5) Patronage. — A Roman Catholic cannot present to a benefice, prebend, or other ecclesiastical living, or collate or nominate to any free school, hospital or donative (3 lac. I. c. 5). Such patronage is by the act vested m the universities, Oxford taking the City of London and twenty-five counties in England and Wales, mostly south of the Trent, Cambridge the remaining twenty-seven. The principle is affirmed in subsequent acts (l Will, and Mary, sess. I, c. 26; 12 Anne, st. 2, c. 14; n Geo. II. c. 17). If the right of presentation to an ecclesiastical benefice belongs to any office under the crown, and that office is held by a Roman Catholic, the archbishop of Canter- bury exercises the right for the time being (10 Geo. IV. c. 7, s. 17). No Roman Catholic may advise the crown as to the exercise of its ecclesiastical patronage (Ibid. s. 18). A Roman Catholic, if a number of a lay corporation, cannot vote in any ecclesiastical appointment (Ibid. s. 15). Grants and devises of advowsons, &c., by Roman Catholics are void, unless for valuable consideration to a Protestant purchaser (n Geo. II. c. 17, s. 5). Where a quare impedit is pending before any court, the court may compel the patron to take an oath that there is no secret trust for the benefit of a Roman Catholic. (J.W.) The Church in the United Stales. The history of Roman Catholicism in the New World begins with the Norse discoveries of Greenland and Vinland the Good. In the former the bishopric of Gardar was established in 1112, and extinguished only in 1492. To the latter (the coast of New England), the Northmen during the same period made " temporary visits for timber and peltries, on missionary voyages to evangelize for a season the natives." Beyond these facts, the Norse sagas and chronicles contribute little that is certain (cf. " The Norse Hierarchy in the United States," Amer. Cath. Quart. Review, April 1890). Although a bishop was appointed by the pope for the vaguely defined territory of Florida so early as 1528, the oldest Catholic community in what is now the United States dates from 1565, when the Spanish colony of St Augustine was founded. Hence the aboriginal tribes of the South were evangelized. In 1582 the missions of New Mexico were undertaken, and from 1601 Catholic missionaries were at work along the Pacific coast, especially in California. Early in the iyth century trading posts and mission centres were established on the coast of Maine, and during the same century French priests laboured zealously in northern New York, along the entire coast of the Mississippi from Wisconsin to Louisiana, and around the Great Lakes. Their principal concern was for the savages, over whom they acquired an extraordinary influence. Political jealousies, human avarice and treachery arrested the progress of most of their missions. The English colony of Maryland, planned by the Catholic George Calvert (ist Lord Baltimore), and founded (1634) by his son the Catholic Cecilius Calvert (2nd Lord Baltimore), and Pennsylvania, founded (1681) by the tolerant Quaker William Penn, first permitted the legal existence of Catholicism in English-speaking communities of the New World. It is from these centres that it spread during the i8th century. In 1784 the Rev. John Carroll was appointed prefect-apostolic for the Catholics of the English colonies hitherto dependent on the vicar-apostolic of London. In 1790 Father Carroll was made bishop of the see of Baltimore, and given charge of all the Catholic interests in the United States. There were then about 24,500 Catholics in the land, of which number 15,800 were in Maryland, and 7000 in Pennsylvania, 200 in Virginia and 1 500 in New York. In 1807 they had grown to 150,000 with 80 churches. In the following year Baltimore found itself the first metropolitan see of the United States, with New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Bardstown as suffragans. The growth of the Catholic population by decades since 1820 was calculated by a competent historian, the late John Gilmary Shea, as follows: — 1820 . . 244,500 1870 1880 1830 1840 1850 361,000 1,000,000 1,726,470 1890 3,000,000 4,685,000 7,067,000 10,627,000 The number in 1906 was 12,079,142 (U.S. Census, Special Report, 1910). The main source of this growth has been immigration. Originally the Irish and the Germans furnished the greater quota. Later the French-Canadians, Italians, Poles and Bohemians added notably to the number; an appreciable percentage of Oriental Catholics is also found, — Greeks, Syrians, Armenians, &c. Natural increase, especially among the first Catholic immigrants, and a certain per- centage of conversions from Protestantism, are contributory sources. Being under the protection of the constitution, and enjoying the advantages of the common law, Catholicism could not meet with any official opposition; such few outbursts of fanaticism as there have been were but temporary or local, and did not represent the true feelings of the country. As to the future of the Church in the United States, all Catholics feel, with their latest historian, that " the Catholic Church is in accord with Christ's revelation, with American liberty, and is the strongest power for the preservation of the Republic from the new social dangers that threaten the United States as well as the whole civilized world. She has not grown, she cannot grow so weak and old that she may not maintain what she has produced — Christian civilization." Internally, Catholicism in the United States has been free from any noteworthy schisms or heresies that might impede its development — its doctrinal history offers nothing of im- portance. The discipline differs little from that of the other churches of Catholicism. The unity of doctrine, liturgy and moral ideals is preserved by an intimate union with the see of Rome. The general canonical legislation of the Church, the legislation by papal rescript and the Congregation of the Propaganda, the decisions of the Apostolic Delegation at Washington, and a certain amount of immemorial custom and practice, form the code that governs its domestic relations. Decennially each bishop of the United States is expected to pay a visit to Rome (Ad Limina Apostolorum), and to make a report of the spiritual condition of religion within his diocese. In addition a system of synods provides for local unity among bishops, priests and laity. Thus each province or body of bishops under a metropolitan holds provincial councils, while at greater intervals a plenary or national council is held. Of these last three have taken place — their decrees, when approved at Rome, are binding on all Catholics in the United States. In education the Catholic Church endeavours to keep abreast with the best. There are, according to Hoffmann's Directory (Milwaukee, 1907), 4364 parochial schools, in which 1,006,842 children of both sexes receive instruction. The total number of children in Catholic institutions is given as 1,266,175. There are 198 colleges for boys and 678 academies for girls. This system of education is crowned by the Catholic University of America at Washington, established by Leo XIII. and the American hierarchy, and endowed with all the privileges of the old pontifical universities of Europe. In addition there are several other schools that rank as universities. The education of the clergy is provided for by 86 seminaries, in which there are 5697 students. The chari- table institutions in the Church are very numerous. There are 255 orphan asylums, with 40,588 inmates. The other charitable institutions are 992 in number, and include every form of public and private charity; no diocese is without one or more such estab- lishments. The actual government of the Church in the United States is represented by one cardinal, 14 archbishops, 89 bishops, 11,135 diocesan clergymen, under the sole and immediate direction of their bishops, 3958 members of religious orders subject to epis- copal supervision — in all 15,093 clergymen. There are .8072 churches with resident priests, and 4076 mission churches — in all 12,148. to which must be added 3358 chapels. Several hundred weekly publications are printed in English and foreign tongues, to minister to the needs of the Catholic population. There exist also several literary and academical magazines and reviews of a high order of merit. The principal religious events in the recent history of the C were the holding of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884), 500 ROMANCE the Catholic Congress (1889), the opening of the Catholic University (1889), the Columbian Educational Exhibit at Chicago (1893), the establishment of the Apostolic Delegation at Washington (1893). The Catholic Church in the United States conducts no foreign missions, but takes care of its own percentage of Jndians and Negroes. Of the Indian population of the United States about 48,194 are Catholics, and they are attended by 65 priests, who look after 96 churches or chapels; there are 50 schools conducted by members of 16 sisterhoods, in which 4430 children are educated. The Catholic negroes are about 138,573 in number. They have 47 churches conducted by 43 white clergymen; 114 schools, in which 6294 children are educated by 31 sisterhoods, who also conduct ii charitable institutions. The expenses of these missions are borne by private charity, and by a general annual collection. AUTHORITIES. — General History: John Gilmary Shea, Life and Times of Archbishop Carroll (New York, 1888) ; The Catholic Church in Colonial Days (New York, 1886) ; The Hierarchy of the Catholic Church in the United States (New York, 1886). — Bishop O'Gorman, A History of the Catholic Church in the United States (1895). This work contains a useful bibliography. — Clarke, Lives of the Deceased Bishops (1872). Statistics: The Annual Directory of the Catholic Clergy. Of these, two are published; one by D. & _f. Sadlier, New York, the other (Hoffmanns') by M. Wiltzius & Co. of Milwaukee. The Catholic general statistics of the eleventh (1890) census may be found in The Religious Forces of the United States, by H. K. Carroll (New York, 1893). See also U.S. Census, Special Report on Religious Bodies in 1900 (1910). Legislation: Acta et Decreta Concilii Plenarii Baltimorensis, iii. (Baltimore, 1886). This is illustrated and brought into relation with the general laws of the Church in Smith's Elements of Ecclesiastical Law (New York). In connexion with this may be read Humphrey's Urbs et Orbis (London, 1899), an account of the general government of Roman Catholicism. <* J- G.) ROMANCE, originally a composition written in " Romance" language: that is to say, in one of the phases on which the Latin tongue entered after or during the dark ages. For some centuries by far the larger number of these compositions were narrative fictions in prose or verse; and since the special " Romance " language of France — the earliest so-called — was the original vehicle of nearly all such fictions, the use of the term for them became more and more accepted in a limited sense. Yet for a long time there was no definite connotation of fiction attached to it, but only of narrative story: and the French version of William of Tyre's History of the Crusades, a very serious chronicle written towards the close of the I2th century, bears the name of Roman d'Erade simply because the name of the emperor Heraclius occurs in the first line. But if the explanation of the name " Romance " is quite simple, certain and authentic, the same is by no means the case with its definition, or even with the origin of the thing to which that name came mostly to be applied. For some centuries an abstraction has been formed from the concrete examples. " Romance," " romanticism," " the romantic character," " the romantic spirits," have been used to express sometimes a quality regarded in itself, but much more frequently a differ- ence from the supposed " classical " character and spirit. The following article will deal chiefly with the matter of Romance, excluding or merely referring to accounts of such individual romances as are noticed elsewhere. But it will not be possible to conclude without some reference to the vaguer and more con- tentious signification. Speculations on the origin of the peculiar kind of story which we recognize rather than define under the name of romance have been numerous and sometimes confident; but a wary and well-informed criticism will be slow to accept most of them. It is certain that many of its characteristics are present in the Odyssey; and it is a most remarkable fact that these characteristics are singled out for reprehension — or at least for comparative disapproval — by the author of the Treatise on the Sublime. The absence of central plot, and the Romance prolongation rather than evolution of the story; /nan- the intermixture of the supernatural; the presence tiquity. an(j mdeed prominence of love-affairs; the juxta- position of tragic and almost farcical incident; the variety of adventure arranged rather in the fashion of a panorama than otherwise: all these things are in the Odyssey, and they are all, in varying degrees and measures, characteristic of romance. Nor are they absent from the few specimens of ancient prose fiction which we possess. If the Satyricon was ever more than a mass of fragments, it was certainly a romance, though one much mixed with satire, criticism and other things; and the various Greek survivals from Longus to Eustathius always and rightly receive the name. But two things were still wanting which were to be all-powerful in the romances proper — Chivalry and Religion. They could not yet be in- cluded, for chivalry did not exist; and such religion as did exist lent itself but ill to the purpose except by providing myths for ornament and perhaps pattern. A possible origin of the new romance into which these elements entered (though it was some time before that of chivalry de- finitely emerged) has been seen by one of the least hazardous of the speculations above referred to in the hagiology or " Saint's Life," which arose at an early though uncertain period, developed itself pretty rapidly, and spreading over all Christendom (which by degrees meant all Europe and parts of Asia) provided centuries with their chief supply of what may be The called interesting literature. If the author of On "Saiat't the Sublime was actually Longinus, the minister of Lite." Zenobia, there is no doubt that examples both sacred and profane ofthekindof "fiction " ("imitation "or "representation") which he deprecated were mustering and multiplying close to, perhaps in, his own time. The Alexander legend of the pseudo-Callis- thenes is supposed to have seen the light in Egypt as early as A.D. 200, and the first Greek version of that " Vision of Saint Paul," which is the ancestor of all the large family of legends of the life after death, is pretty certainly as old as the 4th century and may be as old as the $rd. The development of the Alexan- dreid was to some extent checked or confined to narrow channeb as long as something like traditional and continuous study of the classics was kept up. But hagiology was entirely free from criticism; its subjects were immensely numerous; and in the very nature of the case it allowed the tendencies and the folk- lore of three continents and of most of their countries to mingle with it. Especially the comparative sobriety of classical literature became affected with the Eastern appetite for marvel and unhesitating acceptation of it; and the extraordinary beauty of many of the central stories invited and necessitated embroidery, continuation, episode. Later, no doubt, the adult romance directly reacted on the original saint's life, as in the legends of St Mary Magdalene most of all, of St Eustace, and of many others. But there can be very little doubt that if the romance itself did not spring from the saint's life it was fostered thereby. Proceeding a little further in the cautious quest — not for the definite origins which are usually delusive, but for the tendencies which avail themselves of opportunities and the opportunities which lend themselves to tendencies — we may notice two things very important to the subject. The one is that as Graeco-Roman civilization began to spread North and East it met, to appearance which approaches certainty, matter which lent itself gladly to " romantic " treatment. The That such matter was abundant in the literature gathering and folk-lore of the East we know: that it was even ' more abundant in the literatures and folk-lore of the North, if we cannot strictly be said to know, we may be reason- ably sure. On the other hand, as the various barbarian nations (using the word in the wide Greek sense), at least those of the North, became educated to literature, to " grammar," by classical examples, they found not a few passages in these examples which were either almost romances already or which lent themselves, with readiness that was almost insistence, to romantic treatment. Apollonius Rhodius had made almost a complete romance of the story of Jason and Medea. Virgil had imitated him by making almost a complete romance of the story of Aeneas and Dido: and Ovid, who for that very reason was to become the most popular author of the middle ages early and late, had gone some way towards romancing a great body of mythology. We do not know exactly who first applied to the legendary tale of Troy the methods which the ROMANCE pseudo-Callisthenes and " Julius Valerius " applied to the histori- cal wars of Alexander, but there is every reason to believe that it was done fairly early. In short, during the late classical or semi-classical times and the whole of the dark ages, things were making for romance in almost every direction. It would and did follow from this that the thing evolved itself in so many different places and in so many different forms that only a person of extraordinary temerity would put his finger on any given work and say, " This is the first romance," even putting aside the extreme chronological uncertainty of most of the documents that could be selected for such a position. Except by the most meteoric flights of " higher " criticism we cannot attain to any opinion as to the age and first developed form of such a story as that of Weland and Beadohild (referred to in the Complaint of Dear), which has strong romantic pos- Uncer- sibilities and must be almost of the oldest. The taiaty of much more complicated Volsung and Nibelung story, its order, though we may explore to some extent the existence backwards of its Norse and German forms, baffles us beyond certain points in each case; yet this, with the exception of the religious element, is romance almost achieved. And the origin of the great type of the romance that is achieved — that has all elements present and brings them to absolute perfection — the Arthurian legend, despite the immense labours that have been spent upon it and the valuable additions to particular knowledge which have resulted from some of them, is, still more than its own Grail, a quest unachieved, probably a thing unachievable. The longest and the widest inquiries, provided only that they be conducted in any spirit save that which deter- mines to attain certainty and therefore concludes that certainty has been attained, will probably acquiesce most resignedly in the dictum that romance " grew " — that its birthplace is as unknown as the grave of its greatest representative figure. But when it has " grown " to a certain stage we can find it, and in a way localize it, and more definitely still analyse and comprehend its characteristics from their concrete ex- pressions. Approaching these concrete expressions, then, without at first too hard and fast requirements in regard to the validation of the claims, we find in Europe about the nth cen- fooreef turv (tne time k designedly left loose) divers classes of what we should now call imaginative or fictitious literature, nearly all (the exceptions are Scandinavian and Old English) in verse. These are: (i) The saints' lives; (ii) the Norse sagas, roughly so-called; (iii) the French chansons de geste; (iv) the Old English and Old German stories of various kinds; (v) perhaps the beginning of the Arthurian cycle; (vi) various stories more or less based on classical legend or history from the tales of Alexander and of Troy down to things like Apollonius of Tyre, which have no classical auth- ority of either kind, but strongly resemble the Greek romances, and which were, as in the case named, pretty certainly derived from members of the class; (vii) certain fragments of Eastern story making their way first, it may be, through Spain by pil- grimages, latterly by the crusades. Now, without attempting to fence off too rigidly the classical from the romantic, it may be laid down that these various classes possess that romantic character, to which we are, by a process of netting and tracking, slowly making our way, in rather different degrees, and a short examination of the differ- ence will forward us not a little in the hunt. With i. (the saints' lives) we have least to do: because by the time that romance in the full sense comes largely and clearly into view, it has for the most part separated itself off — the legend of St Eustace has become the romance of Sir Isumbras, and so forth. But the influence which it may, as has been said, have originally given must have been continually re-exerted; the romantic-dynamic suggestion of such stories as those of St Mary of Egypt, of St Margaret and the Dragon, of St Dorothea, and of scores of others, is quite unmistakable. Still, in actual result, it works rather more on drama than on narrative romance, and produces the miracle plays. In ii. (the sagas), while a large part of their matter and even not a little of their form are strongly romantic, differences of handling and still more of temper have made some demur to their inclusion under romance, while their final ousting in their own literatures by versions of the all-conquering French romance itself is an argument on the same side. But the Volsung story, for instance, is full of what may be called " undistUled " romance the wine is there, but it has to be passed through the still — and even in the most domestic sagas proper this characteristic is largely present. It is somewhat less so in iii. (the chansons de geste), at least in the apparently older ones, though here again the com- parative absence of romantic characteristics has been rather exaggerated, in consequence of the habit of paying dispro- portionate and even exclusive attention to the Chanson de Roland. There is more, that is, of romance in Aliscans and others of the older class, while Amis and A miles, which must be of this class in time, is almost a complete romance, blending war, love and religion — salus, venus, virtus — in full degree. The other four classes, the miscellaneous stories from classical, Eastern and European sources, having less corporate or national character, lend themselves with greater ease to the conditions of romantic development; but even so in different degrees. The classical stories have to drop most of their original character and allow something very different to be superinduced before they become' thoroughly romantic. The greatest success of all in this way is the story of Troilus andCressida. For before its develop- ment through the successive hands of Benolt' de Sainte-More, Boccaccio (for we may drop Guido of the Columns as a mere middleman between Benoit and Boccaccio) and Chaucer, it has next to no classical authority of any kind except the mere names. In the various Alexandreids the element of the marvellous — the Eastern element, that is to say — similarly overpowers the classical. As for the Eastern stories themselves, they are particularly difficult of certain unravelment. The large moral division — such as Barlaam and Josaphat, the Seven Wise Masters in its various forms, &c., comes short of the strictly romantic. We do not know how much of East and how much of West there is in such things as Flare et Blanchefleur or even in Huon of Bordeaux itself. Contrariwise we ought to know, more certainly than apparently is known yet, what is the date and history of such a thing as that story of Zumurrud and Ali Shahr, which may be found partly in Lane and fully in the complete translations of the Arabian Nights, though not in the commoner editions, and which is evidently either copied from, or capable of serving as model to, a Western roman d'avenlures itself. We come, however, much closer to the actual norm itself — closer, in fact, than in any other place save one — in the various stories, English, French, and to a less extent German,1 which gradually received in a loose kind of way the technical French term just used, a term not to be translated without danger. Nearly all these stories were drawn, by the astonishing centri- petal tendency which made France the home of all romance between the nth and the I3th centuries, into French forms; and in most cases no older ones survive. But it is hardly possible to doubt that in such a case, for instance, as Havelok, an original story of English or Scandinavian origin got itself into existence before, and perhaps long before, the French version was retransferred to English, and so in other cases. If, once more, we take our existing English Havelok and its sister King Horn, we see that the latter is a more romanced form than the former. Havelok is more like a chanson de geste — the love interest in it is very slight ; while in King Horn it is much stronger, and the increased strength is shown by the heroine being in some forms promoted into the title. If these two be studied side by side the process of transforming the mere story into the full romance is to no small extent seen in actual 1 Italian romance seems to have modelled itself earjy on French, and it is doubtful, rich as is the late crop of Spanish romances, whether we have any that deserve the name strictly and are really early. 502 ROMANCE operation. But neither exhibits in any considerable degree the element of the marvellous, or the religious element, and the love interest itself is, even in Horn, simple and not very dramatically or passionately worked out. In the later roman d'aventures, of which the I3th century was so prolific (such as, to give one example out of many, Amadas and Idoine), these elements appear fully, and so they do in the great Auchinleck collection in English, which, though dating well within the I4th, evidently represents the meditation and adaptation of French examples for many years earlier. The last of our divisions, however, exhibits the whole body of romantic elements as nothing else does. It is not our business in this place to deal with the Arthurian legend generally as regards origin, contents, &c., nor, in the present division of this actual article, to look at it except for a special purpose and in connexion with and contradistinction to the other groups just surveyed. Here, however, we at last find all the elements of romance, thoroughly mixed and thoroughly at home, with the result not merely that the actual story becomes immensely popular and widely spread; not only that it receives the greatest actual development of any romantic theme; but that, in a curious fashion, it attracts to itself great numbers of prac- tically independent stories — in not a few cases probably quite independent at first — which seem afraid to present themselves without some tacking on (it may be of the loosest and most accidental description) to the great polycentric cycle, the stages of which gather round Merlin, the Round Table, the Grail and the Guinevere-Lancelot-Mordred catastrophe. All the elements, let it be repeated, are here present: war, love and religion; the characteristic extension of subject in desultory adventure- chronicles; the typical rather than individual character (though the strong individuality of some of the unknown or half-known contributors sometimes surmounts this); the admixture of the marvellous, not merely though mainly as part of the religious element; the presence of the chivalrous ideal. The strong dramatic interest of the central story is rather superadded to than definitely evolved from these elements; but they are still present, just as, though more powerfully than, in the weakest of miscellaneous romans d'aventures. A further step in the logical and historical exploration of romance may be taken by regarding the character-and-story classes round which it instinctively groups itself, sto/yf ° and which from the intense community of medieval literature — the habit of medieval writers not so much to plagiarize from one another as to take up each after each the materials and the instruments which were not the property of any — is here especially observable. Prominent above every- thing is the world-old motive of the quest; which, world-old as it is, here acquires a predominance that it has never held before or since. The object takes pretty various, though not quite infinitely various, forms, from the rights of the dis- inherited heir and the hand or the favour of the heroine, to individual things which may themselves vary from the Holy Grail to so many hairs of a sultan's beard. It may be a friendly knight who is lost in adventure, or a felon knight who has to be punished for his trespasses; a spell of some kind to be laid; a monster to be exterminated; an injured virgin, .or lady, or an infirm potentate, to be succoured or avenged; an evil custom to be put an end to; or simply some definite adventure or exploit to be achieved. But quest of some sort there must almost certainly be if (as in Sir Launfal, for instance) it is but the recovery of a love forfeited by misbehaviour or mishap. It is almost a sine qua non — the present writer, thinking over scores, nay hundreds, of romances, cannot at the moment remember one where it is wanting in some form or another. It will be observed that this at once provides the amplest opportunity for the desultory concatenation or congregation of incident and episode which is of the very essence of romance. Often, nay generally, the conditions, localities and other circumstances of the quest are half known, or all but unknown, to the knight, and he is sometimes Of loci' deat. intentionally led astray, always liable to be incidentally called off by interim adventures. In many (perhaps most) cases the love interest is directly connected with the quest, though it rnay be in the way of hindrance as well as of furtherance or reward. The war interest always is so connected; and the religious interest commonly — almost universally in fact — is an in- separable accident. But everything leads up to, involves, eventuates in the fighting. The quest, if not always a directly warlike one, always involves war; and the endless battles have at all times, since they ceased to be the great attraction, continued to be the great obloquy of romance. It is possible no doubt that reports of tournaments and single combats with lance and sword, mace and battle-axe, may be as tedious to some people as reports of football matches certainly are to others. It is certain that the former were as satisfactory in former times to their own admirers as the latter are now. In fact the variety of incident is almost as remarkable as the sameness. And the same may be said, with even greater confidence, of the adventures between the fights in castle and church and monastery, in homestead or hermitage. The actual stories are not much more alike than those who have read large numbers of modern novels critically know to be the case with them. But the absence, save in rare cases, of the element of character, and the very small presence of that of conversation, show up the sameness that exists hi the earlier case. This same deficiency in individual character-drawing, and in the conversation which is one of its principal instruments, brings out in somewhat unfair relief some other F ii_ t » Of per- cases of apparent sameness — the common forms soaages. of story and of character itself. The disinherited heir, the unfaithful or wronged wife, the wicked stepmother, the jealous or wrongly suspected lover, are just as universal in modern fiction as they are in medieval — for the simple reason that they are common if not universal in nature. But the skeleton is more obvious because it is less clothed with flesh and garments over the flesh; the texture of the canvas shows more because it is less worked upon. Some of these common forms, however, are more peculiar to medieval times; and some, though not many, allow excursions into abnormalities which, until recently, were tabooed to the modern novelist. Among the former the wickedness of the steward is remarkable, and of course not difficult to account for. The steward or seneschal of romance, with some honour- able exceptions, is as wicked as the baronet of a novel, but here the explanation is not metaphysical. He was constantly left in charge in the absence of his lord and so was exposed to temptation. The extreme and almost Ephesian consolable- ness of the romance widow can be equally rationalized — and in fact is so in the stories themselves — by the danger of the fief being resumed or usurped in the absence of a male tenant who can maintain authority and discharge duties. While such themes as the usually ignorant incest of son with mother or the more deliberate passion of father for daughter come mostly from very popular early examples — the legend of St Gregory of the Rock or the story of Apollonius of Tyre. The last point brings us naturally to another of considerable importance — the singular purity of the romances as a whole, if not entirely in atmosphere and situation, yet in charac- language and in external treatment. It suited the ters of purposes of the Protestant controversialists of the Renaissance, such as our own Ascham, to throw discredit upon work so intimately connected with Catholic ceremony and belief as the Morte d' Arthur; and it is certain that the knights of romance did not even take the benefit of that liberal doctrine of the Cursor Mundi which regards even illicit love as not mortal unless it be " with spouse or sib." But if in the romances such love is portrayed freely, and with a certain sympathy, it is never spoken of lightly and is always punished; nor are the pictures of it ever coarsely drawn. In a very wide reading of romance the present writer does not remember more than two or three passages of romance proper romance proper. ROMANCE 503 (that is to say before the later part of the isth century) which could be called obscene by any fair judge. And the term would have to be somewhat strained in reference even to these. The contrast with the companion divisions of fabliaux and farces is quite extraordinary; and nearly as sharp as that between Greek tragedy on the one hand and Greek comedy or satiric play on the other. It is brought out for the merely English reader in Chaucer of course, but in him it might have been studied. In the immense corpus of known or unknown French and English writers (the Germans are not quite so particular) it comes out with no possibility of deliberation and with unmistakable force. The history of the forms in which romance presents itself follows a sufficiently normal and probable course. The oldest Develo • &K always — save in the single case of part of the meoLP" Arthurian division, in which we probably possess none of the actually oldest, and in some of the division of Antiquity which had a long line of predecessors in the learned languages — the shortest. They become lengthened in a way continued and exemplified to the present moment by the tend- ency of writers to add sequels and episodes to their own stories, and made still more natural by the fact that these poems were in all or almost all cases recited. " Go on " is the most natural and not the least common as well as the most complimentary form of " Bravo !" and the reciter never seems to have said " no " to the compliment. In not a few cases — Huon of Bordeaux, Ogier the Dane, Guy of Warwick, are conspicuous examples — we possess the same story in various stages; and can see how poems, perhaps originally like King Horn of not more than a couple of thousand lines or even shorter in the i3th century, grew to thirty, forty, fifty thousand in the I5th. The transference of the story itself from verse to prose is also— save in some particular and still controverted instances — regularly traceable and part of a larger and natural literary movement. While, also naturally enough, the pieces become in time fuller of conversation (though not as yet often of conversation that advances the story or heightens its interest), of descriptive detail, &c. And in some groups (notably that of the remark- able Amadis division) a very great enlargement of the pro- portion and degradation of the character of the marvellous element appears — the wonders being no longer mystical, and magical only in the lower sense. And so we come to the particular characteristics of the kind or kinds in individual examples. Of these the English reader charac- has a matchless though late instance in the Morte teristic d' Arthur of Malory, a book which is at once a corpus examples. ancj a pattern of romance in gross and in detail. The fact that it is not, as has been too often hastily or ignorantly asserted, a mere compilation, but the last of a singular series of rehandlings and redactions — conducted with extra- ordinary though for the most part indistinctly traceable instinct of genius — makes it to some extent transcend any single example of older date and more isolated composition. But it displays all the best as well as some of the less good characteristics of most if not all. Of the commonest kind — the almost pure roman d'aventures itself — the Gareth-Beaumains episode (for which we have no direct original, French or English, though Lybius Disconus and Ipomedon come near to it in different ways) will give a fair example; while its presentation of the later chapters of the Grail story, and the intertwisted plot and continuing catastrophe of the love of Lancelot and Guine- vere, altogether transcend the usual scope of romance pure and simple, and introduce almost the highest possibilities of the romantic novel. The way in which Malory or his immediate authorities have extruded the tedious wars round the " Rock of the Saxons," have dropped the awkward episode of the false Guinevere, and have restrained the uninteresting exuberance of the continental wars and the preliminary struggles with the minor kings, keeps the reader from contact with the duller sides of romance only. Of the real variety which rewards a persistent reader of the class at large it would be impossible to present even a miniature hand-index here; but something may be done by sample, which will not be mere sample, but an integral part of the exposition. No arbitrary separation need be made between French and English; because of the intimate connexion between the two. As specially and symptomatically noteworthy the famous pair — perhaps the most famous of all — Guy of Warwick and Bevis of Hampton, should not be taken. For, with the ex- ception of the separation of Guy and Felise in the first, and some things in the character of Josiane in the second, both are some- what spiritless concoctions of stock matter. Far more striking than anything in either, though not consummately supported by their context, are the bold opening of Blancandin et I'orgueilleuse d'amour, where the hero begins by kissing a specially proud and prudish lady; and the fine scenes of fight with a supernatural foe at a grave to be found in Amadas et Idoine. Reputation and value coincide more nearly in the charming fairy story of Parthenopex de Blois and the Christian-Saracen love romance of Flare (Florice and other forms) et Blanchcfleur. Few romances in either language, or in German, exhibit the pure adventure story better than Chrestien de Troyes's Chevalier au Lyon, especially in its English form of Ywain and Gawain; while the above-mentioned Lybius Disconus (Le Beau Dtconnu) makes a good pair with this. For originality of form and phrase as well as of spirit, if not exactly of incident, Gawain and the Green Knight stands alone; but another Gawain story (in French this time), Le Chevalieur aux deux fpies, though of much less force and fire, exceeds it in length without sameness of adven- ture. Only the poorest romances — those ridiculed by Chaucer in Sir Thopas — which form a small minority, lack striking individual touches, such as the picture of the tree covered with torches and carrying on its summit a heavenly child, which illuminates the huge expanse of Durmart le Gallois. The various forms of the Seven Wise Masters in different European languages show the attitude of the Western to the Eastern fiction interestingly. The beautiful romance of Emare is about the best of several treatments of one of the exceptional subjects classed above — the unnatural love of father for daughter, while if we turn to German stories we find not merely in the German variants of Arthurian themes, but in others a double portion of the mystical element. French themes are constantly worked up afresh — as indeed they are all over Europe — but the Germans have the advantage of drawing upon not merely Scandinavian traditions like those which they wrought into the Nibelungen Lied and Gudrun, but others of their own. And both in these and in their dealings with French they some- times show an amount of story-telling power which is rare in French and English. No handling of the Tristan and Iseult story can compare with Gottfried's; while the famous Der arme Heinrich of Hartmann von Aue (the original of Longfellow's Golden Legend) is one of the greatest triumphs and most charm- ing examples of romance, displaying in almost the highest degree possible for a story of little complexity all the best characteristics of the thing. What, then, are these characteristics? The account has now been brought to a point where a reasoned resume of it will give as definite an answer as can be given. Even yet we may with advantage interpose a consideration of the answer that was given to this question universally (with a few dissidents) from the Renaissance to nearly the Sum -nary end of the i8th century and not infrequently since; of opinion while it is not impossible that, in the well-attested re- "a luct~ volutions of critical thought and taste, it may be given again. This is that romance on the whole, and with some flashes of better things at times, is a jumble of incoherent and mostly ill-told stories, combining sameness with extravagance, out- raging probability and the laws of imitative form, childish as a rule in its appeal to adventure and to the supernatural, immoral in its ethics, barbarous in its aesthetics, destitute of any philo- sophy, representing at its very best (though the ages of its lowest appreciation were hardly able even to consider this) a necessary stage in the education of half-civilized peoples, and embodying some interesting legends, much curious folk- lore and a certain amount of distorted historical evidence. On 504 ROMANCE LANGUAGES the other hand, for the last hundred years .and more, there have been some who have seen in romance almost the highest and certainly the most charming form of fictitious creation, the link between poetry and religion, the literary embodiment of men's dreams and desires, the appointed nepenthe of more sophisticated ages as it was the appointed pastime of the less sophisticated. Between these opposites there is of course room for many middle positions, but few of these will be occupied safely and inexpugnably by those who do not take heed of the following conclusions. Romance, beyond all question, enmeshes and retains for us a vast amount of story-material to which we find little corre- sponding in ancient literature. It lays the foundation of modern prose fiction in such a fashion that the mere working out and building up of certain features leads to, and in fact involves, the whole structure of the modern novel (q.v.). It antiquates (by a sort of gradual " taking for granted ") the classical assump- tion that love is an inferior motive, and that women, though they " may be good sometimes " are scarcely fit for the position of principal personages. It helps to institute and ensure a new unity — the unity of interest. It admits of the most extensive variety. It gives a scope to the imagination which exceeds that of any known older literary form. At its best it embodies the new or Christian morality, if not in a Pharisaic yet in a Christian fashion, and it establishes a concordat between religion and art in more ways than this. Incapable of exacter definition, inclining (a danger doubtless as well as an advantage) towards the vague, it is nevertheless comprehensible for all its vagueness, and, informal as it is, possesses its own form of beauty — and that a precious one. These characteristics were, if perceived at all by its enemies in the period above referred to, taken at their worst; they were perceived by its champions at the turn of the tide and perhaps exaggerated. From both attitudes emerged that distinction between the " classic " and the " romantic " which was referred to at the beginning of this article as requiring notice before we conclude. The crudest, but it must be remembered the most intentionally crude (for Goethe knew the limitations of his saying), is that "Classicism is health; Romanticism is disease." In a less question-begging proposition of single terms, classicism might be said to be method and romanticism energy. But in fact sharp distinctions of the kind do much more harm than good. It is true that the one tends to order, lucidity, proportion; the other to freedom, to fancy, to caprice. But the attempt to reimpose these qualities as absolutely distinguishing marks and labels on particular works is almost certain to lead to mistake and dis- aster, and there is more than mere irony in the person who defines romance as " Something which was written between an unknown period of the Dark Ages and the Renaissance, and which has been imitated since the later part of the i8th century." What that something really is is not well to be known except by reading more or less considerable sections of it — by exploring it like one of its own forbidden countries. But something of a sketch-map of that country has been attempted here. To illustrate and reinforce the above, see in the first place articles on the different national literatures, especially French and Ice- landic; as also the following: — Classical or Pseudo-Classical Subjects. — APOLLONIUS OF TYRE; LONGUS; HELIODORUS; APULEIUS; TROY; THEBES; CAESAR, JULIUS; ALEXANDER THE GREAT; HERCULES; JASON; OEDIPUS; VIRGIL. Arthurian Romance. — ARTHUR; GAWAIN; PERCEVAL; LANCE- LOT; MERLIN; TRISTAN; ROUND TABLE; GRAIL; and the articles on romance writers such as Malory, Wolfram von Eschen- bach, Chretien de Troyes, Gottfried of Strassburg, &c. French Romance. — CHARLEMAGNE; GUILLAUMED'ORANGE; DOON DE MAYENCE; OGIER THE DANE; ROLAND; RENAUD DE MONT- AUBAN (Quatre fils Aymon); HUON OF BORDEAUX; GIRART DE ROUSSILLON; AMISETAMILES; MACAIRE; PARTONOPEUSDEBLOIS; ROBERT THE DEVIL; FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR; GARIN LE LOHERAIN; RAOUL DE CAMBRAI; GUILLAUME DE PALERME; ADENES LE Roi ; BENotT DE SAINTE-MORE, &c. - Anglo-Norman, Anglo-Danish, English Romance. — BEVIS OF HAMP- TON; HORN; HAVELOK; GUY OF WARWICK; ROBIN HOOD; MAID MARIAN. German. — NIBELUNGENLIED ; ORTNIT ; DIETRICH OF BERN ; WOLF- DIETRICH; HELDENBUCH; WALTHARIUS; GUDRUN; HILDEBRAND, LAY OF; RUODLIEB. Northern. — SIGURD; WAYLAND; HAMLET; EDDA. Spanish. — AMADIS DE GAULA. Various. — REYNARD; ROMAN DE LA ROSE; GRISELDA and kindred stories; GENEVIEVE OF BRABANT; GESTA ROMANORUM; BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT; SEVEN WISE MASTERS; MAELDUNE, VOYAGE OF. AUTHORITIES. — The first modern composition of importance on romance (putting aside the dealings of Italian critics in the 1 6th century with the question of romantic ». classical unity) is the very remarkable dialogue De la Lecture des vieux remans written by Chapelain in mid-i7th century (ed. Feillet, Paris, 1870), which is a surprising and thoroughgoing defence of its subjects. But for long afterwards there was little save unintelligent and mostly quite ignorant depreciation. The sequence of really important serious works almost begins with Kurd's Letters on Chivalry and Romance (1762). In succession to this may be con- sulted on the general subject (which alone can be here regarded) the dissertations of Percy, Warton and Ritson; Sir Walter Scott, " Essay on Romance " in the supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1816-24); Dunlop, History of Fiction (1816, to be usefully supplemented and completed by its latest edition, 1888, with very large additions by H. Wilson); Wolff, Allgemeine Geschichte des Romans (Jena, 1841-50); Ward, Catalogue of Romances in the British Museum (vol. i. 1883, vol. ii. 1893) (the most valuable single contribution to the knowledge of the subject) ; G. Saintsbury, The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory (Edinburgh, 1897), and its companion volumes in Periods of European Literature [W. P. Ker, The Dark Ages (1904); Snell, The Fourteenth Century (1899); Gregory Smith, The Transition Period (1900); Hannay, The Later Renaissance (1898)]; W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance (1897). (G. SA.) ROMANCE LANGUAGES, the name generally adopted for the modern languages descended from the old Roman or Latin tongue, acted upon by inner decay or growth, by dialectic variety, and by outward influence, more or less marked, of all the foreign nations with which it came into contact. During the middle ages the old Roman Empire or the Latin- speaking world was called Romania, its inhabitants Romani (adj. Romanicus), and its speech Romsncium, Vulgar Romancio, Italian Romanzo, from Romanics loqui — to speak Romance; in Old French nominative romanz, objective roman(t), Modern French roman, " a novel." originally a composition in the vulgar tongue. In English some moderns use Romanic (like Germanic, Teutonic) instead of Romance; some say Neo-Latin, which is frequently used by Romance-speaking scholars. By successive changes Latin, a synthetical language, rich in in- flexions, was transformed into several cognate analytical tongues of few inflexions, most of the old forms being replaced by separate foim-words. As the literary language of the ancient Roman civilization died out, seemingly extinguished by the barbarism ot the middle ages, all the forms of the old classical language being confounded in the most hopeless chaos, suddenly new, vigorous and beautiful tongues sprang forth, ruled by the most regular laws, related to', yet different from, Latin. How was this wonderful change brought about? How can chaos produce regularity? The explanation of this mystery has been given by Diez,' the great founder of Romance philology. The Romance languages did not spring from literary classical Latin, but from popular Latin, which, like every living speech, had its own laws, not subject to the changing literary fashions, but only to the slow process of phonetic change and dialectic variety. It is interesting to observe that much that is handed down to us in the oldest Latin literature (notably in the voca- bulary) reappears in the most recent phase of Latin — the Romance languages. Thus, a verb nivire, " to snow," is known to Pacuvius, but does not again appear until the time of Venantius Fortunatus, and then with a change of conjugation — nivere, while it has now a new term of life in French and Rhaeto-Romanic dialects. It is obvious that there was no break of continuity^ in the vulgar language, for if in the later imperial ages a verb had been formed from nix, nivis, it must have been nivare, or niviare (Fr. neiger). Here especially the words of Horace come true: — " Multa renascentur, quae jam cecidere, cadentque Buae nunc sunt in honore vocabula, si volet usus, uem penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi." ROMANCE LANGUAGES The present article, embracing all the Romance languages, aims at tracing on the one hand their common origin and their common development, on the other hand at pointing out the peculiarities of the individual languages and the possible explanations of the growth of these peculiarities. Their common development is mainly dealt with under LATIN LAN- GUAGE. The relation of the early vulgar Latin to the literary language, the spread of Latin following the spread of Roman rule, the prevalence of Latin over Oscan, Umbrian, Etruscan, and late Iberian and Gallic— all these matters concern rather the history of Latin than of the Romance languages. But we may say broadly that the language spoken throughout the Roman Empire at the time of Augustus was fairly uniform, and that naturally differentiations took place (varying according to regions) which were not, however, strongly marked, and which even tended to be obliterated in later times. The main causes of these variations were twofold, (i) The process of Romanizing the various districts took place at epochs far remote one from the other, and between the earliest and the latest of these epochs Latin itself was modified.1 (2) We have the reaction on Latin of the languages of the pre-Roman populations. Applying this first point of view, we should find that the oldest form of Latin (oldest, that is, for our present purposes) was intro- duced into Sardinia (238 B.C.) ; next comes Spain (197 B.C.), Illyria (167 B.C.), South Gaul (120 B.C.), North Gaul (50 B.C.), Raetia (15 B.C.), Dacia (A.D. 107). And we can actually trace some of the results of these differences in date, chiefly perhaps in the vocabulary and morphology of the Romance languages. When, for example, we find the dative illui (Ital., Fr., Rum. lui) missing in the Iberian peninsula, we may infer that it was unknown to the Latin intro- duced there, and conversely that Latin still used the ancient cova (Sp. cueva, " caya ") and not the more recent coxa (Ital. cava), also demagis or gumia, which we only know from Lucilius, Sp. demas, gomia. We may be justified in assigning to these historic causes the beginnings of the divergence from the original uniformity. Neither active intercourse, nor the dislocations of tribes and populations brought about by the exigencies of military or colonizing enterprise, ever effected a complete fusion of these divergences. To this we must add, as a second element, ethnic considerations. To begin with, we seem to find in Italy itself, among the Italic population in country districts, the survival of isolated forms which had been discarded by the literary language with its levelling tendencies, and in consequence also by what may be called " Average Latin " (Durchschnittslatein). In early Latin d becomes r before labials, e.g. ar me advenias occurs in Plautus; arvorsus, arger from *arfger are the ancient forms. Only arbiter has survived as a word of the official language and because in general feeling the noun was consciously connected with the verb baetere, though it was soon dis- carded. Arger, under the influence of aggerere, aggestus, became agger, and arvorsus was displaced by advorsus. I n Abruz. we have arbendd, " to repose," beside Sicil. abbintari which suppose *arventare beside adventari; Abruz. armuri, " to put out the fire," represents Lat. *armoriri instead of admoriri; arbukkd is found beside Ital. abboccare. All these forms are only attested in Italy, and they might by reason of their prefix be classed as Umbrian, since in Umbrian ar for ad is even commoner, cf. the place-name Arestajfele in Molise, which in Latin would be ad Stabula, save that the limitation to the cases that are in line with the Latin rule prove precisely that this is not a case of Umbrian influence, but of a preservation of ancient and popular forms. Beyond the limits of Italy arger has been preserved, e.g. Sp. arcen, and not only Ital. argine; further armissarius, " stallion," in the Lex Salica and in Rum. armesariu; perhaps Sp. almuerzo, " breakfast," for *armuerzo beside Lat. admorsus. In the second place we have, especially in Italy, clearly Umbro- Oscan forms. Contrary to Latin use, these two dialects, the most important in ancient Italy, have / between vowels from an early bh, dh, as against Latin b, d; and Umbrian, Paelignan, &c., e, d, from an early ei, ou, as against Latin I, u. Thus crefrat (in the glosses), as against Latin cribrat, is both by right of its vowel and consonant, an Umbrian form. And with this we must compare Ital. bifolco beside Lat. bubulcus; Ital. taffiari, "to feast," beside tabulari; tafano, "horsefly," beside Lat. tabanus; bufalo, beside Lat. bubalus. Further, Neap. Ottufro, " October," morfende, " eye- teeth," Lat. mordente, &c. There is a special interest in cases like the French mandrin beside Ital. manfano. What has come down to us is manphur, which is not Greek, its ph notwithstanding, but which owing to its_f we must take to be Osco-Umbrian ; while the corre- sponding Latin form would be "mandar. The Latin supplies the French, the Osco-Umbrian the Italian form. As to the other 1 Cf. G. Grober,.Archiv fur lot. Lexicographie, i. 35 ff. 505 instance, Varro points to veUa beside villa as rustic, and to this we must add Ital. stegola, Sardin. isteva, Sp. and Port, esleva ('sleva for sttva), " plough tail "; Ital. dee, Sardin. elige, Fr. yeuse. " holly " ( ilex for Vex), or Ital. pommice, FT. ponce, Sp. pomet, " pumice- stone ('pomice for pumice). It must not be overlooked that the last word denotes an object found chiefly in Sicily and near Naples, that is, in the ancient seat of the Oscans. It will be clear that we are dealing chiefly with words connected with agriculture, and it is remarkable that those of our second category spread all over the empire, while those of the first were entirely, or almost entirely, limited to Italy. As a parallel we may cite the vocabulary of North and South Gaul, which yields a number of Gallic elements, and one may safely infer that in the first few centuries after the Roman conquest these elements were more numerous than at a later stage, and there is in fact a definite justification for this inference. The so- called Km Midicrs glossary of the 5th century is a compilation, by a native of South Gaul, of Gallic words which were clearly at that time still current in the south of France.1 And in this we have not only dunum, " monlem," cambiare, " pro re dare " (Fr. changer); caio, " breialo sive bigardio " (Fr. quai); nanto " voile," Savoy. na, " stream," but also avallo, " poma," which was lost in later times but is preserved in its derivative amtlanche, " medlar." Another Gallic word recorded by ancient tradition — tegia, " hut " — still exists to-day with this meaning in the Venetian and Raetic Alps, and moreover plays an important part in toponomy — Fr. Arthies from Gall, are Tegias, " at the huts," N. Ital. Tetze; but in the oldest Gallo-Romance it may have been in use as an appel- lative, and thence have passed into Basque — e.g. Basq. tegi, " hut." The permeation of the Latin vocabulary by Gallic elements dates from the time of the contact of Gauls and Roman forces. Many of these elements — e.g. bracae, camisia — were widely used at so early a stage as to have penetrated into Rumania (Rum. tmbrdcd, " put on," cdmeafd, "chemise"); others again have scarcely, if at all, passed beyond their ancient limits, even those that Roman litera- ture has preserved for us. It is true that Martial says — " Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannia Sed me jam mavult dicere Roma sibi," but only in France has bachoue been preserved up to the present, while so far no traces of bascauda have been established for Italy. Glancing over the Gallic contributions to the Gallo-Romance vocabulary, we see at once that they belong to a considerable extent to the sphere of agriculture, and that among the implements mentioned it is chiefly vehicles of all kinds which have Gallic names. The record of Roman times supplies us with henna, carpentum, carrum, caruca, agredum, petorritum, rheda, but carrum alone gained a firm footing; caruca in the form of charrue, " plough," survives in France, and benna (Fr. banne, Ital. henna) in its ancient home. Under this heading we may perhaps add taratrum, " gimlet," in Isidore, Fr. tariere, Engad. tareder, Sp. taladro. Port, trado; Fr. janle, " felloe of a wheel " (Bret. Kammed), Fr. taranche, Gall, tarinca. With caruca we may class soc, " plough-share," and O. Fr. raie, Mod. Fr. rayon, " furrow," Gallic *rica (cf. Cyrnr. rhych). A further group is formed by cervoise, " beer," from Gall, ctre- visia, O. Fr. braiz. Mod. Fr. brai, " malt," brasser, " to brew," Gall, brace; lie, "yeast." Among the names of plants Gallic betulla has survived wherever the tree is common. Within narrower bounds we find Fr. »/, " yew," Gall, "ivum (cf. Ir. ee); probably also *cas'sanus, "oak," Fr. chine, Prov. easier; Fr. verne, Balder (cf. Ir. fern and the Gall, place-name Vernodubrum, " alderwater ") ; belpce, " sloe," bulluca, and S. Fr. aranhon, " sloe " (Ir. airne). Pliny mentions marga, " marl," as being in use among the Gauls as manure for soil, from the diminutive 'margtia, Fr. marne. An agricultural measure was called arepennis, Fr. arpent. Fields were separated by a hedge — Prov. gorce (cf. O. Fr. gort, "fence"); a tiedged-round piece of land is called in French lande, Ir. land. Another method of demarcation was by means of hurdles, Fr. claie, Piedm. cia (cf. Ir. cliath) ; or of barricades, Fr. combre (whence the verbs encombrer, -decombrer), which corresponds to a Gallic *comboros. Inside the hurdles the sheep and cows were kept whose milk yielded meeues, " whey " (Ir. medg). The wood needed for the erection of fences was cut with the "wood-knife," Gall, ridu- WttfH, Fr. vouge. We may notice further the group broga, " en- closure," " preserve," Prov. brogo and the diminutive brogilo, Fr. breuil. In north Italy we find fruda, " torrent " (cf. Cymr. fruith), which i a parallel to no mentioned above; also Comasc. dren, " black- jerry," Ir. dren, " thorn," and (over a large part of north Italy) lar, "bunch," " tuft," O. Ir. barr. To single out a few words, there is Prov. ban, "horn," Cymr. ban; Piedm. vinverra, from a word that has come down to us as Latin, but is really Gallic: vt- lerra, Cymr. gwywer, Gaelic feoragh, " weasel," and in the Rhaeto- Rom. dialect in Switzerland carmun, from a Gallic cannon, which is cognate with O.H.G. harmo. Mod. H.G. hermelin, " ermine." * Cf. H. Zimmer Kuhn'sZeitsch.furvergl. Sprachforschunf, 32, 230. 506 ROMANCE LANGUAGES In this way we might amplify examples, and it should not escape notice that we have to deal chiefly with substantives, with few adjectives and hardly any verbs.1 In precisely the same way the Spanish vocabulary must have been seamed with traces of Iberian elements. But the process of elimination took place more rapidly and thoroughly in this case, so that the number of Iberian or Celtic-Iberian words that have resisted time and change is small. On a Latin inscription from Spain we find paramus, " plain," and paramo occurs to this day in this sense. As the Iberian does not know the sound p, the word cannot be Iberian, and must be Celtic. In Isidore we find baia, " bay," which should be read baia, as Sp. and Port, bahia prove — doubtless an Iberian word, since Fr. baie and Ital. baia are forms quite recently borrowed from Spanish. This baia is perhaps somehow connected with the place-name Bayona. Again, the lapides lausiae of the Lex Metalli Vipascensis are Celtic rather than Iberian (cf. Sp. losa, Port, lousa, as well as Prov. lausa, Piedm. losa). Considering our ignorance of Iberian, and the pronounced colouring of Basque by Spanish words, it is not often easy to decide on which side the indebtedness lies when we meet with a word in Spanish and Basque whose etymology is still uncertain. Much discussion centres round the question as to how far the pre-Romanic nations influenced the phonology of the Romans in the process of their assimilation. Opinions are strongly diver- gent. While G. I. Ascoli has repeatedly assumed influences of this kind on a large scale, the present writer is very sceptical.2 It may be well to give the essential points. Plautus uses distennite and dispennite instead of distendite and dispendite — forms he imported from his native Umbria. And like the Umbrians, the Oscans too pronounced nn instead of nd. Later we find this same change throughout the whole of south and central Italy, and even in Rome, whereas it is not observed in Tuscany, north Italy and other Romanic countries. We may therefore confidently assume that this is due to a reaction of the Oscan-Umbrian dialects. Similarly it is in accordance with Umbrian pronunciation to convert breathed plosives into voiced after nasals, e.g. iuenga = L,a.t. iuvenca; and similarly we have cingue in central and south Italy beside Tusc. cinque (quinque). But even in this particular the change affects not only the regions of ancient Umbria, but also those of the Oscans and Messapians, though again it must be admitted that we do not know what the pronunciation of the ancient Messapians was. And finally, we find the Latin d represented in Umbrian between vowels by a sound which has a separate sign in the national alphabets and which in Latin is reproduced as -rs. And since the Paelignan alpha- bet too has a sign for a modified d, one may perhaps assume that in these districts d had a specialized sound as Ih, or r; and this view agrees with the fact that in the dialects of central and southern Italy d was pronounced sometimes like r, sometimes like th. And probably this sums up all we can say with certainty. It has always been maintained that French u (pronounced as German «), derived from «, is due to the influence of Gallic. The u (with modern sound) is identified with the whole area of the French language except part of the Walloon, part of French Switzerland, and Piedmont, Genoa, Lombardy, the Grisons, Tirol and the northern part of the Emilia, but not Friuli, Venetia and I stria. On the other hand, the ancient ii became i in Cymric, to which u must be regarded as an intermediary step, that may there- fore have existed in Gallic. But in the first place we must observe that Greek writers always render the Gallic u by ov, never by v; that the Romans too write u, never y; and further, that over a large part of the area u came in comparatively recently. Secondly, in Gallic in- scriptions the combination CT is frequently replaced by XT, so that the Irish pronunciation cht (Ir. nocht, " night ") is as old as Ancient Gallic. And since the preliminary stage of the Fr. fait from faclum, nuit from node, is likewise cht, it is natural to suppose a relation between these facts, and all the more because the Iberian Peninsula on the one hand, and a large part of the western and central area of upper Italy on the other, show an identical process; but in Venetian, central and southern Italy ct became U. Thirdly, nasalized vowels are in evidence chiefly in the ancient seats of the Celts — in northern and southern France, in Piedmont, Genoa, Lombardy and partly in Raetia, also in Portugal, but not as far as southern Emilia. At this point again evidence from the Gallic fails completely. Finally, an attempt has been made to trace back the general characteristics of the French and the Gallo-Romanic dialects of Italy to the peculi- arities of the Gallic accent. It is assumed that there was a decided stress-accent, which brought about an over-emphasis of the stressed syllable at the expense of the unaccented ones, with the result of a marked weakening of the unaccented vowels, and particularly of those following the stressed syllable. Here again we can only 'Cf. R. Thurneysen, Keltoromanisches (Halle, 1885); W. Meyer- Liibke, Einfuhrung in die romanische Sprachwissenschaft, p. 38 ff. 2 G. I. Ascoli, Una Lettera glottologica (1880); Archivio glottologico ilaliano, x. 260; Sprachwissenschaftliche Brief e (1887; cf. H. Schuchardt, Zeitschrift fiir rom. Phil. iv. 140 and elsewhere); and Meyer-Lubke, loc. cit. 205 ff. say that Gallic itself affords no evidence for this assumption, and that, on the contrary, this peculiar accentuation maybe due to other reasons, unknown to us. To turn to morphology, the method of enumerating — as we find it, for example, in Fr. qualre-vingts, &c. — would seem to be Gallic, since it is common to all the Celts. But even if we admit certain regional variations, all these were overlaid by an " Average Latin " which presents a number of essen- tial features uniformly over the whole area, and which differed from the literary language. These characteristics (in historical sequence) are as follows: (l) Loss of final m in polysyllabic words (which we find exemplified in the very oldest inscriptions) ; (2) loss of the h- sound, a loss which outside the towns was of great antiquity (cf. anser), and at the beginning of imperial times was fairly common ; (3) loss of n before i coupled with the lengthening of the vowel, for which Varro is evidence in his alternations of mensa and mesa; (4) the assimilation of rs to ss — e.g. sussum from sursum (Ital. suso, O. Fr. sus, Mod. Fr. dessus). Toward the end of the Republic v is lost before u — e.g. iiius instead of vivus, rius instead of rivus (Ital. Sp. no), anticus instead of antiquus (Ital. anlico). In the first century A.D. b became t> between vowels, thus merging itself into the latter sound, so that in examining the Romance languages it is impossible to decide whether the original was v or 6. And this change spreads in sentences to the initial b (as in the inscription manduca vibe lude e beni at me), which leads in some cases to some uncertainty in the use of v and ft. And lastly, we have the case of cl and // — e.g. veclus (Ital. vecchio, Fr. vieil, Sp. viejo, Port, velho, Rum. viechiu) instead of vetulus-, the reduction of di before vowels, of j, g before e, i, and of z to a single sound j, or rather dj, in consequence of which we have diurnum (Ital. giorno, Fr. jour) ; juvenis (Ital. giovane, Fr.jeune); gener (Ital. genera, Fr. gendre) • zelosus '(Ital. geloso, Fr. jaloux), all represented by the same initial. To turn to vowels, we must first notice that, according to Varro, ae was pronounced e in the country, but that in the cities the diphthong was maintained at first, while the simple sound was only admitted during the course of the 1st century A. p. If this is an instance of an early spreading of a rustic pronunciation, we have in another case a victory for that of the bourgeoisie and aristocracy. O for au belongs to Umbrian, Volscian and vulgar Latin, which explains why Appius Claudius Pulcher changed his name to Clodius when he deserted the patricians and went over to the plebeians. And there is other evidence of this change of sound. But in the inscriptions of the Empire o for au is very rare, save in proper names, and the Romance languages have partly preserved the au to this day with little or no change (cf. Rum. auzi, Prov. auzir, Port. ouvir from audire), or only changed it to o at a later stage (cf. Fr. chose, where ch could only have arisen before a, not o), so that one may assume that the " Average Latin " always preserved the au. Then, without entering into detail, we must mention the pro- thesis of i before st, sp, sc, a phenomenon which arose, judging from the inscriptions, in the 2nd century A.D. We find it at the beginning of the sentence, and also within it after consonants, but not after vowels; e.g. ilia spata, but ittas ispatas; istdre, istd, but tu istds, &c. Most important of all are the modifications that affect the accented vowels, which give a new look to the language as a whole. In Old Latin and even towards the end of the Republican age, vowels varied solely according to their quantity, e.g. a was longer than a, e longer than e, but the vowel sound was the same, or at any rate the difference in quality between long and short must have been quite insignificant, seeing that Cicero and Quintilian wished the word divisio to be avoided in speech from motives of decorum, because of the likeness in sound to vissio. Quantity was not influenced by the number of the consonants following: actus was pronounced with a, factus with d, &c. In the course of the 1st century approximately quality was differentiated in addition to quantity in all vowels except a — short vowels being pronounced with an open, long ones with a close, sound. The written language expresses this change by writing ae for e, i for e,e for i, u for 5,0 for«. In addition there are statements of the grammarians, though they mention only the double pronunciation of e and o, not that of i and u. It was probably in the course of the 4th century that the further change took place, by which all vowels were lengthened before a single consonant, and shortened before two or more, e.g. silis became sltis, while tectum became tectum. But the older qualitative variations were maintained so that even now sltis and vitis, or tectum and l^ctum did not contain the same vowel-sound, the former Having a close, the latter an open, vowel. (Cf. Ital. sete, vite, Fr. soif, vis, Sp sed, vid; or Ital. t$tto and letto, Fr. toil and lit.) It is at the end of the 4th century that Augustine says: " Afrae aures de corruptione vocalium vel productione non judicant," and the uncertain practice of the poets in the matter of quantity points to the breaking down oPthe old conditions. This was not the end of the process of development; but the most important stages were already accomplished. In this, too, we are concerned with changes affecting the whole Romance region. The final step was taken when open i and close e, open «and close o, were reduced to one sound which may be called close e (or o). This step was not taken by the eastern regions, excepting as to e, and Sardinia remained completely unaffected (u. infra). ROMANCE LANGUAGES 507 The vowel-system that developed in course of time is thus as follows : — 6 e I i u u6 6 -i V -i V J, . r € ? » "before I const. "before l const. "before 2 consts. "before 2 consts. I I In the department of flexion we find less radical changes. The genitive was the first case to disappear. In general its functions were usurped by the preposition de. But for the possessive sense the dative was adopted, cf. Hie REQUIESCUNT MEMBRA AD Duos FRATRES, in an inscription from Gaul. The accusative serves for the case after prepositions under all circumstances, and therefore even in places where the older language used the ablative, e.g. magister cum suos discentes in a Pompeian inscription. Nouns of the third declension with monosyllabic nominative, e. g. lens, slirps, ars, &c., form a dissyllabic nominative, e.g. lentis, stirpis, &c. The dividing line between masculine and neuter, at all times doubtful, is frequently broken down, especially in the singular, e.g. cubiium instead of cubitus, and there are converse cases. The absorption of the fourth declension by the second is almost complete. In the declension of the pronouns the genitives ipsuius, illuius, dat. ipsui, illui, fem. illaeius, illaei, are found in several inscriptions, but do not belong to the common language, since, as we have already said, they are not at home in the Iberian peninsula. On the other hand, all the Romance languages show that *eo took the place of ego. The use of ille as personal pronoun, and also of ipse, and of both these forms as articles, dates from ancient times. We find a par- allel to the weakening of these demonstratives in the amalgama- tion of the pronominal combinations to be found as early as Plautus with ecce, eccum, which results in new forms, e.g. eceeille (O. Fr. cil, Mod. Fr. celui) or eccuille (Ital. quegli, Sp. aquel) ; ecceiste (Fr. ce- (I) ) ; eccuiste (Ital. questo, Sp. aqueste). In the verb-system, a character- istic change is the disappearance of the future and passive forms, the explanation of the phenomenon in both cases being psychological rather than formal. Popular language is not familiar with the future, and replaces it by the present — or, more strictly speaking, the vulgar person deals only with the present or the past. The case of the passive is similar. The transposition of active into passive is too complicated a process for the simple mind. The object of the action remains the object; when the subject of the action is not known, they resorted to the indefinite third person plural, e.g. vendunt casam is the popular mode of expressing domus venditur. And further, the perfect amatus sum was replaced by amatus fui, since fui was a perfect and could now take over the function of a present. For the moment, all other tenses and moods of the verb were preserved, only of the infinite forms, the gerundive, perfect infinitive and the two supines disappeared. Of the gerund nothing remained but the ablative. In compensation, however, we soon find a form habeo cantalum springing up beside canton in use_as perfect, e.g. litteras scriptas habeo meant in the first instance, possess written letters," with nothing implied as to who wrote the letters; 'but later this usage is limited to cases where the owner is also the originator of the state of things expressed in the parti- ciple, and thus it attains to the force of a perfect. There is little change in the formation of individual verb-lorms. It is natural that the infinitives esse, velle, posse, being exceptional, should have been brought into line with all the rest. This was done by simply adding -re on to esse (Ital. essere, Fr. etre), while the other two were constructed from the forms of the verb whose ending was accented, or from the perfect, e.g. volebam, potebam, volut,potui, gave rise to *volere, *potere, on the analogy of docebam, docui, monebam, monui, nocebam, nocui, &c. ; with infinitives, docere, monere, nocere, &c. (cf. Ital. volere, potere, Fr. vouloir, pouvoir, Sp. and Port, poder, Rum. vrea, putea). In other infinitives there is much confusion, especially as between -ere, and -ere verbs, noticed by the Latin grammarians themselves; we have evidence, too, that at an early stage the present forms in -io, -iam led to a confusion of the -ire and -ere conjugation, e.g. Plautus has morire (Ital. monre, Fr. mourir, Sp. morir, Rum. muri); Lucretius has cupire; Cato has fodire, &c. For the rest we may note as important that perfect-forms without «-, such as -asti, -astis, -arunt, infected the first person singular, e.g. -ai instead of -aw. A new type in -idi arose on the model of vendidi, and then affected other verbs in -ndere, e.g, descendidt (in Gelhus), prendidi (in the grammarian Probus) and in general verbs ot t third conjugation. But its spread was slow, so that it can scarcely be said to have been common to all the languages. In the formation of words the popular language probably had lar greater freedom than the written language. We find not only a marked preference for diminutives in -ulus and -ellus, but many other types are established, or new ones created. And as the chiet ones we must mention the post-verbalia (nouns constructed out of verb*). Thus pugnare, being itself derived from pugnum, then produces pugna (on the pattern of planta, plantare), and these formations soon became extremely common, and not only in a- verbs, but also in Ore-verbs, cf. in particular dolus, " grief " (not to be confused with the ancient dolus, " craft "), C.I.L. x. 4510 (Rum. dor, Ital. dvolo. Fr. deuil, Sp. duelo). As examples of other types we have -ttra beside -or, which we can trace back to ardura, a contamination of ardor and arsura, which extended to fereura ; also to strictura beside strictus; direclura beside directus, when the old participles had separated both in form and in meaning from the verbal-system and had become adjectives, whose / was felt to be part of the stem. Another feature of the verb is the gradual retreat of old simple formations in favour of derivatives from the participle, e.g. cantare, adjutare, ausare, &c., in place of canere, adjuvare, audere; then for denominatives -icare and the Gr. -izare (Ital. -eggiare, Fr. -oyer, Sp. -ear) which, coming in with Christianity, was soon added on to Latin stems, e.g. (in Fulgentius) citherizantium aul tibizantium. Among points of syntax we may single out the replacing of in- finitival sentences (following verbs oT feeling, seeing, hearing, wishing) by clauseswith ut, quod or quia, whence' Ital. che, Fr. que. The latter particle spread most rapidly, and soon took precedence over the other conjunctions, not only in the cases just mentioned, but in introducing object-, subject-and final-clauses. It is in the vocabulary that it is most difficult to define the relations of the common and the literary language. So much of the Latin vocabulary as appears over the whole Romance area comes of course from the everyday language which was used from the mouth of the Ebro to that of the Danube, but it is by no means all. It is more interesting to inquire whether anything can be reconstructed from Romance, and, if so, how much? The exist- ence of a form aiutare, for example, mentioned above (Ital. ajvtare, Fr. aider, Sp. ayudar, Rum, aiuta) and appearing in all the Romance languages, is indisputable. Between Fr. grotte (" crow "), Lyon. grata, Gascon, agraulo, Tirol, grolo, and (with ehange of gender) Apul. raulu, Rum. graur, the connexion, both in form and meaning, is so close that one is led to assume a common basis for all these words. This basis is *graulus, -a, and it is safe to assume that such a word goes back to Latin, though remembering that it was not found in the western regions. Rum. afld. Sic. asciari, Sp. hollar, Port, achar, Gris. afldr, Dalm. afludr, " to find," all point to afflare, and in this case, too, the change in meaning may be safely ascribed to Latin, only in this case Gaul is not included. Rum. arip&, Fr. aube, Prov. aubo, Sp. alabe, " paddle-board," in Rum. meaning also " wing," and in Sp. also " the wickerwork on both sides of a vehicle," in Port. " the wing of a parapet," point to a form *alapa, which meant " wing " and which must have belonged to the vulgar language, even though no trace of it survives in Italy. Many other points could be enumerated, but problems are involved which have as yet hardly been taken up.1 In dealing with the division of this common language jnto a number of individual languages there are still further points of view to be considered. Before we can touch upon these, we must first take a general survey of these languages. There are altogether nine — Rumanian, Dalmatian, Sardinian, Italian, Raeto-Rpmanic, French, Provencal, Spanish and Portuguese. Of these nine lan- guages, Dalmatian is now extinct, and even what we learn of it from the ancients is very meagre. On the one hand, Ragusa and the plains of Dalmatia never attained the degree of independence in literature which would have brought about a floruit in the language such as Provencal has to show. Neither, on the other han a, was its political independence stable enough, nor was it sufficiently remote to escape intercourse with the rest of the world, like the Raeto-Romanic dialects. The hordes of Slavs pressing forward from the inner regions of the hinterland soon put an end to the Romanic civilization, first in the country and then ir the towns. And when the Venetians, who were, both in point of culture and of commerce and of politics, on a higher level, regained their power over the Dalmatians by occasional conquests, chiefly over the cities, the result was of course all in favour of the Venetian dialect. On the island of Veglia alone there were still living about the middle of the igth century a few people who still spoke Old Dalmatian. The last 'of these is now dead. Our approximate notions of this language are gleaned from the speech of these natives of Veglia, from a few more ancient notes, place-names, proper names and from the Romance elements in the Servo-Croatian dialect of Ragusa.2 We may begin by reducing these nine languages to seven groups — Dacian, Dalmatian, Sardinian, Italic, Ractic, Gallic and Iberian. The most striking peculiarity of the first three of these groups is the absence o_f Germanic words in_the vocabulary. In other words, they were withdrawn from the influence of the general " Average-Latin " before the beginning of the more decided permeation of Latin by Germanic elements. There are other signs of their antiquity. In Central Sardinian c before e, «, and •Cf. G. Gr6ber, Archiv.J. lot. Lexirograpkie, \. 204 ff. «Cf. M. G. Bartoli, "Das Dalmatische " (1906), (Schriften der Balkan-Kommission der K. A kademie der Wissenschaften, linguistische Abteilung, Bd. iv. and v.). 5o8 ROMANCE LANGUAGES in Dalmatian c before e are always preserved as velars, and in south Sardinian and in Rumanian the palatalization is more recent, and secondary. The preservation of the tenues between vowels as breathed fortes is peculiar to Rumano-Dalmatian, but as north Sardinian used breathed lenes in their place, while the dialect of Nuoro, in Sardinia, preserved the fortes, we have every ground for assuming that central and south Sardinia also possessed either fortes or lenes in earlier times. Moreover, south Italy, Sicily and a large part of central Italy as far as the Apennines replace the old Latin tenues either with breathed fortes or breathed lenes, in marked contrast to the regions of the Po, to Gallic and the Iberian group. All these phenomena may perhaps be explained in con- junction with two historical events. By the abandonment of the province of Dacia (in A.D. 270), Rumanian lost its close touch with the languages of nearest affinity; and the division of the empire under Diocletian and Constantino necessarily entailed a linguistic division. At that epoch the linguistic conditions were roughly as , follows : — The principal changes in the vowel-system, especially the develop- ment of qualitative beside quantitative variations, had been accom- plished, but there was still a difference between I and f, u and p. The old future had disappeared, and no tendency to produce a substitute had as yet appeared. The Latin pluperfect subjunctive still maintained its old usage, probably also the imperfect sub- junctive and the future perfect. In declensions the tyrje membrum, -a, had begun to spread; but corpus, -ora, was still in existence. Sardinia seems to have been, perhaps owing to its isolation, the first to have detached itself from this group. For it was not con- tent with differentiating e and 1, but it also retains -s, whereas the East-Rumanian and an Italian group suppressed -s, and in consequence also the difference between the nominative and the accusative singular. This and the levelling of neuters in -us and masculines in -u made it possible for the types membra and corpora to spread at the expense of the type loci,— a. possibility of which South Italian and Rumanian made the fullest use. On the given basis the various languages carried on their various developments, influenced partly by contiguity of other idioms, partly by causes unknown to us. Among neighbouring idioms, Greek had by right of its degree of civilization and its political power great influence in giving Rumanian and South Italian a similar direction, and that at a time when every trace of a geo- graphical connexion between these two language-groups had long vanished. Thus, the replacing of the construction " I will come " by " I will that I come " took its rise in Greece and was passed on to Rumania and Apulia. The rise of the new future voiu cantd, " I will sing," in Rumanian is probably due to Greek influence. In Latin itself both itte caballus and caballus ille are found, the position depending on the accentual conditions of the sentence. Then the loss of s made room for the form caball[u\ ille with a victory for the inverted order. In Rumania alone this was the actual process, under the influence of the surrounding speech — Illyrian or Bulgarian, or perhaps independently of them, in this latter case serving as prototype to these languages. Dalmatian and South Italian, on the other hand, were so closely connected with the languages that preserved s and therefore prefixed the article that in this particular they separated from Rumanian. This is not the place to show how the Rumanian vocabulary and the structure of words was permeated markedly by elements from Slav, less markedly by elements from Turkish, Mod. Greek and Hungarian, which gave the language an alien appearance in point of vocabulary. In its consonants, and, as far as one can judge, in its morphology, Dalmatian has preserved the stamp of antiquity. But in its vowel- system there are marked changes, especially in the substitution of diphthongs for close vowels, e.g. changing a to e, u through the u stage to oi, i to ei, o to au, e to ai. Diphthongs such as they appear also in Istrian and Abruzzian, so that we must presuppose some sort of connexion. It may be that Sardinian took another course of development because (A.D. 458) the island was rent from Rome and incorporated in the African empire of Genseric, king of the Vandals. Therefore the sympathies of Sardinia were alienated from Italy, and turned on the one hand towards Africa (and unfortunately we have no information as to the " latinity " of this region), on the other to- wards the Iberian peninsula. These conditions lasted for a while, but later we find Genoa and Pisa fighting at intervals for supremacy in Sardinia, their organization being in many points identical with that of the island. On the whole, this new combination has not materially affected the language, especially in Logodoro. The vowel system (of great antiquity), as well as the velar pronunciation of c before e, i, remained unchanged, neither did they get as far as to adopt the future-forms current on the mainland ; on the contrary, the Sardinians arrived independently and later at their usage of depo cantare or haia a cantar. But the use of ipse as an article in Sardinia, Mallorca, and in the earliest times also in the Catalanian- Gascon area, clearly proves the linguistic connexion which for a time covered this area, and we may also see some connexion in the fact that the lenes became voiced between vowels. On the whole, and in spite of everything, Sardinian is the most archaic of the Romance languages. Owing to its retaining s, it has failed to extend the membra-tempora types of formation, indeed it has almost re- jected them entirely. It has retained the imperfect subjunctive to this day, and as a corollary it has lost the pluperfect of that mood. And though every Romance language has a number of Latin words that are not common to the rest, yet in this language the number of these Siro£ \tj6iifva. is greater than in others, and it is noteworthy that these have here survived such common expressions as domo, " house," mannu, " great," with other examples. The East-Rumanian group (coupled with Sardinia) finds its counterpart in the great group based upon the Latinity of Gaul, the Iberian peninsula, and north Italy. This group contains a considerable number of fundamental peculiarities in phonology, morphology and vocabulary which prima facie lead us to assume a fairly long period of contact. The chief of these peculiarities is the final change of the vowel- system, i.e. the loss of the distinction between e and i, between 6 and u', then the change of breathed plosives and fricatives between vowels into voiced plosives and fricatives respectively; the use of the pluperfect subjunctive instead of the lost imperfect subjunctive (Hal. cantasse, Fr. que je chantasse, Sp. cantase, Port, cantasse), the formation of a new future from the infinitive of the verb and the present, or (as the case may be) the imperfect or perfect of habere, e.g. Ital. canterd, canterei, Fr. je chanterai, cha.nlera.is, Sp. cantare, cantaria. It it is safe to assume that this latter formation had its origin in places where we find it most firmly rooted, we are led to assign it to the north of France. For it is only there that both elements in the formation are inseparably connected from the beginning of our record. In the old Provencal the two constituent parts are still separable; in the oldest Spanish and Portuguese their position is not fixed (i.e. the auxiliary may follow or precede the verb). In north Italy we frequently find the form avrb cantare instead of canta.ro, obviously because this formation is not properly acclimatized. But at any rate it is clear that the change of function from cantare habeo to cantabo belongs to the time when the three great groups were still in close contact, and the evidence of the Latin texts falls into line with this view, showing this construction well established from the second half of the 4th century.1 In the vocabulary we must note, among other things, the introduction of Germanic words, e.g. elmo, Fr. heaume, Sp. yelmo, "helmet"; harpa, " harp," Ital. arpa, Fr. harpe, Sp. and Port, arpa; medus, " meed," which is found in Antimus and Isidore, but disappears later (cf. O. Fr. mies, "meed"); waidanian, Ital. guadagnare, Fr. gagner, Sp. guadanar, and many more. The further steps in the process of differentiation were con- ditioned by the breaking up of the Roman empire by the great migrations. The establishment of the rule of the Franks in north Gaul, of the Visigoths in south Gaul and the Iberian peninsula, loosened old ties, created new nations and in consequence new and independent groups of languages. The Iberian group was marked primarily by a striking simplicity in its flexions. The three-case system was given up at an early stage, even in prehistoric times, and has left no traces whatever. Owing to the preservation of -i the type membra was doomed to perish, and thus we find, from the beginning of our record and therefore presumably soon after the great cleavage took place, the prevalence in nouns of the following simple rule: sing, -e, -o, -a; plur. -es, -os, -as. The loss of the dative may have some connexion with the fact that the form illui for the 3rd personal pronoun had not yet established itself; and the desire for uni- formity may have ousted the nominative of o- stems. There are analogies in the conjugation. The pluperfect indicative was pre- served, and even (largely) with a Latin significance, but in the region of flexion much simplification took place, e.g. uniformity of accentuation in the three conjugations, marked reduction of the i- perfect and u- perfect forms and a great reduction in the number of u- participles. The vocabulary is characterized by certain archaisms, and still more by the fact that a series of common ideas are rendered by new words limited in use to the Iberian peninsula. Thus we have querer (quaerere) instead of vette; quedar (quietare) instead of manere; callar (deriv. uncertain) for tacere; hablar (fabulare), "to speak"; llegar (plicare), "to arrive"; dejar (?) instead of laware, &c. Further, we may mention the preference of tenere to habere even for the formation of perfect-forms, of which examples are to be found in Orosius, and of magis to plus for expressing comparisons, for which also we may find examples in Latin authors or the Iberian peninsula. The influence of the Goths or Suevi and Vandals on the vocabulary is inconsiderable, and when we trace it it is not easy to explain; e.g. Galician laverca, " lark," is clearly from a western Gothic *lawerka, but it is difficult to see why the name for this bird should have been supplied by the Germanic. To sum up, one may say that the Latin of Iberia was a self-contained language, at first showing little modification by influences from Iberian, or later by those from Germanic; further, that its develop- ment was slow, and that it aimed at simplicity. At the present day there are three great groups, running almost 1 See Thielmann, in Archiv f. lat. Lexikogr. ii. 48 seq. ROMANCE LANGUAGES 509 parallel from N.E. to S.W., e.g. Catalanian on the coast of the Mediterranean, akin to Provengal, Spanish in the centre, Galician- Portuguese on the Atlantic. From the historical point of view one part might be called Gothic- Romance, the other Sue vo- Romance. But the national and linguistic history of the times and countries we are dealing with is still very obscure. The difference between the two idioms is chiefly one of phonetics, while in their morpho- logy and vocabulary they dp not greatly differ. Spanish may be described as a language which favours vowels at the expense of consonants, and which therefore shows, more than other Romance languages, a weakening even of initial consonants. It changes voiced stops first to fricatives, then to mere noises or " burrs " which finally disappear altogether, and s before a consonant or finally, becomes h (through a middle stage ?) and is finally lost. The preferential treatment of vowels, however, entailed not a single change except that e was changed to the diphthong ie, o to ue; all else were preserved, e.g. diez (decent), tiempo (tempus), bueno (bonus), fuerte (fortis); but haver (habere), lid (lite), corona (corona), humo (fumus). The weakness of the initial sound is shown in enero (januaruis), hazer (facere), llamar (clamare with a transitional *clyamar), llaga (plaga), &c. The written language has no sign for voiced plosives between vowels, but -atho or -ao is spread over nearly the whole region. In contrast to Spanish, Portuguese has a strong pronunciation of initial sounds, and so does not go beyond Janeiro, fazer, and changes cl (with transitional form cly, ky), and also pi (via ply, py) to ch, e.g. chamar, chaga. On the other hand, it has a careless articulation of vowels and consonants, and consequently no diphthongs. The unaccented vowels are weakened, as finals almost to vanishing point. It shows further a fusion of nasals with the preceding vowel, so as to form a nasal vowel, and this new nasality takes the colour of the preceding vowel, e.g. vina becomes vinho, but una becomes uma, otherwise before a vowel the nasal finally disappears; cheio and cheia, from plenus, plena. Similarly / was lost between vowels, e.g. ceo (caelum) ; before consonants it became I, or u, e.g. out.ro (alteru), caldo (calidu). Voiced plosives have a weak pronunciation between vowels, and these are sometimes made fricatives. In relation to the somewhat careless articulation we note a marked reaction on accented vowels by the final vowel (e.g. nova has a close vowel, nova an open one), and also by the following consonants : I velarizes, s palatalizes preceding sounds, hence estas pronounced istas, " thou art," with reduced »', but devedor (debitor), " debtor," with reduced e. Lastly, the division between words is not sharp — the interaction of initial sounds and finals being very striking. Devedor has a plosive d, a devedor has a fricative; istas has a breathed -s, but istas nos ceus, " thou art in heaven," has a voiced -s; seja, " be," has a reduced a; o name is pronounced u name, but seja o name is pronounced sej o name, with an open o from a+o, &c. The separation of Gaul took place likewise in the second half of the 5th century, when the Visigoths had settled down in the south, the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the north. The type of language that was evolved here is distinct from Spanish primarily and principally in the loss of final vowels except a, or, when the formation of the word was incompatible with this loss, in a weakening to e. On the other hand, the declension is strongly conservative. Nowhere are the old case-endings so clearly preserved as in this region, e.g. reis, " king," but la rei file (regi filia), " the king's daughter"; veil le rei, " videt regem"; dunet le rei, " donat (dat) regi ; these are the modes of expression, and they last till far into the literary period. But at an early stage there was a breach between the Franks of the north and the Burgundians of the east on the one hand, and the Visigoths of the south on the other. For while the latter (the Visigoths) retained the old system of accented vowels, the former changed e to a diphthong ie, o became uo, ue, and moreover e and » became ei, o and u became ou; a was changed to a, assuming that these vowels were long in accordance with the later Latin pronunciation, e.g. — Lat. debere nepote pede mola pratu North Fr. deveir nevout piet muele pret South Fr. dever nebot pe mola prat The northern group, moreover, weakened the consonants stiU further. D and g, secondary consonants from t and c, disappear like the primary ones, and thus pratellus becomes preau, S. Fr. pradel; advocatus becomes avoue, S. Fr. avogat; a secondary p (from b) becomes v, as we see by the form which replaces nepos above. If we are right in ascribing this to the effort to stress the accented vowel at the expense of the other constituents of the word, we may take this to be connected with the weakening of a where final, and between two accented syllables, e.g. N. Fr. aime from amat, as against S. Fr. ania; or in one case armeure (Mod. Fr. armure), in the other armadura, from armatura. Parallel to the preservation of -s on the one hand, and the close following of the old flexions on the other, we find the type membra preserved at first, though not spreading, whereas the tempora-type is abandoned. In the verb the variety in Latin perfect forms is still fairly well preserved, though there is a distinct extension of the w-perfect and the dedt-perfect. As we might expect, the vocabulary seems to be strongly coloured by Germanic elements of Prankish, Burgundian and Gothic origin. The Raetic dialects, in their prehistoric phase, are less clear than others. Their contact, at an age nearing the Carolingian, with the French of the south-east in Valais seems to have caused a similar process of growth, especially as they change e and o into the diphthongs ei and on, leaving at the same time the consonants more intact. At an early stage the inroads of the migrating nations cut off Raetia from the Po valley, and the pressure of the German tribes severed its union with the Romance-speaking nations of the west. Thus isolated it was free to follow its own course. This language also preserved at first the three cases and the type membra, the latter being developed later freely in use as a collective plural. But its further development was checked by the Lombards and Venetians. But the most difficult problems are those that arise in Italy. Though one may say generally that the dialects of the region of the Po, and those of Liguria, belong to the types of north and western Romance, that is to say that the breathed plosives between vowels became voiced, yet they approach the typically Italian groups by their loss of -s. This means that when the whole Italian peninsula was separated from Gaul as well as from Iberia (after the close of the 5th century) and became again one homogeneous whole, the forms without s found their way into the north of Italy only slowly, so that 5 has remained in the west, i.e. in Piedmont, in mono- syllabic words to this day, e.g. as, " thou hast," ses, " thou art "; the same rule prevailed in older times in the east, in Venice, and there the s was also preserved (in questions) in polysyllabic words, e.g. venis-tu, " comest thou?"; and the old form maintained itself in Milanese in the single form sistu, " art thou ? " To the loss of t we trace the extinction of declensions, but as its action began to take effect later, the membra-type gained little footing, the tempora-type none at all. In the vocabulary the Lombard elements are numerous, extending, like the supremacy of the Lombards, over the whole peninsula. It may be that 5 was lost under the influence of central Italy acting on the north. If so, we may surmise that a similar influence has changed cl, pi, and- fl to chi, pi, ji (chiamare, pianta, fiamma). For it is precisely this point that differentiates both the Raetic dialects and Provencal from the contiguous Italian dialects, and the change certainly took place only after the latter were completely detached. On the other hand the Italian vocabulary has been strongly influenced by the north, especially in Tuscany. The rise and development of the Romance languages, in its large outline, appeals to the imagination as a vast historical phenomenon closely bound up with the fate of nations. One other element must not be overlooked on which we have touched more than once in the above sketch, for it bears so directly on the Romance vocabulary as to deserve the tribute of a general survey: this is the Germanic. When mercenaries of Germanic origin pervaded the Roman armies, Germanic words found their way first into the language of the camp, and thence into the vulgar language generally. And at that stage perhaps many words may actually have been im- ported which were, partly at any rate, lost again later.. Roman and Greek authors admit a considerable number of Germanic words, including terms belonging to warfare, e.g. bandum, " stan- dard," used by Procopius, which still continues in the form of O. Fr. ban, Ital. bandiera, Sp. bandera, &c. Brutis, " bride," " daughter-in-law," which occurs frequently in inscriptions, may date from the period of camp life, but for the rest it is retained only in Fr. bru, and in Friuh and Dalmatia. On the other hand, companio is clearly a Latinization of Gothic ga-hlaifa, the meaning of which carries us back to the same sphere. Other old words express ideas of culture, or names of animals which the Romans learned to know in the German-speaking north, e.g. ganta, " wild ?oose " (in Pliny), O. Fr. gante, Prov. ganta; or taxo, "badger," tal. tassone, Fr. taisson, Sp. tejon. But the impression made was not pronounced until the age of the Germanic invasions, and then we find a great variety in the various Romance countries. In Italy we have two invasions to consider — by the Goths, and by the Lombards. But the destruction of the rule of the Lombards by Charlemagne, and the introduction of Prankish elements con- sequent upon it, should not be considered under the same head, since these Franks may themselves have been a Romance-speaking tribe. Goths as well as Lombards have left a trail as noticeable in the language as elsewhere. Thus we find in several instances some uncertainty as between 6 and p as an initial sound in Italian words borrowed from Germanic, e.g. franco and panca, holla and palla, the forms with 6 being Gothic, those with p Lombardic. Or again recare, " to bring up, goes back to Gothic rikan, " heap up," "collect"; ricco, "rich," to Lomb. rihhi, &c. _ Whereas the vocabulary shows impartially an impress of both nationalities, tile Lombards have left their stamp unmistakably on the proper names. Speaking generally, Italy as well as the other Romance countries follows the rule that medieval names of persons are either " Christian " (in the strict sense) and therefore of Hebrew or Graeco-Roman origin, or on the other hand Germanic. Roman names that are not also Christian seem to have survived only in south Italy in any great number, while on the contrary the Germanic are not represented at all in Dalmatia. One of the characteristics 5io ROMAN DE LA ROSE— ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER of Gothic is the change of e to i, so that it has names ending in -mir. Of these we find no trace whatever in Italy, on the contrary we find Gundimar, Ildimar, &c. Then we have abbreviated forms in izzo, e.g. Gaudizzo, Albizzo, &c., which are distinctly Lombardic; but not Gothic ones in -ila. There is no parallel to all this in the Iberian peninsula. As we have already said, the Gothic con- tribution to the vocabulary is very slight. But on the other hand in the nth century the great majority of proper names is Gothic, e.g. Alfonsus (Hadufonsus), Gundomirus, Recimirus, &c. ; or Recila, Fafila, or Elvira, O. Port. Gelvira, Goth. *Gailamra, and scores of others, all proving the great influence of Gothic. And lastly, France possesses the largest number of Germanic elements in its vocabulary, Gothic in the south, Prankish in the north (though it is often impossible to ascertain to which class they belong). But beside these there are many Old High German words, and again Anglo-Saxon and northern ones, more particu- larly those connected with shipping and the sea. These Germanic elements cover nearly all branches of human activity. Thus bdt, Fr. bdtir, " to build," from "bastyan, " to bind together with bast," " to plait " ; hourder, " to cover with boards," from hurdi, " hurdle " ; macon, " the mason," in Isidore makjo (Prankish rather than Gothic) refer to house-building; gu&cher from waskyan, broder from *brusdan, point to the occupations of women, and danser from dinsan and O. Fr. treschier, " to dance," from treskan, " to thresh," to their amusements. Women's work is probably denoted further in rouir, rotjan, and E. Frank, naisier, natjan, "to net"; the same remark applies to the dyeing of cloths (Fr. touaille, Engl. " towel," from thwahila), and ribbons (bande from binda) with guede, " woad," and other colouring matters, whence we have, e.g., brun, bleu, blond, blanc. But while the vocabulary has had its accessions drawn from various races, the proper names show the same rules as in Italian, i.e. Frankish gains the sole supremacy. We find, it must be admitted, some Gothic names in -mir in the south early in the middle ages, but they were not maintained as late as the Romance period, such was the influence of the victorious northern race. Even after political and literary independence had enabled the individual Romance languages to grow as separate units on their own basis, they retained their interconnexion and were open to mutual influence. But this influence is only partial, i.e. it affects nothing but the vocabulary, and has a certain relation to various tendencies in the developments of civilization. And under this head the most important point is the really enormous in- fluence which France (both south and north) has exercised on all the Romance countries, just as she has on the Germanic — an influence which has hitherto not been duly recognized. The first traces go back to the invasions of Charlemagne already mentioned. To instance only one, we have schiavino, " justice, alderman," which cannot be derived directly from the Germanic, as is shown by the v. The second important period is the age of chivalry and the literary tendencies centring round it. A word like budriere, " baldric," is derived from Fr. baudrier, not directly from Germanic Balderich; Ital. banda goes back to O. Fr. bande, and this again to binda; Ital. giallo is not from galbinus but from O. Fr. jalne (Mod. Fr. jaune), derived from that word, &c. But it seems that in one of the prehistoric periods the Tuscan vocabulary was strongly affected by that of the Gallo-Romanic. Whereas in the Iberian peninsula, in Sardinia, in south Italy, Rumania and Rhaetia dies survives, in O. Fr. di has been almost completely ousted by jour, but in Tuscan and the Italian literary language we find giorno and di side by side. Thus trouver, Prov. trobar, spreading from France into Italy, drove the old afflare more and more back towards the south. The most recent layer was introduced during the reign of the house of Anjou chiefly in south Italy and Sicily, and kept its hold to the present day in spite of the Sicilian Vespers, e.g. Sic. vuccieri, " butcher," from Fr. boucher. The Iberian peninsula can likewise bear witness as to French influence, e.g. O. Sp. /onto, " shame," is not from Goth, *haunitha, but from Fr. honte; O. Port, saluar not from Lat. salutare, but O. Fr. saluer. On the whole, Portuguese seems to possess more of these Gallicisms than Spanish, history supplying a simple explanation. Italy too yielded its contributions, especially in the I5th and l6th centuries, many military terms (noble and ignoble), e.g. French carogne and canaille; poignard, " dagger," from Ital. pugnale, instead of O. Fr. poigniel; but also panache, "plume," from pennacchio, and many others that have become common property. But the influence of the Iberian peninsula on the contrary was not so strong as to be more than sporadic; the Sicilian and Neapolitan vocabu- laries alone are more closely akin to Spanish, and this is easily explained on the ground of their political and commercial relations... As to the Romance languages beyond Europe we have but little to say. There is a distinction to be made between Creole and genuine Romance. Belonging to the latter we have the French of Canada, the Spanish of Central and South America, the Portu- guese of the Brazils. Speaking generally we may say that the particular languages retained the form of the language in the i6th and 1 7th centuries, that is to say that of the time of the immigra- tion, and that they developed along the lines already established. Thus in Mexican Spanish the loss of d, g, between vowels, of s before consonants and as a final, has been carried further than in the mother-country. There are no proved traces of any noticeable influence from the languages of the natives. LITERATURE. — The real founder of scientific Romance philology and linguistics is Friedrich Diez, in his Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (3 vols., Bonn, 1836-42), and Etymologist hes Worterbuch der romanischen Sprachen (2 vols., 1852). All questions concerning Romance philology and the historic grammar of the different Romance languages are treated in G. Grober's Grundriss der roma- nischenPhilologie(2nded.,Stra.ssbuTg, lQo6),andinW. Meyer-Lubke's Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (4 vols., Leipzig, 1890-1900); Einfuhrung in die romanische Sprachwissenschaft (2nd ed., Heidel- berg, 1909). The principal magazines devoted to the subject are Zeit- schriftfur romanische Philologie (ed. Grober; since 1877) ; Zeilschrift fur neufranzo'sische Sprache und Literalur (ed. Behrens; since 1879); Romanische Forschungen (ed. Vollmoller; since 1885); Archill fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen (since 1846); Romania (ed. G. Paris and P. Meyer; since 1812); Archivio glotlologico italiano (ed. G. I. Ascoli; since 1873). The great development of Romanic philology after Diez is due principally to A. Tobler, G. Grober, W. Forster and H. Suchier in Germany; A. Mussafia (d. 1905), H. Schuchardt in Austria; G. Paris (d. 1905), P. Meyer in France; G. I. Ascoli (d. 1907), and F. d'Ovidio in Italy. (W. M.-L.) ROMAN DE LA ROSE, a French poem dating from the i3th century. The first part was written about 1230 by Guillaume de Lorris (q.v.), whose work formed the starting-point, about forty years later, for the more extensive section written by Jean de Meun (q.v.). Guillaume de Lorris wrote an allegory, possibly of an adventure of his own, which is an artistic and beautiful presentment of the love philosophy of the trouba- dours. In a dream the Lover visits a park to which he is admitted by Idleness. In the park he finds Pleasure, Delight, Cupid and other personages, and at length the Rose. Welcome grants him permission to kiss the Rose, but he is driven away by Danger, Shame, Scandal, and especially by Jealousy, who entrenches the Rose and imprisons Welcome, leaving the Lover disconsolate. The story, thus left incomplete by its inventor, was finished in 19,000 lines by Jean de Meun, who allows the Lover to win the Rose, but only after a long siege and much discourse from Reason, the Friend, Nature and Genius. In the second part, however, the story is entirely subsidiary to the display of the author's encyclopaedic knowledge, to pic- turesque and poetic digressions, and to violent satire in the manner of the fabliaux against the abuse of power, against women, against popular superstition, and against the celibacy of the clergy. The length of the work and its heterogeneous character proved no bar to its enormous popularity in the middle ages, attested by the 200 MSS. of it which have survived. The Romaunt of the Rose was translated into English by Chaucer (see the prologue to the Legende of Good Women), but the English version of that, extending to about one-third of the whole work, which has come down to us (see an edition by Dr Max Kaluza, Chaucer Society, 1891), is generally admitted to be by another hand. For a list of books on the vexed question of the authorship of the English translation see G. Korting, Grundriss der engl. Lit. (Miinster, 1905, 4th ed. p. 184). A Flemish version by Hein van Aken appeared during Jean de Meun's lifetime, and at the beginning of the I4th century a free imitation, in the form of a series of sonnets, // Fiore, was written in Italian by the Tuscan poet Durante. Three editions of the Roman de la Rose were printed at Lyons between 1473 and 1490; two by Antoine Verard (Paris, 1490 ? and 1496 ?), by Jean du Pr6 (Paris, 1493 ?), by Nicholas Desprez for Jean Petit (Paris), by Michel le Noir (Paris, 1509 and 1519). In 1503 Jean Molinet produced a prose version. Marot altered and modernized the text (1526), and his corrections were followed in subsequent editions. Modern editions are by Meon (4 vols., 1813), by Francisque Michel (2 vols., 1864), by Croissandeau (pseudonym for Pierre Marteau), with a translation into modern French (Orleans, 5 vols., 1878-80), and a critical edition by E. Langlois, author of Origines et sources du Roman de la Rose (Paris, 1890). There is a modern English version by F. S. Ellis (Temple Classics, 3 vols., 1900). ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER. The reign of Constantine the Great forms the most deep-reaching division in the history of Europe. The external continuity is not broken, but the principles which guided society in the Greek and Roman world are replaced by a new order of ideas. The emperor-worship, which expressed a belief in the ideal of the earthly empire of Rome, gives way to Christianity; this is the outward sign that ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER a mental transformation, which we can trace for 300 years before in visible processes of decay and growth, had reached a crisis. Besides the adoption of Christianity, Constantine's reign is marked by an event only second in importance, the shifting of the centre of gravity of the Empire from the west to the east by making Byzantium a second capital, a second Rome. The foundation of Constantinople (q.v.) determined the sub- sequent history of the state; it established permanently the division between the eastern and western parts of the Empire —a principle already introduced — and soon exhibited, though not immediately, the preponderance of the eastern half. The eastern provinces were the richest and most resourceful, and only needed a Rome in their midst to proclaim this fact; and further, it was eastward that the Empire fronted, for here was the one great civilized state with which it was in constant antagonism. Byzantium was refounded on the model of Rome, had its own senate, and presently a pracfcclus urbi. But its character was different in two ways: it was Christian and it was Greek. From its foundation New Rome had a Christian stamp; it had no history as the capital of a pagan empire. There was, however, no intention of depressing Rome to a secondary rank in political importance; this was brought about by the force of circumstances. The Christian Roman Empire, from the first to the last Constantine, endured for 1130 years, and during that long period, which witnessed the births of all the great modern nations of i Europe, experienced many vicissitudes of decline and revival. In the sth century it lost all its western provinces through the expansion of the Teutons; but in the 6th asserted something of its ancient power and won back some of its losses. In the 7th it was brought very low through the expansion of the Saracens and of the Slavs, but in consequence of internal reforms and prudent government in the Sth century was able before the end of the pth to initiate a new brilliant period of power and conquest. From the middle of the nth century a decline began; besides the perpetual dangers on the eastern and northern frontiers, the Empire was menaced by the political aggression of the Normans and the commercial aggression of Venice; then its capital was taken and its dominions dis- membered by Franks and Venetians in 1204. It survived the blow for 250 years, as a shadow of its former self. During this long life its chief political role was that of acting as a defender of Europe against the great powers of western Asia. While it had to resist a continuous succession of dangerous enemies on its northern frontier in Europe — German, Slavonic, Finnic and Tatar peoples — it always considered that its front was towards the east, and that its gravest task was to face the powers which successively inherited the dominion of Cyrus and Darius. From this point of view we might divide the external history of the Empire into four great periods, each marked by a struggle with a different Asiatic power: (i) with Persia, ending c. 630 with the triumph of Rome; (2) with the Saracens, who ceased to be formidable in the nth century; (3) with the Seljuk Turks, in the nth and i2th centuries; (4) with the Ottoman Turks, in which the Roman power went down. Medieval historians, concentrating their interest on the rising states of western Europe, often fail to recognize the position held by the later Empire and its European prestige. Up to the middle of the nth century it was in actual strength the first power in Europe, except in the lifetime of Charles the Great, and under the Comneni it was still a power of the first rank. But its political strength does not express the fulness of its importance. As the heir of antiquity it was confessedly superior in civilization, and it was supreme in commerce. Throughout the whole period (to 1204) Constantinople was the first city in the world. The influence which the Empire exerted upon its neighbours, especially the Slavonic peoples, is the second great r&le which it fulfilled for Europe — a role on which perhaps the most speaking commentary is the doctrine that the Russian Tsar is the heir of the Roman Caesar. The Empire has been called by many names- -Greek, Byzantine, Lower (Uas-empire), Eastern (or East-Roman). All these have a certain justification as descriptions, but the only strictly correct name is Roman (as recognized in the title of Gibbon's work). The continuity from Augustus to Constantine XI. is unbroken; the emperor was always the Roman emperor; his subjects were always Romans ('Pu/ieuoi: hence Romaic — Modern Greek). "Greek Empire" expresses the fact that the state became predominantly Greek in character, owing to the loss, first of the Latin provinces, afterwards of Syria and Egypt; and from the middle of the 6th century Greek became the official language. " Lower Empire " (Later is preferable) marks the great actual distinction in character between the development before Constantine (llaut-empirc) and after his adoption of Christianity. " Byzantine sums up in a word the unique Graeco-Roman civilization which was centred in New Rome. Eastern is a term of convenience, but it has been used in two senses, not to be confused. It has been used, loosely, to designate the eastern half of the Empire during the 80 years or so (from 395) when there were two lines of emperors, ruling formally as colleagues but practically independent, at Rome and Constanti- nople; but though there were two emperors, as often before, there was only one Empire. It has also been used, justifiably, to dis- tinguish the true Roman Empire from the new state founded by Charles the Great (800), which also claimed to be the Roman Empire; Eastern and Western Empire are from this date forward legitimate terms of distinction. But between the periods to which the legitimate and illegitimate uses of the term Eastern Empire " apply lies a period of more than 300 years, in which there was only one Empire in any sense of the word. A chronological table of the dynasties will assist the reader of the historical sketch which follows. Succession of Emperors arranged in Dynasties. 1. CONST ANTINIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 324-363. Emperors (founder of dynasty, Constantius I., 305-306): Constantine I. (306, sole emperor since), 324-337. In west — Constantine II., 337-340; Constans, 337-350. In east — Constantius II., 337- . Sole emperors: Constantius II., 350-361; Julian, 361-363. INTER-DYNASTY. — Jovian, 363-364. 2. VALENTINIANEAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 364-392. Emperors : In west — Valcntinian I., 364-375; Gratian, 367-383; Valentinian II., 375-392. In east — Valens, 365-378 (Theodosius I., 379-392). 3. THEODOSIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 392-457. Emperors: Theodosius I. (379), 392-395. In east — Arcadius, 395-408; Theodosius II., 408-450; Marcian, 450-^57. In west — Hononus, 395-423; Constantius III., 422; Valentinian III., 425-455; (non-dynastic) Maximus, 455 ;Avitus, 455-456. 4. LEONINE DYNASTY. — A.D. 457-518. Emperors : In east — Leo I., 457-474; Leo II., 474; Zeno, 474-491; Anastasius I., 491-518. In west — non-dynastic, Majorian, 457-461 ; Severus, 461-465; (Leo I. sole emperor, 465-467); Anthcmius, 467-472; Olybrius, 472; Glycerius, 473-474; Julius Nepos, 474-480; (usurper, Romulus August ulus, 475- 476). 5. JUSTINIANEAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 518-602. Emperors: Justin I., 518-527; Justinian I., 527-565; Justin II., 565-578; Tiberius II., 578-582; Maurice, 582-602. INTER-DYNASTY. — Phocas, 602-610 6. HERACLIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 610-711. Emperors: Heraclius, 610-641; Constantine III., 641; Heracleonas, 641-642; Constans II., 642-668; Con- stantine IV. (Pogonatus) 668-685; Justinian II. (Rhinotmetus), 685-695 ; (non-dynastic) Leontius.695- 698 and Tiberius III. (Apsimar), 698-705; Justinian II. (restored), 705-711. II. INTER-DYNASTY. — Philip Bardanes, 711-713; Anastasius II., 713-716; Theodosius III., 716-717. 7. ISAURIAN (SYRIAN) DYNASTY. — A.D. 717-802. Emperors: Leo III., 717-740 (alias, 41); Constantine V. (Copronymus), 740-775; Leo IV. (Khazar), 775-780; Constantine VI., 780-797; Irene, 797-802. INTER-DYNASTY. — Nicephorus I., 802-81 1 ; Stauracius (son of Nicephorus), 811 ; Michael I. (Rhangabe, father-in-law of Stauracius), 811-813; Leo V. (Armenian), 813-820. 8. PHRYGIAN OR AMORIAN DYNASTY — A.D. 820-867. Emperors: Michael II. (Stammerer), 820-829; Theophilus, 829-842; Michael III. (Drunkard), 842-867. 9. MACEDONIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 867-1057. Emperors: Basil I. (Macedonian), 867-886; Leo VI. (philo- sopher) and Alexander, 886-912; Constantino VII. 512 ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER (Porphyrogennetos), 912-959; Romanus I. (Lecapenus), 920-944; Romanus II., 959-963 ; Basil II.(Bulgaroctonus) and Constantine VIII., 963-1025; (non-dynastic) Nice- phorus II. (Phocas) , 963-969, and John Zimisces, 969-976 ; Constantine VIII., alone, 1025-1028; Romanus III. (Argyros), 1028-1034; Michael IV. (Paphlagonian), 1034- 1041; Michael V. (Calaphates): 1041-1042; Constantine IX. (Monomachus), 1042-1054; Theodora, 1054-1056; Michael VI. (Stratioticus), 1056-1057. INTER-DYNASTY. — Isaac I. (Comnenus), 1057-1059 ; Constan- tine X. (Ducas), 1059-1067; Michael VII. (Parapinaces), Andronicus and Constantine XI., 1067; Romanus IV. (Diogenes), 1067-1071; Michael VII., alone, 1071-1078; Nicephorus III. (Botaneiates) , 1078-1081. 10. COMNENIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. IO8l-I2O4. Emperors: Alexius I. (nephew of Isaac I.), 1081-1118; John II., 1118-1143; Manuel I., 1143-1180; Alexius II., 1180-1183; Andronicus I., 1183-1185; Isaac 1 1. (Angelus), 1185-1195; Alexius III. (Angelus), 1195-1203; Isaac II. and Alexius IV., 1203-1204. INTER-DYNASTY. — Alexius V. (Murtzuphlus), 1204. Capture of Constantinople and dismemberment of the Empire by the Venetians and Franks, A.D. 1204—1205. 11. LASCARID DYNASTY. — A.D. 1206-1259. Emperors: Theodore I. (Lascaris), 1206-1222; John III. (Vatatzes or Batatzes), 1222-1254; Theodore" II. (Lascaris), 1254-1259. 12. PALAEOLOGIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 1259-1453. Emperors: Michael VIII. (Palaeologus), 1259-1282; And- ronicus II. (Elder), 1282-1328 ;Andronicus III. (Younger), 1328-1341 ; John V., 1341-1391 ; (non-dynastic), John (Cantacuzenus), 1347-1355; Manuel II., 1391-1425; John VI., 1425-1448; Constantine XI., or XII. (Dragases), 1448-1453. Historical Sketch. — Diocletian's artificial experiment of two Augusti and two Caesars had been proved a failure, leading to twenty years of disastrous civil wars; and when Constantine the Great (q.v.) destroyed his last rival and restored domestic peace, he ruled for the rest of his life with undivided sway. But he had three sons, and this led to a Hew partition of the Empire after his death, and to more domestic wars, Constans first annexing the share of Constantine II. (340) and becoming sole ruler of the west, to be in turn destroyed by Constantius II., who in 350 remained sole sovereign of the Empire. Having no children, he was succeeded by his cousin, Julian the Apostate (9.11.). This period was marked by wars against the Germans, who were pressing on the Rhine and Danish frontiers, and against Persia. Julian lost his life in the eastern struggle, which was then terminated by a disadvantageous peace. But the German danger grew graver, and the battle of Adrianople, in which the Visigoths, who had crossed the Danube in conse- quence of the coming of the Huns (see GOTHS and HUNS), won a great victory, and the emperor Valens perished (378), an- nounced that the question between Roman and Teuton had entered on a new stage. Theodosius the Great saved the situa- tion for the time by his Gothic pacification. The efforts of a series of exceptionally able and hard-working rulers preserved the Empire intact throughout the 4th century, but the dangers which they weathered were fatal to their weaker successors. On the death of Theodosius the decisive moment came for the expansion of the Germans, and they took the tide at the flood. There were three elements in the situation. Besides the Teutonic peoples beyond the frontier there were dependent people who had settled within the Empire (as Visigoths in Moesia, Vandals in Pannonia), and further there were the semi-Romanized Germans in the service of the Empire, some of whom had risen to leading positions (like Merobaudes and Stilicho). A Germanization of the Empire, or part of it, in some shape was inevitable, but, if the rulers of the 5th century had been men of the same stamp as the rulers of the 4th, the process might have assumed a different form. The sons of Theodosius were both incapable; and in their reigns the future of the state which was divided between them was decided. The dualism between the east (under Arcadius) and the west (under Honorious) developed under the rule of these brothers into antagonism verging on hostility. The German danger was averted in the east, but it led in a few years to the loss of many of the western provinces, and at the end of ninety years the immediate authority of the Roman Emperor did not extend west of the Adriatic. The reign of Honorius saw the abandon- ment of Britain, the establishment of the Visigothic kingdom in Aquitaine, the occupation of a great part of Spain by Vandals and Sueves (Suebi). Under Valentinian III. the Vandals founded their kingdom in North Africa, the Visigoths shared Spain with the Sueves, the Burgundian kingdom was founded in S.E. Gaul. The last Roman possession in Gaul passed to the Franks in 486 (see GOTHS; VANDALS; FRANKS). It is significant that the chief defender of the Empire against the Germans who were dismembering it were men of German race. Stilicho, who defended Italy against Alaric, Aetius, whose great work was to protect the imperial possessions in Gaul, and Ricimer. It was also a German, Fravitta, who played a decisive part in suppressing a formidable Gothic movement which menaced the throne of Arcadius in 399-400. It was charac- teristic of this transformation of Europe that the Germans, who were imbued with a profound reverence for the Empire and its prestige, founded their kingdoms on Roman soil in the first instance as " federates " of the Emperor, on the basis of formal contracts, defining their relations to the native pro- vincials; they seized their dominions not as conquerors, but as subjects. The double position of Alaric himself, as both king of the Visigoths and a magister militum of the Empire is significant of the situation. The development of events was complicated by the sudden growth of the transient empire of the Huns (s a codification of Byzantine law; and modern Greece, although in framing its code it took the Napoleonic for its model, professes theoretically to base its civil law on the edicts of the emperors as contained in the Hexabiblos of Harmenopulos. Administration. — Three principles underlay the adminis- trative reform of Diocletian: the separation of civil from military functions; the formation of small provincial units; and the scalar structure which deepened on the interposition of the vicar of a diocese and the praetorian prefect between the provincial governor and the emperor. This system lasted unchanged for three and a half centuries. The few unim- portant alterations that were made were in harmony with its spirit, until the reign of Justinian, who introduced certain reforms that pointed in a new direction. We find him com- bining some of the small provinces into large units, under- mining the scalar system by doing away with some of the dioceses and vicars, and placing in some cases military and civil authority in the same hands. The chief aim of Diocletian in his general reform had been to secure central control over the provincial governments; the object of Justinian in these particular reforms was to remedy corruption and oppression. These changes, some of which were soon cancelled, would hardly in themselves have led to a radical change; but they prepared the way for an administrative revolution, brought about by stress of external necessities. In the 7th century all the energies of the Empire, girt about by active enemies, were centred on war and defence; everything had to give way to military exigencies; and a new system was gradually intro- duced which led ultimately to the abolition of the old. The change began in Italy and Africa, at the end of the 6th century, where operations against the Lombards and the Berbers were impeded by the friction between the two co-ordinate military and civil authorities (masters of soldiers, and praetorian prefects). The military governors were made supreme with the title of exarchs, " viceroys "; the civil authority was subordinated to them in case of collision, otherwise remaining unaltered. The change is an index of the dangerous crisis through which these provinces were passing. In the East similar circumstances 521 led to similar results. The Saracen danger hanging imminent over Asia Minor imposed a policy of the same kind. And so before the end of the 7lh century we find the Empire divided into six great military provinces, three in Europe and three in Asia: (i) Exarchate of Africa, (2) Exarchate of Italy, (3) Strategia of Thrace, (4) County of Opsikion ( = obsequium) , including Bithynia, Honorias, Paphlagonia, parts of Helles- pontus and Phrygia, (5) Strategia of the Analolikoi, most of west and central Asia Minor, (6) Strategia of the Armeniakoi, eastern Asia Minor. In addition to these there was a naval circumscription, (7) the Strategia of the Karabisianoi (from /cdpa/3os, a vessel), including the southern coastland of Asia Minor, and the Aegean (see below under Navy). The lands of the old prefecture of Illyricum were not included in the system, because this part of the Empire was then regarded as a lost position. On the contrary, here military powers were committed to the Prefect of Illyricum, whose actual sphere extended little beyond Thessalonica, which was surrounded by Slavonic tribes. The Eastern changes, perhaps initiated by Heraclius, but probably due mainly to Constans II., did not interfere with the civil administration, except in so far as its heads were subordinated to the military commanders. But Leo III., who as a great administrative reformer ranks with Augustus and Diocletian, did away with the old system altogether, ft) Re- versing Diocletian's principle, he combined military and civil powers in the same hands. The strategos or military com- mander became also a civil governor; his higher officers (tur- marchs) were likewise civil functionaries. '(2) The scalar principle disappeared, including both the vicars and the praetorian prefect of the East (some of whose functions were merged in those of the prefect of the city); no authority inter- posed between the strategoi and the emperor. (3) The new provinces, which were called themes (the name marks their military origin: tli$ma = corps), resembled in size the provinces of Augustus, each including several of the Diocletian divisions. This third and last provincial reform has, like its predecessors, its own history. The list of themes in the nth century is very different from that of the 8th. The changes were in one direction — the reduction of large provinces by cutting off parts to form smaller themes, a repetition of the process which reduced the provinces of Augustus. Hence the themes came to vary greatly in size and importance. Leo himself began the process by breaking up the Anatolic command into two themes (Anatolic and Thracesian). The principle of splitting up was carried out systematically by Leo VI. (who was also responsible for a new ecclesiastical division of the Empire). The development will be exhibited by a list of the themes in the middle of the ipth century. A. Asia: |(i) Opsikion, (2) Optimaton, (3) Paphlagonia, (4) Bukellarian|=old Opsikion; |(s) Anatolic, (6) Thracesian, (7) Samos (naval), (8) Cappadocia, (q) Scleucia) = old Anatolic; i(io) Armeniac, (ll) Colonea, (12) Sebastca, (13) Charsianon, (14) Chaldia, (15) Mesopotamial =old Armeniac; (16) Cibyrrhaeot, (17) Aegean ( = Dodekanesos). B. Europe: (i) Thrace, (2) Macedonia, (3) Strymon, (4) Thessalonica, (5) Hellas, (6) Peloponnesus, (7) Nicopolis, (8) Dyrrhachium, (9) Longibardia, (10) Cephallenia, (n) Cherson. It is interesting to note that up to Leo VI. the district between Constantinople and the wall of Anastasius formed a separate theme or government, entitled the Wall (ri> rtixlov) or the Ditch (1} ratttpoi) ; Leo VI. united it with the themq of Thrace. In the central administration, the general principles seem to have remained unchanged; the heads of the great administrative bureaux in Constantinople retain the palatine character which belonged to most of them from the beginning. But there were many changes in these offices, in their nomenclature and the delimitation of their functions. There are great differences between the administrative corps in the 5th, in the loth and in the isth centuries. We can hardly be wrong in conjecturing that, along with his provincial reform, Leo III. made a re- arrangement of the central bureaux; the abolition of the Praetorian Prefecture of the East entailed, in itself, modifica- tions. But minor changes were continually being made, and we may note the following tendencies: (i) Increase in the number of ministers directly responsible to the emperor, (a) subordinate offices in the bureaux being raised to the rank 522 ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER of independent ministries; (6) new offices being created and old ones becoming merely titular. (2) Changes in nomenclature; substitution of Greek for Latin titles. (3) Changes in the relative importance and rank of the high officials, both civil and military. The Prefect of the City (&rapx£) then occupied; the only minister who was superior to him was the Great Domestic. Diplomacy. — In protecting the state against the barbarians who surrounded it, diplomacy was a weapon as important in the eyes of the Byzantine government as soldiers or fortifications The peace on the frontiers was maintained not only by strong military defences, but by more or less skilful management of he frontier peoples. In the later Empire this kind of diplomacy, which we may define as the science of managing the barbarians, was practised as a fine art; its full development was due ,o Justinian. Its methods fall under three general heads, i) One people was kept in check by means of another. The mperial government fomented rivalry and hatred among them. Thus Justinian kept the Gepidae in check by the Bombards, the Kuturgurs by the Utigurs, the Huns by the Avars. (2) Subsidies were given to the peoples on the frontiers, n return for which they undertook to defend the frontier adjacent to them, and to supply fighting men when called upon ,o do so. The chiefs received honours and decorations. Thus he Berber chiefs on the African border received a staff of silver, encrusted with gold, a silver diadem, white cloak, em- jroidered tunic, &c. More important potentates were invested with a costlier dress. In these investitures precedence was carefully observed. The chiefs thus received a definite position n the Empire, and the rich robes, with the ceremony, appealed to their vanity. In some cases they were admitted to posts n the official hierarchy,— being created Patricians, Masters of soldiers, &c. They were extremely fond of such honours, and considered themselves half-Romans. Another mode of winning influence was to marry barbarian princes to Roman wives, and rear their sons in the luxury of the palace. Dissatisfied pre- tenders, defeated candidates for kingship, were welcomed at Constantinople. Thus there were generally some princes, thoroughly under Byzantine influence, who at a favourable opportunity could be imposed on their compatriots. Through- out Justinian's reign there was a constant influx of foreign potentates to Constantinople, and he overwhelmed them with attentions, pompous ceremonies and valuable presents. (3) Both these methods were already familiar to the Roman govern- ment, although Justinian employed them far more extensively and systematically than any of his predecessors. The third method was new and characteristic. The close connexion of religion and politics at Constantinople prepares us to find that Christian propaganda should go hand-in-hand with conquest, and that the missionary should co-operate with the soldier. The missionary proved an excellent agent. The typical procedure is as follows. In the land which he undertakes to convert, the missionary endeavours to gain the confidence of the king and influential persons, and makes it a special object to enlist the sympathies of the women. If the king hesitates, it is suggested that he should visit New Rome. The attraction of this idea is irresistible, and when he comes to the capital, the pomp of his reception, the honours shown him by the emperor, and the splendour of the religious ceremonies overcome his last scruples. Thenceforward imperial influence is predominant in his dominion; priests become his advisers; a bishop is consecrated, dependent on the patriarch of Constantinople; and the bar- barians are transformed by the penetration of Byzantine ideas. By the application of these various means, Justinian established Roman influence in Nubia, Ethiopia and South Arabia, in the Caucasian regions, and on the coast of the Euxine. The con- version of the Lazi (of Colchis) was specially notable, and that of the Sabiri, who were politically important because they commanded the eastern pass of the Caucasus known as the Caspian Gates. It 'will be observed that the great prestige of the Empire was one of the conditions of the success of this policy. The policy had, of course, its dangers, and was severely criticized by one of Justinian's contemporaries, the historian Procopius. Concessions encouraged greater demands; the riches of the Empire were revealed. It -was a system, of course, which could not be per- manently successful without military power behind it, and of course it was not infallible; but in principle it was well-founded, and proved of immeasurable value. Less prejudiced writers than Procopius fully admit the far-sightedness and dexterity of the emperor in his diplomatic activity. A full account of it will be found in Diehl's Justinien. In the loth century we have again the means of observing how the government conducted its foreign policy on carefully ROMANES— ROMANIN thought out principles. The Empire was then exposed t constant danger from Bulgaria, to inroads of the Magyars and to attacks of the Russians. The key to the diplomati system, designed to meet these dangers, was the cultivation o friendly relations with the Petchenegs, who did not menac the provinces either by land or sea and could be incited t act against Russians, Bulgarians or Magyars. The system i explained in the treatise (known as De administrando imperio composed by the emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos (c. 950) The series of these northern states was completed by th kingdom of the Khazars (between the Caucasus and the Don) with which the Empire had been in relation since the time o Heraclius, who, to win its co-operation against Persia, promisee his daughter in marriage to the king. Afterwards the Khazar gave two empresses to New Rome (the wives of Justinian II and Constantine V.). Their almost civilized state steerec skilfully between the contending influences of Islam and Chris tianity, and its kings adopted the curious means of avoiding suspicion of partiality for either creed by embracing the neutra religion of the Jews. Commercial and political relations with the Khazars were maintained through the important outpost of the Empire at Cherson in the Crimea, which had been allowec to retain its republican constitution under a president (TTfxjrevuv) and municipal board (apxavres) , though this free- dom was limited by the appointment of a strategos in 833, a moment at which the Khazars were seriously threatened by the Petchenegs. The danger to be feared from the Khazars was an attack upon Cherson, and it seems probable that this was a leading consideration with Leo III. when he wedded his son Constantine V. to a Khazar princess. In the gth century it was an object of the government to maintain the Khazars (whose army consisted mainly of mercenaries) against the Pelchenegs; and hence, if it should become necessary to hold the Khazars in check, the principle was to incite against them not the Petchenegs, but other less powerful neighbours, the Alans of the Caucasus, and the people of "Black Bulgaria" on the middle Volga (a state which survived till the Mongol conquest). For this systematic diplomacy it was necessary to collect information about the peoples whom it concerned. The ambas- sadors sent to the homes of barbarous peoples reported every- thing of interest they could discover. We owe to Priscus a famous graphic account of the embassy which he accompanied to the court of Attila. We possess an account of an embassy sent to the Turks in Central Asia in the second half of the 6th century, derived from an official report. Peter the Patrician .in Justinian's reign drew up careful reports of his embassies to the Persian court. When foreign envoys came to Con- stantinople, information was elicited from them as to the history and domestic politics of their own countries. It can be shown that some of the accounts of the history and customs of neighbouring peoples, stored in the treatise of Constantine Porphyrogennetos referred to above (furnishing numerous facts not to be found anywhere else), were derived from barbarian ambassadors who visited Constantinople, and taken down by the imperial secretaries. We may conjecture with some pro- bability that the famous system of the Relazioni, which the Venetian government required from its ambassadors, goes back originally to Byzantine influence. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— i. General works: GibBon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; Finlay's History of Greece (ed., Tozer; vols. i.-iv., 1877); Hopf, Geschichte Griechenlands (in Ersch and Gruber Enzyklopddie (i Sekt., vols. Ixxxv., Ixxxvi., 1876-78)); Hertzberg Geschichte der Byzantiner und des osmanischen Retches bis gegen Ende desi6Jahrhunderts(i883);Paparrhezopulos,'laTopla.ToS •EXXiji/woC Kvovs (5 vols., 2nd ed., 1887-88); Oman, The Byzantine Empire (1892) (a popular sketch); Gelzer, Abriss der byzantinischen Kaisergeschichte, in Krumbacher's Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (ed. ii., 1897) (a summary but original outline). 2. Works dealing with special periods, or branches of the subject: Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit (vol. ii., 1887) (Diocletian to Theodosius the Great); Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (8 vols., 1879-99) (to A.D. 800) ; Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, A.D. -5915-800 (2 vols., 1889); Diehl, Justinien (1901); Diehl, L'Afrique byzanline (1896); Permce, L'Imperatore Eraclio (1905); Rambaud, L'Empire grec au d^x^eme siecle (1870); Schlumberger, Nicephore Phocas (I vol.) and L'Epopee byzantine (3 vols.. 1890-1905; 4 vols., finely illustrated, covering the period 960-1057); Gay, L'ltalie meridian- ale et I empire byzantin, 867-1071 (1004); Neumann, Die Welt- aeuung des byzantinischen Reiches vor den Kreuzziigen (1894); Meharakes, 'laropla TOV Baoi\tlov rrjt Noco/aj aal rov Staror&Tov rrjt Hireipou (1898) ; Gerland, Geschichte des lateinischen Kaiserreiches von K.onstantinopel (part i., 1905) ; Fallmerayer, Geschichte des Kaiser- turns Trapezunt (1827); Norden, Das Papsttum und Byzanz (1903)- Pears, The Fall of Constantinople, being the story of the Fourth Crusade (1885), and The Destruction of the Greek Empire (1903). / f V» _[. B.) ROMANES, GEORGE JOHN (1848-1894), British" biologist, was born at Kingston, Canada, on the zoth of May 1848, being the third son of the Rev. George Romanes, D.D., professor of Greek at the university of that town. He was educated in England, going in 1867 to Gonville and Caius College, Cam- bridge. He early formed an intimate friendship with Charles Darwin, whose theories he did much during his life to popularize and support. When studying under Sir J. Burdon Sanderson at University College, London, in 1874-76, he began a series of researches on the nervous and locomotor systems of the Medusae and Echinodermata, which provided him with material for his Croonian lecture in 1876. Subsequently he continued the inquiry, partly in conjunction with Professor J. Cossar Ewart, and the results were published in Jelly-fish, Star-fish, and Sea-urchins (1885). Meantime he had been also devoting his attention to broader problems of biology. In 1881 he published Animal Intelligence, and in 1883, Mental Evolution in Animals, in which he traced the parallel development of intelligence in the animal world and in man. He followed up this line of argument in 1888 with Mental Evolution in Man, in which he maintained the essential similarity of the reasoning processes in the higher animals and in man, the highest of all. In 1892 he brought out an Examination of Weismannism, in which he upheld the theory of the hereditability of acquired characters. In 1890 he left London and settled at Oxford, where he 'founded a lecture similar to the " Rede " of Cam- bridge, 10 Tje delivered annually on a scientific or literary topic. In 1893 he published the first part of Darwin and after Danvin, a work dealing with the development of the theory of organic evolution, and based on lectures, which he delivered as Fullerian professor of physiology at the Royal Institution in 1888-91; a second part appeared in 1895 after his death, which occurred at Oxford on the 23rd of May 1894. Romanes was awarded the Burney prize at Cambridge in 1873 for an essay on " Christian Prayer and General Laws." Five years later, under the pseudonym " Physicus," he issued A Candid Examination of Theism, in which he showed himself out of accord with orthodox religious beliefs. In 1882 he published an article on the " Fallacy of Materialism," and in his Rede lecture of 1885 he appeared as a monist. Subse- quently his views again changed in the direction of orthodoxy, as is shown by his Thoughts on Religion, written shortly before his death and published in 1895. His Life and Letters, by his widow, appeared in 1896. ROMANIN, SAMUELE (1808-1861), Venetian historian, was born of a poor Jewish family at Trieste. Being left an orphan at an early age, he provided for his younger brothers and sister >y giving French anfl German lessons. In 1821 he settled in /enice, where he afterwards translated Hammer-Purgstall's leschichte des osmanischen Reiches into Italian. He next pub- ished his own Storia dei Popoli Europei (Venice, 1843-44). le taught in a private school and was sworn interpreter in German to the courts of justice; on the expulsion of the Austrians in 1848 he was appointed professor of history by he provisional government, and he lectured on Venetian listory at the Ateneo Veneto. In 1852 he began to publish lis monumental Storia documenlata di Venezia, but although he inished the work, carrying it down to the fall of the republic n 1798, he did not live to see the publication completed, as ie died of apoplexy on the gth of September 1861; among his sapers were found all the documents which were to be added, 526 ROMAN LAW [REGAL PERIOD and the index. The tenth and last volume was issued in 1861. After Romania's death his lectures on Venetian history were published in two volumes (Florence, 1875). Among his minor works we may mention: Gli Inqmsiton dt Statp dt Venezta (Venice, 1858), Bajamonte Tiepolo e le sue ultime vtcende (Venice, 1851), and Venezia nel 1789 (Venice, 1860). ROMAN LAW.1 The term " Roman law " is indefinite and ambiguous, being used in more than one sense. First, in a wide sense, it comprehends the totality of the laws of the Roman state, which were observed by its subjects during about thirteen centuries, from Romulus to Justinian. In a second and stricter meaning it indicates the law as consolidated by Justinian or, in other words, the law contained in the Corpus Juris Ciiiilis, which is the name that has been given since the i6th century to Justinian's legislative works as a whole, and distinguishes them from the Corpus Juris Canonici. In this acceptation it is equivalent to, and is often called, " civil law " as contrasted with canon law. In a third and loose sense Roman law em- braces, in addition to the Corpus Juris, the interpretations of it after Justinian by medieval and modern courts, jurists and commentators adapting it to the customs and laws of their own countries and times. The German expression, for example, modernes (or heuliges) romisches ReM, indicates the Roman law as it was applied in Germany in modern times. Such medieval and modern interpretation, however, is also some- times expressed, in English usage at least, by the term "civil law " as contrasted with native or common law; writers in this field being usually styled civilians rather than Romanists. It is to the Roman law in the first of the above-mentioned three significations that the present article is devoted. To give a proper sketch of Roman law it must be treated historically. Nearly all systems of positive law are the product more or less of an historic development, but the Roman has this great advantage over other systems, that it was at all times a homogeneous body complete in itself. For the Romans were comparatively little indebted to other peoples for their jurisprudence, and, when they did borrow legal ideas and institutions from others, they generally transformed or modified these in adapting them to their own native system, so that they became substantially Roman. Moreover, the various stages of progress of the law from its genesis to its maturity and ultimate consolidation can be traced in unbroken continuity. Beginning in 753 B.C., the traditionally accepted date of the foundation of Rome, it con- tinued its course till the death of Justinian in A.D. 565. Allow- ing for the first three centuries being without historic evidence, we have at least an authenticated evolution of about 1000 years. Of no other system of law, ancient or modern, can anything like the same thing be said. As to the proper method of historic treatment there have been different opinions. Without going into these, it is enough to say that the subject may be treated from two sides, viz. on the one side in relation to the external sources of the law, including therein the political and social conditions and the various constitutional changes at different periods affecting the development of the law, as well as the modes in which the law manifested itself and the legal literature from which our knowledge of it is derived; on the other side it may be treated in relation to the several departments or institutions of the law in view of their development or changes through time or circum- stance, such as marriage, slavery, property, and so forth. This corresponds to what Leibnitz described as external and internal history respectively, terms which are now rather out of vogue. Of course it is possible to treat the historic sources of the law, constitutional and literary, independently of the doctrines, and this is now often done; but unless both are discussed the field of Roman law is not covered. Both the external and the * 'This article represents a recast of the article contributed to the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia by the late Professor Muir- head. A large part of that article has been retained by the present writer, and the plan of arrangement, though altered in some respects, has been adhered to in the main. Necessity tor historic treat- meat. historic epochs. internal history, however, may be treated together or in a measure interwoven, and it is in this way that the subject is treated in the following pages. But constitutional events affecting the law are only noticed very summarily, details about these being given in separate articles. Modern writers on the history of the Roman law have as a rule, for the purpose of systematic treatment, divided the subject into definite historic periods. Gibbon, in the Dlvlsloo 44th chapter of his Decline and Fall oj the Roman into Empire, seems to have been the first to suggest this mode of treatment, though the particular periods of division he selected (being based on an artificial symmetry of about three hundred years each) are not satisfactory.2 In the present article, the division made by Muirhead in his article in the oth edition of this Encyclopaedia into five historic epochs has been left unaltered. These are: (i) the regal period; (2) ike jus civile, representing the period from the establishment of the Republic until the subjugation of central and southern Italy; (3) ihejus gentium and jus honorarium, representing the latter half of the Republic; (4) the jus naturale and maturity of Roman jurisprudence, representing the period of the Empire until the beginning of the reign of Diocletian; (5) the period of codifica- tion, i.e. from Diocletian to Justinian. Not that there is any sharp or fundamental division between these or, indeed, between any historic epochs. The law is a unity: it has its roots in the past and grows with the nation itself, and, like it, decays; there is no break in its continuity. The division is made merely for convenient treatment of the subject. It must be kept in view that our knowledge of Roman customs and laws earlier than the XII. Tables and even for some time after them cannot be based on strict historical evidence; it is almost entirely traditional and conjectural, and different writers will take different views according to the relative value they place upon this or that piece of presumptive evidence. It is only the private law that is dealt with in the present article. I. THE REGAL PERIOD i. The People and the Law. The Beginnings of the Stale. — The early Romans were not different from other Indo-European communities in their essential characteristics. The tribe, the clan, the family, the individual: each of these appears in course of development prior to the XII. Tables. Putting aside much of the traditional accounts of Livy, Dionysius, and other ancient historians, regarding the foundation of Rome and its early political and social life, as mythical, modern critical historians are none the less agreed that in the earliest period of their existence as a settled community the Romans were subjected to the govern- ment of a king (rex), with a council of elders (senatus) and an assembly of burghers (comitia curiata). It used to be a somewhat common opinion that the primitive Romans were a sort of amalgam of three different races— Latin, Sabine and Etruscan. This opinion is mainly based upon the tradition that the state was originally formed by a union of three tribes called Ramnes, Tities and Luceres; the Ramnes being of the Latin race, the Tities of the Sabine and the Luceres of the Etruscan. Attempts have even been made to find in the Roman laws and institutions traces of the influence of each of these races, and especially of the first two — patria potestas and manus, for example, being attributed to the Latin or dominant race; adoption and confarreation to the Sabine; forms and cere- monial (such as lictors, fasces, &c.) to the Etruscan.3 But this attractive theory of a union of three races, apart from the suspicion of a symbolic trichotomy (Ires tribus) due to later times, is based orj. no substantial evidence;4 many of the 2 See as to historic epochs Muirhead, Hist. Introd. to the Law of Rome (2nd ed. by Goudy, 1899), p. 421. 3 See Muirhead, Historical Introduction (2nd ed., 1899), pp. 3-5, and authorities there cited. 4 Some writers deny the existence of the tribes altogether, but this goes too far. See Bruns-Lenel in Holtzendorff's Encyklo- pddie d. Rechtswissenschaft, i. p. 86". REGAL PERIOD] ROMAN LAW 527 Patri- cians. The gentes. institutions attributed to the Sabines and Etruscans were, as Mommsen and others have shown, common to all peoples of Greek-Italian stock, and could not be strange to the Latins. We must hold that the Romans were essentially a Latin race, though influenced by a considerable admixture with Sabine and, to a lesser degree, Etruscan races (see ROME). Patricians, Clients and Plebeians. — But whatever their ethno- graphic descent, it is pretty certain that the Roman civitas Divisions was in the earliest period an organization that was of the patriarchal in its essence, but in which there was to be people. distinguished, on the one hand, a dominant class enjoy- ing all the rights of citizenship, and, on the other, a semi-servile or quasi-vassal class excluded from such rights. The former class were called patricii or Quirites; l the latter were called dientes and (later) plebeii. Patricians. — There was part of the law of Rome that even in the Empire was known by the name of jus Quirilium, and this in the regal period was the only law. The patricians at first were the Quirites, and prior at least to the time of Servius Tullius they alone enjoyed rights under this law. From their number the council of elders was selected; they alone could take part in the curiate comitia; they alone could contract a lawful marriage and make a testament; in a word, all the peculiar institutions of early Rome were for their benefit alone. But these rights and prerogatives they enjoyed as members of gentes or clans, the clans being aggregations of families bear- ing a common name and theoretically at least tracing their descent from a common ancestor. These clans, of which there were normally three hundred altogether according to a rather doubtful tradition, were organized consti- tutionally in curies. Of the curies, again, there were thirty in all, there being probably ten in each of the three tribes, organized primarily for military and secondarily for political and religious purposes. Though for the federation of the curiae and gentes Rome required a common ruler and common institutions, religious, military and political, yet it was long before such federation into a state displaced entirely the separate institu- tions of the several gentes. Every clan had its own cult peculiar toils own members. It had its common property and its common burial-place. It probably had some common council or assembly, for we read not only of special gentile customs, but of gentile statutes and decrees. Tradition records instances of wars waged by individual gentes, indicating that they had the right to require military service alike from their members and dependants. Widows and orphans of deceased clansmen were under the guardianship of the gens or of some particular member of it to whom the trust was specially confided. If a clansman left no descendants, his property passed to his fellow- gentiles. Finally, its members were always entitled to rely upon its assistance, to have maintenance when indigent, to be ransomed from captivity, and to be avenged when killed or injured. Along with the gentiles there were in Rome from the earliest period other persons known by the name of dientes (clients). Their origin is wholly unknown. Some of them may have been the original inhabitants of Rome and their descendants, but more probably they were mostly immigrants from other communities or citizens of conquered towns whom the Romans were unable or unwilling to treat as slaves. Some may have been slaves to whom liberty de facto had been given. Following a custom familiar both to Latins and Sabines, such persons were placed under the protection of the heads of patrician families. The relationship was hereditary on both sides, and known as that of patron and client. The client2 1 The derivation of the name is uncertain, and ancient writers differed about it. It probably comes either from quiris, a Sabine word for a spear, or from curia. The derivation from Cures is inadmissible. See Mommsen, Rom. Staatsrecht (1887, 1888), iii. I, p. 5 n. 2 The derivation of cliens from cluere indicates the relationship — one who is called on, who hearkens. The theory that clientage Clients. became a dependent member of his patron's clan — not gentilis but gentilicius. His patron had to provide him with what was necessary for his sustenance and that of his family; and, as ownership or possession of lands increased in extent, it was probably not unusual for the patron or his gens to give him during pleasure a plot of land to cultivate for himself. The patron had, moreover, to assist him in his transactions with third parties, and obtain redress for him when injured. The client, on the other hand, had to maintain his patron's interests by every means in his power. But the advantage must have been chiefly on the side of the client, who, without becoming a citizen, obtained directly the protection of his patron and his clan, and indirectly that of the state. A large number of clients attached themselves to and received protection from the king as patron — " royal clients," as Cicero calls them. The plebeians (plebs, from w\rjdos, meaning crowd), as dis- tinguished from the clients, must be regarded as a hetero- geneous mass of non-gentile freemen. It used to be _. the prevailing opinion among modern writers, following the Roman historians, that the plebeians existed as a body since the very beginning of the city. They were thought to be mainly composed of immigrants and refugees who, while being allowed personal liberty, declined to submit themselves to a patron. But recently a theory of Mommsen, based on solid philological and other grounds, has obtained wide adhesion and tends to become the dominant one. Mommsen's view is that at first there were only two classes in the community, the patricians and clients, or, in other words, that' the only plebeians were the clients who, as such, possessed only quasi-liberty (Halbfreiheit), and that it was not till after a century or two that the practice of voluntary clientage began to decay and the class of plebeian freemen arose. This was partly due to gentes dying out, so that the clients attached to them were left without patrons; partly to the numbers of foreigners at Rome (through transplantation of the inhabitants of conquered cities and otherwise) having become so large that they felt themselves sufficiently powerful to do without protection; and partly to other causes.3 However this be, it is generally admitted that, during the latter part of the present epoch at least, plebeians existed as a body composed of individuals of mixed races not united by any gentile organizations of their own nor attached to any Roman gentes. Tradition attributes to Numa the formation of gilds or societies of craftsmen, such as potters, carpenters, gold- and silver-smiths (collegia opificum) at Rome, eight or nine in number. This, though probably a myth as regards Numa, may be taken as slight evidence of the creation among the plebeians of associations for trade and other purposes, that to some extent compensated them for the want of gentile organization. These gilds seem to have had a common cult and a common council to arrange disputes and consolidate customs. Between the brethren (sodales) there was a bond of close alliance and interdependence, each owing duty to the other similar to what might be claimed from a guest or a kinsman. The Regulative* of Public and Private Order. — It would be absurd to expect any definite system of law in those early times. What passed for it was a composite of fas, jus and boni mores, whose several limits and characteristics it is extremely difficult to define. This may to some extent be accounted for by the fact that much of what was originally within the domain of fas, once it had come to be enforced by secular tribunals, and thus had the sanction of human authority, was no longer distinguishable from jus; while it may be that others of its behests, once pontifical punishments for their contravention had gone into desuetude, sank to nothing higher than precepts of boni mores. arose from the voluntary subjection of poorer citizens to the rich is an hypothesis supported by no satisfactory authority. * Mommsen, Staatsrecht, iii. I, pp. 66 scq. and pp. 127 seq. For a different view, Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgeschichte, \. 62. Cf. Cuq, Instii. jurid. des Remains (2nd ed., 1904-8), i. 11-12. ROMAN LAW [REGAL PERIOD Jus. By fas1 was understood the will of the gods, the laws given by heaven for men on earth, much of it regulative of ceremonial, but a by no means insignificant part embodying rules of conduct. It appears to have had a wider range than jus. It forbade that a war should be undertaken without the prescribed fetial ceremonial, and required that faith should be kept even with an enemy when a promise had been made to him under sanction of an oath. It enjoined hospitality to foreigners, because the stranger guest was presumed, equally with his entertainer, to be an object of solicitude to a higher power. It punished murder, for it was the taking of a god- given life; the sale of a wife by her husband, for she had become his partner in all things human and divine; the lifting of a hand against a parent, for it was subversive of the first bond of society and religion, — the reverence due by a child to those to whom he owed his existence; incestuous connexions, for they defiled the altar; the false oath and the broken vow, for they were an insult to the divinities invoked; the dis- placement of a boundary or a landmark, not so much because the act was provocative of feud, as because the march-stone itself, as the guarantee of peaceful neighbourhood, was under the guardianship of the gods. Some breaches of fas were expiable, usually by a peace-offering to the offended god; others were inexpiable. When an offence was inexpiable, the punishment was usually what is called sacratio capilis, excommunication and outlawry of the offender. The precepts of the fas therefore were not mere exhortations to a blameless life, but closely approached to laws, whose violation was visited with punishments none the less effective that they were religious rather than civil. The derivation of the word jus is disputed. The usual deri- vation is from the Sanskrit, ju, to " join, bind or unite," from which some deduce as its signification " that which binds," " the bond of society," others " that which is regular, orderly or fitting." Breal identifies it with the jos or jaiis of the Vedas, and the jaes or jaos of the Zend- Avesta — words whose exact meaning is controverted, but which he interprets as " divine will or power."2 If Breal's definition can be adopted we obtain a very significant inter- pretation of the words addressed by the presiding magistrate to the assembled comitia in asking them whether they assented to a law proposed by him, — Velitis, jubeatis, Quirites, &c., " Is it your pleasure, Quirites, and do you hold it as the divine will, that," and so on. As legislation by the comitia of the curies and centuries was regarded as a divine office, and their vote might be nullified by the fathers on the ground that there had been a defect in the auspicia, and the will of the gods consequently not clearly ascertained, this explanation of Breal's seems not without support, — vox gopuli vox dei. If it be right, then the main difference between fas and jus was that the will of the gods, which both embodied, was in the one declared by inspired and in the other by merely human agency. This ./MS might be the result either of traditional and inveter- ate custom (jus moribus conslitutitm) or of statute (lex).s As to the customs, it can well be believed that at the outset they were far from uniform ; that not only the customs of the three original tribes but those also of the different gentes varied, 1 Breal derives fas from the Greek 0«M«- It signifies the divinely inspired word. Breal et Bailly, 101. 2 Nouv. rev. hist. (1883), p. 605. But see J. Schmidt in Mommsen, Staatsrecht, iii. 310 n. 3 For the distinction between jus and lex, see Mitteis, Romisches Privatrecht (1908), i. 30 seq. There is some controversy about the etymology of the word lex. See Breal, I.e. p. 610; Schmidt in Mommsen, S.R. iii. 308 n. While lex is often used like jus to express law generally, it early acquired two distinct meanings, viz. (i) an obligation of any kind expressly incorporated in a private deed (lex privata), as in the phrases lex mancipii, lex contractus, &c. ; (2) a comitial enactment, hence occasionally called lex publica (Gaius, i. 3 and ii. 104). But by the jurists of the Republic this latter meaning was extended so as to cover all laws resulting from the will of the people, including, for example, plebiscites and even senatorial or proconsular ordinances (leges datae). and that they only gradually approximated, and in course of time consolidated into a general jus Quiriliunt. Of legislation there was, so far as is known, practically almost nothing What went by the name of boni mores (as distinct from jus moribus constitutum) must also be regarded as one of the regulatives of public and private order Part of what fell within their sphere might also be expressly regulated by Jas or jus; but there was much that was only gradually, brought within the domain of these last, and even down to the end of the Republic not a little that remained solely under the guardianship of the family tribunal or the censor's regimen morum. The functions of those who took charge of boni mores were twofold: sometimes they restrained by publicly condemning — though they could not prevent — the ruthless and unnecessary exercise of legal right, as, for example, that of the head of the house over his depend- ants, and sometimes they supplied deficiencies in the law by requiring observance of duties that could not be enforced by any legal process. Dutiful service, respect and obedience from inferiors to superiors, chastity, and fidelity to engagements, express or implied (fides), were among the officia that were thus inculcated, and whose neglect or contravention not only affected the reputation, but often entailed punishments and disabilities, social, political or religious. It was the duty of those in authority to enforce their observance by such animadversio as they thought proper — the paterfamilias in his family, the gens among its members, the king in relation to the citizens generally; and many a wrong was prevented not by fear of having to make reparation to the party injured but by the dread of the penalties that would follow conduct unbecoming an upright citizen. That the bulk of the law during the regal period was customary is universally admitted, and that no laws were committed to writing prior to the XII. Tables is generally believed. Yet the jurist Pomponius, a contemporary of Hadrian, speaks of certain laws enacted by the comitia of the curies, which he calls leges regiae and which, he says, were collected by one Sextus Papirius, a prominent citizen in the reign of Tarquinius Superbus, under the name of Jus Papirianum.* We are also told by Paul that this work was commented on by a certain Granius Flaccus,5 who was, it is supposed, of the time of Julius Caesar or Augustus. No remains of this Jus Papirianum are extant, but we Have a considerable number of so-called leges regiae cited by Livy, Dionysius and others, which contain rules of the private law relating almost entirely to matters of fas and which appear to have been enacted under the kings We are also told by Servius, the commentator on Virgil, that there was a work known to Virgil called de Ritu Sacrorum, in which leges regiae were collected.6 The authenticity of these laws, however, is disputed, and the question is one of difficulty. Some modern writers of high authority (e.g. Mommsen hold that the Jus Papirianum is an apocryphal compilation made from ponti- fical records about the close of the Republic.7 It has even been attributed (the suggestion was first made apparently by Gibbon) to Granius Flaccus himself. Nevertheless, the internal evidence from the character and language of the laws them- selves (apart from the weight that must be given to the testimony of Pomponius, Servius and other ancient writers) is favourable to their great antiquity, and it is best to accept the view that the leges regiae are authentic remains of laws of the regal period. This does not, however, involve the belief that they were collected by Papirius, nor that they were enactments of the comitia curiata, as Pomponius says. They seem rather to have been regulations made by the king at his own hand. 4 Dig. i. 2. 2, § 2 and § 36. In the latter passage Papirius is given the praenomen Publius. 5 Dig. 1. 16, 144. 6 Serv., in Aeneid, 12, 836, cited in Bruns, Fontes, p. 3. 7 It has been suggested that a work of the jurist Manilius men- tioned by Pomponius (Dig. i. 2. 2, § 39) is its source (Zeitschrifl d. Sav. Stift. xxiv. 420). REGAL PERIOD] ROMAN LAW 529 or perhaps old-established customs formulated by the higher pontiffs and ascribed to the kings.1 It is also stated by Dionysius that under Servius Tullius various laws, fifty in number, dealing with contracts and delicts, were enacted in the comitia of the curies.2 But we have no corroboration of this, and recent writers are now generally agreed in regarding the statement as a legend. ii. Reforms of Servius Tullius. It is generally agreed that towards the end of the regal period, and connected with the king traditionally called Servius Tullius, a great reform of the constitution took place, which exercised much influence on the subsequent development of the law. No doubt there is a good deal of myth attached to the name of Servius, who seems to have been regarded by later Romans as a popular monarch, like Alfred by the English, but the main features of the traditional account of the constitutional reforms of this period may be taken as based on fair presumptive evidence. That all of them indeed were evolved from one brain is hardly credible, and that some of them were in observ- ance de facto before being made constitutionally binding is very likely. The design attributed to Servius was that of altering the old constitution in order to promote an advance towards equality between patricians and plebeians. He is credited with having desired, on the one hand, to ameliorate the position of the plebs and, on the other, to make them bear a proportionate share of the burdens of the state — in particular, to serve in the army and contribute to the war tax (tribulum). He effected this by giving them qualified rights of citizenship, not indeed by admitting them into the gentile organizations, but by creat- ing a new political assembly of a distinctly military character in which they as well as the gentiles could take part. The so-called Servian reforms may be roughly summarized under the following four heads, viz. (i) a division of the Roman territory within the city walls into four local wards called tribus (to which a number of tribes outside the city — tribus rusticae — were afterwards in course of time added); (2) the establishment of a register of the citizens (census) which was to contain, in addition to a record of the strength of their families, a statement of the value of their lands, with the slaves and cattle employed in their cultivation, and which was to be revised periodically; (3) a division of the people, as appearing in the census, into five classes for military purposes, determined by the value of their holdings in land and its appurtenances, with a subdivision of each class into so-called centuriae; (4) the creation of a new assembly with legislative power called comitia centuriala, in which the vote was to be taken by centuriae. While it may be an open question how far these reforms, and particularly the institution of the centuriate comitia, were actually due to Servius, or only a result of his arrangements, the whole conception of the new constitution is obviously of early date and indicative of considerable statesmanship. The plebeians were thereby made constitutionally part of the populus Romanus; they became citizens (Qitirites) .3 They got commercium and also connubium so far that their marriages inter se were recognized as legal marriages. Rights and duties lSee Clark, Hist, of Rom. Law (1906), i. 16-19; Kipp, Geschichte d. Quellen (1903), pp. 24-25. The most comprehensive treatise on these royal laws, which also contains references to the earlier literature, is that of yoigt, fiber die Leges Regiae (Leipzig, 1876). An exhaustive collection of them, including numerous references to royal institutions by Livy, Dionysius and others, is given in Brims, Ponies Juris, 6th ed. i. I seq. Another collection is in Girard, Textes, 3rd ed. pp. 3 seq. 2 Dion. iv. 10, 13. * The view of some recent writers that the plebeians had at all times participated in the jus Quiritium and were admitted to the curiate comitia and even had gentile rights (see Lenel in Holt- zendorff's Encyklopadie d. Rechtswissenschaft, 6th ed. i. 90 nn. I, 2, and authorities there cited), must be decidedly negatived. Not only does it render the whole tradition about the Servian reforms untrustworthy, but the accounts of the struggles between patricians and plebs in the early Republic are left largely without meaning. were so far to be measured by each citizen's position as a holder of lands; the amount of land (including slaves and cattle appurtenant thereto)4 held by him on quiritarian title was to determine the nature of the military service he was to render, the tribute he was to pay, and his right to take part in the new political assembly. It is indeed probable that a good while before Servius the conception of individual ownership of lands and things necessary for their cultivation had been reached, and that such ownership was recognized not only among the gentiles, but also de facto even more largely among the plebeians. The common lands of the gentes had become split up, to a considerable extent, among families and individuals. However this be, the creation of the census ensured, as far as possible, certainty of title, as it was declared that no transfers of property enrolled in it would be recognized unless made by public con- veyance with observance of certain prescribed formalities.* The form of conveyance thus legally sanctioned was called originally mancupium, afterwards mancipium, and at a still later period mancipatio, while the lands and other things that were to pass by it came to be known as res mancipii(oi mancipi). Hence arose a distinction of great importance in the law of property (which lasted till Justinian formally abolished it), between res mancipi and res nee mancipi; the former being transferable only by mancipation or surrender in court, the latter by simple delivery (see infra, p. 541). iii. Institutions of the Private Law. Law of the Family." — The word familia in Roman law had at once a more extensive and a more limited meaning than it has in its English form. Husband, wife and The children did not necessarily constitute an independ- patrkiaa ent family among the Romans, as with us, nor were t**Hy- they all necessarily of the same one. Those formed a family who were all subject to the power — originally manus? later potestas or jus — of the same head (paterfamilias). The pater- familias was himself a member of the family only in the sense in which a king is a member of the community over which he rules. He might have a whole host dependent on him, wife and sons and daughters, and daughters-in-law and grand- children by his sons, and possibly remoter descendants related through males; so long as they remained subject to him they constituted but one family, that was split up only on his death or loss of citizenship. But if his wife had not passed in manum (a result apparently unknown among the patricians at this period), she did not become a member of his family: she remained a member of the family in which she was born, or, if its head were deceased or she had been emancipated, she constituted a family in her own person. Both sons and 4 Modern writers are not agreed as to whether movable res mancipi were included with lands in the valuation of property for fixing the classes. 6 Or else by cessio in jure, though this may not have been before the XII. Tables, and it was in any case of very limited operation. 6 On tribal family and matriarchate among the Romans in pre- historic times, consult Westermarck, History of Human Marriage (London, 1891); Post, Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudent (1894), i. 15-160. Familia and family are used in this section solely to designate the group of free persons subject by birth, marriage or adoption to the same paterfamilias. Strictly the word familia meant the household and all belonging to it. It had also the following principal meanings: (i) a gens or branch of a gens (group of families in the stricter sense); (2) the whole body of agnatic kinsmen (familia communi jure) ; (3) the family estate or patrimonium, as in the provisions of the XII. Tables about intestate succession, e.g. adgnatus proximus familiam habeto; (4) the family slaves collectively, as in the phrase familia rustics. See Mpmmsen, Staatsr. iii. 10 n. 16 n. 22; Rivier, Precis du droil de famille romain (Paris, 1891), § I. 7 This word manus, though in progress of time used technically to express the power (hand) of a husband over his wife in familia, was originally the generic term for all the rights exercised, not only over the things belonging but also over the persons subject to the head of the house — as seen, for example, in the words " manu- mission " and -" emancipation." Cf. Inst. i. 5 pr. It should be observed that among uncivilized peoples there is always a very small vocabulary, and the same word often has to do duty in several senses — e.g. familia, mancipium, nexum, caput. 530 ROMAN LAW [REGAL PERIOD daughters on emancipation ceased to be of the family of the paterfamilias who had emancipated them. A daughter's children could never as such be members of the family of their maternal grandfather; for children born in lawful marriage followed the family of their father, while those who were illegiti- mate ranked from the moment of birth as patresfamilias and matresfamilias. With the early Romans, as with the Hindus and the Greeks, marriage was a religious duty a man owed alike to his ancestors Marri e ancl to himself. Believing that the happiness of the dead in another world depended on their proper burial and on the periodical renewal by their descendants of prayers and feasts and offerings for the repose of their souls, it was incumbent upon him above all things to perpetuate his race and his family cult. The Romans were always strictly monogamous. In taking to himself a wife, he was about to detach her from her father's house and make her a partner of his family mysteries. With the patrician at least this was to be done only with divine approval, ascertained by auspicia. His choice was limited to a woman with whom he had connubium (imyania) or right of intermarriage. This was a matter of state arrangement; and in the regal period Roman citizens could have it outside their own bounds only with members of states with which they were in alliance, and with which they were connected by the bond of common religious observances. A patrician citizen, therefore, if his marriage was to be reckoned lawful (justae nuptiae), had to wed either a fellow-patrician or a woman who was a member of an allied community. In either case it was essential that she should be outside his sobrinal circle, i.e. more remote in kinship than the sixth degree. The ceremony was a religious one, conducted by the chief pontiff and the flamen of Jupiter, in presence of ten witnesses, repre- sentatives probably of the ten curies of the bridegroom's tribe, and was known as farreum or confarrealio. Its effect was to dissociate the wife entirely from her father's house, and to make her a member of her husband's; for confarreate marriage in- volved in manum conventio, the passage of the wife into her husband's " hand" or power, provided he was himself pater- familias; if he was not, then, though nominally in his hand, she was really subject like him to his family head. Any pro- perty she had of her own — which was possible only if she had been independent before marriage — passed to him as a matter of course; if she had none, her paterfamilias usually provided her a dowry (dos), which shared the same fate. In fact, so far as her patrimonial interests were concerned, she was in much the same position as her children; and on her husband's death she had a share with them in his inheritance as if she had been one of his daughters. In other respects manus conferred more limited rights than patria potestas; for Romulus is said to have ordained that, if a man put away his wife except for adultery or one or two other grave offences, he forfeited his estate half to her and half to Ceres, while if he sold her he was to be given over to the infernal gods.1 Patria potestas was the name given to the power exercised by a father, or by his paterfamilias if he was himself in potestate, over the issue of such justae nuptiae. The Roman potestas. Jurists boasted that it was a right enjoyed by none but Roman citizens; and it certainly was peculiar to them in this sense, that nowhere else, except perhaps among the Latin race from which they had sprung, did the paternal power attain such an intensity. The omnipotence of the paterfamilias and the condition of utter subjection to him of his children in potestate became greatly modified in the course of centuries; but originally the children, though in public 'See Plutarch, Rom. 22; Marquardt, Rom. Altert. v. 7. The question whether a husband could in early law sell his wife is one on which modern writers are not agreed. The better opinion is that he could not do so if the marriage was by confarreation. Apart from the lex regia above mentioned, it would have been incon- sistent with her dignity as materfamilias. There, is certainly no trace of its having been done. In marriages by coemption and usus, on the other hand, it is not improbable that it was allowed, though here also there is no evidence of it. life on an equality with the house-father, in private life, and so long as the poteslas lasted, were subordinated to him to such an extent as, according to the letter of the law, to be in his hands little better than his slaves. They could have nothing of their own: all they earned was his; and, though it was quite common when they grew up for him to give them peculia, " cattle of their own," to manage for their own benefit, these were only de facto theirs, but de jure his. For offences committed by them outside the family circle, for which he was not prepared to make amends, he had to surrender them to the injured party, just like slaves or animals that had done mischief. If his right to them was disputed, he used the same action for its vindication that he employed for asserting his ownership of his field or his house: if they were stolen, he proceeded against the thief by an ordinary action of theft; if for any reason he had to transfer them to a third party, it was by the same form of conveyance that he used for the transfer of things inanimate. Nor was this all; for, according to the old formula recited in that sort of adoption known as adrogation, he had over them the power of life and death, jus vitae mcisque. It might happen that a marriage was fruitless, or that a man saw all his sons go to the grave before him, and that the paterfamilias had thus to face the prospect of the Adroga- • extinction of his family and of his own descent to tiooaoa the tomb without posterity to make him blessed. To ad°Ptloa- obviate so dire a misfortune, he resorted to the practice of adoption, so common in India and Greece. If it was a pater- familias that he adopted, the process was called adrogation (adrogalio); if it was a filiusfamilias it was simply adoptio. The latter, unknown probably in the earlier regal period, was, as we first know it, a somewhat complicated conveyance of a son by his natural parent to his adopter, the purpose of course being expressed; its effect was simply to transfer the child from the one family to the other. But the former was much more serious, for it involved the extinction of one family that another might be perpetuated. It was therefore an affair of state. It had to be approved by the pontiffs, who probably had to satisfy themselves that there were relatives of the adro- gatee to attend to the manes of the ancestors whose cult he was renouncing; and on their favourable report it had to be sanc- tioned by a vote of the curies, as it involved the deprivation of his gens of their possible right of succession to him and possible prejudice to creditors through capitis deminutio. If it was sanctioned, then the adrogatus, from being himself the head of a house, sank to the position of a filiusfamilias in the house of his adopting parent ; if he had had wife or children subject to him, they passed with him into his new family, and so did everything that belonged to him and that was capable of transmission from one person to another. The adopting parent acquired poteslas over the adopted child exactly as if he were the issue of his body; while the latter enjoyed in his new family the same rights exactly that he would have had if he had been born in it. The manus and the patria potestas represent the masterful aspects of the patrician's domestic establishment. Its conjugal and parental ones, however, though not so prominent in the pages of the jurists, are not to be lost sight of. The patrician family in the early history of the law was governed as much by fas as by jus. The husband was priest in the family, but wife and children alike assisted in its prayers, and took part in the sacrifices to its lares and penates. As the Greek called his wife the house-mistress, Stviroiva, so did the Roman speak of his as materfamilias? the house-mother. She was treated as her husband's equal. As for their children, the poteslas was so tempered by the natural sense of parental duty on the one side and filial affection on the other that in daily life it was rarely felt as a grievance; while the risk of an arbitrary exercise of the domestic jurisdiction, whether in the heat of passion or under the impulse of justifiable resentment, was 2 Materfamilias is used in the texts in two distinct senses — (i) as a woman sui juris, i.e. not subject to any family head; and (2) as a wife in manu mariti. REGAL PERIOD] ROMAN LAW guarded against by the rule which required in grave cases the paterfamilias to consult in the first place the near kinsmen of his child, maternal as well as paternal. Even the incapacity of the children of the family to acquire property of their own cannot in those times have been regarded as any serious hardship; for, though the legal title to all their acquisitions was in the house- father during his life, yet in truth they were acquired for and belonged to the family as a whole, and he was little more than a trustee to hold and administer them for the common benefit. The patria poleslas, unless the paterfamilias voluntarily put an end to it, lasted as long as he lived and retained his status. The marriage of a son, unlike that of a daughter passing into the hand of a husband, did not release him from it, nor did his children become subject to him so long as he himself was in potestale. On the contrary, his wife passed on marriage into the power of her father-in-law, and their children as they were born fell under that of their paternal grandfather; and the latter was entitled to exercise over his daughters-in-law and grandchildren the same rights that he had over his sons and un- married daughters. But there was this difference, that, when the paler-familias died, his sons and daughters who had re- mained in polestate and his grandchildren by a predeceased son instantly became their own masters (sui juris), whereas grand- children by a surviving son simply passed from the potestas of their grandfather into that of their father. The acquisition of domestic independence by the death of the family head frequently involved the substitution of the Guard- guardianship of tutors (tutela) for the poleslas that laaship had come to an end. This was so invariably of tutors. jn tne case of females sui juris, no matter what their age: they remained under guardianship until they had passed by marriage in manum mariti. It was only during pupillarity, however, that males required tutors, and their office came to an end when puberty was attained. It is im- probable that during the regal period a testamentary appoint- ment of tutors by a husband or parent to wife or children was known in practice. In the absence of it the office devolved upon the gens to which the deceased paterfamilias belonged. 1 Family Organization among the Plebeians. — If perfect identity of customs cannot be assumed to have existed amongst the patrician gentes in the regal period of Rome, far less can it be supposed to have existed amongst the hetero- geneous population (Latins, Etruscans, Greeks, &c.) of which the plebs was constituted. Nevertheless, contiguity of residence and community of interests tend inevitably to unify customs and cause dissimilarities to disappear, and the plebeians must have not only gradually brought their own customs into unison inter se, but adapted them at the same time in many respects to those of the patricians. Even to ihose of non-Latin race manus over their wives and potestas over their children would become a desideratum. Though the plebeians seem to have been always excluded from con- farreation, and their matrimonial unions must have been at first informal and irregular from the point of view of the Quirites, two civil modes of acquiring marital manus were available to them after they obtained citizenship, viz. coemptio and uszis. Some writers hold that neither of these modes was legally recognized prior to the XII. Tables.1 This may be so, but it is improbable. As the plebeians obtained by the Servian constitution full capacity for quiritarian ownership, it was at once open to them to adapt the modes sanctioned for acquiring property to the acquisition of marital manus. Coemptio was just a simple adaptation of mancipation above referred to (see also infra, p. 540). It was, as we may infer from what we know of it at a later time, a sale of the woman to the man per aes et libram for a nominal price. The price being fictitious, a piece of copper (raudusculum) was used to represent it, and this was handed over to the seller, who would ordinarily be the woman's paterfamilias, or, if she were sui juris, her gentile tutor. The nuncupatory words used in the ceremony have unfortunately not been preserved; necessarily, of course, they 1See as to coemptio, Cuq, Institutions juridiques, 2nd ed., i. p. 62. Plebeian family. varied from those of an ordinary mancipation of property.1 Though called by the jurists a mode of constituting marriage, coemptio, as we know it, was strictly a mode of creating manus; for, though usually contemporaneous with, it might, as Gaius informs us, follow the marriage at any distance of time, and was not dissolved by divorce, but required a separate act of remancipation. Students of comparative law have observed that in coemptio there are clear traces of earlier bride purchase, so common even nowadays among uncivilized tribes, where a real price in cattle or sheep, and not a mere nominal one, has to be paid for the bride. Usus, on the other hand, was a mode of acquiring marital manus by possession of the woman as wife for a certain period of time — long cohabitation.* Whether this was recognized by the law prior to the XII. Tables depends probably upon whether usucaption, as a mode of acquiring property, was settled by custom earlier than the Tables. Some writers, however, think it older than coemptio, and as a de facto relation prolonged cohabitation as man and wife must have existed from very early times. Comparative historians with good reason trace in usus the relics of primitive bride capture. Both coemption and usus, from the time they were first recognized by the jus Quirilium, undoubtedly created patria potestas and agnatic rights. Law of Property.* — The history of the early Roman com- munity, like many other primitive communities, is marked by the disintegration of the gentes and the growth of Property individual property. Yet the distribution of land ia land.— amongst the early Romans is one of the guzzling Patri- problems of their history. The Servian constitution C*M»- apparently classified the citizens and determined their privi- leges, duties and burdens according to the extent of their lands; and yet we know nothing for certain of the way in which these were acquired. All is conjectural. We have indeed a traditional account of a partition by Romulus of the little territory of his original settlement into three parts, one of which was devoted to the maintenance of the state and its institutions, civil and religious, the second (ager publicus) to the use of the citizens and profit of the state, and the third (ager privalus) subdivided among his followers. Varro and Pliny relate that to each paterfamilias among his followers he assigned a homestead (heredium) of two jugera, equal to about an acre and a quarter. These heredia were to be held by him and his heirs for ever (quae hercdem sequerenlur); Pliny adding that to none did the king give more. This can only be accepted as a partially correct account of what may have taken place at some early period during the kingly regime. There can be little doubt that a portion of the Roman ter- ritory, gradually augmented through new conquests, was early reserved by the state as ager publicus; that is sufficiently attested by the complaints made for centuries by the plebeians of its monopolization by the patricians. It is also probable that heredia (i.e. plots of land within the city) may have been granted to the heads of the gentile families, many of whom would be living in pagi on their respective gentile lands outside the city. Such heredia became family property, administered as such by the paterfamilias, but inalienable by him. In this respect the position would be very similar to what existed among the ancient Germans and exists to-day in India among the Hindus. Even late in the Republic, when the idea of 5 One or two writers of the later Empire (e.g. Servius, in Georg. i. 31) describe coemptio as a mutual purchase, the man and woman taking alternately the position of emptor and using nuncupatory words as such; but this seems to be a misapprehension and not consistent with what Gaius says. See the arguments in favour of it in Muirhead, Historical Introduction, 2nd ed. pp. 414-415. Girard, Manuel, 4th ed. p. 150, gives a probable explanation of the mistake of these late authors. 3 It would thus cure defects in a coemption just as usucaption did defects in mancipation. 4 See Giraud, Recherches sur le droit de propriiU chez Its Romains (Aix, 1838); Mac£, Histoire de la propriite &c., chez les Romains (Paris, 1851); Hildebrand, De antiquissimae aeri Romani distri- butionis fide (Jena, 1862); Cuq, Instil, jurid., 2nd ed., vol. i. pp. 72 seq. ; Beaudouin, La Limitation desfonds de terre (1894), pp. 259 seq. 532 ROMAN LAW [REGAL PERIOD individual ownership was paramount, it was still considered a disgrace for a man to alienate his heredium. But though the existence of monogamous families seems to imply private ownership to some extent, yet, as formerly indicated, a large part of the Roman territory at, and for a good while after, the foundation of the city must have been gentile lands held by the separate clans for the use of their members. The fact that the majority of the rural tribes bore the names of well- known patrician genles favours the conclusion that even in the later regal period a good many of the clans still held lands in their collective capacity. It was at some uncertain time before Servius that there began to be a break-up of these gentile lands and their appropriation by individual members. Under the influence of this movement lands were acquired and held by families and individuals to a large extent. A patrician's holding must have been sometimes pretty large so as to enable him to make grants (so often alluded to by ancient writers) to his clients, but we have no means of estimating the normal size. The hercdia were small; even during the Republic there is some evidence (e.g. the traditional story about Cincinnatus) that seven jugera were regarded as the normal extent of a patrician's holding for his own and his family's use. On the other hand, twenty jugera are commonly supposed to have been the qualification for enrolment in the first of the Servian classes. Of course it must be kept in view that a patrician did not necessarily hold all his lands by gratuitous assignation or concession either from the state or from his gens; purchase from the former was by no means uncommon, and it may have been on his purchased lands that his clients were usually placed. Those dependants were also probably employed in large numbers upon those parts of the ager publicus which were occupied by the patricians and were in historic times known as possessiones. These, of course, were not the property of their occupants; it was the lands acquired by assignation or purchase that were alone, apart from the heredia, regarded as theirs ex jure Quiritium. The traditional accounts of the early distribution of lands among the plebeians are even, if possible, more vague than those Property regarding the patricians. They had apparently become la land holders de facto of land in large numbers before the among Servian reforms. But they can have attained that plebeians. pOS;t;on on]y by gradual stages. While their earliest grants of land, probably from the kings, can only have been during pleasure, latterly, as they increased in number and importance, they were allowed to have permanent possession. That those who had means also acquired lands by purchase from the state may be taken for granted. The distinction between de facto possession and ownership was at best a very vague one at this period, and, like the holders of provincial lands in later times, the plebeians might have the benefits of ownership without ownership. The result of the Servian con- stitution was to convert this de facto property or permanent possession into quiritarian ownership.1 There are some writers who maintain that in the regal period, prior to the Servian reforms, though after the collective owner- Property ship of the gentes had begun to disintegrate, there la mov- was no private property in movables. This proposi- abies. tjon can a(. most be accepted only in a qualified sense. If it be meant that movables generally were not then recognized as objects of quiritarian dominium which could be vindicated by any real action, it may be admitted. But otherwise the distinction between meum and tuum must have been well recognized, de facto at least. Men must have been in the habit of transferring things from one to another by simple delivery in respect of barter, sale or otherwise, and any violent or " theft uous " appropriation of things in a man's occupation would be punished by magisterial authority or by ordinary self-redress by the injured party. A sort of ownership in 1 On this question of land-holding among the early patricians and plebeians, consult Cuq, Institutions juridiques des Remains, 2nd ed., vol. i. pp. 73-76; Bourcart (French translation of Muir- head's Historical Introduction), p. 580, and authorities there cited. possession must at least have been recognized for movables generally.2 But apart from this, we must believe that certain kinds of movables, viz. those which have been described as appurtenant to land and necessary for its cultivation — which with land formed the real objects, as distinct from the personal subjects, of the familia — were treated from the time of Romulus down- wards, as in manu of the patresfamilias. These were the res mancipi already referred to. Quiritarian ownership in them, as we have seen, was recognized both for patricians and plebs by the Servian constitution, periodical registration of them in the census and transference by the quasi-public act of manci- pation being probably required. Earlier even than with lands, the conception of private ownership, it has been said, connected itself with them.3 A short explanation may now be given of the ceremony of man- cipation and the nature of res mancipi. Mancipation is described by Gaius, with particular reference to the conveyance of movable res mancipi, as a pretended sale in presence of not less than five citizens as witnesses and a libripens holding a pair of copper scales. The transferee, ' 'aac'Pa- with one hand on the thing being transferred, and using *""*• certain words of style, declared it his by purchase with a piece of copper (which he held in his other hand) and the scales (hoc oere aeneoque libra) ; and simultaneously he struck the scales with the as, which he then handed to the transferrer as figurative of the price. The principal variation when it was. an immovable that was being transferred was that the mancipation did not require to be on the spot : the land was simply described by its known name in the valuation roll. Although in the time of Gaius only a fictitious sale — in fact the formal conveyance upon a relative contract — yet it was not always so. Its history is very simple. The use ol the scales fixes its introduction at a time when coined money was not yet current, but raw copper nevertheless had become a standard of value and in a manner a medium of exchange. That, however, was not in the first days of Rome. Then, and for a long time, values were estimated in cattle or sheep, fines were imposed in them, and the deposits in the kgis actio sacramento (infra, p. 549) took the same form. The use of copper as a substitute for them in private transactions was probably derived from Etruria. But, being only raw metal or foreign coins, it could be made available for loans or payments only when weighed in the scales: it passed by weight, not by tale. There is no reason for supposing that the weighing was a solemnity, that it had any significance beyond its obvious purpose of enabling parties to ascertain that a vendor or borrower was getting the amount of copper for which he had bargained. It was this practice of everyday life in private transactions that Servius apparently adopted as the basis of his mancipatory con- veyance, engrafting on it one or two new features intended to give it publicity and, as it were, state sanction, and thus render it more serviceable in the transfer of censuable property. Instead of the parties themselves using the scales, an impartial balance-holder, probably an official, was required to undertake the duty, and at least five citizens were required to attend as witnesses, who were to be the vouchers to the census officials of the regularity of the procedure. Whether they were intended as representatives of the five classes in which Servius had distributed the population, and thus virtually of the state, is disputed, though the fact that, when the parties appealed to them for their testimony, they were addressed not as testes but as Quirites lends some colour to this view.4 Servius is also credited with the introduction of rectangular pieces of copper of different but carefully adjusted weights, stamped by his authority with various devices (aes signatum), which are 2 The position of the plebeians in this respect did not differ from that of the patricians. 3 Mancipation seems to have been a very ancient mode of con- veyance. The use of the balance in barter or sale was known to the ancient Egyptians at least as early as 2000 B.C., as may be seen on reliefs in the temple of Dehr-el-Bahri in Upper Egypt. The derivation of mancipium (mancipatio) from manu capere, to seize with the hand, is given by Gaius and is confirmed by the fact that at all times in its history the acquirer had to lay his hand on the thing being acquired, during the ceremony, if a movable. So where several things were being mancipated in a lot, this had to be done to each separately. With lands and other immovables it was different: they ~might be mancipated in absence, which goes some way to prove that mancipation must have been extended to them at a later period. The derivation of mancipatio given by Muirhead (Historical Introduction, 2nd ed., pp. 59 seq.) from manum capere, i.e. to acquire power (manus), is open to the objection that it places the abstract idea of power before the concrete symbol of it. Cf. Cuq, Institutions juridiques, 2nd ed., i. p. 80 n. ' See Gai. ii. § 104. REGAL PERIOD] ROMAN LAW 533 usually supposed to have been intended to take the place of the raw metal (aes rude) formerly in use, and so facilitate the process of weighing; but there is more reason for thinking they were cast and stamped as standards to be put into one scale, while the raw metal whose weight was to be ascertained was put into the other. Instead, therefore, of being a fictitious sale, as Gaius describes it, and as it became after the introduction of coined money in the 4th century of the city, the mancipation, as regulated by Servius, was an actual completed sale in the strictest sense of the term. What were the precise words of style addressed by the transferee to the transferrer, or what exactly the form of the ceremonial, we know not. But, as attendance during all the time that some thousands of pounds, perhaps of copper, were being weighed would have been an intolerable burden upon the five citizens convoked to discharge a public duty, it may be surmised that it early became a common practice to have the price weighed beforehand, and then to reweigh, or pretend to reweigh, before the witnesses only a single little bit of metal (raudusculum) , which the transferee then handed to the transferrer as " the first pound and the last," and thus representative of the whole.1 And where no real price was in- tended, as in constituting a dos or in coemption, a raudusculum would also be employed. Whatever may have been its form, howeveqj its effect was instant exchange of property against a price weighed in the scales. The resulting obligation on the vendor to maintain the title of the vendee, and the qualifications that might be superinduced on the conveyance by agreement of parties —the so-called leges mancipii — will be considered below in connexion with the provisions of the XII. Tables on the subject (infra, p. 542). The things included in the class of res mancipi were lands and houses held on Quiritarian title, together with rights of way and aqueduct, slaves, and the following domestic beasts of draught or burden, viz. oxen, horses, mules and donkeys; all others were res nee mancipi. Many theories have been propounded mancipi. to account for the distinction between these two classes of things, and to explain the principle of selection that admitted oxen and horses into the one, but relegated such animals as sheep and swine to the other. But there is really little difficulty. Under the arrangement of Servius, what was to determine the nature and extent of a citizen's political qualifications, military duties and financial burdens was apparently the value of his heredium (and other lands, if he had any), and what may be called its appur- tenances— the slaves that worked for the household, the slaves and beasts of draught and burden that worked the farm, all of which lived and worked in common with the free members of the familia. But the cattle a man depastured on the public meadows were no more res mancipi than his sheep, a fact which, though ultimately in the later Empire lost sight of, was still understood in the time of Gaius.2 To say that the things classed as res mancipi were selected for that distinction by Servius because they were what were essential to a family engaged in agricultural pursuits would be to fall short of the truth. They constituted the familia in the sense of the family estate proper; whereas the herds and flocks, and everything else belonging to the paterfamilias, fell under the denomination of pecunia. So the words are to be understood perhaps in the well-known phraseology of the mancipatory testament, familia pecuniaque mea.3 The public solemnity of mancipatio thus sanctioned as a mode of transferring a Quiritarian right of property, for which manus was probably as yet the only descriptive word in use, was not long in being adapted to and utilized for other transactions in which other kinds of manus were sought to be acquired. These new adaptations, if confined at first for the most part to plebeians, were also soon made use of by the patricians, perhaps before as well as after the XII. Tables, and became by custom part of the common law. Such were, for example, coemption (as explained above), emancipation and adoption of filiifamUias, and mortis causa aliena- tion of a familia and nexum. Law of Succession. — The legal order of succession during the regal period was extremely simple. It was this, on the death of a paterfamilias his patrimony devolved upon those of his descendants in potestate who by that event became sui juris, his widow (being loco filiae) taking an equal share with them, and no distinction being made between movables and immovables. Such persons were styled self-heirs (sui heredes). Failing widow and children, 1 The conjecture is suggested by the words of style in the solutio per aes et libram, Gai. iii. §§ 173, 174. There were some debts from which a man could be effectually discharged only by payment (latterly fictitious) by copper and scales in the presence of a libripens and the usual five witnesses. In the words addressed to the creditor by the debtor making payment these occurred — hanc tibi libram primam postremamque expendo (" I weigh out to you this the first and the last pound "). The idea is manifestly archaic, and the words, taken strictly, are quite inappropriate to the transaction in the form it had assumed long before the time of Gaius. 2 Gai. ii. 15; Ulpian, Frag. xix. I. 'Gai. ii. 104. By the time of the XII. Tables the sharp dis- tinction between these two terms is tending to disappear. Succes- sion amongst the pairi clans. his patrimony went to his gens. The notion that between the descendants and the gens came an intermediate class under the name of agnates does not seem well founded as regards the regal period; the succession of agnates as such seems to have been first legally recognized by the XII. Tables, probably to meet the case of the plebeians, who, having no gentes, were without legal heirs in default of children.4 The later jurists more than once refer to the perfect equality of the sexes in the matter of succession in the ancient law.' But it was rather nominal than real. A daughter who had passed into the hand of a husband during her father's lifetime of course could have no share in the latter's inheritance, for she had ceased to be a member of his family. One who was in potestate at his death, and thereby became sui juris, did become his heir, unless he had pre- vented such a result by testamentary arrangements; but even then it was in the hands of the gens to prevent risk of prejudice to themselves. For she could not marry, and so carry her fortune into another family, without their consent as her guardians; neither could she without their consent alienate any of the more valuable items of it ; nor, even with their consent, could she make a testament disposing of it in prospect of death. Her inheritance, therefore, was hers in name only; in reality it was in the hands of her guardians. Of primogeniture or legal preference of one member of the family over the others there is not the faintest trace. And yet we are told of heredia remaining in a family for many generations — a state of matters that would have been impossible had every death of a paterfamilias necessarily involved a splitting up of the family estate. It is conceivable that this was sometimes prevented by arrangement amongst the heirs themselves; and the practice of every now and then drafting the younger members of families to colonies diminished the number of those who had a claim to participate. But the simplest plan of avoiding the difficulty was for the paterfamilias to regulate his succession by testament; and this was probably had recourse to, not so much for instituting a stranger heir when a man had no issue-^-according to patrician notions his duty then was to perpetuate his family by adopting a son — as for partitioning the succession when he had more children than one. There were two sorts of testaments made use of by the patricians of the regal period — that made in the comilia of the curies (test, calatis comitiis) and that made in the presence of the army (probably represented for this purpose by a few comrades) on the eve of battle (test, in procinctu factum). The first at least — and the second was just a substitute for it on an emergency — was far from being an independent exercise of the testator's volunlas. For, though in course of time, and under the sanction of the uti legassit ita jus fslo of the XII. Tables, the curies may have become merely the recipients of the oral declaration by the testator of his last will, in order that they might testify to it after his death, it is impossible not to see in the comitial testament what must originally have been a legislative act, whereby the testator's peers, for reasons which they and the presiding pontiffs thought sufficient, sanctioned in the par- ticular case a departure from the ordinary rules of succession. The pontiffs were there to protect the interests of religion, and the curies to protect those of the testator's gens; and it is hardly conceivable that a testament could have been sanc- tioned by them which so far set at nought old traditions as to deprive a filiusfamilias of his birthright, at least in favour of a stranger. * It is quite true, however, that from the first the order of suc- cession was agnatic; for it was those only of a man's children who were agnate that had any claim to his inheritance; and the gens was, theoretically at least, just a body of agnates. The supposed mention of agnates in a law attributed to Numa is a conjecture of P. E. Huschke's (in Analecta litteraria, Leipzig, 1826, p. 375). The law is preserved in narrative by Servius, In Virg. Eclog. iy. 43, which runs thus: " In Numae legibus cautum est, ut si quis im- prudens occidisset hominem, pro capite occisi et natis ejus in cautione (Scalig., condone) offerret arietem." Huschke's substitution of agnatis for et natis is all but universally adopted; but, even were it necessary, it need mean nothing more than his children in potestate or his gens. 6 The Voconian law of 169 B.C. avowedly introduced something new in prohibiting a man of fortune from instituting a woman, even his only daughter, as his testamentary heir; but even it did not touch the Taw of intestacy. See Girard, Manuel, 4th ed. 816. Testa- ments. 534 ROMAN LAW [REGAL PERIOD It may safely be assumed that by custom at all events the children of a plebeian usually took his estate on his death in- testate. But, as he was not a member of a gens, there was no provision for the devolution of his suc- cession on failure of children. The want of them he "i"b / could not supply by adrogation, as he had for long, it is thought, no access to the assembly of the curies; and it is doubtful if adoption of a filiusfamilias was known before the XII. Tables. If therefore, as seems probable, the XII. Tables first introduced the succession of agnates, a plebeian unsurvived by children was necessarily heirless, that is to say, heirless in law. But custom seems to have looked without disfavour on the appropriation of his heredium by an outsider: a brother or other near kinsman would naturally have the earliest oppor- tunity, and, if he maintained his possession of it in the character of heir for a reasonable period, fixed by the XII. Tables at a year, the law dealt with him as heir, and in course of time the pontiffs imposed upon him the duty of maintaining the family sacra. This was probably the origin, and a very innocent and laudable one, of the usucapio pro herede, which Gaius condemns as an infamous institution, and which undoubtedly lost some of its raison d'etre once the right of succession of agnates had been introduced. There is no trace of testamentary succession among the plebs prior to the Servian constitution, nor is it in the least degree likely that there was any such. Primitive causa communities are slow to realize the conception of convey private testaments, and the plebeians could not at ance by thjs period make a public one either calatis comitiis Tio^1"' or Jn procindu- But not long after their admission to citizenship there is reason to conjecture that manci- pation was employed by them, not indeed to make a testament instituting an heir and taking effect only on the testator's death, but to make a conveyance of a whole patrimony mortis causa. The transaction took the form of an absolute acquisition, in exchange for a price (usually nominal), of the transferrer's familia,1 by a friend, technically called familiae emptor, on trust to distribute, on the transferrer's death and according to his instructions, whatever the transferee was not authorized to retain for himself. The transferrer may also have had power to reserve in the mancipation a usufruct of the estate while he lived.2 Like so many other of the transactions of the early law, it was legally unprotected so far as the third parties were concerned whom the transferrer meant to benefit; they could only trust to the fides of the transferee. This mortis causa alienation, whatever the date of its introduction, was the fore- runner of the so-called testament per aes et libram, to be afterwards described (infra, p. 543). Contract and its Breach. — To speak of a law of obligations in connexion with the regal period, in the sense in which the Contract words were understood in the later jurisprudence, and its would be a misapplication of language. It would breach. ^e gO;ng too far to say, however, as is sometimes done, that before the time of Servius Rome had no conception of contract; for men must have bought and sold, or at least bartered, from earliest times — must have rented houses, hired labour, made loans, carried goods and been parties to a variety of other transactions inevitable amongst a people engaged to any extent in pastoral, agricultural or trading pursuits. It is true that a patrician family with a good establishment of clients and slaves had within itself ample machinery for supplying its ordinary wants, and was thus to a great extent independent of outside aid. But there were not many such families. There must therefore have been contracts and some customary rules to regulate them, though these were presumably very imperfect. In many cases, such as those alluded to, one of the parties at least must have trusted to the 1 The familia, as the collective name for a man's lands and man- cipable appurtenances, became itself capable of mancipation. The conveyance was universal. There would be, it is thought, nothing fliscreditable in a man's conveying his heredium in this form. 2 For a different view cf. Maine, Ancient Law, ed. Pollock, pp. 214 seq. good faith of the other. What was his guarantee, and what remedy had he for breach of engagement? His reliance in the first place was on the probity of the party with whom he was dealing — on the latter's reverence for Fides, and the dread he had of the disapprobation of his fellows should he prove false, and of the penalties, social, religious or pecuniary, that might consequently be imposed on him by his gens in the case of a patrician, by his gild in the case of a craftsman, or by the king in the case of any other plebeian.3 If the party who had to rely on the other's good faith was not satisfied with his promise and the grasp of the right hand that was its seal,4 he might require his solemn oath (jusjurandum); and it can hardly be doubted that, whatever may have been the case at a later period, in the time of the earlier kings he who forswore himself was amenable to pontifical discipline. If he preferred a more substantial guarantee, he took something in pledge or pawn from the other contractor; and, though he had no legal title to it, and so could not recover it by judicial process if he lost pofsession, yet so long as he retained it he had in his own hand a de facto means of enforcing performance. Upon performance he could be forced to return it or suffer a penalty — not by reason of obligation resulting from a contract of pledge, for the law as yet recognized none, but because, in retaining it after the purpose was served for which he had received it, he was committing theft and liable to its punishment. At this stage breach of contract, as such, does not seem to have founded any action for damages or reparation before the tribunals; but it is not improbable that, where actual loss had been sustained, the injured party was permitted to resort im- mediately to self-redress by seizure of the wrong-doer or his goods. Self-help was according to the spirit of the time — not self-defence merely in presence of imminent danger, but active measures for redress of wrongs already completed. There was one contract, however, notorious in after years under the name of nexum, that must have received legal sanction soon after the Servian reforms, though probably, like mancipa- contract tion of property itself, known in practice earlier. In the „ XII. Tables it is apparently referred to as an existing aes et institution. In its normal character it was a loan of money, libram." or rather of the raw copper that as yet was all that stood for money. How far in its original use it was accompanied by any formalities beyond the weighing of it in a pair of scales (which was rather substance than form) we know not; and what right it con- ferred on the creditor over his debtor who failed to repay can be only matter of speculation. Apparently the result of the Servian reforms was the regulating and ensuring the publicity of the con- tract and making the creditor's right of self-redress by appre- hension (manus injectio) and imprisonment, &c., of his debtor conditional on the observance of the prescribed formalities of the nexum. The character and effects, however, of this the earliest independent contract of the jus civile, are much disputed and will be explained below on p. 545 seq. Public and Private Offences and their Punishment. — For anything like a clear line of demarcation between crimes and civil injuries we look in vain in regal Rome, offences Offences against the state itself, such as trafficking ana their with an enemy for its overthrow (proditio) or treason- punish- able practices at home (perduellio) were matter of meat~ state prosecution and punishment from the first. But in the case of those that primarily affected an individual or his estate there was a halting between, and to some extent a confusion of, the three systems of private vengeance, sacral 3 Such as debarment from gentile or gild privileges, exclusion from right of burial in the gentile or gild sepulchre, fines in the form of cattle and sheep, &c. 4 Some of the old writers (e.g. Liv. i. 21, § 4, xxiii. 9, § 3; Plin. H.N. xi. 45; Serv. in Aen. iii. 687) say that the seat of Fides was in the right hand, and that to give it (promittere dextram — is this the origin of the word '^promise ".?) in making an engagement was emphatically a pledge of faith. See a variety of texts illustrating the significance of the practice, and testifying to the regard paid to Fides before foreign influences and example had begun to corrupt men's probity and trustworthiness, in Lasaulx, Ueber a. Eid bei d. Romern (Wiirzburg, 1844), p. 5 seq.; Danz, Der sacrale Schutz im rom. Rechtsverkehr (Jena, 1857), pp. 139, 140. Cf. Pernice, Labeo, vol. ii. (2nd ed., Halle), p. 459 seq. REGAL PERIOD] ROMAN LAW 535 atonement and public or private penalty.1 These may be said to have followed in sequence but overlapped each other. The same sequence is observable in the history of the laws of other nations, the later system gradually gaining ground upon the earlier and eventually superseding it.2 The remark- able thing in Rome is that private vengeance should so long not only have left its traces but continued to be an active power. According to tradition it was an admitted right of the gens or kinsmen of a murdered man in the days of Numa; a law of his is said to have provided that, where a homicide was due to misadventure, the offering to them of a ram should stay their hands (supra, p. 533). And this seems to have been also prescribed in the XII. Tables (VIII., 24). To avenge the death of a kinsman was more than a right: it was a religious duty, for his manes had to be appeased; and so strongly was this idea entertained that, even long after the state had interfered and made murder a matter of public prosecution, a kinsman was so imperatively bound to set it in motion that if he failed he was not permitted to take anything of the inheritance of the deceased. The talion we read of in the XII. Tables is also redolent of the vindicta privata, although practically it had become no more than a means of enforcing reparation. And even the nexal creditor's imprisonment of his defaulting debtor (infra, p. 551), which was not abolished until the 5th century of the city, may not unfittingly, in view of the cruelties that too often attended it, be said to have savoured more of private vengeance than either punishment or procedure in reparation. Expiatio, supplicium, sacratio capitis, all suggest offences against the gods rather than against either an individual or the state. But it is difficult to draw the line between different classes of offences, and pre- dicate of one that it was a sin, of another that it was a crime and of a third that it was but civil injury. They ran into each other in a way that is somewhat perplexing. Apparently the majority of those specially mentioned in the so-called leges regiae and other records of the regal period were regarded as violations of divine law, and the punishments appropriate to them determined upon that footing. Vet in many of them the prosecution was left to the state or to private individuals. It is not clear, indeed, that there was any machinery for public prosecution except in treason and murder — the former because it was essentially a state offence, the latter because it was comparatively early deemed expedient to repress the blood-feud, which was apt to lead to deplorable results when clansmen and neighbours appeared to defend the alleged assassin. Take some of those offences whose sanction was sacratio capitis. Breach of duty resulting from the fiduciary relation between patron and client, maltreatment of a parent by his child, exposure or killing of a child by its father contrary to the Romulian rules, the ploughing up or removal of a boundary stone, the slaughter of a plough-ox — all these were capital offences; the offender, by the formula sacer eslo, was devoted to the infernal gods. Festus says that, although the rules of divine law did not allow that he should be offered as a sacrifice to the deity he had especially offended (nee fas est eum immolari), yet he was so utterly beyond the pale of the law and its protection that any one might kill him with impunity. But, as the sacratio was usually coupled with forfeiture of the offender's estate or part of it to religious uses, it is probable that steps were taken to have the outlawry or excommunication judicially declared, though whether by the pontiffs, the king or the curies does not appear; such a declaration would, besides, relieve the private avenger of the incensed god of the chance of future question as to whether or not the citizen he had slain was sacer in the eye of the law. That there must have been other wrongful acts that were regarded in early Rome as deserving of punishment or penalty of some sort, besides those visited with death, sacration or forfeiture of estate, total or partial, cannot be doubted; no community has ever been so happy as to know nothing of thefts, robberies and assaults. The XII. Tables contained numerous provisions in reference to them; but it is extremely probable that, down at least to the time of Servius Tullius, the manner of dealing with them rested on custom, and was in the main self-redress, restrained by the inter- vention of the king when it appeared to him that the injured party was going beyond the bounds of fair reprisal, and frequently bought 1 See Rein, Das Criminalrccht der Romer (Leipzig, 1844), pp. 24 seq. ; Clark, Early Roman Law: Regal Period (London, 1872), pp. 34 seq. ; Mommsen, Strafrechl, pp. 6, 36, 900. 1 Probably every offence at first was an act attributable to the whole family or clan, and it was upon them or by them and not upon the individual wrong-doer or by the injured party that ven- geance was taken. off with a composition. When the offence was strictly within the family or the gens, it was for those who exercised jurisdiction over those bodies to judge of the wrong and prescribe and enforce the penalty. Jurisdiction and Procedure. — Of the course of justice, whether in criminal or civil matters, during the regal period we know little that can be relied on. Ancient writers speak of the king as -H having been generally supreme in both. But this can be y f accepted only with considerable reservation. For the 2,^' paterfamilias, aided by a council in cases of importance, was judge within the family — his jurisdiction sometimes excluding that of the state, at other times concurring with it, and not to be stayed even by an acquittal pronounced by it. He alone was competent in any charge against a member of the family for a crime or offence against the domestic order — adultery or unchastity of wife or daughter, undutiful behaviour of children or clients, or the like. Death, slavery, banishment, expulsion from the family, im- prisonment, chains, stripes, withdrawal of peculium, were all at his command as punishments; and it may readily be assumed that in imposing them he was freer to take account of moral guilt than an outside tribunal. The indications of criminal jurisdiction on the part of the gens are slight; but its organization was such that it is difficult not to believe that it must occasionally have been called on to exercise such functions. And it must not be lost sight of that, as murder seems to have been the only crime in regard to which private revenge was absolutely excluded, the judicial office of the kings must have been considerably lightened, public opinion approv- ing and not condemning self-redress so long as it was kept within the limits set by usage and custom. The boundary between civil and criminal jurisdiction, if it ex- isted at all, was extremely shadowy. Theft and robbery, for example, if one may conclude from the position they held in the later juris- prudence, were regarded not as public but as private wrongs; and yet when a thief was caught in the act of theft by night he might be slain, and when by day might be scourged and thereafter sold as a slave. But in both cases it may also be assumed that a practice, afterwards formally sanctioned by the XII. Tables — that of the thief compounding for his life or freedom — was early admitted, and the right of self-redress thus made much more beneficial to the party wronged than when nothing was attained but vengeance on the wrongdoer. In assaults, non-manifest thefts, and other minor wrongs, self-interest would in like manner soon lead to the general adoption of the practice of compounding; what was originally a matter of option in time came to be regarded as a right ; and with it there would be occasional difficulty in settling the amount of the composition, and consequent necessity of an appeal to a third party. Here seems to be the origin of the king's jurisdiction in matters of this sort. He was the natural person to whom to refer such a dispute; for he alone, as supreme magis- trate, had the power to use coercion to prevent the party wronged insisting on his right of self-redress, in face of a tender by the wrongdoer of what had been declared to be sufficient repara- tion. But that self-redress was not stayed if the reparation found due was withheld; as the party wronged was still entitled at a much later period to wreak his vengeance upon the wrongdoer by apprehending and imprisoning him, it cannot reasonably be doubted that such also was the practice of the regal period. How far the kings exercised jurisdiction in questions of quiritarian right, such as disputes about property or inheritance, is by no means obvious. Within the family, of course, such questions were impossible, though between clansmen they may have been settled by the gens or its chief. The words of style used in the sacramental real action (infra, p. 548) suggest that there must have been a time when the spear was the arbiter, and when the con- tending parties, backed possibly by their clansmen or friends, were actual combatants, and victory decided the right. Such a pro- cedure could not long survive the institution of a state. In Rome there seems to have been very early substituted for it what from its general complexion one would infer was a submission of the question of right to the pontiffs as the repositories of legal lore. Their proper functions, however, being sacred, they had to bring what was a question of purely civil right within their jurisdiction, by engrafting on it a sacral element, viz. by requiring each of the parties to make oath to the verity of his contention ; and the point that in form they decided was which of the two oaths was false and therefore to be made atonement for. In substance, however, it was a finding on the real question at issue; and the party in whose favour it was pronounced was free to make it effectual if necessary by self-redress in the ordinary way. Of Servius, Dionysius says— Busing, as he often does, language more appropriate to the republican than to the regal period — that he drew a line of separation between public and private o,_j judicial processes, and that, while he retained the former in his own hands, he referred the latter to private judges, and regulated the procedure to be followed in causes brought before them.8 Something of the sort was absolutely necessary. He was enormously increasing the number of the citizens, — that is to say, of 1 Dion. Hal. iv. 25. ROMAN LAW [JUS CIVILE those who were to enjoy in future the privileges of quiritarian right, — and multiplying the sources of future disputes that would have to be determined by the tribunals. The nature of the jurisdiction created by him, if any, to meet the new aspect of things is much controverted. He has been credited with the institution of the collegiate courts of the Centumviri and the Decemviri (stlitibus judicandis) as well as the private judge (unus judex), but the argu- ments in support of this view are not strong, and are, of course, based wholly on presumptions. However, it will be convenient to say a few words about each of these courts here. The centumviral court * is often referred to by Cicero, and the range of its jurisdiction in his time seems to have included every _ . possible question of manus in the old sense of the word- status of individuals, property and its easements, and inheritance whether testate or intestate. By the time court. Q£ Qajus [he only matters apparently that were in practice brought before it were questions of inheritance by the jus civile, though theoretically it was still competent in all real actions, and the lance, the emblem of quiritarian right generally, was still its ensign. During the later Republic the Centumviri formed a quasi- corporate body of private judges selected originally from the tribes (afterwards from the ordinary list of judices) annually by the urban praetors.2 Some writers identify the centumviral court with the Romulian senate of lop; others attribute its institution to Servius Tullius and hold that it was a plebeian court at first ; others make it contemporaneous with the XII. Tables; others bring it down to the 6th century of the city; while the weight of recent authority is in favour of the view that it is not earlier than the beginning of the 7th century. The arguments in support of these several views cannot be gone into here. It is enough to say that we have no positive proof of its existence earlier than the 7th century, though presumptions are in favour of its having been somewhat earlier. In the exercise of their office the Centumviri acted more independ- ently than private judices ventured to do, and even introduced some considerable reforms into the law. There was a court at Rome during the Republic called the De- cemviri stlitibus judicandis.3 These decemvirs in historic times Decent- constituted a quasi-corporate body of judicial magistrates, . . whose duty it was to try certain kinds of actions, especially those relating to personal liberty. During the Princi- pate, while ceasing to act as a separate court, they pre- sided over the divisions into which the centumviral court had been under Augustus divided. Their origin is quite unknown. Pom- ponius indeed says that they were originally created soon after the institution of the peregrin praetorship in 242 B.C. for this very purpose of presiding over centumviral cases,4 but this statement is generally discredited and, if true, their practice of so presiding must quickly have gone into disuse. Those writers who attempt to ^trace back the centumvirs to the regal period give, as a rule, a like antiquity to the Decemviri stlilibus judicandis. On the other hand, some authorities identify them with the decemviri judices mentioned by Livy 6 as having been declared by the lex Valeria- Horatia to be as sacrosanct as the tribunes of the plebs. But these latter judices seem to have been a purely plebeian court which early went into desuetude, and there is really no evidence of identity. So far back as historic evidence goes we find that actions were tried and judgments pronounced by judices and arbitri. There "Judices" ncve^ was more than a single judge (unus or unicus judex) and appointed to try a case, but there might be more than one " rbtt I " arb''er> and frequently there were three. All kinds of actions, even a sacramental action in rem, could be brought before the unus judex, but especially appropriate to him were all personal claims of alleged indebtedness, whether arising out of a legal or illegal act, denied either in tola or only as to the amount. Matters of that sort involved as a rule no general principle of law but rather mere disputes as to facts, which could well be decided by a single individual. There is much more reason for crediting Servius with the institution of the single judge (the arbiters may have been a creation of the XII. Tables) than with either of the collegiate courts. If we believe that in the early regal period the king acting with the pontiffs kept all jurisdiction in his own hands, it is plain that this must have become a practical impossibility after the admission of the plebeians to citizenship. For the trial of disputed facts it would be necessary to delegate jurisdiction, and 'Literature: Huschke, Servitis Tullius, pp. 585 seq.; Keller- Wach, Rom. Civil Process (1883), § 6; Bethmann-Hollweg, Ge- schichle d. C. P. i. § 23; Wlassak, Process-Gesetze, i. 125 seq. and ii. 201 seq.; Girard, Organisation judiciaire des Remains, i. 23 n. ; Martin, Le tribunal des centumvirs (Paris, 1904). In this last-named work a succinct account of the court and the various theories about it is given. 1 On the question of their election, see Greenidge, Legal Pro- cedure in Cicero's Time, pp. 41 and 264. 3 Girard, Organisation judiciaire, i. 159; Pauly - Wissowa, Encyklopddie, s.v. " Decemviri." 4 Dig. i. 2, § 29. 6 Livy, ix. 46, 5; Karlowa, Rom. R.G. i. 1 1 8. the earliest judices may have been the king's commissioners for such cases. If this be right, it was the beginning of a system that bore wondrous fruit in after years, and that, as will be shown in the sequel, helped the praetors to build up, through the formulae, the whole body of equity. Under the kings it is not improbable that several of the legis acliones, more or less undeveloped, were already in use, civil pro- but the nature of these actions will be more conveni- cedure. ently considered later on (infra, p. 566). II. THE Jus CIVILE (From the establishment of the Republic until the subjugation of central and southern Italy.) i. Constitutional Events affecting the Law. Jus Civile contrasted with Jus Quirilium. — The term jus civile, as used to designate this chapter, though almost synony- mous with, may be taken as somewhat more com- Nature prehensive than, jus Quirilium. It is a term of of "Jus later origin than the latter. Jus Quiritium was clvlle-" based entirely on old custom and legislation, finding, one might say, its culmination in the XII. Tables; whereas in the jus civile, as here understood, there appears the element of doctrinal interpretation of both statute and custom — the magistrates and jurists (particularly the pontiffs) adding much to the earlier law by introducing into it this element. We can say that the jus civile in this sense is jus Quiritium as developed by interpretation. It is as yet, however, little influenced, as was the more comprehensive jus civile of later periods, by the elements of jus gentium and equity. Still nowhere, we must note, are the terms jus Quiritium and jus civile placed in contrast by the jurists; they were each jus proprium civium Romanorum. In the classical law the term jus Quiritium seems to be used principally in formulae framed in accordance with old custom. Though our information regarding the present period is less legendary than that of the kings, it is still far from being completely authentic, as no original documents belonging to it are extant. There is little dispute among critics that Rome was sacked and burned by the Gauls about 387 B.C. or a few years later, and it is probable that the original pontifical annals (annales maximi) upon which Livy and other Roman historians have presumably based their narratives of early history were destroyed at that time along with all other written records. What credence, then, we may give to the ancient historical narratives, for the period of the Republic antecedent to this event, depends largely upon how far the pontifices managed to have their lost records restored. In any case, however, there is sufficient presumptive evidence to warrant belief in such prominent events of the early Republic as the creation of two annually elected patrician consuls, with potestas similar to that of the kings, the creation of tribunes of the plebs, the enactment of the decemviral code, and periodic struggles between patricians and plebs, the one to keep and the other to gain political power. To know the exact dates of these events is relatively of little importance. Legislation in Favour of the Plebs. — In their uphill battle for social and political equality the plebeians conquered stage by stage. The more important of their successes may here just be mentioned, with all reserve as to credibility, in the order of their traditional dates. By the lex Valeria (de pro- vocatione) of 509 B.C. it was provided that no Roman citizen should be deprived of life, liberty or citizenship (i.e. suffer poena capilis), or be scourged, by any magistrate within the city, without an appeal (prowcatio) to the comitia centuriata. This statute was often referred to by later Romans as a sort of Magna Carta; Livy calls it unicum praesidium libertatis. In 494 or 471 B.C. the tribunes of the plebs were created with right of intercession, and about the same time plebeian acdiles and judices decemviri (the latter to act as judges or arbiters in litigations); the persons of all these officials being declared inviolable during their tenure of office. About 471 B.C. the concilium plebis became legislatively recognized, the tribunes JUS CIVILE] ROMAN LAW 537 were elected in it, and its resolutions (plebiscite) became directly binding on plebeians. The XII. Tables, twenty years later, were the fruit of the agitation of the plebeians for a revision and written embodiment of the law. In 449 plebiscita were — subject presumably to auctoritas patrum — declared by the lex Valeria- Horatia binding on the whole populus, while about the same time, or perhaps a little earlier, the patrician-plebeian comitia of the tribes was instituted.1 By the lex Canuleia of ^^5 B.C. intermarriage between patricians and plebeians was sanctioned. Repeated protests by the plebeians against the monopolization of the public domain land by members of the higher order resulted in the definite admission of their right to participate in its occupation by one of the Licinian laws of 367 B.C. The long course of cruel oppression of insolvents (mainly plebeians) by their patrician creditors was put an end to by the Poetilian law about 326 B.C., depriving nexal contract of its privileges and generally prohibiting the use of chains and fetters on persons incarcerated for purely civil debt. By the Hortensian law of about 287 B.C. plebiscita were declared binding (presumably without auctoritas patrum) on the whole body of citizens. And from 421 B.C., when one of their number first reached the regular state magistracy as quaestor, down to 252 B.C., when one was elected pontifex maximus, the plebeians gradually vindicated their right as citizens to share in all the honours of the state. There is also evidence that plebeians were early in the Republic admitted to the senate and also to the comitia curiata. The legislative bodies during the present period were thus three in number: the comitia of the centuries, the concilium Legisia- plebis and the comitia tributa. As to the comitia of tive the curies, it seems to have hardly concerned itself bodies. ^jj generai legislation, but met merely to confer imperium on the higher magistrates and to sanction testaments and adrogations of the gentiles. The legislation of the centuries dealt for the most part (though the XII. Tables were enacted by it) with questions affecting public and constitutional rather than private interests. It could be convened only by a magis- trate having military imperium, i.e. at first only the consuls, for the reason that it was theoretically a military assembly met for civil purposes (exercitus civilis). It is called in the XII. Tables comitiatus maximus. Its procedure was cumbrous and ill-adapted for legislation. As to the relation of the con- cilium plebis to the comitia tributa there is much controversy. The old opinion which identified them is now generally aban- doned. According to Mommsen2 they differed in the following points: (i) The comitia was an assembly of the whole people voting in tribes instead of centuries, while the concilium was an assembly of the plebs alone; (2) the comitia was always convoked and presided over by a patrician magistrate (often the praetor), while the concilium had to be convoked and pre- sided over by a plebeian official (usually a tribune); (3) in the comitia auspices had to be taken beforehand, but not in the concilium; (4) an enactment of the comitia was a lex binding on all the populus, while an enactment of the concilium was a plebiscitum binding only on the plebs. It is, however, not possible to take Mommsen's view that plebiscita were not binding on the whole populus prior to the lex Hortensia, without disregarding distinct statements of Livy as to the lex Valeria- Horatia and the lex Publilia? But whatever the relation of these two legislative assemblies to each other may have been originally, it is certain that the Hortensian law equalized them so far as their effects were concerned, and, looking to the small number of patricians compared with the plebs, it would prob- ably be a matter of indifference in which assembly the vote was taken. The greater part of the legislation dealing with the private law in the later Republic consisted of plebiscita. 1 There is diversity of opinion about this. Mommsen thinks the comitia tributa was earlier than the XII. Tables, and that the lex Valeria- Horatia applied to it. See next note. 2 Mommsen, Rom. Forschungen, i. 177 seq.; Rom. Staatsrecht, iii. 322 seq. 3 Livy, iii. 55, 3; viii. 12, 14. ii. The XII. Tables. Causes of their Enactment. — The change from monarchy to republic brought of itself no benefit to the plebs, but rather the reverse. One of their chief complaints was against the administration of justice. They complained that they were kept in ignorance of the laws, and that in particular the consuls used their magisterial punitive powers (coercitio) unfairly and with undue severity when a plebeian was the object of them. The state of matters gradually became so intolerable that in the year 462 B.C., according to the ancient tradition, a proposal for a statute was made by C. Terentilius Arsa, one of the tribunes, by which a commission should be appointed to draw up a code of laws in writing. He carried a rogation in the concilium plebis to this effect. The senate at first strenuously resisted, but after a few years was induced to give way, and its assent to the proposal was obtained. Tradition records that the first practical step towards its realization was the despatch of a mission to Athens, to study the laws of Solon and collect any materials that comptta- might be of service in preparing the projected code, tioo of On the return of the commissioners in 452 B.C. all the xn. the magistracies were suspended, and a body of ten *•**'«*• patricians, called decemviri legibus scribundis, was appointed with consular powers, under the presidency of Appius Claudius, for the express purpose of putting the laws into shape. Before the end of the ensuing year (451) the bulk of the code was ready and was at once passed into law by the comitia of the centuries and published on ten tables (whether of brass or wood is doubtful), which were set up in the Forum. Next year, owing to additions being found necessary, the decemvirate was renewed, with, however, a change of membership (some plebeians being chosen), and in the course of a few months it had com- pleted the supplemental matter. On the downfall of the decemvirate, these new laws, after being duly accepted by the comitia, were published on two other tables, thus bringing the number up to twelve. The code then received the official name of Lex XII. Tabularum. The foregoing account of the enactment of the Tables is an attempt to summarize what is stated by Livy and other Roman writers on the subject. Though inconsistent and sometimes even contradictory about details, these tktty."' writers are on the main facts in concordance. . Until a few years ago, the fact of the publication of such a code about the date above given had been accepted by modern historians, even the most iconoclastic, without question; unlike the leges regiae, the XII. Tables had always been regarded as authentic. But in his History of Rome, published in 1898, Professor Pais of Turin4 emitted the view that the decemviral code was really a private compilation made about the year 304 B.C. by Cn. Flavius, the scribe of Appius Claudius the censor, and probably at the latter's instigation; or, in other words, that it was just the so-calkd Jus Flavianum which all writers had hitherto regarded as a work dealing with the styles of legis actiones and the calendar of court days. In Pais's view the annalists, in accordance with a habit of theirs, dupli- cated the same event by counterfeiting an earlier Appius Claudius, &c., in order to magnify the antiquity and authority of the laws collected by Flavius, while the whole account of the decemviral legislation was invented by them. More recently Professor Lambert of Lyons has attempted by similar arguments to prove that the XII. Tables were a private compilation of customs already in observance, and of sacerdotal and other rules already in circulation, made about 197 B.C. by the jurist Aelius Paetus, and were in fact identical with the Tripertita or Jus Aelianum, which had always heretofore been supposed to contain merely a recension of the Tables with an interpretation and commentary.6 This is not the place to discuss these theories. Though of course incapable of positive disproof, the weight 4 Pais, Storia di Roma (Turin,, i. 566 seq. 6 Nouvelle Revue historique (1902), xxvi. 149 seq.; Revue gentralt du droit, nos. 5 et 6; Melanges, Appleton (1903), pp. 126 seq. ROMAN LAW [JUS CIVILE of presumptive evidence is against them; they have hitherto found little or no support from other Romanists, and they have, in our opinion, been sufficiently refuted on philological and other grounds by Girard1 and others.2 There were provisions in the Tables that were almost literal renderings from the legislation of Solon; and others bore a re- So rces rnarkable correspondence to laws in observance in Greece, but they may have been only indirectly borrowed.3 By far the greater proportion of them, however, were native and original, — not that they amounted to a general formularization of the hitherto floating customary law, for, notwithstanding Livy's eulogium of them as the " fountain of the whole law, both private and public," it seems clear that many branches of it were dealt with in the Tables only incidentally, or with reference to some point of detail. The institutions of the family, the fundamental rules of succession, the solemnities of such formal acts as mancipa- tion, nexum, and testaments, the main features of the order of judicial procedure, and so forth, — of all of these a general know- ledge was presumed, and the decemvirs thought it unnecessary to define them. What they had to do was to make the law equal for all, to remove every chance of arbitrary dealing by distinct specification of penalties and precise declaration of the circum- stances under which rights should be held to have arisen or been lost, and to make such amendments as were necessary to meet the complaints of the plebeians and prevent their oppression in the name of justice. Probably very little of the customary law, therefore, was introduced into the Tables, that was already univer- sally recognized, and not complained of as either unequal, defective or oppressive. Only one or two of the laws ascribed to the kings (assuming their greater antiquity) reappeared in them; yet the omission of the rest did not mean their repeal or imply denial of their validity, for a few of them continued still in force during the Empire, and are founded on by Justinian in his Digest. Neither apparently were any of the statutes of the Republic anterior to the Tables embodied in them, although for long afterwards many a man had to submit to prosecution under these laws and to suffer the penalties they imposed. The original Tables are said to have been destroyed when Rome was sacked and burned by the Gauls. But they were probably Remains at once reproduced, and transcripts of them in more or less modernized language must have been abundant if, as Cicero says was still the case in his youth, the children were required to commit them to memory as an ordinary school task. This renders all the more extraordinary the fact that the remains of them are so fragmentary and their genuineness in many cases so debateable. They were embodied, as above mentioned, in the Tripertita of Sextus Aelius Paetus in the year 197 B.C., who prob- ably republished them in somewhat modernized language and from whose work, it is thought, all later writers took their contents. They must have formed the basis of all the writings on the jus civile down to the time of Servius Sulpicius Rufus, who first took the praetor's edicts as a text; and they were the subjects of mono- graphs even by authors later than Sulpicius, amongst them by M. Antistius Labeo in the early years of the Empire, and by Gaius, probably in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Yet a couple of score or so are all that can be collected of their provisions in what pro- fess to be the ipsissima verba of the Tables, though in a form in most cases more modern than what we encounter in other remains of archaic Latin of the 4th century of the city. These are con- tained principally in the writings of Cicero, the Nodes Atticae of Aulus Gellius, and the treatise De verborum significatione of Festus; the two latter dealing with them rather as matters of antiquarian curiosity than as rules of positive law. There are also many allusions to particular provisions in the pages of Cicero, Varro, Gellius and the elder Pliny, as well as in those of Gaius, Paul, Ulpian and other ante-Justinian jurists; but these are not to be implicitly relied on, as we have evidence that they frequently represent the (sometimes divergent) glosses of the interpreters rather than the actual provisions of the statute. Reconstruction has therefore been a work of difficulty, and the results far from satisfactory, that of the latest editor, Voigt, departing very con- siderably from the versions generally current during the last half- century.4 1 Textes, pp. 3-4; Nouv. Rev. hist. xxvi. 381 seq. 2 Erman, Z. d. Sav. Stift. (1903), xxiii. 450; Lenel, Z. d. Sav. Stifl. (1905), xxvi. 498. 3 The decemvirs may have obtained them either from Magna Graecia or from Etruria, as the story of a mission to Athens is improbable. 4 Dirksen's Ubersicht der bisherigen Versuche zur Kritik u. Her- stellung d. Zwolf-Tafel-Fragmente (Leipzig, 1824), supplies the basis of almost all the later work on the Tables anterior to that of Voigt. Schoell, in his Legis XII. Tab. reliquiae (Berlin, 1866), made a valu- able contribution to the literature of the subject from a philological point of view His version has been adopted substantially by Bruns in his Fontes juris, i. 16 seq. (6th ed. by Mommsen and Gradenwitz), and Girard in his Textes (3rd ed., Paris, 1903). See In form the laws contained in the Tables were of remarkable brevity, terseness and pregnancy, with something of a rythmical cadence that must have greatly facilitated their retention _ in the memory. Rarely, if ever, were the rules they embodied permissive; they were nearly all in the im- ^eristic perative mood, sometimes entering into minute detail but generally running on broad lines, surmounting instead of re- moving difficulties. Their application might cause hardship in individual instances, as when a man was held to the letter of what he had declared in a nexum or mancipation, even though he had done so under error or influenced by fraudulent misrepresentations; the decemvirs admitted no exceptions, preferring a hard-and-fast rule to any qualifications that might cause uncertainty. The system as a whole is one of jus as distinguished from fas. In the royal laws execration {sacralio capilis, sacer esto) was a common sanction; but in the Tables it occurs only once pure and simple, and that with reference to an offence that could be committed only by a patrician, — material loss caused by a patron to his client (palronus, si clienti fraudem faxsit, sacer esto). In all other cases the idea that a crime was an offence against public order, for which the community was entitled in self-protection to inflict punishment on the criminal, is prominent. Hanging and beheading, flogging to death, burning at the stake, throwing from the Tarpeian rock, — such are secular penalties that are met with in the Tables; but often, though not invariably, the hanging and so forth is at the same time declared a tribute to some deity to whom the goods of the criminal are forfeited (consecratio bonorum). The Tables also recognize the system of self-help. The manus 'injectio of the third Table — the execution done by a creditor against his debtor — was probably in essence the same procedure as under the kings, but with the addition of some regula- tions intended to prevent its abuse. Against a thief taken in the act the same procedure seems to have been sanctioned; it was lawful to kill him on the spot if the theft was nocturnal, or even when it was committed during the day if he used arms in resisting his apprehension. According to Cicero there was a provision in these words: " si telum manu fugit magis quam jecit, arietem subicito "; this is perhaps just a re-enactment in illustrative language of the law attributed to Numa, that for homicide by misadventure — " if the weapon have sped from the hand rather than been aimed " — a ram was to be tendered as a peace-offering to the kinsmen of him who had been slain. The original purpose must have been to stay the blood revenge, but in the Tables it can only have been intended to stay the prosecution which it was incumbent on the kinsmen of a murdered man to institute. So with talionic penalties: "si membrum rupit ni cum eo pacit, talio esto " — such, according to Gellius, were the words of one of the laws of the Tables, and they undoubtedly recognize talion, " an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth "; while at the same time regulating it by enabling the injured man to bring an action and sanctioning a money recompense (Wehrgeld) in lieu of it.6 The structure of the provisions of the Tables was not such as to enable the plain citizen to apply them to concrete cases, or to know how to claim the benefit of them in the tribunals, without some sort of professional advice. Pomponius states that no sooner was the decemviral legislation published than the necessity was felt for its interpretation, and for the preparation by skilled hands of styles of actions by which its provisions might be made effectual. Both of these duties fell to the pontiffs as the only persons who, in the state of civilization of the period, were well qualified to give the assistance required; and Pom- ponius adds that the college annually appointed one of its members to be the adviser of private parties and of the judices in those matters. The interpretatio, commenced by the pontiffs and continued by the jurists during the Republic, which, Pomponius says, was regarded as part of the jus civile, was not confined to explanation of the words of the statute, but was in some cases their expansion, in others their Interpre- tation of the Tables. also Muirhead, Historical Introduction (2nd ed., 1899), and Words- worth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (Oxford, 1874), pp. 253 seq. The last-named writer in a subsequent part of his volume (pp. 502-38) has added notes, historical, philological and exegetical, which constitute a valuable commentary on the Tables as a whole. Voigt's two volumes, under the title of Geschichte und System des Civil-und-Criminal-Rechtes wie Processes, der XII. Tafeln nebst deren Fragmenten (Leipzig, 1883), contain an exposition of the whole of the earlier jus civile, whether embodied in the Tables or not. The history of them occupies the first hundred pages or thereby of the first volume; his reconstruction of fragments and allusions— a good deal fuller than any earlier one and supported by an imposing array of authorities, which, however, often rest on arbitrary assumptions — is in the same volume, pp. 693-737. There is little doubt that talio was actually enforced under the decemviral code, just as it was under the Jewish and Mahommedan codes, and as we see it among semi-civilized com- munities (e.g. the Abyssinians) at the present day. See Code of Khammurabi, 196 seq.; Leviticus xxiv. 20; Lane, Modern Egyptians, p. 94. Many references are given by Lenel in Z. d. Sav. Stift. xxiv. 509. JUS CIVILE] ROMAN LAW 539 limitation, and in many the deduction of new doctrines from the actual jus scriptum, and their development and exposition. An event that did much to diminish the influence of the pontiffs in con- nexion with it was the divulgcment in the year 304 B.C., as already mentioned, by Cn. Flavius, of a formulary of actions and a calendar of lawful and unlawful days, which got the name of Jus Flavianum, The practice adopted in the beginning of the 6th century by Tiberius Coruncanius, the first plebeian chief pontiff, of giving advice in law in public had a still greater effect in popularizing it; and the Tripertita or Jus Aelianum, some fifty years later — a collection that included the Tables, the interpretatio and the current styles of actions — made it as much the heritage of the laity as of the ponti- fical college. Subsequent Legislation. — Of legislation during the 4th and 5th centuries that affected the private law we have but scanty Subse- record. The best -known enactments are the Canuleian queat law of 445 B.C. above mentioned; the Genucian, leglsla- Marcian and other laws about usury and the rate of tl0"' interest; the Poetilian law of 326 B.C. abolishing imprisonment of nexal debtors by their creditors; the Silian law, probably not long afterwards, which introduced a new form of process for actions of debt; and the Aquilian law about 287 B.C., which amended the decemviral provisions for actions of damages for culpable injury to property, and continued to regulate the law on the subject even in the books of Justinian. iii. Development of the Substantive Institutions of the Law. The Citizen and his " Caput." — The early law of Rome was -essentially personal, not territorial. A man enjoyed the benefit The of its institutions and of its protection, not because he citizen happened to be within Roman territory, but because ana his ne was a citizen, — one of those by whom and for whom "caput." jtg jaw wag estabHshed. The theory of the early Romans was that a man sojourning within the bounds of a foreign state was at the mercy of the latter and its citizens, that he himself might be dealt with as a slave, and all that belonged to him appropriated by the first comer; for he was outside the pale of the law. Without some sort of alliance with Rome a stranger had no right to claim protection against maltreatment of his person or attempt to deprive him of his property; and even then, unless he belonged to a state entitled by treaty to the international judicial remedy of recuperalio, it was by an appeal to the good offices of the supreme magistrate, or through the intervention of a citizen to whom he was allied by the (frequently hereditary) bond of hospitium, and not by means of any action of the jus civile set in motion by himself. A non-citizen — originally hoslis, and afterwards usually called pcregrinus1 — in time came to be regarded as entitled to all the rights recognized by so-called jus gentium as belonging to a freeman, and to take part as freely as a Roman in any transaction of the jus gentium; but that was not until Rome, through contact with other nations and the growth of trade and com- merce, had found it necessary to modify her jurisprudence by the adoption of many new institutions of a more liberal and less exclusive character than those of the jus civile. A citizen's civil personality was technically his caput. The extent of it depended on his family status. It was only among citizens that the supremacy of the paterfamilias and the sub- jection of those in manu, poleslate or mancipio were recog- nized— only among them therefore that the position of an individual in the family was of moment. While in public life a man's supremacy or subjection in the family was immaterial, in private life it was the paterfamilias alone who enjoyed full jural capacity. Those subject to him had a more limited personality; and, so far as capacity to take part in transactions of the jus chile was concerned, it was not inherent in them but derived from their paterfamilias: they were the agents of his 1 Neither " alien " nor " foreigner " is an adequate rendering of peregrinus. For peregrini included not only citizens of other states, independent or dependent, but also Am5Xi5«, — men who could not call themselves citizens (cives) at all, as, for example, the dedilicii whom Rome had vanquished and whose civic organization she had destroyed, offenders sent into banishment, &c., and also, until Caracalla s general grant of the franchise, the greater portion of her provincial subjects. will, representatives of his persona in every act whereby a right was acquired by them for the family to which they be- longed. Whenever a citizen either ceased altogether to be a member of a Roman family or passed, either permanently or temporarily, into subjection to some paterfamilias outside his own "Capiti* family,2 there was technically capitis minutio or demiau- deminutio. To harmonize with the gradually estab- **"•" lished conception of jural personality in non-citizens, and perhaps also from their partiality for tripartite divisions, the jurists about the end of the Republic divided capitis deminutio into three degrees, viz. maxima, media and minima — a division unknown to lawyers of an earlier period when civitas was theoretically identified with liberlas. When a citizen forfeited his freedom, his capitis deminutio was said to be maxima; he lost all capacity, whether under the jus civile or the jus gentium. When, retain- ing freedom, he went into exile or joined a Latin colony, or otherwise became a peregrin, the loss (deminutio) of his capacity was only media or minor; it was his rights and privileges under the jus civile that alone were affected. When both freedom and citizenship remained, and there was produced merely the severance of connexion with a particular family (Jamiliae mutatio), the loss was said to be minima. Illustrations of c. d. minima present themselves in the case of a paterfamilias be- coming filiusfamilias by adrogation, or a malerfamilias passing into the hand of a husband by confarreation or coemption; in both cases he or she who had been sui juris thereby became alieni juris. It was immaterial whether the -change was from a higher family position to a lower, or from a lower to a higher,* or to the same position in the new family that had been held in the old — as when a filiusfamilias was transferred by his father into the potestas of an adopter, or when the filiifamilias of a person giving himself in adrogation passed with him into the potestas of the adrogator: in every case there was capitis minutio. It was not the change of family position that caused it, but the subjection to a new poleslas. Thus the civil person- ality of Titius while a. filiusfamilias in the polestas of Sempronius, e.g. the expectancy of succession, the agnatic relationships, the derivative capacity for being a party to a mancipation or a sponsio that resulted from the relationship, all came to an end through the subjection to a new paterfamilias, temporary or permanent. He might acquire another and independent capacity on becoming sui juris by emancipation, or another derivative capacity on passing into the polestas of Maevius by adoption; but while subject to a new paterfamilias his old personality quoad civilia was extinguished. This is what some of the jurists mean when they say that capitis deminutio was. civil death.4 An important consequence of minima capilis deminutio was that it not only extinguished patria potestas where it existed, but severed the bond of agnation between the capite minulus and all those who had previously been related to him as agnates. There was no longer any right of succession between them on intestacy; their reciprocal prospective rights of tutory were defeated, and the minutio of either tutor or ward put an end to a subsisting guardianship, assuming always that it was a lulela legitima or agnatic cura furiosi. Very remarkable, yet quite logical, was the doctrine that the minulio extinguished the claims of creditors of the minulus; their debtor, the person with whom they had contracted, was civilly dead, and dead without an heir, and therefore there was no one against whom an action of the jus civile could be directed in order to enforce payment. But equity eventually provided a remedy, by 2 This is Mommsen's theory. See Staalsrecht, iii. I. p. 8. 8 Children who became sui juris by their parent's death, as they came under no new potestas, were not regarded as capite minuti. 4 Owing to the ill-defined views among the Roman jurists them- selves regarding the nature of cap. dem. various theories more or less divergent have been maintained about it by modern writers, of none of which can it be said that it has been generally accepted. Mommsen's theory, above adopted, seems to present fewest diffi- culties. See the subject discussed and authorises cited by Goudy in 2nd edition of Muirhead's Historical Introduction, pp. 422-27. 54° ROMAN LAW QUS CIVILE giving the creditors a praetorian action in which the minutio was held as rescinded, and which the new paterfamilias was bound to defend on pain of having to give up all the estate he had acquired through the adrogation or in manum conventio. In other respects also the strict effects of this capUis minutio were attenuated or done away with by the jurists of the Empire, e.g. as regards personal servitudes. The Law of the Family Relations. — So far as appears no serious inroad was made by the XII. Tables on the law affecting husband Law of and wife, unless in the recognition of the legality of family so-called " free " marriages, i.e. entered into without relations. anv soiemnity, and not involving that subjection of the wife to the husband (manus) which was a necessary consequence of the patrician confarreation and plebeian co- emption. These latter were left untouched, while on the other hand acquisition of marital manus through usus was fully recognized. As formerly mentioned, it had become a practice with some of the plebeians to tie the marriage bond rather loosely in the first instance, possibly in consequence of objection by the women (as became quite general even among patricians at a later period) to renounce their independence and right to retain their own property and earnings, but more probably because taking a woman to be merely the mother of children (matrimonium) had been practically forced upon them before coemption had been introduced as a means of making her a lawful wife, and so they had become in a manner habituated to it. But the idea that, as a man might acquire the ownership of a thing to which his legal title was defective by prolonged possession of it, so he might acquire manus over the woman with whom he had thus informally united himself by prolonged cohabitation with her as his wife had probably matured and become customary law. The Tables accepted it; all that was needed was to define the conditions under which manus should be held to have been superinduced, and the wife converted from a doubtful uxor into a lawful mater familias. Hence the pro- vision that, if a woman, married neither by confarreation nor coemption, desired to retain her independence, she must each year absent herself for three consecutive nights from her husband's house (trinoctialis usurpatio) — twelve months' un- interrupted cohabitation being required to give him that power over her which would have been created instantly had the marriage been accompanied by either of the recognized solem- nities. Amongst the fragments of the Tables so industriously collected there is none that refers to a wife's marriage portion (dos) ; but it is hardly conceivable that it was as yet unknown. Justinian says that in ancient times it was regarded as a donation to the husband with his wife, rather than as a separate estate that was to be used by him while the marriage lasted but to revert to her or her repre- sentatives on its -dissolution. And it is easy to see that, where there was manus, the wife becoming a member of her husband's family and everything of hers becoming his, such must originally have been its character.1 But even then, when a man gave his daughter (filiafamilias) — who could have nothing of her own — in marriage, and promised her husband a portion with her, there must have been some process of law for compelling him to pay it; and Voigt's conjecture that an actio dictae dotis was employed for the purpose has something in its favour.2 As regards divorce, Cicero alludes vaguely to a provision in the Tables about a man depriving his wife of the house-keys and turning her out of doors, with some such words as " take what is thine and get thee gone." This can only refer to free or non-manus marriages, but even for hand marriages, while repudiations by husbands (but not by wives) were competent, the statement of the historians is that they were few and far between until the 6th century of the city, and that, until the same date, any man who turned his wife away, however serious the ground, without the cognition of the family council, was liable to penalties at the hands of the censors.3 Of the two or three provisions of the Tables known to us that affected details of the patria potestas, which itself was assumed to be so well established by customary law as to need no statutory sanction or definition, one was in the words " si pater (familias) ter filium venum duuit, a patre filius liber esto." This came to be construed by the pontifical lawyers as meaning that so powerful 1 See Cicero, Top. iv. 23. 2 Voigt, XII. Tafeln, ii. p. 486. It has not, however, received any support from more recent writers. * See Esmein, Melanges, pp. 23 seq. was the bond of the potestas over a son that it could not be com- pletely loosed until the father had three times gone through the process of fictitious sale by which emancipation was effected. But the conception of the law seems to indicate that its original purpose must have been rather to impose a penalty on the father and confer a benefit on a son in potestate, by declaring him ipso jure free from it on a certain event, than to place difficulties in the way of his emancipation. " If a house-father have thrice sold his son, the latter shall be free from his father." It reads as if the intention were to rescue the son from what, by its frequent repetition, was suggestive of a total absence of parental affection rather than reluctant obedience to overwhelming necessity. May not its object have been to restrain the practice, which did not wholly disappear even in the late Empire, of men selling their sons or giving them to their creditors in security of loans — such sales or pledges, at the time of the Tables, being effected only by an actual transfer of the child per aes et libram as a free bondman (in mancipii causa), accompanied by, in the case of a loan, a pact for reconveyance when the loan was repaid? Whatever its ratio, however, and whatever the earlier practice, it was upon this law that the inter- preting pontiffs based the rules for adoptions and emancipations of filiifamilias. The usual procedure in adoptions was as follows: The natural 'father mancipated his son to a friend for a nominal price and the latter then manumitted him, the son thereupon reverting into his father's potestas. This was repeated a second time with the same result. After the third sale (patria potestas being extinguished) the purchaser remancipated to the parent. In the latter's hands the son was now in causa mancipii, and so in a position in which he could be permanently transferred to the adopter. This was effected by an in jure cessio, in which the adopter averred that the child was his filiusfamilias, and in which judgment was at once given in his favour on the natural parent's admission or tacit acquiescence. A similar method was followed in emancipation of a filius, except that of course there was no cessio in jure, but instead thereof the parent manumitted immediately after the reconveyance to him. Neither in adoption nor emancipa- tion, however, was remancipation to the paterfamilias essential, though it was usual, and in the case of emancipation carried with it important rights of succession and tutory. For daughters and grandchildren the pontifical jurists by a casuistic interpretation of the said law held one mancipation to be in all cases enough to extinguish the patria potestas. The nature of the relation between master and slave, like that of manus and patria potestas, seems also to have been too notorious to require exposition in the Tables. We find recorded only two references to it, one dealing with the case of a slave who had a con- ditional testamentary gift of freedom (statu liber), the other with noxal surrender (noxae deditio). The provision about noxal sur- render was not limited to a slave; it was apparently to the effect that, if a member of a man's family (familiaris, i.e. a son or a daughter in potestate or a slave) committed a theft of, or did mischief to, property belonging to a third party, or -a domestic animal be- longing to one man did harm to another, the father of the delin- quent child, or the owner of the slave or animal, should either surrender him or it to the person injured or make reparation in damages. In course of time the surrender came to be regarded as a means of avoiding the primary obligation of making reparation. But comparative jurisprudence recognizes in the enactment of the Tables a modified survival of the ancient right of an injured party to have the delinquent corpus — man, beast or thing — given up to him to wreak his revenge upon it privately, the modification con- sisting in the alternative of reparation offered to the owner. This noxal surrender, failing reparation, had gone out of use in the case of daughters in potestate before the time of Gaius, and in the case of sons before that of Justinian; but it was still sanctioned so far as slaves and domestic animals were concerned even in that emperor's legislation. Guardianship and the Introduction of the Order of Agnates. — So long as Rome was patrician the gens apparently charged itself with the guardianship of a clansman's orphan pupil Gentile children and his widow and unmarried daughters guardian- above pupillarity after his decease (tutela), as well **** as with that of male members of his family who were sui juris, but above the age of pupillarity, when they chanced to be lunatic, imbecile, prodigal or helplessly infirm (cura, curatio). The gens in council, in all probability, appointed one of its members to act as tutor or curator as the case might be, itself prescribed his duties, and itself called him to account for any failure in his administration. But, as this gentile tutory could not be extended to the plebeians, among whom some law of guardianship was as much required as among their fellow-citizens of the higher order, the decemvirs found it expedient to devise a new one of universal application. The Tables contained no express authority for testamentary nomination of tutors to the widow JUS CIVILE] ROMAN LAW of the testator, or to his pupil children and grown-up unmarried daughters; but such appointment, if unknown previously, was soon held to be justified by a liberal interpretation of the very inclusive provision, " uti legassit suae rei, ita jus esto." In the absence of testamentary appointment the nearest male agnates of lawful age were to be tutors. This tutory of agnates was an invention of the decemvirs, just as was the agnates' right of succession on intestacy. The plebeians had no gentes, at least until a much later period; so, to make the law equal for all, it was necessary to introduce a new order of heirs and tutors. " Tutores ... ex lege XII. Tabularum introducuntur Guard- • • • agnati " is the very notable language of Ulpian. ianship And his words are very similar in speaking of their °r right of succession; for, while he says of testamentary agnates. inheritances no more than that they were confirmed by the XII. Tables, he explains that the legitimae hereditates of agnates and patrons were derived from them.1 The phrases legitima cognatio, legitima hereditas, legilimi hercdes, tulela legitima, tutores legitimi themselves proclaim the origin' of ag- nation, agnatic inheritance and agnatic tutory; for, though the word legitimus might be applied to any institution based on statute, yet in the ordinary case it indicated one introduced by the XII. Tables, the law of laws. A man's agnates, in the strict sense, were those of his collateral kinsmen who were subject to the same patria poteslas as himself, or would have been had the common ancestor been still alive. A man's sons and daughters in potestate, therefore, whether the relationship was by birth or adoption, and his wife in manu (being filiae loco) were each other's agnates. But a wife not in manu was not their agnate; nor were children who had been emancipated or otherwise capile minuti the agnates of either their brothers and sisters or their mother in manu. A man was an agnate of his brother's children, assuming always that there had been no capitis deminutio on either side; but he was not an agnate of his sister's children, for they were not ejusdem familiae: they were agnates of their father's family, not of their mother's. In like manner, and again assuming the absence of minutio capitis, the children of brothers were each other's agnates, but not the children of a brother and a sister or of two sisters. Brothers and sisters were agnates of the second degree; a man and his brother's children were of the third, the children of two brothers (palrueles) of the fourth, and so on, — it being a condition, however, that the kinship should always result either from lawful marriage or from adoption in one or other of its forms. When, therefore, a man died leaving pupil male descendants or unmarried female descendants who by his death became sui juris, they got their brothers of lawful age as their tutors; if he was survived by his wife, and she had been in manu, her sons, or it might be stepsons, acted for her in the same capacity ; in either case they took office as the nearest qualified male agnates. If the widow had no sons or stepsons of full age, and the children conse- quently no qualified brothers, the tutory devolved on the agnates next in order, — i.e. the brothers german and consanguinean of the deceased husband and father; for they were agnates of the third degree. And so with agnates of the fourth and remoter degrees.2 Failing agnates who could demonstrate their propin- quity, the tutory passed to the gens when the ward happened to belong to one. This is nowhere expressly stated; but Cicero gives what he represents to be an enactment of the Tables, making the fellow-gentiles of a lunatic his guardians on failure of agnates; and analogy seems to justify the extension of the same rule to the case of sane pupil and female wards.3 The curatory of minors above pupillarity was of much later date than the Tables. The only curatories they sanctioned were those of lunatics (furiosi) and spendthrifts (prodigi). A 1 Ulp. Frag, xxvii. 5, " legitimae hereditatis jus ... ex lege Duodecim Tabularum descendit." This derivation of agnatic inheritance from the XII. Tables was specially noticed by Danz in his Gesch. d. rom. Rechts (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1871-73), ii. 95, but is generally ignored. 2 To determine the degree of propinquity between two persons it was necessary to count the generations upwards from the first to the common ancestor and downwards from him to the second. Consequently brothers were related in the second degree, uncle and nephew in the third, first cousins in the fourth, and so on. 3 See Gai. i. 165. lunatic was committed to the care of his agnates, and, failing them, of his fellow-gentiles; and a few words in Festus seem to suggest that arrangements had to be made by them for his safe custody. Mancipation and the Law of Properly. — In the early law, as we have seen, there was no technical word for ownership of things: it was an element of the house-father's manus. In owner- time, although it is impossible to say when, the word th/pia dominium came into use, but, so far as can be dis- "n* covered, it did not occur in the XII. Tables, and must have been of later introduction. In those days, when a man asserted ownership of a thing, he was content to say, " It is mine," or " It is mine according to •*'•" the law of the Quirites." It is said by some jurists of eminence that under the law of the Tables what afterwards came to be called " dominium ex jure Quiritium " was competent only in. the case of res mancipi — of a man's house and farm, and things appurtenant thereto, as slaves and animals with which he worked them. There is much to be said for this hypothesis, but it is so far contradicted by Ulpian and Paul, who tell us that tigna juncta (that is, building materials, vine stakes and the like, which undoubtedly were res nee mancipi) were exceptionally excluded from vindication. On the other hand, these texts may be explained as mere deductions by interpretation at a later time of the words " ne solvito " of the XII. Tables.4 At any rate it is pretty certain that before the close of the present period res nee mancipi as well as res mancipi could be held in quiritarian ownership. The modes in which these two classes of things might be acquired in property were various. But there was this important difference: that, while a natural mode of acquisi- tion sufficed in the case of res nee mancipi, some civil one was necessary for the derivative acquisition, at all events, of res mancipi. The most important were mancipation, surrender in court, usucapion and bequest as singular modes, and inheritance, in manum convenlio, adrogation and purchase of a confiscated estate, as universal ones. All of these, with the exception of mancipation, applied equally to res mancipi and res nee mancipi. But there was, in addition, for res nee mancipi, what was the commonest of all the modes of transferring things of this class, simple tradition. If the transfer of these was by the owner, with the intention of passing the property, then the simple delivery of possession (traditio) was enough, unless indeed it was in virtue of a sale; in which latter case the ownership remained with the vendor, notwithstanding the change of possession, until the price was paid or security given for it.6 Only mancipation, surrender in court and usucapion, however, need be noticed at present. The origin of the distinction between mancipable and non- mancipable things, and of the form of conveyance by mancipation applicable to the first, has been explained (supra, p. 529).' „ . Originally mancipation was not the imaginary sale that Gaius speaks of, but as real a sale as could well be con- ceived^the weighing in scales, held by an official, of the raw metal that was to be the consideration for the transfer of a res mancipi, and the handing of it by the transferee to the transferrer, with the declaration that thereby and therewith the thing in question became his in quiritary right. On the introduction of coined money weigh- ing became unnecessary. The price was counted out before the ceremony, or sometimes left to be done afterwards; and though, in that spirit of conservatism that was so marked in the adhesion 4 Dig. xlvii. 3, I pr. and xlvi. 3, 98, § 8. See Cuq, 7ns/. Jurid. 2nd ed. i. 91 n.; and on lignum junctum in general, Girard, Manuel de droit remain, 4th ed. p. 330. ' Our only authority for attributing this fundamental rule to the XII. Tables is Justinian's Institutes, ii. i, § 41, where there is clear evidence of a Tribonianism. The rule undoubtedly must have been applied to res mancipalae in the Tables, and possibly its extension to tradition of res nee mancipi may have been due to interpretation. See Girard, ut supra, p. 288; cf. Cuq, Institutions Jurid. i. p. 87. 6 Literature : Leist, Mancipation and Eigenthumstradition (Jena, 1865); Jhering, Geist. d. rom. Rechts, vol. ii. § 46; Bechmann, Der Kauf nach gemeinem Recht (Erlangen), i. pp. 47-302; V'oigt, XII. Tafeln, vol. i. § 22, vol. ii. §§ 84-88; Kalowa, Rom. Rechtsgesch. ii. pp. 363-81. 542 ROMAN LAW [JUS CIVILE to time-honoured forms after their raison d'etre was gone, the scale- bearer and the scales were still retained as indispensable elements of the mancipation, yet the scales were simply touched by the purchaser with a raudusculum or a single com, in order that he might be able to recite the old formula: " I say that this slave is mine in quiritary right, and that by purchase (for such and such a price) with these scales and this bit of copper." And that one coin, says Gaius, was then handed by the transferee to the trans- ferrer as if it were in fact the price of the purchase (quasi pretii loco). Thus transformed, the mancipation was undoubtedly an imaginary sale; for the real price might have been paid weeks or months before, or might not be paid until weeks or months afterwards. The mancipation had become nothing more than a conveyance, and in this form it continued down to the end of the 3rd century of the Empire to be the appropriate mode of transfer of a res mancipi, or at least of conferring on the transferee of such a thing a complete legal title (dominium ex jure guiritium). After that, however, it seems gradually to have gone into disuse, being inapplicable to lands out of Italy that did not enjoy what was called jus Italicum; and long before the time of Justinian it had practically disappeared. The effects of a mancipation, provided the price had been paid or security given for it, were that the property passed instantly to the purchaser, and that the transferrer was held to warrant the transferee against eviction from the moment the price was received. In the absence of either payment or sureties for it, the title still remained with the vendor, so that it was in his power, by means of a real action, to get back what had been mancipated, even though it had passed into the possession of the vendee. The vendor's liability to the vendee in the event of eviction is usually supposed to have arisen ipso jure — that is to say, without anything expressly said about it; the acceptance by the transferrer of the coin with which the scales had been struck was held to have im- posed upon him an obligation to maintain the transferee in posses- sion, under a penalty of double the amount of the price, recoverable by the latter by what is usually called an actio auctoritatis. But this ipso jure obligation did not arise when the mancipation was either really or fictitiously gratuitous (nummo uno), — really, in the case of donations, &c., fictitiously, when, on purpose to exclude the warranty, the recital of the transferee was that the price was a single sesterce. The right of a vendee to sue an actio auctoritatis arose only when eviction resulted from a decree in a regular judicial process at the instance of a third party disputing his title, and was conditional on his having done all that was necessary on his part to bring his vendor (auctor) into the field to defend his own interests. And the duration of the auctoritas was limited by the Tables to two years in the case of lands and houses, to one year in the case of other things. As possession for those periods was sufficient to cure any defect in the vendee's title, it was but reasonable that with their expiry the vendor's liability on his warranty should be at an end. By a provision of the Tables in the very inclusive terms, " cum nexum faciet mancipiumque, uti lingua nuncupassit, ita jus esto," the importance of mancipation was immensely increased; for any sort of qualification germane to the transaction might be super- induced upon it, and the range of its application thus greatly extended. Such qualifications were spoken of as leges mancipii, — self-imposed terms, conditions or qualifications of the conveyance and, as integral parts of the transaction per aes et libram, they partook of its binding character and were law between the parties. The matter of oral declaration might be the acreage of lands, their freedom from burdens or right to easements, reservation of a usu- fruct, undertaking to reconvey on a certain event, or what not, so long as it did not express a term or condition; the result was just so many obligations created per aes et libram, whose con- travention or denial (Cicero tells us) was punished with a twofold penalty.1 Ordinarily the words spoken in the hearing of the witnesses fixed the beginning and the end of the liability; it was enough that they .were literally complied with, however much the other party might be injured by something inconsistent with their spirit, or which he had not taken the precaution to require should be made matter of declaration. But there was an exception (although not introduced until long after the Tables) in the case of that particular mancipatory agreement which was known by the name of fiducia, i.e. where the mancipation was to a creditor in security or to a friend for safe custody, and the engagement was to return the thing mancipated, in the one case when the debt secured by it was paid and in the other on demand. In such cases the transferee took the conveyance more in the transferrer's interest than his own; he became a sort of trustee, entitled to be treated with consideration, and neither mulcted in a twofold penalty when his inability to reconvey was due to no fault of his, nor forced to reconvey until relieved of charges incurred by him in reference to 1 Cic. de Of. iii. 16, § 65. Some writers, e.g. Girard, Manuel de droit remain, p. 550, n. 5, take the view that, apart from the actio auctoritatis, it was only where the extent of the land was mis- stated (actio de modo agri) that the penalty of a duplum was ipso jure incurred. But this puts a gloss on Cicero's language. the property. Accordingly it became the practice to import into the mancipation a reference to fides — " fidi fiduciae causa meum esse aio," with explanation of the purpose, conditions, &c., of the fiducia, and this explanation as a rule not in the nuncupatory words, forming a relative lex mancipii, but in a separate agreement or paclum fiduciae. This pact then became enforceable not by ordinary legis actio, as part of the mancipation, but separately on grounds of £ood faith alone. It gave rise to an actio fiduciae which some writers think was just an application of the legis actio per judicis postulationem , but which more probably was originally an action in factum granted by the urban praetor by virtue of his imperium. In any case it was one Of the earliest instances of an action inter cives based on principles of good faith. The fiduciary clause had the effect of freeing alike the right of the vendor and the obligation of the vendee from the hard-and-fast lines of the jus strictum, and subordinating them to the principles of bona fides.2 Of the civil modes of acquiring property on singular title ap- plicable to both res mancipi and res nee mancipi surrender in court (injure cessio) was just a rei vindicatio arrested in its initial _ stage. The parties, ccdent and cessionary, having pre- aer^n' viously arranged the terms of transfer — sale, donation or court otherwise — appeared before the magistrate; the cession- ary, taking the position of plaintiff, declared the thing his in quiritary right; the cedent, as defendant, was asked what he had to say in answer; and, on his admission or silence, the magistrate at once pronounced a decree (addictio) which completed the transfer, but which might be subject to a fiduciary reservation or deduction of a servitude. It was probably more resorted to for the con- stitution of servitudes, both real and personal, and transfer of such rights as patria potestas, futory-at-law of a woman, or an agnatic inheritance that had already opened, than for conveyance of property. For it was not only inconvenient, inasmuch as it required the parties to appear before the supreme magistrate in Rome, and could not be carried through by any one under power (as mancipation might), but it had also the serious disadvantage that it did not ipso jure imply any warranty of title by the cedent in the event of eviction or give rise to an action de modo agri. Nor did it, like mancipation and tradition, make payment of the price a condition precedent of the transfer of property. The reason was that in form the right of the cessionary flowed from the magisterial decree : " Since you say the thing is yours, and the cedent does not say it is his, I declare it yours," and not from any act or word of the cedent's, who was passive in the matter. Usucapion,3 regulated by the XII. Tables, but not improbably recognized previously in a vague and uncertain way, converted uninterrupted possession (usus) into quiritary property by efflux of time. The provision in the Tables, as given by Cicero, was to this effect: " usus auctoritas fundi biennium est, ceterarum rerum omnium annuus est." The relation in which the words usus and auctoritas stand to each other has been a subject of much discussion: the pre- vailing opinion amongst modern civilians is that the two words should be taken disjunctively, the first alone referring to usucapion, and the second to the warranty of title incumbent on the vendor in a mancipation, and that both were limited to two years in the case of lands (and, by extensive interpreta- tion, houses), and to one year in the case of anything else. In the later jurisprudence the possession required to be based on a sufficient title and the possessor to be in good faith. But the decemviral code, as is now generally admitted, contained no such requirements; any citizen occupying immovables or holding movables as his own, provided they were usucaptible and he had not taken them theftuously, acquired a quiritary right in two years or one, as the case might be, simply on the strength of his possession. Originally, therefore, it was simply the conversion of de facto possession, no matter how acquired so long as not by theft, into legal ownership when prolonged for the statutory period, — too often the maintenance of might at the cost of right. But in time it came to be regarded rather as a remedy for some defect of title, arising either from irregularity of conveyance or incapacity of the party from whom a transfer had been taken; and with the progress of 2 There is much diversity of opinion about fiducia. See Oertmann, ftducta im rom. Privatrecht (Berlin, 1890) ; Girard, Manuel, 4th ed. PP- 519-23; Sohm, Institutionen (Eng. trans., and ed.), pp. 63-65. 'Literature: Stintzing, Das Wesen von bona fides und titulus in d. rom. Usucapionslehre (Heidelberg, 1852); Schirmer, Die Grundidee d. Usucapion im rom. Recht (Berlin, 185";); Pernice, Labeo, 2nd ed. ii. 328 seq.; Voigt, XII. Tafeln, ii. § oY, Karlowa, Rom. R.G. ii. 387 seq.; Esmein, " Sur 1'histoire de 1'usucapion,' Melanges (1886), pp. 171 seq. JUS CIVILE] ROMAN LAW 543 jurisprudence it developed into the carefully regulated positive prescription which has to a greater or less extent found a place in every modern system. The conception of the abstract notion of a real right in (or over) the property of another person (jus in re aliena) is not to be looked for at so early a period in the re aikaa. history of the law as that now under consideration. The rural servitudes of way and water were no doubt very early recognized, for they ranked as res mancipi, and the XII. Tables contained various regulations in reference to the former. Usufruct, too, was probably not unknown; but the urban praedial servitudes bear the impress of a somewhat later jurisprudence. Pignorate and hypothecary rights were certainly unknown as rights protected by action.1 Between private parties the only thing legally recognized of the nature of a real security was the fiducia that is described above. Approaching more nearly to the modern idea of a mortgage was the security praedibus praediisque required by the state from those indebted to it in assurance of their obligations. Here there was the double guarantee of sureties (praedes) and mortgages of lands of theirs (praedia subsignata) ; but how they were dealt with when the debtor made default is by no means clear. Changes in the Law of Succession. — The two forms of testa- ment of the regal period, viz., that made in the comilia of Forms of the curies and that by soldiers on the eve of battle, testa- still remained in use in the early Republic; though meat- before the end of the Republic they were displaced by the general adoption of that executed with the copper and scales (lestamentum per acs et libram). It seems to be the general opinion that it was to the first two alone that the words applied which stood in the forefront of the provisions of the XII. Tables about inheritance: "uti legassit suae rei, ita jus esto." Whether resort was to the comilia or to the army, the testator's own will in the matter was henceforth to be supreme. There was to be no more reference to the pontiffs as to the expediency of the testament in view of the interests of the family sacra, and of creditors of the testator's; from legislators, sanctioning a departure from the ordinary rules of succession, the assembled Quirites became merely witnesses — recipients of the oral declaration of the testator's will in regard to his inheritance.2 The testament with the copper and the scales is depicted by Gaius as a written instrument. But he presents it in what Testa- might be described as the third stage of its history. meat Its probable origin has been explained (supra, p. 534). per aes et jt was originally not a testament but only a make- ""' shift for one. A plebeian was not qualified in the regal period to make a testament in the comitia; so, instead, he transferred his estate to a friend on whom he could rely, with instructions how to distribute it on his death. The transferee was called familiae emplor, because the conveyance was in form a mancipation for a nominal price. It is not at all unlikely that the same device may occasionally have been resorted to by a patrician who had neglected to make a regular testament, and was seized with mortal illness before he had an opportunity of appealing to the curies.3 But such a disposition was not a testament, and may not have been so called. A testa- ment was the nomination of a person as the testator's heir. It made the person instituted as fully the representative of the testator after his death as his heir-at-law would have been had he died 1 Hypothecary rights were unknown until near the end of the Republic. But Festus (s.v. "Nancitor"; see Bruns, Fonles, 6th ed., lii. 16) speaks of a provision in the Cassian league between Rome and the Latin states of the year 262 u.c. — " Si quid pignoris nasciscitur, sibi habeto " — which may suggest that the Romans at this period were not altogether unacquainted with pledge or pawn of movables as a transaction of some value de facto if not de jure. 2 See Girard, Manuel de droit remain, 4th ed. p. 800. On the " uti legassit " law of the Tables see ibid. p. 782, and cf. Cuq, Institutions Juridiqu.es, 2nd ed. pp. 124-125. 3 The comitia, Gaius tells us (ii. § 102), met only twice a year to sanction testaments. In Mommsen's view, Rom. Chronologic (1859), pp. 241 seq., these days were the 24th of March and the 24th of May. intestate. The original mortis causa mancipation that opened the way for the testament per aes et libram conferred upon the familiae emptor no such character. Gaius says that he stood in place of an In ir (keredis loco), inasmuch as he had such of an heir's rights and duties as the familiae venditor had it in his power to confer and impose; but the transaction was but a conveyance of estate, with a limitation of the right of the grantee. It has been argued that, as the law did not recognize conditional mancipation, the conveyance must have operated as a complete and immediate divestiture of the grantee. But this does not follow. For it was quite competent for a man, in transferring property by mancipation, to reserve to himself a life interest; and apparently it was equally competent for him to postpone delivery of possession, without infringing the rule that the mancipation itself could not be ex certo lempore. So far as one can sec, therefore, there was nothing to prevent the grantor of the conveyance (or quasi-testator) bargaining that he was to retain the possession till his death; and, as the familia was an aggregate of estate (universitas rerum) which retained its identity notwithstanding any change in its component elements, he must in such case have been as free to operate on it while he survived, as if he had never conveyed it by mancipation. Cicero incidentally remarks4 — what indeed the nature of the transaction of itself very distinctly suggests — that the true testament with the copper and the scales had its statutory warrant, not in the uti legassit suae rei of the XII. Tables, but in the provision contained in the words: " cum nexum faciet mancipiumque, uti lingua nuncupassit, ita jus esto." Reflec- tion on the import and comprehensiveness of these words led the pontifical interpreters to the conclusion that there was nothing in them to prevent the direct institution of an heir in the course of the vcrba muncupata engrafted on a mancipa- tion. From the moment this view was adopted and put in practice the familiae mancipalio ceased to be a transfer of the testator's estate to the familiae emptor; the latter's purchase was now for form's sake only, though still an indispensable form, since it was it alone that, according to the letter of the statute, imparted efficacy to the nuncupatio. But it was the nuncupalio — the oral declaration addressed to the witnesses — that really contained the testamentary disposition, i.e. the institution of an heir, with such other provisions as the testator thought fit to embody in it. This was the second stage in the history of the testament per aes et libram. The third was marked by the introduction of tablets in which the testamentary provisions were set out in writing, and which the testator displayed to the witnesses, folded and tied up in the usual manner, declaring that they contained the record of his last will. Gaius narrates the words spoken by the familiae emptor and addressed to the testator as follows: " Your estate and belongings (familia pecuniaque tua), be they mine by purchase with this bit of copper and these copper scales, subject to your instructions, but in my keeping, that so you may lawfully make your testament according to the statute (quo tu jure testamentum facere possis secundum legem publicam)." The meaning of the words " in my keeping (endo custodelam meam)" is not quite obvious; they are probably remnants of an older style, but may be due to a clerical error of the writer of the Verona MS. Certain it is that they no more imported a real custody than a real property in the familiae emptor; for the testator remained so entirely master of his estate that the very next day if he pleased he might mancipate it anew to a different purchaser, and nuncupate fresh testamentary writings. The nuncu- pation by the testator was in these terms: " As is written in these tablets so do I give, so do I legate, so do I declare my will ; therefore, Quirites, grant me your testimony "; and, adds Gaius, " whatever the testator had set down in detail in his testamentary tablets he was regarded as declaring and confirming by this general statement." To the appeal of the testator the witnesses responded by giving their testimony in words which unfortunately are not preserved; and then the testament was sealed by testator, officials and witnesses, the seals being outside according to the early fashion.6 Although this testament with the copper and the scales was justi- fied in the first instance by the provision of the XII. Tables as to the effect of nuncupative words annexed to a mancipation, yet in course of time it came to be subordinated to that other one which dealt directly with testamentary dispositions: uti legassit suae rei, ita jus esto. Upon the words uti legassit the widest possible meaning was put by the interpreters: not only was a testator held entitled on the strength of them to appoint tutors to wife and children, to enfranchise slaves and make bequests to legatees, but he might 4 Cic. De Oral. i. 57, § 245. 6 On the above passage of Gaius, see Sohm, Inst. § 99. 544 ROMAN LAW [JUS CIVILE Intestate succes- sion. even disinherit a child in his potestas(suusheres) in favour o! astranger, so long as he did so in express terms. Institution of a stranger, without specific mention of the suus heres, however, was fatal, if the latter was a son; for without express disherison (exheredalio) his father could not deprive him of the interest he had in the family property as in a manner one of its joint owners. It can hardly be supposed that disherison was contemplated by the compilers of the Tables; it was foreign to the traditional conception of the family and the family estate. But it was a right whose concession could not be resisted when claimed as embraced in the uti legassit, although generally discountenanced, and as far as possible restrained by the strictness of the rules imposed on its exercise. In the absence of a testament, or on its failure from any cause, the succession opened to the heirs ab intestato. So notoriously were the sui hcrcd.es entitled to the first place — and that not so much in the character of heirs as of persons now entering upon the active exercise of rights hitherto existing, though in a manner dormant — that the compilers of the XII. Tables thought it superfluous expressly to declare it. " If a man die intestate, leaving no suus heres, his nearest agnate shall have his estate. If the agnate also fail, his gentiles shall have it." It has been pointed out, in dealing with the tutory of agnates, that the notion of agnation, as a bond distinct from that which connected the gentile members of a clan, was due to the decemvirs. They had to devise a law of intestate tutory and succession suitable alike to the patricians who had gentes and to the plebeians who had none. To put the latter in exactly the same position as the former was beyond their power; for the fact had to be faced that the plebeians had no gentile institutions, and to create them was impossible. The difficulty was overcome by accepting the principle of agnation upon which the patrician gens was constructed, and establishing an agnatic circle of kinsmen (perhaps at first limited to the sixth degree) to which the gens as a collective body should be postponed in the case of the patricians, and which should come in place of it in the case of the plebeians. It was not perfect equalization, but the nearest approach to it that the circumstances permitted. The difference was that, when the agnates of a plebeian intestate failed, his inheritance was vacant; whereas, on failure of those of a patrician, there was devolution to his gens in its collective capacity. Two " interpretations " put upon the statute had an important bearing in this connexion, viz. (i) that, if the nearest agnates in existence declined the succession, those next in degree were not allowed to take it; and (2) that no female agnate could take it more remote than a sister of the deceased intestate. The division among two or more agnates was always per capita, not per stirpes. The order of intestate succession thus established by the XII. Tables, which prevailed until amended by the praetors probably, in the 8th century of the city, was first to the sui heredes of the deceased, next to his nearest agnate or agnates, and finally, if the deceased was a patrician, to his gens.1 His sui heredes, speaking broadly, were those of his descendants in his potestas when he died who by that event (or even after it, but before his intestacy became manifest) became sui juris, together with his wife in manu (who, as regarded his succession, was reckoned as a daughter); but they did not include children whom he had emancipated or daughters who had passed in manum of a husband. Emancipated children did not even come in as agnates on failure of sui; for emancipation severed the tie of agnation as well as that of potestas. For the same reason no kinsman who had been emancipated, and so cut off from the family tree, could claim as an agnate; for those only were agnates who were subject to the same patria potestas, or would have been had the common family head been still alive. The opening of a succession (technically delatio hereditatis) in favour of sui heredes, whether in virtue of a testamentary institu- tion or by operation of law on intestacy, at once invested them with the character, rights and responsibilities of heirs. No acceptance was necessary, nor, according to the rules of the jus civile, was any declinature competent. They Position of heirs. 'This was for freeborn citizens; for freedmen, the patron (or his children in potestate) took the place of the nearest agnates. had been all along in a manner joint owners with their parent of the family estate, which by his death had become, nominally at least, an inheritance; and, as he had not thought fit to terminate their interest in it by emancipating or disinheriting them, they were not now allowed to disown it. Hence they were spoken of as necessary heirs (heredes sui et necessarii). A slave, too whom his owner had instituted in his testament with gift of liberty was a necessary heir: he could not decline, and was invested with the character of heir the moment the testator died. Not so with stranger institutes or agnates taking on intestacy: they were free to take or reject the inheritance as they saw fit; consequently, an act of acceptance (aditio) was necessary on their part to make them heirs. This was a formal declaration before witnesses, which got the name of cretio? It was not unusual for a testator, in instituting an heir, to require that he should make a formal declaration of acceptance within a limited time, failing which his right should pass to a substitute, who in turn was required to enter within a certain time; and so on with any number of substitutes, the series ending with one of his slaves, who became heir without entry, and thus saved the testator from the disgrace of post mortem bankruptcy in the event of the inheritance proving insolvent. The uli legassit of the Tables, as interpreted by the pontiffs, conferred upon a testator very great latitude of testamentary disposition, even to the extent of disherison of sui heredes. This was a course, however, that was probably rarely resorted to unless when a child had been guilty of gross ingratitude, or when the parent had reason to believe his estate was insolvent and desired to protect his children from the responsibilities of inheritance. Usually his sui, if he had any, would be his institutes, and the purpose of the testament either to apportion the estate amongst them as he thought expedient, or to give him an opportunity of appointing tutors, bequeathing legacies, or enfranchising slaves. On intestacy the sui took equally, but per slirpes; that is to say, grandchildren by a son who had predeceased or been emancipated, but who themselves had been retained in their grandfather's potestas, took amongst them the share to which their father would otherwise have been entitled, instead of taking equal shares with their surviving uncles. It was by no means unusual, when the whole inheritance descended to sons, for them to hold it in common for many years as quasi partners (consortes) ; but any one of them was entitled at any moment to claim a partition which was effected judicially, by an arbitral procedure introduced by the XII. Tables, termed a judicium (or arbitrium) familiae erciscundae. Where two or more strangers were instituted testamentarily, whether to equal or unequal shares, if one of them failed either by predecease or declinature his share accrued ipso jure to the others; for it was a rule that early became pro- verbial that a man could not die partly testate and partly in- testate. There was the same accrual among agnates on intestacy; and both they and stranger testamentary institutes had the same action for division of the inheritance that was made use of by sui heredes. According to Gaius it was as a stimulus to heirs to enter as soon as possible to an inheritance that had opened to them, and thus Usucaplo pro herede. make early provision alike for satisfying the claims of creditors of the deceased and attending to his family sacra, that the law came to recognize the somewhat re- markable institution of usucapion or prescriptive acqui- sition of the inheritance in the character of heir (usucapio pro herede). Such usucapion was impossible — there was no room for it — if the deceased had left sui heredes; for the inheritance vested in them the moment he died. But, if there were no sui heredes, then any person taking possession of the property that had belonged to the deceased, and holding it for twelve months without interruption, thereby acquired it as if he were heir: in fact, according to the views then held, he acquired the inheritance itself. Gaius characterizes it as a dishonest acquisition, inasmuch as the usucapient knew that what he had taken possession of was not his. But, as already explained, the usucapion of the XII. Tables did not require bona fides on the part of the uscapient; he might acquire ownership by prolonged possession of what he knew did not belong to him so long as he did not appropriate it theftuously, i.e. knowing that it belonged to another. But an inheritance unappropriated by an heir who had nothing more than a right to claim it belonged in strictness to no one; and there was no theft, therefore, when a person took possession of it with a view to usucapion in the character of heir. There can be little doubt that on the completion of his possession he was regarded as heir just as fully as if he had taken under a testament or as heir-at-law on intestacy — that is to say, that he was held responsible to creditors of the deceased and required to charge himself with the family sacra. Gaius does not say as much ; but both the Coruijcanian and the Mucian edict 3 imposed the latter burden upon him who had usucapted by possession the greater part of a deceased person's estate; and it is but reasonable to suppose that the burden of debts must in like manner have fallen on the usucapient or usucapients in proportion to the shares they had taken of the deceased's property. 2 Gai. ii. 164-173. 3 Cic. de leg. ii. 48, 49. JUS CIVILE] ROMAN LAW 545 Contract la The Law of Obligations. — In his Liber Aureorum Gaius says obligations arise from either contract or delict, or miscellaneous Law of causes (variae causarum figurae). But those arising obiiga- from contract fill a place in the later jurisprudence tions. vastly greater than those arising from delict. In the XII. Tables it was different. In them delicts were much more prominent than contracts — wrongs entitling the sufferer to demand the imposition of penalties upon the wrong-doer that in most cases covered both reparation and punishment. The disproportion in the formulated provisions in reference to the two sources of obligation, however, is not surprising. For, first of all, the purpose of the decemviral code was to remove uncertainties and leave as little as possible to the arbitrariness of the magistrates. In nothing was there more scope for this than in the imposition of penalties; and, as different offences required to be differently treated, the provisions in reference to them were necessarily multiplied. In the next place, the intercourse that evokes contract was as yet very limited. Agri- culture was the occupation of the great majority; of trade and commerce there was little; coined money had hardly begun to be used as a circulating medium. Lastly, the safe- guards of engagement then lay to a great extent in the sworn oath or the plighted faith, of which the law (jus) hardly yet took cognisance, but which found a protection quite as potent in the religious and moral sentiments that had so firm a hold on the people. It may be asked — If a man purchased sheep or store cattle, a plough, a toga, a jar of wine or oil, had he no action to compel delivery, the vendor no action for payment of the price? Did the hire of a horse or the loan of a bullock create no obligation? Was partnership unknown, and deposit, and pledge, and suretyship in any other form than that of vadimoniumr One can have no hesitation in answering that, as transactions of daily life, they must all have been more or less familiar. It does not follow, however, that they were already regu- lated by law and protected by the ordinary tribunals. Modern historical jurists are pretty well agreed that not only the real con- tracts of loan (mutuum and commodatum) , deposit, and pledge, but also the consensual ones of sale, location, partnership, and mandate, and the verbal one of suretyship, were as yet barely recognized by law. The law recognized conveyance but hardly contract. Sale was the offspring of barter — of instant exchange of one thing for another. With such instant exchange there was no room for obliga- tion to deliver on either side. The substitution of coined money for the raw metal can hardly have effected any radical change: the ordinary practice of those early times must still have been ready-money transaction — an instant exchange of ware for price; and it can only have been when, for some reason or other, the arrangement was exceptionally for delivery or payment at a future date, say next market day, that obligation was held to have been created. Was that obligation enforceable by the civil tribunals? Some jurists hold that it was — that at no time were the jus gentium contracts outside the protection of judicial remedies, although by a simpler procedure than that resorted to for enforcement of the contracts of the jus civile. But two provisions in the XII. Tables seem to prove that it was not so enforceable when they were drawn up. The first is that already referred to as recorded by Justinian — - that, where a thing was sold and delivered, the property, neverthe- less, was not to pass until the price had been paid or sureties (vades) for it accepted by the vendor. Far from being a recognition of the obliga- tory nature of the transaction, this provision is really a recognition of the inability of the law to enforce payment of the price by the vendee; it is a declaration that, on the tatter's failure to pay, the vendor, unprotected by any personal action, should be entitled to get back the thing sold as still his own, no matter in whose hands he found it. The second related to the case ot a person who had bought a victim for sacrifice, but had failed to pay for it. A real action for its revindication by the seller after it had been consumed on the altar was out of the question ; so he was authorized by the Tables, by the process o( pignoris capio, at his own hand to appropriate in satisfaction a sufficient equivalent out of the belongings of the purchaser, against whom he had no personal action. It was a principle of the law of Rome through the whole of its history, though in course of time subject to an increasing Keqais- number of exceptions, that mere agreement between ites of two persons did not give him in whose favour it was binding conceived a right to demand its enforcement. To contract. entjtie a man to ciaim the intervention of the civil tribunals to compel implement of an engagement undertaken by another, it was necessary (subject to those exceptions) xxiii. 18 either that it should be clothed in some form prescribed or recognized by the law, or that it should be accompanied or followed by some relative act which rendered it something more than a mere interchange of consent. Under the juris- prudence of the XII. Tables the formalities required to elevate an agreement to the rank of contract and make it civilly obli- gatory sometimes combined ceremonial act and words of style, sometimes did not go beyond words of style, but in all cases took place before witnesses. Dotis dictio, the undertaking of a parent to provide a dowry with his daughter whom he was giving in marriage, and vodimonium, the guarantee of a surety for the due fulfilment of the undertaking either of a party to a contract or a party to a litigation (some think only the latter), probably required nothing more than words of style before persons who could if necessary bear witness to them; whereas an engagement incident to a mancipation, or an undertaking to repay borrowed money, required in addition a ceremony with the copper and the scales. This undertaking to repay arose from the contract of nexum, which was, it is thought, older than the Tables; both it and the verbal contract by sponsio or stipulation, which was younger, require here further consideration. The Nexal Contract} — The tumults and seditions so frequent in Rome during the first two centuries of the Republic are as frequently attributed by ancient writers to the causes of abuses of the law of debt as to any other cause, social plebeian or political. The circumstances of the poorer pie- Borrow beians were such as to make it almost impossible to *"*' avoid borrowing. Their scanty means were dependent on 'the regular cultivation of their little acres, and on each operation of the agricultural year being performed in proper rotation and at the proper season. But this was every now and again interfered with by wars which detained them from home at seed-time or harvest, practically rendering their farms unpro- ductive, and leaving them and their families in straits for the commonest necessaries of life. The practice of lending per libram was doubtless of great antiquity — indeed, the intervention of the scales was a necessity when money or what passed for it had to be weighed instead of counted; and not improbably old custom contract. conceded to a lender who had thus made an advance in the presence of witnesses some very summary and stringent remedy against a borrower who failed in repayment. How, after the Servian reforms, it was subjected to much the same formalities as were required for mancipation has been shown already. With the introduction of a coinage the transaction, instead of being per libram simply, became one per aes et libram; the scales were touched with a single piece, representing the money which had already been or was about to be paid, a formula recited whereby the obligation of repayment was imposed on the borrower, and an appeal made to the witnesses for their testimony. Unfor- tunately this formula is nowhere preserved. Huschke assuming that the lender was the only speaker, formulates it thus — " quod ego tibi mille libras hoc aere aeneaque libra nexas dedi, eas tu mini post annum jure nexi dare damnas esto "- -" whereas with this coin and these copper scales I have given thee a thousand asses, be thou therefore bound jure nexi to repay them to me a year hence." The phrase damnas esto, like the rest of the formula, is unsupported by any conclusive authority ; 1 The modern literature on the subject of nexum is very large and the views taken of it are discordant. The fundamental work is that of Huschke, Ober d. Recht des Nexum (Leipzig, 1846). Danz (Gesch. d. rom. Rechts, ii. 2nd ed., 1873, § 146) gives a list of the more important writings about it and a resume of the principal theories. To this list, which comes down to 1870, may be added Bekker, Die Aktionen des rom. Privatrechts, i. (Berlin, 1871), c. I ; Brinz, " Der Begriff obligatio," in Griinhut's Zettschr. i. (1874), ii seq.; and Voigt, XII. Tafeln, i. §§ 63-65; Girard, Manuel, 4th ed. pp. 476-482; Schlossmann, Nexum (1904); Mitteis, " Uber das Nexum, Ztsch. d. Sav. Stiff, xxii. 96 seq., and xxv. 282-283; Mommsen, Ztsch. d. Sav. Sttft. xxiii. 348 seq.; Lenel, Z. d. S. S. xxiii. 84 seq.; Bekker, Z. d. S. S. xxiii. 11-23 and 429-430; Kiibler, Z. d. S. S. xxv. 254 seq.; Senn. Now. Rev. hist. (1905). PP- 49 seq. 5 ROMAN LAW [JUS CIVILE but, as it is in harmony with the formula which is given by Gaius for dissolving an obligation of this kind, and with that most frequently employed in the Republic for imposing by a public act liability to pay a fixed and definite sum, it may not be wide of the mark. What was the effect of this procedure? The question is one not easily answered. Brinz expressed the opinion that the creditor was entitled in virtue of the nexum to take his debtor into custody at any time when he considered such a course necessary for his own protection, even before the conventional term of repayment — that the debtor was in bonds, virtually a pledge, from the very first, and the tightness or looseness of them a matter in the dis- cretion of his creditor.1 Voigt holds that the nexum did not give the creditor any peculiar hold over his debtor, and that on the latter's failure to repay an ordinary action was necessary, to be followed by the usual proceedings in execution if judgment was in favour of the former. These views may be said to be the two extremes; and between them lie a good many others, more or less divergent. The difficulty of arriving at a conclusion is caused to some extent by the ambiguity of the words nexus and nexum. The transaction itself was called nexum and occasionally also nexus; the money advanced was nexum aes (hence nexi, i.e. aeris, datio); the bond was nexus (of the fourth declension); and the debtor on whom the bond was laid was also nexus (of the second). All this is simple enough. But we find the same word nexus employed by the historians as almost synonymous with vinctus— to denote the condition of a debtor put in fetters by his creditor. That might be the condition either of a nexal borrower or of an ordinary judgment-debtor. The former in such a case was doubly nexus; he was at once in the bonds of legal obligation and in those of physical constraint. In many passages in which Livy and others speak of the nexi it is extremely difficult, sometimes impossible, to be sure in which sense they use the word. It is therefore not sur- prising that there should be considerable diversity of opinion on the subject.2 Since Huschke, the great majority of writers-^-Voigt,s Lenel and Mitteis are distinguished exceptions — concur in opinion that the nexal contract entitled the creditor, after expiry of thirty days from the conventional date of repayment of the loan, to proceed against his debtor by manus injectio without any antecedent action or judgment, and failing settlement to detain him, and put him to servile labour, and subject him to servile treatment, until the loan was repaid. The parallel of such a course is to be met with amongst many ancient nations — Jews, Greeks, Scandinavians, Germans, &c.* And it was not altogether unreasonable. If a borrower had already exhausted all available means of raising money, had sold or mortgaged everything he possessed of any value, what other course was open to him in his necessity except to impledge himself? That the creditor should have been entitled to realize the right he had thus acquired without the judgment on it of a court of law is equally intelligible. It was just a case of regulated self-help. The nexal contract was a public act, carried out in the presence of the five citizen witnesses and libripens, who were witnesses alike of the acknowledgment of indebtedness and of the tacit engagement of the debtor. The only valid ob- jection apparently that could be stated against the creditor's appre- hension of his debtor in execution was that the indebtedness no longer existed — that the loan had been repaid. But a nexal debt 1 Brinz, in Grunhut's Zeitschr. \. 22. He likens the position of the nexus to that of a thing — land, say — mortgaged to a creditor in security of a claim. Such security the Roman jurists con- stantly speak of as res obligate, and sometimes as res nexa. As Brinz observes, the thing was obligate, from the first, and continued so as long as the debt it secured was unpaid, even though the creditor found it unnecessary to reduce it into possession or interfere with it in any way. * As to the use of the terms nexum and nexus by the classical jurists, see Roby, Roman Private Law (1902), vol. ii. pp. 296 seq. 8 He holds that the obligation created nexo did not impose any immediate liability on the borrower which the lender could enforce without judicial intervention, but that the latter required to proceed against the former in ordinary course, by what he calls an actio pecuniae nuncupatae. Mitteis, ut supra, supports, to a considerable extent, Voigt's views as to the necessity of further proceedings after the nexal contract, and rejects the notion of non-judicial manus injectio, but regards the actio pecuniae nuncupatae as non- existent. Cf. Mitteis, Rom. Privatrecht (1908), pp. 137 seq. Accord- ing to Lenel, Z. d. Sar. Stift. 84 seq., there never existed any nexal contract of loan, and the whole doctrine on the subject has there- fore no solid foundation. 4 See authorities in Brinz's paper in Grunhut's Zeilschr. i. 25. The Greek phrase was liri a&na.Ti 5o«(feii<. There is a curious style in Marculfus (Form. ii. 27), in which a borrower engages that, until he shall have repaid his loan, his creditor shall have right to his services so many days a week, and shall have power to inflict corporal punishment if there be dilatoriness in rendering them. could be legally discharged only by nexi liberalio, which also was a solemn procedure per aes el libram in the presence of five citizen witnesses. What need for a judicial inquiry in the presence of facts so notorious? A creditor would rarely be daring enough to pro- ceed to manus injectio if his loan had been repaid; if he did, the testimony of the witnesses to the discharge would at once procure the release of his alleged debtor. It was probably to give oppor- tunity for such proof, if there was room for it, that the XII. Tables required that a creditor who had apprehended a nexal debtor should bring him into court before carrying him off into detention. Whether there was room for a vindex and for a magisterial addiction of the debtor after sixty days, with power to kill or sell into slavery after addiction, are disputed questions, but there seems no good reason for distinguishing a nexal from a judicalus debtor in these respects. Untenable is the notion at any rate that the nexus by the mere contract was placed in loco servi, or that by arrest he was in a worse position than one condemned for a judg- ment debt, of whom Quintilian states distinctly that he still retained his position in the census and in his tribe. Many a time when the exigencies of the state required it, were the nexi tempo- rarily released in order to obey a call to arms — to fulfil the duty incumbent on them as citizens. The nexal debtor's position after arrest in regard to his family rights is obscure. If originally they shared his nexal condition, this did not long continue to be the law. If he was a house-father he seemingly still retained his manus over his wife and potestas over his children. Their earnings legally belonged to him, and did not fall to his creditor. It was the body of his debtor that the creditor was entitled to, and too often he wreaked his vengeance on it by way of punishment; there was as yet no machinery for attaching the debtor's goods in substantial reparation for the loss caused by his breach of con- tract. The abuses to which this system of personal execution gave rise were great. Livy tells us that in the year 428 u.C. (326 B.C.) a more than ordinarily flagrant outrage com'mitted by a poftlllaa creditor upon one of his young nexi, who had given him- t self up as responsible for a loan contracted by his deceased father, roused the populace to such a pitch of indignation as to necessitate instant remedial legislation. The result was the Poet- ilian law (Lex Poetilia Papiria). So far as can be gathered from the meagre accounts of it we possess, it contained at least these three provisions — (i) that fetters and neck, arm or foot blocks should in future be applied only to persons undergoing imprisonment for crime or delict; (2) that no one should ever again be the nexus of his creditor in respect of borrowed money; and (3) that all existing nexi should be released. The first was intended to prevent un- necessary restraint upon judgment-debtors formally given over to their creditors. The second did not necessarily abolish the con- tract of loan per aes el libram, but only what had hitherto been an ipso jure consequence of it — the creditor's right to incarcerate his debtor without either the judgment of a court or the warrant of a magistrate. For the future, execution was to be done against a borrower only as a judgment-debtor formally made over to his creditor by magisterial decree, and under the restrictions and limitations imposed by the Poetilian law itself. This very soon led to the disuse of nexal obligation; once it was deprived of its distinctive processual advantages it rapidly gave place to the simpler engage- ment by stipulation usually enforceable per condictionem. As for the release of the then existing nexi, Cicero, Livy and Dionysius say nothing of any condition annexed to the boon the statute conferred upon them; but Varro limits it to those qui bonam copiam jurarunt — those apparently who were able to declare on oath that they had done their best and could do no more to meet their creditors' claims.* Such a limitation can hardly be called unreasonable, even were we to assume — as probably we ought to do— that the release spoken of was only from the bonds of physical restraint, not from those of legal obligation. Introduction of the Stipulation? — Few events in the history of the private law were followed by more far-reaching conse- quences than the introduction of the stipulation. It exercised an enormous influence on the law of contract; uoa * for by means of it there was created a unilateral obligation that in time became adaptable to almost every con- ceivable undertaking by one man in favour of another. By the use of certain words of style in the form of question and answer any lawful agreement could thereby be made not only 5 The meaning of these words, however, is disputed. See Green- idge, Infamia, 206, and authorities there cited. 6 Literature: Gngist, Die formellen Vertrdge d. rom. Rechts (Berlin, 1845), pp. 113 seq.; Heimbach, Die Lehre vom Creditum (Leipzig, 1849); Danz, Der sacrale Schutz im rom. Rechtsverkehr (Jena, 1857), pp. 102-142, 236 seq.; Schlesinger, Zur Lehre von den Formalcontracten (Leipzig, 1858), § 2; Voigt, Jus. nat., &c., d. Rom. vol. ii. § 33, vol. iv. Beilage xix. ; Bekker, Aklionen, i. 382-401; Karsten, Die Stipulation (Rostock, 1878); Voigt, Rom. Rechtsge- schichte, § 7; Girard, Manuel, 483 seq.; Karlowa, Rom. Rechts- geschichte, ii. 699 seq. JUS CIVILE] ROMAN LAW 547 morally but legally binding, so that much which previously had no other guarantee than a man's sens| of honour now passed directly under the protection of the tribunals. Stipulations became the complement of engagements which without them rested simply on good faith, as when a vendor gave his stipu- latory promise to his vendee to guarantee peaceable possession of the thing sold or its freedom from faults, and the vendee in turn gave his promise for payment of the price. The question and answer in the form prescribed by law made the engagement fast and sure. Hence the generic name of the contract; for Paul's derivation of it from stipulum, " firm " (which itself comes from stipes, a staff), is to be preferred to that of Varro and Festus from slips (money), or to a later and rather fanciful one from stipula (a straw). It was round the stipulation that the jurists grouped most of their disquisitions upon the general doctrines of the law of contract — capacity of parties, requisites of consent, consequences of fraud, error and intimidation, effects of conditions and specifications of time, and so forth. It may well be said, therefore, that its introduction marked an epoch in the history of the law. There is, however, no certainty either as to the time or as to the manner of its introduction. So far as appears, it was unknown at the time of the compilation of the XII. Tables, at least in private life; one of the first unmistakable allusions to it is in the Aquilian law of about 287 B.C. The mention of it in that enactment, however, is with regard to a phase of it which cannot have been reached for many years after it had come into use ; and the probability is that it origin- ated before the middle of the 5th century of the city, its first statu- tory recognition being in the Silian law introducing the legis actio per condictionem (infra, p. 550). In its earliest days it bore the name not oi'stipulatio but of sponsio, for the reason that the interrogatory of the party becoming creditor was invariably formulated with the word spondes — e.g. centum dare spondes? — while the answer was simply spondeo. There has been much speculation as to the origin of the contract. Modern criticism has three theories: (l) that it was the verbal remnant of the nexum, after the business with the copper * and the scales had gone into disuse ; (2) that it was evolved origin. ou(. of tjje oaLth(jusjUrandum orsponsio)at the great altar of Hercules and the appeal to Fides (supra, p. 534) ; (3) that it was im- ported from Latium, which it had reached from some of the Greek settlements farther south. The last view is the most probable, though there is much to be said also in favour of the second theory.1 Verrius Flaccus, as quoted by Festus, connects it with the Greek arivSav and airovⅈ and Gaius incidentally observes that it was said to be of Greek origin. A libation (airovMj) is frequently referred to by Homer and Herodotus as an accompaniment of treaties and other solemn covenants — a common offering by the parties to the gods which imparted' sanctity to the transaction. Leist2 is of opinion that the practice passed into Sicily and Lower Italy, but that gradually the libation and other religious features were dropped, although the word avovMi was retained in the sense of an engage- ment that bound parties just as if the old ritual had been observed, and that it travelled northward into Latium and thence to Rome under the name of sponsio, being used in the first instance in public life for the conclusion of treaties, and afterwards in private life for the conclusion of contracts. The meaning of spondes as a question by a creditor to his debtor (although latterly, we may well believe, unknown to them) thus came to be: " Do vou engage as^solemnly as if the old ceremonial were gone through between us?" There are many examples of such simplification of terms, none more familiar than when a man says, I give you my oath upon it," without either himself or the individual addressed thinking it necessary that the form should:be gone through. It is not a little remarkable that the use of the words spondes and spondeo in contracting were, down at least to the time of Gaius, confined in Rome to Roman citizens. The sponsio as a form of contract was essentially juris civilis. So at first were the later and less solemn forms of stipulation — promittisne? promitto, fideipromittisne? fidei- promilto. Gaius speaks of these latter, along with such simple forms as dabisne? dabo faciesne? faciam, as juris gentium, i.e. binding even between Romans and peregrins. Such they became eventually, but peregrins probably could not make use of the stipulation until a good while after the lex Silia. Yet although juris civilis, both the sponsio and the later forms were 1 See the arguments in favour of this theory in Girard, Manuel, 4th ed. pp. 484 sqq. 2 Graeco-Italische Rechtsgeschichte (Jena, 1884), pp. 465-70. Upon the sponsionis vinculum internationally, see Livy, ix. 9. Its nature. from the first free from many of the impediments of the earlier actus legitimi. No witnesses were required to assist at them; and they were always susceptible of qualification by conditions and terms. It was long, however, before parties had much latitude in their choice of language; spondeo was so peculiarly solemn that no equivalent could be admitted; and even the later styles may be said to have remained stereotyped until well on in the Empire. And it was the use of the words of style that made the contract. It was formal, not material; that is to say, action lay upon the promise the words embodied, apart from any consideration whether or not value had been given for it. In time this serious disadvantage was abated by prae- torian exceptions and otherwise, as will be noted below. Origin- ally the stipulation was employed only in regard to engage- ments whose terms were in every respect definite and certain, and was enforced by the legis actio per condictionem, or some- times possibly by actio Sacramento in personam. But in time it came to be employed in engagements that were from the first indefinite. This seems to have been due to the inter- vention of the praetors, and to have received special impetus after. the system of the legis actiones had begun to give place to that per formulas. The remedy in such a case was not spoken of as a condiction but as an actio ex stipulatu. iv. The Actions of the Law. The Legis Actiones generally.3 — We owe to Gaius the only connected (though, owing to the state of the Verona MS., rather fragmentary) account we possess of the legis- actiones, as the system of judicial procedure was called which prevailed in Rome down to the substitution of that per formulas by the Aebutian and Julian laws — the first either in the 6th or early in the yth century of the city, and the second in the age of Augustus. He tells us that as genera agendi or generic forms of process they were five in number, each taking its name from its characteristic feature, viz. (i) sacramento, (2) per judicis postulationem, (3) per condictionem, (4) per manus injectionem, and (5) per pignoris capionem. The third was unknown in the decemviral period, and was introduced by the Silian law for- merly mentioned. The other four were all more or less regulated by the XII. Tables, but must in some form have been anterior to them. It is utterly impossible, however, to say of any one of them, apart from the condictes, at what time it was intro- duced, or what was the statute (lex) by which it was sanctioned; it may well be that they were not of statutory introduction at all, but were called legis actiones simply because recognized and indirectly confirmed by the Tables. In character and purpose each of the five had its peculiarities. The first three were directly employed for determining a question of right or liability, which, if persistently disputed, inevitably resulted in a judicial inquiry. The fourth and fifth might possibly result in judicial intervention; but primarily they were proceedings in execution, in which the party moving in them worked out his own remedy. As regards their comparative antiquity, there is much to be said for the opinion of Jhering and Bekker that manus injectio, as essentially nothing more than regulated self-help, must have been the earliest of the five, and that the legis actio sacramento and the judicis postulatio must have been introduced in aid of it, and to prevent too hasty resort to it where there was room for doubt upon questions either of fact or law. 8 The literature on the subject is very voluminous, great part of it in periodicals. Amongst the leading works are those of Keller, Der rom. Civilprozess u. die Actionen (6th ed. by Wach, Leipzig, 1883), §§ 12-21; Bethmann-Hollweg, Der rom. Civilprocess (3 vols., Bonn, 1864-1866), the first volume of which is devoted to the legis actiones; Buonamici, Delle Legis Actiones nell' antico diritlo rotnano. (Pisa, 1868); Bekker, Die Aktionen d. rom. Privatrechts (2 vols., Berlin, 1871-1873), particularly vol. -i. pp. 18-74; Karlowa, Der rom. Civilprozess zur Zeit d. Legisactionen (Berlin. 1872); Padeletti, " Le Legis Actiones," in the Archivio Giuridico (1875), xvii, 321 sqq.; Schultze, Privatrecht u. Prozess in ihrer Wechselbetichung procedure isation judiciaire, i. 15-20, 56-104, 167-252. ROMAN LAW [JUS CIVILE In the three judicial legis acliones the first step was the in jus vocatio or procedure for bringing the respondent into court, minutely regulated by the provisions ofthe first of the XII. Tables. This was not done by any officers of the law; there was no writ of summons of any sort ; the party moving in the contemplated litiga- tion had himself to do what was needed. If the defendant did not ap- pear, there could be no decree by default. Once before the magistrate (consul or praetor), the plaintiff stated his contention. If ad- mitted or not disputed by the defendant, the magistrate at once pronounced his decree, leaving the plaintiff to work out his remedy as the law prescribed. But, if the case presented was met either with a denial or counterclaim, the magistrate remitted it for trial either to a collegiate tribunal or to one or more private citizens as judges or arbiters. The act of remit was technicaljy litis conleslalio or ordinatio judicii, the first so named because originally the parties called upon those present to be witnesses to the issue that was being sent for trial. This was the ordinary practice under both the system of the legis actiones and that of the formulae, and continued to exist until the time of Diocletian. In the first stage the pro- ceedings were said to be in jure, and the duties of the magistrate in reference to them were part of his jurisdictio; in the second they were said to be in judicio, those presiding in it being styled judices. All that the judge or judges had to do was to pass judgment on the question remitted to them. They were " right-declarers " only, not right-enforcers." If their judgment was for the plaintiff, and he failed to obtain an amicable settlement, he had himself to make it operative by subsequent proceedings by manus injectio, and that under the eye of the magistrate, not of the judge. From an enumeration in Cicero of a variety of causes proper to the centumviral court the conclusion seems warranted that it was its peculiar province to decide questions of quiritary right in the strictest acceptation of the word. They were all apparently in his time real actions (vindications) — claims of property in land or of servitudes over it, of right as heir under a testament or in opposition to it, of rights of tutory and succession ab intestate as agnate or gentile, and so forth. It was a numerous court of Quirites, determin- ing by its vote the question of quiritary right submitted to it. Many such questions in course of time, and possibly at first of express consent of parties, came to be referred to a single judge; but some, and notably claims of inheritance under or in opposition to a testament, were still frequently remitted to the centumviral court even in the classical period. Personal actions, however, do not ap- pear ever to have fallen within its cognizance: they were usually sent to a single judge — a private citizen — selected by the parties, but appointed by the magistrate, and to whom the latter adminis- tered an oath of office. But, in a few cases in which an action involved not so much a disputed question of right as the exercise of skill and discretion in determining the nature and extent of a right that in the abstract was not denied, the remit was to a plurality of private judges or arbiters, usually three. The Legis Actio Sacramento.1 — The characteristic feature oi this legis actio, as described by Gaius, was that the parties, after a somewhat dramatic performance before the magistrate, each challenged the other to stake a memo. , . . . . /.it, certain sum, the amount of which was fixed by the Tables, and which was to abide the issue of the inquiry by the court or judge to whom the cause was eventually remitted. This stake Gaius refers to indifferently as sacramentum, summa sacramenti, and poena sacramenti. The formal question the court had to determine was — whose stake had been justified, whose not (cujus sacramentum justum, cujus injustum); the first was returned to the staker, the second forfeited originally to sacred and afterwards to public uses. But the decision on this formal question necessarily involved a judgment on the matter actually in dispute, and, if it was for the plaintiff, entitled him, failing an amicable arrangement, to take ulterior steps for making it effectual. The procedure was still employed in the 1 To the literature in the last note may be added Asverus, Die legis actio sacramenti (Leipzig, 1837) ; Huschke (rev. Asverus), in Richter's Krit. Jahrbuch, vol. iii. (1839), pp. 665 sqq.; Stintzing, Verhdltniss d. I. a. Sacramento zum Verfahren durch sponsio praejudicialis (Heidelberg, 1853); Danz, Der sacrale Schutz, pp. 151-221; Danz, "Die 1. a. Sacram. u. d. Lex Papiria," in the Zeitschr. f. Rechtsgeschichte vol. vi. (1867), pp. 339 sqq. ; Huschke, Die Multa it. d. Sacramentum (Leipzig, 1874); Lotmar, Zur I. a. Sacramento in rent (Munich 1876); Brinz (crit. Lotmar), "Zur Contravindication in d. 1. a sacr.," in the Festgabe zu Spengel's Doctor- Jubilaum (Munich, 1877) pp. 95-146; Miinderloh, " Ueber Schein u. Wirklichkeit an d. 1. a sacramenti," in the Z. f. Rechtsgesch. vol. xiii. (1878), pp. 445 sqq. E. Roth, in the Z. d. Savigny Stiftung, vol. iii. (1882), Rom. Abtheil pp. 121 sqq.; Fioretti, Leg. act. Sacramento (Naples, 1883); Jhering ' Reich u. Arm im altrom. Civilprozess," in his Scherz u. Erns, in der Jurisprudenz (Leipzig, 1885), pp. 175 sqq.; Schulin, Lehrbuch pp. 525 sqq.; Pfliiger, Die legis actio Sacramento (Leipzig, 1898) I ime of Gaius in the few cases that continued to be referred o the centumviral cou^t, but otherwise it had been long in disuse. Gaius explains that it was resorted to both in real and personal actions. Unfortunately the MS. of his Institutes is defective n the passage in which he described its application to the .alter. We possess the greater part of his account of the actio in rem as employed to raise and determine a question of owner- ship; but his illustration is of vindication of a slave, and not so interesting or instructive as the proceedings for vindication of land. These, however, can be reconstructed with tolerable certainty with the aid derived from other sources, especially :rom Cicero, Varro and Gellius. The parties appeared before the magistrate, each carrying a rod (festuca) representing his spear (quir or hasta), the symbol, as "aius says, of quiritarian ownership. The first word was spoken »y the raiser of the action, and addressed to his opponent: " I say that the land in question [describing it sufficiently for identifica- tion] is mine in quiritary right (meum esse exjurequiritium) ; where- :ore I require you to go there and join issue with me in presence of the magistrate (in jure manum conserere)." Thereupon, accord- ing to the earliest practice, the magistrate and the parties, accom- panied by their friends and backers, proceeded to the ground for the purpose: the court was transferred from the forum to the land itself. "As distances increased, however, and the engagements of the consuls multiplied, this became inconvenient. Instead of it, the parties went to the spot without the magistrate, but on his command, and there joined issue in the presence of their seconds, who had been ordered to accompany them, and who probably made a report of the due observance of formalities on their return. Still later the procedure was further simplified by having a turf or sod brought from the place beforehand, and deposited a few yards from the magistrate's chair; and, when he ordered the parries to go to the ground and join issue, they merely brought forward the turf and set it before him, and proceeded to make their formal vindications upon it, as representing the whole land in dispute. The ritual was as follows: The raiser of the action, addressing his adversary, again confirmed his ownership, but this time with the significant addition: "As I have asserted my right by word of mouth, look you, so do I now with my vindicta"', and there- with he touched the turf with his rod, which was called vindicta when employed for this purpose. The magistrate then asked the other party whether he meant to counter-vindicate. If he replied in the negative or made no response, there was instant decree (addictio) in favour of the first party, and the proceedings were at an end. If, however, he counter-vindicated, it was by repeating the same words and going through the same form as his adversary: " I say that the land is mine in quiritary right, and I too lay my vindicta upon it." The verbal and symbolical vindica- tion and counter-vindication completed what was technically the manus consertio. The parties were now in this position: each had asserted his ownership, and had figuratively had recourse to arms in maintenance of his contention. But the matter was to be settled judicially, so the magistrate once more intervened and ordered both to withdraw from the land. The dialogue was then resumed, the vindicant demanding to know from his opponent upon what pretence (causa) he had counter-vindicated. In the illustra- tion in Gaius he avoided the question and pleaded the general issue: " I have done as is my right in laying my vindicta on the land." But there can be little doubt that in certain circumstances the counter-vindicant would deem it expedient to disclose his title. This was very necessary where he attributed his right to a con- veyance upon which two years' possession had not yet followed; in such a case he had to name his author (auctorem laudare) if he desired to preserve recourse against the latter on the warranty implied in the mancipation. That probably entailed a suspension of the proceedings to allow of the author's citation for his interest; and on their resumption, if he appeared and admitted his auctoritas, he was formally made a party to the action. The proceedings had now reached the stage at which the sacra- ment came into play. The first challenge came from the vindicant, — " Since you have vindicated unrightfully, I challenge you with a sacrament of 500 asses," to which the counter-vindicant responded, -" And I you." This was technically the Sacramento provocatio. The magistrate thereupon remitted the matter for trial to the centumviral court, or to a single judge, having declared what exactly was the question put in issue which the court or judge was to decide. The parties then called upon the bystanders to be witnesses of the magistrate's remit, this appeal to witnesses being, as is generally held, the litis contestation At the same time, according to Gaius's account of the procedure, the magistrate required sureties from the parties for the eventual payment by him who was unsuccessful of the sacrament he had offered to 2 But see Colassak, Die Litis contestation (1889), pp. 69 sqq., for a different view. JUS CIVILE] ROMAN LAW 549 stake, and which became a forfeit to the exchequer. (The original practice probably was for the stake to be deposited by both parties in the hands of the pontiffs before they were heard by the judge or judges; after judgment that of the gainer was restored to him, while that of the loser was retained for religious uses.) The magis- trate also made arrangements for the interim possession of the land by one or other of the litigants (but preferably, it is thought, by the possessor), taking security from him that, if he was eventu- ally unsuccessful, it should be returned to his opponent, along with all the fruits and profits drawn in the interval. At the trial, as both parties were vindicants, there must have been a certain burden of proof upon both sides. The vindicant, one may believe, must have been required to establish in the first instance that the thing he claimed had at some time been his; and then, but probably not tilt then, the counter-vindicant would have to prove a later title in his person sufficient to exclude that of his opponent. The judgment, as already observed, necessarily involved a finding on the main question; but in form it was a declaration as to the sacrament: that of the party who prevailed .was declared to be just, and that of his unsuccessful opponent unjust. Looking at this ritual as a whole, the conviction is irresistible that it could not have been so devised by one brain. It reveals and combines three distinct stages in the history of procedure — appeal to arms and self-help, appeal to the gods and the spiritual power, appeal to the civil magistrate and his judicial office. As Gellius says, the real and substantial fight for might, that in olden days had been maintained at the point of the spear, had given place to a civil and festucarian combat in which words were the weapons, and which was to be settled by the interposition of the praetor. But this does not explain the sacramentum. Various theories have been proposed to account for it. According to Gaius, it was nothing more than the sum of money staked by each of the parties, which was forfeited originally to sacred and after- wards to public uses by him who was unsuccessful, as a penalty for his rashly running into litigation; and substantially the same explanation is given by Festus in one of his definitions of the word. But this is far from satisfactory, for it involves the apparent absurdity of declaring that a penalty imposed by law could be just in the case of the party who was in the right, and unjust in the case of him who was in the wrong. There is another definition in Festus — " a thing is said to be done Sacramento when the sanction of an oath is interposed " — that lends support to the opinion that there was a time when parties to a question of right were required to take an oath to the verity of their respective assertions; that they were also required concurrently to deposit five bullocks or five sheep, according to the nature or value of the thing in dispute, to abide the issue of the inquiry;1 that the question for determina- tion was whose oath was just and whose unjust; and that he who was found to have sworn unjustly forfeited his cattle or sheep as a piamentum — a peace-offering to the outraged deity — while the other party reclaimed his from the repository in which they had been detained in the interval.2 It was made an opportunity doubtless by the priests to get some profit for their temples. 1 It was the Lex Aternia Tarpeia of the year 454 B.C. that com- muted the five bullocks and five sheep into 500 and 50 Ib of copper respectively (Cic. De Rep. ii. 35, § 60, where the words usually printed " de multae sacramento " should read " de multa et sacra- mento "). See Festus, s.v. " Peculatus " (in Bruns, Fontes). As to the relative value of oxen and sheep, it is interesting to note that, by the customs of the modern Ossetians, ten sheep are also held to be equivalent to one ox. See Kovalewsky, Coutume contem- poraine, p. II. For the pounds' weight of raw metal the XII. Tables substituted the same number of asses, declaring that 500 should be the summa sacramenti when the cause of action was worth 1000 asses or more, 50 when worth less or the question one of freedom or slavery (Gai. iv. 14). 2 Varro, De L. L. v. 180, says that, even after the summa sacra- menti had been converted into money, it was deposited ad pontem — some bridge, he does not say which, where there was a sacred " pound." (Curiously enough, the Irish spelling of " pound " is "pont"; Skeat's Etym. Diet., s.v. " Pound. '0 A most in- genious and plausible explanation was suggested by Danz in 1867, in the Zeitschr. f. Rechtsgesch. vi. 359. Recalling the facts that there had been discovered in the Tiber Island sacella of Jupiter Jurarius and Dius Fidius, the two deities to whom solemn oaths were usually addressed, and that the island was spoken of as " inter duos pontes," because connected with both banks of the river by bridges bearing no particular names, he suggested that the island may have been the place to which disputants resorted to make their sacramenta, and that the cattle, sheep or money were deposited in a place for the purpose before the bridge was crossed. Much the same explanation was offered by Huschke two years later in his book Das alte romische Jahr (Breslau, 1869), p. 360, apparently without being aware of Danz's speculation. He adds, on the authority of the Iguvine Tables, that, while bullocks were offered to Jupiter, only sheep were offered to Dius Fidius. The island, he thinks, must have been selected as neutral ground to which all parties might have access, and which obviated intrusion into The writers who adopt this view are far from being unanimous as to details. But there seems to be enough to render it more than probable that, at an intermediate stage between the vera solida vis of ancient times and the vis civilis el festucaria which Gellius and Gaius depict, there was a procedure by appeal to the gods through means of oaths of verity sworn by the parties, in the manner and with the consequences that have been indicated. That in time it should have dropped out of the ritual is quite in the order of things. Its tendency was to become a mere form, imposing no real restraint on reckless litigation. The restraint was rather in the dread of forfeiture of the sacramental cattle, sheep or money that would follow a verdict that an oath had been unjust. And it must have been felt besides that jt was unfair to brand a man as a false- swearer, needing to expiate his offence by an offering to the gods, whose oath had been perfectly honest. That he should suffer a penalty for his imprudence in not having taken more care to ascertain his position, and for thus causing needless annoyance to others, was reasonable, but did not justify his being dealt with as one who had knowingly outraged the deity to whom he had appealed. So the oath — the original sacramentum — disappeared, the name pass- ing by a natural enough process to the money which had been wont to be deposited before the oath was sworn, but which now ceased to be an offering in expiation by a false-swearer, and became a mere penalty (forfeited to the state) of rash litigation (poena temere litigantis). So when praedes later took the place of actual deposits, they became bound as state debtors for the sacramentum. It may well be assumed that in most cases the finding of the court as to the justness or unjustness of the respective sacraments of the parties was the end of the case — that it was at once accepted and loyally given effect to. If in favour of the party to whom interim possession had been given by the magistrate there could be no difficulty; he retained the object in dispute with the fruits and profits he had drawn in the interval between lilts contestatio and judgment. If, however, the finding was for the other party, and amicable arrangement was not come to, it is not clear what«course was followed. Gaius says that in awarding interim possession (vindicias dicere) the praetor required the grantee to give security by sureties (praedes) to his adversary for restitution to the latter in the event of his success; while Festus preserves a law of the XII. Tables which, according to Mommsen's rendering, declared that, when it turned out that interim possession had been awarded to the wrong party, it was to be in such party's power to demand the appointment of three arbiters who should ascertain the value of the object of vindication and its fruits, and assess the damages due for non-restitution at double the amount. This provision seems to have been intended to afford the wrongful interim possessor, who was not in a position to make specific restitution to his suc- cessful opponent, a means of avoiding the apprehension and im- prisonment which were the statutory consequences of failure to implement a judgment. It is probable that in time this duplicated money payment came to be regarded as the satisfaction to which the successful party in a vindication was entitled in every case in which, no matter for what reason, he was unable to obtain the thing itself and its fruits from their interim possessor; that con- sequently an arbitrium liti aestimandae, or reference to arbiters to assess their value, resulted in every such case; and that it was to assure its payment that the praetor required the party to whom the interim possession was awarded to give to his opponent the sureties (praedes litis et vindiciarum) to whom Gaius alludes.* This procedure in the sacramental action for vindication of land was applicable to every kind of manus which a man could claim to have over persons or things, though necessarily with variations more or less important in the ritual. But the sacramental action was also quite common for claims in personam. As regards personal actions, the ordinarily received opinion, which rests, however, on slender foundations, is that from the first the parties met on equal terms; that, if it was a case of money debt, the creditor commenced the proceedings with the averment that the defendant owed him the sum in question, — " I say that you ought to pay me (dare oportere) 1000 asses "; that this was met with a denial; and that a sacra- mental challenge followed on either side. All are agreed that the remit was to a single iudex after an interval of thirty days from the proceedings in jure; that where the claim was for a definite sum the plaintiff had to establish his case to the letter; and that his sacra- ment was necessarily declared unjust if he failed to prove his claim by a single penny. But there is considerable diversity of opinion as to whether by this form of process a claim of uncertain amount the temples of the two gods on the Capitol and Quirinal respectively. And it is to its use as the scene of the sacramental procedure that he attributes its name of " holy island," rather than to the fact of its having been the seat of the temple of Aesculapius. Huschke recurs to and enforces this view in his Multa und Sacramentum (1874), p. 410, where he does refer to Danz's paper. 8 Another theory is that, while the interim possessor could not be proceeded against, the praedes, who were really bound in his place and not merely as accessories, were directly subject to execution as debtors of the state. On this and other theories, see Cufnot in Nouv. Rev. hist. pp. 345 sqq. ; Girard, Manuel, pp. 328-29. 550 ROMAN LAW LJUS CIVILE Per could be insisted on — as, for example, for damages for breach of a warranty of acreage of lands sold, or of their freedom from burdens. If it could, then probably the question raised and dealt with sacra- mento was the abstract one of liability — Was the warranty given, and has it failed?— the sum due in respect of the breach being left to be dealt with in a subsequent arbitral process (arbitrium liti aestimandae). The Legis Actio per Judicis Poslulationem.1 — The defects of the Verona MS. have deprived us of Gaius's account of this legis actio. There is little elsewhere that can with any certainty be said to bear upon it. The most important pos/uto- js a no[e jn Valerius Probus— T.PR.I.A.V.P.V.D., tionem. wnjcn jg generally interpreted — te, praetor, judicem arbilrumve postulo uti des. This petition to the magistrate to appoint a judge, arbiter or arbiters (as the case might be) in all probability was part of the procedure in the action, and that from which it derived its distinctive name. Beyond this all is conjecture, alike as to the nature and form of the action and the cases to which it was applicable. Gaius says of the legis actio sacramento that it was general, and that it was the procedure that was to be resorted to where no other was prescribed by statute. There are, however, nowhere indica- tions of an express instruction that proceedings in any particular case were to be per judicis postulationem. While it is impossible with certainty to trace the history of this procedure to its first beginnings, yet the impression is general that it must have originated in the regaj period. It is commonly held to have been applicable to the divisory actions, and some others triable by arbiters as directed by the XII. Tables. Some eminent writers hold that it was employed in certain actions in which equitable considerations were allowed to be taken into account by the judge (e.g. the actio fiduciae), and generally in so-called jurgia as contrasted with lites. But this theory has many diffi- culties to contend with. It has no support from any ancient writer, and it leads to the result that the courts by legis actiones had power to take into consideration questions of bona fides, which is not only in contradiction with what Gaius says (iv. Ii), but inconsistent with their character.2 The Legis Actio per Condictionem? — This, the youngest " action of the law," was introduced, Gaius says, by the Silian Per law as a means of recovering a liquid money debt condtc- (certa pecunia) , and afterwards made available by the tionem. Calpurnian law for enforcing personal claims (as distinguished from real rights) for anything else definite and certain (omnis res certa), and in both its forms, there- fore, essentially an action of debt. The date of both enactments is matter of controversy, although there is no question that the Silian was the earlier. Gaius says of it that its purpose was far from obvious, as there was no difficulty in recovering money either by a sacramental action or one per judicis postulationem. But it is probable, as above stated, that money due under a nexal contract was recoverable by neither of these processes, but by the much more summary one of manus injectio, a procedure which would be practically put an end to by the Poetilian law of 326 B.C. We are disposed to regard the lex Silia and the new procedure it authorized as a result of the change made by this last-mentioned statute. To have put off a creditor for money lent either with a sacramental action or one per judicis poslulationem, would have been to deprive him of the advantages of manus injectio to a greater extent than was called for. At any rate, it seems to have been provided by the Silian law that, when a man disputed his liability for what was called pecunia certa credita, and forced his creditor to litigation, the plaintiff was entitled, if he pleased, to require from him an engagement to pay one-third more by 'To the literature on p. 548, note I, add Baron, " Zur leg. act. per judicis arbitrive postulationem," in the Feslgabe fur Aug. W. Heffler (Berlin, 1873), pp. 29 sqq. ; Huschke, Multa, &c., pp. 394 sqq. ; Adolf Schmidt, " Ueber die 1. a. per jud. post.," in the Zeitschr. d Sav. Stift. (1881), vol. ii., Rom. Abtheil. pp. 145 sqq.; Voigt, XII. Tafeln, vol. i. § 61. 4 See on this Mitteis, Romisches Privatrecht (1908), p. -51 and p 44 ". ii. 3 To the literature on p. 548, note I, add Bekker, Aktionen, vol. i. cap. 4-7; Voigt, Jus naturale, &c., d. Romer (Leipzig, 1856-75), vol. iii. §§ 98, 99; Baron, Die Condictionem (Berlin, 1881) §5 is 16- Jobbe-Duval, Procedure Civile (1896), i. 61 sqq. way of penalty in the event of judgment being against him, while the soi-disant creditor had similarly to undertake to pay as penalty the same amount in case of judgment in favour of the alleged debtor. Those engagements (sponsio et reslipulatio terliae partis) were not allowed in every case in which a definite sum of money was claimed per condictionem, but only when it was technically pecunia credita. In Cicero's time creditum might arise either from loan, stipulation or literal contract (expensilalio); but the last dated probably at soonest from the beginning of the 6th century, and stipulation apparently was a result of the Silian law itself, so that the pecunia credita of this enactment can have referred only to borrowed money. The same phrase, according to Livy, was employed in the Poetilian law; it was thereby enacted, he says, that for pecunia credita the goods, not the body of the debtor, ought to be taken in execution. A connexion, therefore, between the Poetilian law and the disuse of the nexum on the one hand, and the Silian law and the introduction of the legis actio per condictionem on the other, can hardly be ignored, and raises a probability that the latter statute was a consequence of the former, and was passed immediately or soon after the year 326 B.C. In the action on the Calpurnian law, it is probable that there was no penalty of a third part on either side. A peculiarity of the legis actio per condictionem is that the plaintiff could when before the magistrate refer the case to the defendant's oath (juramenlum necessarium) . Taking the oath involved absolution, refusal involved condemnation. Little is known of the procedure in this legis actio, for, in conse- quence of the loss of a leaf in the Verona MS., we are without part of Gaius's account of it. It got its distinctive name, he says, from the condictio or requisition made by the plaintiff on the defendant, whom he had brought into court in the usual way, to attend again on the expiry of thirty days to have a judge appointed. The pro- cedure on the reappearance of the parties on the thirtieth day (provided a settlement had not been arrived at in the interval) varied according as the action was (i) for a definite sum of money falling under the category of pecunia credita, or (2) for any other definite sum of money or a definite thing or quantity of things. In the action for pecunia credita the sponsio et restipulatio tertiae partis were exchanged ; and it is probable that, if either party refused on the praetor's command so to oblige himself towards the other, judgment was at once pronounced in favour of the latter without any remit to a judex. How the issue was adjusted when the sponsion and restipulation were duly given we are not informed, but, judging by analogy from the procedure in an action for breach of interdict under the formular system, and on the broader ground that there must have been machinery for a condemnation of the plaintiff on his restipulation in the event of his being found in the wrong, it may reasonably be concluded that there were in fact three concurrent issues sent to the same judex — the first on the main question, the second on the defendant's sponsion and the third on the plaintiff's restipulation. When a sum of money other than pecunia credita or a thing or quantity of things other than money was sued for, those subsidiary issues were unnecessary if the view above expressed be correct. As Baron has demonstrated, it was not the usual practice to introduce any words explanatory of the ground of indebtedness when the action was either for money (other than pecunia credita) or for a thing or quantity of things. It might be loan, or bequest, or sale, or purchase, or delict, or unjustifiable enrichment, or any of a hundred causae; it would have to be stated of course before the judge; but in the initial stage before the praetor and in the issue all that was necessary was the averment that the defendant was owing such a sum of money or such a thing. It was for the judge to determine whether or not the averment was established and, in certain cases, that non-delivery was due to the fault of the defendant; the plaintiff, however, was bound to make his averment good to the letter of his claim. In the event of the plaintiff being successful in an action for certa pecunia, but delay was made by the defendant in satisfying the judgment, execution followed in ordinary form. How the matter was arranged in an action on the Calpurnian law for a certa res is not so obvious. What the plaintiff wanted was specific delivery or damages, and by some the opinion is entertained that he formulated Jiis claim alternatively. Of this there is no evidence; and Gaius's statement that under the system of the legis actiones condemnation was always in the ipsa res, i.e. the specific * , n& .^^ f°r'. 'eads to the assumption that a judgment for the plaintiff, on which specific implement failed, must have been followed by an arbitrium liti aestimandae for assessment of the damages in money, and that execution proceeded thereon as if the judgment had been for a sum of money in the first instance. The general opinion, however, is that the judge to whom the issue was remitted JUS CIVILE] ROMAN LAW 55 Pfer mattus Injec- tlonem. assessed the damages himself and as a matter of course — that the instruction to him was quanti res erit, tantam pecuniam condemnato. The Legis Actio per Manus Injectionem.1 — This "action of the law " was ordinarily employed as a means of execution against the body of a judgment-debtor or one who had confessed liability in the first stage of a process. But, in certain cases, it is conjectured, it was thought proper that a creditor should have a more summary remedy than was afforded by a sacramental action or one per judicis postulalionem, and he was allowed to apprehend his debtor without any antecedent judgment or confession; in which cases, if the debtor disputed liability, the question could be tried only in proceedings at his instance, or sometimes at that of a third party on his behalf, for a stay of execution. It will simplify matters, however, to confine our attention to it in the meantime as a means of execution against the body of a judgment-debtor. Gaius's description of it is very general; for details we are indebted principally to the Nodes Alticae of Aulus Gellius, in an account which he gives (put into the mouth of Caecilius Africanus, a well-known jurist of about the same time as Gaius, and a contemporary of his own) of the provisions of the XII. Tables in reference to it. Africanus is made to say that accord- ing to his belief (opinor) the words of the statute were these: " For admitted money debts and in causes that have been regularly determined by judgment (aeris confessi rebusque jure judicatis) there shall be thirty days' grace. After that there may be manus i/ijectio. The apprehending creditor shall then bring his debtor before the magistrate. If he still fail to satisfy the judgment, and no vindex come forward to relieve him, his creditor may carry him home and put him in chains. He may live at his own cost; if not, his creditor must give him daily a pound of spelt, or more if he please." Africanus continues narrative: " There was still room for the parties to come to terms; but, if they did not, the debtor was kept in chains for sixty days. Towards the end of that time he was brought before the praetor in the comitium on three consecutive market-days, and the amount of the judgment-debt proclaimed on each occa- sion. After the third proclamation capite poenas dabat " — what these words mean will be considered in the sequel — " or else he was sent across the Tiber to be sold to a foreigner. And this capital penalty, sanctioned in the hope of deterring men from unfaithfulness to their engagements, was one to be dreaded because of its atrocity and of the new terrors with which the decemvirs thought proper to invest it. For, if it was to more creditors than one that the debtor had been adjudged, they might, if they pleased, cut up and divide his body. Here are the words of the statute — ' Tertiis nundinis partis secanlo. Si plus minusve secuerunt, se fraude esto.' " Such is Gellius's account of the provisions of the XII. Tables in reference to this legis actio, and he is to a considerable extent corroborated by Quintilian, Tertullian and Dio Cassius. But it is to be borne in mind that he does not vouch for its accuracy; the Tables were already in his time matter of antiquity, and even the jurists knew little about them beyond what was still in observ- ance. That he has reproduced them only partially seems almost beyond question; for in another chapter he himself quotes a couple of sentences that are to all appearance from the same context. We have to face, therefore, the extreme probability that the record is incomplete and the possibility besides that it is not literally accurate. There is room for error, consequently, in two directions; but the nature and effect of the procedure in its main features may be gathered from the texts as they stand with reasonable certainty. It was competent only after thirty days from the date of judg- ment or confession.2 It was apprehension of the debtor by the 1 To the literature on p. 548, note I, may be added Huschke, Nexum (1846), pp. 79 seq.; Savigny, " Das altrom. Schuldrecht," in his Verm. Schriften (1850), ii. 396 seq.; Hoffmann, Die Forcten u. Sanaten, nebst Anhang liber d. altrom. Schuldrecht (Vienna, 1866), pp. 54 seq. ; Vainberg, Le nexum et la contrainle par corps en droit Rom. (Paris, 1874), pp. 36 seq.; Voigt, XII. Tafeln, vol. i. §§ 63-65; Jhering (as on p. 548), pp. 196 seq., 232 seq.; Cuq, Institu- tions juridiques, 2nd ed. i. 141 seq.; Schlossmann, Altromisches Schuldrecht (1904); Kleineidam, Personalexekution der XII. Tafeln (1904). 1 In his Historical Introduction, 2nd ed. pp. 192-193, Muirhead maintains that the " aeris confessi " of the Tables refers to nexal creditor himself, — in its first stage, at least, an act of pure self-help. The debtor had at once to be brought before the magistrate, in order that his creditor might solemnly go through the required formalities before he could carry him away and provisionally confine him in the domestic lock-up. It was this appearance before the magistrate that made it a legis actio. Such a course, however, was avoided either (i) by instant payment or other implement of the judgment or arrangement with the creditor, or (2) by the inter- vention of a vindex or champion. The position taken by the latter was not that either of a surety or of an attorney for the judicatus demanding a rehearing of the case: he appeared rather as a con- troverter in his own name of the right of the creditor to proceed further with his execution, on the ground that the judgment was invalid. This might necessitate an action between the vindex and the creditor, in which the former was plaintiff, but to which the debtor was not a party. If it failed, then the vindex was liable for double the amount of the original debt, as a penalty on him for having improperly interfered with the course of justice; his inter- ference was treated as a delict, but on payment he had presumably relief against the original debtor who had been liberated through his intervention. Failing a vindex and failing payment, the creditor took his debtor home and incarcerated him, dealing with him for sixty days in the manner above described. On their expiry, without any arrangement, there was a magisterial decree (addictio) awarding the debtor to his creditor. What right did this addictio confer upon the creditor? The debtor, says Gellius, " capite poenas dabat," which he interprets as meaning that his creditor might put him to death, the alterna- tive being his sale as a slave beyond the Tiber. There is, however, a diversity of opinion among the modern writers as to the true meaning of these words. While some hold, and rightly it is thought, that the Gellian interpretation is correct, others object to it as extravagant. It is objected to by Muirhead on the ground, inter alia, of its incredible severity in the case of petty debtocs. He holds that capite poenas dabat meant simply that the debtor " paid the penalty with his person," _in contradistinction to " his means." Caput is thus merely used in opposition to bona. Even more numerous are the writers who object to Gellius's statement that the body of the addictus when killed might be cut in pieces where there were several creditors. They hold that the words partis secanto of the Tables referred not to the body but to the belongings of the debtor, — that when there were concurrent creditors they shared his familia amongst them.8 But these views are, it is thought, somewhat fanciful refinements. Poena capitis always implies either death, slavery or deprivation of citizenship; there is nothing more astonish- ing in a creditor's right to kill his debtor than in a father's right to kill his child; and comparative law gives many instances, of a parallel kind, of the harshness of primitive law to defaulting debtors. The partis secanto was probably a relic of earlier times, and Gellius admits that he never heard or read of a dissection having taken place. The cruelties and indignities to which creditors subjected both their judgment and nexal debtors led, as above noticed, to many a commotion in the first two centuries of the Republic. The latter were probably much more numerous than thejudicati, and, being in great part the victims of innocent misfortune, it was the sufferings they endured at the hands of relentless creditors that so often roused the sympathies and indignation of the populace. But the judgment-debtors had suffered along with them; and some of the provisions of the Poetilian law of 326 B.C., already mentioned, were meant to protect the former against the needless and unjustifiable severity that had characterized their treatment by their creditors. The manus injectio itself was not abolished, nor the possible intervention of a vindex ; neither were the domum duetto that followed, and the provisional imprisonment with the light chains, authorized by the Tables while it lasted; nor apparently was the formal addictio of the debtor to his creditor when the sixty days had expired without arrangement. But after addiction, if it was for nothing more than civil debt, there were to be no more dungeons and stripes, fetters and foot-blocks; the creditor was to treat his debtor and his industry as a source of profit that would in time diminish and possibly extinguish his indebted- ness, rather than as an object upon which he might perpetrate any cruelty by way of punishment. Although the edict of P. Rutilius of 107 B.C. provided a creditor with machinery for debtors, but this view has, it is thought, insurmountable objections to overcome. ' For a fuller explanation, see Muirhead, Hist. Introduction, 2nd ed. pp. 198 seq., and authorities there cited. See also Kleineidam, Personalexekution, pp. 235 seq. Lenel must be added to those writers who think that " partis secanto," &c., refers to the goods of the debtor (Zeitschr. d. Sat. Stift. xxvi. pp. 507-509). 552 ROMAN LAW [JUS CIVILE attaching the estate of his debtor, he had still the alternative of incarceration. This might be avoided under the Julian law of cessio bonorum by the debtor's making a complete surrender of his goods to his creditor; but, failing such surrender, incarceration continued to be resorted to even under the legis- lation of Justinian. During the Empire, of course, it was not by manus injectio that the incarceration was affected; for it went out of use with the definitive establishment of the formular system of procedure. It was as directed against judgment and nexal debtors that manus injectio was of most importance and chiefly made its mark in history. But there were other cases in which it was resorted to under special statutory authority, where a remedy seemed advisable more sharp and summary than that by ordinary action. In some of these it was spoken of as manus injectio pro judicato (i.e. as if upon a judgment), in others as simple manus injectio (manus injectio pura). In the first the arrestee was not allowed to dispute his alleged indebtedness in person; he could do so only through a vindex; and if no one intervened for him in that character he was carried off and dealt with by his arresting creditor as if a judgment had been obtained against him. In the second he was not required to find a vindex, but might himself dispute the verity of the charge made against him, under penalty, however, as is generally supposed (though it is disputed), of a duplication of his liability if he failed in his contention. By a lex Valha, probably in the latter half of the 6th century of the city, this manus injectio pura was substituted for that pro judicato in all cases in which the ground of arrest was neither judgment nor so-called depensum, i.e. payment by a surety or other party on account of the true debtor, who failed to relieve the former within six months of such payment.1 The Legis Actio per Pignoris Capionem? — In the ritual of the actio sacramenti the vis civilis et festucaria was a reminiscence Pg,. of the vera solida vis with which men settled their pigooris disputes about property in the earliest infancy of the <*/>'• commonwealth. Manus injectio was a survival from times when the wronged was held entitled to lay hands upon the wrongdoer, and himself subject him to punishment; custom and legislation intervened merely to regulate the condi- tions and mode of exercise of what essentially was still self-help. In pignoris capio self-help was likewise the dominant idea. It may be fairly enough described by the English legal term distress — the taking by one man of property belonging to another in satisfaction of or in security for a debt due by the latter which he had failed to pay. The seizure, however, did not proceed upon any judgment, nor did it require the warrant of a magistrate; it might be resorted to even in the absence of the debtor, and on a dies nefastus; but it required to be accompanied by certain words of style, spoken probably in the presence of witnesses. It was only in a few exceptional cases that it was competent, in some by force of custom, in others by statute, nearly all of which seem to be given by Gaius,3 and all of them being of a military, religious or fiscal character. What was the procedure, and what its effects, are far from certain. Jhering, founding on some expressions of Cicero's, conjectures that, whether the debt was disputed or not, the distrainer could neither destroy nor sell nor definitely appropriate his pignws without magisterial authority, — that in every case he was bound to institute proceedings in justifica- tion of his caption, and to take in them the position of plaintiff. The idea is ingenious, and puts the pignoris capio in a new and interesting light. It makes it a summary means of raising a question of right for whose judicial arbitrament no other process of law was open, — with the additional advantage that it secured instant satisfaction to the raiser of it in the event of the question being determined in his favour. If against him, the inevitable result, in substance at least, must ha,ve been a judgment that he had no right to retain his pledge, with probably a finding 1 On manus injectio pro judicato and pura, see Gaius, iv. 22-25. 'To the literature on p. 548, note i, add Degenkolb, Die Lex Hieronica (Berlin, 1861), pp. 95 seq.; Jhering, Geist d. ram. Rechts, vol. i. § nc; Voigt, XII. Tafeln, i. 502 seq.; Girard, Manuel, pp. 977 seq.; Wlassak, Processgesetze, i. 252 seq. For a compara- tive view, see Maine, Early Institutions, pp. 275 seq.; Jenks, Law and Politics in the Middle Ages, pp. 263 seq. 8 For a case not mentioned by Gaius, see Girard, Textes, 3rd ed. p. 122; Bruns, Fontes, 6th ed. p. 181. that he was further liable to its owner in the value of it, as a punishment for his precipitancy.4 Judicial or Quasi- Judicial Procedure outside the Legis Actiones. — Whatever may have been the extent of the field covered by the actions of the law, they did not altogether exclude other pL_,_rfl,_ judicial or quasi-judicial agencies. The supreme magis- trate was frequently called upon to intervene in matters brought under his cognizance by petition or complaint, in which his. aid was sought not so much to protect a vested right of property or claim as to maintain public order, or to prevent the occurrence or continuance of a state of matters that might prove prejudicial to family or individual interests. The process was not an action, with its stages in jure and in judicio, but an inquiry (cognitio) conducted from first to last by the magis- trate himself; and his finding, unless it was a dismissal of the complaint or petition, was embodied in an order (decretum, inter- dictum) which it was for him to enforce by such means as he thought fit, — manu militari, or by fine or imprisonment. Some jurists are disposed to give a very wide range to this magisterial inter- vention. One of its most important manifestations was in con- nexion with disputes about the occupancy of the public dom-ain lands. These did not belong in property to the occupants, so that an action founded on ownership was out of the question. But, as the occupancy was not only recognized but sanctioned by the state, it was right, indeed necessary in the interest of public order, that it should be protected against disturbance. In the measures resorted to for its protection Niebuhr recognized the origin of the famous possessory interdict uti possidetis; and, although opinions differ as to whether protection of the better right or prevention of a breach of the peace was what primarily influenced the magis- trate's intervention, there is, apart from .some distinguished ex- ceptions, a pretty general accord in accepting this view. Another illustration of this magisterial intervention is to be found in the interdiction of a spendthrift, — a decree depriving of his power of administration a man who was squandering his family estate and reducing his children to penury; a third presents itself in the removal of a tutor from office on the ground of negligence or mal- administration, on complaint made to the magistrate by any third party in what was called postulatio suspecti tutoris; and a fourth in the putting of a creditor in possession of the goods of an insolvent debtor, which must have been common enough even before the general bankruptcy regulations of the Rutilian edict. These are to be taken merely as examples of this magisterial intervention, which manifested itself in very various directions; and it is easy to see how largely such procedure might be utilized for remedying the grievances of persons who, from defect of complete legal title, want of statutory authority, or otherwise, were not in a position to avail themselves of the " actions of the law." In one of the Valerio-Horatian laws consequent on the second secession of the plebeians there was mention of ten judges (judices decemviri), whose persons were declared as inviolable as those of the tribunes of the people and the plebeian aediles. These were, it is generally supposed, a body of judges elected to officiate on remit from a tribune or aedile in questions arising between members of the plebeian body. We are without details as to the institution of this plebeian judicatory, the questions that fell under its cog- nizance, the forms of process employed, the law administered by it and the effect of its judgments. It is not much referred to by the historians; and its decadence has been attributed to the fact that the Lex Hortensia of 287 B.C. made the nundinae lawful court-days (dies fasti), and so made it possible for the country folk coming to the city to market to carry on their processes before the praetor. It has also been identified by some writers6 with the decemviri stlitibus judicandis, whose jurisdiction has been already noticed (supra, p. 536). As all in a manner exercising judicial or quasi-judicial functions must also be mentioned the pontiffs, the consuls, and afterwards the censors as magistri morum, the chiefs of the gentes within the gentile corporations, and heads of families within their households. While it may be the fact that with the enactment of the XII. Tables the jurisdiction of the pontiffs6 was materially narrowed, 4 Cf. Gaius, iv. § 32. This would be according to the spirit of the early system, which endeavoured to check reckless or unfounded litigation by penalities, — e.g. forfeiture of the summa sacramenti and duplication of the value of unrestored property and profits in the sacramental procedure; duplication of the value of the cause when judgment was against the defendant in an action upon an engagement embodied in a lex mancipii or lex nexi; dupli- cation against a vindex who interfered ineffectually in manus injectio against a judgment-debtor; duplication against an heir who refused without^'udicial compulsitor to pay a legacy bequeathed per damnationem; the addition of one-third more by way of penalty where a debtor was found liable in an actio certae creditae pecuniae (Gai. iv. 171), &c. 6 See Voigt, Rom. Rechtsgeschicnte, i. Beilage i.; contra, Wlassak, Processgesetze, i. 144 seq. 6 See Cauvet, Le droit pontifical chez les anciens Romains (Caen, 1869) ; Bouche-Leclerq, Les pontijes de Vancienne Rome (Paris, 1871) ; Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwalt. lii. 290 seq. JUS GENTIUM] ROMAN LAW 553 it certainly did not disappear, — witness the famous case in which Cicero mad*" before them the oration of which he was so proud, Pro domo sua. The action of the consuls and afterwards of the censors as guardians of public morals, and the social and political disqualifications and pecuniary penalties with which they visited persons who had been guilty of perjury or gross perfidy, did not a little to foster fidelity to engagements. Through the same agency the exercise of a variety of rights whose abuse could not be made matter of action — the husband's power over his wife, the father's over his children — was controlled and kept within bounds. It was not on light grounds, indeed, that the majesty of the pater- familias within the household could be called in question; it was only when he forgot that in the exercise of serious discipline within his family he was bound to act judicially. For he also was a judge — judex domesticus, as he is often called, though in all cases of gravity he was required to invoke the advice of his kinsfolk in a family council. On him lay the duty of controlling his family; if he failed to do so he was himself in danger of censorial animad- version.1 Between citizens and foreigners with whom Rome was in alliance by a treaty (temporary or permanent) conferring reciprocal rights Reel- °^ ac!;ion, the proceedings took the form known as reci- peratlo peratio or recuperatio? The action was probably always raised in the forum contractus. According to the common opinion the magistrate ordinarily presiding there heard what parties had to say in plaint and defence, and then put into a simple formula the points of fact arising on them, authorizing the recuperators to whom the matter was remitted to find for plaintiff or defendant according to circumstances. The recuperators were generally three, sometimes five, sometimes perhaps still more numerous, but always in odd number; but whether the nationality of both parties required to be represented we are not told. Expedition being in most cases a matter of importance, recuperators were required to give judgment within ten days, and the number of witnesses was usually limited to ten. How execution proceeded upon it, if it were for the plaintiff, does not clearly appear; Voigt, founding on a few words in Festus, concludes it must have been by something like pignoris capio. This recuperatory procedure in time came to be resorted to in processes de libertate and even in some litigations where both parties were citizens. There are numerous instances of the latter in Cicero; and it is remarkable that in the praetorian actions ex delicto the remit was usually not to a judex but to recuperators. The explanation may be in the com- parative summariness of the remedy. III. THE Jus GENTIUM AND Jus HONORARIUM (Latter half of the Republic.) i. Influences thai operated on the Law. Growth of Commerce and Influx of Foreigners. — While it may be admitted that commerce was beginning to take root in influx Rome in the 5th century, yet it was not until the ottor- 6th that it really became of importance. The cam- eigners. paigns in which Rome was engaged until the end of the First Punic War absorbed all its energies. But after that time the influx of strangers, and their settlement in the city for purposes of trade, became very rapid- — not only of Latins and other allies, but Greeks, Carthaginians and Asiatics. To them and the regulation of their affairs the jus civile — the law peculiar to Rome and its citizens — was applic- able only if they were members of allied states to which com- mercium and recuperalio were guaranteed by treaty. But many were not in this favoured position; and even those who were soon found the range of Roman modes of acquiring pro- perty and contracting obligations too narrow for their require- ments. Hence a jus gentium was gradually developed 3 which very early in its history drove treaty covenants for recuperatio out of use; its application may for a time have been limited to transactions between non-citizens or between citizens and non-citizens, but it was eventually accepted in the dealings of citizens inter se and became part and parcel of the jus 1 On Judex domesticus, see Greenidge, Legal Procedure in Cicero's Time, pp. 376 seq. 2 See Sell, Die recuperatio der Romer (Brunswick, 1837); Huschke (rev. Sell), in Richter's Krit. Jahrbiicher, i. (1837), 868-911; Voigt, Jus naturale, &c., ii. §§ 28-32; Karlowa, Rom. Civilprocsss, pp. 21.8-230; Girard, Organisation judiciaire • des remains (1901), i. 97 seq. 3 On the Roman jus gentium, see Voigt, Das jus naturale. aequum et bonum, und jus gentium, d. Romer (4 vols., Leipzig, 1856- 18753; Nettleship, in the Journal of Philology, (1885), xiii. 169 seq.; Kriiger, Gesch. d. Quelkn, §§ 16, 17; Mommsen, Staatsrecht, iii. 604 n. Romanorum. Gaius and Justinian speak of it as " the common law of mankind," " the law in use among all nations "; but the language must not be taken too literally. The Roman jus gentium was not built up by the adoption of one doctrine or institution after another that was found to be generally current elsewhere. In the earliest stages of its recognition it was " an independent international private law, which, as such, regulated intercourse between peregrins or between peregrins and citizens on the basis of their common libertas "; 4 during the Republic it was purely empirical and free from the influence of scientific theory, but its extensions in the early Empire were a creation of the jurists — a combination ot comparative juris- prudence and rational speculation. To say that it was de facto in observance everywhere is inaccurate; on the contrary, it was Roman law, built up by Roman jurists, though called into existence through the necessities of intercourse with and among non-Romans. It may be a little difficult for a modern jurist to say with perfect precision what were the doctrines and institutions of the jus gentium as distinguished from the jus civile. But the distinction was quite familiar to the Romans, as witness, for example, the statement of Marcian, in reference to the AiroXt&s, that they enjoyed all the rights competent to a man under the former, but none of those competent to him under the latter. Institution of the Peregrin Praetorship. — The praetorship,* as already mentioned, was an outcome of the Licinian laws of the year 367 B.C. (see PRAETOR). Down to the end of the The 5th century of the city the praetor so appointed super- ptngrta intended single-handed the administration of justice, praetor. alike between citizens and foreigners. But with the altered condition of things in the beginning of the 6th century, and the influx of strangers which has already been alluded to, the work seems to have been found ^too onerous for a single magistrate, and a second praetor was created. The date is generally assumed to have been about the year 242 B.C.; Pomponius says distinctly that the creation of the new office was rendered necessary by the increase of the peregrin population of Rome, and that the new magistrate got the name of praetor peregrinus because his principal duty was to dispense justice to this foreign element. After the submission of Sicily and Sardinia the number of the praetors was increased to four and after the conquest of Spain to six; Sulla raised the number to eight, and Caesar eventually to sixteen. But all the later creations were for special purposes; the ordinary administration of justice within the city was left with the representatives for the time of the two earliest, who came to be usually distinguished as praetor qui inter cives jus dicit (or urbanus) and praetor qui inter cives et peregrines jus dicit (or peregrinus). It would be going too far to speak of the latter as the principal author of the jus gentium; for a large proportion of the actions for en- forcing jus gentium rights were civil, not honorary — a fact which proves that the rights they were meant to protect and enforce had their origin in the jus civile, although moulded to meet new requirements by tacit consuetude and the agency of the jurists. But even in this view the peregrin praetor must have had a powerful influence in giving shape and con- sistency to the rising jursiprudence, by means of the formulae he adjusted for giving it practical effect. Simplification of Procedure and Introduction of New Remedies under the Aebutian Law. — The lex Aebutia is only twice mentioned by ancient writers (once by Aulus Gellius and once by Gaius), Dttorms and we know neither its precise date nor its specific pro- ofAebu- visions. And yet, to judge by its effects, it must have ^. . been one of the most important pieces of legislation in the latter half of the Republic, for Gellius speaks of it as having given the death-blow to many of the institutions of the XII. Tables, and Gaius couples it with two Julian laws of the time of Augustus as 4 Voigt, Jus nat. ii. 661. He distinguishes the jus civile, jus gentium and jus naturale as the systems whTch applied respectively to the citizen, the freeman and the man. 6 See Labatut, Histoire de la Prlture (Paris, 1868) ; Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 176 seq.; Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgeschichte, i. 217 seq. ; Girard, Organisation judiciaire, i. 160 seq., and on the peregrin praetorship in particular, pp. 206 seq. 554 ROMAN LAW [JUS GENTIUM AND the statutory instrument whereby the formular system of procedure was substituted for that per legis actiones. Its date was probably about the end of the 6th or beginning of the yth century of the city. Girard, who has examined the question with great care, places it in the first third of the 7th century,1 and, though his reasoning is not quite conclusive, it largely refutes the arguments of older writers, who in many cases put the date a century and more earlier. It is the opinion of Wlassak2 that it was a piece of tentative legislation, and that as regards citizens it in no wise abolished the actions of the law but merely made the formulary procedure alternative to them, according as the praetor, on the representation of the parties, might determine in each case; formulae, in his view, being first made compulsory, subject to a few exceptions, by the Julian laws. This is a probable theory and is now adopted by many recent writers. The main purpose of the statute seems to have been to empower the urban praetors to adapt existing remedies to altered circumstances, and inter alia to fashion new actions on the jus civile for the use of the peregrins, to whom the legis actiones were rarely, if at all, available. But, whatever may have been its actual provisions, the result was the adoption of a procedure which gradually supplanted that by the actions of the law, which was much more pliant than the latter, and whose characteristic was this — that, instead of the issue being declared by word of mouth by the parties, and requiring as a rule to embody with perfect accuracy the statutory provision on which it was based, it was formulated in writing under the direc- tion of the praetor, in the shape of an instruction to the judge to inquire into the merits of the dispute, with power to condemn or acquit according to his finding. A statute was necessary for accom- plishing such an innovation, not only because the existing procedure was directly prescribed by statute, but also among other reasons because the legis actiones were favourites of the pontifical colleges (being often profitable to them), and any attempt by the magistrates to dispense with them would have been opposed by these powerful bodies. It is now the dominant opinion among modern writers, and it seems based on reasoning which cannot be gainsaid, that even prior to the lex Aebutia written formulae were employed in practice, particularly if not exclusively in the peregrin praetor's court, and that one of the objects of the statute was to legalize similar procedure in civil actions.3 All such formulae granted by the peregrin praetor must of course have been in factum conceptae. Unless we hold this view it is difficult to see by what means the rights and obliga- tions of peregrins in their transactions inter se or with citizens could have been enforced, as civil actions, save perhaps in excep- tional cases where by treaty they enjoyed jus commercii, were not open to them. Written instructions to the recuperators or other judges for trying suits in which a peregrin was a party would be a practical necessity, for these judges would have to decide according to jus gentium, whose rules would probably be strange to them, and their instructions would therefore have to be precise and definite. Verbal instructions would have led to miscarriages of justice. From this point of view we can see how the peregrin praetor became the primary organ in developing jus gentium. But there is some reason for holding that the urban praetor had also, before the Aebutian law, occasionally exercised his imperium by granting actions in factum, and in this way perhaps enforced a number of contracts and other obligations in which elements of equity and good faith were present and which the jus civile left remediless. Actions of this kind among cives would be in the nature of arbitria accepted voluntarily by the parties. The latter view certainly explains several apparent anomalies in the later law, for which no other good explanation can be found, as, for instance, the fact that in deposit and commodate actions in factum as well as in jus might be brought. Also the actio in factum for enforcing a con- tract of fiducia can in this way be explained. It also serves to throw light upon the development of some of the bonae fidei contracts.4 Provincial Conquests. — The growth of commerce and the enormous increase of wealth, which made great capitalists and enabled them through the agency of freedmen and slaves to carry on trade on a scale hitherto unknown, and which thus helped to foster t'?e-7J" gentium, were no doubt due to a large extent to pro- vincial conquests. But these operated also in other direc- tions.Theofficials who proceeded to theconquered provinces as governors found themselves face to face with la wsand institutions in many respects differing from those of Rome. Political considerations dictated how far these were to be respected, how far subverted. In 'Girard, Ztsch. d. Sav. Stift. xiv. 11-54 and xxix. 113 seq.; Manuel, 4th ed. p. 993; cf. Mitteis, Rom. Privatrecht (1908), p. 52 n. ; and Wlassak, Z. d. Sav. Slift. xxv. 81 seq. and xxviii. I seq. 1 Wlassak, Rom. Processgesetze (1888), i. pp. 62-73, PP- 85 seq. and pp. 103-139. * See Sohm, Inslilulionen, Ledlie's translation (and ed.), pp. 69, 80; Wlassak, Processgesetze, ii. 304 seq.; Cuq, Institutions jurid. (2nd ed.) i. 285-286. 4 These points are well stated by Mitteis, Ro'm. Privatrecht (1908), pp. 39 seq. ; see authorities cited by him in note 2, p. 39. Contra, Girard, Z. d. Sav. Stift. xxix. 154-158. '* of Pd* I "i provinces, more especially the Eastern ones, it was thought unnecessary to do more than supplement the existing system by the importation of doctrines of the jus gentium and the procedure of the praetor's edicts; while in others, in which it was deemed ex- pedient to destroy as rapidly as possible all national feeling and every national rallying point, a Romanizing of all their institutions was resorted to, even to the extent of introducing some of the formal transactions which previously had been confined to citizens. But in either case there was a reflex action. The native institution had to be studied, its advantages and disadvantages balanced, the means considered of adapting it to the praetorian procedure, and the new ideas so presented as to make them harmonize as far as possible with the old. All this was a training of no small value for those who, on their return to Rome, were to exercise an influence on legislation and the administration of the law. They brought back with them not merely an experience they could not have obtained at home, but sometimes a familiarity with foreign institutions that they were very willing to acclimatize in Italy. Rome thus enriched its law from the provinces, deriving from them its emphyteutic tenure of land, its hypothec, its Rhodian law of general average and a variety of other features that were altogether novel. They were sanctioned by tacit recognition, by edicts of the praetors and in other ways; but, in whatever way received, they were indirectly fruits of provincial conquest. Spread of Literature and Philosophy. — The effect on Roman civilization of the addiction of educated men in the later Republic to literature and philosophy is a matter for consideration . _ in connexion with Rome's general history. It is not nf nt""- proposed to consider here the question how far specific »'"«. but by strides — in that of obligations arising from contract, of those arising from delict, and of those arising from facts and cir- cumstances, such as unjustifiable enrichment at another person's cost.3 The law of suretyship, in its three forms of sponsio,fide- promissio, and fidejussio, received considerable attention, and formed the subject of a series of legislative enactments for limiting a surety's liability ; while that of agency, which was sparingly ad- mitted in Rome, had a valuable contribution from the praetorian edict in the recognition of a man's liability, more or less qualified, for the contractual debts of his filiifamilias and slaves, as also, and without qualification, for the debts properly contracted of persons, whether domestically subject to him or not, who were managing a business on his account, or whom he had placed in charge of a ship belonging to him. The development of the law in the matter of obligations generally was greatly facilitated by the praetorian simplification of procedure and the introduction of new forms of actions — the instruction to a judge, " Whatever in respect thereof the defendant ought to give to or do for the plaintiff, in that condemn him," preceded by a statement of the cause of action, giving wide scope for the recognition of new sources of liability. The origin of the verbal contract of stipulation and its action- ability under the Silian and Calpurnian laws have already been explained. It was theoretically a formal contract, i.e. creative of obligation on the strength of the formal ques- tion and answer interchanged by the parties, even though no substantial ground of debt might underlie it; but in time it became the practice to introduce words — the single word recte was enough — excluding liability in case of malpractice (clausula doli) ; and finally even that became unnecessary when the praetors had introduced the general exceptio doli, pleadable as an equitable defence to any personal action. And it was essentially productive only of unilateral obligation, i.e. the respondent in the interrogatory alone incurred liability; if mutual obligations were intended it was necessary that each should promise for his own part, with the result that two contracts were executed which were perfectly inde- pendent. Originally the only words that could be employed were spondesf on the one side, spondeo on the other; and in this form the contract was juris civilis and competent only to citizens (and non- citizens enjoying commercium?). In time the words promittisl promitto, came to be used alternatively. They were, eventually at least, competent to peregrins as well as to citizens, although that may not have been until the stipulation had become of daily use ampn?st the former in the still simpler phraseology dabist dabo, faciesf faciam. Originally competent only for the creation of an obligation to pay a definite sum of money, and afterwards one for delivery of a specific thing other than money, the contract came in time, by the simplification of the words of interrogatory and response and especially by the substitution of the conditions of the formular system for the legis actiones of the Silian and Cal- purnian laws, and the introduction of the actio ex slipulatu to meet cases of indefinite promise — to be adaptable to any sort of unilateral engagement, whether initiated by it or only confirmed. It was of immense service too outside the ordinary range of contract in what were called necessary (in contradistinction to voluntary) stipula- tions, of which a variety of illustrations are given infra, p. 569. In all directions advantage was taken of it to bind a man by formal contract either to do or to refrain from doing what in many cases he might already be bound ipso jure to do or to abstain from doing, and that because of the simplicity of the remedy — an action on 8 See Bekker, Aktionen, i. c. 5-8, and App. D, E, F and vol. ii. c. 15, 16; Voigt, Jus naturale, &c., vol. iii. §§ 106-24, and vol. iv. App. xix., xxi. 3 Such obligations — usually imposing the duty of restitution of unjustifiable gains — filled a considerable space in the practice and doctrine of the period, and early gave rise to a variety of brocards, e.g. " Nemo cum alterius damno lucrari debet," " Nemo damnum sentire debet per lucrum alterius," &c. ROMAN LAW LJUS GENTIUM AND his stipulation — that would lie against him in the event of his failure. A second form of contract that came into use to a considerable extent in the latter half of the Republic is what is commonly called i iirr.il tne literal contract, or, as Gaius phrases it with greater contract, accuracy, the nomen transscripticium.1 Notwithstanding the prolific literature of which it has been the subject, it must be admitted that in many points our knowledge of it is incomplete and uncertain. The prevalent opinion, formed before the discovery of the Verona MS. had made known Gaius's description of it, and almost universally adhered to ever since, is that such contracts were created by entries in the account-books which the censors insisted that all citizens of any means should keep with scrupulous regularity. They are often alluded to by the lay writers; but the text principally relied on is what remains of Cicero's speech for the player Roscius. From the tenor of the argument in that case, and incidental remarks elsewhere, the conclusion has been formed that a citizen who made an entry in his codex — whether of the nature of a cash-book or a ledger is much disputed — to the debit of another, thereby made the latter his debtor for a sum recoverable by an actio certae creditae pecuniae. Gaius in his description of the contract does not mention the codices; but his account is not incon- sistent with the notion that the entries (nomina) of which he speaks were made in them. He says that those entries were of two sorts, nomina arcaria and nomina transscripticia. The former were entries of cash advances; and of them he observes that they did not create obligation, but only served as evidence of one already created by payment to and receipt of the money by the borrower. These entries were posted periodically (usually each month) from a day-book (adversaria), and there were distinct pages in the codex for what was thus paid out of the area (expensum) and what was paid in. Of the nomina transscripticia Gaius says that there were two varieties, the entry transcribed from thing to person and that transcribed from one person to another, and that both of them were not probative merely but creative of obligation. The first was effected by a creditor (A) entering to the credit of his debtor (B) the liquidated amount of what the latter was already owing as the price of something purchased, the rent of a house leased, the value of work done, or the like, and then on the opposite page of the codex debiting him with same sum as expensum. The second was effected by A transcribing B's debt in a similar way to the debit of a third party (C), hitherto a debtor of B's, and who consented to the transaction — A at the same time crediting B with the sum thus booked against C, and B in his books both crediting C with it (acceptilatio) and marking it as paid to A (ex- pensilatio). These nomina transscripticia were purely fictitious entries so far as any passing of money was concerned, though they had to be made by the direction (jussus) of the person made chargeable as debtor. Corresponding entries in the debtor's own codex, though usual, do not seem to have been necessary. All this at first sight seems just a series of book-keeping opera- tions. But it was much more than that for the Roman citizens who first had recourse to it. There was a time, as formerly stated, when sale, and lease and the like, so long as they stood on their own merits, created no obligation enforceable at law, however much it might be binding as a duty to Fides or (as moderns would say) in the forum of conscience; to found an action at law it required to be clothed in some form approved by the jus civile. The nexum may possibly have been one of those forms, the vendee or tenant being fictitiously dealt with as borrower of the price or rent due under his purchase or lease; the stipulation was another, the obliga- tion to pay the price or rent being made legally binding by its embodiment in formal question and answer. But stipulation was competent only between persons who were face to face, whereas expensilation was competent also as between persons at a distance from each other. This of itself gave expensilation — which, originally at least, was as much a negotium juris civilis as the sponsio — one advantage over stipulation. But it had also a further advantage, which was not affected by the subsequent recognition of the real and consensual contracts as productive of legal obligation on their own merits: it enabled subsequent tran- scription of debts from one person to another to be effected. This last must have been of infinite convenience in commerce, not only by enabling traders to dispense with a reserve of coin, but by obviating the risks attending the transit of money over long 1 Literature: Savigny, "Uber den Literalcontract der Romer " (originally 1816, with additions in 1849), in his Verm. Schriften, i. 205 seq.; Keller, in Sell's Jahrb. f. hist. u. dogm. Bearbeit. des rom. Rechts, i. (1841), 93 seq.; Gneist, Die formellen Vertrage d. rom. Rechts (Berlin, 1845), 321 seq.; Danz. Cesch. d. rom. Rechts, ii. 42 seq. (where there is a resumiS of the principal of the older theories); Buonamici, in the Archivio Giuridico, xvi. (1876), 3 seq.; Gide, Etudes sur la novation (Paris, 1879), 185, seq.; Voigt, " Uber die Bankiers," &c., in Abhandl. d. K. S. GesMschafl d. Wissenschaften (1887), x. 515 seq., and adverse review of this work by Niemeyer in Z. d. Sav. Stiff. (1890), xi. 312 seq.; Karlowa, Rom. R. G. ii. 746-57; Mitteis, Z. d. Sav. Stift. xix. 230 seq. distances. It was this that led, as Theophilus says was the case, to the conversion even of stipulatory obligations into book -debts; it was not that thereby the creditor obtained a tighter hold over his debtor, but that an obligation was obtained from him which in a sense was negotiable and therefore more valuable. But in other respects it was much more restricted than stipulation. Thus it only applied to money debts; it did not admit of conditions (though it did admit of a term) ; and it was never available to peregrins, though the Sabinians proposed that transcription a re in personam should be binding on them. The evolution of the four purely consensual contracts — sale, location, partnership and mandate — supplies matter for one of the most interesting chapters in the whole history of the law. Con_ But, as it is impossible in such an article as this to attempt sensual to mark the successive stages in the progress of all of them, contract*. we shall confine ourselves to sale. The others did not and could not follow identically the same course: location ran most nearly parallel with sale; but partnership and mandate, from their nature, not only started at a different point from the other two, but reached the same goal with them — that of becoming productive of obligation simply on the strength of consent interchanged by the parties — by paths that were sometimes far apart. Nevertheless, a sketch of the history of the origin of the contract of sale may be sufficient to indicate generally some of the milestones that were successively passed by all four.2 Going back as far as history carries us, we meet with it under the names of emplio and venditio, but meaning no more than barter; for emere originally signified simply "to take " or " acquire " contracts (occipere). Sheep and cattle (pecus, hence pecunio) may 0/sa/e. for a time have been a very usual article of exchange on one side, and then came raw metal weighed in the scales. But it was still exchange, instant delivery of goods on one side against simultaneous delivery of so many pounds weight of copper on the other. With the reforms of Servius Tullius, as we have seen, came the distinction between res mancipi and res nee mancipi, and with it a regulated mancipation of the former. It was still barter; but along with it arose an obligation on the part of the transferrer of the res mancipi to warrant the transferee against eviction — a warranty that was implied in the mancipation. Whether this rule obtained from the first or was the growth of custom it is impossible to say; but it is probable that it was the XII. Tables which fixed that the measure of the transferrer's liability to the transferee in the event of eviction should be double the amount of the price. Equally impossible is it to say when the practice arose of embodying declarations, assurances and so forth in the mancipation (leges mancipii), which were held binding on the strength of the negotium juris civilis in which they were clothed. They received statutory sanction in the Tables, in the words already referred to more than once — " cum nexum faciet mancipiumque, uti lingua nuncupassit, ita jusesto," which means in effect " whatever shall by word of mouth be declared by the parties in the course of a transaction per aes et libram in definition of its terms shall be law as between them." The substitution, by or soon after the decemvirs, of coined money, that was to be counted, for rough metal that had been weighed, converted the object of transfer on one side into price (pretium), as distinguished from article of purchase (merx) on the other; and sale thus became distinct from barter. In contemplation of the separa- tion of the mancipation and the price-paying, and the transition of the former into a merely imaginary sale, the decemvirs enacted that, mancipation notwithstanding, the property of what was sold should not pass to the purchaser until the price had been paid or security by sureties (vades) given for it to the vendor; and it was probably by the interpretation of the pontiffs that to this was added the rule — that until the price was paid no liability for eviction should attach to the transferrer (or auctor). The reason perhaps of the provision on this point in the XII. Tables was that a vendor who had mancipated or delivered a thing sold by him before receiving the price had no action to enforce payment of the latter; and in such circumstances it was thought but right to give him the opportunity of getting back the thing itself by a real action. It might be, however, that the price had been paid, and yet the vendor refused to mancipate. It was long, apparently, before the purchaser could in such a case compel him to do so. After the introduction of the legis actio per condictionem he (the purchaser) had undoubtedly the power to recover the money on the ground of the vendor's unjusti- fiable enrichment — that the latter had got it for a consideration which had failed (causa data, causa nan secuta) ; and it is possible that before that he had a similar remedy per judicis postulationem or by an action in factum. Down to this point, therefore, say the beginning of the 6th century, there were several obligations consequent on sale of a res mancipi; but not one- of them arose directly out of the sale itself, 2 The literature on the history of the contract of sale is profuse, but mostly scattered in periodicals and much of it fragmentary. It may be enough to refer to Bechmann, Der Kauf nach Gemeinem Recht (3 vols., 1876, 1884 and 1905); Karlowa, Rom. R. G. v. pp. 611-32; Girard, Nouv. Rev. historique (1883), pp. 539 seq., and in his Manuel, 4th ed. pp. 533 seq. JUS HONORARIUM] ROMAN LAW 559 or could be enforced simply on the ground that it had taken place. The vendor was bound to support the purchaser in any action by a third party disputing his right, and to repay him the price twofold in the event of that third party's success; and he was bound, moreover, to make good to him any loss he had sustained through a deficiency of acreage he had guaranteed, non-existence of servi- tudes he had declared the lands enjoyed, existence of others from which he had stated they were free,1 incapability of a slave for labour for which he was vouched fit, and so on. But breaches of those obligations were probably all regarded as of a delictual char- acter; the obligations were binding, not in virtue of the sale per se, but of the transaction per aes et libram superinduced upon it; and, if the vendor had at any time to return the price on failure to manci- pate what he had sold, it was not because he had committed a breach of contract, but because he had unjustly enriched himself at the purchaser's expense. In sales of res nee mancipi, just as in those of res mancipi, a vendor who had been incautious enough to deliver his wares before he had been paid, or had got stipulatory security for the price, or had converted it into a book-debt, might recover them bv a real action if payment was unduly delayed ; while the purchaser who had paid in advance but failed to get delivery might also get back his money from the vendor on the plea of unwarrantable enrichment. But, as mancipation was, as is generally supposed, incompetent for carrying the property, some other machinery had to be resorted to than that of the copper and the scales for imposing upon the vendor an obligation of warranty against eviction, defects and so forth. What it was is a question much controverted among modern writers. It may be that, until trade began to assume considerable pro- portions, and when a transaction was between citizens, a purchaser was content to rely partly on the honesty of his vendor, partly on the latter's knowledge that he ran the risk of an action for theft if what he sold belonged to another,2 and partly on the maxim common in all ages and climes, caveat emptor. When it was one between a citizen and a peregrin, a different set of rules of course came into operation; for between them disputes were settled by actions in factum before recuperators, whose decisions were arrived at very much on considerations of natural equity. On the whole, while admitting it to be quite maintainable that the urban praetors, under the influence of jus gentium, granted arbitria for enforcing obligations of parties in sales inter cives even a good while prior to the lex Acbutia, the balance of evidence, we think, is in favour of the view that it was the popularization of the stipulation that facilitated the development of sale into a bonaefidei contract. We read of a satisdatio secundum mancipium, a stipulatio habere licere and a stipulatio duplae. The nature of the first is obscure; it seems to have been connected with mancipatory sales, and probably to have been the guarantee of a sponsor for the liabilities imposed upon the vendor by the transaction per aes et libram and the verba nuncupata that were covered by it.3 The stipulation habere licere occurs in Varro, in a collection of styles of sales of sheep, cattle, &c., some of which he says were abridgments of those of M. Manilius, who was consul in the year 149 B.C. It was the guarantee of the vendor of a res nee mancipi, or even occasionally of a res mancipi sold without mancipation, that the purchaser should be maintained in possession of what he had bought; it entitled him to reparation on eviction, measured not by any fixed standard but according to the loss he had sustained. It cannot have been introduced, therefore, until after the Lex Aebuiia and the formulation by the praetor of the aclio ex stipulalu. The stipulatio duplae was one binding the vendor for double the price in case of eviction, and was entered into not only where no mancipation of a res mancipi took place or one which might be challengeable for invalidity, but also where valuable res nee mancipi were sold. The idea of the stipulatio duplae may have been borrowed from the duplum incurred by a vendor on the eviction of a purchaser acquiring a thing by mancipation ; for one of its earliest manifestations was in the edict of the curule aediles, who insisted on it from persons selling slaves, probably because the dealers were for the most part foreigners, and therefore unable to complete their sales per aes et libram. Judging from Varro, it was a form of stipulation against eviction that in his time was used only in sales of slaves, although he adds that by agreement of parties it might be limited to a simplum. There were also stipulations against vices in the object sold. We learn from Varro — what is also indicated in various passages of Plautus — that the vendor at the same time and in the body of the same slipulatio duplae guaranteed that the sheep or cattle he was selling were healthy and of a healthy stock and free from faults, 1 Cicero says (De Off. iri. 16, § 65) that, though by the XII. Tables it was enough if a vendor per aes et libram made good his positive assurances (uti lingua nuncupassit, ita jus esto), the jurists held him responsible for reticence about burdens or defects he ought to have revealed, and liable for a poena dupli exactly as if he had guaranteed their non-existence. 2 " In rebus mobilibus . . . qui alienam rem vendidit et tradidit furtum committit " (Gai. ii. 50). »See Lenel, Edict. Perpet. 2nd ed. p. 521. Con- firmatory stipu- lations. and that the latter had not done any mischief for which their owner could be held liable in a noxal action ; and similarly that a slave sold was healthy and not chargeable for any theft or other offence for which the purchaser might have to answer. If any of these guarantees turned out fallacious, the purchaser had an actio ex stipulalu against the vendor: " Whereas the plaintiff got from the defendant a stipulation that certain sheep he bought from him were healthy, &c. [repeating the words of guarantee], and that he, the plaintiff, should be free to hold them (Kabere licere), whatever it shall appear that the defendant ought in respect thereof to give to or do for the plaintiff, in the value thereof, judge, condemn him; otherwise, acquit him." It is an observation of Bekker's4 that the actio empli in its original shape was just a simplified- _ .. , tion of the actio ex stipulatu on a vendor's guarantees; ^j^ the stipulations to which we have been alluding had become such unfailing accompaniments of a sale as to be matters of legal presumption, the result being that the words "whereas this plaintiff bought from the defendant the sheep about which the action has arisen " were substituted in the demonstratio (as the introductory clause of the formula was called) for the detailed recital of what had been stipulated. Bekker justifies this by reference to the language of Varro, who seems to include under the words emptio, venditio not merely the agreement to buy and sell but also the stipulations that usually went with it. The introduction of an actio empti in this shape, however, was far from the recognition of sale as a purely consensual contract. If the price was not paid at once, the purchaser gave his stipulatory promise for it, or got some one on whom the vendor placed more reliance to do so for him, or else the vendor made a book-debt of it; and, if it had to be sued for, it was in all these cases by a condictio certae pecuniae and not by an action on the sale. If the price was paid but the thing purchased not delivered, the only remedy open to the purchaser was to get back his money by the same conduction, unless, indeed, the guarantee habere licere was held to cover delivery, in which case the purchaser might obtain damages in an actio ex stipulatu under the name of actio empti. But this aclio empti, whether raised on the ground of non-delivery, eviction or breach of some other warranty, was really an action on the verbal contracts ihat had accompanied the sale — a strictum jus action in which the judge could not travel beyond the letter of the engagements of the purchaser. In the latter years of the Republic, and probably a littje before the time of Q. Mucius Scaevola, it was a bonae fidei action. How had the change come about? A single case of hard- ship may have been sufficient to induce it, such as the defeat of a claim for damages for eviction on the ground that the stipulatory guarantee had been accidentally overlooked. Ulpian says: "As the stipulatio duplae is a thing of universal observance, action on the ground of eviction will lie ex empto if perchance the vendor of a slave have failed to give his stipulatory guarantee, for everything that is of general custom and practice ought to be in view of the judge in a bonae fidei judicium. ' 6 Very little was required to convert the stricti juris actio empti, really nothing more than an actio ex stipulatu, into a bonae fidei one — simply the addition by the praetor of the words " on con- siderations of good faith " (ex fide bona) to the " whatever the defendant ought to give to or do for the plaintiff." The effect, however, was immeasurable — not that it did away with the practice of stipulatory guarantees, for Varro wrote after the time of Q. Mucius (who speaks of the action on sale as a bonae fidei one), and references to them are abundant in the pages of the classical jurists; but it rendered them in law unnecessary. It made sale a purely consensual contract in which, in virtue of the simple agreement to buy and sell, all the obligations on either side that usually attended it were held embodied without express formulation or (still less) stipulatory or literal engagement. And, in instructing the judges to decide in every case between buyer and seller suing ex empto or ex vendito on principles of good faith, it really empowered them to go far beyond " general custom and practice," and to take cognisance of everything that in fairness and equity and common sense ought to influence their judgment, so as to enable them freely to do justice between the parties in any and every question that might directly or indirectly arise out of their relation as seller and buyer.* The history of the four nominate real contracts — mutuum (i.e. loan of money or other things returnable generically), commodate (i.e. loan of things that had to be returned specifically), „ . deposit and pledge — is even more obscure than that of the 'nt consensual ones.7 Down to the time of the Poetilian law loan of money, corn, &c., was usually contracted per aes et libram; and it is probable that on the subsequent disuse of the nexum the 4 Bekker, Aktionen (1871), i. 156 seq. and 314 seq. 6 Ulp., " Lib. I. ad ed. aedil.," in Dig. xxi. I, fr. 31, § 20. • The above view is supported in the main by_ Girard, Manuel, 524 seq. For other views see Pernice, Labeo, i. 456 seq.; Cuq, Inst. Jurid. 2nd ed. vol. i. pp. 226 snq. 7 Demelius, in the Zeitschr. f. Kechtsgesch. (1863), ii. 217 seq.: Bekker, Aktionen, i. 306 seq.; Ubbelohde, Zur Gesch. d. benannten Realcontracte (Marburg, 1870) ; Huschke, Lehrevom Darlehn (Leipzig, 1882); Girard, Manuel, 4th ed. pp. 505 sqq. 560 ROMAN LAW [JUS GENTIUM obligation on a borrower to repay the money or corn advanced to him was made actionable, under the Silian and Calpurman laws respectively, by a stipulation contemporaneous with the loan. With the rise of jus gentium loan became actionable on its own merits — that is to say, the advance and receipt of money as a loan of itself laid the borrower under a stricti juris obligation to repay it, even though no stipulatory engagement had intervened; the res— in this case the giving and receiving mului causa — completed the contract. The obligation that arose from it was purely unilateral, and enforceable, where the loan was of money, by the same action — cerlae pecuniae creditae — as stipulation and literal contract; and so strictly was it construed that interest on the loan was not claimable along with it, the res given and received being the full measure of the obligation of repayment. The other three — commodate, deposit and pledge — became independent real contracts much later than mutuum, possibly not all at the same time, and none of them appar- ently until very late in the Republic. All of them, of course, had been long known as transactions of daily life; the difficulty is to say when they first became actionable in the urban praetor's court (for in transactions with peregrins actions in factum would doubtless be granted), and under what guise. It is impossible within the space at our command to criticize the various theories entertained of their vicissitudes, for they neces- sarily vary to some extent in regard to each. We must content ourselves, therefore, with the simple statement that eventually, and within the period with which we are now dealing, they came to be recognized as independent real contracts, the res by which they were completed being the delivery of a thing by one person to another for a particular purpose, on the understanding that it was to be returned when that purpose was served. And it is to be noted that, while mutuum transferred the property of the money lent, the borrower being bound to return not the identical coins but only an equal amount, in pledge it was only the possession that passes, while in commodate and deposit the lender or depositor retained both property and (legal) possession, the borrower or de- positary having nothing more than the natural detention. In all but mutuum, therefore, there was trust; the holder was bound, to an extent varying according to circumstances, to care for what he held as if it were his own, and entitled to be reimbursed for outlay on its maintenance — bound to return it, yet excused if his failure to do so was due to a cause for which in fairness he could not be held responsible. Consequently the actions on these three con- tracts, differing from that on mutuum, were all bonae fidei, the judge being vested with full discretion to determine what was fair and equitable in each individual case. Praetorian Amendments on the Law of Succession. — The most im- portant change in the law of succession during the latter half of the Republic was due to the praetors. They introduced , under the technical name of bonorum possessio,1 what was really rum Deneficial enjoyment of the estate of a deceased person •ssto without the legal title of inheritance. There is much to ' lead to the conclusion that the series of provisions in regard to it which we find in the Julian consolidation of the Edict were the work of a succession of praetors, some of them probably not under the Republic but under the Empire; but it will be convenient to give here a general view of the subject as a whole, disregarding the consideration that some of its features may not have been given to it within the period now under notice. Justinian, speaking of the origin of bonorum possessio, observes that in promising it to a petitioner the praetors were not always _ actuated by the same motives; in some cases their object was to facilitate the application of the rules of the jus civile, eatary. jn some to amencj their application according to what they believed to be the spirit of the XII. Tables, in others, again, to set them aside as inequitable.2 It is not unreasonable to assume that it was with the purpose of aiding the jus civile that the first step was taken in what gradually became a momentous reform; and it is probable that this first step was the announcement by some praetor that, where there was dispute as to an inheritance, and a testament was presented to him bearing not fewer seals than were required by law, he would give possession of the goods of the defunct to the heir named in it.s In this as it stands there is nothing but a regulation of possession of the bona of the inheritance pending the 1 For a r£sum6 of the principal theories (down to 1870) about the origin of bonorum' possessio, see Danz, Geschickte d. ro'm. Rechts, vol. ii. § 176. Of the later literature it is enough to mention Leist, in the first 4 vols. of his continuation of Gluck's Pandecten-Commen- tar (Erlangen, 1870-1879); Sohm, in his Inst. d. r. R. (Eng. trans., 2nd ed.), pp. 580 seq.; A. Schmidt, in Z. d. Sav. Stift. xvii. 324 seq. 2 Inst. hi. o pr. and § I. 8 Cic., In Verr. II. i. 45, § 117. He says (writing in 70 B.C.) that an edict to that effect was already tralaticium,_ i.e. had been adopted year after year by a series of praetors. Gaius (ii. 119) speaks of seven at least as the requisite number of seals ; i.e. probably those of the libripens and the five citizen witnesses, and that of the antestatus, whose functions are not' well understood, but whose official designa- tion appended to his seal recurs so regularly in inscriptions as to leave no doubt that his was originally the seventh. question of legal right. Just as between two parties contending about the ownership of a specific thing in a rei vindicatio tne praetor first settled the question of interim possession, so did he promise to do here when a question was about to be tried about the right to an inheritance (si de hereditate ambigitur). It was a provisional arrangement merely, and very necessary in view of the state of the law which permitted a third party, apart from any pretence of title, to step in and complete a usucapiopro herede by a year's possession of the effects of the inheritance. Even at the time when the Edict was closed it was not necessarily more than a provisional grant ; for, if heirs-at-law of the deceased appeared and proved that, although the testament bore on the outside the requisite number of seals, yet in fact some solemnity of execution, such as the Jamiliae venditw or testamenti nuncupatio, had been omitted, the grantee had to yield them up the possession that had been given him pending inquiry. It was only by a rescript of Antoninus Pius that it was declared that a plea by the heir-at-law of invalidity of a testament on the ground of defect of formalities of execution might be de- feated by an exceptio doli, on the principle that it was contrary to good faith to set aside the wishes of a testator on a technical objection that was purely formal. Thus was the bonorum possessio secundum tabulas, i.e. in accordance with a testament, from being originally one in aid of the jus civile, in course of time converted into one in contradiction of it. That the motives and purposes of the series of praetors who built up the law of bonorum possessio must have varied in progress of years is obvious; and, once the machinery had been invented, nothing was easier than to apply it to new ideas. The praetor could not make a man heir— that he always disclaimed; but he could give a man, whether heir or not, the substantial advantages of inheritance, and protect him in their enjoyment by praetorian remedies. He gave him possession of the goods of the deceased, with summary remedies for ingathering them, which, once in his hands, would become his in quiritarian right on the expiry of the period of usucaption ; and subsequently, by interpolation into the formula of a fiction of heirship, he gave him effectual personal actions against debtors of the deceased, rendering him liable in the same way to the deceased's creditors. Another variety of the bonorum possessio was that contra tabulas — in opposition to the terms of a testament. If a testator had neither instituted nor expressly disinherited a son who was one of his sui heredes, then his testament was a nullity, and the child passed over had no need of a praetorian remedy. Where sui heredes other than sons were passed over the jus civile upheld the will but allowed them to participate with the instituted heirs by a sort of accrual. But the Edict went further; for, if the institute was a stranger, i.e. was not a person in the potestas of the testator with the child passed over, then, on the petition of the latter, the praetor gave him and any other sui concurring with him possession of the whole estate of the deceased as on intestacy, the institute being left with nothing more than the empty name of heir. Another application of the bonorum possessio contra tabulas was to the case of emancipated children of the testator. By the jus civile he was not required to institute or disinherit them; for by their emanci- pation they had ceased to be sui heredes, and had lost that interest in the family estate which was the raason why they had to be mentioned in the testament of their paterfamilias. The praetors — although probably not until the empire, and when the doctrines of the jus nalurale were being more freely recognized — put them on the same footing as unemancipated children, requiring that they also should be either instituted or disinherited, and giving them bonorum possessio if they were not. It was contra tabulas in the sense that it displaced the instituted heirs either wholly or partially — wholly when the institutes were not children of the deceased, par- tially when they were. In the latter case, at least when sui were affected by it, the grant of bonorum possessio was under the equitable condition that the grantees should collate or bring into partition all their own acquisitions since their emancipation. The third variety of bonorum possessio was that granted ab intestate. The rules of the jus civile in reference to succession on intestacy were, as we have seen, extremely strict and artificial. They admitted neither emancipated children nor agnates who had undergone capitis deminutio; they admitted no female agnate more remote than a sister; if the nearest agnate or agnates declined, the right did not pass to those of the next degree ; mere cognates, kinsmen of the deceased who were not agnates , e.g. grandchildren or others related to him through females and agnates capite minuti, were not admitted at all; while a wife had no share unless she had been in manu of the deceased and therefore filiae loco. All these rules the praetors amended, and so far paved the way for the revolution in the law of intestate succession which was accomplished by Justinian. They established four orders or classes of heirs. (l) Displacing the sui heredes of the jus civile, they gave the first place to descend- ants (liberi), including in the term all those whom the deceased would have been bound either by the jus civile or the Edict to institute or disinherit had he made a will, i.e. his wife in manu, sons and daughters of his body whether in potestate at his death or emancipated, the representatives of sons who had predeceased him, and adopted children in his potestas when he died. (2) On failure latestato. JUS NATURALE] ROMAN LAW 561 of liberi the right to petition for bonorum possessio opened to the nearest collateral agnates of the intestate, under their old name of legitimt heredes. (3) Under the jus civile, on failure of agnates (and of the gens where there was one), the succes- onit'ro/ s'on was vacant ar"d fell to the fisc, unless perchance it was usucapted by a stranger possessing pro herede. The fre- /nit.si.iit t t_ *•* . r t j* • • t_ j L. ii_ succcs- quency of such vacancies was much diminished by the sloa. recognition by the praetors of the right of cognates to claim bonorum possessio in the third place. Who they had pri- marily in view under the name of " cognates " it is impossible to say. The epithet is most frequently applied by modern writers to kins- men related through females; but in its widest sense it included all kinsmen without exception, and in a more limited sense all kinsmen not entitled to claim as agnates. There were included amongst them therefore — although it is very probable that the list was not made up at once, but from time to time by the action of a series of praetors — not merely kinsmen related through females (who were not agnates), but also agnates of a remoter degree who were excluded as such because the nearest agnates in existence had declined, persons who had been agnates but by reason of capitis minutio had lost that character, female agnates more distantly related than sisters, and children of the intestate who at the time of his death were in an adoptive family. All these took according to proximity, but not beyond the sixth degree and the children of a second cousin in the seventh. (4) Finally, the claim passed to the survivor of husband and wife, assuming always that their marriage had not involved manus. This list constituted the praetorian order of succession on intestacy among freeborn citizens. The praetorian order of succession to freedmen and cmancipati was necessarily different, the patron or quasi-patron taking the place of agnates; but it is too detailed and complex to be gone into here. All these bonorum possessiones had to be formally petitioned for. In that ab intestato descendants were allowed a year for doing so, while other persons were limited to loo days, the period for those entitled in the second place beginning when that of those entitled in the first had expired, and so on. The grant was always made at the risk of the petitioner; nothing was assured him by it; it might turn out real and substantial (cum re) or merely nominal (sine re), according as the grantee could or could not maintain it against the heir of the jus civile. For the latter was entitled to stand on his statutory or testamentary right, without applying to bonorum possessio, although in fact he often did so for the sake of the summary procedure it supplied him for ingathering the effects of the deceased. The Law of Procedure. — The use of the fprmular system of pro- cedure as alternative to that by the " actions of the law " corn- La o/ menced long before the end of the period now under ,,„,. consideration; and we have had occasion more than cedure. once to observe how greatly it facilitated the develop- ment of the institutions of property and contractual obligation. But as the change was only completed in the early Empire it will be more convenient to defer explanation Qf the nature of the new procedure in the meantime. IV. THE Jus NATURALE AND MATURITY OF ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE (The Empire until the time of Diocletian.) i. Characteristics and Formative Agencies of the Law during the Period. Characteristics generally and Recognition of a Jus Naturals in particular. — The first three centuries of the Empire witnessed the perfection of Roman jurisprudence and the commence- ment of its decline. During that time the history of the law presents no such great landmarks as the enactment of the XII. Tables, the commencement of a praetor's edict, the recognition of simple consent as creative of a contractual bond, or the introduction of a new system of judicial pro- cedure; the establishment of a class of patented jurists speaking as in a sense the mouthpieces of the prince, and the admission of all the free subjects of the Empire to the privileges of citizenship, are about the only isolated events to which one can point as productive of great and lasting results. There were, indeed, some radical changes in particular institutions, such as the caduciary legislation of Augustus, intended to raise the tone of domestic morality and increase fruitful marriages, and the legislation of the same emperor and his immediate successor for regulation of the status of enfranchised slaves; but these, although of vast importance in themselves, and the first of them influencing the current of the law for centuries, yet left upon it no permanent impression. It was by much less imposing efforts that it attained the perfection to which it reached under the sovereigns of the Severan house — a steady advance on the lines already marked out in the latter years of the Republic. The sphere of the jus Quiritium became more and more circumscribed, and one after another of the formalities of the strict jus civile was abandoned. The manus of the husband practically disappeared; the pair in poleslas of the father lost much of its significance by the recognition, notwithstanding it, of the possibility of a separate and independent estate in the child (peculium castrense); slaves might be enfranchised to a certain extent by informal manumission; res mancipi constantly passed by simple tradition, the right of the transferee being secured by the Publician action; servitudes and other real rights informally constituted were maintained as effectual tuitione praetoris ; an heir's acceptance of a succession could be accomplished by any indication of his intention, without observance of the formal cretio of the earlier law; and many of the incidental bargains incident to consensual contract, but varying their natural import, that used to be embodied in words of stipula- tion, came to be enforceable on the strength of formless con- temporaneous agreements. The preference accorded by the magistrates and jurists and judges to the jus gentium over the jus civile is insufficient to account for these and many other changes in the idea of same direction, as well as for the ever-increasing «/«* tendency evinced to subordinate word and deed naturale- to the voluntas from which they arose. They are rather to be attributed to the striving on the part of many after a higher ideal, to which has been given the name of jus naturale.1 It is sometimes said that the notion of a jus naturale as distinct from the jus gentium was peculiar to Ulpian, and that it found no acceptance with the Roman jurists generally. But this is inaccurate. Justinian, indeed, has excerpted in the Digest and put in the forefront of his Institutes a passage from an elementary work of Ulpian's, in which he speaks of a jus naturale that is common to man and the lower animals, and which is substantially instinct. This is a law of nature of which it is quite true that we find no other jurist taking account, and it may be attributed to a habit, specially noticeable in Ulpian's writings, of making tripartite classifica- tions. But though the classical jurists are undoubtedly indistinct in their conceptions about the matter, many of them refer again and again to jus naturale in the sense of law based on natural reason; and Gaius is the only one (Justinian following him) who definitely, though not consistently, makes it synonymous with jus gentium. There can be no question that the latter was much more largely imbued with precepts of natural law than was the jus civile, but it seems incorrect to say that natural law and jus gentium were identical; it is enough to cite but one illustration, pointed out again and again in the texts: while the one admitted the legality of slavery, the other denied it. While the jus civile studied the interests only of citizens, and the jus gentium those of freemen irrespective of nationality, the law of nature had theoretically a wider range and took all mankind within its purview. The doctrine of the jus gentium agreed in this respect with that of the jus civile — that a slave was nothing but a chattel; yet we find the latter, when tinctured with the jus naturale, recognizing many rights as competent to a slave, and even conceding that he might be debtor or creditor in a contract, although his obligation or claim could be given effect to only indirectly, since he could neither sue nor be sued.2 Voigt thus summarizes the characteristics of this speculative Roman jus naturale: — (i) its potential universal applicability to all men, (2) among all peoples, (3) at all times, and (4) its cllarac. correspondence with the innate conviction of right (innere tfrlstlc, Rechtsuberzeugung).3 Its propositions, as gathered from ofju!1 the pages of the jurists of the period, he formulates thus : — aatunh. (i) recognition of the claims of blood (sanguinis vel cognationis ratio); (2) duty of faithfulness to engagements — is 1 See Voigt, Das Jus naturale . . . der Romer, particularly vol. i. §§ 52-64, 89-06; Maine, Ancient Law, chap. iii. 2 Ulp. in Dtg. xliv. 7 fr. 14. ' Voigt, I.e. p. 304. 562 ROMAN LAW [JUS NATURALE natura debet . . . cujus fidem secuti sumus; (3) apportionment of advantage and disadvantage, gain and loss, according to the standard of equity ; (4) supremacy of the voluntatis ratio over the words or form in which the will is manifested.1 It was regard for the first that, probably pretty early in the principate, led the praetors to place emancipated children on a footing of equality with unemancipated in the matter of succession, and to admit to succession collateral kindred through females as well as those related through males; and that, in the reigns of Hadrian and Marcus Aurehus respectively, induced the senate to give a mother a preferred right of succession to her children, and vice versa. _It was respect for the second that led to the recognition of the validity of what was called a natural obligation, — one that, because of some defect of form or something peculiar in the position of the parties, was ignored by the jus civile and incapable of being made the ground of an action for its enforcement, yet might be given effect to indirectly by other equitable remedies. Regard for the third was nothing new in the jurisprudence of the period; the Republic had already admitted it as a principle that a man was not to be unjustifiably enriched at another's cost; the jurists of the empire, however, gave it a wider application than before, and used it as a key to the solution of many a difficult question in the domain of the law of contract. As for the fourth, it was one that had to be applied with delicacy ; for the voluntas could not in equity be pre- ferred to its manifestation to the prejudice of other parties who in good faith had acted upon the latter. We have many evidences of the skilful way in which the matter was handled, speculative opinion being held in check by considerations of individual interest and general utility. A remark of Voigt's on the subject is well worthy of being kept in view, that the risk which arose from the setting up of the pre- cepts of a speculative jus naturale, as derogating from the rules of the jus civile, was greatly diminished through the position held by the jurists of the early Empire. Their jus respondendi made them in a sense legislative organs of the state, so that, in introducing principles of the jus naturale, or of aequum et bonum, they at the same moment defined them and gave them the force of law. They were, he says, " philosophers in the sphere of law, searchers after the ultimate truth; but, while they — usually in reference to a concrete case — sought out the truth and applied what they had found, they combined with the freedom from constraint of specula- tion, the life-freshness of practice, and the power of assuring the operativeness of their abstract propositions." * Influence of Constitutional Changes. — The changes in the con- stitution aided not a little the current of the law. Men of foreign descent reached the throne and recruited the senate, some- times proud indeed of the history and traditions of Rome, caracer ^e^ 'n mos*; cases free from prejudice in favour of institu- of Jurists tions that had nothing to recommend them but their anti- quity. Military life, for obvious reasons, had not the same attractions as during the Republic; there was no longer a tribu- nate to which men of ambition might aspire; the comitia soon ceased to afford an outlet for public eloquence; so that men of education and position had all the more inducement to devote themselves to the conscientious study and regular practice of the law. This was greatly encouraged by the action of Augustus in creating a class of, so to say, patented jurists privileged to give answers ex auctoritate principis to questions submitted to them by the magistrates and judges. It was still more so perhaps by Hadrian's reorganization of the imperial privy council, wherein a large proportion of the seats were assigned to jurists of distinction. Several of the emperors had lawyers amongst their most intimate and trusted friends. Again and again the office of praetorian pre- fect, the highest next the throne, was filled by them; Papinian, Ulpian and Paul all held it in their time. Jurisprudence, there- fore, was not merely an honourable and lucrative profession under the new arrangements, but a passport to places of eminence in the state; and till the death of Alexander the ranks of the jurists never failed to be recruited by men of position and ability. Extension of Citizenship to the Empire generally. — It was in the year A.D. 212 that Caracalla published his Constitution conferring E tension citizensn>P °n all the free inhabitants of the Empire. olcitliea- Far-reacmng as were its consequences, the primary pur- shioto Pose was Pure'v fiscal. The lex Vicesimaria, passed whole under Augustus, had imposed a tax of 5% on testa- Bmpire. mentary inheritances and bequests, except where the whole succession was worth less than a certain sum or the heir or legatee was a heres domesticus of the deceased. It was con- tinued by his successors and was very profitable, thanks to the propensity of the well-to-do classes for single blessedness, fol- lowed by testamentary distribution of their fortunes amongst their friends. But it affected only the successions of Roman citizens, so that the great mass of the provincials escaped it. Cara- •calla, being needy, not only increased it temporarily to 10%, but widened the area of its operation by elevating all his free subjects to the rank of citizens. The words of Ulpian regarding the con- stitution are very inclusive, — " in orbe Romano qui sunt . . . _ ... and character 1 Voigt, l.c. pp. 321-323. 5 Voigt,/.c. p. 341. cives Romani effect! sunt ";' but there is considerable diversity of opinion as to their meaning, caused partly by the fact that peregrins are still mentioned by some of Caracalla's successors, and there can be little doubt that among others it did not apply to Junian Latins or peregrini dediticii. Limit the constitution, however, as we may, there can be no question of its immense im- portance. By conferring citizenship on the provincial peregrins it subjected them in their legal relations to the law of Rome, and qualified them for taking part in many transactions both inter vivos and mortis causa which previously had been incompetent for them. It did away with the necessity for regarding jus gentium as something distinct from jus civile. The principles and doctrines of jus gentium, it is true, survived and were expanded and elaborated as freely and successfully as ever; but they were so dealt with as part and parcel of the civil law of Rome, which had ceased to be Italian and become imperial. Legislation of Comitia and Senate. — Augustus, clinging as much as possible to the form of republican institutions, thought it ex- pedient not to break with the old practice of submitting legislative proposals to the vote of the comitia of the tribes. Some of the leges of his reign were far from insignificant. Besides various measures for the amend- ment of the criminal law, &c., there were three sets of en- actments of considerable importance which owed their authorship to him : the first to improve domestic morality and encourage fruitful marriage, the second to abate the evils that had arisen from the too lavish admission of liberated slaves to the privileges of citizenship, and the third to regulate procedure in public prosecutions and private litigations. The first set included the lex Julia de adulteriis et de fundo dotali of 18 B.C. and the lex Julia et Papia Poppaea of A.D. 9 — the latter a voluminous matrimonial code, in which an earlier lex de mariiandis ordinibus (18 B.C.) seems to have been Enact- ment* under Augustus incorporated, and which for two or three centuries exer- abotit marriage; cised such an influence as to be regarded as one of the sources of Roman law almost as much as the XII. Tables or Julian's con- solidated Edict. It was often spoken of as the lex Coducaria, one of its most remarkable provisions being that unmarried persons (within certain ages and under certain qualifications) should forfeit entirely anything to which they were entitled under a testament, and that married but childless persons should similarly forfeit one-half, the lapsed provisions (caduca) going to the other persons named in the will who were qualified in terms of the statute, and failing them to the fisc. However well intended, the language of Juvenal and others raises doubts whether the law did not really do more harm than good. By the Christian emperors many of its provisions were repealed as inconsistent with the New Testament views of celibacy, &c., while others fell into disuse; and in the Justinian books hardly a trace is left of its distinctive features. The second set included the Fufia-Caninian law of the year 2 B.C., the Aelia-Sentian law of the year A.D. 4, and the Junia-Norban law of the year A.D. 19 — the last it is thought passed in the . . reign of Tiberius, but probably planned by Augustus.* The Aelia-Sentianlawregulatedthematterof manumission, , "" with the result that a slave might on that event, and accord- ing to circumstances minutely described, become either (i) a citizen, or (2) a freedman with the possibility of attaining citizenship by a process indicated in the statute, or (3) a freedman who, because of his having undergone certain punishments for grave offences, was forbidden to reside within a hundred miles of Rome and denied the hope of ever becoming a citizen (libertus dediticius). The Junian law was passed in order to define more precisely the status in the meantime of those freedmen who had a poten.iality of citizen- ship. It did so by assimilating them, to a large extent, to the colonial Latins, denying to them the rights of a citizen proper so far as concerned family and succession, but conceding to them all the patrimonial rights of a citizen and the fullest power of dealing with their belongings so long as not mortis causa and to the prejudice of their patrons. This was the Junian Latinity so prominent in the pages of Gaius, but of which our limits exclude any detailed description. The third set of enactments referred to included the two leges Juliae judiciariae, of which we know but little. They were probably enacted in the year 17 B.C. One lex Julia seems to have , aklan dealt with judicia publica and another with procedure in . private litigations. Gaius, however, seems to refer to two leges Juliae judiciorum privatprum, and it is the opinion of Wlassak, who had studied the subject profoundly, that the second of these was enacted for municipalities outside Rome and was in similar terms to the first. It was these two last-mentioned judiciary statutes that, as Gaius tells us, completed the work of the Aebutian law ^substituting the formular system for that 3 Ulp. in Dig. i. 5 fr. 17. As to the effects of this conslitutio Antonina, see Mitteis, Reichsrechl und Volksr., c. vi. 4 There is a long-standing controversy as to the date of this lex Junta, some writers placing it earlier than the lex Aelia-Senlia. See Girard, Manuel, 4th ed., p. 124, and authorities cited in Muirhead. Hist. Introduction, 286 n. 7 and 317 n. 6. JUSNATURALE] ROMAN LAW 563 of legis actiones. The one regulating procedure in private suits at Rome must have been a somewhat comprehensive statute, as a passage in the Vatican fragments refers to a provision of its 27 th section ; and our ignorance of its contents therefore, beyond one or two trifling details, is the more to be regretted. The opinion of Wlassak, already referred to, is that the judiciary laws made procedure by formulae compulsory, while the Aebutian law had left it optional. In all cases remitted to a unus judex or other private judges a formula was to be henceforth compulsory; a legis actio could no longer be tried before private judges but only exceptionally by the centumviral court.1 From the time of Tiberius onwards it was the senate that did the work of legislation, for the simple reason that the comilia Levlsla- were no longer fit for it. And very active it seems to have tlon of been. This may have been due to some extent to the fact Senate. that so many professional jurists, aware from their practice of the points in which the law required amendment, pos- sessed seats in the imperial council, where the drafts of the senatus- consults were prepared. It was the senatusconsults that were the principal statutory factors of what $ra.s called by both emperors and jurists the jus novum — law that departed often very widely from the principles of the old jus civile, that was much more in accordance with those of the Edict, and that to a great extent might have been introduced through its means had not the authority of the praetors been overshadowed by that of the prince. In the end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 3rd century the supremacy of the latter in the senate became rather too pronounced, men quoting the oratio in which he had submitted to it a project of law instead of the resolution which gave it legislative effect. No doubt such project must have been carefully considered beforehand in the imperial council, and rarely stood in need of further discussion; but the ignoring of the formal act that followed it tended unduly to em- phasize the share borne in it by the sovereign, and made it all the easier for the emperors after Severus Alexander to dispense altogether with the time-honoured practice. The Consolidated Edictum Perpetuum. — The edicts of the praetors, which had attained very considerable proportions before the fall , of the Republic, certainly received some additions in the Edftai early Empire. But those magistrates did not long enjoy the same independence as of old; there was a greater imperium than theirs in the state, before which they hesitated to lay hands on the law with the boldness of their predecessors. They continued as before to publish annually at entry on office the edicts that had been handed down to them through generations; but their own additions were soon almost limited to mere amendments rendered necessary by the provisions of some senatusconsult that affected the jus honorarium. They ceased to be that viva vox juris civilis which they had been in the time of Cicero; the emperor, if any one, was now entitled to the epithet ; the annual edict had lost its raison d'etre. Hadrian apparently was of opinion that the time had come for writing its " explicit," and giving it another and more enduring and authoritative shape, binding on all future magistrates. He accordingly, it is said, commissioned Salvius Julianus to revise it — or Julian, when urban praetor, may have done so at his own hand with the emperor's approval — and the senate gave it binding force. It did not, however, become statute law; the distinction between jus civile and jus praetorium still continued. The revised Edict unfortunately, like the XII. Tables, is no longer extant. It is only a very slight account we have of the revision — a line or two in Eutropius and Aurelius Victor, and a few lines in two of Justinian's prefaces to the Digest. We may assume from what is said there that both abridgment and rearrangement of the edicts of the urban praetor took place, but the question remains how far Julian consolidated with them those of the peregrin praetor and other officials who had contributed to the jus honorarium. Those of the curule aediles, we are told, were included; Justinian says that they formed the last part of Julian's work; they formed, in fact, a sort of addendum to it. There is reason to believe that so much of the edicts of the provincial governors as differed from those of the praetors were also incorporated in it, and that the edicts of the peregrin praetors, in so far as they contained available matter not embodied in those of their urban colleagues or the provincial governors, were dealt with in the same way.2 The consolidation got the name of Edictum Perpetuum in a sense somewhat different from that formerly imputed to edicta perpetua as distinguished from edicta repenlina; it became perpetual in the English sense of the word. Sanctioned by senatusconsult and by the emperor, it became a closed chapter so far as the praetors were concerned ; for, though it continued for a time to hold its place on their album with its formularies of actions, they had no longer any power to alter 'Wlassak, Processgesetze, i. 191 sqq., and ii. 221 sqq. 1 It may be, however, that the edicts of the peregrin praetors and provincial governors were independently codified. See Girard, Manuel elementaire, 4th ed. 53-4. An attempt recently made by von Velsen, Z. d. Sav. St. xxi. (1900), 73 sqq., to identify the edictum provinciate with that of the peregrin praetor from the time of Augustus is far from convincing and has received no support from other writers. See Kipp. Gesch. d. Quellen, p. 123 n. or even perhaps make additions to it. Havi-ig ceased to be a mere efflux of their imperium and become a type prescribed by statute, its interpretation and amendment were no longer in their hands but in the hands of the emperor. The Julian Edict was not divided into parts or books like Justinian's Digest but only into titles, which were perhaps numbered and certainly were rubricated. Since the publication of Lenel's great work, noted below, modern Romanists are agreed that the formularies of actions it contained were distributed in their appro- priate places throughout the work and not collected together in one place as used to be supposed. Thus a formula based on the civil law (e.g the rei vindicatio) appeared by itself (i.e. without any edict) as a separate head or subdivision of the title appropriate to it; while formulae based on the praetor's imperium (e.g. that of the praetorian action de dolo) were placed under their respective edicts. The general arrangement of the subject-matter is not difficult to discover, as we have documentary evidence to a certain extent in writings which have come down to us. These are principally (i) the Digest of Justinian, in the prefaces to which we are told expressly that it followed the order of the Edict except in certain places specially noticed; (2) the Code of Justinian; (3) the extracts from divers commentaries on the Edict by the classical jurists principally preserved in the Digest. As the inscriptions of these extracts contain the name of the author, the work and the par- ticular book from which they are taken, they have proved of great help towards understanding the arrangement — especially the com- mentaries of Ulpian and Paul on the urban edict and the com- mentary of Gaius on the provincial edict. Lenel has shown that Julian's plan of arrangement was neither logical nor symmetrical, but adhered in great measure to the old order (tralatitious) of the urban praetors. The following fourfold division of the subject- matter is, according to Lenel (partially following Rudorff), clearly ascertainable : first, a series of titles dealing with the preliminary steps in all actions such as jurisdiction, summons, intervention of procurators and the like; second, titles dealing mainly with matters of ordinary procedure or rather with actions granted principally in accordance with statute (judicia legitima) as petitio hereditatts, rei vindicatio, &c. ; third, titles dealing with actions resting principally on the magistrate's imperium (judicia imperio continentia) ; fourth, execution of judgments, including bankruptcy, &c. These four parts were followed by a kind of appendix containing in three titles the separate styles of interdicts, exceptions and praetorian stipula- tions. Finally, the edicts of the curule aediles, with their formulae also consolidated, were added at the end of the work. From the fragments of the jurists preserved by Justinian (principally from the three above-mentioned commentaries, but also to an important extent from Julian himself in his Digesta) repeated attempts have been made in modern times to reproduce the Edict in its entirety. Most of these are mere transcripts with attempted reconstructions of passages in Justinian's Digest and of little value. The only really scientific and worthy critical efforts are those of Rudorff in 1869 and, above all, of Lenel in 1883.* The Responses of Patented Counsel. — The right of responding under imperial authority (jus respondendi ex auctoritaie principis), first granted by Augustus and continued by his successors down to about the time of Severus Alexander, did not *"'K" imply any curtailment of the right of unlicensed jurists ° . to give advice to any one who chose to consult them. - What it did was to give an authoritative character to a response, so that the judge who had asked for it and to whom it was presented — for the judges were but private citizens, most of them unlearned in the law — was practically bound to adopt it as if it had emanated from the emperor himself. It may be that Augustus was actuated by a political motive — that he was desirous by this concession to attach lawyers of eminence to the new regime, and prevent the recurrence of the evils experienced during the Republic from the too great influence of patrons. But, whatever may have prompted his action in the matter, its beneficial consequences for the law can hardly be over- rated. For the powers with which they were invested enabled the patented counsel to influence current doctrine not spcculatively merely but positively (jura condere), and so to leaven their inter- pretations of the jus civile and jus honorarium with the principles of natural law as to give a new complexion to the system. Instead of giving his opinion like the unlicensed jurist by word of mouth, either at the request of the judge or at the instance of one of the parties, the patented counsel, who did not require to 3 Rudorff, De jurisdiction edictum: edicti perpetui quae reliqua sunt (Leipzig, 1869), and rev. by Brinz in the Krit. Vierteljahr- sckrift (1876), xi. 471 sqq.; Lenel, Das Edictum Perpetuum: tin Versuch zu dessen WiederhersteUung (Leipzig, 1883), 2nd ed., 1907 (French ed. translation by Peltier, 2 vols., 1901-3). The last gained the " Savigny Foundation Prize " offered by the Munich Academy in 1882 for the best restitution of the formulae of Julian's Edict, but goes far beyond the limited subject prescribed; see Brinz's report upon it to the Academy in the Zeitschr. d. Sav. Stift. (1883), vol. iv. Rom. Abtheil, 164 sqq. See Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgesch, i. 628-41 ; Kriiger, Gesch. d. Quellen, 84 sqq. ROMAN LAW [JUS NATURALE give his reasons, reduced it to writing and sent it to the couri under seal. Augustus does not seem to have contemplated the possibility of conflicting responses being tendered from two or more jurists equally privileged. It was an awkward predicament for a judge to be placed in. Hadrian solved the difficulty by declaring that in such a case the judge should be entitled to use his own discretion.1 That on receiving a response with which he was dis satisfied he could go on calling for others until he got one to his mind, and then pronounce judgment in accordance with it on the ground that there was difference of opinion, is extremely unlikely The more probable explanation of Hadrian's rescript is, that the number of patented responding counsel was very limited; that a judge, if he desired their assistance, was required by this rescript to consult them all (quorum omnium si, &c.) ; that, if they were unanimous, but only then, their opinion had force of statute (legis vicem optinet) ; and that when they differed the judge must decide for himself. Constitutions of the Emperors.1 — Gaius and Ulpian concur ir holding that every imperial constitution, whether in the shape ol /••///• of rescr'Pt' decree or edict, had the force of statute. It may nerore be that by the time of Ulpian that was the prevailing * opinion; but modern criticism is disposed to regarc the dictum of Gaius, written in the time of Antoninus Pius, as coloured by his Asiatic notions, and not quite accurate so far at least as the edicts were concerned. Apart from executive laws (leges datae), the early imperial edicts were theoretically rather part of the jus honorarium. As supreme magistrate the emperor had the same jus edicendi that consuls and praetors had had before him, and used it as they did to indicate some course of action he meant to adopt and follow or some relief he proposed to grant. His edicts were as a rule drawn up in writing in the imperial council and publicly notified in all parts of the Empire. His range, ol course in respect of his imperium, was much greater than that ol the praetors had been; for his authority endured for life, and extended over the whole Empire and every department of govern- ment. But in principle, .it is thought, his successor on the throne was no more bound to adopt any of his edicts than a praetor was to adopt those of his predecessors. That it was not unusual for an edict to be renewed, and that it occasionally happened that the renewal was not by the immediate successor of its original author, are manifest from various passages in the texts. Sometimes, when its utility had stood the test of years, it was transmuted into a senatus- consult; this fact proves of itself that an edict per se had not the effect of statute. But their adoption by a succession of two or three sovereigns, whose reigns were of average duration, may have been held sufficient to give them the character of consuetudinary law; and. by a not unnatural process, unreflecting public opinion may have come to impute force of statute to the edict itself rather than to the longa consuetude that followed on it, thus paving the way for the assertion by the sovereigns of the later Empire of an absolute right of legislation, and for the recognition of the lex edictalis as the only form of statute. The imperial rescripts and decrees (rescripta, decreta) appar- ently acquired force of law (legis vicem oblinenl) pretty early in Rescripts t'le EraP're> an4 their operation was not theoretically and limited to the lifetime of the prince from whom they Decrees ^ad proceeded. But they were not directly acts of legislation. In both the emperor theoretically did no more than authoritatively interpret existing law, although the boundary between interpretation and new law, sometimes difficult to define, was not always closely adhered to. Thus the decretum Marci, penalizing procedure by self-help, and the epistula Hodriani, introducing the beneficium divisionis among co-sureties, are notable instances of authoritative interpretation. The rescript was strictly a written answer by the emperor to a petition, either by an official or a private party, for an instruction as to how the law was to be applied in any particular case to the facts set forth: when the answer was in a separate writing it was usually spoken of as an epistula; when noted at the foot of the application its technical name was subscriptio. But sometimes also general orders of the emperors addressed to some official and intended for a province or particular community were classed under the head of rescripts. The decree was the emperor's ruling, orally announced, in a case submitted to him judicially; it might be when it had been brought before him in the first instance extra ordinem, or when it had been removed by supplicatio from an inferior court in its earliest stage, or when it came before him by appeal. Such decrees were duly 1 Gaius, i. 7; Justinian, Inst. i. 2, § 8. The passages from Pomponius in Dig. i. 2, 2, §§ 48, 49 are of doubtful meaning, and different interpretations of them have been given. Cf. Sohm Institutions (translation by Ledlie, 2nd ed.), p. 97; Girard, Manuel, p. 70; Kipp, Geschichte d. Quellen, p. 99. 2Gai. i. 5; Ulp., in Dig., i. 4, fr. I, § i; Mommsen, Rom. Staatsrecht, n. 843 seq.; Wlassak, Krit. Studien zur Theorie der Rechtsquellen im Zeitalter d. klass. Juristen (Gratz, 1884) ; A. Pernice (crit. Wlassak), in 'Zeitschr. d. Sav. Slift. (1885), vi. Rom. Abtheil. 293 seq.: Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgesch. i. § 8-;; Kipp, Quellen, 59 seq. recorded and kept apud acta. It was theoretically as a judge that the emperor pronounced his decree, though in practice he some- times went beyond the case in hand, evolving new doctrines. Pro- ceeding as it did from the fountain of authoritative interpretation, the decree had a value far beyond that of the sentence of an in- ferior court (which was law only as between the parties), and formed a precedent which governed all future cases involving the same question. Those rescripts and decrees constituted one of the most important sources of the law during the first three centuries of the Empije, and were elaborated with the assistance of the most eminent jurists of the day, the rescripts being the special charge of the magister libettorum. From the time of the Gordians to that of the abdication of Diocletian they were almost the only channel of the jus scriptum that remained. A fourth class of imperial constitutions were the so-called mandata. These, however, were mainly of the nature of instructions .. by the emperors to individual imperial officials, similar to Jnan"ata- edicts, and dealt with public law for the most part. Professional Jurisprudence. — The present period of legal history is by modern writers sometim« called " the classical age of juris- prudence," though that term is more usually and correctly restricted to the years between Hadrian and the close of . . Severus Alexander's reign. It has been called " classical," Jurists, on the analogy of the Augustan age of literature, from the celebrity of the jurists who flourished during it and the scientific pre-eminence of their works. For accounts of the great jurists, see articles GAIUS, &c., and also H. J. Roby's Introduction to the Study of Justinian' s Digest 3 and Professor Karlowa's Rechtsgeschichte.* For an account of the extant remains of their writings, such as the Institutes of Gaius, the Rules of Ulpian, the Sentences of Paul and a variety of other works, reference may be made to Muirhead's Historical Introduction to the Private Law of Rome, where a brief account of the jurists is also given.6 ii. Substantive Changes in the Law. Concession of Peculiar Privileges to Soldiers. — While the period with which we are dealing saw the substantial disappear- ance of the distinction between citizen and peregrin, it witnessed the expansion of another — that between soldiers and civilians (milites, pagani). The most remarkable effluxes of the jus militare (as it is sometimes called) were the military testament and the castrense peculium. The first was practically Miiitaiy exempted from all the rules of the jus civile and the Testa- praetors' edict alike as to the form and substance of meats. last wills. It might be in writing, by word of mouth, by the unspoken signs perhaps of a dying man; all that was required was the voluntas so manifested as not to be mistaken. More extraordinary still — it was sustained even though its provisions ran counter to the most cherished rules of the common law. Contrary to the maxim that no man could dispense with the institution of an heir or die partly testate and partly in- testate, a soldier might dispose of part of his estate by testament with or without nomination of an heir, -and leave the rest to descend to his heirs ab intestato. Contrary also to the maxim semel heres semper heres, he might give his estate to A. for life or for a term of years, or until the occurrence of some event, with remainder to B. Contrary to the general rule, a Latin or peregrin, or an unmarried or married but childless person, might take an inheritance or a bequest from a soldier as freely as could a citizen with children. His testament, in so far as it disposed only of bona castrensia, was not affected by capitis deminutio minima. It was not invalidated by praeterition of sui heredes, nor could they challenge it because they had less under it than their " legitim "; nor could the instituted heir claim a Falcidian fourth, even though nine-tenths of the uccession had been assigned to legatees. Finally, a later lestament did not nullify an earlier one, if it appeared to be the intention of the soldier testator that they should be read together. 3 Cambridge, 1884, chaps, ix.-xv. 4 Leipzig, 1885, i. §§ 87-92. See also Kruger, Geschichte d. Quellen, §§ 18-27, and, for the period from Augustus to Hadrian, Bremer, Jurisprudent-id Antehadriana, ii. 'Edited by Goudy, 1889, §§ 61-65. See also Kruger, GK- schichte d. Quellen, §§ 18-27; Lenel, Palingenesia Juris Civilis 2 vols., Leipzig, 1888-89), a work which contains all the texts of he ante-Justinian jurists, as contained in the Digest and other .ources, arranged systematically, with valuable critical and explana- ory notes, but excluding the Institutes of Gaius, Paul's Sentences and Ulpian's Rules. JUS NATURALE] ROMAN LAW 565 All this is remarkable, manifesting a spirit very different from that which animated the common law of testaments. True, it was a principle with the jurists of the classical period that the voluntatts ratio was to be given effect to in the interpretation of testamentary writings; but that was on the condition that the requirements of jaw as to form and substance had been scrupulously observed. But in the military testament positive rules were made to yield to the voluntas in all respects: the will was almost absolutely unfettered. Roman law in this matter gave place to natural law. One would have expected the influence of so great a change to have manifested itself by degrees in the ordinary law of testaments; yet it is barely visible. In a few points the legislation of Constantine, Theodosius 1 1. and Justinian relaxed the strictness of the old rules; but there was never any approach to the recognition of the complete supre- macy of the voluntas. I n the Corpus Juris the contrast between the testamentum paganum and the lestamentum militare was almost as marked as in the days of Trajan. The latter was still a privileged deed, whose use was confined to a soldier actually on service, and if he received an honourable discharge, for twelve months after his retirement. The peculium castrense had a wider influence; for it was the first of a series of amendments that vastly diminished the importance _ „ of the patria potestas on its patrimonial side. It had its origin in a constitution of Augustus granting to filiifamilias on service the right to dispose by testament of what they had acquired in the active exercise of their profession (quod in castris adquisterant) -1 But it soon went much further. Confined at first to filiifamilias on actual service, the privilege was extended by Hadrian to those who had obtained honourable discharge. The same emperor allowed them not merely to test on their peculium castrense, but to manumit inter vivos slaves that formed part of it; and by a little step further the classical jurists recognized their right to dispose of it onerously or gratuitously inter wyos. In the 3rd century the range of it was extended so as to include not only the soldier's pay and prize, but all that had come to him, directly or indirectly, in connexion with his profession — his outfit, gifts made to him during his service, legacies from comrades and so on. All this was in a high degree subversive of the doctrines of the common law. It may almost be called revolutionary; for it in- volved in the first place the recognition of the right of a person alieni juris to make a testament as if he were sui juris, and in the second place the recognition of a separate estate in a filiusf ami- lias which he might deal with independently of his paterfamilias, which could not be touched by the latter's creditors, and which he was not even bound to collate (or bring into hotch-pot) on claiming a share of his father's succession. The radical right of the parent, however, was rather suspended than extinguished; for, if the soldier son died intestate, the right of the paterfamilias revived : he took his son's belongings, not as his heir appropriating an in- heritance, but as his paterfamilias reclaiming a peculium? The Family. — The legislative efforts of Augustus to encourage marriage, to which persons of position showed a remarkable distaste, Famll have already been mentioned. The relation of husband Relati as an<^ w'fe sti'l m 'aw required no more for its creation than deliberate interchange of nuptial consent, although in certain cases some act indicative of change of life, such as the bride's home-coming to her husband's house, was regarded as the criterion of completed marriage.3 But it was rarely accom- panied with manus. So repugnant was such subjection to patrician ladies that they declined to submit to confarreate nuptials; and so great consequently became the difficulty of finding persons qualified by confarreate birth to fill the higher priesthoods that early in the Empire it had to be decreed that confarreation should in future be productive of manus only quoad sacra, and should not make the wife a member of her husband's family. Manus by a year's unin- terrupted cohabitation was long out of date in the time of Gaius; and, although that by coemption was still in use in his time, it was almost unknown by the end of the period. Husband and wife therefore had their separate estates, the common establish- ment being maintained by the husband, with the assistance of the revenue of the wife's dowry (dos) — an institution which received much attention at the hands of the jurists, and was to some extent regulated by statute. Divorce (either of common consent or by repudium by either spouse) was unfortunately very common ; it was lawful even without any assignable cause; when blame attached to either spouse, he or she suffered deprivation to some extent of the nuptial provisions, but there were no other penal consequences. Not only in the case of a filiusfamilias who had adopted a military career, but in all directions, there was manifested a strong tendency to place restrictions on the exercise of the patria potestas. This was due in a great degree to the hold that the principles of natural law were gaining within the Roman system, perhaps due 1 Inst. ii. 12 pr. 2 This was altered by Justinian's Il8th Novel, under which a paterfamilias taking any part of a deceased son's estate did so as his heir; see infra, p. 573. ' Some writers take the view that such act was always essential. See Girard, Manuel, 4th pondendi; and all the earlier jurists whose dicta these five had accepted. But it went yet a step further, for it declared all of them, with the sole exception of Papinian, to be ol the same authority, and degraded the function of the judge in most cases — so far at least as a question of law was con- cerned— to the purely arithmetical task of counting up the names which the industry of the advocates on either side had succeeded in .adducing in support of these respective contentions. It is probable that, from the days of Hadrian down to Severus Alexander, when the emperor in his council had to frame a rescript or a decree, its tenor would be decided by the vote of the majority; but that was after argument and counter-argument, which must in many cases have modified first impressions. Taking the votes of dead men, who had not heard each other's reasons for their opinions, was a very different process. It may have been necessary; but it can have been so only because a living jurisprudence had no existence, — because the constructive talent of the earlier Empire had entirely disappeared. ii. Ante- Justinian Collections of Statutes and Jurisprudence. Of cardinal importance for this period were the collections of imperial constitutions made prior to Justinian. There were three of these, viz. the Gregorian, the Hermogenian and the Theodosian Codes ; l the first two being the work of private hands, though they afterwards received statutory sanction from Theodosius II., the third being due to that emperor himself. Codex Gregorianus. — This was a collection of imperial constitutions from Hadrian to Diocletian, made by a certain Gregorius about the _ ri endof the 3rd century (a. 295?),who,inMommsen'sopinion2 Code ' was at t'lat t'me a Prolessor at tne 'aw school of Beirut. Only fragments of it have come down to us, obtained chiefly from Alaric's Breviary, the Lex Romano. Burgundionum, the Consultatio, the Collatio and the Vatican Fragments mentioned below ; but it was a work of considerable size, divided into books and titles. Codex Hermogenianus.* — This, like the Gregorian, was compiled in the Eastern Empire, apparently at the end of the 3rd century, Hermo- I3"' at any rate n°* 'ater t'lan l^e yCar 324' ^S' nowever' it contains a constitution of the year 365 there must have Code been subsequent additions to it. Only fragmentary remains of it are extant, obtained from the same sources as the Gregorian. Its author was a certain Hermogenianus (perhaps the jurist of that name cited in the Digest), and the work seems to have been intended as a sort of supplement to the Gregorian Code. It was a smaller work than the latter, being divided only into titles, and, unlike it, contains no pre-Diocletian constitutions. It has, however, a great number of contemporary ones, issued by Diocletian especially during the years 293 and 294. It was from this work and that of Gregorius that Justinian obtained the constitutions contained in his Code for the period prior to Constantine, and from the language he uses about the two Codes it would seem that they had been regarded in the courts before his time as the only authori- tative record of constitutions during the period covered by them. Codex Theodosianus. — In the year 429 the emperor Theodosius nominated a commission of nine persons to collect the constitutions issued by the emperors from Constantine to his own reign. From the termspftheedict appointing them heseemstohave intended to initiate the preparation of a body of law which, if his scheme had been carried into execution, would have rendered that of Justinian unnecessary. In a constitution about ten years later he explains the motives that had actuated him : that he saw with concern the poverty-stricken state of jurisprudence and how few men there were who, notwithstanding the prizes that awaited them, were able to make themselves familiar with the whole range of law; and that he attributed it very much to the multitude of books and Theo- doslfta Code. 1 Mommsen suggests (Z. d. Sav. Stift., 1889, x. pp. 345 seq.) that the name codex (meaning a volume) was given to them because, instead of being written on papyrus rolls, they were originally written in the form of tabulae publicae and bound together as a parchment volume. Private collections of Constitutions had been made even earlier than Gregorian (e.g. by Papirius Justus). 2 Z. d. Sav. Stift. xxii. pp. 139 seq. 3 Mommsen, Z. d. Sav. Stift. (1889), x. pp. 347 seq.; Kipp, Gesch. d. Quellen, pp. 78-79. The fragments of both this and the Gregorian Code, edited by Kriiger, are given in the Collectio Juris Antej. by K. M. and S., vol. iii. pp. 236-245. the large mass of statutes through which the law was dispersed, and which it was next to impossible for any ordinary mortal to mast cr. His scheme was eventually to compile one single code from materials derived alike from the writings of the jurists, the Gregorian and Hermogenian collections of rescripts, and the constitutions from the time of Constantine downwards. His language leaves little doubt that it was his intention to have this general code carefully prepared, so as to make it a complete exponent of the existing law, which should take the place of everything, statutory or juris- prudential, of an earlier date. The collection of constitutions which he directed his commissioners meantime to prepare, and which was to contain even those that were merely of historical interest (provided only it was made clear how later enactments had affected them), was to be the first step in the execution of his project. For some reason or other nothing followed upon this enactment, and in 435 a new commission of sixteen persons was nominated to collect the constitutions, but nothing was said in their instructions about anything ulterior. They were directed, however, to deal with their material in a systematic way, as by arranging the constitutions chronologically under definite titles, separating, where necessary, any constitutions dealing with more than one matter into parts, so as to bring each matter under its proper title, and with power otherwise to make such omissions, additions and alterations as seemed good to .them for the same object. The work was completed in less than three years and published at Constantinople early in the yeai 438, with the declaration that it should take effect from the 1st of January following, and a copy was sent to Valentinian, who notified it to the senate at Rome and ordained that it should come into force in the West from the I2th of January 439. The arrange- ment is in sixteen books, subdivided into titles with rubrics in which the constitutions are as a rule (though not consistently) placed in chronological order. They cover the whole field of law, private and public, civil and criminal, fiscal and administrative, military and ecclesiastical. The private law is contained in the first five books. This code was usually called 4n later documents " Theodosianus," without codex adjected. All constitutions since Constantine not contained in it were abrogated. The manuscripts in which it has come down to us are very defective, but many lacunae have been filled up from other sources, especially from Alaric's Breviary. Unfortunately the lacunae are principally in the books relating to the private law.4 Novellae Post-Theodosianae. — The imperial constitutions subse- quent to the publication of the Theodosianus got the name of Novels (novellae leges). There were three collections of these, all _ made in the Western Empire, and they are generally known as post-Theodosian Novels. The first collection con- taining edicts of Theodosius himself, sent by him to f,05 5 Valentinian III. in 447, was published by the latter emperor in the following year. The second collection contained in addition to edicts of Theodosius some edicts of Marcian and other emperors of the East, and also some of Valentinian, Majprian and other emperors of the West. The third collection was published in abridged form in Alaric's Breviary. These collections are not extant, but from Alaric's Breviary, with additions from manuscript sources, modern editions of the Novels have been prepared.6 There was also a collection of constitutions, issued between the years 33 1 and 425, nearly all relating to church matters, first published; by T. Sirmondus in 1631, and now known as the Sirmondian Constitutions.* Besides the collections of statutes just mentioned there were a number of juristic works of this period, containing both ... statute law (leges) and common law (jus) in combination, 51 ffT'" made by private individuals. Of these the following, which have come down to us in a more or less imperfect ttoas condition, are the most important: — The Collatio Legum Mosaicarum el Romanarum'' — or, as its title bears, Lex Dei quam praecipit Dominus ad Moysen — is a parallel of divine and human law, especially in the matter of delicts _ .. .. and punishments, the former drawn from the Pentateuch, and the latter from the works of Gaius, Papinian, Paul, Ulpian, and 4 There have been several editions of the Theodosian Code. That of J. Gothofredus, published after his death in 1652 (ed. with additions by Ritter in 7 yols., Leipzig, 1736-41), is a work of monumental learning and still indispensable on account of its commentary. But the latest and best edition is that of Mommsen, being the last work from the pen of that great master. It has been published at Berlin in 1905 under the title, Theodosiani libri xri. cum constitutioni- bus Sirmondianis et leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes ediderunt Th. Mommsen et Paulus M. Meyer: I. Theodosiani libri xvi. cum constitutionibus Sirmondianis edidit, adsumpto apparatu P. Krugeri, Th. Mommsen (1905). 'These Novels, so far as preserved, have been published as a second part of Mommsen's edition of the Theodosian Code. II. Leges ad Theodosianum pertinentes edidit adjutore Th. Mommseno Paulus M. Meyer (1905). 8 These are contained in the Mommsen-Meyer edition of the Theodosianus. 7 Collectio Juris Antejustiniani, by Kriiger and Mommsen, iii. pp. 107 seq. ; Girard, Texles, pp. 543 seq. ; Kriiger, Quellen, pp. 302 seq. 572 ROMAN LAW [CODIFICATION Modestine, rescripts from the Gregorian and Hermogenian Codes, and one later general enactment. Its date is probably soon after the year 390, but its authorship is unknown.1 Fragmenta Vaticana.* — These fragments, discovered by Cardinal Angelo Mai in a palimpsest in the Vatican in 1821, seem to have formed part of a book of practice, compiled in the Western Vatican Empire and of considerable dimensions. The extant frag- ments of the Titles into which it was divided deal with meats- sale, usufruct, dowries, donations, tutories and processional agency, and have been extracted from the writings of Papinian. Paul the Ulpian, an unknown work on interdicts, and _the imperial constitutions prior to Theodosius, the latest of which is of the year 372. Its antiquity is therefore probably about the same as that of the CdttoMoP T%e Consultatio.4 — The so-called Veteris cujusdam Jurisconsulti Consullatio was first published in 1577 by Cujas, from whom it got its name. It is a collection of answers by an advocate, Consul- supported by citations of texts (consultationes) upon tatio- questions of law submitted for his opinion by a solicitor, and is of value for the extracts it contains from Paul's Sentences and the three above-mentioned codes. It is thought to have been written in Gaul in the end of the 5th or beginning of the 6th Syro-Roman Law-Book.* — This was a sort of manual of Roman law drawn up in the East, apparently in the Greek language, at an uncertain date, but some time between Theodosius and Justinian. Translations of it into Syriac, Arabic and Armenian have come down to us, and it would seem that the work in these translations was greatly made use of in legal Book. practice in the East (especially in the ecclesiastical Courts) for several centuries, having in some places more authority attached to it than had the Digest and Code of Justinian. As a repertory of Roman law it is of little value, as it misunderstands or varies from that law in many respects, but it is of importance as showing how firmly Hellenic law and customs maintained themselves in the East during the decay of the Empire.6 Light has also been thrown upon the ante-Justinian law by the numerous papyri documents, mostly in Greek, that have been in recent years recovered in Egypt (especially by Grenfell and Hunt) and elsewhere.7 Mitteis, Gradenwitz and others have done much to elucidate these, by numerous publications. But to give any- thing like a consecutive account of them would occupy much space and cannot be attempted here.8 Romano-Barbarian Codes (Leges Romanae)? — Besides the collec- tions of statutes and juristic law mentioned in this section, there were several official collections made prior to Justinian in Western Europe, after it had fallen under the dominion of Gothic and other kings. There are three of these which require special notice — each of them compiled from documentary sources of ante- Justinian law. Though of consider- able use in explicating difficulties and filling up lacunae in the earlier law sources, they must be used with caution for that purpose, as they contain not a few corruptions of the original texts. They are: — i. Edictum Theoderici.10 — This was compiled at the instance of Theoderic, king of the Ostrogoths, not long after the year 500 (not later than 515). Theoderic after he had conquered Italy desired to be representative of the emperor and always acknowledged his suzerainty. He did not aim at being an independent legislator, and his Edict is therefore of limited scope and in no proper sense a code. Its materials were Codes. Edict of Theo- deric. 1 For opinions as to its author, see Girard, I.e. p. 543. He must have been an ecclesiastic. * Collectw Jur. Antej. iii. pp. I seq. (ed. Mommsen); Karlowa, Rom. R.G. i. pp. 969 seq.; Kriiger, Quellen, pp. 298-302. 3 Mommsen, however (Collectio, iii. p. n), thinks it was compiled about the time of Constantine. * Collect. Jur. Antej. iii. pp. 203-20; Girard, Textes, pp. 590 seq. See Kriiger, Quellen, pp. 305-7. 6 Ed. by Bruns and Sachau under the name Syrisch-Romisches Rechtsbuch aus demfiinften Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1880). See Esmein, Melanges, pp. 403 seq.; Ferrini, Z. d. Sav. Stift. (1902), xxiii. pp. 101 seq.; Kriiger, Quellen, pp. 320 seq. * The first volume of a complete collection of the versions of the Syrian Law-Book, with a translation into German by Sachau, was published at Berlin in 1907. '' E.g. the Amherst Papyri, by Grenfell and Hunt. See Archiv fur Papyrusforschung (since 1900). 8 For an account of the papyri found at Sinai, containing parts of a commentary on Ulpian, ad_ Sabinum, supposed to have been written after A.D. 438, s=ee Muirhead, Hist. Introd. p. 374, and Girard, Textes, p. 578. For other papyri, see Girard, op. cit. pp. 838-44. 9 See Kriiger, Gesch. d. Quellen, § 41 ; Brunner, Deutsche Rechts- gesch. (1887), i. §§ 49, 50. 10 Ed. Bluhme in Pertz's Monumenta Germaniae, Leges, v. pp. 145 seq. (Hanover, 1875); see Savigny, Gesch. d. r. R. ii. pp. 172 seq.; Gaudenzi in Z. d. Sav. Stift. (Germ. Abtheil.), 1886, vii. pp. 29 seq. I mainly drawn, without however indication given, from the writings of Paul, the Gregorian, Hermogenian and Theodosian Codes, and the post-Theodosian Novels. Divided into 155 chapters, with no systematic arrangement, it touches upon all branches of the law, public and private, but especially criminal law and procedure. Though it contains a certain infusion of Gothic law and was professedly intended to apply to all Theoderic's subjects, both Goths and Romans, it seems nevertheless generally admitted that this idea cannot have been fully realized, and that in some matters with which it deals, e.g. the law of the family, Gothic customs must still have continued to prevail for Gothic subjects. 2 The Lex Romana Wisigothorum or Breviarium Alarici or Alaricianum u (both of these titles are modern) was a much more ambitious and important collection than the one last „, mentioned. It was compiled by a commission of lawyers appointed by Alaric II.. king of the Western Goths, with approval of the bishops and nobles, and published at Aire in Gascony in the year 506. The compilers selected their material partly from the leges (imperial constitutions after Diocletian) and partly from the vetus jus (juristic law), taking what they con- sidered appropriate, without materially altering the text of their authorities except in the way of excision of passages that were obsolete or superseded. For the leges they utilized some 400 of the 3400 enactments (according to Haenel's estimate) of the Theodosian Code and about 30 of the Post-Theodosian Novels; for the jus they made use of Paul's Sentences, Gaius's Institutes (in a corrupt and greatly abridged form in two books dating probably from, and adapted to the law of, the 5th century), the first book of Papinian's Responses (a single responsum), and the Gregorian and Hermogenian Collections (which were treated as jus). All of these, except Gains (for the reason mentioned), were accompanied by interpretations (i.e. for the most part explanatory adaptations of the passages to the existing practice) which were largely borrowed from books in current use for purposes of instruction, and which resemble the interpretation of the XII. Tables in that they are often not so much explanatory of the text as qualificative or corrective. The Breviary exercised great influence in western Europe ; and there is no question that, until the rise of the Bologna school in the end of the nth century, it was from it more than from the books of Justinian that western Europe, other than Italy, acquired its scanty knowledge of Roman law. 3. The Lex Romana Burgundionum n — to which erroneously, about the 9th century, owing to a mistake of a MS. transcriber, the name Papianus (a contraction of Papinianus) was _. _ given. It is a collection which King Gundobad, when publishing his code of native law (Lex Gundobada) for his native subjects, had promised should be prepared for the use of his Roman subjects. It was published probably before his death in 516. It deals with private law, criminal law and pro- cedure, distributed through forty-seven titles, and is arranged much in the same order as the Gundobada, from which it has a few extracts. Its statutory Roman sources are the same as those of the Breviary ; its juristic sources are Paul's Sentenceo and a work of Gaius of which we cannot say with certainty that it is his Institutes. It also contains some inter prelationes of the same character as those in the Breviary, but whether taken directly from the latter or not is disputed. _ After the conquest of the Burgundian kingdom by the Franks this code ceased to have any direct authority, but was used in the .courts as a sort of supplement to the Breviary, being often bound in the same volume with the latter. iii. Justinian's Legislation. Justinian's Collections and his own Legislation. — The history of Justinian outside his legislative achievements, and his collections in detail, are dealt with in the article Jas. JUSTINIAN I. Ambitious to carry out a reform more tiaiaa's complete even than that which Theodosius had planned codifiut- but failed to execute, he took the first step towards it tloa' little more than six months after the death of his uncle Justin, in the appointment of a commission to prepare a collection of statute law (leges), among which he included the rescripts of the Gregorian and Hermogenian Codes, which were commonly at this period described a& jus. It was published in April 529; and in rapid succession there followed his Fifty Decisions "Ed. Haenel (Leipzig, 1849); Conrat (Cohn), Brev. Alaricianum (1903). This work oi. Cohn is a systematic arrangement of the Breviary, with the Latin text as given by Haenel, and a translation into German of the interpretatio (or, where there is none, of the text itself), and some explanatory notes. See Karlowa, Rom. R.G. i. pp. 976 seq. ; Kriiger, Quellen, § 40. n Ed. Bluhme in Pertz's Monumenta German. Hist. Leges, iii. pp. 505 seq. (Hanover, 1863); de Salis Monum. Germ. Leg. sec. I. and ii. p. i (Hanover, 1892). See Karlowa, Rom. R.G. L pp. 983-985. " CODIFICATION] ROMAN LAW 573 (529-531), his Institutes1 (November 21, 533), his Digest of excerpts from the writings of the jurists (December 16, 533),' and the revised edition of his Code, in which he incorporated his own legislation down to date (November 16, 534).' From that time down to his death in 565 there followed a series of Novels (novellae constitutiones), mostly in Greek, which were never officially collected, and of which probably some have been lost.4 Taking his enactments in the Code and his Novels together, we have of Justinian's own legislation not far short of 600 His own constitutions. Diocletian's contributions to the Code enact- are more than twice as numerous; but most of them meats. professed to be nothing more than short declaratory statements of pre-existing law, whereas Justinian's, apart from his Fifty Decisions, were mostly reformatory enact- ments, many of those in the Novels as long as an average act of parliament, and often dealing with diverse matters under the same rubric. They cover the whole field of law, public and private, civil and criminal, secular and ecclesiastical. It cannot be said that they afford pleasant reading: they are so disfigured by redundancy of language, involved periods and nauseous self-glorification. But it cannot be denied that many of those which deal with the private law embody reforms of great moment and of most salutary tendency. The emperor sometimes loved to pose as the champion of the simplicity and even-handedness of the early law, at others to denounce it for its subtleties; sometimes he allowed himself to be in- fluenced by his own extreme asceticism, and now and again we detect traces of subservience to the imperious will of his consort; but in the main his legislation was dictated by what he was pleased to call humanilas so far as the law of persons was concerned, and by naturalis ratio and public utility so far as concerned that of things. The result was the eradication of almost every trace of the old jus Quiritium, and the substitution for it, under the name of jUs Romanum, of that cosmopolitan body of law which has contributed so largely to almost every modern system. Changes in the Law of the Family. — With the Christian emperors, from Constantine downwards, almost the last traces disappeared of the old conception of the familia as an aggregate of persons and estate subject absolutely to the power and dominion of its head. Manus, the power in a husband over his relations. wjje an(j ^ belongings, was a thing of the past; both stood now on a footing of equality before the law; perhaps it might be more accurate to say, at least with reference to the Justinianian legislation, that the wife was the more privileged of the two in respect both of the protection and the indulgence the law accorded her. With manus the old confarreation and coemption had ceased, marriage needing nothing more than simple interchange of consent, except as between persons of rank (illustres) or when the intention was to legitimate previous issue; in the latter case a written marriage settlement (instrumentum dotale) was required, and in the former both such a settlement and a marriage in church before the bishop and at least three clerical witnesses, who granted and signed a certificate of the completed union. The legislation of the Christian emperors on the subject of divorce, largely contributed to by Justinian in his Novels, has already been referred to. In regard to the dos, many new provisions were introduced, principally for curtailing the husband's power of dealing with it while the marriage lasted, enlarging the right of the wife and her heirs in respect of it, and simplifying the means of recovering it from the husband or his 1 The best edition is that of Krtiger, which is prefixed to the stereotype edition of the Corpus Juris by Mommsen, Kriiger and Schoell, vol. i., and also published separately. 2 The best edition is that of Mommsen, Digesta Justiniani (2 vols., Berlin, 1866-70), and also vol. i. of the stereotype edition of the Corpus Juris mentioned in preceding note. A new and handy edition, however, based on that of Mommsen, by Bonfante and several other Italian professors, is now in course of publication. Books I .-XXVI 1 1. were published up to 10.08 (Milan). A collotype facsimile of the Florentine MS. of the Digest is also in course of publication in Italy. Fascicoli I.-VI. have already (1908) appeared (Rome, 1902-7). 3 The best edition is that of Krtiger, forming vol. ii. of the Corpus Juris last mentioned. •The best edition is that of Schoell, completed by Kroll in 1895, and forming vol. iii. of the Corpus Juris last mentioned. It contains the Greek texts, Latin Vulgate and a Latin translation more correct than the Vulgate. heirs when the marriage was dissolved. Between the time of Constantine and that of Theodosius and Valentinian a new form of matrimonial settlement became established. It became apparently a legally sanctioned practice for a man to make (apart from ordinary marriage presents) a settlement on his intended wife either by actual transfer or by promise of a provision which was to remain his property (though without the power of alienation) during the marriage, but to pass to her on his predecease or on divorce by his fault. This got the name of donatio ante nuptias, or sometimes, as being a sort of counterpart for the dos, antipherna. There was some important legislation about it by the two last-mentioned emperors; Leo and Justin followed suit; and Justinian, in his Code and Novels, published five or six enactments for its regulation. The general result was that, wherever a dos was given or promised on the part of the wife, there a donatio of equal amount was to be constituted on the part of the husband; that, if one was increased during the marriage, a corresponding increase was to be made to the other; that it might be constituted or increased after the marriage without infringing the rule prohibiting donations between husband and wife, which caused Justinian to change its name to donatio propter nuptias ; that the wife might demand its transfer to her (to the same extent as she could that of the dos) on her husband's insolvency, but under obligation to apply its income to the main- tenance of the family ; and that on the dissolution of the marriage by her husband's death or by a divorce for which he was in fault, she had an hypothec and other ample remedies for reducing it into possession.6 The change in the complexion of the relations between husband and wife under the Christian emperors, however, was insignificant when compared with that which had overtaken the relation between parent and child. Justinian in his Institutes reproduces ihe boast of Gaius that nowhere else had a father such power over his children as was exercised by a Roman paterfamilias. True it is that the patria potestas in name still held a prominent place in the Justin- ianian collections; but it had been shorn of most, of the prerogatives that had characterized it in earlier periods. To expose a newborn child was forbidden under penalties. To take the life of a grown- up one — unless it was a daughter slain with her paramour in the act of adultery — was murder; for the domestic tribunal, with the judicial power of life and death in the paterfamilias as its head, had long disappeared. Further, a parent could no longer sell his child save only when the child was an infant and he in such extreme poverty as to be unable to support it. Even the right to make a noxal surrender of his son to a party who had suffered from the latter's delict had silently become obsolete; so greatly had altered sentiment, in sympathy with legislation, curtailed the power of the paterfamilias over those in his potestas. This noxae deditio was formally abolished by Justinian. All that remained of the patria potestas, in short, in the Justinianian law was little more than would be sanctioned in most modern systems as natural emanations of the paternal relationship. Thus he had right of moderate chastisement for offences (for the infliction of graver punishments he had to apply to the magistrate), of testamentary nomination of guardians, of pupillary substitution (enlarged by Justinian), and of withholding consent from the marriage of a child, but subject in this last case to magisterial intervention if used unreasonably. How the right of the paterfamilias over the earnings and acquisi- tions of his children was modified by the recognition of the peculium castrense has been shown in a previous page. But the modification was carried to such an extent "by the Christian emperors as finally to negative the father's ownership altogether, except as regarded acquisitions that were the outcome of funds advanced by him to his child for his separate use (peculium profecticium). Of some of the child's acquisitions (bona adventicia) his father had, down to the time of Justinian, the life interest and right of administration; but by his legislation even these might be excluded at the pleasure of the parties from whom the acquisitions had been derived or by maladministration of the father. By the classical law the father's radical right in his son's peculium castrense revived on the latter's death; for if he died intestate the former appropriated it not as his son's heir, but as an owner whose powers as such had been merely temporarily suspended. But by one of the chapters in the famous 1 1 8th Novel on the law of intestate succession even this prerogative of the paterfamilias was abolished, and all a child's belongings except his peculium pro- fecticium were recognized as his own in death as well as in life, so that if any of them should pass to his parent on his intestacy it should only be by title of inheritance and in the absence of descendants. In every other branch of the law of the family the same reforming spirit was manifested. Adoption of filiifamilias was no longer followed in all cases by a change of family for the adoptee, but only when either the adopter was in fact one of his ancestors in whose 'See Esmein, Melanges, pp. 58-70; Mitteis, Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in d. Ostt. Provinz., deals with its history, pp. 256-312. Though beneficial on the whole, the regulations of Justinian on this matter seem rather too great an interference with the freedom of marriage settlements. 574 ROMAN LAW [CODIFICATION potestas he had never been, such as a paternal or maternal grand- father, when there was a natural potestas to underlie and justify the civil one — or when an ancestor gave in adoption a grandchild who was in his potestas but would not become sui juris by his death. The mode of strict adoption also was simplified, the old procedure by sales and manumissions, which degraded the child too much to the level of a slave, was abolished. The modes of legitimation of children born of a concubine, especially that by subsequent marriage of the parents, first introduced by Constantine, were regulated, and the extent of the rights of the legitimated issue carefully defined. Emancipation was simplified in a similar way to that of strict adoption. Tutory at law was opened to the pupil's nearest kinsman, whether on 'the father's side or the mother's; and the mother herself, or the child's grandmother, might be allowed, under certain conditions, to act as its guardian. Slavery was often converted into the milder condition of colonate; but, even where this did not happen, the rights of owners were not allowed to be abused ; for slaves were permitted to claim the protection of the magistrate, and cruelty by a master might result in his being deprived of his human property. Kinship that had arisen between two persons when one or both were slaves (servilis cognatio) was recognized as creative not only of disabilities but of rights. The modes of manumission were multiplied, and the restriction of the legislation of the early empire abolished; and a freedman invariably became a citizen, Junian Latinity and dediticiancy being no longer recognized. Amendments on the Law of Property and Obligation. — In the law of property the principal changes of the Christian Empire were the simplification of the forms of conveyance, the extension v "' of the colonate, the introduction and regulation of em- propeny. p),yteusis ancj tne remodelling of the law of prescription. Simplification of the forms of conveyance was necessary only in the case of res mancipi, for res nee mancipi had always passed by delivery. From the Theodosian Code it is apparent that movable res mancipi usually passed in the same way from very early in the period, and that for the mancipation of lands and houses — for in jure cessio had dis- appeared with the formular system — -a solemnis traditio, i.e. a written instrument and delivery following thereon, and both before witnesses, had been gradually substituted. Of this there is no trace in the Justinianian Code. For Justinian abolished all remains of the dis- tinction between res mancipi and res nee mancipi, between full ownership, bonitarian ownership and nudum jus Quiritium, placing movables and immovables on a footing of perfect equality so far as their direct conveyance was concerned. But, as regarded the pos- session required of an acquirer to cure any defect in the conveyance, he made a marked difference between immovables and movables. For, amalgamating the old positive usucaption of the jus civile with the negative " prolonged possession " (longi temporis possessio) that had been first introduced for immovables in the provinces (probably by the provincial edict), and afterwards by rescripts of Caracalla for movables,1 he declared that possession on a sufficient title and in good faith should in future make the possessor legal owner of the thing possessed by him, provided that the possession of himself and his author had endured uninterruptedly for three years in the case of a movable, and in the case of an immovable for ten years if the party against whom he possessed was resident in the same province, or for twenty if he resided in another one. The same causes that led to the colonate induced the introduction of emphyteusis,2 — an institution which had already existed in some _ . of the Eastern provinces when independent, and which ieusif came to be utilized first by the emperors, then by the church, and afterwards by municipalities and private landowners, for bringing into cultivation the large tracts of provincial land belonging to them which were unproductive and unprofitable through want of supervision on the spot. Its nature and conditions (which bore a certain similarity to the earlier jus in agro vectigali of the Western Empire, with which it was ultimately fused, and to hereditary leases sometimes granted in the early Empire) were carefully defined by Zeno and amended by Justinian. The emphyteuta, as the grantee of the right was ultimately called, did not become owner; the granter still remained dominus, all that the grantee enjoyed being a jus in re aliena, but so extensive as hardly to be distinguishable from ownership. It conferred upon him and his heirs a perpetual right in the lands included in the grant, in con- sideration of a fixed annual payment to the lord (canon) and due observance of conventional and statutory conditions; but he was not entitled to abandon it, nor able to free himself of the obligations he had undertaken, without the lord's consent. The latter was entitled to hold the grant forfeited if the canon fell into arrear for three years (in church lands for two), or if the land-tax was in arrear for the same period, or if the emphyteuta allowed the lands to deteriorate, or if he attempted to alienate them (alienare meliora- 1 Dig. xliv. 3, 9. 2 See Elia Lattes, Studi storici sopra il Contralto d' Enfiteusi nelle sue relazioni col Colonato (Turin. 1868), chaps. I and 3; and Francois, De I'Emphyteose (Paris, 1883); Beaudouin in Nouv. rev. hist. (1898), pp. 545 seq.; Karlowa, Rom. R. C. ii. pp. 1268 seq. The name comes from the obligation imposed upon the grantees to make plantations Testa- mentary BUKCCS- tiones as the text says) without observance of statutory requirements. These were that he should intimate an intended alienation and the name of the intended alienee to the lord, so that the latter, before giving his assent, might satisfy himself that he would not be a loser by the transaction; and, if the alienation was to be by sale, he had to state the price fixed, so as to give the lord the opportunity of exercising his statutory right of pre-emption at the same figure. If those requirements were complied with, and the lord (himself declin- ing to purchase) stated no reasonable objection to the proposed alienee, he was not entitled to resist the alienation, provided a payment (laudemium) was made to him of 2% of the sale price or of the value of the lands in consideration of his enforced consent. The changes in the law of obligation were more superficial than those in the law of property, and consisted principally obllza- in the simplification of formalities and in some cases in their entire abolition. To describe them, however, would carry us into details which would here be out of place. Changes in the Law of Succession. — The changes made in the law of succession by Justinian's Christian predecessors, especially Theodosius II. and Anastasius, were far from insignificant; but hisown were in somedirections positively revolutionary. The testament per aes et libram of thejus civile probably never obtained any firm footing in the East ; for it was only g"oa by Caracalla's constitution conferring citizenship on all his free subjects that provincials generally acquired testamenti factio ; and by that time a testament bearing externally the requisite number of seals had been recognized as sufficient for a grant of bonorum possessio unchallengeable by the heirs-at-Iaw, even though they were able to prove that neither familiae mancipatio nor testamenti nuncupatio had intervened. Hence thb universal adoption of what Justinian calls the praetorian testament, which, however, underwent consider- able reform at the hands of the emperors, notably Theodosius II. and Valentinian III., in the requirement (in the ordinary case) of signature by the testator and subscription by the witnesses, thereby becoming what Justinian calls the tripartite testament. There was much hesitating legislation on the subject before the law was finally established as it stands in the Justinianian books; and even at the last we find it encumbered with many exceptions and reserva- tions in favour of testaments that were merely deeds of division by a parent among his children, testaments made in time of plague, testaments made before a magistrate and recorded in books of court, testaments entrusted to the safe keeping of the emperor, and so forth. Codicils had become deeds of such importance as, in the absence of a testament, to be dealt with as imposing a trust on the heir-at-law; it was therefore thought expedient to deny effect to them unless attested by at least five witnesses. And a most im- portant step in advance was take.n by Justinian in the recognition of the validity of an oral mortis causa trust; for he declared that, if it should be represented to a competent judge that a person on his death-bed had by word of mouth directed his heir to give something to the complainant, the heir should be required either on his oath to deny the averment or to give or pay what was claimed.* In the matter of intestacy there had been long a halting between two opinions — a desire still further to amend the law in the direction taken by the praetors and by the legislature in the Ter- tullian and Orphitian senatusconsults, and yet a hesitancy about breaking altogether from the time-hallowed principle of agnation. Justinian in his Code went far beyond his predecessors, making a mother's right of succession independent altogether of the jus liberorum; extending that of a daughter or sister to her descendants, without any deduction in favour of ag- nates thus excluded; admitting emancipated collaterals and their descendants as freely as if there had been no capitis deminutio minima; applying to agnates the same successio graduum that the praetors had allowed to cognates, and so forth. But it was by his Novels, especially the iiSth and I27th, that he revolutionized the system, by eradicating agnation altogether (except as regard^ adopted children) and settling the canons of descent — which were the same for real and personal estate — solely on the basis of blood kinship, whether through males or females, and whether crossed or not by a capitis deminutio. First came descendants of the intestate, male and female alike, taking per capita if all were of the same degree, per stirpes if of different degrees. Failing descendants, the succession passed to the nearest ascendants, and, concurrently with them, to brothers and sisters of full blood (germani) and (by Nov. 127) the children of any that had predeceased. Where there were ascend- ants alone, one-half of the succession went to the paternal line and one-half to the maternal; where there were ascendants and brothers and sisters, or only brothers and sisters, the division was made equally per capita; when children of a deceased brother or sister participated jt was per stirpes. In the third class came brothers and sisters of half blood and their children, and grand- children of brothers and sisters german; the division here was on the same principle as in the second class. The fourth class included all other collaterals according to propinquity, apparently to the remotest degree, and without distinction between full and half blood; 3 Inst. ii. 23, § 12. The 118th Novel CODIFICATION] ROMAN LAW 575 but among those the nearest in degree excluded the more remote, and when all were of the same degree they took per capita. A reform effected by Justinian by his 115th Novel ought not to pass unnoticed; for it rendered superfluous all the old rules about ~. disherison and praeterilion of a testator's children, practi- 115th cally abolished bonorum possessio contra tabulas as regards Novel. freeborn persons and established the principle that a child had, as a general rule, an inherent and indefeasible right to be one of his father's heirs in a certain share at all events of his succession, and that a parent had the same right in the succession of his child if the latter had died without issue. The enactment enumerated certain grounds upon which alone it should be lawful for a parent to disinherit his child or a child his parent, declaring that in every case of disherison the reason of it should be stated in the testament, but giving leave to the person disinherited to dispute and disprove the facts when the testament was opened. If a child who had not been disinherited — and one improperly disinherited was eventually in the same position — was not instituted to some share, however small, of his parent's hereditas, he was entitled to have the testament declared null in so far as the institutions in it were concerned, thus opening the succession to himself and the other heirs-at-law, but without affecting accessory provisions, such as bequests, nominations of tutors, &c.; and if the share to which he was instituted was less than his legitim (legitima or debita porlio) he was entitled to an action in supplement. The legitim, which under the practice of the centumviral court had been one-fourth of the share to which the child would have been entitled ab intestate, had been raised by Justinian (by Novel 18) to one-third at least, and one-half where there were five or more entitled to participate. He did not allow challenge of the will to be excluded, as in the earlier querela inofficiosi testamenti, because the testator had made advances to his child during his life or left him a legacy which quantitatively equalled the legitim; his idea was that a child was entitled to recognition by his parent 05 one of his heirs, and that to deny him that position without statutory grounds was to put upon him an indignity which the law would not permit. Amongst the other beneficial changes effected by Justinian may be mentioned the assimilation so far as possible of heredilas and Othe bonorum possessio, so that the latter might be taken like the former without formal petition for a grant of it; the equiparation of legacies and singular trust-gifts, and the application of some of their rules to mortis causa donations; the extension of the principle of " transmission " to every heir without exception, so that, if he died within the time allowed him for con- sidering whether or not he would accept (tempus deliberandi) , his power of acceptance or declinature passed to his heirs, to be exercised by them within what remained of the period ; the introduction of entry under inventory (cum beneficio imientarii) , which limited the heir's responsibilities and rendered unnecessary the nine or twelve months of deliberation; and the application of the principle of collation to descendants generally, so that they were bound to throw into the mass of the succession before its partition every advance they had received from their parent in anticipation of their shares. iv. The Justinianian Law-Books. Their Use in the Courts and in the Schools. — Although the Institutes were primarily intended to serve as a text-book in the schools, it was expressly declared that it and the Digest and the Code should be regarded as just so many parts of one great piece of legislation and all of equal authority; and that, although Digest and Code were but collections of common law and legislation that had proceeded originally from many different hands, yet they were to be treated with the same respect as if they had been the work of Justinian himself. But, while everything within them was to be held as law, nothing outside them was to be looked at, not even the volumes from which they had been collected; and so far did this go that, after the publication in 534 of the revised Code, neither the first edition of it nor the Fifty Decisions were allowed to be referred to. If a case arose for which no precedent was to be found, the emperor was to be resorted to for his decision, as being outside his collections the only fountain of the law. To preserve the purity of the texts Justinian forbade the use of conventional abbreviations (sigla) in making transcripts, visiting an offender with the penalties of falsification (crimen falsi). Literal translations into Greek were authorized, and indeed were necessary for many of his subjects; so were indexes and TropaTirXa, i.e. summaries of parallel passages, texts or individual titles. Com- mentaries and general summaries were forbidden under heavy penalties, as an interference with the imperial prerogative of inter- pretation.1 But these prohibitions do not seem to have been enforced, as we have accounts and remains not only of translations but of commentaries, notes, abridgments, excerpts and general summaries even in Justinian's lifetime. These, it is true, were mostly by professors (antecessores), and their productions may have been intended primarily for educational purposes; but they soon passed into the hands of the practitioners and were used without scruple in the courts. A Greek Paraphrase of the Institutes, usually Justin* laalan law- books. 'Const. Deo Auctore, § 12; Tanta, § 21. attributed to Thepphilus, a professor in Constantinople and one of Justinian's commissioners, has been supposed to have been used by him in his prelections. It embodies much more historical matter than is to be found in the Institutes; but it contains a good many inaccuracies and its value has been very differently rated by different critics. Its latest editor, Ferrini, who puts a high estimate on it, is of opinion that the original of it was a reproduction in Greek of Gaius, drawn up at Beirut, which was remodelled after the plan of Justinian's Institutes, and had the new matter of this latter work subsequently incorporated in order to adapt it to the altered con- ditions; but he denies that there is any sufficient authority for ascribing it to Theophilus. If he be right in assuming that it was really based on a redaction of Gaius, its historical explanations will be received with all the more confidence.2 Fate of the Justinianian Books in the East. — The literary work indicated in the preceding section was continued throughout the 6th century. But the next three were comparatively barren, _.. t the only thing worth noting being the 'ExXo-yi) ruv vbfiuv ii> * avvroiuf ttvonivii of Leo the Isaurian in 740. professedly an abstract of the whole Justinianian law amended and rearranged; but it was repealed by Basil the Macedonian on account of its imperfections and its audacious departure from the law it pretended to summarize. The last-named emperor, followed by his son Leo the Philosopher, set themselves in the end of the gth and beginning of the loth centuries to the production of an authori- tative Greek version of the whole of the Justinianian collections and legislation, omitting what had since become obsolete, excising redundancies, and introducing such of the post-Justinianian legisla- tion as they thought merited preservation. The result was^the Basilica (fa BaaiXuco.sc. vd/tifia), which was completed and published in the reign of Leo, though begun in the reign of Basil, who also published a sort of institutional work, entitled np&xfipov, which was revised and republished by Leo under the name ot'Enavaytayfi rov v&pov. The Basilica3 consists of sixty books, subdivided into titles, following generally the plan of the Justinianian Code, but with the whole law on any particular subject arranged consecutively, whether from Institutes, Digest, Code or Novels (see article BASILICA). Leo's son, Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, made an addition to it in the shape of an official commentary collected from the writings of the 6th- century jurists, the so-called Uapaypcupal rSiv xa.\tuC>v, which is now spoken of as the scholia to the Basilica, and has done good exegetical service for modern civilians. Later annotations by jurists of the loth to the I2th century are also called scholia but are of less value. The Basilica retained its statutory authority until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. But long before that it had fallen into neglect in practice; and though nearly the whole of it and a great part of its scholia have come to us, yet not a single complete copy of it exists. Its place was taken by epitomes and compendia, the last being the 'EiA/Si/SXoj of Constantinus Harmenopoulos about 1345, " a miserable epitome of the epitomes of epitomes," as Bruns calls it, which survived the vicissitudes of the centuries, and finally received statutory authority in the modern kingdom of Greece in the year 1835, in place of the Basilica, which had been sanctioned thirteen years before, in 1822.* Their Fate in the West. — Before the rise of the Bologna school it was to a much greater extent from the Romano- Barbarian codes than from the books of J ustinian that central and western Europe, fhetr apart from Italy, derived their acquaintance with Roman f f la law. Theoderic's Edict can have had little influence after 36j, Greek hymn-writer, " the Pindar of rhythmic poetry," was born at Emesa (Horns) in Syria. From the scanty notices of his life we learn that he resided in Constantinople during the reign of the emperor Anastasius.9 Having officiated as a deacon in the church of the Resurrection at Berytus, he removed to Constantinople, where he was attached to the churches of Blachernae and Cyrus. According to the legend, when he was asleep in the last-named church, the Virgin appeared to him and commanded him to eat a scroll. On awaking (it was Christmas Day), he immediately mounted the pulpit, and gave forth his famous hymn on the Nativity. Romanos is said to have composed more than 1000 similar hymns or co-ntakia (Gr. KOVTCLKIOV, " scroll ") celebrating the festivals of the ecclesiastical year, the lives of the saints and other sacred subjects — on the death of a monk (extremely impressive); the last judgment; the treachery of Judas; the martyrdom of St Stephen; Simeon 'Digesla Justiniani Augusli, recognovit Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1870). ,. 7 Or liber authenticorum. So called because it contained a more complete collection and correcter translation of the Greek Novels than the Epitome of Julian. It was the one used in the law courts in the middle ages. 8 See Sohm, Institutionen, § 27, and authorities there cited. On the question whether Anastasius I. (491-518) or II. (713-716) is meant, see Krumbacher, who is in favour of the earlier date. ROMANOV— ROMAN RELIGION 577 Stylites; paschal and pentecostal hymns. The MS. of the hymns, written by his own hand, was said to have been preserved in the church of Cyrus, in which he was buried and celebrated as a saint on the ist of October. Prof. C. Krumbacher, who has edited the works of Romanes from the best (the Patmos) MSS., regards him as the greatest poet of the Byzantine age, and perhaps the greatest ecclesiastical poet of any age. Editions: J. B. Pitra, Analecta Sacra, i. (1876), containing 29 poems, and Sanctus Romanus Veterum Melodorum Princeps (1888), with three additional hymns from the monastery of St John in Patmos. See also Pitra's Hymnographie de l'£glise grecque (1867) ; C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Lilteratur (1897); and HYMNS. ROMANOV, the name of the Russian imperial dynasty, regnant in the male line from 1613 to 1730, and thenceforward in the female line. The Romanovs descended from Andrei, surnamed Kobyla, who is said to have come to Moscow from 1 Prussia about 1341 to enter the service of the grand-duke Semen (d. 1353). His son Feodor, surnamed Koschka, was the ancestor of the families of Suchovo-Kobylin, Kalytschev and Scheremetjev, as well as of the Romanovs. Feodor's grandson, Sakhariya Ivanovich, was a boyar of Vasilii V., grand-duke of Moscow at intervals between 1425 and 1462, and the family took its name from his grandson Roman, whose daughter Anastasia Romanovna married the tsar Ivan the Terrible. Her brother Nikita Romanovich married the princess Eudoxia Alexandrovna, a descendant of Andrei Jaroslavovich, grand-duke of Susdal- Vladimir (d. 1264), and in this way the Romanovs were linked up with the ancient royal house of Rurik. The Romanovs suffered heavily in the disorders follow- ing on the death of Ivan. Some were executed and others exiled. Nikita's son Feodor (the archimandrite Philaret) was banished, but was recalled by the false Demetrius. In 1610 he was imprisoned by the king of Poland, but his piety and virtues led to the election of his son, Mikhail Feodorovich Romanov, to the throne of the tsars in 1613. Philaret became patriarch of Moscow in 1619, and supported his son's govern- ment until his death in 1634. Mikhail was seventeen when he began his reign, and died in 1645. He was succeeded by his son Alexis, whose three sons, Feodor III., Ivan II. and Peter I. (the Great), inherited the throne. After the two years' reign of Peter's widow, Ekaterina Aleksievna Skavronska (Catherine I.), his grandson, Peter Aleksievich (Peter II.), succeeded. He died in 1730, and the succession devolved on the family of Ivan II., on his daughter Anna (1730-40) and his great-grand- son Ivan III., and in 1741 on Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great. Peter's elder daughter, Anna, had married Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, and with the accession of her son, Peter III., in 1762 begins the present reigning dynasty of Holstein-Gottorp or Oldenburg-Romanov. See R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (1905) ; P. V. Dolgoru- kov, Notice sur les principales families de la Russie (2nd ed., Berlin, 1858). ROMAN RELIGION. In tracing the history of the religion of the Roman people we are not, as in the case of Greece, dealing with separate, though interacting, developments in a number of independent communities, but with a single community which won its way to the headship first of Latium, then of Italy and finally of a European empire. But this very fact of its ever-extending influence, coupled with an absence of dogmatism in belief, which made it at all times ready and even anxious to adopt foreign customs and ideas, gave its religion a constantly shifting and broadening character, so that it is difficult to determine the original essentials. By the time when Latin literature begins, the genuine Roman religion had already been overlaid by foreign cults and modes of thought, by the classical period it was — except in formal observance — practically buried and to a large extent fossilized. But the comparative study of religions has suggested the lines of reconstitution and the careful analysis of survivals embedded in literature and the evidence of monumental remains, and in particular xxni. 19 of the old calendars, has enabled modern scholars to make good progress in the task of separating the elements due to different periods and influences. The Roman people were of Aryan stock, a section of a host of invaders from the north, who overran and settled in the Italian peninsula. They preserved traces of their original nationality not merely in the general cast of their religious thought, but in certain common features such as the worship of the hearth (Vesta) and of the sky-divinity (Jupiter) (see GREEK RELIGION). But the development of their religion was arrested at an earlier stage than that of the Greeks: with them — at any rate in the genuine Roman period — Animism never passed into Anthropo- morphism; they stopped at the conception of the " spirit " without reaching that of the " god." Their belief might be described as a polydemonism rather than a polytheism, or more correctly, to avoid altogether the intrusion of foreign notions, as a " multinuminism." In the cult and ritual of Rome there are enshrined many sur- vivals from a very early form of religious thought prior to the de- velopment of the characteristic Roman attitude of mind. peusb- Fetishism — the belief in the magic or divine power of inanimate objects — is seen in the cult of stones, such as the silex of Jupiter (luppiter), which plays a prominent part in the ceremonial of treaty-making, and the lapis used in the ritual of the aquaelicium, a process, probably magic in origin, designed to produce rain after a long drought. The boundary- stones between properties (termini) were also the objects of cult at the annual festival of the Terminalia, and the " god Terminus," the symbolic boundary-stone, shares with Jupiter the great temple on the Capitol. Tree-worship (q.v.) again is a constantly recurring feature, seen, for instance, in the permanently sacred character of the ficus Ruminalis and the caprificus of the Campus Martius, and above all in the oak of luppiter Ferelrius, on which the spolia opima were hung after a victory. Nor did Roman fetishism stop short at natural objects. The household was always the centre of religious cult, and certain objects in the house — the door, the hearth, the store-cupboard (penus) — seem always to have had a sacred significance, and so became the objects and later the sites of the domestic worship. Of the cult of animals there is just sufficient trace to show that it must formerly have had its place in religious rite; the animals, once the objects of worship, appear in later times as the attributes of divinities, for instance, the sacred wolf and woodpecker of Mars. But Fetishism must very early have developed into Animism, the feeling of the sacredness of the object into the sense of an indwelling spirit. In the animistic attitude we have in- deed the true background of the genuine Roman religion ; but its characteristic and peculiar development is a kind of " higher Animism," which can associate the " spirit " not merely with visible and tangible objects, but with states and actions in the life of the individual and the community. No doubt the later indigitamenta (" bidding-prayers ") which give us detailed lists of the spirits which preside over the various actions of the infant, or the stages in the marriage ceremony, or the agricultural operations of the farmer, are due in a large measure to deliberate pontifical elaboration, but they are a true indication of the Roman attitude of mind, which reveals itself continually in the analysis of the cults of the household or the festivals of the agricultural year. The " powers " (numina, not de'i), which thus become the objects of worship, are spirits specialized in function and limited in sphere. They are not conceived of in any anthropomorphic form, their sex even may often be indeterminate (" sive mas, sive femina " is the constantly recurring formula of prayer), but the sphere of action of each is clearly marked and an appeal to a spirit outside his own special sphere would never even be thought of. Locality thus becomes an important point in the conception of the numen: the household spirits must be worshipped at the door, the hearth, the store-cupboard, and the external spirits of the fields and countryside have their sacred hill-tops or groves. But the numen has no form of sensuous representation, nor does he need a house to dwell in: statue and temple are alien to the spirit of Roman religion. Nor are the numina. not beinjt anthropomorphic, capable of relation ROMAN RELIGION to one another: hence there is no Roman mythology. Yet, all- powerful in their individual spheres of action, they can influence the fortunes of men and can enter into relations with them. The primary attitude of man to the numina seems clearly to be one of fear, which survives prominently in the " impish " character of certain of the spirits of the countryside, such as Faunus and Inuus, and is always seen in the underlying conception of religio, a sense of awe in the presence of a superhuman power. But the practical mind of the Roman gives this relation a legal turn: the ius sacrum, which regulates the dealings of men with the divine powers, is an inseparable part of ius publicum, the body of civil law, and the various acts of worship, prayer and thanksgiving are conceived of under the legal aspect of a contract. The base-notion is that the spirits, if they are given their due, will make a return to man : the object of the recurring annual festivals is to propitiate them and forestall any hostile intention by putting them, as it were, in debt to man — more rarely to express gratitude tor benefits received. In such a religion exactness of ritual must play a large part — so large, indeed, that many modern critics have been Ritual misled into regarding the Roman religion as a mere network of formalities without any background of genuine religious feeling. This formalism shows itself in many ways. It is necessary in the first place to make quite certain that the right deity is being addressed: hence it is well to invoke all the spirits who might be concerned, and even to add a general formula to cover omissions: here we have the ritual significance of the indigitamenla. Place, again, as we have seen, was an essential element even in the conception of the nunten, and is therefore all-important in ritual. So, too, is the character of the offering: male victims must be sacrificed to male deities; female victims to goddesses: white animals are the due of the di superi, the gods of the upper world, black animals of the gods below. Special deities, moreover, will demand special victims, while the more rustic numina, such as Pales (q.v.), should be given milk and millet cakes rather than a blood-offering. All-important, too, is the order of ceremonial and the formula of prayer: a mistake or omission or an unpro- pitious interruption may vitiate the whole ritual, and though such misfortunes may occasionally be expiated by the addi- tional offering of a piaculum, in more serious cases the whole ceremony must be recommenced ab inilio. Herein lies the importance of the priesthood: the priest is not, as in other religions, the mediator between god and man, but on the one hand for the purpose of state-worship the chosen representative of the whole people, on the other the repository of tradition and ritual lore. This conception of the nature of the numina and man's relation to them is the root notion of the old Roman religion, House- and the fully-formed state cult of the di indigetes even bold at the earliest historical period, must have been the worship. resuit Of iong an(j gradual development, of which we can to a certain extent trace the stages. The original settle- ment on the Palatine, like its neighbour on the Quirinal, was an agricultural community, whose unit both from the legal and religious point of view was not the individual but the house- hold. The household is thus at once the logical starting-point of religious cult, and throughout Roman history the centre of its most real and vital activity. The head of the house (pater- familias) is the natural priest and has control of the domestic worship: he is assisted by his sons as acolytes (camilli) and deputes certain portions of the ritual to his wife and daughters and even to his bailiff (vilicus) and his bailiff's wife. The worship centres round certain numina, the spirits indwelling in the sacred places of the original round hut in which the family lived. Janus, the god of the door, comes undoubtedly first, though unfortunately we know but little of his worship in the household, except that it was the concern of the men. To the women is committed the worship of the " blazing hearth," Vesta, the natural centre of the family life, and it is noticeable that even to Ovid (Fast. vi. 291-92) the conception of Vesta was still material and not anthropomorphic. The Penates (q.v.) were the numina of the store-cupboard, at first vague and animistic, but later on, as the definite deus-notion was developed, identified with certain of the other divinities of household or state religion. To these numina of the sacred places must be added two other important conceptions, that of the Lar familiaris and the Genius. The Lar familiaris has been regarded1 as the embodiment , of all the family dead and his cult as a consummation of G *7* ancestor-worship, but a more probable explanation regards him as one of the Lares (q.v.; numina of the fields worshipped at the compita, the places where properties marched) who had special charge of the house or possibly of the household servants (familia) ; for it is significant that his worship was committed to the charge of the vilica. The Genius is originally the " spirit of developed manhood," the numen which is attached to every man and represents the sum total of his powers and faculties as the Juno does of the woman: each individual worships his own Genius on his birthday, but the household-cult is concerned with the Genius of the pater- familias. The established worship of the household then repre- sents the various members of the family and the central points of the domestic activity; but we find also in the ordinary religious life of the family a more direct connexion with morality and a greater religious sense than in any other part of the Roman cult. The family meal is sanctified by the offering of a portion of the food to the household numina: the chief events in the individual life, birth, infancy, puberty, marriage, are all marked by religious ceremonial, in some cases of a distinctively- primitive character. The dead, too, though it is doubtful whether in early times they were actually worshipped, at any rate have a religious commemoration as in some sense still members of the family. The next stage in the logical development of the state religion should naturally be found in the worship of the gens, the aggregate of households belonging to one clan, Agri- but our information about the gentile worship is so cultural scanty and uncertain2 that we cannot make practical worship. use of it. It is more profitable to turn from the life of the household to the outdoor occupations of the fields, where the early Roman settler met with his neighbours to celebrate the various stages of the agricultural year in religious ceremonies which afterwards became the festivals of the state calendar. Here we have a series of celebrations representing the occupa- tions of the successive seasons, addressed sometimes to numina who developed later on into the great gods of the state, such as Jupiter, Mars or Ceres, sometimes to vaguer divinities who remained always indefinite and rustic in character, such as Pales and Census. Sometimes again, as in the case of the Lupercalia (q.v.), the attribution is so indefinite that it is hard to discover who was the special deity concerned; in other cases, such as those of the Robigalia and the Meditrinalia, the festival seems at first to have been addressed generally to any interested numina and only later to have developed an eponymous deity of its own. Roughly we may distinguish three main divisions of the calendar year, the festivals of Spring, of the Harvest and of Winter, preserving on the whole their peculiar characteristics, (i) In the Spring (it must be remem- bered that the old Roman calendar began the year with March) we have ceremonials of anticipation and prayer for the crops to come: prominent among them are the Fordicidia, with its symbolic slaughter of pregnant cows, addressed to Tellus, the Cerealia, a prayer-service to Ceres for the corn-crop, and the most important of the rustic celebrations of lustration and propitiation, the Parttia, the festival of Pales. To these must be added the Ambanialia (q.v.), the lustration of the fields, a movable feast (and therefore not found in the calendars) addressed at first to Mars in his original agricultural character (see MARS). (2) Of the Harvest festivals the most significant are the twin celebrations on August 2ist and 2$th to the divinity- pair Census and Ops, who are both concerned with the storing of the year's produce, and two mysterious vintage festivals, the Vinalia Rustica and the Medilrinalia, connected origin- ally with Jupiter. (3) The Winter festivals are less homo- geneous in character, but we may distinguish among them certain undoubtedly agricultural celebrations, the Saturnalia (at first connected with the sowing of the next year's crop, but afterwards overlaid with Greek ceremonial), and a curious repetition of the harvest festivals to Census and Ops. 1 e.g. by De March!. 2 See, however, De Marchi, // Culto Privato di Roma Antica, vol. ii. ROMAN RELIGION 579 State religion, In passing to the religion of the state we are clearly entering on a later period and a more developed form of society. The loose aggregation of agricultural households gives place to the organized community with new needs and new ideals, and at the same time in religious thought the old vague notion of the numen is almost universally superseded by the more definite conception of the deus — not even now quite anthropomorphic, but with a much more clearly realized personality. We find then two prominent notes of the state influence, firstly, the adaptation of the old ideas of the house- hold and agricultural cults to the broader needs of the com- munity, especially to the new necessities of internal justice between citizens and war against external enemies, and secondly the organization of more or less casual worship into something like a consistent system. Adaptation proceeds at first naturally enough on the lines of analogy. As Janus is in the household the numen of the door, so in the state he is the god associated with the great gate near the corner of the forum: the Penates have their analogy in the Di Penates populi Romani Quiritium by whom the magistrates take their oath on entering office, the Lar familiaris in the Lares Praestites of the community, and the Genius in the new notion of the Genius populi Romani or Genius urbis Romae. But the closest and most curious analogy is seen in the case of Vesta. The Vesta of the state is in fact the king's hearth, standing in close proximity to the Regia, the king's palace; the Vestal Virgins, who have charge of the sacred fire, are the " king's daughters," and as such even in republican times were in the manus of the pontifex maximus, who was the successor of the king on the legal side of his religious duties, as the rex sacrorum was on the sacrificial side. But adaptation meant also reflection and the widening of old con- ceptions under the influence of thought and even of abstract ideas. Thus, the simple reflection that the door is used for the double purpose of entrance and exit leads to the notion of the Janus of the state as bifrons (" two-faced "): the thought of the^door as the first part of the house to which one comes, produces the more abstract idea of Janus as the " god of be- ginning," in which character he has special charge of the first beginnings of human life (Consevius), the first hour of the day, the Calends of the month and the first month of the year in the later calendar: for the same reason his name takes the first place in the indigitamenta. But development proceeds also on broader and more important lines. Jupiter in the rustic- cult was a sky-god concerned mainly with the wine festivals and associated with the sacred oak on the Capitol. Now he develops a twofold character: as the receiver of the spolia opima he becomes associated with war, especially in the double character of the stayer of rout (Staler) and the giver of victory (Victor), in which last capacity he later gives birth to an off- shoot in the abstract conception of the goddess Victoria. As the sky-god again he is appealed to as the witness of oaths in the special capacity of the Dius Fidius, producing once more an abstract offshoot in the goddess Fides. In these two con- ceptions, justice and war, lie the germs of the later idea of Jupiter as the embodiment of the life of the Roman people both in their internal organization and in their external relations. In much the same manner Mars takes on in addition to his agricul- tural character the functions of war-god, which in time completely superseded the earlier idea. Finally, we must notice, as the sign of the synoecismus of the two settlements, the inclusion of the Colline deity, Quirinus, apparently the Mars of the originally rival community. In these three deities, Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus, we have the great triad of the earliest stage of the state religion. Organization showed itself in the fixing of the annual calendar and the development of the character and functions of the priesthood, and as we should expect, in a new conception of the legal relation of the gods to the state. In the earlier stage— •whose notions of course still persist alongside of the state religion — each household has its own relations to its numina: now the state approaches the gods through its duly appointed repre- sentatives, the magistrates and priests. Their presence is typical of that of the whole people, and the private citizen is required to do no more on festival days than a ceremonial ab- stinence from work. It is obvious that the state religion has a less direct connexion with morality and the religious sense than the worship of the household, but it has its ethical value in a sense of discipline and a consecration of the spirit of patriotism. The later stages represent not the spontaneous development of the genuine Roman religion, but its alteration and super- session by new cults and ideas introduced from foreign External sources. Authorities are generally agreed in rccog- to/hi- nizing three periods: — (i) from the end of the Regal ••»«• epoch to the second Punic War, when Rome was influenced by other peoples in Italy, with whom she was brought into contact by commerce or war; (2) from the second Punic War to the end of the Republic, when contact with Greek and oriental sources and the growth of literature revolutionized religious notions and led to a philosophic scepticism; (3) the Imperial epoch, opening with a revival of old religious notions and later marked by the official worship of the deified emperors and the wide influence of oriental cults. (i) By the end of the regal period Rome had ceased to be a mere agricultural community and had developed into a city-state. There had consequently grown up within the state a large artisan class, excluded from the old patrician gentes and therefore from the state cult: at the same time the beginnings of commerce had opened relations with neighbouring peoples. The consequence was the introduction of certain new deities, the di novensides, from external sources, and the birth of new conceptions of the gods and their worship. We may distinguish three main influences, to a certain extent historically successive, (a) Tradition always assigned to the last three kings of Rome a connexion with the mysterious people of Etruria, and their influence at this period though not very definite was certainly extensive. To them, possibly Etruria. through the mediation of Falerii, a Latin town on the Etruscan border, was due the introduction of Minerva, who, as the goddess of handicraft and protectress of the artisan gilds, was established in a temple on the Aventine. Soon, however, she found her way on to the Capitol, and there a new Etruscan triad, Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, possibly going back from Etruria to Greece, was enshrined in a magnificent new temple built by Etruscan workmen and decorated in the Etruscan manner. In this temple the deities were represented by images, and on its dedication day, September 1 3th, at the novel festival of the epulum Jovis, the images were adorned and set out as partakers of the feast, a proceeding wholly foreign to the native Roman religion (see further ETRUKIA, § Religion), (b) Secondly, in war and peace Rome formed relations with her neighbours of Latium, and, as a sign of the Latin league which resulted, the cult of Diana was brought from Aricia and established on the Aventine in the " commune Latinorum . w Dianae templum " (Varro, Ling. Lai. v. 43) : about the same time was built the temple of Jupiter Latiaris on the Alban mount, its resemblance in style to the new Capitoline temple pointing to Rome's hegemony. So great was Rome's sense of kinship to the Latins that in two cases Latin cults were introduced inside the pomoerium: the worship of Hercules, which came from Tibur in connexion with commerce, was established at the ara maxima in the forum boarium, and the Tusculan cult of Castor as the patron of cavalry found a home close to the forum Romanum : it is a strange irony that both these deities should in reality have been in their origin Greek. Other Italian cults introduced at this period were those of Juno Sospes and Juno Regina, Venus and Fortuna Primigenia, a goddess of childbirth who came from Praeneste. (c) Later on in the same period contact with the cities of Magna Graecia brought about the wide-reaching introduction of the Sibylline books. Whatever may be their origin — and they came from Cumae — they were placed in the Capitoline temple under the care of a special commission of two (duovin sacris faciundis, later decemviri and quindecimviri), and their " oracles," which were referred to in times of great national stress, recommended the introduction of foreign cults. In 493 B.C., at a time of serious famine, they ordered the building of a temple to the Greek triad Demeter, Dionysus and Persephone, who were identified with the old Roman divinities Ceres, Liber and Libera: Apojlo must have come with or before the books themselves, though his temple was not built till 433 B.C.: Mercury followed, the representative of 'EpAnjs 'EMToXaios, Asclepius was brought from Epidaurus to the Tiber island in 293 B.C., and Dis and Proserpina, with their strange chthonic associations and night ritual, probably from Tarentum in 249 B.C. With new deities came new modes of worship: the graecus ritus, in which, contrary to Roman usage, the worshipper's head was unveiled, and the lectisternium (q.v.), an elaborate form of the " banquet of the gods." In this period, then, we find first a legitimate extension of cults corresponding to the needs of the growing community, and secondly a religious restlessness and a consequent tendency to more dramatic forms of worship. 58° ROMANS (2) The two chief 'notes of the next period are superstition and scepticism: both the populace and the educated classes lose faith a Jt in the old religion, but they supply its place in different ways. The disasters of the early part of the second Punic War revealed an unparalleled religious nervousness: portents and prodigies were announced from all quarters, it was felt that the divine anger was on the state, yet there was no belief in the efficacy of the old methods for restoring the pax deum. Accordingly recourse is had, under the direction of the Sibylline books, to new forms of appeal for the divine help, the general vowing of the ver sacrum and the elaborate Greek lectisternium after Trasimene in 217 B.C., and the human sacrifice in the forum after Cannae in the following year. The same spirit continues to show itself in the almost reckless introduction of Greek deities even within the walls of the pomoerium and their ready identification with gods of the old religion, whose cult they in reality superseded. Thus we hear of temples dedicated to Juventas = Hebe (191 B.C.), Diana = Artemis (179 B.C.), Mars = Ares (138 B.C.), and find even such unexpected identifications as that of the Bona Dea (q.v.) — a cult title of the ancient Fauna, the female counterpart of the countryside numen Faunus — with a Greek goddess of women, Damia. At the same time the new acquaintance with Greek art introduces the making of cult statues, in which the identified Greek type is usually adopted without change, with such curious results as the representation of the Penates under the form of the Dioscuri. But more significant still was the order of the Sibylline books in 206 B.C. for the introduction of the worship of the Magna Mater(see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS) from Pessinus and her ultimate installation on the Palatine in 191 B.C. : the door was thus opened to the wilder and more orgiastic cults of Greece and the Orient, which at once laid hold on the popular mind. In the train of the Magna Mater came the secret Oriental cu.'t °f Bacchus, which grew to such proportions in deities private worship that it had to be suppressed by decree of the Senate in 186 B.C., and later on were established the cults of Ma of Phrygia, introduced by Sulla and identified with Bellona, the Egyptian Isis, and, after Pompey's war with the pirates, even the Persian Mithras (g.ti.). In all these more emotional rituals, the populace sought expression for the religious emotions which were not satisfied by the cold worship of the older deities. Meanwhile a corresponding change was taking place in the attitude of the educated classes owing to the spread of Greek literature. The knowledge of Greek mythology, to which they were thus introduced, set poets and antiquarians at work in a field wholly foreign to the Roman religious spirit, the task of creating a Roman anthropomorphic mythology. This they accomplished partly by the popular process of adoption and identification, partly by imi- tative creation. In this way grew up the " religion of the poets," whose falseness and shallowness was patent even to contemporary thinkers. But more important was the influence of philosophy, which led soon enough to a general scepticism among the upper classes. Its first, note is struck by Ennius in his translation of the Scept/- Sicilian rationalist Euhemerus, who explained the genesis clsm. °f tne gods as apotheosized mortals. In the last century of the Republic the two later Greek schools of Epicurean- ism and Stoicism laid hold on Roman society. The influence of Epicureanism was wholly destructive to religion, but not perhaps very widespread : Stoicism became the creed of the educated classes and produced several attempts, notably those of Scaevola and Varro, at a reconciliation of philosophy and popular religion, in which it was maintained that the latter was in itself untrue, but a presentation of a higher truth suited to the capacity of the popular mind. Such a theory was bound to be fatal, as it makes religion at once a mere instrument of statecraft. The result on the old religion was twofold. On the one hand, worship passed into formalism and formalism into disuse. Some of the old cults passed away altogether, others survived in name and form, but were so wholly devoid of inner meaning that even the learning of a Varro could not tell their intention or the character of the deity with whom they were concerned. The old priesthood, and in particular the flaminia, came to be regarded as tiresome restric- tions on political life and were neglected: from 87 to 1 1 B.C. the office offlamen Dialis was vacant. On the other hand, as the result in part of the theory of Stoicism, religion passed into the hands of the politicians: cults were encouraged or suppressed from political motives, the membership of the colleges of pontifices and augurs, now conferred by popular vote, was sought for its social and political advantages, and augury was debased till it became the meanest tool of the politician. In the general wreck of the old religion, little survived but the household cult, protected by its own genuineness and vitality. (3) The revival of Augustus, which marks the opening of the last stage, was perhaps the most remarkable phenomenon in the whole story. It was no doubt very largely political, a part of his plan for the general renaissance of Roman life, which was to centre no longer round the abstract notion of the state, but round the persons Imperial of an imperial house. But it was genuinely religious, in rellgloa. tnat he ^w that no revival could be effective which did not appeal to the deeper sentiments of the populace. It was thus his business to revitalize the old forms with a new and more vigorous content. His new palace on the Palatine he intended to be primarily the seat of the Julian family and the cults associated with it, and secondarily the centre of the new popular religion. With this object he consecrated there his new temple of Apollo (28 B.C.), associated for long with the Julian house, and adopted by Augustus as his special patron at Actium, and transferred to its keeping the Sibylline books, thus marking the new headquarters of the Graeco-Roman religion. Similar in purpose was his institution of the ludi saeculares in 17 B.C., in which a day celebration was added to the old wavwxh, and Apollo and Diana deliberately set up as a counterpart to the Capitoline Jupiter and Juno: Horace^ hymn written for the festival is a good epitome of Augustus's religious intentions. In the same spirit he established a new shrine of Vesta Augusta within the palace, a private cult at first, but destined to be a serious rival of the ancient worship in the forum. A still more marked action was the building of a great temple at the end of his own new forum to Mars Ultor, — Mars, the ancestor of the Julian gens, as of the Roman people itself, and now to be worshipped as the avenger of Caesar's murderers. Nor did he hesitate to avail himself of the popular outburst, which immediately after the murder had consecrated the site of Caesar's cremation with a bustum, to erect on the spot a permanent temple to his adopted father, under the definitely religious title of divus Julius. No doubt he also did much generally to revive the ancient cults: he rebuilt, as he tells us himself, eighty-two temples which had fallen into disrepair, he re-established the old priesthoods, filling once more the office of ftamen Dialis and reviving such bodies as the Sodales Titii (see TITUS TATIUS) and the Arval Brothers (q.v.); but the new revival attached itself primarily to these four cults, and their tendency was unmistakable. Originally, no doubt, Augustus designed to attract religious feeling generally to the reigning house, but it was inevitable that the more personal note should be given to it. The deification of Julius Caesar was one important step: another was the natural prominence in the palace of the cult of the Genius of the emperor himself. As the palace cults became national, the worship of the Genius was bound to spread, and ultimately Augustus sanctioned its celebration at the compita together with the worship of the old Lares. But here he and the wiser of his successors drew the line, and though under oriental influence divine honours were paid to the living emperor outside Italy, they were never permitted officially in Rome. In the succeeding centuries Augustus's intentions were realized with a fullness which he would hardly have wished, and the cult of the imperial house practically superseded the state religion as the official form of worship. With this last period the story of Roman religion really draws to a close. For, though the form of the old cults was long preserved and even Antoninus Pius was honoured in an in- scription for his care of the ancient rites of religion, the vital spirit was almost gone. In the popular mind the hosts of exciting oriental cults, which in the 3rd and 4th centuries of the Empire filled Rome with the rites of mysticism and initia- tion, held undisputed sway; and with the more educated a revived philosophy, less accurate perhaps in thought, but more satisfying to the religious conscience, gave men a clearer monotheistic conception, and a notion of individual relations with the divine in prayer and even of consecration. It was with these elements — fiercely antagonistic because so closely allied in character — that the battle of Christianity was really fought, and though, after its official adoption, the old religion lingered on as " paganism " and died hard at the end, it was really doomed from the moment when the Augustan revival had taken its irrecoverable bias in the direction of the emperor- worship. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— (a) General.— Preller, Romische Mythologie, edited by Jordan; J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsvenuallung, vol. in., edited by Wissowa; Th. Mommsen, History of Rome; E. Aust, Die Religion der Romer; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer and Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur romischen Religions- und Stadtgeschichte; W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals; J. B. Carter, The Religion of Numa; W. H. Roscher, Lexicon der gnechischen und romischen Mythologie; Pauly- Wissowa, Real- encyclopddie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft; Corpus In- scriptionum Latinarum. See further, GREEK RELIGION; MITHRAS; ETRURIA, Religion; and articles on the deities, festivals and colleges. (b) Special. — For the Imperial Period, G. Boissier, La Religion romame d'Auguste aux Antonins: La fin du Paganism*; Henzen, Ada Fratrum Arvalium; for the private and gentile cults, A. de Marchi, // culto private di Roma Antica. (C. BA.) ROMANS, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Drome, izj m. N.E. of Valence on the railway to Grenoble. Pop. (1906) town, 13,304; commune, 17,622. Romans stands on an eminence on the right bank of the Isere, a fine stone ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE 581 bridge uniting it with Bourg-de-Peage (pop. 4668) on the other side of the river. Both towns owe their prosperity to their situa- tion in the most fertile part of the valley of the Isere. The present parish church belonged to an abbey founded in 837 by St Bernard, bishop of Vienne. The principal portal is a fine specimen of 12th-century Romanesque, and the lower part of the nave is of the same period; the choir and the transept are striking examples of the style of the I3th century. Romans has a tribunal of commerce and a communal college. Its industries include tanning, leather-dressing and shoe-making, silk-spinning, hat-making, absinthe-distilling and oil-refining. There is trade in walnuts, walnut-oil, silk, cattle, &c. ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. In this book of the New Testament, the apostle Paul begins, after a brief pregnant introduction (i. 1-7), by explaining that he had hitherto been prevented from carrying out his cherished project of visiting the church of Rome, whose faith was world-wide (i. 8 f.). Mean- while, he outlines the gospel which he preached as an exhibition of God's righteousness, tK TclartuK «« vltrriv. This forms the leading theme of the epistle. Both Gentile (i. 18-32) and Jew (ii. I, iii. ao)1 alike have missed this righteousness up till now, but the revelation of God in Jesus Christ (iii. 21-31) had brought the divine boon within reach of all. The condition of its reception was not nationality but faith. Hence, as Paul stops for a moment to argue (iv. 1-25), the Jew cannot claim any preference; Abraham himself, before circumcision and the law came into force, was a man of faith, and consequently all believers (not all legal Jews, iv. 16) are true descendants of Abraham.2 Returning to the blissful results of this 5iKcuoaiwij revealed in Jesus Christ (v. I— n), Paul proceeds to contrast these with the sombre effects produced in humanity by the fall of Adam. Life had now triumphed over death, grace over sin (v. 12 f.). But the super- session of the law, which was bound up with the regime of sin and death, does not mean the relaxation of the moral bond. On the contrary (vi. I f.), the reception of God's grace and spirit implies the death of the believing man to sin. The struggle of the soul 3 between the thwarting power of sin and the ethical demands of the law (vii. I f.) cannot be ended happily save by the interposition of Jesus Christ, whose Spirit guarantees a sound life in this world and life eternal in the world to come (viii. 12 f.). The splendid and unfettered4 prospects of faith, which thus break on the apostle's vision, only serve to deepen his distress in one direction.6 As a theologian and as a patriot, he is confronted with the problem of Israel's collective repudiation of a boon to which their own history, as he read it, clearly pointed. Reverting to the thought of ii. 17 f. and iv. I, Paul now essays, in ix.-xi., to show how this unbelief of Israel is to be reconciled with the justice and the promises of God. He begins by showing, as in Gal. iv. 7_ f. (cf. Rom. ii. 28-29), that mere physical descent could not entitle a Jew to the promises. Besides (ix. 14—29), no Jew has the right to challenge God's sovereign freedom. If God determines to extend the promise of faith to the Gentiles, who shall accuse Him of injustice? The rejection of the Jews is their own fault, due to their obstinacy and legalism (ix. 3O-x. 21). Finally, Paul tries to see this fact of Israel's unbelief in the light of a wide religious philosophy of history ; it (xi. l-io) cannot be anything but a temporary and partial (xi. 11-24)' phase; the future will clear up the present; the final 1 On iii. cf. G. W. Matthias's Exegetischer Versuch (Cassel, 1857). 2 " Paul here unconsciously changes the conception of law. By introducing the example of Abraham he shows that the book of the law contains the doctrine of justification by faith, and through the latter, therefore, is not made of none effect. This proof rests, objectively regarded, on a fallacy; for the law, of which the validity is threatened by the doctrine of justification, is that part of the book of the law which demands the observance of all commands, not that which relates anything about Abraham. But this error of thought would be easily concealed from a mind with the rabbinical training of Paul's" (Schmiedel, in Hibbert Journal, 1902, pp. 548- 549). 3 Cf. Engel's exhaustive monograph, Der Kampf urn Romer vii. (1902), and, for the ideas of i.-viii., Du Bose's The Gospel according to St Paul (1907), and Titius, Der Paulinismus (1900), pp. 159 ff. 4 The word all, as Matthew Arnold observes (St Paul and Protest- antism, ch. i.), is " in some sense the governing word of the Epistle to the Romans." 5 As arranged in the canonical edition, ix.-xi. are closely interwoven with i.-viii., and xi. 32-36 concludes not simply ix.-xi. but i.-xi. (cf. Buhl in Sludien und Kritiken, 1887, 295-320). Certainly what Paul has in mind throughout the epistle is not a Judaizing tendency among the Jewish Christians at Rome, but the general and perplexing question of Judaism in relation to the new faith. Cf. Hoennicke's Das Judenchristentum (1908), pp. 1 60 f. * In this passage Paul has generally been held to have erred result will be the inclusion of all Israel in th* heritage of the messianic kingdom of Christ. The prospect of this consummation stirs him to an outburst of adoration, with which the whole section ends (xi. 33-36) .7 Applying the thought of God's mercy to the obligations of believing men (xii. 1-2), Paul proceeds now to sketch the ethical duties of Christians in the church (xii. 3-21), in society, and in the itate (xiii. 1-7); love is the supreme law (xiii. 8- id), and the nearness of the end the supreme motive to morality (xiii. 11-14). These considerations are still before Paul's mind as he descends from general counsels to a special problem of practical ethics, raised by the varying attitude of Christians at Rome towards food offered to idols (xiv. i f.). After laying down the principle of individual responsibility, he appeals for charity and mutual consideration (xiv. 13-xv. 6), and for Christian forbearance.' Finally, he exhorts all, Gentile and Jewish Christians alike (xv. 8-13), to unite in thanksgiving for God's mercy to them in Christ. In a brief epilogue, the apostle justifies himself for having thus addressed the Roman Christians. He alleges (xv. 14 f.) his apostolic vocation and informs them of his future movements. With an Rom. xvi. contains a separate note (1-23), together with a doxology (25-27). The former came from Paul's pen, but it did not belong originally to this epistle.10 In all likelihood it is a letter of commendation for [ T»I i 11 1.1 i problem*. Phoebe11 which includes vers. 1-23 (so e.g. Weizsacker, McGiffert and Jtilicher), though most break it off at ver. 20 (so Eichhorn, Ewald, Schulz, Renan, Weiss, Lipsius, von Soden, &c.), while others do not begin it until ver. 3 (so e.g. Ewald, Schurer, Reuss and Mangold: Der Romerbrief, pp. 136 f.). Vers. 21-23 might indeed follow xv. 33, but it is not Paul's way to add salutations after a final Amen, and the passage connects as well with xvi. 20, though it may have lain originally (Jiilicher) between 16 and 17. The main reasons n for conjecturing that this section was addressed separately, not to Rome but to a city like Ephesus, lie in its contents. Paul was as yet a stranger to Rome, and it is extremely difficult to suppose that he already knew so many individuals there. The earlier tone of Romans shows that he was writing as a comparative stranger to strangers. Any touches of familiarity with the local circumstances (as in xiv.-xv.) are no more than might have percolated to him through hearing and botanically in his allegory. For a defence of his accuracy, see W. M. Ramsay's Pauline and other Studies (1907), 219 f. 7 On the method of dialectic in this section, see Bishop Gore's paper in Studia Biblica (vol. iii.). The literature up to 1907 is summarized in H. J. Holtzmann's Neutest. Theologie, ii. pp. 171 f., one of the most significant essays being that of Beyschlag on Die paulin. Theodicee (1868). Wernle (Beginnings of Christianity, i. pp. 315 f.) sums up his discussion by pointing out that " the Jesus of history is simply non-existent for St Paul when he treats apologetic problems of this nature. No mention whatever is made of him in the three chapters of Romans which treat of Israel's fate. The literal text of the Septuagint seems to be the only decisive authority, and that is so sacred and almighty, that, whenever it comes into collision with the human conscience, the latter is silenced when the voice of revelation speaks." 8 The weaker minority probably were a Jewish-Christian circle (cf. Riggenbach in Studien und Kritiken, 1893, pp. 649-678). For the religious aspect of vegetarianism in these ancf other circles, see von Dobschiitz's Christian Life in the Primitive Church (1904), pp. 125 f., 396 f. It was a sufficient reason for writing to the Romans that Paul was expecting to visit them, but was obliged one', more to postpone an event to which he had long looked forward. There was nothing in the circumstances of the church that required his intervention, and, as he was therefore free to choose his subject, he wrote out of the fullness of his heart that grand defence of the gospel which, though shaped by the conditions of the times, is ani- mated by the timeless Spirit, and has proved to be a possession for ever (Drummond, p. 246). 10 For the literature, cf. the present writer's Historical New Testa- ment (1901), pp. 209-213. The hypothesis has won very wide acceptance, but several editors ana critics (including Harnack, Zahn and Clemen) remain unconvinced. Cf. also Wabnitz in Revue de theologie et des quest, religieuses (1900), 461-469. 11 On her functions, see Zscharnack's der Dienst der Frau in den ersten Jahrhunderten der christlichen Kirche (1902), pp. 45 f. 1J Cf. Lucht (Ober die beiden letzten Kapitel des Romerbriefes, 1871. pp. 126 f.), with Weizsacker's brilliant pages in his Apostolic Age, i. pp. 379 f.). ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE report; they do not imply the presence of friends upon the spot who kept him supplied with information. On the other hand, the circle of people addressed in xvi. 1-23, with its wealth of individual colour and personal detail, presupposes a sphere where Paul had worked for long. He can appeal to these Christians. He can speak sharply with authority to them. Now, as he wrote from Corinth, the only other city which answers to this description is Ephesus, the centre of Paul's long Asiatic mission. With that city and district several of the names in xvi. 1-23 are more or less directly connected, e.g. Epaenetus (5), Aquila and Priscilla (3), who were at Ephesus immediately before Romans was written (Acts xviii. 18, 26; cf. 1 Cor. xvi. 19), and apparently were there (cf. 2 Tim. iv. ip) not long afterwards. These are the first people mentioned in the note, nor is there any likelihood that they or the rest of Paul's friends' had made a sudden migration to the capital. Doubt- less, there was fairly constant communication between Rome and the provinces, and in the course of time these friends may have gradually followed the apostle thither. Hence it is not remarkable that almost all the names mentioned in this note have been found by archaeologists (cf. Lightfoot's Philippians, pp. 171 f.) within the Roman Corpus Inscriptionum. Most of them, anyhow, are fairly common throughout the Roman world (cf. Lietzmann, p. 73), whilst half are to be found in the Greek Corpus Inscriptionum for Asia Minor (e.g. Epaenetus, Hermes, Hernias).2 Furthermore, the sharp warning against errorists and heretics (xvi. 17-20) suits Rome at this period much less aptly than Ephesus (cf. i Cor. xvi. 8-9; Acts xx. 29 f.; Rev. ii. 2 f.), where trouble of this kind was in the air. Controversy against false teachers is conspicuously absent from Romans. Nor is it possible to regard (with Zahn) such counsels as merely prophylactic; they are too definite and pointed. They imply the existence of a community with which Paul was personally acquainted, and to which he felt himself bound and free to address keen, authoritative reproaches. The textual phenomena of the doxology (xvi. 25-27), which occurs in some MSS. after xiv. 23, are sufficiently strange; they suggest that the epistle must have passed through a certain process of editing, during the 2nd century, previous to its final incorporation in the canon of the epistles.3 It may further be conjectured that the epistle does not lie before the modern reader in the precise shape in which it left Paul and his amanuensis at Corinth. Opinions, indeed, vary on the doxology. Either it is authentic but irrelevant, added by Paul as a post- script, or it is unauthentic,4 due to some copyist who added it as 1 Erbes (Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte, 1901, 224-231) makes xvi. i-l6a a note forwarded by Paul to Rome during his last voyage thither, in order to advise some of the local Christians of his arrival (Acts xxviii. 15), but this theory is no improvement upon that of Semler, who regarded xvi. 3-16 as designed for Paul's friends outside Rome, to introduce the bearers of the larger epistle. The point of such hypotheses is to explain how the note came to be attached to Romans, but this can be shown otherwise (cf. Deissmann's Licht vom Oslen, 1908, pp. 164, 201). Eichhorn (Einleit. in das N.T. iii. 243 f.) regarded xvi. 1—20 as addressed to Corinth, while Schenkel viewed it as designed for all the churches which Phoebe was to visit. * In the Ephesian Acta Johannis (c. A.D. 160) the house of Andronicus (Rom. xvi. 7 ?) is one centre of Christian activity. E. H. Gifford (pp. 27-30) evades the difficulty by taking xvi. 3-20 as part of a second letter written by Paul after, not before, his release from imprisonment. * The most recent and radical analyses are those of Spitta (Urchristentum, iii. 1902) and Volter (Paulus u. seine Briefe, 1905). The former detects a short letter written (xii.-xv. 7, xvi. 1-20) after Acts xxviii. 30, during a tour of the Gentile churches (A.D. 63-64), and another (i.-xi. ip, xv. 14-33) written to believing Jews in order to justify the Gentile mission and afterwards edited for Gentile readers with the addition of xi. 1 1 f ., xv. 8-13, &c, Volter (pp. 135 f .) distinguishes an original letter (in i. I, 56-7, 8-17, v. 1-12, 15-19, 21, vi. I-I3, 16-23, xii.-xv. 6, xv. 14-16, 236-33, xvi. 21-24) from editorial additions, and also from still later accretions in ii. 14-15, iii. 23-26, vii. 256, xi. n f., xv. 7-13, 17-230, xvi. 17 f., 25 f. Spitta's views are properly set aside by Feine and Bahnsen (Protest. Monat- shefte, 1902, 331 f.) amongst others. * It suggests a stereotyped form (cf. Mangold, Der Romerbrief, 44-81, and Holtzmann, Ephes. Col. Brief, 307-310). " In spite of the vindication of the style word by word, the impression it bears upon the mind is hardly Pauline. It seems artificial rather than a suitable finale at the close. In the Pauline canon Romans originally occupied the last place. It would therefore be natural that a note like that of xvi. 1-23 should be put in here, especially if this canon was drawn up at Rome, whither Phoebe probably travelled eventually. The doxology would then be shifted from after xiv. 23 or inserted for the first time for ecclesi- astical purposes. The material conditions of such a process are lucidly stated by Dr C. R. Gregory in his Canon and Text of the New Testament (1907), PP- 3*9 f- The problems presented by the structure of these chapters5 cannot be solved adequately by the mere hypothesis, worked out variously by critics like Paulus, Griesbach (Curarum in historiam textus Graeci epistolarum Pauli spec. i. pp. 45 f.), Eichhorn and Flatt, that they are a series of postscripts or afterthoughts, much less by the conjecture that, in whole or in part, they are unauthentic (Baur, Volkmar, &c.). The only tenable line of argument, in the present state of criticism, is to regard their phenomena as due to compilation, at the time when the canon (perhaps of Paul's epistles) was first form«d. If the hypothesis already outlined is set aside, it is open to the critic to regard large portions of the canonical Romans as having originally occupied a separate setting,4 or to ascribe the textual variations to the exigencies of church reading after the formation of the canon (which might explain the absence of kv 'Pco/iB in i. 7, 15, and the duplicate position of the doxology).7 The uncertainty as to the literary structure of the epistle naturally renders it hazardous to infer the character of the Christians who are addressed, but it may be said that the results of the long debate on this point are converging upon the belief that the predominant class in the local church or churches were Gentile Christians, while proselytes must have swelled the ranks to no inconsiderable degree. Since Weiz- sacker wrote, the older view of Baur (cf. his Paul, Eng. tr. i. pp. 321 f.) has steadily lost ground. Zahn is now its main supporter, and his contentions are not convincing. Even were ix.-xi. taken as the kernel of the epistle, its obvious motive is to be found in the need of explaining to Gentile Christians the reasons for Israel's apparent rejection, and passages like i. 5 f., 13, xi. 13, xv. 15 f., are, if not decisive, at any rate superior to any references which can be urged fairly on the opposite side. To a church of this kind, in the capital of the Empire, Paul writes out his gospel more fully than in any other of his extant epistles. It is the essence of the gospel that he treats, and that is the revelation of God's righteousness to man by faith in Jesus Christ. Neither sacraments nor organization come within his purview. Even eschatology lies quite in the background. Paul writes of the inspired " (Denney, p. 582). Proofs of its Pauline authorship are led fully by Zahn (Einleitung in das N.T. § 21 f.) and Jacquier (Histoire des limes du N.T., 1903, pp. 271 f.); cf. also Bacon in Journal of Biblical Literature (1899), pp. 184 f. The entire data of xv.-xvi. are discussed fully by Lightfoot and Hort, in the former's Biblical Essays (pp. 287 f.) and in the latter's admirable volume (Romans and Eph'esians), as well as in Sanday and Headlam's edition (pp. Ixxxv. f.). 6 Ryder (Journal of Biblical Literature, 1898, pp. 184 f.) suggests that xv.-xvi. 24 form a letter or part of a letter written not by Paul but by his amanuensis, Tertius, to his friends at Rome, c. A.D. 64, previous to the Neronic persecution. 6 So J. Weiss (in Theologische Studien, 1897, pp. 182 f.), as well as those who, like Renan (S. Paul, Ixiii-lxxv), find different editions in the canonical epistle, one meant for Thessalonica (i.-xiv. 33, xvi. 25-27), one for Ephesus (i.-xiv., xvi. 1-20) and one for Rome (i.-xi., xv.), or who, like Lightfoot (Biblical Essays), see a double recension, the original draft having been meant for Rome (i.-xvi. 23), the later being, like Ephesians, a circular epistle. 7 Thf epistle was so systematic in treatment and wide in scope that it lent itself readily to this "catholicizing" manipulation; thus the fact that xv.-xvi. are very rarely" quoted in primitive tradition may be due to their fullness of local detail, which would have less interest for the later church. But the question of course arises, May not the epistle, in whole or in part, have originally been more of a treatise in epistolary form than at first sight appears? For various suggestions as to the problem of i. 7 see Harnack in Zeitschrift fiir die neutest. Wissenschaft (1902), 83-86; R. Steinmetz (ibid., 1908, 177 f.) ; and Schmiedel in Hibbert Journal (1903), pp. 537 f. ROMANSHORN— ROMANUS heart of the gospel with all his heart, and while a certain con troversial1 element inevitably enters into his exposition— since he is writing with his eye on the Roman Church— any such considerations are quite subordinate to his dominating aim. The epistle dates itself. Paul is on his way to Jerusalem with the moneys collected from the Macedonian and Achaian churches (xv. 19-32), and, after his visit to the Jewish capital he proposes to visit the church of Rome en route for a mission in Spain. The situation corresponds to that outlined in Acts xx. 2-3. Paul probably despatched the epistle from Corinth. This conclusion would be put almost beyond doubt were Rom. xvi. regarded as an integral part of the origina! epistle, since in that case Timothy and Sosipater (xvi. 21) would be with Paul as in Acts xx. 4, like Gaius (xvi. 23) and Erastus, both of whom were Corinthians (i Cor. i. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 20). Phoebe of Cenchreae, the seaport of Corinth, would also be the bearer of the epistle (xvi. i). But even apart from the evidence of ch. xvi., the tone of the epistle (especially of xv. 19 f.) indicates that Paul regards his work in the eastern provinces as done, and now turns to the West. It is just possible, of course, that the epistle was written from some other town, perhaps in Illyricum (so H. E. G. Paulus), but the facilities of communication point to Corinth.2 LITERATURE. — The ablest recent editions of the Greek text have been those of B. Weiss (in Meyer's commentary, gth ed. 1890, thorough and all-round), R. A. Lipsius (Hand-Commenlar, 2nd ed. 1892), H. Oltramare (Paris, 1881-82), Sanday and Headlam (Internal. Crit. Comm. 5th ed. 1905, strong in philology and external criticism), and Denney (Expositor's Greek Testament, 1901, a masterpiece of theological exposition), to which the Roman Catholic commentaries of A. Schafer (Munster, 1891) and Comely (Paris, 1896) may be added. The patristic and medieval literature is summarized by Sanday and Headlam (op. cit. pp. xcviii. f.), and a conspectus of the vast later work may be found in W. P. Dickson's translation of Meyer (Edinburgh, 1873-74). The editions of Tholuck (1842), Moses Stuart (3rd ed. 1876), Godet (1879-80, Eng. trans. 1888), E. H. Gifford (Speaker's Commentary, 1881) and Philippi (4th ed. Frankfort, 1896) are of special theo- logical value, Godet's for its delicate exegesis and Gifford's for its ade- quacy of treatment; so, from its own point of view, is F. Delitzsch's Brief an die Romer aus dem griech. Urtext in das He'rdiscke ubersetzt, und aus Talmud und Midrasch erldutert (1870); with which may be classed the earlier works of Reiche ( Versuch einer ausfuhrl. Erkldrune, fcc, 1833-34) i>nd C. F. A. Fritzsche (1836-43)- Since Dean Alford (1852), the freshest English editors have been Dr David Brown (Glasgow, 1860), Moule (Cambridge Bible, 1879), C. J. Vaughan (7th ed. 1890), B. Jowett (3rd ed. 1894), J- Agar Beet (gth ed. 1901) and Garvie (Century Bible, 1901). Julicher's notes in Die Schriften des N T. (1907), though written from a different standpoint, resemble Denney's in their conciseness and penetration. Lietz- mann's edition, again, is slight and philological (Handbuch zum Neuen Testament, 1907). Lightfoot's posthumous fragment (Notes on Epistles of St Paul, 1895, PP- 237-3O5) unfortunately breaks off at vii. 25. In addition to the special monographs already noted in the course of this article, the essays of H. E. G. Paulus (De originibus Pauliepist. ad Rom., Jena, 1801), Lorenz (Der Romerbrtef, 1884), Grafe (Uber Veranlassung und Zweck des R., 1881), G. B. Stevens (The Pauline Theology, 1894), Feine (Der Rdmerbrief, 1903) and A. Robertson (Hastings' Diet, of Bible, iv. 295-306) may be specially mentioned out of a large crowd, together with G. Semeria's monograph, // pensiero di S. Paolo nella lettera ai Romani (Rome, 1903). Holsten's position is stated in a series of articles 583 die wissensch. Theologie (1892), pp. 296-347. The recent literary and historical discussions are chronicled in C. Clemen's Paulus, i. 85 f., ii. 238 f., with which the English reader may compare R. J. Knowling's The Testimony of StPaulto Christ (1905), pp. 60 f., 1 Not, however, in the sections bearing on the Law. '' It has been customary to explain this feature of the epistle by the fact of its having been written to a church with which Paul had no personal relations, and this may count for something. But there is a deeper and a worthier reason for the contrast in tone between this epistle and those written to the Galatian and Corinthian churches. The whole situation is changed. Then Paul was fighting for existence with his back to the wall ; now he writes as one conscious that the cause of Gentile Christianity is safe " (A. B. Bruce, S/ Paul's Conception of Christianity, 1894, p. 96). 1 This is carefully worked out by Paley in his Horae Paulinae (ed. Birks, 1825), pp. 8 f. 311 f., 465 f. On Marcion's text of the epistle cf. Zahn's Gcschichte des N.T Kanons, ii. pp. 515-521; on the early reception of the epistle in the church, Gregory's Canon and Text of the N.T. (1907), pp. 192 f., and Leipoldt a Cesehichte des netit. Kanons (1907), i. pp. 77 f., 188 f., 192 f., 209 f. (J. Mr.) ROMANSHORN, an important commercial town in the Swiss canton of Thurgau. It is situated on the west shore of the lake of Constance, and by rail is sij m. N.E. of Ziirich, i2\ m. S.E. of Constance, and 10 m. N.W. of Rorschach. In 1900 its population was 4577, mostly German-speaking, while there were 3093 Protestants to 1478 Romanists. Originally a small fishing village, it belonged to the abbot of St Gall from 1432 to 1798, when it became part of the canton of Thurgau. In 1856 the railway from Romanshorn to Zurich was opened, and this vastly increased the commercial import- ance of Romanshorn. Nowadays it is the centre of a great transit trade, as it communicates, by means of the lake, with the principal towns on its shores. The corn trade and that in timber are among the most important, while there are many industrial establishments. It is essentially a modern commercial centre. ROMANUS, the name of four East Roman emperors. ROMANUS I. (Lecapenus), who shared the imperial throne with Constantine VII. (g.v.) and exercised all the real power from 919 to 944, was admiral of the Byzantine fleet on the Danube when, hearing of the defeat of the army at Achelous (91?)) he resolved to sail for Constantinople. After the marriage of his daughter Helena to Constantine he was first proclaimed " basileopater " in 919 and soon after crowned colleague of his son-in-law. His reign, which was uneventful, except for an attempt to check the accumulation of landed property, was terminated by his own sons, Stephen and Constantine, who in 944 carried him off to the island of Prote and compelled him to become a monk. He died in 948. ROMANUS II. succeeded his father Constantine VII. hi 959 at the age of twenty-one, and died — poisoned, it was believed, by his wife, Theophano — in 963. He was a pleasure-loving sovereign, but showed judgment in the selection of his ministers. The great event of his reign was the conquest of Crete by Nicephorus Phocas. ROMANUS III. (Argyrus), emperor 1028-1034, was an un- distinguished Byzantine patrician, who was compelled by the dying emperor Constantine IX. to marry his daughter Zoe and to become his successor. He showed great eagerness to make his mark as a ruler, but was mostly unfortunate in his enterprises. He spent large sums upon new buildings and in endowing the monks, and in his endeavour to relieve the pressure of taxation disorganized the finances of the state. In 1030 he resolved to retaliate upon the incursions of the Moslems on the eastern frontier by leading a large army in person against Aleppo, but by allowing himself to be surprised on the march sustained a serious defeat at Azaz near Antioch. Though this disaster was retrieved by the successful defence of Edessa by George Maniakes and by the defeat of a Saracen fleet in the Adriatic, Romanus never recovered his popularity. His early death was supposed to have been due to poison administered his wife. See J. B. Bury in the English Historical Review (1889), pp. 53-57; C,. Schlumberger, L'Epopee byzantine (Paris, 1905), iii. pp. 56-158. ROMANUS IV. (Diogenes), emperor 1068-1071, was a member of a distinguished Cappadocian family, and had risen to distinction in the army, when he was convicted of treason against the sons of Constantine X. While waiting execution ic was summoned into the presence of the empress regent, Sudocia Macrembolitissa, whom he so fascinated that she granted him a free pardon and shortly afterwards married him. After his coronation he carried on three successful campaigns against the Saracens and Seljuk Turks, whom he drove beyond he Euphrates; in a fourth he was disastrously defeated by Alp Arslan on the banks of the Araxes and taken prisoner. After releasing himself by the promise of a large ransom and he conclusion of a peace, he turned his arms against the 584 ROME [THE ANCIENT CITY pretender Michael VII., but was compelled after a defeat to resign the empire and retire to the island of Prote, where he soon died in great misery. It was during this reign that, by the surrender of Bari (1071), the Byzantine empire lost its last hold upon Italy. See J. G. C. Anderson in the Journal of Hellenic Studies (1897), pp. ^6-vj. On all the above see also J. B. Bury's edition of Gibbon's Vecline and Fall (M. O. B. C.) ROME (Roma), the capital of the modern kingdom of Italy, in the province of Rome, on the river Tiber, 17 miles N.E. from its mouth on the Mediterranean. As formerly the centre of the ancient Roman republic and of the Roman empire, and the headquarters of the Christian Church, Rome is unique among historical cities, and its antiquarian interest far surpasses that of any other locality in the world. In the following account the general subject of Rome is treated broadly under two aspects, themselves subdivided. These are: — (i) the topo- graphy and growth of the city of Rome, the evolution of which is traced from the earliest times to the present, and (2) Roman history, i.e. the political and social history of the Roman republic, empire and medieval commune. The nine or ten hills and ridges on which the city stands are formed of masses of tufa or conglomerated sand and ashes thrown out by neighbouring volcanoes now extinct, but active down to a very recent period. One group of these volcanoes is that around Lago Bracciano, while another, still nearer to Rome, composes the Alban Hills. That some at least of these craters have been in a- state of activity at no very distant period has been shown by the discovery at many places of broken pottery and bronze implements below the strata of tufa or other volcanic deposits. Traces of human life have even been found below that great flood of lava which, issuing from the Alban Hills, flowed towards the site of Rome, only stopping about 3 miles short, by the tomb of Cecilia Metella. The superficial strata on which Rome is built are of three main kinds: (i) the plains and valleys on the left bank of the Tiber are covered, as it were, by a sea of alluvial deposits, in the midst of which (2) the hills of volcanic origin rise like so many islands; and (3) on the right bank of the Tiber, around the Janiculan and Vatican Hills, are extensive remains of an ancient sea- beach, conspicuous in parts by its fine golden sand and its de- posits of greyish white potter's clay. From its yellow sand the Janiculan has been sometimes known as the Golden Hill, a name which survives in the church on its summit called S. Pietro in Montorio (Monte d'Oro). In addition to these three chief deposits, at a few places, especially in the Aventine and Pincian Hills, under-strata of travertine crop out — a hard limestone rock, once in solution in running water, and deposited gradually as the water lost its carbonic-acid solvent, a process still rapidly going on at Term, Tivoli and other places in the neighbourhood. The conditions under which the tufa hills were formed have been very various, as is clearly seen by an examination of the rock at different places. The volcanic ashes and sand of which the tufa is composed appear in parts to lie just as they were showered down from the crater; in that case it shows but little sign of stratification, and consists wholly of igneous products. In parts time and pressure have bound together these scoriae into a soft and friable rock; in other places they still lie in loose sandy beds and can be dug out with the spade. Other masses of tufa again show signs either of having been deposited in water, or else washed away from their first resting-place and redeposited with visible stratifications; this is shown by the water-worn pebbles and chips of limestone rock, which form a conglomerate bound together by the volcanic ashes into a sort of natural cement. A third variety is that which exists on the Palatine Kill. Here the shower of red-hot ashes has evidently fallen on a thickly growing forest, and the burning wood, partly smothered by the ashes, has been converted into charcoal, large masses of which are embedded in the tufa rock. In some places charred branches of trees, their form well preserved, can be easily distinguished. The so-called " wall of Romulus " is built of this conglomerate of tufa and charred wood; a very perfect section of the branch of a tree is visible on one of the blocks by the Scalae Caci. So great have been the physical changes in the site of Rome since the first dawn of the historic period that it is difficult now to realize what its aspect once was. The Forum Romanum, the Velabrum, the great Campus Martius (now the most crowded part of modern Rome), and other valleys were once almost impassable marshes or pools of water (Ov. Fasti, vi. 401; Dionys. ii. 50). The draining of these valleys was effected by means of the great cloacae, which were among the earliest important architectural works of Rome (Varro, Ling. Lot. iv. 149). Again, the various hills and ridges were once more numerous and very much more abrupt than they are now. At an early period, when each hill was crowned by a separate village fort, the great object of the inhabitants was to increase the steepness of its cliffs and render access difficult. At a later time, when Rome was united under one govern- ment, the very physical peculiarities which had originally made its hills so populous, through their natural adaptability for defence, became extremely inconvenient in a united city, where architectural symmetry and splendour were above all things aimed at. Hence the most gigantic engineering works were undertaken: tops of hills were levelled, whole ridges cut away, and gentle slopes formed in the place of abrupt cliffs. The levelling of the Velia and the excavation of the site for Trajan's forum are instances of this. The same works were continued in the middle ages, as when in the I4th century an access was made to the Capitoline Arx1 from the side of the Campus Martius; up to that time a steep cliff had prevented all approach except from the side of the Forum. Finally, after Rome had become the capital of united Italy, in the last quarter of the ipth century, an extensive govern- ment plan (piano regulatore) was gradually carried out, with the object of reducing hills and valley to a uniform level and constructing wide boulevards on the chessboard method of a modern American city. The constant fires which have at times devastated Rome have been a powerful agent in obliter- ating the natural contour of the ground; and the accumulated rubbish from this and other causes has in some places overlaid the ground to a depth of 40 ft., notably in the valleys. THE ANCIENT CITY The chief building materials used in ancient Rome may be enumerated as follows: (i) Tufa, the " ruber et niger tophus" of Vitruvius (ii. 7), varying in colour from Building warm brown to yellow or greyish green (called materi- capellaccio). The Aventine, Palatine and Capitoline a7s< Hills contained quarries of the tufa, much worked at an early period (see Liv. xxvi. 27, xxxix. 44, and Varro, L.L. iv. 151). It is a very bad " weather-stone," but stands well if protected with stucco (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 166). (2) Lapis Albanus, from Alba Longa, of volcanic origin, a conglomerate of ashes, gravel and fragments of stone; its quarries are still worked at Albano and Marino. This is now called peperino, from the black scoriae, like peppercorns, with which the brown conglomerate mass is studded. (3) Lapis Gabinus, from Gabii, very similar to the last, but harder and a better weather-stone; it contains large lumps of broken lava, products of an earlier eruption, and small pieces of limestone. According to Tacitus (Ann. xv. 43), it is fire-proof, and this is also the case with the Alban stone. Lapis Gabinus is now called sperone. (4) Silex (mod. selce), a lava from the now extinct volcanoes in the Alban Hills, used for paving roads; when broken into small pieces and mixed with lime and pozzolana it formed an immensely durable concrete. It is dark grey, very hard and breaks with a slightly conchoidal fracture (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 135; Vitr. ii. 7), but does not resemble what is now called silex or flint. (5) Lapis Tiburtinus (travertine), the chief quarries of which are at Tibur (Tivoli) and other places along the river Anio; a hard pure carbonate of lime, of a creamy white colour, deposited from running or dripping water in a highly 1 By the great flight of marble steps up to S. Maria in AraCoeli. . THE ANCIENT CITY] ROME 585 stratified form, with frequent cavities and fissures lined with crystals. As Vitruvius (ii. 5) says, it is a good weather-stone, but is soon calcined by fire. If laid horizontally it is very strong, but if set on end its crystalline structure is a great source of weakness, and it splits from end to end. Neglect on the part of Roman builders of this important precaution in many cases caused a complete failure in the structure. This was notably the case in the rostra. (6) Pulvis Puteolanus (pozzolana), so called from extensive beds of it at Puteoli — a volcanic pro- duct, which looks like red sandy earth, and lies in enormous beds under and round the city of Rome. When mixed with lime it forms a very strong hydraulic cement, of equal use in concrete, mortar or undercoats of stucco. It is to this material that the concrete walls of Rome owe their enormous strength and durability, in many cases far exceeding those of the most massive stone masonry. Vitruvius devotes a chapter (bk. ii. ch. 6) to this very important material. Bricks were either sun-dried (lateres crudi) or kiln-baked (lateres cocti, testae). The remarks of Vitruvius (ii. 3) seem to refer wholly to sun-dried bricks, of which no examples now exist in Rome. It is important to recognize the fact that among the existing ancient buildings of Rome there is no such thing as a brick wall or a brick arch in the true sense of the word; bricks were merely used as a facing to concrete walls and arches and have no constructional importance.1 Concrete (opus caemen- ticium, Vitr. ii. 4, 6, 8), the most important of all the materials used, is made of rough pieces of stone, or of fragments of marble, brick, &c., averaging from about the size of a man's fist and embedded in cement made of lime and pozzolana — forming one solid mass of enormous strength and coherence. Stucco, cement and mortar (tectorium, opus albarium and other names) are of many kinds; the ancient Romans especially excelled in their manufacture. The cement used for lining the channels of aqueducts (opus signinum) was made of lime mixed with pounded brick or potsherds and pozzolana; the same mixture was used for floors under the " nucleus " or finer cement on which the mosaic or marble paving-slabs were bedded, and was called caementum ex testis tunsis. For walls, three or four coats of stucco were used, often as much as 5 in. thick altogether; the lower coats were of lime and pozzolana, the finishing coats of powdered white marble (opus albarium) suit- able to receive painting. Even marble buildings were usually coated with a thin layer of this fine white stucco, nearly as hard and durable as the marble itself — a practice also employed in the finest buildings of the Greeks — probably because it formed a more absorbent ground for coloured decoration; stone columns coated in this way were called " columnae dealbatae " (Cic. In Verr. ii. i, 52 seq.). For the kinds of sand used in mortar and stucco, Vitruvius (ii. 4) mentions sea, pit and river sand, saying that pit sand is to be preferred. Marble appears to have come into use about the beginning of the 1st century B.C. Its introduction was at first viewed with great Decora- jealousy,' as savouring of Greek luxury. The orator Crassus was the first to use it in his house on the Palatine, materials. bui't about 92 B.C. ; and, though he had only six small columns of Hymettian marble, he was for this luxury nicknamed the " Palatine Venus " by the stern republican M. Brutus (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 7). The temporary wooden theatre of the aedile M. Aemilius Scaurus, built in 58 B.C., appears to have been the first building in which marble was more largely used ; its 360 columns and the Tower order of its scena were of Greek marble (see Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 5, 50). In a very few years, under the rule of Augustus, marble became very common.2 Of white statuary majble four principal varieties were used, (i) Marmor Lunense, from Luna, near the modern Carrara (Strabo, v. p. 222), is of many qualities, from the purest creamy white and the finest grain to the coarser sorts disfigured with bluish grey streaks. 1 In less solid constructions than those which have survived until modern times bricks were doubtless used by themselves. 2 The oft-quoted boast of Augustus (Suet. Aug. 29) that he " found Rome of brick and left it of marble " has probably much truth in it, if for " brick " we read " peperino and tufa." In the time of Augustus burnt brick was very little used, the usual wall- facings being opus quadratum of tufa or peperino, and opus reticu- latum of tufa only. (Ex., the eleven Corinthian columns in the Borsa.) (2) Marmor Hymettium, from Mount Hymettus, near Athens, is coarser in grain than the best Luna marble and is usually marked with grey or blue striations (Strabo ix. p. 399). (Ex., the forty-two columns in the nave of S. Maria Maggiore and the columns in S. Pietro in Vincoh.) (3) Marmor Penteltcum, from Mount Pentelicus, also near Athens, is very fine in grain and of a pure white; it was more used for architectural purposes than for statues, though some sculptors preferred it above all others, especially Pheidias and Praxiteles. (Ex., the bust of the young Augustus in the Vatican.) (4) Marmor farium, from the Isle of Paros, is very beautiful, though coarse in texture, having a very crystalline structure. (Ex., the nineteen columns of the round temple in the Forum Boarium.) Nine chief varieties of coloured marbles were used in Rome. (i) Marmor Numidicum (mod. giallo antico; Plin. H.N. v. 22), from Numidia and Libya, hence also called Libycum, is of a rich yellow, deepening to orange and even pink. Co1'"! Enormous quantities of it were used.especially for columns, wall-linings and pavements. (Ex., seven columns on the arch of Constantme, taken from the arch of Trajan ; the eighth column is in the Lateran basilica.) (2) Marmor Carystium (mod. cipoltino), from Carystus in Euboea (Strabo x. p. 446), has alternate wavy strata of white and pale green— the "undosa Carystos" of Statius (Silv. i. 5, 34). From its well-defined layers like an onion (cipolla) is derived its modern name. (Ex., columns of temple of Antoninus and Faustina.) (3) Marmor Phrygium or Synnadicum (mod. pavonazzetto), from Synnada in Phrygia (Strabo xii. p. 577; Juv. xiv. 307; Tibull. iii. 3, 13), is a slightly translucent marble, with rich purple markings, violet verging on red. It was fabled to be stained with the blood of Atys (Stat. Silv. i. 5, 37). (Ex., twelve fluted columns in S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and four columns in the apse of S. Paolo fuori, saved from the ancient nave of the basilica, burnt in 1823.) (4) Marmor lasium (probably the modern porta santa), from lasus, is mottled with large patches of dull red, olive green and white. The " holy doors " of the fbur great basilicas are framed with it, hence its modern name. (Ex., the slabs in front of the hemicycle of the Rostra and four columns in S. Agnese fuori le Mura). (5) Marmor Chium (probably the modern Africano), from Chios, is similar in the variety of its markings to the portasanla, but more brilliant in tint. (Ex., a great part of the paving of the Basilica Julia and two large columns in the centre of the facade of St Peter's.) (6) Marmor Taenarium (mod. rosso antico), from Taenarum in Laconia (Strabo viii. p. 367; Pliny, H.N: xxxvi. 158), is a very close-grained marble, of a rich deep red, like blood. As a rule it does not occur in large pieces, but was much used for small cornices and other mouldings in interiors of buildings. Its quarries in Greece are still worked. (The largest pieces known are the fourteen steps to the high altar of S. Prassede and two columns nearly 12 ft. high in the Rospigliosi Casino dell' Aurora.) (7) The name Marmor Taenarium is also applied by the ancients to a black marble (nerp antico) now no longer quarried. It is mentioned by Tibullus (iii. 3, 14) in conjunction with Phrygian and Carystian marbles; see also Prop. iii. 2, 9, and Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 135. (Ex., two columns in the choir of S. Giovanni in Laterano.) (8) Lapis Atracius (verde antico), found at Atrax in Thessaly, was one of the favourite materials for decorative architecture; it is not strictly a marble (i.e. a calcareous stone) but a variety of " precious serpentine," with patches of white and brown on a brilliant green ground. It seldom occurs in large masses. (The finest known specimens are the twenty-four columns beside the niches in the nave of the Lateran basilica.) (9) The hard oriental alabaster, the " onyx " or " alabas- trites " of Pliny (H.N. xxxvi. 59, xxxvii. 109) ; its chief quarries were on the Nile near Thebes,* in Arabia and near Damascus. In Pliny's age it was a great rarity; but in later times it was introduced in large quantities, and fragments of a great many columns have been found on the Palatine, in the baths' of Caracalla and elsewhere. It is semi-transparent and beautifully marked with concentric nodules and wavy strata. An immense number of other less common marbles have been found, including many varieties of breccia, whose ancient names are unknown.4 From the latter part of the ist century B.C. hard stones — granites and basalts — were introduced in great quantities. The basalts — " basanites " of Pliny (xxxvi. 58) — are very refractory, and __ can only be worked by the help of emery or diamond dust. /r*n"< The former was obtained largely at Naxos; diamond- dust drills are mentioned by Pliny (H.N. xxxvii. 200). The basalts are black, green and brown, and are usually free from spots or markings; examples of all three exist, but are com- paratively rare. The red variety called " porphyry " was used in enormous quantities. It is the " porphyntes " of PHny (H.N. * These Nile quarries were worked during the igth century, and many blocks were imported into Rome for the rebuilding of S. Paolo fuori le Mura. 4 On the subject of Roman marbles, see Corsi, Dette pietre antiche (ed. 3, 1845), and Pullen, Handbook of Roman Marbles (London, 1894) ; also Brindley in Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects (1887). A collection of 1000 specimens, originally formed by Corsi, is preserved in the museum at Oxford. 586 ROME xxxvi. 57), and was brought from Egypt. It has a rich red ground, covered with small specks of white felspar; hence it was also called " leptopsephos." A large number of columns of it exist, and it was much used for pavements of opus Alexandrinum. A rich green porphyry or basalt was also largely used, but not in such great masses as the red porphyry. It has a brilliant green ground covered with rectangular light green crystals of felspar. This is the lapis Lacedaemonius (wrongly called by the modern Romans " scrpent- ino "), so named from its quarries in Mount Ta^getus in Lace- daemonia (Paus. iii. 21, 4; Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 55; Juv. xi. 175). It appears to have been mostly used for pavements and panels of wall linings. The granites used in Rome came mostly from near Philae on the Nile (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 63). The red sort was called lapis pyrrhopoecilus and the grey lapis psaronius. The columns in the Basilica Ulpia are a fine example of the latter; both sorts are used for the columns of the Pantheon and those of the temple of Saturn in the Forum. Gigantic ships were specially made to carry the obelisks and other great monoliths (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 2, 67). The style of architecture employed in ancient Rome (see ARCHITECTURE, section Roman, and ROMAN ART) may be Anhi- said to have passed through three stages — the iectunt Etruscan, the Greek and the Roman. During the styles. first few centuries of the existence of the city, both the methods of construction and the designs employed appear to have been purely Etruscan. The earliest temples were either simple cellae without columns, or else, in the case of the grander temples, such as that of Capitoline Jupiter, the columns were very widely spaced (araeostyle), and consequently had entablatures of wooden beams. The architectural decora- tions were more generally in gilt bronze or painted terra-cotta than in stone, and the paintings or statues which decorated the buildings were usually the work of Etruscan artists.1 The Greek influence is more obvious; it is found in the period following the Second Punic or Hannibalic War, and almost all the temples of the earlier imperial age are Greek, with certain modifications, not only in general design but in details and ornaments. Greek architects were largely employed, such as Apollodorus of Damascus, who designed Trajan's forum and other buildings; on the other hand, a Roman, Cossutius, was employed on the building of the Olympieum at Athens, in the and century B.C. Roman architects such as Vitruvius and C. Mucius in the ist century B.C., Severus and Celer under Nero, and Rabirius under Domitian, were Greek by education, and probably studied at Athens (see Vitr. vii. Praef.; Hirt, Gesch. d. Baukunst, ii. p. 257).* The Romans, however, though far below the Greeks in artistic originality, were very able engineers, and this led to the development of a new and more purely Roman style, in which the restrictions imposed by the use of the stone lintel were put aside and large spaces were covered with vaults and domes cast in semi-fluid concrete, a method which had the enormous advantage of giving the arched form without the constant thrust at the springing which makes true arches or vaults of wide span so difficult to deal with. The enormous vaults of the great thermae, the basilica of Con- stantine, and the like, cover their spaces with one solid mass like a metal lid, giving the form but not the principle of the arch, and thus allowing the vault to be set on walls which would at once have been thrust apart had they been subjected to the immense leverage which a true arched vault constantly exerts on its imposts." This is a very important point, and one which is usually overlooked, mainly owing to the Roman practice of facing their concrete with bricks, which (from an examination 1 Pliny (H.N. xxxv. 154), quoting Varro, says that the decorations in painting and sculpture of the temple of Ceres near the Circus Maximus were the work of the first Greek artists employed in Rome, and that before that (c. 493 B.C.) " all things in temples were Etruscan." Vitruvius (iii. 3) says, " Ornantque signis fictilibus aut aereia inauratis eorum fastigia Tuscanico more, uti est ad Circum Maximum Cereris, et Herculis Pompeiani, item Capitolii " (cf. iv. 7, vi. 3). 1 The frequent use of engaged columns is a peculiarity of Roman architecture, but it is not without precedent in Greek buildings of the best period, e.g. in the temple of Zeus at Agrigentum. Surface enrichments over the mouldings were used far more largely by the Romans than by the Greeks. 1 In the beautiful drawings of Choisy (L'Art de bdtir chez les Remains, Paris, 1873) the structural importance of the brick used in vaults and arches is very much exaggerated. [THE ANCIENT CITY of the surface only) appear to be a principal item in the con- struction. The walls of the Pantheon, for example, are covered with tiers of brick arches, and many theories have been invented as to their use in distributing the weight of the walls. But a recognition of the fact that these walls are of concrete about 20 ft. thick, while the brick facing averages scarcely 6 in. in thickness, clearly shows that these " relieving arches " have no more constructional use as far as concerns the pressure than if they were painted on the surface of the walls. The same applies to the superficial use of brick in all arches and vaults. Although, however, the setting of the concrete rendered the brick facing superfluous, it played its part in sustaining the fluid mass on its centring during the process of solidification. At first tufa only was used in opus quadratum, as we see in the so-called wall of Romulus. Next the harder peperino began to be worked: it is used, though sparingly, in the " Servian " wall, and during the later Republic appears to have been largely employed for exterior walls or points where there was heavy pressure, while other parts were built of tuia. Thirdly, travertine appears to have been introduced about the 2nd century B.C. but was used at first for mereiy ornamental purposes, very much as marble was under the Empire; after about the middle of the 1st century A.D. travertine began to be largely used for the solid mass of walls, as in the temple of Vespasian and the Colosseum. The tufa or peperino blocks were roughly 2 (Roman) ft. thick in regular courses (the '• isodomum " of Vitruvius) by 2 ft. across the end, and under the Republic often exactly 4 ft. long, so that two blocks set endways ranged with one set lengthways. They were arranged in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, so as to make a good bond; this is the " em- plecton " of Vit- ruvius (ii. 8). The so-called Tabular- ium of the Capitol is a good example of this. The harder and more valuable travertine was not cut in this regular way, but pieces of all sizes were used, just as they hap- pened to come from the quarry, in order to avoid waste : blocks as much as 15 by 8 ft. were used, and the courses varied in thickness — t h e " pseudisodomum " of Vitruvius. When tufa or peperino travertine, it was cut so as to range with the irregular courses of the latter. It is interesting to note the manner in which the Roman builders mixed their different materials according to the weight they had to carry. While tufa was frequently used for the main walls, peperino (e.g. in the 1 Servian " wall on the Aventine) or^ travertine (e.g. in* the forum of Au- gustus and the temple of Fortuna :G. i. — Example of Construction in which many materials are used; upper part of one of the inner radiating walls under the cunei of the Colosseum. A, A. Marble seats on brick and concrete core, supported on vault made of pumice-stone concrete (C). B. Travertine arch at end of raking vault (C). D. One of the travertine piers built in flus/h with the tufa wall to give it extra strength. E, E- Wall of tufa concrete faced with triangular bricks, carrying the vaults of pumice concrete which support the marble seats. F. Travertine pier at end of radia- ting wall. G. Brick-faced arch of concrete to carry floor of passage. H, H. Tufa wall, opus quadratum. J, J, J. Line of steps in next bay. K, K. Surface arches of brick, too shallow to be of any constructional use, and not meant for ornament, as the whole was stuccoed ; they only face the wall (which is about 4 ft. thick) to the average depth of 4 in. temp] Virilis, so called) was inserted at points of special pressure, such as piers or arches (see fig.). The Colosseum is a particularly elaborate example of this mixed construction with three degrees of pressure supported by three different materials. FlG. 7.— PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME. THE ANCIENT CITY] ROME 587 The use of mortar with opus quadratum is a sign of a comparatively early date. It occurs, e.g. in the " Servian " wall on the Aventine .. and in the Tabularium. Under the Empire massive blocks, whether of tufa, travertine or marble, are set without any mortar. It must, however, be observed that in these early instances the " mortar " is but a thin stratum of lime, little thicker than stout paper, used not as a cement to bind the blocks together, but simply damns to g've e J°'nts a smoothly fitting surface. The actual binding together was done by clamps and dowels, as well as by the mass and weight of the great blocks used. Except in the earliest masonry, each block was very carefully fastened, not only to the next blocks on the same course, which was done with double dove-tailed dowels of wood, but also to those above and below with stout iron clamps, run with lead (Vitr. ii. 8).1 In more ornamental marble work bronze clamps were often used. Concrete is rarely found in connexion with opus quadratum; part of the " Servian wall on the Aventine received a backing of concrete at a relatively late period Up to the ist century B.C it was faced with opus incertum — small irregularly shaped blocks of tufa, 3 to 6 in. across, with pointed ends driven into the concrete while it was soft, and worked smooth on the face only (see fig. 2). From the beginning of the 1st century B.C. opus reticulatum? formed of rectangular tufa prisms laid in a regular pattern like a net (whence the name), is found. It is very neat in appearance, and is often fitted with great care,though it was generally covered with stucco. The so-called " house of Livia " on the Palatine is a good example«of the earlier sort, when the quoins were made of small rectangular blocks of tufa. Under the Empire brick quoins came into use (as may be seen, e.g. in the so-called palace of Caligula). Though in Rome opus reticulatum was ajmost always made of tufa, in the neighbourhood of the city it was sometimes of peperino or even lava, where these materials were found on the spot. retku- lalum. SECTION OF ANGLE FIG. 2. — Concrete Wall FIG. 3. — Section of Concrete Wall, show- faced with (A) Opus In- ing the use of bricks merely as a certumand(B)OpusRe- facing, ticulatum. C shows the section, similar in both. Of concrete walls faced with burnt bricks no dated example earlier than the middle of the 1st century B.C. is known. The facing consisted at first of triangular fragments of tiles (teguloe), broken for the purpose and more or less irregular in shape facing. ancj sjze> kut from the latter part of the 1st century A.D. onwards triangular bricks were specially manufactured for wall- facings. This shape was adopted in order to present a large surface on the face with little expenditure of brick, and also to improve the bond wrth the concrete behind (see fig. 4). Even party walls of small rooms are not built solid, but have a concrete core faced with brick triangles about 3 in. long. In order to support the facing until the concrete was set, the Roman builders used a wooden framing covered with planks on the inside. Sometimes the planks were nailed outside the wooden uprights, as was done with unfaced concrete walls, and then a series of grooves appear in the face of the brickwork. Walls faced with opus reticulatum must have been supported temporarily in the same way. The character of the brick facing is a great help towards deter- mining the date of Roman buildings. In early work the bricks are thick and the joints thin, while in later times the reverse is the case, so that brickwork of the time of Severus and later has more bricks to the foot than that of the Flavian period. The length of the bricks as it appears on the face is no guide to the date, since one or more of the sharp points of the brick triangles were frequently broken off before they were used. Moreover, 1 The expansion of the iron through rust, which caused the stone to split, has frequently been a great source of injury to Roman walls, as well as the practice, common in the middle ages, of breaking into the stones in order to extract the metal. 1 These two kinds of stone facings are mentioned thus by Vitruvius (ii. 8), " reticulatum, quo nunc [reign of Augustus] omnes utuntur, et antiquum, quod incertum dicitur." varieties both in quality of workmanship and size of the bricks often occur in work of the same date. In the remains of Nero's Golden House great varieties appear, and some of the walls in the inferior rooms are faced with very irregular and careless brickwork.1 Special care and neatness were employed in the rare cases when the wall was not to be covered with stucco, which in the absence of marble was usually spread over both inside and outside walls. All these circum- stances make great caution necessary in judging of dates; fortunately after the 1st century A.D., and in some cases even earlier, stamps impressed on bricks, and especially on the large tiles used for arches, give clearer indications. The reason of the almost universal use of smooth facings either of opus reticulatum or of brick over concrete walls is a very puzzling question; for concrete itself forms an excellent ground for the stucco coating or backing to the marble slabs, while the stucco adheres with difficulty to a smooth facing, and is very liable to fall away. The modern practice of raking out the joints to form a key was not employed by the Romans, but before the mortar was hard they studded the face of the wall with marble plugs and iron or bronze nails driven into the joints, so as to give a hold for the stucco — a great waste both of labour and material.4 The quality of the mortar varies according to its date: during the ist and 2nd centuries it is of remarkable hardness — made of lime with a mixture of coarse pozzolana of a bright red colour; in the 3rd century *t began to be inferior in quality; and the pozzolana used under the later Empire is brown instead 01 red. _ Concrete was at first always made of lumps of tufa; then traver- tine, lava, broken bricks and even marble were used, in fact all the chips and fragments of the mason's yard. Under concrete the Empire the concrete used was made with travertine walls aod or lava for foundations, with tufa or broken bricks for vauus, walls, and with tufa or pumice-stone (for the sake of lightness) for vaults. Massive walls were cast in a mould ; upright timbers, about 6 by 7 in. thick and 10 to 14 ft. long, were set in rows on each face of the future wall; planks 9 to lo in. wide were nailed to them, so as to form a case, into which the semi- fluid mass of stones, lime and pozzolana was poured. When this was set the timbers were re- moved and refixed on the top of the concrete wall; then fresh concrete was poured in; and this pro- cess was repeated till the wall was raised to the re- quired height. Usually such cast-work was only used for foundations and cella walls, the upper parts being faced with brick; but in some cases the whole wall to the top was cast in this way and the brick facing omitted. In strength and dura- bility no masonry, how- ever hard the stone or large the blocks, could ever equal these walls of concrete when made with hard lava or travertine, for each wall was one perfectly coherent mass, and could only be de- stroyed by a laborious process like that of FIG. 4. — Example of Marble Lining, from the Cella of the Temple of Concord. A. Slabs of Phrygian marble. B. Plinth moulding of Numidian "giallo." C. Slab of cipollino (Caryst'an marble). D. Paving of porta santa. E and F. " nucleus " and " nidus " of concrete bedding. G, G. Iron clamps run with lead to fix marble lining. H. Bronze clamp. J. Cement backing. quarrying hard stone from its native bed. Owing to this method of building the progress of the work from day to day can often be traced by a change in the look of the concrete. About 3 ft. appears to have been the average amount of wall raised in a day. Marble linings were fixed very firmly to the walls with long clamps of metal, hooked at the end so as to hold in a hole made in the marble slab. Fig. 4 gives an example, of the time of Marble Augustus, fixed against a stone wall. The blocks were usually marked in the quarry with a number, and often tf& with the names of the reigning emperor and the overseer of the quarry. These quarry-marks are often of great value as indications of the date of a building or statue.' Metropolitan 'Some of the bricks are as much as 2j in. thick, while ij in. is the usual maximum for Roman bricks. 4 The Roman method of applying stucco to walls with a wooden " float " exactly as is done now, is shown in a painting from Pompeii (see Ann. Inst., 1881, pi. H.). 'See Bruzza, in Ann. Inst. (1870), pp. 106-204; Hirschfeld, Die kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten (1905), pp. 162 ff. 588 ROME [PREHISTORIC REMAINS Roads. building acts, not unlike those of modern London, were enacted by several of the emperors. These fixed the materials to be used, thickness of walls, minimum width of streets, maximum height allowed for houses, &c. After the great fire in Nero's reign, A.D. 64, an act was passed requiring the lower storeys of houses to be built with fire-proof materials, such as peperino or burnt brick. Enormous accumulations of statues and pictures enriched Rome during its period of greatest splendour. In the first place, the numerous statues of the republican and even of the regal Ancient period were religiously preserved at a time when, from works of their archaic character, they must have been regarded rather as objects of sacred or archaeological interest than as works of art (Plin. H.N. xxxiv. 15 ff., xxxv. 19 ff.). Secondly came the large Graeco-Roman class, mostly copies of earlier Greek works, executed in Rome by Greek artists. To this class belongs most of the finest existing sculpture preserved in the Vatican and other museums. Thirdly, countless statues and pictures were stolen from almost every important city in Greece, Magna Graecia, Sicily and western Asia Minor. These robberies began early, and were carried on for many centuries. The importations included works of art by all the chief artists from the Jth century downwards. Long lists are given by Pliny (H.N. xxxiii.-xxxvi.), and pedestals exist with the names of Praxiteles, Timarchus, PolycHtus, Bryaxis and others. These accumulated works of sculpture* were of all materials — gold and ivory (Suet. Tit. 2), of which seventy-four are mentioned in the catalogue of the Breviarium, many hundreds or even thousands of silver1 (Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 151 f.), while those of gilt bronze and marble must have existed in almost untold numbers (Paus. viii. 46). Nor were the accumulated stores of Greek paintings much inferior in number; not only were easel pictures by Zeuxis, Apelles, Timanthes and other Greek artists taken, but even mural paintings were carefully cut off their walls and brought to Rome secured in wooden frames (Plin. H.N. xxxv. 173, and compare ibid. 154). The roads were made of polygonal blocks of lava (silex), neatly fitted together and laid on a carefully prepared bed, similar to that used for mosaic paving (see MOSAIC and ROADS). Roads thus made were called viae stralae. A good specimen of Roman road-making, in which the blocks were fitted together with the utmost accuracy, is to be seen in a portion of the Clivus Capi- tolinus in front of the temple of Saturn (see fig. 5, which also shows the massive travertine curb which bordered the road; sometimes the curb was of lava). In 1901 the late and badly laid pavement of the Sacra Via on the ascent of the Velia was removed, and the earlier paving laid bare at a lower level. The original pavement of SECTION. the Nova Via was ex- 10FEET. P°sed m I0°4- Other well-preserved viae FIG. 5. — Example of Early Basalt Road by stralae are those leading the Temple of Saturn on the Clivus up to the palatine from Capitohnus. A. Travertine paving rjf c c v B. Polygonal basalt blocks. C. Con- th« Summa Sacra Via crete bedding. D. Rain-water gutter, and that which follows The curb shown is taken from another the curved line of shops part of the road. in Trajan's forum. The following is a list of the chief roads which radiated from Rome: — (i) Via Appia issued from the Servian Porta Capena and the Aurelian P. Appia; from it diverged (2) Via Latina, which issued from the Aurelian P. Latina ; (3) Via Labicana and (4) Via Tiburtina issued from the Servian P. Esquilina; from (3) diverged (5) Via Praenestina at the double arch of the Claudian aqueduct, now P. Maggiore, while (4) passed through the Aurelian P. Tiburtina; (6) Via Nomentana and (7) Via Salaria issued from the Servian P. Collina and passed respectively through the Aurelian P. Nomen- tana and P. Salaria; (8) Via Flaminia issued from the Servian P. Fontinalis, and was called Via Lata for the first half-mile or more, 1 Eighty silver statues of Augustus, some equestrian and some in quadngae, are mentioned in the Man. Anc. 4, 51. 1 then passed through the Aurelian P. Flaminia; (9) Via Aurelia, from the Transtiberine P. Aurelia; (10) Via Portuensis, from the Transtiberine P. Portuensis; (ll) Via Ostiensis, from the Servian P. Trigemina and the Aurelian P. Ostiensis; (12) Via Ardeatina, from the Servian P. Naevia and the Aurelian P. Ardeatina. Remains of Prehistoric Rome. It is evident from recent discoveries that the site of Rome was inhabited at a very early period.2 Flint implements and remains of the Bronze Age have been found on the Aventine and elsewhere; and from the Early Iron Age onwards we have a continuous archaeological record, owing to the discovery of ancient burial-places. In 1902 a very early necropolis was brought to light at the S.E. corner of the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, some 17 ft. below the level of the Forum. The graves contain either the ashes of cremated bodies placed in a large vessel (dolio), or skeletons buried either in a simple trench (fossa), a tufa sarcophagus or a tree-trunk. The cremation graves are the earlier, and none are later than the 6th century, while the oldest may be of the 9th; the pottery and other objects placed in the graves belong to the Early Iron Age. It is clear that this cemetery is earlier than the union of the Palatine and Quirinal settlements in one city (see below, p. 759). Other early cemeteries have been discovered on the Quirinal and Esquiline, which were in use from the beginning of the Iron Age down to the beginning of the historic period. The large necropolis on the Esquiline is cut in two by the " Servian " wall, which is evidently of later date. The later tombs contain objects of Etruscan, Phoenician and Greek manufacture. There is no doubt that the earliest settlement bearing the name of Rome was on the Palatine hill,3 which was both easy of defence and possessed the means of communica- The tion with its neighbours in the proximity of the Palatine Tiber. The name Roma is said to mean " river," clty- but this is uncertain. The Palatine is roughly square in out- line, and the Roman antiquarians sometimes applied the name Roma Quadrata to the earliest settlement; but the term seems more properly to have applied to a sanctuary connected with the foundation of the city. The ideal boundary of the city was formed by the Pomerium (see Varro, L.L. v. 143; Liv. i. 44; Dionys. i. 88), whose original course is traced by Tacitus (Ann. xii. 24). It passed along the foot of the hill (per ima mantis Palatini), the angle-points being given by the Ara Maxima in the Forum Boarium, the Ara Consi in the Circus Maximus, the Curiae Veteres (near the arch of Constantine) and the Sacellum Larum (at the N. angle). But this was of course not a defensible site, and the extent of the fortified city can only be determined by the traces of its early walls. These enable us to fix its line along the whole valley of the Velabrum, on the west of the hill, and along the valley of the Circus Maximus as far as the so-called Paedagogium, about half-way on the south side. Considerable remains of this fortification exist near the west angle of the hill. These show that the natural strength given by the cliff was increased by artificial means. The wall was set neither at the top nor at the foot of the hill, but more Anckat than half-way up, a level terrace or shelf all round being fortlf/- cut in the rock on which the base of the wall stood. Above <*tlons. that the hill was cut away into a cliff, not quite perpendicular but slightly " battering " inwards, to give greater stability to the wall, which was built up against it, like a retaining wall, reaching to the top of the cliff, and probably a few feet higher. The stones used in this wall are soft tufa, a warm brown in colour, and full of masses of charred wood. The cutting to form the steep cliff probably supplied part of the material for the wall; and ancient quarries, afterwards used as reservoirs for water, exist in the mass of rock on which the so-called temple of Jupiter Victor stands. It has been asserted that these tufa blocks are not cut but split with wedges; this, however, is not the case. Tufa does not split into rectangular masses, but 2 On the prehistoric^ remains of Rome and Latium, see Pinza in Monumenti antichi pubblicati per euro delta reale Accademia dei Lincei, vol. xv., 1905; also Comm. Boni's reports on the necro- polis adjoining the Forum in the Notizie degli scavi, and Modestor, Introduction d I'histoire romaine (Paris, 1907). 3 The " primacy of the Palatine " has been disputed by Carter (Amer. Jour. Arch., 1908, p. 181), who thinks that the first city was that of the Four Regions (see below) formed by the Etruscan kings. PREHISTORIC REMAINS] ROME 589 would be shattered to pieces by a wedge; moreover, distinct tool-marks can be seen on all the blocks whose surface is well pre- served and in the quarries themselves. Chisels from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in width were used, and also a sharp-pointed pick or hammer. The wall is about 10 ft. thick at the bottom, and increases in thickness above as the scarped cliff against which it is built recedes. It is built of blocks laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, varying in thickness from 22 to 24 in., in length from 3 to 5 ft. and in width from 19 to 22 in. These blocks are carefully worked on their beds, but the face is left rough, and the vertical joints are in some cases open, spaces of nearly 2 in. being left between block and block; in other cases the vertical joints are worked true and close like the beds. No mortar was used. At two points on the side of the Velabrum winding passages are excavated in the tufa cliff, the entrance to which was once closed by the ancient wall. One of these in early times (before water in abundance was brought to the Palatine on aqueducts) was used as a reservoir to collect surface water, probably for use in case of siege ; circular shafts for buckets are cut downwards through the rock from the top of the hill. A similar rock-cut cistern with vertical shafts, of very early date, exists at Alba Longa. Opposite the church of S. Teodoro a series of buttresses belonging to the early wall exists, partly concealed by a long line of buildings of the later years of the Republic and the early Empire, to make room for which the greater part of the then useless wall was pulled down, and only fragments left here and there, where they could be worked into the walls of the later houses. The age of the walls here described cannot be determined with certainty, but their resemblance to the remains of the " Servian " wall, especially in the system of " headers and stretchers " and the dimensions of the blocks, makes it certain that they do not differ greatly in date from that work. The chief technical difference lies in the open vertical joints found in some cases; but too much stress should not be laid on this feature. There are, however, at the western angle of the hill some remains of an earlier fortification, constructed with blocks of grey-green tufa, smaller in size than those of the main wall. A few courses have been preserved, owing to the fact that at the angle of the hill this wall was encased first of all by that described above and afterwards by concrete substructures of imperial date. The technique is primitive, as the blocks are of irregular size and are not laid in courses of " headers and stretchers " ; the nearest parallel is supplied by the foundations of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. These remains are shown by Delbriick, Der Apollotempel auf dem Marsfelde, pi. iii., cf. p. 13 f. Pliny (H.N. iii. 66) tells us that the city of Romulus had three gates (cf. Serv. Ad. Aen. i. 222); and three approaches to the . Palatine city can be traced. One is the so-called Scalae Caci, a long sloping ascent cut through the rock (see '"*? . fig. 17) from the side of the Circus Maximus; some vua ' remains of the early wall still exist along the sides of this steep ascent or staircase. The upper part of this has remains of a basalt pavement, added in later times, probably covering the more ancient rock-cut steps. The name of the gate which led at this point into the Palatine city is unknown. The only two gates whose name and position can be (with any degree of probability) identified are the Porta Romanula and the Porta Mugonia. The former of these is called Porta Romana by Festus (ed. Miilfer, p. 262), who states that it was at the foot of the Clivus Victoriae (see fig. 17) and was so called by the Sabines of the Capitol because it was their natural entrance to Roma Quadrata (see also Varro, L.L. v. 164 (who only mentions the two gates named above), vi. 24). It would thus have been at the foot of the hill in the Velabrum (see below, p. 600); but Varro says that it was approached by steps from the Nova Via, l which would place it at the N. angle of the Palatine. The stairs connecting the Nova Via with the Clivus Victoriae still exist. Doubtful traces of the Porta Mugonia (see Sol. i. 24) have been discovered where a basalt paved road leads up into the Palatine from the Summa Sacra Via and the Summa Nova Via, which join near the arch of Titus; exposure to weather has now destroyed the soft tufa blocks of which this gate was built. This is probably the " vetus porta Palatii " of Liyy (i. 12), through which the Romans fled when defeated by the Sabines. The Palatine settlement was the nucleus around which, by a series of expansions, the historical city of Rome grew up. The first step nrn ih was tne ama'gamat'on °f Roma Quadrata with the villages f° on the neighbouring spurs of the Esquiline and Caelian. or early -phis gave birth to the community of the Seven Hills, whose "*'" existence is proved by the survival of the festival known as the Septimontium, celebrated on the nth of December (Fest. 340; Macrob. i. 16, 6). The seven hills were not those familiar in later nomenclature, but the following: — (i) Palatium and (2) Cermalus, the two summits of the Palatine; (3) Velia, the saddle between the Palatine and Esquiline; (4) Oppius and (5) Cispius, the two westernmost spurs of the Esquiline, together with (6) Fagutal, the extreme crest of the Oppius; (7) Sucusa (confused by later writers with Subura), the eastern spur of the Caelian. Varro (L.L. v. 48) mentions the murus terreus Carinarum, which may have belonged 1 " Novalia," MSS. • " Navalia " has been conjectured. to the defences of this community, since the N.W. slope of the Oppius bore the name Carinae; but there is no proof that the Septimontium was a walled city. The next stage in the development of Rome was marked by the division of the city into four regions, ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius,1 who was said to have formed the four city tribes, corresponding with the regions: (i) Suburana, including the Caelian and the valley between that hill and the Esquiline; (2) Esquilina, the Oppius and Cispius; (3) Collina, the Quirinal and Viminal; (4) 1 'al.it in. i, including the Palatine and Velia. The third region was an addition to the City of the Seven Hills; the new city was, in fact, formed by the union of the old Latin settlement with a Sabine community on the Quirinal. The Capitol was the citadel, but was not included in the city (hence the phrase urbs et Capitolium). Tradition likewise assigned to Servius Tullius' the construction of the great wall which embraced not merely the four regions but a considerably extended area, including the Aventine. Excavations have done much to determine the line of the tl"*/ Servian wall, especially the great works undertaken in laying out a new quarter of the city on the Quirinal, Esquiline and Viminal, which have laid bare and then mostly destroyed long lines of wall, especially along the agger. Beginning from the Tiber, which the Servian wall touched at a point near the present Ponte Rotto, and separating the Forum Holitorium (outside) from the Forum Boarium (inside), it ran in a straight line to the Capitoline hill, the two crests of which, the Capitolium and the Arx, with the intermediate valley the Asylum, were surrounded by an earlier fortification, set (Dionys. ix. 68) M X&Jwtt . . . nal -ri-rpaa dirorA^oif. In this space there were two gates, the Porta Flumentana, next the river (see Cic. Ad Alt. vii. 3; Liv. xxxv. 19, 21); and the Porta Carmentalis close to the Capitolium.4 From the Capitoline hill the wall passed to the Quirinal along a spur of elevated ground, after- wards completely cut away by Trajan. Close to the Capitol was the Porta Fontinalis, whence issued the Via Lata. Remains of the wall and foundations of the gate exist in Via di Marforio. After passing Trajan's forum, we find remains of the walls en the slope of the Quirinal. A piece of the wall has been exposed in the new Via Nazionale, and also an archway under the Palazzo Antonelli, which may represent the Porta Sanqualis (see Festus, ed. Miiller, p. 343). The Porta Salutaris (Festus, pp. 326-327) was also on the Quirinal, probably on the slope between the Trevi fountain and the royal palace. Its position is indicated by the existence of some tombs which give the line of the road. On the north-west of the Quirinal was the Porta Quirinalis (Festus, p. 254), probably near the " Quattro Fontane." In the Barberini palace gardens, and especi- ally in those of the Villa Barberini (Horti Sallustiani), extensive remains of the wall have been recently exposed and destroyed, — which was also the fate of that fine piece of wall that passed under the new office of finance, with the Porta Collina, which was not on the line of the present road, but about 50 yds. to the south (see Dionys. ix. 68; Strabo iv. p. 234). Thus far in its course from the Capitol the wall skirted the slopes of hills, which were once much more abrupt than they are now; but from the Porta Collina to the Porta Esquilina it crossed a large tract of level ground; and here its place was taken by the great agger described below. About the middle of it the Porta Viminalis was found in 1872; it stood, as Strabo (iv. p. 234) says, 6ird utaif rro, and also speaks (xxxiv. 44) of an " inferiorem carcerem," and at xxix. 22 of a criminal being put in the Tullianum. 8 Consules suffecti for A.D. 22. FORUM ROMANUM] ROME 591 the bodies of criminals were exposed;1 Pliny (H.N. viii. 145) calls it the " stairs of sighs " (gradus gemitorii). Forum Romanum and Adjacent Buildings. The Forum Romanum or Magnum, as it was called in late times to distinguish it from the imperial fora, occupies a valley which extends from the foot of the Capitoline hill to the north-west part of the Palatine. Till the construction of the great cloacae it was, at least in wet seasons, marshy ground, in which were several pools of water. In early times it was bounded on two sides by rows of shops and houses, dating from the time of the first Tarquin (Liv. i. 35). The shops on the south-west side facing the Sacra Via, where the Basilica Julia afterwards was built, were occupied by the Tabernae Veteres.2 The shops on the northern side, being occupied by silversmiths, were called Tabernae Argentariae, and in later times, when rebuilt after a 'fire, were called Tabernae Novae (see Liv. xxvi. 27, xl. 51).* An altar to Saturn (Dionys. i. 34, vi. i), traditionally set up by the companions of Hercules, and an altar to Vulcan, both at the end towards the Capitol, with the temple of Vesta and the Regia at the opposite end, were among the earliest monuments grouped around the Forum. The Lacus Curtius vanished, as Varro says (L.L. v. 148-49), probably with other stagnant pools, when the cloacae were constructed (Liv. i. 38, 56).* Another pool, the Lacus Servilius, near the Basilica Julia, was preserved in some form or other till the imperial period. Under Sulla it was used as a place to expose the heads of many senators murdered in his proscriptions (Cic. Rose. Am. 32, 89; Seneca, De Prov. 3, 7). The Volcanal was an open area, so called from the early altar to Vulcan, and was (like the Comitium) a place of public meeting, at least during the regal period.6 It was raised above the Comitium, and was a space levelled en the lower slope of the Capitoline hill behind the arch of Severus; the foundations of the altar were discovered in 1898. It was probably much en- croached upon when the temple of Concord was enlarged in the reign of Augustus. Fig. 8 gives a carefully measured plan of the Forum, showing the most recent discoveries. Unlike the fora of the emperors, each of which was surrounded by a lofty wall and built at one time from one design, the archi- tectural form of the Forum Romanum was a slow growth. The marshy battlefield of the early inhabitants of the Capitol and Palatine became, when the ground was drained by the great cloacae, under a united rule the most convenient site for political meetings, for commercial transactions, and for the pageants of rich men's funerals, ludi scenici, and gladiatorial games.9 For these purposes a central space, though but a small one, was kept clear of buildings ; but it was gradually occupied in a somewhat inconvenient manner by an ever-accumulating crowd of statues and other honorary monu- ments. On three sides the limits of this open space are marked by paved roads, faced by the stately buildings which gradually took the place of the simple wooden tabernae and porticus of early times. The Comitium 7 was a level space in front of the Curia ; the construc- tion of both is ascribed to Tullus Hostilius. For the position of the Comitium and the Curia8 see plan of Forum (fig. 8). Varro (L.L. v- 'SS-Sfc) gives the following account of the buildings which were grouped along the northern angle of the Forum: — " Comitium ab eo quod coibant eo comitiis curiatis et litium causa. Curiae duorum generum, nam et ubi curarent sacerdotes res 1 See Tac. Hist. iii. 74, 85; Suet. Vit. 17. 2 See Livy (xliv. 16), who mentions a house of P. Africanus, " pone veteres ad Vortumni signum," which was bought by T. Sempronius to clear the site for the Basilica Sempronia in 169 B.C. This basilica was afterwards absorbed in the Basilica Julia. 8 Hence these two sides of the Forum are frequently referred to in classical writings as " sub veteribus " and " sub novis." 4 In later times it was an enclosed space containing an altar; it is described by Ovid (Fast. vi. 403) ; according to one tradition it marked the spot where Curtius's self-immolation filled up the chasm which had opened in the Forum (see Dionys. ii. 41). (See below.) 'See Dionys. ii. 50, vi. 67; Plin. H.N. xvi. 236; Plut. Quaes. Rom. 47. * The first gladiatorial show in Rome was given in 264 B.C. in the Forum Boarium by D. Junius Brutus at his father's funeral (Liv. Epit. xvi.), the first in the Forum Romanum in 216 B.C. (Liv. xxiii. 30). See also Liv. xxxi. 50, xli. 28; and Suet. Goes. 39; Aug. 43; and Tib. 7. 7 On the Comitium see Detlefsen, Ann. Inst. (1860), pp. 128 ff.t and the works mentioned below, note 1 1. 1 Liyy (xlv. 24) indicates their relative positions by the phrase " comitium vestibulum Curiae." divinas, ut Curiae Veteres, et ubi scnatus humanas, ut Curia Host ilia, quod primum aedificavit Hostilius rex. Ante hanc Rostra, quojus loci id vocabulum, quod ex hostibus capta fixa sunt rostra. Sub dextra hujus a Comitio locus substructus, ubi nationum subsisterent legati qui ad senatum csscnt missi. Is Graecostasis appellatus a parte ut mult.i. Senaculum supra Graecostasim, ubi Aedis Con- cordiae et Basilica Opimia. Senaculum vocatum, ubi senatus, aut ubi seniores consisterent." The curia or senate-house passed through many vicissitudes.1 At first called Curia Hostilia, from its founder Tullus Hostilius (Liv. i. 30), it lasted till 52 B.C., when it was burnt at the funeral of Clodius, and was then rebuilt by Faustus Sulla, and from his gens called Curia Cornelia (Dio Cass. xl. 50). It was again rebuilt by Julius Caesar, and dedicated by Augustus (29 B.C.) under the name of the Curia Julia, as recorded in the inscription of Ancyra (q.v .)— CVRIAM . ET. CONT1NENS . El . CHALCIDICVM . . . FECl. Little is known about the adjoining buildings called the Athenaeum and Chalcidicum; Dion Cassius (Ii. 22) mentions the group. In the reign of Domitian the Curia Julia was restored (Prosp. Aquit. p. 571), and it was finally rebuilt by Diocletian. The existing church of S. Adriano is the Curia of Diocletian, though of course much altered, and with its floor raised about 20 ft. above the old level. _ The level of the entrance was raised in the middle ages, and again in 1654. Sixteenth-century drawings and engrav- ings show the lower level. The ancient bronze doors now at the end of the nave of the Lateran basilica originally belonged to this building, and were removed thence by Alexander VII. The brick cornice and marble consoles, covered with enriched mouldings in stucco, and the sham marble facing, also of stucco, if compared with similar details in the baths of Diocletian, leave no doubt as to this being a work of his time, and not, as was at one time assumed, the work of Pope Honorius I. (A.D. 625-38) who consecrated it as the church of S. Adriano. From the Curia a flight of steps led down to the Comitium (Liv. i. 36), a space consecrated as a templum according to the rules of augury (Cic. De Or. iii. 3) and used for the meetings of the Comitia Curiata, and for certain religious ceremonies performed, after the fall of the monarchy, by the rex sacrtficutus. It contained ancient monuments, relics, such as theficus ruminalis, and the supposed tomb of Romulus, whose site was marked in later times by a " black stone " (lapis niger). Facing the Curia stood the platform from which speakers addressed the people, adorned in 338 B.C. with the beaks of the ships captured from the Latins at the naval victory of Antium and hence called the rostra. Caesar determined to remove the rostra from the Comitium to the Forum, and this plan was carried out after his murder. From the original rostra Cicero delivered his Second and Third Catiline Orations, and they _.,. were the scene of some of the most important political * struggles of Rome, such as the enunciation of their laws by the Gracchi. Beside the Comitium another monument was erected, also adorned with beaks of ships, to commemorate the same victory at Antium. This was the Columna Maeniana, so called in honour of Maenius (Plin. H.N. xxxiv. 20, vii. 212). The Columna Duilia was a similar monument, erected in honour of the victory of C. Duilius over the Punic fleet in 260 B.C.; a fragment of it with inscription (restored in imperial times) is preserved in the Capitoline Museum.10 Columns such as these were called columnae rostratae. In 1899-1900 the site of the Comitium — which was considerably reduced in extent by the building of the later Curia — was excavated by Commendatore Boni, in some parts as far as the virgin soil.11 Remains of walls and pavements of various periods (some very early) were discovered; some of the walls, there is no doubt, supported the platform of the early rostra, which appears to have been at first rectangular and at a later time curved. Opposite to the Curia is a square paved with black marble slabs, which it is natural to identify with the lapis niger of tradition. Beneath this pavement was found a group of early monuments, which were at some time destroyed and afterwards covered over. We are told on the authority of Varro that Romulus was buried in front of (or behind) the rostra, and that two lions were sculptured as guardians of his tomb; and we find in fact a foundation (D, fig. 9) from which project two moulded bases of tufa (A, B) on which the lions may well have stood, on either side of a block (C) which might serve as an altar. Beside this tomb (if such it be) stood the trunk of a tufa column (E) and a rectangular stele (F) which bears on all its faces an inscription written alternately upwards and downwards, so that only the ends of the lines can be read. That it is the earliest specimen of the Latin language is undoubted; and it certainly mentions the rex. But after the expulsion of the kings the rex ' On the Curia and its vicissitudes see Lanciani, L'Auia e gli Uffici del Senato Romano (1883). IOThe column itself is a copy made by Michelangelo; it is at the foot of the stairs of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. 11 The discoveries of Comm. Boni have given rise to much discussion. Of the numerous articles, Sec., which have appeared it will suffice to name Petersen, Comitium, Rostra, Grab des Romulus (1904), and Pinza, // Ccmizio romano nell' etd repubblicana (1905); see Huelscn, The Roman Forum, pp. no ff. 592 ROME [FORUM ROMANUM The Capitol Forum Romanum ity , by pcnnission ot K*rl sacrificulus performed his functions in the Comitium, and the inscription may refer to him. This may be the stele to which Dionysius of Halicarnassus refers as marking the tomb of Hostus Hostilius (father of Tullus Hostilius) whose site (according to those who believed in the translation of Romulus to heaven) was marked by the lapis niger. FIG. 9. — Early Monuments in the Comitium. A, B. Moulded tufa bases. C. Base of altar (?). D. Rectangular foundation. E. Truncated column. F. Stele with inscription. G. Steps leading to platform of rostra. The dotted line shows the position of the lapis niger. The Senaculum appears to have been a place of preliminary meeting for the senate before entering the Curia (Liv. xli. 27; geaa. Val. Max. ii. 2, 6) ; it adjoined the temple of Concord, culum a"^ wnen tnis was rebuilt on an enlarged scale in the reign of Augustus it appears probable that its large projecting portico became the Senaculum. FIG. 8. — The Roman Forum A great part of the north-east side of the Fcrum was occupied by two basilicae, which were more than once rebuilt under different names. The first of these appears to have been adjacent „ ... to the Curia, on its west side; it was called the Basilica . f Porcia, and was founded by the elder Cato in 185 B.C. (see Liv. xxxix. 44, and Plut. Cato Major, 19); it was burnt with the Curia at Clodius's funeral. On the north side of the Forum another basilica, called Aemilia et Fulvia (Varro vi. 4), was built in 179 B.C. by the censors M. Fulvius and M. Aemilius Lepidus ; * it stood, according to Livy (xl. 51), " post argentarias novas," the line of silversmiths' shops along the north-east side of the Forum. In 50 B.C. it was rebuilt by L. Aemilius Paulus with Caesar's money (Plut. Goes. 29; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. 26), and was more than once restored within the few subsequent years by members of the same family. Its later name was the Basilica Pauli, and it was remark- able for its magnificent columns of Phrygian marble (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 102) or pavonazzetto. Part of the western end was still standing in the l6th century, and was drawn by Giuliano da Sangallo (Huelsen, The Roman Forum, fig. 61). Recent excavations have shown that it was approached from the Forum by a flight of steps leading to a two-storeyed colonnade. Behind this was a row of tabernae in the middle of which was the entrance to the main hall, consisting in a nave and three aisles (two on the north side). Near the middle of the north-east side of the Forum stood also the small bronze temple of Janus,2 the doors of which were shut on those rare occasions when Rome was at peace.3 A _ . first brass of Nero shows it as a small cella, with richly ,. ornamented frieze and cornice. Another aedicula near that of Janus was the shrine of Venus Cloacina (or the Purifier), on the line of the cloaca which runs under the Basilica Aemilia; 1 The Forum Piscatprium or fish-market appears to have been at the back of this basilica (see Liv. xl. 51). 2 The original temple was one of the prehistoric buildings attri- buted to Romulus and Tatius (Serv. Ad Aen. i. 291), or by Livy (i. 19) to Numa. 'See Man. Anc. 2, 42; Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 25; Liv. i. 19; Suet. Aug. 22. FORUM ROMANUM] ROME The Sacra Via and its surroundings •*«««I«I * » ;•• n / JSLTff**Jr» and the Sacra Via. its foundations and plinth were brought to light in 1899 (Liv. iii. 48 ; Plin. H.N. xv. 119). Fig. 8 shows plan of the rostra as they existed under the Empire. We see an oblong platform about 78 ft. long and 1 1 ft. high above the level of the Forum; its ground floor, paved with Existing herring-bone bricks, is 2 ft. 6 in. below the Forum paving. rostra. jts enj an(j s^e walls are of tufa blocks, 2 ft. thick and 2 ft. wide, each carefully clamped to the next with wooden dovetail dowels. Its floor was supported by a series of travertine piers, carrying travertine lintels, on which the floor slabs rested. Outside it was completely lined with Greek marble and had a richly moulded plinth and cornice; the front wall was restored in 1904, and the fragments of the cornice replaced. A groove cut in the top of the cornice shows the place where marble cancel!! were fixed; one of the cornice blocks is partly without this groove, showing that the screen did not extend along the whole front of the rostra. This agrees with a relief on the arch of Constantine, representing the emperor making an oration from the rostra, with other buildings at this end of the Forum shown behind. In this relief the screen is shown with a break in the middle, so that the orator, standing in the centre, was visible from head to foot. Two tiers of large holes to hold the bronze rostra are drilled right through the tufa wall, and even through the travertine pilasters where one happens to come in the way; these holes show that there were nineteen rostra in the lower tier, and twenty above set over the intermediate spaces of the lower row. The back wall of the rostra is of concrete faced with brick. The inside space, under the main floor of the rostra, is coated thickly with stucco — the brick wall being studded in the usual way with iron nails to form a key for the plaster. Immediately behind the rostra is a curved platform approached by steps from the side facing the Capitol. It has been much disputed whether this platform is earlier or later than the rostra ; but the evidence of the construction at the point of juncture platform. seems to shOw that the hemicycle is the earlier. When the arch of Severus was built, part of the platform of the rostra was cut away and a court of irregular shape was thus formed, from which the rostra was approached by steps. The front wall of the hemicycle was now exposed in its eastern half; this was faced with slabs of porta santa marble, pilasters of africano, and a moulded plinth of white marble, whose blocks bear the Greek characters T, A, E, Z, H, 6, K; the omissions make it clear that the blocks were removed from some other building. A number of holes in the marble, some of which contain fragments of metal pins, show that bronze ornaments were at one time attached to the facing. The hemicycle has been identified (without sufficient reason) with the Graecostasis, a platform near the rostra reserved for foreign embassies (Varro, L.L. v. 155; Cic. Q.F. ii. i), which continued to exist throughout the imperial period and was restored by Antoninus Pius (Vita 9, 2). It is, however, far more likely that it represents the original form of the rostra as removed to the Forum according to Caesar's design.1 When the oblong platform was built (perhaps by Trajan) it was approached from the back by the hemicycle. The bronze rostra on the imperial structure were believed to be the original beaks from Antium, moved from the old rostra (Florus, i. n). On its marble platform stood many statues,1 e.g. of Sulla, Pompey, two of Julius Caesar, and others (Dio Cass. xlii. 18 and xliv. 4) ; these are represented on a bas-relief from the arch of Constantine. It is further commonly believed that the marble plutei which now stand in the centre of the Forum once decorated the rostra. Owing probably to the weight of the many statues proving too much for the travertine piers, which are not set on their natural beds but endways, and therefore are very weak, the structure seems to have given way at more than one time, and the floor has been supported by piers and arches of brick-faced concrete, 1 See Mau in Rom. Mitt. 1906, pp. 230 ff. 2 The original rostra had specially honorary statues to those Roman ambassadors who had been killed while on foreign service (Liv. iv. 17); these were probably removed during Cicero s lifetime (Cic. Phil. ix. 2, 4; see also Dio Cass. xliii. 49, and Plin. H.N. xxxiv. 23, 2$). Ghastly ornaments fixed to these rostra in the year 43 B.C., shortly after they were built, were the head and hands of the murdered Cicero (Appian, Bell. Civ. iv. 20; Dio Cass. xlvii. 8; Juv. x. 120), as on the original rostra had been fixed many heads of the chief victims of the proscriptions of Marius and Sulla (see Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 71, 94; Florus iii. 21). The denarius of the tens Lollia with the legend PALIKANVS represents th>ailtta' sculptured with sacred instruments. The walls are of enormous blocks of travertine with strong iron clamps; the whole was lined with white Pentelic marble outside, and inside with coloured oriental marbles. There was an internal range of columns, as in the temple of Concord. This temple was begun by Titus in A.D. 80, in honour of his father Vespasian, and finished by Domitian, who dedicated it to Vespasian and Titus. The inscription on the entablature, given in the Einsiedeln MS., records a restoration by Severusand Caracalla— DIVO. VESPASIANO. AVGVSTO.S.P.Q.R. 1MPP. CAESS. SEVER VS.ET.ANTONINVS. PII. FELIC. AVGG. RESTITVERVNT; part of the last word only now exists. In the narrow space between the temples of Concord and Vespasian (only about 7 ft. in width) a small brick and concrete edifice stands against the Tabularium. In it was found an inscribed base dedicated to Faustina the younger by one of the viatores (messengers) of the quaestors, who probably had their office here. The next building is the Porticus Deorum Consentium, a colonnade in two wings which join at the obtuse angle, with a row of small rooms or shrines partly cut into the tufa rock of the hill behind. This conjunction of twelve deities was of \°r Etruscan origin; they were six of each sex and were called Senatus Deorum (Varro, L.L. viii. 70, and De Re Ji Rust, i. i).6 The columns are of cipollino with Corinthian caps; on the frieze is an inscription recording a restoration by Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, praefect of the city in A.D. 367. Under the marble platform is a row of seven small rooms, the brick facing of which is perhaps of the Flavian period. The arch of Severus stands by the rostra, across the road on the north-east side of the Forum; the remains of the ancient travertine curb show that originally the road went along a rather different line, and was probably altered to make room Arch of for this great arch, which was accessible only by steps, Seyerus. and was not used for ordinary traffic. It was built in A.D. 203, after victories in Parthia, and was originally set up in honour of Severus and his two sons M. Aurelius Antoninus (Caracalla) and Geta. Caracalla, after murdering Geta, erased his name from all monuments to his honour in Rome. Representations of the arch on coins of Severus show that its attic was surmounted by a chariot of bronze drawn by six horses, in which stood Severus crowned by Victory; at the sides were statues of Caracalla and Geta, with an equestrian statue at each angle. The arch, except the base, which is of marble-lined travertine, is built of massive blocks of Pentelic marble, and has large crowded reliefs of victories in the East, showing much decadence from the best period of Roman art. The central space of the Forum is paved with slabs of travertine, much patched at various dates; it appears to have been marked out into compartments with incised lines (see Plate VIII.), the use of which is not known. There are also square Central holes which probably held masts on which awnings could space of be spread. Numerous clamp-holes all over the paving Forum, show where statues and other ornaments once stood. The recorded number of these is very great, and they must once have thickly crowded a great part of the central area. Two short marble walls or plutei covered with reliefs, discovered in 1872, stand on the north side. The rough travertine plinth on which they have been set is evidently of late date. Each of these marble screens has (on the inside) reliefs of a fat bull, boar and ram, decked out with sacrificial wreaths and vittae — the suovetaurilia. On the outside are scenes in the life of Trajan: in both cases the emperor is speaking from the rostra. On one we also see him seated on a suggestus instituting a charity for destitute children in A.D. 101 — a scene similar to one shown in one of his first brasses with the legend ALIM[ENTA] ITALIAE; 6 at the other end the emperor stands on the rostra, on which the two tiers of beaks are shown; he is addressing a crowd of citizens. In the background is shown the long line of arches of the Basilica Julia, with (on the left) what is probably the temple of Castor and the arch of Augustus. On the right are the statue of Marsyas and the sacred fig-tree.7 On the other slab a crowd of officials are bringing tablets and piling them in a heap to be burnt. This records the remission by Trajan of some arrears of debt due to the imperial treasury (Auspn. Grot. Act. 32). The background bere represents again the Basilica Julia, with (on the right) the Ionic :emple of Saturn and the Corinthian temple of Vespasian. Between them is an arch, which may be that of Tiberius.8 On the left the jraecostasi, quae tune supra Comitium erat." Both these were Drobably only small shrines. 6 Twelve gilt statues are mentioned by Varro. 6 Cohen, vol. ii. 303-5. 7 This is not the ficus ruminalis in the Comitium, but another mentioned by Pliny (H.N. xv. 20) in the middle of the Forum. 8 As it seems to be on a higher level, it may indicate the Tabularium. PALATINE HILL] ROME 597 fig-tree and the statue of Marsyas are repeated. Other explanations of these reliefs have been given, but the above appears the most probable. Towards the other end of the Forum are remains of a large concrete pedestal. It may possibly have supported an equestrian statue of Constantino, which was still standing in the 8th century. A smaller foundation, laid bare by Comm. Boni's excavations in 1905, is thought by him to have supported the equestrian statue of Q. Marcius Tremulus, the conqueror of the Hernici, set up before the temple of Castor in B.C. 305 (Liv. ix. 43). % The seven cubical brick and concrete structures, once faced with marble, which line the Sacra Via are not earlier than the time of Diocletian. They are probably the pedestals of honorary columns such as those shown in the relief on Constantine's arch, mentioned above. The column erected in honour of the tyrant Phocas by Smaragdus in the eleventh year of his exarchate (608) is still stand- ing. It is a fine marble Corinthian column, stolen from some earlier building; it stands on rude steps of marble and tufa. The name of Phocas is erased from the inscription ; but the date shows that this monument was to his honour. In the 4th century, or perhaps even later, a long brick and concrete building faced with marble was built along the whole south-east end of the Forum, probably a row of shops. They were destroyed by Comm. Rosa's order. Two columns — one of pavonazzetto, the other of grey granite — were set up on two of the brick bases in 1899. In 1902 a network of passages (cuniculi) was discovered about 3 ft. beneath the pavement of the Forum. These have tufa walls and concrete vaults; they are about 8 ft. high and 5 ft. broad. At the intersections of the passages are square chambers, in the centre of which are travertine blocks with sockets for windlasses. The construction of the passages seems to date from the time of Julius Caesar, and it is thought that they were used for scenic purposes when games were given in the Forum. In 1903 a large concrete foundation was found, partly blocking the E. end of one of the cuniculi. There can be no doubt that this once supported the colossal equestrian statue of Domitian described by Statius (Silv. i. I, 21 ff.) which was destroyed after his murder. Embedded in the concrete was a cist of massive travertine blocks which was found to contain five archaic vases similar to those from the early necropolis (above, as init.). One held a nugget of quartz containing pure gold. It is uncertain whether these were buried here for ritual purposes or were the contents of an early tomb found in digging the foundations. Near this monument there were found in 1904 remains of an enclosure of irregular shape which once contained an altar. This must have been the altar which in imperial times represented the Lacus Curtius (Ov. Fast. vi. 403). Beside this were found some remains of a structure of imperial date which Comm. Boni identified with the Tribunal at which justice was administered by the emperors.1 Palatine Hill or Palatium. In addition to the early walls described above, only a few re- mains now exist earlier in date than the later years of the republic; these are mostly grouped near the Scalae Caci (see fig. 10, in Plan), and consist of small cellae and other structures of unknown use.2 They are partly built of the soft tufa used in the " wall of Romulus," and partly of hard granulated tufa so called. Various names, such as the " hut of Faustulus " and the " Augur- atorium," have been given to these very ancient remains, but with little reason. On thing is certain, that the buildings were respected and preserved even under the empire, and were prob- ably regarded as sacred relics of the earliest times. 1 Authorities on the Forum ; For the earlier literature of the subject it will suffice to refer to Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Rom, i. 2, 195-429, and, in English, to Nichols, The Roman Forum (1877). By far the best account based on the recent discoveries of Comm. Boni is Huelsen, The Roman Forum (Eng. trans, from the 2nd German edition, by J. B. Carter, 1906), in which full references are given. The official reports of excavations by Comm. Boni appear at intervals in the Notizie degli Scavi, and are largely con- cerned with the ancient necropolis. Huelsen publishes reports in the Romische Mitteilungen which are of great value. 2 Our knowledge of these remains has been considerably increased by excavations in this region begun in 1907, which form the subject of a series of reports in the Notizie degli Scavi ; their significance is discussed by Pinza in the Annali delta Societa degli ingegneri ed architetti Italiani for that year, cf. Ashby in Classical Quarterly (1908), p. 145 ff. It is almost too much to hope that the difficult problems raised by these discoveries will ever be solved ; meanwhile it may be noted (i) that abundant traces of a primitive settlement (pottery, foundations of huts, &c.) have come to light near the W. angle of the hill ; (ii) that walls of various epochs have been found which may have belonged to a system of fortification, though this cannot be demonstrated; (iii) that beneath a piece of walling built with regularly laid tufa blocks was found an inhumation-grave con- taining pottery of the 4th century B.C. nomu* Remains of more than one temple of the republican period exist near this west angle of the Palatine. The larger of these (see Plan) has been called conjecturally the temple of Jupiter Victor (Liv. x. 29; Ov. fast. iv. 621).' It stands on a levelled Temple of platform of tufa rock, the lower part of which is excavated Jupiter into quarry chambers, used in later times as water Vktor. reservoirs. Two ancient well-shafts lined with tufa communicate with these subterranean hollows. Extensive foundations of hard tufa exist in the valley afterwards covered by the Flavian palace (see Plan, " Foundations of the Domus Augustana "). The masonry is in parts of republican date, and was used to support the Flavian palace. Not far from the top of the Scalae Caci are the masMvc remains of a large cella, nothing of which now exists except the concrete core faced with opus incertum in alternate layers of tufa and peperino. It was probably once lined with marble. By it a noble colossal seated figure of a goddess was found, in Greek marble, well modelled, a work of the 1st century A.D. The head and arms are missing, but the figure is probably rightly called a statue of Cybele; and inscriptions dedi- cated to Magna Mater have been found close to the temple. Augustus in the Monumentum Ancyranum (4, 8) records AKDLM. MATRIS.MAGNAE.IN.PALATIO.FECI; and there can be little doubt that this is the temple in question. Some interesting early architectural fragments are lying near this temple; they consist of drums and capitals of Corinthian columns, and part of the cornice of the pediment, cut in peperino, and thickly coated with hard white stucco to imitate marble. Between this and the temple of Jupiter Victor are extensive remains of a large porticus, with tufa walls and travertine piers, also republican in date. The use and name of this building are unknown. Remains of extensive lines of buildings in early opus reticulatum exist on the upper slopes of the Palatine, all along the Velabrum side, and on the south-west side as far as the so-called Paedagogium. These buildings are constructed on the ruins of the wall of Romulus, a great part of which has been cut away to make room for them; their base is at the foot of the ancient wall, on the shelf cut midway in the side of the hill; their top reached originally above the upper level of the summit. They are of various dates, and cannot be identified with any known buildings. Part is apparently of the time of the emperor Tiberius, and no doubt belongs to the Dpmus Tiberiana mentioned by Suetonius (Tib. 5; Tac. Hist. i. 27, iii. 71) ; this palace covered a great part of the west corner of the hill. Of about the same date is a very interesting and well-preserved private house built wholly of opus House at reticulatum, which formed part of the imperial property, Uvla. and was respected when the later palaces were built. The discovery of lead-pipes bearing the inscription IVLIAE . AVQ (C.I.L. xv. 7264) has led to the conjecture that the house was that bequeathed to Livia by her first husband, Tib. Claudius Nero. At the north-west end is a small atrium, out of which open three rooms commonly called the tablinum and aloe, as well as a triclinium, all decorated with good paintings of mythological and domestic scenes, probably the work of Greek artists, as inscriptions in Greek occur, e.g. EPMHC, under the figure of Hermes, in a picture representing his deliverance of lo from Argus.4 This suite of rooms was a later addition to the house. The south-east portion was three storeys high, and is divided into a great number of very small rooms, mostly bedrooms. The house is built in a sort of hole against the side of an elevation, so that the upper floor behind is level with an ancient paved road. The dampness caused by this is counteracted and kept off the paintings by a lining of flange-tiles over the external walls, under the stucco, thus forming an air-cavity all over the surface. From the back of the house, at the upper level, along subterranean passage leads towards the Flavian palace, and then, turning at right angles and passing by the founda- tions of the so-called temple of Jupiter Victor, issues in the ancient tufa building mentioned above. Another crypto-porticus starts near this house and communicates with the long semi-subterranean passage by which the palaces of Caligula and Domitian are connected. It is ornamented with very beautiful stucco reliefs of cupids, beasts and foliage, once painted and gilt. Some hold that the house was that of Germanicus, into which the soldiers who killed Caligula in the long crypto-porticus escaped, as described by Josephus (Ant. Jud. xix. i ; see also Suet. Col. 58). From the Summa Sacra Via a road led to the Area Palatina in the centre of the hill. Here was the sanctuary called Roma quadrate, containing the mundus, a pit in which the instruments used in the founding of the city were deposited. To the east was the Area Apollinis, the entrance of which led through lofty propylaea into a very extensive peristyle 'L0wai or porticus, with columns of Numidian giallo; the temple ' was of white Luna marble. In the centre of this enclosure stood the great octostyle peripteral temple of Apollo Palatinus. The splendour of its architecture and the countless works of art in gold, 8 It has recently been argued by Pinza that this is the temple of Apollo built by Augustus. 4 See Man. Inst. xi. pis. xxii., xxiii.; Mau, Ceschichte der Wandmalerei, pi. ix. ; Renier, Les Peintures du Palatin (Paris, 1870). ROME [PALATINE HILL. silver, ivory, bronze and marble, mostly the production of the best Greek artists, which adorned this magnificent group of buildings, must have made it the chief glory of this splendid city. This temple was begun by Augustus in 36 B.C.,' after his Sicilian victory over Sextus Pompeius, and dedicated on the 9th of October 28 B.C.1 A glowing account of the splendours of these buildings is given by Propertius (ii. 2, iii. 31). Inside the cella were statues of Apollo between Latona and Diana by Scopas, Cephisodotus and Timotheus respectively (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 24, 25, 32); beneath the base of the group were preserved the Sibylline books. The pediment had sculpture by Bupalus and Archermus of Chios (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 13), and on the apex was Apollo in a quadriga of gilt bronze. The double door was covered with ivory reliefs of the death of the Niobids and the defeat of the Gauls at Delphi. The Ancyran inscription records that Augustus melted down eighty silver statues of himself and with the money " offered golden gifts " to this temple, dedicat- ing them both in his own name and in the names of the original donors of the statues.3 The Sibylline books were preserved under the statue of Apollo (Suet. Aug. 31); and within the cella were vases, tripods and statues of gold and silver, with a collection of engraved gems dedicated by Marcellus (see Plin. H.N. xxxvii. n, xxxiv. 14). In the porticus was a large library, with separate departments for Latin and Greek literature,4 and a large hall where the senate occasionally met (Tac. Ann. ii. 37). Round the porticus, between the Numidian marble columns, were statues of the fifty Danaids, and opposite them their fifty bridegrooms on horseback (see Schol. on Pers. ii. 56). In the centre, before the steps of the temple, stood an altar surrounded by four oxen, the work of Myron (Prop. iii. 31, 5). In the centre of the Palatine stood the palace of Augustus, built in the years following 36 B.C., and renewed after a fire in A.D. 3. It contained a small temple of Vesta (C.I.L. i? p. 317), dedicated on the 28th of April 12 B.C., when Augustus was elected pontifex maximus. Augustus's building was completely transformed by later emperors, but the name domus Augustana was retained in official use. The Area Apollinis and its group of buildings suffered in the fire of Nero, and were restored by Domitian. The whole was finally destroyed in the great fire of 363 (Ammian. xxiii. 3, 3), but the Sibylline books were saved. To the north-west of the Area Palatina stood the Domus Tiberiana, a palace built by Tiberius on substructures of concrete which crown the north-west slope of the hill and form a platform now occupied Tlbert ky *^e Farnese gardens, overlooking the Clivus Victoriae. Caligula is said to have added to this palace on the side towards the Forum, making the temple of Castor into a vestibule, and to have connected it with the Capitol by a bridge whose piers were found by the temple of Augustus and the Basilica Julia; but this was destroyed after his death. At a later time the palace was extended so as to include the northern angle of the Palatine, which had once been covered with private houses. Among these were the dwellings of Q. Lutatius Catulus, Q. Hortensius, Scaurus, Crassus (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 3, 24), whose house was afterwards bought by Cicero.6 Many other wealthy Romans had houses on this part of the Palatine. The part now existing is little more than the gigantic substructure built to raise the principal rooms to the level of the top of the hill. The lowest parts of these face the Nova Via, opposite the Atrium Vestae, and many storeys of small vaulted rooms built in mixed brick and opus reticulatum rise one above the other to the higher levels.6 The palace extends over the Clivus Victoriae, supported on lofty arches so as to leave the road un- blocked ; many travertine or marble stairs lead to the upper rooms, some starting from the Nova Via, others from the Clivus Victoriae. A large proportion of these substructures consist of dark rooms, some with no means ,of lighting, others with scanty borrowed light. Many small rooms and stairs scarcely 2 ft. wide can only have been used by' slaves. The ground floors on the Nova Via and the Clivus Victoriae appear to have been shops, judging from their wide openings, with travertine sills, grooved for the wooden fronts with narrow doors, which Roman shops seem always to have had — very like those now used in the East. The upper and principal rooms were once richly decorated with marble linings, columns and mosaics; but little of these now remains. The upper part of the palace, that above the Clivus Victoriae, is faced wholly with brickwork, no opus reticulatum being used as in the lower portions by the Nova Via. This marks a difference of date, and this is confirmed by the occurrence of brick stamps of the 2nd century A.D. 1 TEMPLVM . APOLLINIS . IN . SOLO . MAGNAM . PARTEM . EMPTO . FECI (Man. Anc. 4, i). 2 See Dio Cass. xlix. 15, liii. I, and C.I.L. i.2 p. 331. 3 See also Suet. Aug. 52, whose account is rather different. 4 Schol. to Juv. i. 128, and Suet. Aug. 29. 6 Cic. Pro Domo, 43 ; Val. Max. vi. 3, i ; and see Becker, Handb. i. p. 423. 6 At this point the Palatine is cut away into four stages like gigantic steps; the lowest is the floor of the Atrium Vestae, the second the Nova Via, the third the Clivus Victoriae, and the top of the hill forms the fourth. The next great addition to the buildings of the Palatine was the magnificent suite of state apartments built by Domitian, over a deep natural valley running across the hill (see Plan). The valley was filled up and the level of the new palace „ . raised to a considerable height above the natural soil. '*»•«»• Remains of a house, decorated with painting and rich marbles, exist under Domitian's peristyle, partly destroyed by the foundations of cast concrete which cut right through it. The floor of this house shows the original level, far below that of the Flavian palace. This building is connected with the palace of Caligula by a brandi subterranean passage leading into the earlier crypto-porticus. It consists of a block of state-rooms, in the centre of which is a large open peristyle, with columns of oriental marble, at one end of which is the grand triclinium with magnificent paving of opus sectile in red and green basalt and coloured marbles, a piece of which is well preserved; next to the triclinium, on to which it opens with large windows, is a nymphaeum or room with marble-lined fountain and recesses for plants and statues. On the opposite side of the peristyle is a large throne-room, the walls of which were adorned with rows of pavonazzetto and giallo columns and large marble niches, in which were colossal statues of porphyry and basalt; at one side of this is the basilica, with central nave and apse and narrow aisles, over which were galleries. The apse, in which was the emperor's throne, is screened off by open marble cancelli, a part of which still exists. It is of great interest as showing the origin of the Christian basilica (see BASILICA).7 On the other side of the throne-room is the lararium, with altar and pedestal for a statue; next to this is the grand staircase, which led to the upper rooms, now destroyed. The whole building, both floor and walls, was covered with the richest oriental marbles. Outside were colonnades or porticus, — on one side of cipollino, on the other of travertine, the latter stuccoed and painted. The magnificence of the whole, crowded with fine Greek sculpture and covered with polished marbles of the most brilliant colours, is difficult now to realize; a glowing description is given by Statius (Silv. iv. II, 18; see also Plut. Poplic. 15, and Mart. viii. 36). Doors were arranged in the throne-room and basilica so that the emperor could slip out unobserved and reach by a staircase (g on Plan) the crypto-porticus which communicates with Caligula's palace. The vault of this passage was covered with mosaic of mixed marble and glass, a few fragments of which still remain; its walls were lined with rich marbles; it was lighted by a series of windows in the springing of the vault. This, as well as the Flavian palace, appears to have suffered more than once from fire, and in many places import- ant restorations of the time of Severus, and some as late as the 4th century, are evident. In 1720-28 extensive excavations were made here for the Farnese duke of Parma, and an immense quantity of statues and marble architectural fragments were dis- covered, many of which are now at Naples and elsewhere. Among them were sixteen beautiful fluted columns of pavonazzetto and giallo, fragments of the basalt statues, and an immense door-sill of Pentelic marble, now used for the high altar of the Pantheon ; these all came from the throne-room. The excavations were carried on by Bianchini, who published a book on the subject.8 In the middle of the slopes of the Palatine, towards the Circus Maximus, are considerable remains of buildings set against the early wall and covering one of its projecting spurs, consisting in a series of rooms with a long Corinthian colonnade. The rooms were partly marble-lined and partly decorated with painted stucco, on which are incised a number of interesting inscriptions and rude drawings. Here, in 1856, was found the celebrated caricature of the Crucified Christ, now in the Museo Kircheriano.9 The inscription CORINTHVS . EXIT . DE . PEDAGOGIC suggests that this building was at one time used as a school, perhaps for the imperial slaves.10 A number of soldiers' names also occur, e.$. HILARYS . MI . V . D . N . (Hilarus miles vestitor domini nostri ?) ; some are in mixed Latin and Greek characters. After one pair of names is inscribed PEREG, showing that they belonged to the corps called frumentarii stationed in the Castra Peregrinorum on the Caelian. Most of these inscriptions appear to be as early as the 1st century A.D. " These interesting graffiti have in great part perished during the last few years. Some inscriptions found in the larger rooms seem to indicate that the imperial wardrobe found a place in them. To the south of the Flavian state-rooms, on the side of the hill overlooking the Circus, was a building with a central peristyle (" Palace of Domitian " on Plan), which was excavated in 1775 and 7 The brick stamps on the tiles laid under the marble paving of the basilica have CN.DOMITI.AMANDI. VALEAT.QVI.FECIT.,- the last three words a common augury of good luck stamped on bricks or amphorae. 8 Pal. dei Cesari (Verona, 1738); see Guattani, Not. di Antich. (1798). 'See Kraus, Das Spottcrucifix vom Palatin (Freiburg, 1872), and Becker, Das Spottcrucifix, &c. (Breslau, 1866). 10 The paedagogium was, however, on the Caelian. Huelsen suggests that it is here used as a slang term for a prison. 11 See Henzen, in the Bull. Inst., 1863, p. 72, and 1867, p. 113. PALATINE HILL] ROME 599 3!! 1 1 1 1 1 ITTTTTTrr Vigna Barberini \ :-;->v— , - Sit. of^ \_ " ' •» — ~ Tenmlc ef — \^ S Sebastiano - ~" _ (I >( or MecMtf c««f«r» ».t of TtmfH of I ,'cfory (?l timaint of tartg walls <• tVa»< o/ /iril c. « of anticat gatttrOf Staircall fielding to Crgptcportieut p 10 w 30 40 50 FIG. 10. — Plan of the Palatine. again partly laid bare in 1869 and the following years. This has often, but wrongly, been called the palace of Augustus; we should rather see in it the dwelling-rooms of the Flavian palace. Adjoining it is the so-called stadium of the Palatine (" Hippodromus" on Plan), begun by Domitian, enlarged by Hadrian, and much altered or restored by Severus. The greater part of the outer walls and the large exedra or apse at the side, with upper floor for the emperor's seat, are of the time of Hadrian, as is shown by the brick stamps, and the character of the brick facing, which much resembles that of the Flavian time (bricks ij in. and joints J in. thick).1 The stadium is surrounded with a colonnade of engaged shafts, forming a sort of aisle with gallery over it. Except those at the curved end, which are of Hadrian's time, these piers are of the time of Severus, as are also all the flat piers along the outer wall, — one opposite each of those in the inner line. Severus restored the galleries after the great fire of A.D. 191. This building was the hippodromus Palalii; the word here means, not a racecourse, but a garden (Plin. Epp. 5, 6, 19). In addition to the stadium, Hadrian built a number of very 1 In parts of the outer wall brick stamps of the Flavian period appear, e.g. FLAVI AVQ.L.CLONI — " [A brick] of Flavius Clonus, freedman of Augustus" (C.I.L. xv. 1149). handsome rooms, forming a palace on the south-east side and at the south-west end of the stadium. These rooms were partly destroyed and partly hidden by the later palace of Severus, the Hadrian'* foundations of which in many places cut through and palate. render useless the highly decorated rooms of Hadrian. The finest of these which is now visible is a room with a large window opening into the stadium near the south angle; it has intersecting barrel vaults, with deep coffers, richly ornamented in stucco. The oval structure shown in the plan (fig. 10), with other still later additions, belongs to the 6th century ; in its walls, of opus mixtum, are found brick stamps of the reign of Theodoric, c. 500. The palace of Septimius Severus was very extensive and of enormous height; it extends not only all over the south angle of the Palatine but also a long way into the valley of the Circus P^KC o/ Maximus and towards the Coelian. This part (like Stvtm*. Caligula's palace) is carried on very lofty arched sub- structures, so as to form a level, uniform with the top of the hill, on which the grand apartments stood. The whole hejght from the base of the Palatine to several storeys above its summit must have been enormous. Little now remains of the highest storeys, except part of a grand staircase which led to them. Extensive baths, originally decorated with marble linings and mosaics in glass and 6oo ROME [CAPITOLINE HILL Arch at Titus. marble, cover a great part of the top of the hill. These and other parts of the Palatine were supplied with water by an aqueduct built by Nero in continuation of the Claudian aqueduct, some arches of which still exist on the slope of the Palatine (" Aqtla Claudia" on Plan) (see Spart. Sept. Sev. 24). One of the main roads up to the Palatine passes under the arched substructures of Severus, and near this, at the foot of the hill, at the south angle, Septimius Severus built an outlying part of his palace, a building of great splendour called the Septizodium,1 or House of the Seven Planets. Part of the Septizodium existed as late ^s the reign of Sixtus V. (1585-90), who destroyed it in order to use its marble decorations and columns in the new basilica of St Peter; drawings of it are given by Du Pe>ac, Vestigj di Roma (1575), pi. 13, and in other works of that century.2 The name Palatium seems to have originally denoted the sou them height of the Palatine hill, while the summit overlooking the Vela- brum was called Cermalus, and the saddle connecting the e a an Palatine and the Esquiline on which the temple of Venus Cermalus. an(j Rome ancj (.ne ar^n of Xitus now stand bore the name Velia.* It is evident that this was once higher than it is now; a great part of it was cut away when the level platform for the temple of Venus and Rome was formed. The foundations of part of Nero's palace along the road between this temple and the Esquiline are exposed for about 20 to 30 ft. in height, showing a corresponding lowering of the level here, and the bare tufa rock, cut to a flat surface, is visible on the site of Hadrian's great temple; that the Velia was once much joftier is also indicated by the story of the removal of Valerius Publicola's dwelling.4 The arch of Titus, erected in memory of that emperor's sub- jugation of the Jews, but not completed until after his death, stands at the pcint where the Sacra Via crosses the Velia ; it is possible that it once stood farther to the east and was removed to its present position when the temple of Venus and Rome was built. The well-known reliefs of the archway depict the Jewish triumph and the spoils of the Temple. In the middle ages the arch was converted into a fortress by the Frangipani ; their additions were removed and the arch restored in its present shape in 1821. On the Velia and the adjoining Summa Sacra Via were the temples of the Lares and Penates which Augustus rebuilt.6 The " Aedes Sacra Larum " is probably distinct from the " Sacellum Lamm " V4j mentioned by Tacitus (Ann. xii. 24) as one of the points in the line of the original pomerium. The temple of Jupiter Stator, traditionally vowed by Romulus during his repulse Temple of ^ tne Sabines (Liv. i. 12), stood near the Porta Mugonia, Jupiter anc* tneref°re near the road leading up to the Palatine Stator. Sacra Via.6 To the south-east of the arch of Titus (see Plan) are the remains of a concrete podium which may have belonged to this temple in its latest form; and Comm. Boni discovered (in 1907) some early tufa walling close to the above- named arch in which he recognized the foundations of the earlv Temple of temP'.e- Augustus rebuilt the temple of Vicjory, which Victory gave its name to the Clivus Victoriae; this temple stood on the site of a prehistoric altar (Dionys. i. 32), and was more than once rebuilt, — e.g. by L. Postumius, 294 B.C. (Liv. x. 33). In 193 B.C. an aedicula to Victory was built near it by M. Porcius Cato (Liv. xxxv. 9). Remains of the temple and a dedicatory inscription were found in 1728' not far from the church of S. Teodoro; the temple was of Parian marble, with Corinthian columns of Numidian giallo antico. The Sacra Via started at the Sacellum Streniae, an unknown point on the Esquiline, probably in the valley of the Colosseum (Varro, L.L. v. 47), in the quarter called Cerolia. Thence it probably (in later times) passed round part of the Colosseum to the slope leading up to the arch of Titus on the Velia ; this piece of its course is lined on one side by remains of private houses, and farther back, against the cliff of the Palatine, are the substructures of the Area Apollinis. From the arch of Titus or Summa Sacra Via the original line of the road has been altered, probably when the temple of Venus and Rome was built by Hadrian. Its later course passed at a sharp angle from the arch 1 The form Septizonium is also found. *See Huelsen, Das Septizonium des Septimius Severus (Berlin, 1886); Maass, Die Tagesgotter in Rom und den Provinzen (Berlin, 1902). » " Huic (Palatio) Germalum et Velias conjunxerunt . . . Germalum ' a germanis Romulo et Remo, quod ad ficum Rumin- alem ibi invent! " (Varro, L.L. v. 54). 4 Liv. ii. 7 ; Cic. Rep. ii. 31 ; see also Ascon. Ad Cic. in Pis. 52. 'AEDEM.LARVM.IN.SVMMA.SACRA.VIA.AEDEM.DEVM. PENATIVM. IN. VELIA... FECI (Man. Anc.). 6 Dionys. ii. 50; see also Plut. Cic. 16; Ov. Fast. vi. 793, and Tnst.'m. i, 131. Near this temple, and also near the Porta Mugonia, was the house of Tarquinius Priscus (Liv. i. 41 ; Solin. i. 24). Owing to the strength of its position this temple was more than once selected during troubled times as a safe meeting-place for the Senate; it was here, as being a " locus munitissimus," that Cicero delivered his First Catiline Oration (see Cic, In Cat. i. i). 7 See Bianchini, Pal. dei Cesari (1738), p. 236, pi. viii. of Titus to the front of Constantino's basilica, and on past the temple of Faustina. It is uncertain whether the continuation of this road to the arch of Severus was in later times called the Sacra Via or whether it rejoined its old line along the Basilica Julia by the cross-road in front of the Aedes Julii. Its original line past the temple of Vesta was completely built over in the 3rd and /j.th centuries, and clumsily fitted pavements of marble and travertine occupy the place of the old basalt blocks.8 The course of the Nova Via' (see Plan) along the north-east slope of the Palatine10 was exposed in 1882-84. According to Varro (L.L. vi. 50) it was a very old road. It led up from the Velabrum, probably winding along the slope of the Palatine, round the north angle above the church of S. Maria Antiqua. The rest of its course, gently ascending towards the arch of Titus, is now exposed, as are also the stairs which connected it with the Clivus Victoriae at the northern angle of the Palatine; a continuation of these stairs led down to the Forum." The extent of the once marshy Velabrum (Gr. F £Xos) is not known, though part of its site is indicated by the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro; Varro (L.L. vi. 24) says, " extra urbem antiquam v I - f uit, non longe a porta Romanula." It was a district full of shops (Plaut. Capt. 489; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 30). The Vicus Tuscus on its course from the Forum to the Circus skirted the Velabrum (Dionys. v. 26), from which the goldsmiths' arch was an entrance into the Forum Boarium. From the S.W. end of the Velabrum the Clivus Victoriae rose in a gradual ascent along the slope of the Palatine and ultimately wound round the northern angle. Capitoline Hill12 The Capitoline hill, once called Mons Saturnius (Varro, L.L. v. 42), consists of two peaks, the Capitolium and the Arx,13 with an intermediate valley (Asylum). The older name of the Capi- tolium was Mons Tarpeius (Varro, L.L. v. 41). Livy (i. 10) mentions the founding of a shrine to Jupiter Feretrius on the Capitolium by Romulus;14 this summit was afterwards occupied by the great triple temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno Temple of and Minerva, a triad of deities worshipped under the Jupiter names of Tinia, Thalna and Menerva in every Etruscan CapHal- city. This great temple was (Liv. i. 38, 53) founded to"s" by Tarquin I., built by his son Tarquin II., and dedicated by M. Horatius Pulvillus, consul suffectus in 509 B.C.U It was built in the Etruscan style, of peperino stuccoed and painted (Vitr. iii. 3), with' wooden architraves, wide intercolumniations and painted terra-cotta statues.16 It was rebuilt many times; the original temple lasted till it was burnt in 83 B.C.; it was then refounded in marble by Sulla, with Corinthian columns stolen from the temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens (Plin. xxxvi. 4, 5), and was completed and dedicated by Q. Lutatius Catulus, whose name appeared on the front. Augustus, although he restored it at great expense (Man. Anc. 4, 9), did not intro- duce his name by the side of that of Catulus. It was again burnt by the Vitellian rioters in A.D. 70, and rebuilt by Vespasian in 7 1.17 Lastly, it was burnt in the three days' fire of Titus's reign 18 and rebuilt with columns of Pentelic marble by Domitian ; the gilding alone of this last rebuilding is said to have cost 2^ millions sterling (Plut. Publ. 15). Extensive substructures of tufa have been exposed on the eastern peak; in 1875 a fragment of a fluted column was found, of such great size that it could only have belonged to the temple of Jupiter; and a few other architectural fragments have been discovered at different times. The western limit of the temple was determined in 1865, its eastern limit in 1875, and the S.E. angle in 1896. 8 See Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Rom. i. 2. 274-91. 8 See Solinus (i. 24) and Varro (ap. Cell. xvi. 17), who mention its two ends, summa and infima (cf. Liv. v. 32). "•See Not. d. Scavi (1882), p. 234. Original level laid bare, 1904. 11 See marble plan on Plate VII. and cf. Ov. Fast. vi. 395. 12 See Rodocanachi, Le Capitole remain (1903; Eng. trans., 1906). 13 The first-named was the southern, the 'second the northern summit. 14 This is the earliesftemple mentioned in Roman history. It was rebuilt by Augustus (Man. Anc. 4, 5). "See Plut. Publ. 14; C.I.L. i. p. 487; Liv. ii. 8. Dionys. v. 35 wrongly gives 507 B.C. 16 Plin. xxxy. 157; see Tac. Hist. iii. 72; Val. Max. v. 10. "Suet. Vit. 15, and Vesp. 8; cf. Tac. Hist. iv. 53, and Dio Cass. Ixvi. 10. 18 Suet. Dom. 5 ; Dio Cass. Ixvi. 24. IMPERIAL FORA] ROME 601 It appears that the figures given by Dionysius (iv. 61) for the area are slightly too large. The true measurements were 1 88 X 204 Roman ft.1 The temple is represented on many coins, both republican and imperial; these show that the central cella was that of Jupiter, that of Minerva on his right and of Juno on his left. The door was covered with gold reliefs, which were stolen by Stilicho (c. 400; Zosim. v. 38), and the gilt bronze tiles (cf. Plin. xxxiii. 57) on the roof were partly stripped off by Geiseric in 455 (Procop. Bell. Vand. i. 5), and the rest by Pope Honorius I. in 630 (Marliani, Topogr. ii. i).2 Till 1348, when the steps up to Ara Coeli were built, there was no access to the Capitol from the back; hence the three ascents to it mentioned by Livy (iii. 7, v. 26-28) and Tacitus (Hist. iii. 71-72) were all from the inside of the Servian circuit. Even on this inner side it was defended by a wall, the gates in which are called " Capitolii fores " by Tacitus. Part of the outer wall at the top of the tufa rock, which is cut into a smooth cliff, is visible from the modern Vicolo della Rupe Tarpeia; this cliff is traditionally called the Tarpeian rock, but that must have been on the other side towards the Forum, from whence it was visible, as is clearly stated by Dionysius (vii. 35, viii. 78).' Another piece of the ancient wall has been exposed, about half-way up the slope from the Forum to the Arx. It is built of soft yellow tufa blocks, five courses of which still remain in the existing fragment. The large temple of Juno Moneta (" the Adviser ") on the Arx, built by Camillus in 384 B.C., was used as the mint; hence monela= " money " (Liv. vi. 20). A large number of other temples and smaller shrines stood on the Capitoline hill.'a word used broadly to include both the Capitolium and the Arx.4 Among these were the temple of Honos and Virtus, built by Marius,-and the temple of Fides, founded by Numa, and rebuilt during the First Punic war. Both these were large enough to hold meetings of the senate. The temples of Mars Ultor (Man. Anc. 4, 5) and Jupiter Tonans (Suet. Aug. 29; Man. Anc. 4, 3) were built by Augustus. Other shrines existed to Venus Victnx Ops, Jupiter Gustos, and Concord — the last under the Arx (Liv. xxii. 33) — and many others, as well as a triumphal arch in honour of Nero, and a crowd of statues and other works of art (see Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 9, xxxiv. 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 79, xxxv. 69, ipo, 108, 157), so that the whole hill must have been a mass of architectural and artistic magnificence. The so-called Tabularium 6 occupies the central part of the side towards the Forum; it is set on the tufa rock, which is cut away _ to receive its lower storey. It derives its name from an inscription which remained in situ until the I5th century ""' (C.I.L. vi. 1314); whilst all public departments had their tabularia, this was a central Record Office, where copies of laws, treaties, &c., were preserved. It was built by Catulus, who was also the dedicator of the great temple of Jupiter (Tac. Hist. iii. 72; Dio Cass. xliii. 14), consul in 78 B.C. Its outer .walls are of sperone, its inner ones of tufa; the Doric arcade has capitals, imposts and entablature of travertine. Above the arcade was a gallery or porticus, faced with a Corinthian colonnade, of which a few architectural members have been found. The columns appear to have belonged to the 1st century A.D. A road paved with basalt passes through the building along this arcade, entered at one end from the Clivus Capitolinus, and at the other probably from the Gradus Monetae, a flight of steps leading from the temple of Concord and the Forum up to the temple of Juno Moneta on the Arx. The entrance from the Clivus Capitolinus is by a wide flat arch of peperino beautifully jointed; the other end wall has been mostly destroyed. The back of this building overlooked the Asylum 1 See Bull. Comm. Arch. iii. (1875), p. 165; Man. Inst. v. pi. xxxyi., x. pi. xxxa; Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Rom, i. 2, 69; Notizie degli Scavi, 1896, p. 161, 1897, p. 30; Richter, " Der kapitolinische Jupitertempel und der italische Fuss," in Hermes (1887), p. 17. 1 The pediment is shown on a relief now lost, but extant in the i6th century and reproduced in drawings of that date. It has been recently proved to have decorated the Forum of Trajan (Wace in Papers of the B.S.R. iv. p. 240, pi. xx.). The front of the temple is shown on one of the reliefs of Marcus Aurelius now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (Papers of the B.S.R. iii. pi. xx vi.). 3 See Rodocanachi, The Roman Capitol, p. 50. A graceful account of the legend of Tarpeia is given by Propertius, Eleg. iv. 4. 4 A structure of great sanctity, dating from prehistoric Etruscan times, was the Auguraculum, an elevated platform upon the Arx, from which the signs in the heavens were observed by the augurs (see Festus, ed. Miiller, p. 18). 6 On the Tabularium see Delbriick, Hellenistische Bauten in Latium, i. (1907)- PP- 23-46. or depression between the two peaks. From this higher level a long steep staircase of sixty-seven steps descends towards the Forum; the doorway at the foot of these stairs has a flat arch, with a circular relieving arch over it; it was blocked up by the temple of Vespasian. Great damage was done to this building by the additions of Boniface VIII. and Nicholas V., as well as by its being used as a salt store, by which the walls were much corroded.8 The Imperial Fora. The Forum Julium (see fig. II, Plan), with its central temple of Venus Genetrix, was begun, about 54 B.C., by Julius (who dedicated it in an unfinished state in 46 B.C.) and completed by forum Augustus.7 Being built on a crowded site it was some- . .. what cramped, and the ground cost nearly a hundred million sesterces.8 Part of its circuit wall, with remains of five arches, exists in the Via delle Marmorelle ; and behind is a row of small vaulted rooms, probably shops or offices. The arches are slightly cambered with travertine springers and keys; the rest, with the circular relieving arch over, is of tufa; it was once lined with slabs of marble, the holes for which exist. Foundations of the circuit wall exist under the houses towards S. Adriano, but the whole plan has not been made out. In the centre of the Forum stood the temple of Venus Genetrix, whose remains were seen and described by Palladio (Arch. iv. 31). This temple was vowed by Caesar at the battle of Pharsalus.9 The forum of Augustus (see fig. n) adjoined that of Julius on its north-east side; it contained the temple of Mars Ultor, built to commemorate the vengeance taken on Caesar's murderers at Philippi; 42 B.C. (Oy. Fast, v. 575 seq.).'° It was surrounded with a massive wall of peperino, over 100 ft. high, with travertine string-courses and cornice; a large piece of this wall still exists, and is one of the most imposing relics of ancient Rome. Against it are remains of the temple of Mars, three columns of which, with their entablature and marble ceiling of the peristyle, are still standing; it is Corinthian in style, very richly decorated, and built of fine Luna marble. The cella is of peperino, lined with marble; and the lower part of the lofty circuit wall seems also to have been lined with marble on the inside of the forum. The large archway by the temple (Arco dei Pantani) is of travertine. Palladio (Arch, iv.) and other writers of the l6th century give plans of the temple and circuit wall, showing much more than now exists. The temple, which was octastyle, with nine columns and a pilaster on the sides, occupied the centre, and on each side the circuit wall formed two large semicircular apses, decorated with tiers of niches for statues.11 The Forum Pacis, built by Vespasian, was farther to the south- east; the only existing piece, a massive and lofty wall of mixed tufa and peperino, with a travertine archway, is opposite _ the end of the basilica of Constantine. The arch opened into the so-called Templum Sacrae Urbis, a rectangular building entered by a portico on its west side, whose north wall was decorated with a marble plan of the city of Rome (see below, p. 608). The original plan was probably burnt with the whole group of buildings in this forum in 191, in the reign of Commodus (Dio Cass. Ixxii. 24) ; but a new plan was made, and the building restored in concrete and brick by Severus. The north end wall, with the clamps for fixing the marble plan, still exists, as does also the other (restored) end wall with its arched windows towards the forum ; one hundred and sixty-seven fragments of this plan were found c. 1563 at the foot of the wall to which they were fixed, and are now preserved in the Capitoline Museum; drawings of seventy-four pieces now lost are preserved in the Vatican12 (Cod. Vat. 3439). The whole of these fragments were published by Jordan, Forma Urbis Romae (Berlin, 1874). Other fragments have since been brought to light, and the whole series was rearranged in the Palazzo dei Conservatori in 1903. The circular building at the end facing on the Sacra Via is an addition built by Maxentius in honour of his deified son Romulus; like the other buildings of Maxen- tius, it was rededicated and inscribed with the name of his conqueror 6 The Porta Pandana (" ever-open gate ") gave access from the Area Capitolina, upon which the temple of Jupiter stood, to the Tarpeian rock. 7 See Man. Anc. (quoted above) ; Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxv. 156, xxxvi. 103. 8Cic. Ep. ad Alt. iv. 16; Suet. Goes. 26; Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 103. 9 See Dio Cass. xliii. 22 ; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. 102 ; Vitr. iii. 3; Plut. Caes. 60. 10 The Ancyran inscription records— IN.PRIVATO.SOLO.[EMP]TO. MARTIS.ULTORIS.TEMPLVM . FORVMQVE.AVGVSTVM.EX. [MANI]BIIS.FECI. See Suet. Aug. 29, 56; Dio Cass. Ivi. 27; Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 102, xxxv. 94, xxxiv. 48, vii. 183, where many fine Greek works of art are mentioned as being in the forum of Augustus. 11 Those of Roman leaders and generals, from Aeneas and Romulus to Augustus. See Borsari, Foro a' Augusta, &c. (1884). 12 An interesting description of this discovery is given by Vacca, writing in 1594 (see Schreiber in Berichte der sacks. Cesellsch. der Wissenschaften, 1881). The scale is roughly I to 250. 602 ROME [TEMPLES AND BUILDINGS r* 'J ^jKbrum Pacisfl] Vespasianio Iroir. Richlcr* Topographic dcr sudt Rom, by pfraiMJon ol C.:L Bcik Kt>< VcrU£ibuclihinait:n£. FIG. n. — Imperial Fora. Constantino.1 The original building of Vespasian was probably an archive and record office; it was certainly not a temple. The fine bronze doors at the entrance to the temple of Romulus are much earlier than the building itself, as are also the porphyry columns and very rich entablature which ornament this doorway. Pope Felix IV. (526-30) made the double building into the church of SS. Cosmo e Damiano, using the circular domed temple of Romulus as a porch.2 The chief building of Vespasian's forum was the Tern- plum Pacis,3 dedicated in 75, one of the most magnificent in Rome, which contained a very large collection of works of art. The forum of Nerva (see fig. n) occupied the narrow strip left between the fora of Augustus and Vespasian; being little more than a richly decorated street, it was called the Forum Fon/m of fransitorium or Forum Palladium, from the temple to Minerva which it contained. It was begun by Domitian, and dedicated by Nerva in 97 (see Suet. Dom. 5; Mart. i. 2, 8). Like the other imperial fora, it was surrounded by a peperino wall, not only lined with marble but also decorated with rows of Corinthian columns supporting a rich entablature with sculptured frieze. Two columns and part of this wall still exist; on the frieze are reliefs of weaving, fulling and various arts which were under the protection of Minerva. A great part of the temple existed till the time of Paul V., who in 1606 destroyed it to use the remains for the building of the Acqua Paola.' In the reign of Scverus Alexander a series of colossal bronze statues, some equestrian, were set round this forum; they represented all the previous emperors who had been deified, and by each was a bronze column inscribed with his res gestae (Hist. Aug.; Sev. Alex. 28). The forum of Trajan with its adjacent buildings was the last and, at least in size, the most magnificent of all ; it was in progress from 1 13 to 1 17, at least. A great spur of hill, which connected the Capitoline with the Quirinal, was cut away to make a irajaa. level site for this enormous group of buildings. It con- sisted (see fig. n) of a large dipteral peristyle, with curved projections, lined with shops on the side. That against the slope of the Quirinal, three storeys high, still partly exists. The main entrance was through a triumphal arch (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 29). Aurei of Trajan show this arch and other parts of his forum.6 The opposite side was occupied by the Basilica Ulpia (Jordan, F. U.R. iii. 25, 26), part of which, with the column of Trajan, is now visible; none of the columns, which are of grey granite, are in situ, and the whole restoration is misleading. Part of the rich paving in oriental marble is genuine. This basilica contained two large libraries (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 16; Aul. Cell. xi. 17). 1 For accounts of this group of buildings, see De Rossi, Bull. Arch. Crist. (1867), pp. 66 ff.; and Lanciani, Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom. (1882), pp. 29 ft. 1 " Hie (Felix) fecit basilicam SS. Cosmae et Damiani ... in Via Sacra, juxta Templum Urbis Romae " (Lib. Pont., Vita S. Felicis IV.). By the last words the basilica of Constantino is meant. 'Statues by Pheidias and Lysippus existed in the Forum Pacis as late as the 6th century (Procop. Bell. Goth. iv. 21). 4 Drawings of it are given by Du PeVac and Palladio (Arch. iv. 8). ' See Aul. Cell. xiii. 25, 2; and Amm. Marc. xvi. 10, 15. The Columna Cochlis (so caned trom its spiral stairs) is, including capital and base, 97 ft 9 in. high,' i.e. lop Roman ft.; its pedestal has reliefs of trophies of Dacian arms, and winged Victories. fralan'M On the shaft are reliefs arranged spirally in twenty-three coiuma. tiers scenes of Trajan's victories, containing about 2500 figures. Trajan's ashes were buried in a gold urn under this column (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 16); and on the summit was a colossal gilt bronze statue of the emperor, now replaced by a poor figure of St Peter, set there by Sixtus V.' Beyond the column stood the temple of Trajan completed by Hadrian; its foundations exist under the buildings at the north-east side of the modern femnje o/ piazza, and many of its granite columns have been found, fralao. This temple is shown on coins of Hadrian.8 The architect of this magnificent group of buildings was Apollodorus of Damascus (Dip Cass. Ixix. 4), who also designed many buildings in Rome during Hadrian's reign.9 In addition to the five imperial fora, and the Forum Magnum, Holitorium and Boarium, mentioned above, there were also smaller markets for pigs (Forum Suarium), bread (Forum Pistorium) and fish (Forum Piscarium), all of which, with some others, popularly but wrongly called fora, are given in the regionary catalogues. Other Temples, &c. Besides the temples mentioned in previous sections remains of many others still exist in Rome. The circular temple by the Tiber, in the Forum Boarium (Plan, No. 5), formerly thought to be that of Vesta, is possibly that of Portunus, the god of the harbour (Varro, L.L. vi. 19). Its design is similar to that of the temple of Vesta in the forum (fig. 8), and, except the entablature and upper part of the cella, which are gone, it is well Other temples. 6 Its pedestal is inscribed, " Senatus Populusque Romanus Imp. Caesari Divi Nervae F. Nervae Trajano Aug. Germ. Dacico Pontif. Maximo Trib. Pot. XVII. [i.e. A.D. 113] Imp. VI. Cos. VI. P. P. ad dcclarandum quantae altitudinis mons et locus tantis operibus sit egestus." This would seem to indicate the height of the hill removed to form the site, and is so explained by Dion Cass. (Ixviii. 16). It is impossible that the saddle connecting the Quirinal with the Capitoline hill can have been too ft. in height (Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, p. 133), but it may be that the cliff of the Quirinal was cut back to a slope reaching to a point about 72 ft. high ; thus the state- ment of the inscription is much exaggerated. Comm. Boni has found the remains of a road beneath the pavement of the Forum, near the column, and believes that the inscription refers to the height of the buildings. Comparetti refers mons to the mass of marble quarried to build the Forum; Sogliano to the mass of ruins and rubbish carted away; Mau to the Servian agger between the Capitol and Quirinal (see Rom. Mitth., 1907, 187 ff.). 7 For the reliefs, se§ Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssaule (1896- 1900); Peterson, Trajans dakische Kriege (1899-1903); Stuart Jones, Papers of the B. R. S., vol. v. From their lofty position they are now difficult to see, but originally must have been very fairly visible from the galleries on the colonnades which once surrounded the column. •See_Aul. Cell. xi. 17, i; Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19; and compare Pausanias (v. 12, 6; x. 5, n), who mentions the gilt bronze roofs of Trajan's forum. 9 See Richter and Grifi, Ristauro del Foro Trajano (1839). TEMPLES AND BUILDINGS] ROME 603 preserved. It may date from the 2nd century B.C. The neighbour- ing Ionic temple, popularly called of Fortuna Virilis, is of special interest from its early date, probably the end of the 3rd century B.C. The complete absence of marble and the very sparing use of traver- tine, combined with the simple purity of its design, indicate an early date.1 It has a prostyle tetrastyle portico of travertine, and a short cella of tufa with engaged columns; the bases of these and of the angle columns are of travertine. The frieze has reliefs of ox skulls and garlands. The whole was originally stuccoed and painted so that the different stones used would not show. Fig. 12 gives the plan, showing the hard travertine used at the points of greatest pressure, while the main walls with the half columns are of the weaker and U softer tufa. The dedication of this temple is doubtful; but it is probably either that of For- tuna or of Mater Matuta, both of which were de- stroyed by fire in 213 B.C. and re- FIG. i2.-So-called Temple of Fortuna Virilis. °red in the fol- The black shows tufa; the shading travertine. in Cosmedin contains some remains of a temple (Plan, No. 4) which has been identified with that of Hercules built by Pompey ad Circum Maximum (Vitr. iii. 2, 5; Plin. H.N. xxxiv. 57). The temple stands close to the carceres of the Circus Maxi- mus, in the Forum Boarium. The columns built up in the church did not, however, belong to a temple, but to a pprticus. Within the walls of S. Niccolo in Carcere in the Forum Holitorium (Plan, No. 1 8) are preserved remains of three small hexastyle peripteral temples, two Ionic and one Tuscan, set close side by side.2 A fragment of the marble plan includes part of this group. The Tuscan temple is built of travertine, the others of tufa and peperino, with travertine at the points of greatest pressure. They are probably those of Janus ad Theairum Marcelli, dedicated by C. Duilius in the First Punic War (Tac. Ann. ii. 49); of Spes, built by A. Atilius Calatinus, of about the same date (Tac. Ann. ii. 49); and of Juno Sospita, dedicated by C. Cornelius Cethegus in 197 B.C. (Liv. xxxiv. 53). Near the Forum Holitorium are extensive remains of the large group of buildings included in the Porticus Octaviae (Plan, No. 16), two of which, dedicated to Juno Regina and Jupiter Stator, with part of the enclosing porticus and the adjoining temple of Hercules Musarum, are shown on a fragment of the marble plan. The Porticus Octaviae, a large rectangular space enclosed by a double line of columns, was built in honour of Octavia by her brother Augustus on the site of the Porticus Metelli, founded in 146 B.C. This must not be confounded with the neighbouring Porticus Octavia founded by Cn. Octavius, the conqueror of Perseus (Liv. xlv. 6, 42), in 168 B.C., and rebuilt under the same name by Augustus, as is re- corded in the Ancyran inscription. The whole group was one of the most magnificent in Rome, and contained a large number of works of art by Pheidias and other Greek sculptors. The existing portico, which was the main entrance into the porticus, is a restora- tion of the time of Severus in 203. The church of S. Angelo in Pescheria and the houses behind it conceal extensive remains of the porticus and its temples (see Ann, Inst., 1861, p. 241, 1868, p. 108; and Contigliozzi, /. Portici di Ottavia, 1861).* Remains of a large peripteral Corinthian temple are built into the side of the Borsa (formerly the Custom House). Eleven marble columns and their rich entablature are still in situ, with the corresponding part of the cella wall of peperino; in 1878 a piece of the end wall of the cella was discovered, and, under the houses near, part of a large peri- bolus wall, also of peperino, forming an enclosure with columns all round the temple nearly 330 ft. square (see Bull. Comtn. Arch. Rom. vi. pi. iv., 1878). This temple has commonly been identified with that of Neptune (Dio Cass. Ixvi. 24), built by Agrippa, and surrounded by the Porticus Argonautarum (Dio Cass. liii. 27; Mart. iii. 20, Ii); but it clearly dates, at least in its present form, from the 2nd century A.D., and is not improbably the temple of Hadrian, mentioned in the Notitia as being near this spot. The temple of Venus and Rome on the Velia (see fig. 8) was the _ . . largest in Rome; it was pseudo-dipteral, with ten Corin- lemnieot tj,;an coiumns of Greek marble at the ends, and prob- Romc ' ab'y twenty at the sides; it had an outer colonnade round the peribolus of about 180 columns of polished granite. Of these only a few fragments now exist ; for several centuries 1 Fiechter (Rom. Mitth., 1906, pp. 220 ff.) has endeavoured to show that the temple in its present form dates from the 1st century B.C. 2 For drawings of them, see the list given by Huelsen in Jordan, Topographic, i. 3, 511, note II. 1 The remains of the Porticus Octaviae have been more com- pletely exposed by the demolition of the Ghetto. the whole area of this building was used as a quarry, while the residue of the marble was burnt into lime on the spot in kilns built of broken fragments of the porphyry columns. A considerable part of the two cellae with their apses, set back to back, still exists; in each apse was a colossal seated figure of the deity, and along the side walls of the cellae were rows of porphyry columns and statues in niches. The vault is deeply coffered with stucco enrichments once painted and gilt. The roof was covered with tiles of gilt bronze, which were taken by Pope Honorius I. (625-38) to cover the basilica of St Peter's. These were stolen by the Saracens during their sack of the Leonine city in 846. The emperor Hadrian himself designed this magnificent temple, which was partially completed in 135; the design was criticized severely by the architect Apollo- dorus (Dio Cass. Ixix. 4; Vita Hadr. 19). The temple was probably finished by Antoninus Pius; it was partly burned in the reign of Maxentius, who began its restoration, which was carried on by Constantine. The existing remains of the two cellae are mainly of Hadrian's time, but contain patches of the later restorations. Between the south angle of this temple and the arch of Constantine stand the remains of a fountain, usually known as the Meta Sudans. This was a tall conical structure in a large circular basin, all lined with marble. From its brick facing it appears to be a work of the Flavian period. That part of the Caelian hill which is near the Colosseum is covered with very extensive remains — a great peribolus of brick- faced concrete, apparently of Flavian date, and part of a BuUdlagt massive travertine arcade in two storeys, similar to that oa tfje of the Colosseum; most of the latter has been removed caellaa, for the sake of the stone, but a portion still exists under Esqulllae the monastery and campanile of SS. Giovanni e Paolo. ant/ There can be no reasonable doubt that these substruc- Qulrloal. tures carried the temple of Claudius, built by Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 9). The so-called temple of Minerva Medica (" Nympheum " on Plan) on the eastern slope of the Esquiline (so named fr.om a statue found in it), a curiously planned building, with central decagonal domed hall, probably belonged to the palace of Gallienus (263-68). Some- what similar ruins beside the neighbouring basilica of S. Croce formed part of the Sessorium, a palace on the Esquiline. The remains on the Quirinal, in the Colonna gardens, of massive marble entablatures richly sculptured were formerly thought to belong to Aurelian's great temple of the Sun, but it now appears certain that they belong to the very extensive thermae of Constantine, part of the site of which is now occupied by the Quirinal palace and neigh- bouring buildings.4 The excavations of recent years have brought to light, and in many cases destroyed, a large number of domestic buildings; these discoveries are recorded in the Notizie degli Scavi private and the Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom. The extensive cutting bouses away of the Tiber bank for the new embankment exposed some very ornate houses near the Villa Farnesina, richly decorated with marble, fine wall-paintings, and stucco reliefs, equal in beauty to any works of the kind that have ever been found. These are now exhibited in the Museo delle Terme, but the houses themselves have been destroyed. The laying out of the new Quirinal and Esquiline quarters has also exposed many fine buildings. Some remains on the Esquiline have been supposed (without much probability) to belong to the villa of Maecenas. A very remarkable vaulted room, decorated with paintings of plants and landscapes, has been shown to be a greenhouse;5 at one end is an apse with a series of step-like stages for flowers. This one room has been preserved, though the rest of the villa has been destroyed ; it is on the road leading from S. Maria Maggiore to the Lateran. The walls are a very fine speci- men of tufa opus reticulatum, unmixed with brick, evidently of the early imperial period. Among the numerous buildings discovered in the Horti Sallustiani near the Quirinal was a very fine house of the 1st century A.D., in concrete faced with brick and opus reticu- latum. It had a central circular domed hall, with many rooms and staircases round it, rising four storeys high. This house was set in the valley against a cliff of the Quirinal, so that the third floor is level with the upper part of the hill. It is nearly on the line of the Servian wall, which stood here at a higher level on the edge of the cliff. This park was laid out by the historian Sallust, and remained in the possession of his famijy until the reign of Tiberius, when it became imperial property; it was used as a residence by Nero (Tac. Ann. xiii. 47) and other emperors till the 4th century.6 In 1884, near the Porta S. Lorenzo, a long line of houses was discovered during the making of a new road. Some of these were of opus reticulatum of the 1st century B.C.; others had the finest kind of 4 gee Palladio (Terme dei Romani, London, 1732), who gives the plan of this enormous building, now wholly hidden or destroyed. 6 Bull. Inst. (1875), 89-96; see also Bull. Comm. Arch. (1874), 137 ff., pis. xi.-xviii. 6 During excavations made here in 1876, lead pipes were found inscribed with the name of the estate, the imperial owner (Severus Alexander), and the plumber who made them — ORTORVM . SALLVSTIANOR . IMP . SEVER . ALEXANDRI . AVQ . NAEVIVS . MANES . FECIT . (C.I.L. XV. 7249)- 604 ROME [TEMPLES AND BUILDINGS brick-facing, probably of the time of Nero; all had been richly decorated with marble linings and mosaics. The line of the street was parallel to that of the later Aurelian wall, which at this part was built against the back of this row of houses. At the same time, behind the line of houses were uncovered fine peperino and tufa piers of the aqueduct rebuilt by Augustus, one arch of which forms the Porta S. Lorenzo. These interesting remains have all been completely destroyed. A fine house of the end of the 1st century A.D., with richly decorated walls, was exposed in June 1884 against the slope of the Quirinal, near the Palazzo Colonna; it was immediately destroyed to make room for new buildings. The praetorian camp was first made permanent and surrounded with a strong wall by the emperor Tiberius (Suet. Tib. 37). Owing .. to the camp being included in the line of the Aurelian wall, a great part of it still exists; it is a very interesting specimen of early imperial brick-facing. The wall is only 12 to 14 ft. high, and has thinly scattered battlements, at intervals of 20 ft. The north-east gate (Porta Principalis Dextra) is well preserved; it had a tower on each side, now greatly reduced in height, in which are small windows with arched heads moulded in one slab of terra-cotta. The brick-facing is very neat and regular, — the bricks being about li in. thick, with i-in. joints. On the inside of the wall are rows of small rooms for the guards. Part of the Porta Praetoria also remains. This camp was dismantled by Constantine, who removed its inner walls; the outer ones were left because they formed part of the Aurelian circuit. The present wall is nearly three times the height of the original camp wall. The upper part was added when Aurelian included it in his general circuit wall round Rome. The superior neatness and beauty of Tiberius's brick- facing make it easy to distinguish where his work ends and that of the later emperors begins. Owing to the addition of the later wall it requires some care to trace the rows of battlements which belong to the camp. The Pantheon is the most perfect among existing classical build- ings in Rome. The inscription on the frieze of the portico (M . „ , . AGRIPPA . L . F . COS . TERTIVM . FECIT) refers to a build- ing erected by Agrippa in 27 B.C., consecrated to the divinities of the Julian house (Mars, Venus, etc.) under the name Pantheum (" all-holy "); cf. Dio Cass. liii. 27; Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 43. It was sometimes used as the meeting-place of the Fratres Arvales before they began to meet in the temple of Concord (C.I.L. v. 2041). Pliny mentions the sculpture by the Athenian Diogenes which adorned it, and its capitals and dome covering of Syracusan bronze (xxxiv. 7). It was long supposed that the present rotunda was the Pantheon of Agrippa; but this was destroyed in the great fire of A.D. 80 (Oros. 7, 12; Hieron. Abr. 2127); and recent investiga- tions have shown that the rotunda is a work of Hadrian's reign, bricks of that period having been found in all parts of the building. Excavations have made it probable that the site of the rotunda was previously occupied by an open piazza, whose pavement of coloured marbles has been discovered beneath the flooring, and that Agrippa's Pantheon covered the present piazza and faced southward. The present portico has been reconstructed ; it is probable that Agrippa's portico had ten columns in the front. The ceiling of the portico too was of bronze, supported by hollow bronze girders,1 which remained till Urban VIII. melted them to make cannon for S. Angelo; the bronze weighed 450,000 ft. The bronze tiles of the dome were stolen long before by Constans II., in 663, but on their way to Constantinople they were seized by the Saracens. The portico has eight columns on the front and three on the sides, all granite monoliths except the restored ones on the east side, — sixteen in all. The capitals are Corinthian, of white marble; the tympanum (&tr6s) of the pediment was filled with bronze reliefs of the battle of the gods and the giants.2 The walls of the circular part, nearly 20 ft. thick, are of solid tufa concrete, thinly faced with brick. The enormous dome, 142 ft. 6 in. in span, is cast in concrete made of pumice-stone, pozzolana and lime; being one solid mass, it covers the build- ing like a shell, free from any lateral thrust at the haunches. On the face of the concrete is a system of superimposed relieving arches in brick. These no longer possess any constructive value, but were designed to preserve the stability of the dome whilst the concrete became firmly set. Round the central opening or hypae- thrum still remains a ring of enriched mouldings in gilt bronze, the only bit left of the bronze which once covered the whole dome. The lower storey of the circular part and the walls of the projecting portico were covered with slabs of Greek marble ; a great part of the latter still remains, enriched with Corinthian pilasters and bands of sculptured ornament. The two upper storeys of the drum were covered outside with hard stucco of pounded marble. Inside the whole was lined with a great variety of rich oriental marbles. This magnificent interior, divided into two orders by an entablature supported on columns and pilasters, has been much injured by 1 A drawing of this interesting bronze work, by G. A. Dosio, is preserved in the Uffizi at Florence (No. 1021). * On the architrave is cut an inscription recording the restoration of the Pantheon by Severus in 202. Ooldea House ol Nero. alteration.' About 608 the Pantheon was given by Phocas to Boniface IV., who consecrated it as the church of S. Maria ad Martyres. In 1881-82 the destruction of a row of houses TA • behind the Pantheon exposed remains of a grand hall with . ' richly sculptured entablature on Corinthian columns, part Alaiooa of the great thermae of Agrippa, which extend beyond the ' Via della Ciambella. A great part of the thermae appears from the brick stamps to belong to an extensive reconstruction in the reign of Hadrian4 (see BATHS). Close by the Pantheon is the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, which stands (as its name records) on or near the site of a temple to Minerva Chalcidica (Plan, No. 12), probably founded by Pompey the Great, c. 60 B.C. (Plin. H.N. vii. 97), and restored by Domitian. Adjoining this were temples to Isis and Serapis, a cult which became very popular in Rome in the time of Hadrian; large quantities of sculpture, Egypto-Roman in style, have been found on this site at many different times.6 Several of the barracks (excubitoria) of the various cohorts of the vieiles or firemen have been discovered in various parts of Rome. That of the first cohort (Plan, No. 29) is buried under the Palazzo Savorelli; that of the second (Plan, No. 30) was on the Esquiline, near the so-called temple of Minerva Medica; that of the third (Plan, No. 31) was near the baths of Diocletian. The most perfect is that of the seventh cohort (Plan, No. 34), near S. Crisogono in Trastevere, a handsome house of the 2nd century, decorated with mosaic floors, wall-paintings, &c.6 The excavations made in exposing the ancient church of S. Clemente brought to light interesting remains of different periods; drawings are given by Mullooly, St Clement and his Basilica (1869), and De Rossi, Bull. Arch. Crist. (1863), 28. Some remains exist of the Golden House of Nero, which, including its parks, lakes, &c., covered an incredibly large space of ground, extending from the Palatine, over the Velia and the site of the temple of Venus and Rome, to the Esquiline, filling the great valley between the Caelian and the Esquiline where the Colosseum stands, and reaching far over the Esquiline to the great reservoir now called the " Sette Sale." No other extravagances or cruelties of Nero appear to have offended the Roman people so much as the erection of this enormous palace, which must have blocked up many important roads and occu- pied the site of a whole populous quarter. It was partly to make restitution for this enormous theft of land that Vespasian and Titus destroyed the Golden House and built the Colosseum and Thermae of Titus on part of its site. Adjoining the baths of Titus were those built on a much larger scale by Trajan. Under the substructions of these extensive remains of the Golden House still exist;7 and at one point, at a lower level still, pavements and foundations remain of one of the numerous houses destroyed by Nero to clear the site. The great bronze colossus of Nero, 120 ft. high (Suet. Nero, 31), which stood in one of the porticus of the Golden House, was moved by Vespasian, with head and attributes altered to those of Apollo (Helios), on to the Velia; and it was moved again by Hadrian, when the temple of Rome was built, on to the base which still exists near the Colosseum. Several coins show this colossus by the side of the Colosseum. Under the Palazzo Doria, the church of S. Maria in Via Lata, and other_ neighbouring buildings extensive remains exist of a great porticus, with long rows of travertine piers; this building, is designated on fragments of the marble plan with the words SAEPT . . . LIA. This must be the Saepta Julia, begun by Julius Caesar, and completed by Agrippa in 27 B.C., as the voting place for the Comitia Centuriata, divided into compartments, one for each century. The building contained rostra, and was also used for gladiatorial shows. Under the later empire it became a bazaar and resort of slave-dealers. That curiously planned building on the Esquiline, in the new Piazza. Vit. Emmanuele, where the so-called trophies of Marius once were placed (see Du P6rac, Vestigi, pi. 27), is one of the numerous castella or reservoirs from which the water of the various aqueducts was distributed in the quarters they were meant to supply, and may perhaps be identified with the Nymphaeum Alexandri built Saepta Julia. 3 The bronze door is not in its present form antique, having been recast by order of Pius IV. 4 The plan of the whole group, including the Pantheon, is given by Palladio (op. cit.). The recent discoveries are given by Laifciani, Not. d. Scavi (1882), p. 357, with a valuable plan. See also Geymiiller, Documents inedits sur les Thermes d' Agrippa (Lausanne, 1883); Beltrami and Armanini, // Panteon (1898); Durm, Baukunst der Romer, ed. 2, pp. £50 ff. ; Rivoira, Rivista di Roma (1910), p. 412. 6 See Lanciani in Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom. (1883), and Marucchi, ibid. (1896) ; Fea, Mistell. ccliv. 1 12. Part of the Serapeum is shown on fragments of the marble plan, which have been pieced together by Huelsen (Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Rom. i. 3, pi. x.). 6 See Visconti, La stazione delta Coorte VII. de' Vigilt (1867). 7 See De Romanis, Le antiche camere esquiline (1822). It should be noted that the paintings said to have belonged to the baths of Titus really decorated the Golden House, over which the baths of Titus and Trajan were built. PLACES OF AMUSEMENT] ROME 605 by Severus Alexander at the termination of his Alexandrine aque- duct, opened in 225 (see Hist. Aug. Sev. Alex. 25). But the marble trophies now set at the top of the Capitoline steps bear a quarry mark which shows them to be of the time of Domitian : it consists of the following inscription, now not visible, as it is cut on the under part— IMP . DOM . AVG . GERM . PER . CHREZ . LIB . # CS .' Places of Amusement. The Circus Maximus (see CIRCUS) occupied the Vallis Murcia2 between the Palatine and the Aventine. Its first rows of seats, Circuses which were of wood, are said to have been made under the Tarquins (Liv. i. 26, 35; Dionys. iii. 68). Per- manent carceres were set up in 329 B.C. and restored in 174 B.C. (Liv. viii. 20, xli. 27). In the reign of Julius Caesar it was rebuilt with (for the first time) lower seats of stone (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 102), the upper being still of wood (Suet. Caes. 39) ; Dionysius (iii. 68) describes it as it was after this rebuilding. 1 1 was further ornamented with marble by Augustus, Claudius and other emperors. The wooden part was burnt in the great fire of Nero, and again under Domitian; it was considerably enlarged by Trajan, and lastly it was restored by Constantino. In its later state it had a marble facade with three external tiers of arches with engaged columns, and (inside) sloping tiers of marble seats, supported on concrete raking vaults (Plin. Paneg. 51). A great part of these vaults existed in the 1 6th century, and is shown by Du Perac. It is said by Pliny (H.N. xxxvi. 102) — if the text be not corrupt — to have held 250,000 spectators, while the Regionaiy Catalogues give the number of seats as 485,000; but Huelsen has shown (Bull. Comm. Arch., 1894, 421 ff.) that the figures are much exaggerated and must, moreover, be interpreted, not of the number of spectators, but of the length of the tiers expressed in feet. The end with the carceres was near the church of S. Maria in Cosmedin.3 Some of its sub- structures, with remains of very early tufa structures on the Palatine side, still exist below the church of S. Anastasia (see Plan of Palatine). The obelisk now in the Piazza del Popolo was set on the spina by Augustus, and that now in the Lateran piazza by Constantius II. The Circus Flaminius in the Campus Martius was built in 221 B.C. by the C. Flaminius Nepos who was killed at the Trasimene Lake in 217 B.C.; remains of the structure existed until the l6th century, when they were destroyed to build the Palazzo Mattei. In the middle ages its long open space was used as a rope-walk, hence the name of the church called S. Caterina dei Funari, which occupies part of its site.4 The circus of Caligula and Nero was at the foot of the Vatican Hill (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 74). The modern sacristy of St Peter's stands over part of its site. The obelisk on its spina re- mained standing in situ till it was moved by Fontana6 for Sixtus V. to its present site in the centre of the piazza. The great stadium, foundations of which exist under most of the houses of the Piazza Navona (Agonalis), and especially below S. Agnese, is that built by Domitian and restored by Severus Alexander. That it was a stadium and not a circus is shown by the fact that its starting end is at right angles to the sides and not set diagonally, as was always the case with the carceres of a circus; nor is there any trace of foundations of a spina. The best preserved circus is that built by Maxentius in honour of his deified son Romulus, by the Via Appia, 2 m. outside the walls of Rome. It was attributed to Caracalla till 1825, when an inscription recording its true dedication was found.6 The first permanent naumachia was that constructed by Augustus between the foot of the Janiculan hill and the Tiber. The naumachia of Domitian was pulled down and the materials used to restore the Circus Maximus (Suet. Dom. 5) ; it was perhaps restored by Trajan, for the remains of a naumachia built of opus reticulatum mixed with brick have been discovered near the mausoleum of Hadrian. The first stone theatre in Rome was that built by Pompey in 55-52 B.C. (see THEATRE: Roman) ; it contained a temple to Venus Theatres Victrix, and in front of it was a great porticus, called Hecatostylum from its hundred columns. This is shown on the marble plan.7 Considerable remains of the foundations exist between the Piazza dei Satiri, which occupies the site of the 1 See Bruzza, in Ann. Inst. (1870), and Lenormant, Trophies de Marius, Blois (1842). This once magnificent building, with the marble trophies in their place, is shown with much minuteness on a bronze medallion of Severus Alexander (see Froehner, Medaillons de I'empire, Paris, 1878, p. 169). s So called from a prehistoric altar to the Dea Murcia (Venus) ; Varro, L.L. v. 154. 3 Part of it is shown on a fragment of the marble plan (see Jordan, F.U.R.); it is represented on a bronze medallion of Gordian III., with an obelisk on the spina and three metae at each end ; in front are groups of wrestlers and boxers (see Grueber, Rom- Med. pi. xli., London, 1874). 4 The remains extant in the i6th century were described by Ligorio, Libra delle Antichitd (1553), p. 17. 6 See his Trasportazione dell' Obelisco Vat. (1590). * Nibby, Circo di Caracalla, (1825); Canina, Edifizj di Roma, iv. pis. 194-96. 7 Plut. Pomp. 52; Dion Cass. xxxix. 38; Tac. Ann. xiv. 20. scena, and the Via.de" Giubbonari and Via del Paradiso. Adjoining this was the porticus Pompeiana, which contained the curia of Pompey, where Caesar was murdered, after which it was walled up. The colossal statue, popularly supposed to be that of Pompey, at the feet of which Caesar died,8 now in the Palazzo Spada, was found in '553 n£ar the theatre. This theatre was restored by Augustus (Man. Anc. 4, 9) ; in the reign of Tiberius it was burnt, and its rebuilding was completed by Caligula. The scena was again burnt in A.D. 80, and restored by Titus. According to Pliny (H.N. xxxvi. 115), it held 40,000 spectators; the Regionary Catalogues give the number 17,580. Huelsen estimates its capacity at 9000- 10,000 spectators. In 1864 the colossal gilt bronze statue of Hercules, now in the Vatican, was found near the site of the theatre of Pompey, carefully concealed underground. The theatre of Marcellus is much more perfect; complete foundations of the cunei exist under the Palazzo Savelli, and part of the external arcade is well preserved. This is built of travertine in two orders, Tuscan and Ionic, with delicate details, very superior to those of the Colosseum, the arcade of which is very similar to this in general design. This theatre was begun by J. Caesar, and finished by Augustus in 13 B.C., who dedicated it in the name of his nephew Marcellus.' It was restored by Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 19). Foundations also of the theatre dedicated by Cornelius Balbus in 13 B.C. (Suet. Aug. 29; Dio Cass. liv. 25) exist under the Monte dei Cenci; and in the Via dei Calderari there is a small portion of the external arcade of a porticus (Plan, No. 42) ; the lower storey has travertine arches with engaged columns, and the upper has brick-faced pilasters. This has been sup- posed to be the Crypta Balbi mentioned m the Regionary Catalogues, but is more probably the Porticus Minucia, built in 110 B.C. An interesting account of the temporary theatre of M. Aemilius Scaurus, erected in 58 B.C., is given by Pliny (H.N. xxxvi. 5, 113). The same writer mentions an almost incredible building, which consisted of two wooden theatres made to revolve on pivots, so that the two together made an amphitheatre; this was erected by C. Curio in 50 B.C. (H.N. xxxvi. 116). The first stone amphitheatre in Rome was that built by Statilius Taurus in the reign of Augustus. (For the Colosseum and Amphl- the Amphitheatrum Castrense, see AMPHITHEATRE; for theatres. the Baths, see that article.) Arches, Columns, Tombs and Bridges. The earliest triumphal arches were the two erected by L. Stertinius (196 B.C.) in the Forum Boarium and in the Circus Maximus, out of spoils gained in Spain.10 In the later years of the Arcbe* empire there were nearly forty in Rome. The arch of Titus and Vespasian on the Summa Sacra Via was erected by Domitian to commemorate the conquest of Judaea by Titus in his father's reign. Reliefs inside the arch represent the triumphal procession — Titus in a chariot, and on the other side soldiers bearing the golden candlestick, trumpets and table of prothesis, taken from the Jewish temple. The central part only of this monument is original; the sides were restored in 1823." Another arch in honour pi Titus had previously been built (A.D. 80) in the Circus Maximus ; its inscription is given in the Einsiedeln MS. (C.I.L. vi. 944). A plain travertine arch near the supposed palace of Commodus on the Caelian is inscribed with the names of the Consul Publius Cornelius Dolabella (A.D. 10) and of the flamen martialis, C. Junius Silanus. It may have originally been used to carry the Aqua Marcia; in later times the Aqua Claudia passed over it. The so- called arch of Drusus by the Porta Appia also carries the specus of an aqueduct — that built by Caracalla to supply his great thermae. Its composite capitals show, however, that it is later than the time of Drusus, and it was very possibly the work of Trajan. Adjoining the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro a rich though coarsely decorated marble gateway with flat lintel still exists — built, as its inscription records, in honour of Severus and his sons by the argentarii (bankers and silversmiths) and other merchants of the Forum Boarium in 204. It formed an entrance from the Forum Boarium into the Velabrum. The figure of Geta in the reliefs and his name have been erased by Caracalla; the sculpture is poor both in design and execution (see Bull. Inst., 1867, p. 217, and 1871, p. 233). Close by is a quadruple arch, set at the intersection of two roads, such as was called by the 8 See Fea, Rom. Ant. Ixviii. 57, for an account of its discovery. 9 Suet. Aug. 29. See Man. Anc. 4, 22: " Theatrvm . ad . aedem. Appllinis . in . solo . magna . ex . parte . a . [privatis .] empto . feci . qvod . svb . nomine . M . Marcelli . generi . [me]i . esset." The temple of Apollo here named was one of the most ancient and highly venerated in Rome; it was dedicated to the Delphic Apollo in 431 B.C. by Cn. Julius (Liv. iv. 25); meetings of the Senate were held in it; and it contained many fine works of art — an ancient cedar- wood statue of Apollo (Plin. H.N. xiii. n) and the celebrated statues of the slaughter of the Niobids by Praxiteles or Scopas (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 28), of which many ancient copies exist. 10 Liv. xxxiii. 27. 11 This arch is the earliest known example of the so-called Composite order, a modification of Corinthian in which the capitals combine Ionic volutes with Corinthian acanthus leaves; in other respects it follows the Corinthian order. 6o6 ROME (TOMBS AND BRIDGES Romans an arch of Janus Quadrifrons. Though partly built of earlier fragments, it is late in style, and may be the Arcus Con- stantini mentioned in the Xlth region. The finest existing arch is that by the Colosseum erected by Constantine. It owes, however, little of its beauty to that artistically degraded period. Not only most of its reliefs but its whole design and many of its architectural features were stolen from an earlier arch erected by Trajan as an entrance to his forum (see above). The arch of Claudius, built in 43 to commemorate his supposed victories in Britain, stood across the Via Lata (modern Corso) in the Piazza Sciarra. Its exact position is shown in Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom., 1878, pi. iv. Its remains were removed in the middle of the l6th century,1 and nothing now is left but half its inscription, preserved in the garden of the Barberini palace. It is shown on both aurei and denarii of Claudius, with an attic inscribed DE BRITANNIS, and surmounted by a quadriga and trophies. A little to the N. of the Piazza Colonna was an arch popularly called the Arco di Portogallo, destroyed in 1665, whose reliefs are now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. They appear to date from the reign of Hadrian, but may have been used at a later time to decorate this arch. An arch also stood opposite S. Maria in Via Lata until 1498, which was probably erected by Diocletian in A.D. 303. The central part of the once triple arch of Gallienus still exists on the Esquiline; it took the place of the ancient Porta Esquilina of the Servian wall. It is built of travertine, is simple in design, with coarse details, and has an inscription on its attic. The two side arches and pediment over the centre existed in the l6th century, and are shown in the Mantuan oil-painting of Rome,2 and in several antiquarian works of the l6th century. The inscription (C.I.L. yi. 1106) records that it was erected in honour of Gallienus and his wife Salonina by Aurelius Victor.8 The column of Antoninus Pius was a monolith of red granite, erected after his death by his adopted sons M. Aurelius and L. Verus. One fragment of it is preserved in the Vatican Columns. w;tjj an jntcrestjng quarry incription, recording that it was cut in the ninth year of Trajan's reign, under the supervision of Dioscurus and the architect Aristides. The rest of its fragments were used by Pius VI. to repair the obelisk of Monte Citorio, set up by Augustus in the Campus Martius as the gnomon of a sundial (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 72). The marble pedestal of the Antonine column is now in the Vatican; it has reliefs representing the apotheosis of Faustina and Antoninus Pius, and the decursio equitum which formed part of the funeral ceremony. This and the column of M. Aurelius were both surmounted by colossal portrait statues of gilt bronze. The column of M. Aurelius is very similar in size and design to that of Trajan. Its spiral reliefs represent victories in Germany from 171-175, arranged in twenty tiers. Like the column of Trajan, it is exactly 100 Roman ft. high, without the pedestal. The pedestal was originally much higher than at present, but is now partly buried; it is shown by Gamucci, Du Perac and other 16th-century writers. This column stood in front of a temple to M. Aurelius, and within a great peribolus, forming a forum similar to that of Trajan, though much smaller; the remains of this temple, amongst other buildings, probably form the elevation n»w called Monte Citorio.4 For the catacombs, see CATACOMBS; for obelisks, see OBELISK and EGYPT. The prehistoric cemeteries of Rome are described above (Prehistoric Rome). Few tombs exist of the Roman period earlier than the 1st _ . century B.C., — probably owing to the great extension of the city beyond the Servian limits, which thus obliterated the earlier burial-places. The tomb of the Cornelii Scipiones is the most important of early date which still exists. It is excavated in the tufa rock at the side of the Via Appia, outside the Porta Capena. Interments of the Scipio family went on here for about 400 years, additional chambers and passages being excavated from time to time. The peperino sarcophagus of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (Liv. x. 12, 13), consul in 298 B.C., is now in the Vatican; its inscrip- tion, in rude Saturnian verse, is one of the most important existing specimens of early Latin epigraphy. Many other inscribed slabs were found in the I7th century, covering the loculi in which lay the bodies of later members of the family. Those now existing in the tomb are modern copies.5 This burial-place of the Scipios is unlike those of other families, owing to the gens Cornelia keeping up the early custom of interment without burning; thus stone sarcophagi or loculi (rock-cut recesses) were required instead of mere pigeon- holes to hold the cinerary urns. The tomb of M. Bibulus, a few yards outside the Porta Fontinalis, and remains of two recently 1 See Vacca, ap. Fea, Misc, p. 67. 2 Reproduced by De Rossi in his Piante di Roma Anteriori al Sec. XVI. (1879). ' See Bellori, Veteres Arcus (1690), showing some now destroyed: and Rossini, Archi Trionfali (1832). 4 On the Antonine column see Petersen in Amelung's Katalog der vaticanischen Sculpturen, i. p. 883; on that of M. Aurelius see Die Marcussdule, by Petersen, v. Domaszewski and Calderini (Munich, 1896). 6 The inscriptions are given in C.I.L. \. 29-39 — vi. 1284-94. On the earlier ones see Woelfflin, Miinchener Sitzungsberichte ( 1 892), 1 88 ff . discovered during the destruction of the Aurelian towers at the Porta Salara, date from about the middle of the 1st century B.C., as does also the curious tomb of the baker Eurysaces outside the Porta Maggiore. In 1863 an interesting tomb of the Sempronia gens' was discovered on the Quirinal, below the royal palace, near the site of the Porta Salutaris. It is of travertine, with a rich entablature and frieze sculptured with the Greek honeysuckle ornament (see Bull. Comm. Arch., 1876, 126, pi. xii.). This also isof the last years of the republic. The mausoleum of Augustus, built 28 B.C., stood in the north part of the Campus Martius, between the Tiber and the Via Flaminia. It is a massive cylindrical structure of concrete, faced with opus reticulatum ; according to Strabo, this was faced with "tttusolea- " white stone," i.e. travertine; inside was a series of radiating chambers, in plan like a wheel. On the top was a great mound of earth, planted with trees and flowers (Tac. Ann. lii. 9). In the middle ages it was converted into a fortess by the Colonna, which was destroyed in 1167. In the i6th century the central portion was occupied by a garden.7 Only the bare core exists now, with its fine opus reticulalum, best seen in the court of the Palazzo Valdam- brini. The inside is concealed by modern seats, being now used as a concert-hall (Anfiteatro Chorea). The sepulchral inscription in honour of Augustus, engraved on two bronze columns at the entrance, is preserved to us by its copy at Ancyra (q.v.). It records an almost incredible amount of building: in addition to the long list of build- ing mentioned by name Augustus says, DVO. ET. OCTAGINTA. TEMPLA . DEVM . IN .VRBE . CONSVL . SEXTVM . REFECI. The first burial in the mausoleum of Augustus was that of M.Claudius Marcellus (died 23 B.C.), and it continued to be the imperial tomb till the death of Nerva, A.D. 98, after whose interment there was no more room. The mausoleum of Hadrian, built by that emperor as a substitute for that built by Augustus, and dedicated in A.D. 138 by his successor, was a large circular building on a square podium; its walls, of enormous thickness, were of tufa fared with Parian marble and surrounded by a colonnade with rows of statues, — a work of the greatest magnificence. The splendour of the whole is described by Procopius (Bell. Goth. i. 22), who mentions its siege by the Goths, when the defenders hurled statues on to the heads of the enemy. In the 7th century the church of S. Angelus inter Nubes was built on its summit, and all through the middle ages it served as a papal fortress. The interior chambers are still well preserved, but its outside has been so often wrecked and refaced that little of the original masonry is visible.8 Several of the grander sepulchral monuments of Rome were built in the form of pyramids. One of these still exists, included in the Aurelian wall, by the Porta Ostiensis. It is a pyramid of concrete, 118 feet high, faced with blocks of white marble, SePul~ and contains a small chamber decorated with painted c'""a' stucco. An inscription in large letters on the marble Pyramlds- facing records that it was built as a tomb for C. Cestius, a praetor, tribune of the people, and septemvir of the epulones (officials who supervised banquets in honour of the gods). It was erected, according to Cestius's will, by his executors, in the space of 330 days. It dates from the time of Augustus9 (see Falconieri, in Nardini, Roma Antica, iv. p. i, ed. 1818-20). Another similar pyramid, popularly known as the tomb of Romulus, stood between the mau- soleum of Hadrian and the basilica of St Peter. It was destroyed at the close of the I5th century, during the rebuilding of the long bridge which connects the former building with the Vatican. The earliest bridge was a wooden drawbridge called the Pens Sublicius from the piles (sublicae) on which it was built. The river being an important part of the defence of Rome from „ the Aventine to the Porta Flumentana (see plan of Servian wall, fig. 8), no permanent bridges were made till the Romans were strong enough not to fear attacks from without. The Pons Sublicius had a sacred character, and was always restored in wood, even in the imperial period.10 Its exact site is doubtful, but it must be placed some distance below the Ponte Rotto. The first stone bridge was begun in 179 B.C. and completed in 142 B.C., when the conquest of Etruria and the defeat of Hannibal had put an end to fears of invasion ; it was called the Pons Aemilius, after the pontifex maxi- mus11 M. Aemilius Lepidus, its founder. It was also called Pons • This is shown by an inscription (C.I.L. vi. 26152) found on the site in the 1 7th century. 7 See Du PeVac's Vestigj, pi. 36, which shows the garden on the top. 8 On the mausoleum of Hadrian, see Borgatti, Castel S. Angela (1890). 9 Near the tomb of Cestius is that extraordinary mound of pot- sherds called Monte Testaccio. These are mostly fragments of large amphorae, not piled"* up at random, but carefully stacked, with apertures at intervals for ventilation. It has been shown by Dressel (Ann. dell' Inst., 1878, 118 ff.; C.I.L. xv. p. 492) that damaged or imperfect vessels were thus disposed of. "See Varro, L.L. v. 83; Ov. Fast. v. 622; Tac. Hist. i. 86; Vila Antonini Pii, 8. 11 The bridges were specially under the care of the pontifex maxi- mus, at least till the later years of the republic (Varro, L.L. v. 83). REGIONES] ROME 607 Lapideus, to distinguish it from the wooden Sublician bridge. The modern Ponte Rptto represents this bridge ; but the existing arches are mainly medieval. An ancient basalt-paved road still exists, leading to the bridge from the Forum Boarium. The Pons Fabricius united the city and the island (Insula Tiberina).1 The bridge derived its name from L. Fabricius, a curator viarum in 62 B.C ; its inscription, twice repeated, is L, . FABRICIVS . C . F . CVR . VIAR . FACIVNDVM . COERAVIT. Like the other existing bridges, it is built of great blocks of peperino and tufa, with a massive facing of travertine on both sides. Corbels to support centering were built in near the springing of the arches, so that they could be repaired or even rebuilt without a scaffolding erected in the river-bed. The well-preserved Pons Cestius, probably named after L. Cestius, praefectus urbi in 46 B.C., unites the island and the Janiculan side; on the marble parapet is a long inscription re- cording its restoration in 370 by Gratian, Valentinian, and Valens.2 The next bridge, Ponte Sisto, is probably on the site of an ancient bridge called in the Notitia Pons Aurelius. Marliano gives an inscription (now lost) which recorded its restoration in the time of Hadrian. About lop yards above this bridge have been found the remains of sunken piers, which are proved by an inscription (C.I.L. vi. 31545) to have belonged to the Pons Agrippac, not otherwise known. The Pons Aelius was built in 134 by Hadrian, to connect his mausoleum with the Campus Martius; it is still well preserved, and is now called the Ponte S. Angelo (see Dante, Inferno, xviii. 28-33). It had eight arches, of which the three in the centre were higher than the rest, so that the road sloped on both sides. The material is peperino, with travertine facings. Its inscription, now lost, is given in the Einsiedeln MS. — IMP . CAESAR . Divi . TR AIANI . PARTHICI . FILIVS .DIVI- NERVAE. NEPOS . TRAIANVS . HADRI- ANVS • AVG . PONT . MAX . TRIB . POT . XVIIII . COS . Ill . P . P . FECIT. The Pons Aelius is shown on coins of Hadrian. A little below it are the foundations of another bridge, probably the Pons Neronianus of the H^irabilia, called also Vaticanus, built probably by Nero as a way to his Vatican circus and the Horti Agrippinae. At the foot of the Aventine, near the Marmorata, are the remains of piers which seem to have belonged to the Pons Probi, mentioned in the Notitia. It is uncertain whether this bridge is to be identified with the Pons Theodosii, which was built in A.D. 381-387 (Symm. Ep. 4, 70, 2; 5, 76, 3), and is mentioned in the Mirabilia.1 Regiones of Augustus. In spite of the extensive growth of the city under the republic no addition was made to the four regiones of Servius till the reign of Augustus, who divided the city and itssuburbs into fourteen regiones. The lists in the Notitia and Curiosum are the chief aids in determining the limits of each, which in many cases cannot be done with any exact- ness (see Preller, Die Regionen der Stadt Rom (1846) and Urlich's Codex Topographicus (Wtirzburg, 1871)). Each regio was divided into vici or parishes, each of which formed a religious body, with its aedicula larum, and had magistri victorum. The smallest regio (No. II.) contained seven vici, the largest (No. XIV.) seventy-eight. The list is as follows : — I. Porto, Capena, a narrow strip traversed by the Appian Way ; it extended beyond the walls of Aurelian to the brook Almo. II. Gaelemontium, the Caelian Hill. III. Isis et Serapis, included the valley of the Colosseum and the adjoining part of the Esquiline. IV. Templum Pads, included the Velia, part of the Cispius, most of the Subura, the fora of Nerva and Vespasian, the Sacra Via, and also buildings along the north-east side of the Forum Magnum. V. Esquiliae, north part of the Esquiline and the Viminal. VI. Alto, Semita, the Quirinal as far as the praetorian camp. VII. Via Lata, the valley bounded on the west by the Via Lata, and by the neighbouring hills on the east. VIII. Forum Romanum, also included the imperial fora and the Capitoline hill. IX. Circus Flaminius, between the Tiber, the Capitol, and the Via Flaminia. X. Palatium, the Palatine hill. XI. Circus Maximus, the valley between the Palatine and the Aventine, with the Velabrum and Forum Boarium. XII. Piscina Publica, the eastern part of. the Aventine, and the districts south of and beyond the Via Appia, including the site of Caracalla's thermae. 1 Livy (ii. 5) gives the fable of the formation of this island from the Tarquins' corn, cut from the Campus Martius and thrown into the river. 1 The two stone bridges connecting the island with the right and left banks took the place of earlier wooden structures. 8 See Mayerhofer, Die Brucken i:n alien Rom, 1883. XIII. Aventinus, the hill, and the bank of the Tiber below it. XIV. Trans Tibenm, the whole district across the river and the Tiber Island.4 The walls of Aurelian (see fig. 7), more than 12 m. in circuit, enclosed almost the whole of the regiones of Augustus, the greater part of which were then thickly inhabited. This enormous work was begun in 271, to defend Rome against sudden *"""" attacks of the Germans and other northern races when the " great armies of Rome were fighting in distant countries.' After the death of Aurelian the walls were completed by Probus in 280, and about a century later they were restored and strengthened by the addition of gate-towers under Arcadius and Honorius (A.D. 403). in place of the earlier gateways of Aurelian; this is recorded by existing inscriptions on three of the gates.8 At many periods these walls suffered much more from the attacks of the Goths (Procop. Bell. Goth. iii. 22, 24), and were restored successively by Theodonc (about 500), by Belisarius (about 560), and by various popes during the 8th and gth centuries, and in fact all through the middle ages. A great part of the Aurelian wall still exists in a more or less perfect state; but it has wholly vanished where it skirted the river, and a great part of its trans-Tiberine course is gone. The best-preserved pieces are between Porta Pinciana and Porta Salaria (in which breaches have lately been made for streets), and between the Lateran and the Amphitheatrum Castrense. The wall, of concrete, has the usual brick-lacing and is about 12 ft. thick, with a guard's passage formed in its thickness. Fig. 13 shows its plan: on the inside the FIG. 13. — Aurelian's Wall; plan showing one of the towers and the passage in thickness of wall. passage has tall open arches, which look like those of an aqueduct, and at regular intervals of about 45 ft. massive square towers are built, projecting on the outside of the wall, in three storeys, the top storey rising above the top of the wall. The height of the wall varies according to the contour of the ground; in parts it was about 60 ft. high outside and 40 inside. Necessaria, supported on two travertine corbels, projected from the top of the wall on the outside beside most of the towers. The Einsiedeln MS. gives a description of the complete circuit, counting fourteen gates, as follows: — Porta S. Petri (at the Pons Aelius, destroyed); P. Flaminia (replaced by P. del Popolo) ; P. Pinciana (in use) ; P. Salaria (now P. Salara); P. Nomentana (replaced by P. Pia); P. Tiburtina (now P. S. Lorenzo) ; P. Praenestina (now P. Maggiore) ; P. Asinaria (replaced by P. San Giovanni); P. Metrovia or Metroni (closed); P. Latina (closed) ; P. Appia (now P. S. Sebastiano) ; P. Ostiensis (now P. S. Paolo). On the Janiculan side, P. Portuensis (de- stroyed); P. Aurelia (now Porta San Pancrazio). Besides these there was a gate, now closed (Porta Chiusa), to the south of the Castra Praetoria ; and in all probability a gate on the right bank of the Tiber, replaced by the modern Porta Settimiana. These existing gates are mostly of the time of Honorius; each is flanked by a projecting tower, and some are double, with a second pair of towers inside. Several have grooves for a portcullis (cata- racta) in the outer arch. The handsomest gate is the P. Appia, with two massive outer towers, three stages high, the upper semi- circular in plan. Many of the gates of Honorius have Christian symbols or inscriptions. The general design of all these gates is much the same — a central archway, with a row of windows over it and two flanking towers, some square, others semicircular in plan. In many of the gates older materials are used, blocks of tufa, travertine, or marble. The doors themselves swung on pivots, the bottom ones let into a hole in the threshold, the upper into projecting corbels. At many points along the line of the Aurelian wall older buildings form part of the circuit — near the Porta Asinaria a large piece of 4 The text of the Regionary Catalogues is printed by Richter, Topographic der Stadt Rom? pp. 371 ff. Vita Aurel. 21, 39; Zosimus, i. 37, 49; Eutrop. ix. 15. * The inscriptions run thus: S. P. Q. R. IMPP . CAESS . D. D. IM- VICTISSIMIS . PRINCIPIBVS . ARCADIO . ET . HONORIO . VICTOR- IBVS . AC . TRIVMPHATORIBVS . SEMPER . AVGG . OB . INSTAVRA- TOS . VRBIS . AETERNAE . MVROS . PORT AS . AC . TVRRES . EGES- Tis . IMMENSIS . RVDERIBVS — the rest refers to honorary statues erected to commemorate this work. 6o8 ROME [BIBLIOGRAPHY the Domus Lateranorum, a house of the 3rd century which gave its name to the Lateran basilica, and a little farther on, by S. Croce in Gerusalemme, the Amphitheatrum Castrense; the latter, of about the end of the 1st century A.D. , has two tiers of arches and engaged columns of moulded brick on the outside. Between the P. Praenes- tina and the P. Tiburtina comes a large castellum of the Aqua Tepula. The Praetorian Camp forms a great projection near the P. Nomentana. -Lastly, the angle near the Porta Flaminia, at the foot of the Pincian Hill, is formed by remains of a lofty and enor- mously massive building, faced with fine opus reticulatum of the 1st century B.C. Owing to the sinking of the foundation this is very much out of the perpendicular, and was known as the " murus tortus " at a very early time.1 What this once important building was is uncertain. Two archways which form gates in the Aurelian wall are of much earlier date. The Porta Maggiore consists of a grand double arch of the aqueducts Anio Novus and Claudia built in travertine. The Porta S. Lorenzo enclosed a single travertine arch, built by Augustus where the aqueduct carrying the Aqua Marcia, Tepula, and Julia crossed the Via Tiburtina. The inner gateway, built of massive travertine blocks by Honorius, was pulled down by Pius IX., in i868.2 Bibliography of Ancient Roman Topography. — Amongst ancient writers special mention is due to Varro (De Lingua Z,o/iKa),Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Antiquitates Romanae), Ovid (Fasti), Vitruvius (De Architectura) , Pliny the Elder (Naturalis Historia), Frontinus (De Aquis) and the remains of ancient commentaries on Virgil, Horace, &c. The inscriptions found in the city of Rome are contained in vol. VI. of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Many of them are of the highest importance for Roman topography, e.g. the Basis Capitolina, preserved in the Palazzo dei Conservator!, a pedestal which once supported a statue of Hadrian, dedicated in A.D. 136 by the vicomagistri of five regions; on the sides are inscribed the names of the vici and their officials. Vol. XV. of the C.I.L. contains the inscriptions stamped on tiles and water-pipes, which are likewise of great importance. The Monumentum Ancyranum (Res gestae dim Augusti, ed.2 Mommsen, 1883) reproduces the bronze tablets set up by Augustus on his mausoleum at Rome, and contains a list of the buildings which he erected or restored. The marble plan of Rome (Forma urbis Romae, ed. Jordan, 1874; the more recently discovered fragments have only been published in periodicals) dates from the reign oiSeptimius Severus, who restored the building to which it belonged after the fire of 191 B.C. The plan which it replaced was executed by order of Vespasian. The scale was gener- ally l: 250; it was oriented with S.E. at the top, N.W^ at the bottom. Buildings are of course frequently represented on coins and works of art, and these may often be identified with existing remains. In the reign of Constantine the Great there was compiled a cata- logue of the principal buildings of Rome, arranged according to the fourteen regions of Augustus. This has been preserved in two recensions, one made in A.D. 334 and known as the Notitia, the second in or about A.D. 357, and known as the Curiosum urbis Romae. These are called the Regionary Catalogues, and contain, besides lists of buildings, statistics as to the number of vici, domus, insulae, &c., in each region, which are of great value. (See Preller, Regionen der Stadt Rom, Jena, 1846.) In the middle ages, guide-books were written for the use of pilgrims visiting Rome. Besides giving the routes for the principal churches and cemeteries, they mention ancient buildings and give current legends regarding them. The earliest is the Itinerary of Einsiedeln, a MS. of the 8th century preserved in the monastery of Einsiedeln in Switzerland (see C. Huelsen, L'ltinerario di Einsiedeln, 1908). In the I2th century was compiled the Mirabilia urbis Romae, which became the foundation of later guide-books. The last recension is contained in a MS. of the early I5th century. These and other medieval documents are printed in Urlichs' Codex Topographicus urbis Romae (1871). The Ordo Benedicti Canonici (see Jordan, Topographie, II. I, 646, and Lanciani, Monumenti Antichi, I. 437), which gives the route of papal processions, belongs also to the 1 2th century, and was perhaps written by the author of the Mirabilia. The Liber Pontificalis (ed. Duchesne, Paris, 1886; ed. Mommsen, in Monumenta Germaniae historica, vol. i.), which gives the biographies of the early popes and was continued throughout the middle ages, is of value as illustrating the transition from pagan to Christian Rome. Several early views and plans of Rome exist, beginning with the painting by Cimabue in the upper church of S. Francesco at Assisi (1275). A collection of these was published by De Rossi, Piante icnografiche e prospettiche di Roma anteriori al secolo XVI. (1879). Many others have since come to light. (See Huelsen in Bull. Comm. Arch., 1892, p. 38). In Italian and other libraries are preserved large numbers of 1 Cf. Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 23. 2 On the walls of Aurelian, see (in addition to the general works mentioned in the bibliography) Nibby and Cell, Le Mura di Roma (1820); Quarenghi, Le Mura di Roma (1880); and especially Homo, Essai sur le regne de I'empereur Aurelien (Paris, 1904), IV.« partie, ch. ii., " L'Enceinte de Rome." plans and drawings from ancient remains by the architects of the 15th and later centuries, e.g. Bramantino, Fra Giocondp, the members of the families of Sangallo and Peruzzi, Pirro, Ligorio, Palladio, &c. These are of immense value, since the monuments which they drew have to a large extent been destroyed. Un- fortunately they are not always trustworthy, especially those of Ligorio. The drawings at Florence have been indexed by Ferri; amongst recent publications may be noted those of the Codex Escortalensis by Egger (Vienna, 1905), and of a sketch-book, pro- bably by A. Coner, in the Soane Museum by Dr Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. ii. (1903). Amongst the printed works of the early Italian architects may be named Palladio, Architettura (Venice, 1542), and Terme dei Romani (London, 1732), Serlio, Architettura (Venice, 1545), and Labacco, 'Architettura ed Antichita, (Rome 1557). Engravings of ancient remains in Rome have been published in great numbers since the l6th century; the most important of the earlier collections are the Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae,a. series extending over many years in the l6th century, and Du Perac's Vestigj di Roma (1575). To the i8th century belong the etchings of Piranesi, published in several volumes, and still reproduced from the copper-plates by the Calcografia. The literature of Roman topography would in itself form a large library; the best bibliographical guide is Mau's Katalog der Biblio- thek des k. deutschen archdologischen Instiluts in Rom (1900). The earliest modern work which can be called scientific is Flavio Biondo's Roma instaurata, written under Eugenius IV. (1431-1447), first dated edition, 1479. Biondo's work was based on the study of ancient literary authorities; he was followed in his method and results by the scholars of the I5th and early l6th centuries, e.g. Pozzo, Leo Battista Alberti and Andrea Fulvio. In the l6th century the study of ancient remains took its place beside that of ancient literature. Marliani, who had followed Biondo in the first edition of his Antiquae urbis Romae topographia (1538), issued a second edition in 1544, which contained plans and illustrations. For more than a century his book formed the foundation upon which such writers as Fauno, G. Fabricius, Mauro, Panvinius, &c., raised their works. Unfortunately the Regionary Catalogues were largely interpolated during this period, and published in this form by Panvinius. In 1666 Famiano Nardini's Roma antica appeared, based upon the interpolated version of the Regionary Catalogues; this was productive of disastrous errors, many of which remained uncorrected until our own time. Nardini was followed in the l8th century by such writers as Ficoroni and Vertuti; the most im- portant works of this period were those produced by excavators such as Bianchini (// palazzo dei Cesari, 1738), or independent students of the monuments such as Raphael Fabretti (De Columna Trajana, 1683; De Aquis et Aquaeductibus,_ 1680). In the i8th century Winckelmann revived interest in ancient, including Roman, art (especially by his Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums, 1764), and his follower, Carlo Fea, inaugurated the era of systematic and scientific excavation, especially in the Forum. In 1829 there was founded the international Institute di Corrispondenza Archeolpgica (which in 1874 became the Kaiserlich deutsches archdologisches Institut); in 1830-42 was issued the Beschreibung der Stadt Rom, by Bunsen and others, in which the grosser errors which had passed current since Nardini's time were corrected. To the same period belong the magnificently illustrated works of Luigi Canina (Indica- ziorx di Roma antica, 1830; Esposizione topografica, 1842; Archi- tettura antica, 1834-44; F°ro Romano, 1845; Edifizj di Roma antica, 1848-56), the value of which is impaired by their inaccuracy and the imaginative character of the restorations. The books on Roman topography written in the early igth century, such as those of Antonio Nibby, still pursued the uncritical methods of Nardini; from 1830 onwards, however, we find a series of writers whose work shows the influence of the new criticism. Such were Becker (Topographie der Stadt Rom, 1843), Sir Wm. Cell (Rome and its Vicinity, 1834; rev. ed. E. H. Bunbury, 1846), Braun (Ruinen und Museen Roms, 1854), Reber (Die Ruinen Roms, 1862) and T. H. Dyer (The City of Rome, 1864). Since 1861, when excavations were begun on the Palatine at the instance of Napoleon III., under the direction of P. Rosa, the discovery of ancient remains has made constant progress, and the results have been incorporated in a number of works, of which only the most important can be named here. These are: Jordan, Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum, of which three yols. (Ii, 12, and II.) appeared in 1871-85, and a third (13) was written after Jordan's death by C. Huelsen and published in 1907; Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum (3 vols., 1883-90); the works of Lanciani, especially Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome (1897) and Storia degli Scavi (in pro- gress); O. Richter, Topographie der Stadt Rom (ed. 2, 1901); Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome (2 vols., 1892). A short handbook may be found in S. B. Platner's Topography and Monu- ments of Ancient Rome (Boston, 1904). For the study of recent discoveries (besides the special works referred to in the course of this article) the following periodicals are the most important: — Notizie degli Scavi, published by the Accademia dei Lincei since 1876; Buttettino delta Commissions Archeologica comunale di Roma (from 1872) ; Mittheilungen des k. deutschen archdologischen Instituts CHRISTIAN ROME] ROME 609 (from 1886) ; Papers of the British School at Rome (from 1903). Brief reports of discoveries are published by Dr T. Ashby in the Classical Review. AH previous archaeological maps of Rome have been superseded by Lanciani's Formae urbis Romae, in 46 sheets (Milan, 1893—1902). The best recent maps are those in Kiepert's Formae orbis antiqui, sheets 21 and 22. Kiepert and Huelsen's Formae urbis Romae antiquae date from 1896; they are accompanied by a Nomenclator topographicus. Homo, Lexique de topographie romaine (1900), is also useful. (J. H. M.; H. S. J.) CHRISTIAN ROME From the 4th to the I2th Century The era of church building in Rome may be said to begin with the reign of Constantine and the peace of the church. Before then Christian worship was conducted with various degrees of secrecy either in private houses or in the catacombs (q.t>.), according as the reigning emperor viewed the sect with tolerance or dislike. The type of church which in the beginning of the 4th century was adopted with certain modifications from the pagan basilica, though varying much in size, had little or no variety in its general form and arrangement. One fixed model was strictly adhered to for many centuries, and, in spite of numberless alterations and additions, can be traced in nearly all the ancient churches of Rome. It is fully described and illustrated in the article BASILICA. The walls of these early churches were mostly built of concrete, faced with brick, left structurally quite plain, and decorated only _ with painted stucco or glass mosaics — especially (intern- ally) in the apse and on the face of its arch, and (externally) on the east or entrance wall, the top of which was often built in an overhanging curve to keep off the rain. The windows were plain, with semicircular arches, and were filled with pierced marble screens, or in some cases with slabs of translucent alabaster; the latter was the case at S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and examples of the former still exist in the very early church formed in the rooms of some thermae on the Esquiline (possibly those of Trajan), below the 6th-century church of S. Martino ai Monti. Almost the only bit of external architectural ornament was the eaves cornice, frequently (as at the last-named church) formed of marble cornices stolen from earlier classical buildings. Internally the nave columns, with their capitals and bases, were usually taken from some classical building, and some churches are perfect museums of fine sculptured caps and rich marble shafts of every material and design.1 At first the nave had no arches, the columns supporting a horizontal entablature, as in old St Peter's, S. Clemente, and S. Maria Maggiore, but afterwards, in order to widen the intercolumniation, simple round arches of narrow span were introduced, thus requiring fewer columns. The roof was of the simple tie-beam and kingpost con- struction, left open, but decorated with painting or metal plates. The floor was paved either with coarse mosaic of large tesserae (as at S. Pudentiana) or with slabs of marble stripped from ancient buildings. A later development of this plan added a small apse containing an altar at the end of each aisle, as in S. Maria in Cosmedin and S. Pietro in Vincoli.2 The type of church above described was used as a model for by far the majority of early churches not only in Rome, but also in ,.. . England, France, Germany, and other Western countries. churches Another form was, however, occasionally used in Rome, which appears to have been derived from the round temple of pagan times. This is a circular building, usually domed and surrounded with one or more rings of pillared aisles. To this class belong the combined church and mausoleum of Costanza (see fig. 14) and that of SS. Marcellinus and Petrus, both built by Constantine, the former to hold the tomb of his daughters Constantia (or Con- stantina) and Helena, the latter that of his mother Helena. The latter is on the Via Labicana, about 2 m. outside Rome; it is a circular domed building, now known as the Torre Pignattara, from the pignatte or amphorae built into the concrete dome to lighten it. The mausoleum of S. Costanza, close by S. Agnese fuori, is also domed, with circular aisle, or rather ambulatory, the vault of the latter decorated with mosaic of classical style (see MOSAIC, vol. xviii. p. 885). The red porphyry sarcophagi, sculptured richly with reliefs, from these mausolea are now in the Vatican. On a much larger scale is the church of S. Stefano Rotondo on the Coelian, built by Pope Simplicius (468-482), with a double ring of pillared aisles, the outer one of which was pulled down and a new enclosure wall built by Nicholas V. Other round churches are S. Teodoro (by the Vicus Tuscus), restored in the 8th century, and S. Bernardo, which 1 S. Lorenzo and S. Agnese fuori, S. Maria in Trastevere, Ara Coeli, and numberless other churches are very rich in this respect. J See Heinrich Holtzinger, Die altchristliche Architectur (Stuttgart, 1889-99); Dehio and von Bezold, Die kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes (Stuttgart, 1884-99). is one of the domed halls of Diocletian's thermae, consecrated as a church in 1598. Space will not allow any individual description of the very numerous and important churches in Rome which are built on the basilican plan. The prin- cipal examples are these: — S. Pudentiana, traditionally the oldest in Rome, restored in 398 ; S. Clemente, restored under Siricius (384-399), now forming the crypt of an upper church built in the I2th century; S. Sabina, 5th century; S. Vitale, sth century, founded by Inno- cent I. (401-417); S. Martino ai Monti, c. 500; S. Balbina, 6th century; church of Ara Coeli, founded by Gregory the Great (590-604) as S. Maria in Capitolio; S. Giorgio in Velabro, rebuilt by Leo II. (682-683); S. Cesareo, 8th century; S. Maria in Via Lata, restored by Sergius I. (687-701); S. Crisogono, re- built in 731 by Gregory III.; ^~ S. Maria in Cosmedin; S. FIG. Pietro in Vincoli, and S. Giovanni ad Portam Latinam, rebuilt c. 772 by Adrian I.; S. Maria in Dominica, rebuilt by Paschal I. (817-824), who 14. — Church and Mausoleum of Costanza. A, Recess for altar. B, Porphyry slab in floor where the tomb stood. C, Modern altar. D, D, Slabs of white marble, part of ancient paving. E, E, Recesses with mosaics. F, F, Ambulatory with mosaic vault. also rebuilt S. Cecilia m Trastevere and S. Prassede; S. Marco, rebuilt by Gregory IV. in 833; S. Maria Nuova, rebuilt by Nicholas I. (858-867), now called S. Francesca Romana; the church of the SS. Quattro Coronati, rebuilt by Paschal II. about 1113; and S. Maria in Trastevere, rebuilt by Innocent II. in 1130.* Though the apses and classical columns of the naves in these churches were built at the dates indicated, yet in many cases it is difficult to trace the existence of the ancient walls; the alterations and additions of many centuries have frequently almost wholly concealed the original structure. Except at S. Clemente, the early choir, placed as shown in fig. 26, has invariably been destroyed ; the side walls have often been broken through by the addition of rows of chapels; and the whole church, both within and without, has been overlaid with the most incongruous architectural features in stucco or stone. The open roof is usually concealed either by a wooden panelled ceiling or by a stucco vault. The throne * and marble benches in the apse have usually given place to more modern wooden fittings, to suit the later position of the choir, which has always been transferred from the nave to the apse. In many cases the mosaics of the apse and the columns of the nave are the only visible remains of the once simple and stately original church.' From 1200 to 1450; and the Papal Palaces The loth and nth centuries in Rome were extraordinarily barren in the production of all branches of the fine arts, even that of architecture; and it was not till the end of the 1 2th that any important revival began. The I3th cbs/natf. " century was, however, one of great artistic activity, when an immense number of beautiful works, especially in marble enriched with mosaic, were produced in Rome. This revival, though on different lines, was very similar to the rather later one which took place at Pisa (see PISANO), and, like that, was in great part due to the great artistic talents of one family, — the Cosmati,6 which, for four or five generations, produced skilful architects, sculptors and mosaicists. 8 This list does not include the great basilicas of Rome, for which see BASILICA. On the churches of Rome see Armellini, Le chiese di Roma (2nd ed. 1891) ; Tuker and Malleson, Handbook to Christian and Ecclesiastical Rome (1900); Marucchi, Basiliques el eglises de Rome (1902); Frothingham, Monuments of Christian Rome (1910). 4 Some of these marble thrones which still exist are very interesting relics of Hellenic art, much resembling the existing seats in the theatre of Dionysius at Athens. Examples of these thrones exist at S. Pietro in Vincoli, S. Stefano Rotondo, and in the Lateran cloister. 6 The interior of S. Maria in Cosmedin has in recent years been restored according to primitive tradition. 6 On the Cosmati see Boito, Architettura del Media Evo (Milan, 1880, pp. 117-182); Clausse, Les Marbriers remains et le mobilier presbyteral (Paris, 1897) ; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in Italy (ed. Douglas, 1903), ch. iii. XXIII. 20 6io ROME [CHRISTIAN ROME The first member of the family of whom we have knowledge was Lorenzo, who, with his son Jacopo, made the ambones of S. Maria in Ara Coeli and an altar-canopy (ciborium) in SS. Apostoli. Jacopo decorated the door of S. Saba in 1205 and, together with his son Cosma (who gave his name to the family), that of S. Tommaso in Formis; the father and son worked together at Civita Castellana in 1210. Cosma made a ciborium for SS. Giovanni e Paolo in 1235, and worked with his sons Luca and Jacopo at Anagni and Subiaco during the first half of the I3th century. So far the inscriptions enable us to trace the relationships of the Cosmati with certainty ; it is not so clear whether the Cosma above mentioned is to be identified with the master who decorated the chapel of the Sancta Sanctorum belonging to the old Lateran palace which was rebuilt by Nicholas III. (1277-1280). This Cosma was, however, almost certainly the father of Giovanni, the last of the family, who made the tombs of Cardinal Durand (died 1299) in S. Maria sopra Minerva, Cardinal Rodriguez in S. Maria Maggiore, and Stefano de' Surdi in S. Balbina. Another artist who seems to have belonged to this family, Deodato, made the ciboria of S. Maria in Cosmedin and (probably) of S. John Lateran; he is probably identical with the Deodatus Jilius Cosmati who, together with another Jacopo, executed a pavement at S. Jacopo alia Lungara. A large number of other works of this school, but unsigned, exist in Rome. These are mainly altars and baldacchini, choir-screens, paschal candlesticks, ambones, tombs, and the like, all enriched with sculpture and glass mosaic of great brilliance and decorative effect. Besides the more mechanical sort of work, such as mosaic patterns and architectural decoration, they also produced mosaic pictures and sculpture of very high merit, especially the recumbent effigies, with angels standing at the head and foot, in the tombs of Ara Coeli, S. Maria Maggiore, and elsewhere. One of their finest works is in S. Cesareo; this is a marble altar richly decorated with mosaic in sculptured panels, and (below) two angels drawing back a curtain (all in marble) so as to expose the open grating of the confessio. Besides the Cosmati, other artists, such as Paulus Rpmanus and his sons in the I2th century, and Petrus Vassallectus in the I3th, contributed to the revival of art. The beautiful cloisters of S. Paolo fuori le Mura, begun by " Magister Petrus," and those of S. John Lateran, the work of Vassallectus, are the finest architectural works of this school. In the latter part of the I3th century we find the sculptor Arnolfo del Cambio at work in Rome. His altar- canopy at S. Paolo fuori le Mura (1285) seems to have been imitated by the Cosmati in their latest works; his tomb of Cardinal de Braye (d. 1282) at Orvieto also shows his intimate connexion with that school. Another artist of the same period, Petrus Oderisius, worked in England; the shrine of the Confessor at Westminster (1269) was made by him. The earlier works of the Cosmati are Romanesque in style, but in the I3th century Gothic elements were introduced, especially in the elaborate altar-canopies, with their geometrical tracery. In detail, however, they differ widely from the purer Gothic of northern countries. The richness of effect which the English or French architect obtained by elaborate and carefully worked mouldings was produced in Italy by the beauty of polished marbles and jewel- like mosaics, — the details being mostly rather coarse and often carelessly executed. Chiefly to the i3th century belong the large number of beautiful tampanili, which are the most conspicuous relics of the medieval period in Rome. The finest of these are attached to the churches of S. Francesca Romana, SS. Giovanni e Paolo, and S. Maria Maggiore. Others belong to the basilicas of S. Lorenzo fuori and S. Croce in Geru- salemme, and to S. Giorgio in Velabro, S. Maria in Cosmedin, S. Alessio, S. Giovanni ad Portam Latinam, S. Cecilia, S. Crisogono, and S. Pudentiana. They occupy various positions with regard to the church, being all later additions; that of SS. Giovanni e Paolo stands at some distance from it. In design they are very similar, consisting of many stages, divided by brick and marble cornices; in the upper storeys are from two to four windows on each side, with round arches supported on slender marble columns. They are decorated with brilliantly coloured ciotole or disks of earthenware, en- amelled and painted in green or turquoise blue, among the earliest existing specimens of the so-called majolica (see CERAMICS). Sometimes disks or crosses made of red or green porphyry are inlaid in the walls. In most cases on one face of the top storey is a projecting canopied niche, which once con- tained a statue or mosaic picture. The walls are built of fine neat brickwork. The largest and once the handsomest of all, that of S. Maria Maggiore, has string-courses of enamelled and coloured terra-cotta.1 The slender columns of the windows 1 This campanile was restored and enriched in 1376. Cam- paalll. have often proved insufficient to support the weight, and so many of the arches are built up.2 Though but little used for churches, the Gothic style, in its modified Italian form, was almost universally employed for domestic architecture in Rome during the I3th and Domestic 1 4th centuries. Tufa* or brick was used for the anhltec- main walls, the lowest storey being often supported ture' on an arcade of pointed arches and marble columns. The windows were usually formed of large marble slabs with trefoil- shaped heads or cusped arches. As a rule the upper storeys projected slightly over the lower wall, and were supported on small ornamental machicolations. The top storey frequently had an open loggia, with rows of pointed arches. When vaulting was used it also was of the pointed form, usually in simple quadripartite bays, with slightly moulded groin-ribs. The finest existing specimen of this style is the palace built about 1300 by Boniface VIII. (Benedetto Gaetani), enclosing the tomb of Cecilia Metella on the Via Appia, with a graceful little chapel within the precincts of the castle. This building is well worthy of study; the remaining part is well preserved. Many houses of this period, though generally much injured by altera- tions, still exist in Rome. They are mostly in out-of-the-way alleys, and, not being mentioned in any books, are seldom examined. The Ghetto (now destroyed) and the quarter near the Ponte Rotto contained many of these interesting buildings, as well as some of the most crowded parts of the Trastevere district, but most have disappeared owing to the wholesale destruction of old streets. Among those which may possibly escape for a while is the 13th-century house where Giulio Romano lived, near the Palazzo di Venezia, and the Albergo del Orso, at the end of the Via di Tordinona, of the same period, which was an inn in the i6th century and is one still; this has remains of a fine upper loggia, with rich cornices in moulded terra-cotta; the lowest storey has pointed vaulting resting on many pillars. Another graceful but less stately house exists, though sadly mutilated, opposite the entrance to the atrium of S. Cecilia in Trastevere.4 Few now remain of the once numerous lofty towers built by the turbulent Roman barons for purposes of defence. The finest, the Torre delle Milizie on the Viminal, was built in the i3th century by the sons of Petrus Alexius; of about the same date is the Torre dei Conti, near the forum of Augustus, built by Marchione of Arezzo; both these were once much higher than they are now; they are very simple and noble in design, with massive walls faced with neat brickwork. Till the I4th century the Lateran was the usual residence of the pope; this was once a very extensive building, covering four times its present area. The original house is said to have belonged to the senator Plautius Lateranus in paiace, the reign of Nero; but the existing part on the line of the Aurelian wall is of the 3rd century. This house, which had become the property of the emperors, was given by Con- stantine as a residence for S. Sylvester; it was very much enlarged at many periods during the next ten centuries; in 1308 a great part was burnt, and in 1586 the ancient palace was completely destroyed by Sixtus V., and the present palace built by Domenico Fontana. The Cappella Sancta Sanctorum (see list of Cosmati works) is the only relic of the older palace.5 2 See De Montault, Les Cloches de Rome (Arras, 1874). "For many centuries wall-facing of small tufa stones was used, e.g. in the medieval part of the Capitol; this was called "opera saracinesca " from its supposed adoption from the Saracens; it is fargely employed in the walls and towers of the Leonine city, built by Leo IV. (847-855) to defend the Vatican basilica and palace against the inroads of the Moslem invaders. The greater part of this wall is now destroyed and built over, but a long piece with massive circular towers well preserved exists in the gardens of the Vatican. 4 The house of Crescentius, popularly called the " house of Rienzi," near the Ponte Rotto, is perhaps the sole relic of the domestic architecture of an earlier period — the I2th century. Its archi- tectural decorations are an extraordinary mixture of marble frag- ments of the most miscellaneoussort, all taken from classical buildings; it has an inscription over the doorway, from which we learn that it was the property of " Crescentius, son of Nicolaus." 6 See Rohault de Fleury, Le Latran au moyen dge (Paris, 1877). LATER DEVELOPMENT] ROME 611 The present palace has never been used as a papal residence; in the i8th century it was an orphan asylum, and is now a museum of classical sculpture and early Christian remains. The Vatican palace originated in a residence built by Sym- machus (498-514) adjoining the basilica of S. Peter. This was rebuilt by Innocent III. (c. 1200) and enlarged by Vatican. Nicholas III. (1277-80). It did not, however, become the fixed residence of the popes till after the return from Avignon in 1377. In 1415 John XXIII. connected the Vatican and the castle of S. Angelo by a covered passage carried on arches. But little of the existing palace is older than the 1 5th century; Nicholas V. in 1447 began its reconstruction on a magnificent scale, and this was carried on by Sixtus IV. (Sistine chapel), Alexander VI. (Torre Borgia), Julius II. and Leo X. (Bramante's cortile and Raphael's Loggie and Stanze), and Paul III. (Sala Regia and Cappella Paolina by Antonio da Sangallo). Sixtus V. and his successors built the lofty part of the palace on the east of Bramante's cortile. The Scala Regia was built by Bernini for Urban VIII. and Alexander VII., the Museo Pio-Clementino under Clement XIV. and Pius VI., the Braccio Nuovo under Pius VII., and lastly the grand stairs up to the cortile were added by Pius IX.1 The Quirinal palace, now occupied by the king of Italy, is devoid of architectural merit. It stands on the highest part of the hill, near the site of the baths of Constantine. Oulrtnal This palace was begun in 1574, under Gregory XIII., by Flaminio Ponzio, and was completed by Fontana and Maderna under subsequent popes. The only important church in Rome which is wholly Gothic in style is S. Maria sopra Minerva, the chief church of the Dominican p l l order. This was not the work of a Roman architect, but was designed by two Dominican friars from Florence — Fra Ristpri and Fra Sisto — about 1289, who were also the architects of their own church of S. Maria Novella. It much resembles the contemporary churches of the same order in Florence, having wide-spanned pointed arches on clustered piers and simple quadripartite vaulting. Its details resemble the early French in character.2 It contains a large number of fine tombs; among them that of Durandus, bishop of Mende (the author of the celebrated Rationale divinorum officiorum), by Giovanni Cosma, c. 1300, and the tomb of Fra Angelico, the great Dominican painter, who died in Rome, 1455. The most elaborate specimen of ecclesiastical Gothic in Rome is that part of S. Maria in Ara Coeli which was rebuilt about 1300, probably by one of the Cosmati, namely, the south aisle and transept. During the I4th century (chiefly owing to the absence of the popes at Avignon) the arts were neglected at Rome, and a period of decadence set in. The sculptured effigy and reredos of Cardinal d'Alengon (d. 1403) in S. Maria in Trastevere, executed by a certain Paulus Romanus, is a fair example of the works produced during this period ; the effigy is a very clumsy and feeble copy of the fine recumbent figures of the Cosmati. Florentine Period, c. 1450-1550. The long period of almost complete artistic inactivity in Rome was broken in the isth century by the introduction of a number of foreign artists, chiefly Florentines, who during this and the succeeding century enriched Rome with an immense number of magnificent works of art. The dawn of this brilliant epoch may be said to have begun with the arrival of Fra Angelico (see FIESOLE) in 1447, invited by Nicholas V. to paint the walls of his small private chapel in the Vatican dedicated to S. Lorenzo. In the latter half of the I5th century a large number of sculptured tombs (as well as tabernacles, altar frontals, rere- Fiorea- doses and the like) were made for Roman churches by tine ana sculptors from Tuscany and north Italy. The earliest Lombard of these tombs is that of Eugenius IV. (d. 1447) in S. Salvatore in Lauro, by Isaia da Pisa. It presents the typical form of a life-sized recumbent effigy resting on a richly ornamented sarcophagus over which is a canopy decorated with reliefs and statuettes. The type was brought to perfection by the Florentine Mino da Fiesole (see MINO DI GIOVANNI), 1 See Letarouilly, Le Vatican et le basilique de St Pierre A Rome (Paris, 1882). 2 The absence of a triforium is one of the chief reasons why the large Gothic churches of Italy are so inferior in effect to the cathe- drals of France and England. who worked in Rome under Pius II. and succeeding popes, being assisted in some cases by another artist of almost equal skill, Giovanni Dalmata. A Lombard sculptor, Andrea Bregno, came to Rome under Paul II. and worked there until the closing years of the century; his tomb is in S. Maria Sopra Minerva. The works of these artists and their followers are to be found in a great number of churches, notably S. Maria del Popolo.* The architecture no less than the sculpture of the latter part of the isth century was mainly the work of Florentines, especially of Baccio Pontelli, who is said by Vasari to have built S. Maria del Popolo, S. Agostino,4 and S. Cosimato in Trastevere. He also was the architect of S. Pietro in Montorio, erected in 1500 for Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Other buildings were carried out by another Florentine, Giuliano da Majano. The Palazzo di Venezia, begun for Cardinal Barbo, afterwards Paul II., about 1455, a very massive and stately building of medieval character, was built by Giuliano da Sangallo and Francesco di Borgo San Sepolcro. During the latter part of the i$th and the first few years of the succeeding century Rome was enriched with a number of buildings by Bramante (q.v.), one of the greatest architects the world has ever seen. He combined the delicacy of detail and the graceful lightness- of the Gothic style with the maate. measured stateliness and rhythmical proportions of classic archi- tecture. Though he invariably used the round arch and took his mouldings from antique sources, his beautiful cloisters and loggie are Gothic in their general conception. Moreover, he never committed the prevalent blunder of the l6th century, which was a fruitless attempt to obtain magnificence by mere size in a building, without multiplying its parts. His principal works in Rome are the Palazzo della Cancelleria, built for Cardinal Riario' (1495-1505), with its stately church of S. Lorenzo in Damaso; the so-called Palazzo di Bramante in the Governo Vecchio, built in 1500; and the Palazzo Giraud, near St Peter's, once the residence of Cardinal Wolsey, * built in 1503. He also built the cortile of S. Damaso in the Vatican, the toy-like tempietto in the cloister of S. Pietro in Montorio (1502), and the cloisters of S. Maria della Pace (1504).' In 1503 Bramante was appointed architect to St Peter's, and made complete designs for it, with a plan in the form of a Greek cross. The piers and arches of the central dome were the only parts completed at the time of his death in 1514, and subsequent architects did not carry out his design.* Baldassare Peruzzi (g.i>.) of Siena was one of the most talented architects of the first part of the l6th century; the Villa Farnesina and the Palazzo Massimi alle Colonne are from his designs. Peruzzi. His later works bear traces of that decadence in taste which so soon began, owing mainly to the rapidly growing love for the dull magnificence of the pseudo-classic style. This falling off in architectural taste was due to Michelangelo (q.v.) more than to any other one man. His cortile of the Farnese palace, though a work of much stately beauty, was one of the first stages towards that lifeless scholasticism and blind following of antique forms which were the destruction of architecture as a real living art, and in the succeeding century produced so much that is almost brutal in its coarseness and neglect of all true canons of proportion and scale. During the earlier stage, however, of this decadence, and throughout the l6th century, a large number of fine palaces and churches were built in and near Rome by various able artists, such as the Villa Madama by Raphael, part of the Palazzo Farnese by Antonio da Sangallo the younger, S. Giovanni de' Fiorentini by J. Sansovino, and many others.7 (J. H. M.; H. S. J.) LATER DEVELOPMENT The transformation of Roman architecture after the :6th century was marked by the abandonment of classical models. The works of Michelangelo were too grand to be accused of exceeding the extreme limits of good taste, but his scholars and imitators exaggerated his manner, and the barocco style, 8 On Mino da Fiesole, see Gnoli in Archivio Slorico dell' Arte (1890- 91) ; on Giovanni Dalmata, Fabriczy in Jahrb. der preuss-Kunstamm- lungen (1901); on Andrea Bregno, Steinmann in the same periodical, vol. xx.; many of the monuments are drawn in Tosi, Raccolta di monumenti sacri e sepokrati scolpiti a Roma (1853). 4 These two churches were the first in Rome built with domes after the classical period. 6 The upper storey of the latter is varied by having horizontal lintels instead of arches on the columns. 6 See Geymuller, Projets primitifs pour le basilique de St Pierre a Rome (Paris, 1875-85). 7 A valuable account of Raphael's architectural works is given by Geymuller, Raffaello come Architetto (Milan, 1882). Drawings of many of the finest palaces of Rome are given in the fine work by Letarouilly, Edifices de Rome moderne (Brussels, 1856-66). 6l2 ROME [LATER DEVELOPMENT Anhl- tecturc. which had its cradle in Rome, was soon adopted throughout Italy. Vignola (1507-1573) had done his best to bind the art of building to strictly classic rules, but in spite of his efforts the degeneration made progress during his own lifetime and under Carlo Maderna (1556-1639), and proceeded still more rapidly under Bernini (1598-1680). The characteristics of the barocco are the reckless abuse of curves and extravagantly broken lines, of contorted columns, twisted tympanums and highly exaggerated ornaments; yet we must confess that many monuments of this period of art exhibit such exuberant life, such contrasts of relief and shadow, and such a wonderful combination of variety and solidity as cannot fail to please the many, even now, by the magnificence of their general effect. In Rome, the numerous works of Bernini, Borromini, Maderna, Rainaldi, Salvi, Fuga, Longhi and others bear witness to the gifted activity of Italian architects during that period; if genius necessarily creates, those men showed more of it than their predecessors who adhered to the classic and revered the teachings of Vitruvius. Degeneration is tolerated and sometimes even pleases, under the name of transformation, but there is nothing to be said for the real decay which marks the iSth century. It was not universal at first, for it is by nature a slow process; such men as A. Galilei, Specchi, Peparelli, Marchionni, Morelli, Camporese and Piranesi left works not altogether without value; but the outrageous abuse of ornament increased with every year, and was made more and more evident by the clumsy heaviness of the pillars and pilasters that supported the whole. The refined purity of the Renaissance disappeared as completely as the delicate grace and exquisite ornamentation of the Cosmatesque period. Many works of the greatest beauty were destroyed outright, and many more were disfigured and often wholly hidden by horrible stucco constructions and decorations; or, on a larger scale, by the application of hideous stone facades to churches of which the simple good taste had delighted generations of mankind. The deformation of the noble old Lateran basilica is a conspicuous instance of such deeds; another is Santa Maria Maggiore, and the false fronts plastered upon San Marcello and Santa Maria in Via Lata, both in the Corso, give a very clear idea of what was generally done. The interiors of old churches suffered quite as much, and even the frescoes of early masters were not spared; those by Pinturicchio in the third chapel (south) of S. Maria del Popolo were covered with wretched stucco ornaments, only removed in 1850, and numberless works of art by Giotto and other early painters were wilfully destroyed. The decline of architecture continued in the ipth century, notwithstanding the laudable efforts of Valadier and a few other painstaking imitators, who produced the so-called "academic neo-classic " reaction; among them may be noted the names of Canina, Poletti, Sarti and Azzurri. The futility of their works invited the feeble eclecticism which soon after- wards became so general that the architecture of the period is wholly without individuality, good • or bad. The chief architectural work of the igth century was the rebuilding of the great basilica of S. Paolo fuori le Mura, burnt in 1823, in a style of cold splendour which is anything but devotional in its general effect. The pillars are huge monoliths of grey granite from the Alps; the confessio and transepts are lined with rosso and verde antico from quarries then recently re- discovered in Greece, and with Egyptian alabaster and lapis lazuli and malachite adorn the bases of the columns round the high altar in lavish profusion. Thirty years were required for the rebuilding of the frigidly magnificent edifice, which was reconsecrated in 1854. The east facade displays a quantity of gaudy mosaics, and the projected quadriportico is wanting. The belfry is nothing but a steeple, and has an unfortunate resemblance to a lighthouse. In extenuation of the result it must be admitted that the original building had been totally destroyed by fire, but no such excuse can be found for the barbarous assault on Christian art which was perpetrated by Francesco Vespignani in the extension of the Lateran basilica. icctioas This work was begun under Pius IX. and finished under Leo XIII.; it involved the destruction of the ancient tribune and its ambulatory, the only parts of the church which had so far escaped complete disfigurement, and the priceless mosaics (1290), among the most beautiful in Rome, were taken down and replaced in the new apse in a sadly mutilated and restored form. (For the interesting discoveries made in excavating for the new foundations, see Ann. 1st. 1877^.332.) The Vatican contains the largest collection in the world of Greco- Roman and Roman sculpture, with a few specimens of true Hellenic art. It is also very rich in Greek vases and in objects _ .. . from Etruscan tombs; this latter division is called the Museo Gregoriano. There is also an Egyptian museum which contains a few important curiosities. In the great library are preserved a number of early glass chalices and other rare objects from the catacombs, as well as many fine speci- mens of later Christian art — church plate and jewels. The picture gallery, though not as large as some of the private collections in Rome, contains few inferior pictures. The Lateran palace, still, like the Vatican, in the possession of the pope, contains a fine collection of classical sculpture, but is most remarkable as a museum of Christian antiquities. The two capitoline museums are very rich in classical sculpture, bronzes, coins, pottery and the contents of early Etruscan and Latin tombs. A large hall has been added, and is filled with sculptures found in Rome since 1870, of which the arrangement was completed on the occasion of King Edward VII. 's visit. The picture gallery contains a few masterpieces and a large number of inferior works. The new Museo delle Tcrme has been formed in the great cloister of S. Maria degli Angeli, to hold the numerous fine examples of classical painting and sculpture found along the Tiber during the excavations for the new embankment, and in other places in Rome. The university of Rome possesses fine collections of minerals, fossils and other geological specimens, and examples of ancient marbles used in the buildings of Rome. A Museo Artistico Industriale has been formed in a monastery in the Capo le Case, to contain medieval works of art. It is, however, a matter for regret that the few medieval works which Rome possesses should be scattered in three small collections, namely, the one last mentioned, the Capitol and the Castle of S. Angelo, where an attempt is being made to form a real medieval museum; many objects, too, are dispersed throughout the city, and will doubtless disappear unless they are better protected. The Museo Kircheriano contains an unrivalled collection of prehistoric objects of stone, bronze, iron and pottery, found in Italy and the Italian islands, and more particularly a number of ancient Latian urns, capanne and the like. The collection of aes grave is the finest yet made; and the museum also contains a large quantity of interesting classical antiquities of various kinds. Another branch is the Ethnological Museum. Unfortunately all these museums are badly adapted for purposes of study, being neither well arranged nor well catalogued. The Museo Baracco, presented to the city in 1905 by the senator of that name, contains some ancient sculptures of great value. The Museum of Etruscan and Faliscan antiquities in the Villa Giulia, near Porta del Popolo, is of considerable importance, as is also the Borgia Museum in the Propaganda palace, the latter for its ancient geographical curiosities. The museum of plaster casts in the Testaccio quarter contains reproductions of the principal ancient sculptures possessed by foreign museums. Among the private collections of pictures the Borghese is un- rivalled. The next in importance is that in the Doria palace, which, however, like most Italian collections, contains a large proportion of very inferior works. The Corsini picture gallery, bought by the government, is chiefly rich in the works of the Bolognese and other third-rate painters, but also possesses a fine collection of engravings and etchings. There are a few fine paintings in the Barberini palace, but the Sciarra gallery no longer exists. There are some good pictures by Raphael and Guido Reni in the Academy of St Luke; the Galleria d'Arte Moderna is a collection of modern paintings acquired by the government. The largest private collection of sculpture is that of the Villa Albani, which, among a large mass of inferior Roman sculpture, contains a few gems of Greek art. The original Albani collection was stolen and brought to Paris by Napoleon I., and was there dispersed; one relief, the celebrated Antinous, is the only piece of sculpture from the original collection which was sent back from Paris. This is in the collection of Prince Torlonia, which contains several very fine works, but unfortunatejy the greater number are much injured and falsified by restorations. The casino in the Borghese gardens possesses a great quantity of sculpture, mostly third-rate Roman works, the most important of which, however, are executed in precious marbles. The small collection which formerly existed in the Villa Ludovici has been bought by the government and removed to the Museo delle Terme; it contained a few works of Greek sculpture of great value, the most important being the Pergamean group representing the suicide of a Gaulish chief, a Medusa's head in relief and a male terminal figure. The ^_^ £ \/ rPvrsTjQftzC X0#ft0$ 11 S..-.\.i.5*i4 Ifl.tilliiJiIJi THE MODERN CITY] ROME 613 Giustiniani collection, which was considerable, is now dispersed, but many private residences, such as the Colonna palace, still contain collections of sculpture and painting of a secondary order. The principal libraries in Rome are, for old and modern works, the Biblioteca Vittorio Emanuele and the library of the German i ih* i Archaeological Institute; for manuscripts and early ' books, the Angelica, the Casanatense, the Alessandrina and the Chigi libraries; but none of them can be compared with that of the Vatican, which now contains also the former library of the Barberini. Mention must also be made of the Corsiniana, now belonging to the Accademia dei Lincei. The Biblioteca Sarti, beside the Academy of S. Luke, contains works on art. THE MODERN CITY Great changes in the municipal and social conditions of Rome followed the occupation of the city by the Italians (2oth September 1870), and the rapid increase of population due to immigration from other parts of Italy. It is a mistake, however, to attribute all the works undertaken and executed since 1870 to the initiative of the new government. The first plan for modernizing and improving Rome was that of Pope Julius II., who aimed at the enlargement of the lower city on both sides of the Tiber. The modern Via Giulia shows in part what he meant to do. Following him, Sixtus V. did his best to develop the upper part of the city by laying out the Via Sistina, from the Trinita dei Monti to S. Maria Maggiore and Porta S. Giovanni. Almost in our own time a plan for the improvement of the city was made, under the direction of Mgr. de Merode, during the reign of Pius IX.; and although but a small portion of the projected changes were carried out under the pope, the general scheme was in most respects satisfactory, and proved a good foundation for further extensive developments. He was able to complete the construction of the beautiful ascent to S. Pietro in Montorio, as well as that which leads up to the Quirinal Palace; and the Via Nazionale, which was to have been called Via De Merode, was also begun. His plan did not include, however, the destruction of villas such as the Ludovisi, nor the wholesale removal of trees, which is so greatly to be deplored. These acts of barbarism were the consequences of the reckless speculations in land and buildings that accompanied and followed the active and excellent "work done by the municipality, and might have been checked by vigorous and timely action of the government. As it was, a number of the most important Roman families were ruined. At the outset, and as soon as'political circumstances admitted the consideration of such matters, the municipality set to work; and though a comprehensible love of the picturesque has caused many persons to regret the result, altogether or in part, it is not to be denied that the improvements carried out have been of the highest advantage to the city, and that the work is in many instances of creditable solidity Two principal problems presented themselves. The more important was the confinement of the Tiber in such a manner as to render impossible the serious floods which had from time to time inundated the city, often causing great damage to pro- perty and rendering the lower streets more or less impassable. There were floods which almost reached the level of the first storey near San Carlo in the Corso, and it was common to see the great Piazza. Navona and the neighbourhood of the Pan- theon full of water for days together during the winter. The interruption of traffic can be imagined, and the damage to property was serious. The other urgent matter was one of which the government of Pius IX. had been partially aware, namely, the necessity for opening better thoroughfares between different parts of the city. In the middle ages the population of Rome had dwindled to twenty or thirty thousand inhabitants, who lived huddled together about the strongholds of the barons, and the modern city had slowly grown again upon the exiguous foundation of a medieval town. The need for changing this condition of things, which had been felt under Pius IX., became overwhelmingly apparent as the population rapidly increased. That which under a continuance of the old government might have been done by degrees during a long period, had to be accomplished in the shortest possible time, with means which, though considerable, were far from adequate, and in the face of opposition by many holders of real estate, the most important of whom were conservatively attached to the papal govern- ment, and resisted change for no other reason. In what was now done it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the work undertaken and carried out by the municipality, under con- siderable pressure of circumstances, and that which was done in the way of private speculation. The first was on the whole good, and has proved enduring; the second was in many cases bad, and resulted in great loss. As soon as the opening of such streets as the Via Nazionale and the Via Cavour, the widening and straightening of the Via dell' Angelo Custode, now the Via del Tritone Nuovo, and similar improvements, such as the con- struction of new bridges over the Tiber, had demonstrated that the value of property could be doubled and quadrupled in a short time, and as soon as the increase of population had caused a general rise in rents, owners of property awoke to the situation of affairs, and became as anxious as they had at first been disin- clined to improve their estates by wholesale building. The most important and expensive work executed by the government with the assistance of the municipality was the construction of the embankments along the Tiber. Though damaged by the great flood of December 1900, their truly Roman solidity saved the city from the disastrous consequences of a wide inundation. It is impossible not to admire them, and not to feel respect for a people able to carry out such a plan in such a manner and in so short a time, in the face of such great diffi- culties. But so far as the life of the city was concerned, the cutting of new streets and the widening of old ones produced a more apparent immediate result. The opening of such a thoroughfare as the Via Nazionale could not but prove to be of the greatest value. It begins at the Piazza, delle Terme, in which the principal railway station is situated, and connects the upper part of the city by a broad straight road, and then, by easy gradients, with the Forum of Trajan, the Piazza dei Santi Apostoli and the Piazza di Venezia, whence, as the Corso Vittorio Emanuele, it runs through the heart of the old city, being designed to reach St Peter's by a new bridge of the same name, near the bridge of S. Angelo. It is true that, in order to accomplish this, the Villa Aldobrandini had to be partially de- stroyed, but this is almost the only point which lovers of beauty can regret, and in compensation it opened to full view the famous palace of the Massimo family, the imposing church of S. Andrea della Valle, and the noble pile of the Cancelleria, one of the best pieces of architecture in Rome. Another great artery is the Via Cavour, which was intended to connect the railway station with the south-western part of Rome, descending to the Forum, and thence turning northwards to reach the Piazza di Venezia on the east side of the monument to Victor Emanuel II. These are only examples of what was done, for it would be impossible to give a just idea of the transformation of the city. Rome is now divided clearly into two parts, the old and the new, of which the old is incomparably the more artistic and the more beautiful, as it will always remain the more inter- esting. Among the works carried out by the government and municipality the fine tunnel under the Quirinal Hill (completed in 1902) deserves mention; it forms a connecting channel for the traffic between the streets at the north end of the old city, the Corso, Babuino, &c., and the upper part of Rome, including the Via Nazionale and the Esquiline. Another difficult under- taking, successfully completed in April 1908, was the construc- tion of the enormous causeway and bridge which now unite the Pincio with the Villa Borghese, or, as it is now called, the Villa Umberto Primo, to the immense advantage of the public. In the same year the building for the new law courts was finished; it stands near S. Angelo, and presents, on the whole, an imposing appearance, though overloaded with clumsy stone ornamentation. It is unnecessary to mention a number of public buildings and government offices which have little architectural merit, but we cannot overlook such a magnificent group of buildings devoted to scientific purposes as the Policlinico, on the Macas, which is admittedly one of the finest hospitals in Europe, and the military 614 ROME [THE MODERN CITY hospital on the Coelian. The rebuilding of the Palazzo dei Parlamento is only second to the enormous monument of Victor Emanuel II. The majority of the buildings erected by individ- uals and corporations since 1870 present no original or charac- teristic features, and the best of them are copies or imitations of well-known models. The Cassa del Risparmio, in the Corso, reproduces a Florentine palace; the Palazzo Negroni, near the Piazza Nicotia, is modelled on the Cancelleria and the Palazzo Giraud; many of the large residences in the new quarters beyond the Tiber are fairly good copies of palaces in the Floren- tine style, though the magnificent carved stone of earlier centuries is disadvantageous^ replaced by stucco, a material tvhich lasts tolerably well in the mild climate of Rome. Opposite the beautiful and severe Palazzo di Venezia, what might have been a faultless reproduction of it is marred by tasteless orna- ment. Finally, so far as the construction of new streets is con- cerned, which lovers of the picturesque so greatly deplore, it must be admitted that they have been rendered necessary by the great increase of traffic and population, and it should be re- membered that after the i6th century the wisest of the popes did their best to open up the city by widening and straightening the thoroughfares. Municipal Administration. — After the taking of Rome, those persons who remained loyal to Pius IX. took no part whatever in public affairs, and the municipal administration was entirely in the hands of the monarchists. The expression " ne eletti He" elettori," meaning that Catholics are to be neither voters nor candidates, which came to be regarded as a sort of rule of the party, was invented at that time by an epigrammatic journalist, and it seems at first to have been applied also to municipal matters, whereas it was later understood to refer only to parliamentary elections. Leo XIII. encouraged the formation of a Catholic party in the municipal administration, and the municipal government drifted largely into the hands of Catholics, though circumstances make it necessary that the Syndic (Mayor) should always be a royalist. Between 1870 and the end of the century the socialist party had no great influence in Rome, which can never be a city of manu- facturing interests. For purposes of municipal government the division of the city into districts has been modified, but the old division into fourteen rioni is adhered to in principle, the new quarters of Castro Pretorio and the Esquiline having been included in the first Rione, which still bears the name of " Monti." The municipality consists of a mayor and eighty communal councillors, of whom a large proportion were for many years mem- bers of the aristocracy. Later, however, the three democratic parties, known as the monarchist, socialist and republican, united to form a popular coalition, and succeeded in completely excluding the conservative, aristocratic and Catholic elements. Population. — The population in 1870 was 226,022, as against 462,743 in 1901 (communal population). It therefore more than doubled in thirty years. The increase, however, did not take place at a regular rate, owing to the changes in the rates of immigration and emigration. The largest increase was in 1870, reaching 22,186; the next most important in 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, in which years it constantly remained near 20,000. The least increase in later years was 4417 in 1891. The garrison of Rome is about 10,000 men. Careful inquiry has placed it beyond doubt that there are in Rome about the same number of ecclesiastics of all orders, including about 1500 students in the theological seminaries. The average birth-rate is lower in Rome than in the majority of great cities. The number of births increased after 1870 very nearly in proportion with the increase of population. Climate and Hygiene.— The climate of Rome is mild and sunny, but the variation in temperature between day and night is very great. December and February appear to be the coldest months, the thermometer then averaging 47° F. ; the greatest heat, which averages 75°, is felt in July and August. The sur- rounding Campagna is still not all habitable during the summer, though the dangerous malaria has been checked by the planting of numerous eucalyptus trees. A remarkable instance of the effect produced upon the marshy soil by these plantations may be studied at the Trappist monastery of the Tre Fontane, situated on the Via Ardeatina, about 4 m. from Rome. Whereas in former times it was almost always fatal to spend the whole summer there, the monks have so far dried the soil by means of the eucalyptus that they reside hi the monastery throughout the year. The municipality has everywhere made strenuous efforts to reduce the mortality due to malaria; in 1890, 14% of all the deaths in Rome and the Campagna were attributed to this cause; in 1905 the proportion had dropped to 3%. Very large sums have been expended in a scientific system of drainage and sub-drainage on both sides of the Tiber, and the use of wire gauze mosquito nets for the doors and windows of the humblest habitations in the Campagna has contributed much to the present satisfactory result. The hygienic con- ditions of Rome itself have greatly improved, largely through the ceaseless efforts of Commendatore Baccelli, a distinguished man of science, who repeatedly held office in the Italian Ministry. The publication of exceedingly accurate graphic tables in February 1900 shows the following facts. Ninety per 1000 deaths occurred in 1871 from typhoid (the so-called " Roman fever "), and the average has now fallen to a low constant. Deaths from small-pox, formerly of alarming frequency, can be said not to occur at all, and their numbers diminished suddenly after the introduction of compulsory vaccination. Charities and Education. — A great number of small charitable institutions for children and old people have been founded, which are organized on the most modern principles, and in many of these charitable persons of the upper classes give their individual assist- ance to the poor. There are also private hospitals for diseases of the eye, in which poor patients are lodged and treated without payment. There are two hospitals entirely maintained by private resources, where infants are treated whose mothers fear to send them to a public hospital, or in cases refused by the latter as not being serious enough for admission. Of course, the numbers of the poor greatly increased with the growth of population, especially after the failure of building speculations between 1888 and 1890, though great efforts were made by the municipality to send all persons then thrown out of employment back to their homes. One of the diffi- culties under which Rome labours is that while it attracts the population of the country, as other capitals do, it possesses no great mechanical industries in which the newcomers can be employed. Efforts to create small industries in the populous quarters of the poor met with little success. Before 1870 a society was formed, which has since greatly developed as an intelligent private enterprise, to provide the poor with sanitary tenements; but its success is much hampered by the absence of employment, which again is partly due to the heavy taxation of small industries. A number of trade schools are also maintained by private funds, such as the Instituto degli Artigianelli, managed by the Fratelli della Dottrina Cristiana, and the Ricoverp pei Fanciulli Abbandonati (home for friendless children), which is under lay management and has flourishing work- shops. The character of official charities has certainly improved in principle, so far as their educational and moral scope are concerned ; for whereas in former times the limited number of the poor made individual and almost paternal relief possible, that form of charity had a pauperizing influence. If anything, the present tendency is to go too far in the opposite direction, and to require too many formalities before any relief is granted ; and while the union of the principal charities under a central management on advanced theories improved the methods of administration, it destroyed numerous small sources of immediate relief on which the poor had i traditional right to count, and was in that way productive of hardship. At the same time, however, mutual benefit societies (societa di mutuo soccorso) have been organized in great numbers by the different crafts and professions, and are chiefly distinguish- able by the political parties to which they belong. It is character- -.stic of the modern Roman people that the most widely different :lements subsist without showing any signs of amalgamating, yet without attacking each other. Some of these societies have an exclusively clerical character, others are merely conservative, some consist of monarchists, and some of avowed republicans. Popular education is principally in the hands of the municipality, jut besides the public schools there are numerous religious institu- :ions attended by the children of the lower classes; they follow the curriculum prescribed by the government, and are under the constant supervision of municipal inspectors, both as regards their teaching and their hygiene. The pope also expends large sums in :he maintenance of the people's schools, managed entirely by lay- Tien, and also under government inspection. For education of the ligher grade, besides the regular lyceums and gymnasiums, there are many private schools similarly designated from which pupils can present themselves for the regular government examinations, ANCIENT HISTORY] ROME 615 the privilege of conferring certificates and degrees having been allowed only to very few private institutions. Society, — After 1870 both the aristocracy and the middle classes were divided into hostile factions, each of which maintained a press of its own and rallied round representative individuals. So far as the middle classes were concerned, the common interest of commercial operations soon concentrated political differences. The aristocracy, however, kept rigidly aloof from all speculations for a time, and maintained its traditional attitude of contemptuous superiority, to which the middle class answered with its profound hatred. This state of things lasted about ten years, until the time of the great building speculations, in which a number of noble families were tempted, and in which they soon found themselves hopelessly involved, and brought into close contact with the middle class. The two classes thus became necessary to each other, and the result was a notable and salutary diminution of prejudice, soon leading to alliances by marriage, which would formerly have seemed im- possible, but which the redistribution of wealth rendered mutually advantageous. The appearance at social gatherings of an official element, almost exclusively taken from the middle class, also tended to reduce inequalities of caste. Yet it must be admitted that the parties composing Roman society were drawn together mechanically, rather than fused into anything really homogeneous. It is worth mentioning that the Jewish element, which is very strong in business, in journalism, and in the administrations, had made no attempt to enter Roman society. Rome and Genoa are practically the only Italian cities in which Israelites are rigidly excluded from social intimacy, and are only met on official occasions. (M. CR.) ANCIENT HISTORY I. The Beginnings of Rome and the Monarchy. Both the city and the state of Rome are represented in tradition as having been gradually formed by the fusion of separate com- munities. The original settlement of Romulus is said to have been limited to the Palatine Mount. With this were united before the end of his reign the Capitoline and the Quirinal; Tullus Hostilius added the Caelian, Ancus Martius the Aventine; and finally Servius Tullius included the Esquiline and Viminal, and enclosed the whole seven hills with a stone wall. The growth of the state closely followed that of the city. To the original Romans on the Palatine were added successively the Sabine followers of King Tatius, Albans transplanted by Tullus, Latins by Ancus, and lastly the Etruscan comrades of Caeles Vibenna. This tradition is supported by other and more positive evidence. The race of the Luperci on February 15 was in fact a purification of the boundaries of the " ancient Palatine town,"1 the " square Rome " of Ennius ;2 and the course taken is that described by Tacitus as the " pomoerium " of the city founded by Romulus.3 On the Esquiline, Varro mentions an " ancient city " and an " earthen rampart,"4 and the festival of the Septimontium is evidence of a union between this settlement and that on the Palatine.5 The fusion of these " Mounts " with a settlement on the Quirinal " Hill " is also attested by trustworthy evidence;6 and in particular the line taken by the procession of the Argei represents the enlarged boundaries of these united communities.7 Lastly, the Servian agger still remains as a witness to the final enclosure of the various settlements within a single ring-wall. The united com- munity thus formed was largely of Latin descent. Indications of this are not wanting even in the traditions themselves: King Faunus, who rules the Aborigines on the Palatine, is Latin; " Latini " is the name ascribed to the united Aborigines and Trojans; the immediate progenitors of Rome are the Latin Lavinium and the Latin Alba. Much evidence in the language, the religion, the institutions and the civilization of early Rome points to the same conclusion. The speech of the Romans is from the first Latin,8 though showing many traces of contact 1 Varro, L.L. vi. 34. 2 Fest. 258; Varro ap. Solinus i. 17. 3 Tac. Ann. xii. 24. For a full discussion of the exact limits of the Palatine city see Smith, Diet. Geog., s.v. "Roma"; Jordan, Topog. d. Stadt Rom, i. cap. 2; Gilbert, Topog. u. Gesch. d. Stadt Rom, i. caps. 1,2; and " Topography " below. 4 L.L. v. 48; cf. ibid. 50. * Festus 348; Jordan i. 199; Gilbert i. 161. The seven " monies " are the Palatine with the Velia and Germalus, the Subura, and the three points of the Esquiline (Fagutal, Oppius and Cispius). * See Mommscn, R.G. (7th ed.), i. 51. 7 Varro, L.L. v. 45, vii. 44; Jordan ii. 237. 8 See LATIN LANGUAGE. with the neighbouring dialects of the Sabines and Volscians and also of Etruscans; the oldest gods of Rome — Saturn, Jupiter, Juno, Diana — are all Latin; "rex," "praetor," "dictator," " curia," are Latin titles and institutions.' The primitive settlements, with their earthen ramparts and wooden palisades planted upon them out of reach both of human foes and of the malaria of the swampy low grounds, are only typical of the mode of settlement which the conditions of life dictated through- out the Latian plain.10 But tradition insists on the admixture of at least two non-Latin elements, a Sabine and an Etruscan. The question as regards the latter will be more fully discussed hereafter; it is enough to say here that while the evidence of nomenclature (Schulze, Geschichte der Lai. Eigennamen, Leipzig, 1904, p. 579, with the modifications suggested in the Classical Review, December 1907) shows that many Etruscan gentes were settled within the bounds of the early city, there is rto satisfactory evidence that there was any large Etruscan strain in the Roman blood." With the Sabines it is otherwise. The That union of the Palatine and Quirinal settlements Sabiae* which constituted so decisive a stage in the growth '" Rome- of Rome is represented as having been in reality a union of the original Latins with a band of Sabine invaders who had seized" and held not only the Quirinal Hill, but the northern and nearest peak of the Capitoline Mount. The tradition was evidently deeply rooted. The name of the god Quirinus, from which that of the Quirinal Hill itself presumably sprang, was popularly connected with the Sabine town of Cures.11 The ancient worships connected with it were said to be Sabine.1* One of the three old tribes, the Tities, was believed to represent the Sabine element;14 the second and the fourth kings are both of Sabine descent. By the great majority of modern writers the substance of the tradition, the fusion of a body of Sabine invaders with the original Latins, is accepted as historical; and even Mommsen allowed its possibility, though he threw back the time of its occurrence to an earlier period than that of the union of the two settlements.16 We cannot here enter into the question at length, but some fairly certain points may be mentioned. The probability of Sabine raids and a Sabine settlement, possibly on the Quirinal Hill, in very early times may be admitted. The incursions of the highland Apennine tribes into the lowlands fill a large place in early Italian history. The Latins were said to have originally descended from the mountain glens near Reate.18. The invasions of Campania and of Magna Graecia by Sabine (more correctly Safine) tribes are matter of history (see SAMNITES), and the Sabines themselves are represented as a restless highland people, ever seeking new homes in richer lands.17 In very early days they appear on the borders of Latium, in close proximity to Rome, and Sabine forays are familiar and frequent occurrences in the old legends. But beyond these general considerations recent inquiry enables us to advance to some few definite conclusions, (i) It may now be regarded as established beyond question that the patrician class at Rome sprang from a race other than that of the plebeians. 9 The title " rex " occurs on inscriptions at Lanuvium, Tusculum, Bovillae; Henzen, Bullettino dell'Inst. (1868), p. 159; Orelli, 2279; Corp. I. Lat. vi. 2125. For " dictator " and praetor," see Livy i. 23, viii. 3; cf. Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwaltung, i. 475: for " curia," Serv. on Aen. i. 17; Marquardt i. 467. 10 B. Modestov, Introduction d. I'histoire romaine (translated from the Russian by M. Delines), Paris, 1907, supersedes other authorities such as Helbig, Die Italiker in d. Poebene; Pohlmann, Anfdnge Roms, 40; Abeken, Miltel-Italien, 61 seq. 11 The existence of a Tuscan quarter (Tuscus yicus) in early Rome may point to nothing more than the presence in Rome of Etruscan artisans and craftsmen. But see ETRURIA, § Language. 12 Varro, L.L. v. 51. 13 Ibid. v. 74; Schwegler i. 248 seq. 14 Ibid. v. 55; Livy i. 13. 15 Mommsen, R.G. i. 43. Schwegler (R.G. i. 478) accepted the tradition of a Sabine settlement on the Quirinal, and considered that in the united state the Sabine element predominated. _ Volquardsen (Rhein. Mus. xxxiii. 559) believed in a complete Sabine conquest; and so did Zoller (Latium u. Rom, Leipzig, 1878), who, however, placed it after the expulsion of the Tarquins. 16 Cato ap. Dionys. ii. 48, 49. 17 Ibid. ii. 48, 49. For the institution of the " ver sacrum " see Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. i. 240; Nissen, Templum iv. 6i6 ROME [REGAL PERIOD This was long ago recognized by Schwegler (see his Romische Geschichte, passim) on the sufficient ground of the great religious cleavage between the two orders. Such jealousy of mutual contact in religious matters as is apparent all through the history of the city very rarely, if ever, springs from any other source than a real difference of race. This point was developed by Professor W. Ridgeway in his Who were the Romans? (London, 1908), where he points out (a) that the deities tended by the three greater or patrician flamens, namely, Dialis, Martialis, Quirinalis, were all closely connected with the Sabines; (b) further, that the patrician form of marriage, the highly religious ceremony called Confarreatio, differed entirely from the other forms, Usus and Coemptio, which there is reason to attribute to a plebeian origin; (c) that the arms, especially the round shfeld, carried by the first class in the originally military con- stitution of Servius Tullius (see below), are characteristic of the warriors of Central Europe in the Early Iron and Bronze Age, whereas those of the remaining classes can be shown to have been in general use during the immediately preceding period in the Mediterranean lands. For other archaeological evidence separating the patricians from the plebeians, and connecting the patricians closely with the Sabines the reader must be referred to Ridgeway's essay. It is, however, well to make special mention here of the tradition, which is given by Livy (ii. 16. 4), and is undated but not the less probable for being a non-annalistic tradition, preserved in the gens itself, of the prompt welcome given to the Sabine Appius Claudius, the founder of the haughtiest of all the Roman noble families, by the patricians of Rome and his immediate admission to all their political privileges. Ridgeway points out that this implies, at that early time, a substantial identity of race. On the linguistic side of the question it is well to mention for clearness" sake that this Safine or patrician class marked its ascendancy all over Central and Southern Italy, from the 6th century B.C. onwards, by its preference for forming ethnic names with the suffix -no- which it frequently imposed also upon the communities whom it brought under its influence. Sabini (earlier Safini), Romani, Latini, Sidicini, Aricini, Marrucini, and the like are all names formed in this way (see further SABINI). 2. It may also now be regarded as certain that what we may call the Lower or Earlier Stratum (or Strata) of population in Rome, themselves spoke a language which was as truly Indo- European as the language of their Safine conquerors. In the article VOLSCI will be found evidence for the conclusion that the language of what has been there entitled the Co-Folk was not less certainly Indo-European, and in some respects probably a less modified form of Indo-European, than that of the Safines. A number of the names formed with the -co- suffix and with the -ati- suffix (which is frequent in the same districts) contain unmistakably Indo-European words such as Graviscae, Marlca, dea Marica, Volsci, Casinates, Soracte, Interamnites, Auxumates. The fusion of this earlier population with the patricians is far easier to imagine when it is recognized that the two parties spoke kindred though by no means identical languages. It is the essentially Indo-European character of the early inhabitants of the Latin plain which has led many scholars to doubt that there was any racial distinction at all between patricians and plebeians, but the increase of knowledge of the dialects spoken in the different regions of Italy has now enabled us to judge this question with very much fuller evidence. 3. There arises, however, the important question or questions as to the origin, or at least the ethnic connexions of this earlier stratum. The task of the historic inquirer will not be completely performed until at least some further progress has been made in connecting this earlier population of the western coast of Italy, on the one hand, with one or more of the early races (see SICULI, VENETI, LIGURIA, PELASGIANS) whom tradition declares to have once inhabited the soil of Latium; and on the other, with the people or peoples whom archaeological research reveals to us as having left behind them different strata of remains, all earlier than the Iron or Roman Age, both in Latium and in other parts of Italy. Professor Ridgeway has taken a short way with these problems which may prove to be the true one; he classes together as Ligurian all pre-Safine inhabitants of Italy save such elements as, like the Etruscans, can be shown to have invaded it over sea (see ETRURIA, § Language). This is one of the most promising fields of investi- gation now open to scholars, but in view of the confused and mutilated shape in which the traditions current in ancient times have come down to us, it demands an exceedingly careful scrutiny of the archaeological and the linguistic evidence, and exceedingly cautious judgment in combining them. The point of outstanding importance is to determine whether the earlier Indo-European population is to be regarded as having been in Italy from the beginning of human habitation. Archae- ologists generally like W. Helbig (Die Italiker der Poebene) and more recently B. Modestov (Introduction d I'histoire romaine, Paris, 1907) have been inclined to regard the Ligurians as the most primitive population of Italy, but to distinguish them sharply from the people who built the Lake Settlement and Pile Dwellings, which appear (with important variations of type): — (i) in the western half of the valley of the Po; (2) in the eastern half of the same; (3) in Picenum; (4) in Latium; and (5) as far south as Tarentum. One of the most important points in the identification is the question of the method of burial employed at different epochs by the different communities. (See the works already cited, with that of O. Montelius, La Civilisation primitive en Italie.) The populus Romanus was, we are told, divided into three tribes, Ramnes, Titles and Luceres,1 and into thirty curiae. The three names, as Schulze has shown (Lot. Eigennamen, p. 580), are neither more nor less people. than the names of three Etruscan gentes (whether or not derived from Safine or Latin originals), and the tradition is a striking result of the Etruscan domination in the 6th century B.C.,2 which we shall shortly consider. Of far greater importance is the division into curiae. In Cicero's time there were still curies, curial festivals and curiate assemblies, and modern authors are unquestionably right in regarding the curia as the keystone of the primitive political system. It was a primitive association held together by par- ticipation in common sacra, and possessing common festivals, common priests and a common chapel, hall and hearth. As separate associations the curiae were probably older than the Roman state, but,3 however this may be, it is certain that of this state when formed they constituted the only effective political subdivisions. The members of the thirty curiae form the populus Romanus, and the earliest known condition of Roman citizenship is the communio sacrorum, partnership in the curial sacra. Below the curia there was no further political division, for there is no reason to believe that the curia was ever formally subdivided into a fixed number of gentes and families.4 At their head was the rex, the ruler of the united people. The Roman " king " is not simply either the hereditary and patriarchal chief of a clan, the priestly head of a The community bound together by common sacra, but the Uag. elected magistrate of a state, but a mixture of all three.5 In 'The tradition connecting the Ramnes with Romulus and the Titles with Tatius is as old as Ennius (Varro, L.L. v. 55). The best authorities on the question, earlier than Schulze's epoch-making treatise, are Schwegler i. 505, and Volquardsen, Rhein. Mus. xxxiii. 538. 2 They are traditionally connected only with the senate of 300 patres, with the primitive legion of 3000, with the vestal virgins, and with the augurs (Varro, L.L. v. 81, 89, 91; Livy x. 6; Festus 344; Mommsen i. 41, 74, 75; Genz, Patncisch. Rom, 90). 3 It is possible that, the curiae were originally connected with separate localities; cf. such names as Foriensis, Veliensis (Fest. 174; Gilbert i. 213). 4 Niebuhr's supposition of ten gentes in each curia has nothing in. its favour but the confused statement of Dionysius as to the purely military 5exa5« (Dionys. ii. 7; cf. Muller, Philologus, xxxiv. 96). 6 Rubino, Genz and Lange insisted on the hereditary patriarchal character of the kingship, Ihne on its priestly side, Schwegler on its elective. Mommsen came nearest to the view taken in the text, but REGAL PERIOD] ROME 617 later times, when no " patrician magistrates " were forthcoming to hold the elections for their successors, a procedure was adopted which was believed to represent the manner in which the early kings had been appointed.1 In this procedure the ancient privileges of the old gentes and their elders, the importance of maintaining unbroken the continuity of the sacra, on the transmission and observance of which the wel- fare of the community depended, and thirdly the rights of the freemen, are all recognized. On the death of a king, the auspicia, and with them the supreme authority, revert to the council of elders, the patres, as representing the gentes. By the patres an interrex is appointed, who in turn nominates a second; by him, or even by a third or fourth interrex, a new king is selected in consultation with the patres. The king-designate is then proposed to the freemen assembled by their curiae for their acceptance, and finally their formal acceptance is ratified by the patres, as a security that the sacra of which they are the guardians have been respected.2 Thus the king is in the first instance selected by the representa- tives of the old gentes, and they ratify his appointment. In form he is nominated directly by a predecessor from whose hands he receives the auspicia. But it is necessary also that the choice of the patres and the nomination of the interrex should be confirmed by a solemn vote of the community. It is useless to attempt a precise definition of the prerogatives of the king when once installed in office. Tradition ascribes to him a position and powers closely resembling those of the heroic kings of Greece. He rules for life, and he is the sole ruler, unfettered by written statutes. He is the supreme judge, settling all disputes and punishing wrongdoers even with death. All other officials are appointed by him. He imposes taxes, distributes lands and erects buildings. Senate and assembly meet only when he convenes them, and meet for little else than to receive communications from him. In war he is absolute leader,3 and finally he is also the religious head of the community. It is his business to consult the gods on its behalf, to offer the solemn sacrifices and to announce the days of the public festivals. Hard by his house was the common hearth of the state, where the vestal virgins cherished the sacred fire. By the side of the king stood the senate, or council of elders. In the descriptions left us of the primitive senate, as in those of the rex, we can discover traces of a transition from senate an ear^er state of things when Rome was only an as- semblage of clans or village communities, allied indeed, but each still ruled by its own chiefs and headmen, to one in which these groups have been fused into a single state under a common ruler. On the one hand the senate appears as a representative council of chiefs, with inalienable prerogatives of its own, and claiming to be the ultimate depositary of the supreme authority and of the sacra connected with it. The senators are the patres; they are taken from the leading gentes; they hold their seats for life; to them the auspicia revert on the death of a king; they appoint the interrex from their own body, are consulted in the choice of the new king,4 and their sanction is necessary to ratify the vote of the assembled freemen. On the other hand, they are no longer supreme. failed to bring out the nature of the compromise on which the kingship rests. 1 Cic. De Legg. iii. 3 ; Livy iv. 7. 2 " Patres auctores facti," Livy i. 22; "patres fuere auctores," ibid. i. 32. In 336 B.C. (Livy viii. 12) the Publilian law directed that this sanction should be given beforehand, " ante initum suffragium," and thus reduced it to a meaningless form (Livy i. n). It is wrongly identified by Schwegler with the " lex curiata de imperio," which in Cicero's day followed and did not precede election. Accord- ing to Cicero (De Rep. ii. 13, 21), the proceedings included, in addition to the " creation " by the comitia curiata and the sanction of the patres, the introduction by the king himself of a lex curiata confer- ring the imperium and auspicia; but this theory, though generally accepted, is probably an inference from the practice of a later time, when the creatio had been transferred to the comitia centuriata. 3 For the references, see Schwegler i. 646 seq. 4 If the analogy of the rex sacrorum is to be trusted, the " king " could only be chosen from the ranks of the patricii. Cic. Pro Domo, 14; Gaius i. 122. They cannot appoint a king but with the consent of the com- munity, and their relation to the king when appointed is one of subordination. Vacancies in their ranks are filled up by him, and they can but give him advice and counsel when he chooses to consult them. The popular assembly of united Rome in its earliest days was that in which the freemen met and voted by their curiae (comitia curiata6). The place of assembly was in the Comitium at the north-east end of the Forum,6 at the summons and under the presidency of the king or, failing him, of the interrex. By the rex or the interrex the question was put, and the voting took place curiatim, the curiae being called up in turn. The vote of each curia was decided by the majority of individual votes, and a majority of the votes of the curiae determined the final result. But the occasions on which the assembly could exercise its power must have been few. Their right to elect magistrates was apparently limited to the acceptance or rejection of the king proposed by the interrex. Of the passing of laws, in the later sense of the term, there is no trace in the kingly period. Dionysius's state- ment7 that they voted on questions of war and peace is im- probable in itself and unsupported by tradition. They are indeed represented, in one instance, as deciding a capital case, but it is by the express permission of the king and not of right.8 Assemblies of the people were also, and probably more frequently, convened for other purposes. Not only did they meet to hear from the king the announcement of the high days and holidays for each month, and to witness such solemn .religious rites as the inauguration of a priest, but their presence (and sometimes their vote) was further required to authorize and attest certain acts, which in a later age assumed a more private character. The disposal of property by will9 and the solemn renunciation of family or gentile sacra 10 could only take place in the presence of the assembled freemen, while for adoption" (adrogatio) not only their presence but their formal consent was necessary. A history of this early Roman state is out of the question. The names, dates and achievements of the first four kings are all too unsubstantial to form the basis of a sober Rome narrative;12 a few points only can be considered as under the fairly well established. If we except the long event- ****** less reign ascribed to King Numa, tradition represents the first kings as incessantly at war with their immediate neighbours. The details of these wars are no doubt mythical; but the implied condition of continual struggle, and The narrow range within which the struggle is confined, may be accepted as true. The picture drawn is that of a small community, with a few square miles of territory, at deadly feud with its nearest neigh- bours, within a radius of some 12 m. round Rome. Nor, in spite of the repeated victories with which tradition credits Romulus, Ancus and Tullus, does there seem to have been any real extension of Roman territory except towards the sea. Fidenae remains Etruscan; the Sabines continue masters up to the Anio; Praeneste, Gabii and Tusculum are still untouched; and on this side it is doubtful if Roman territory, in spite of the possible destruction of Alba, extended to a greater distance than the sixth milestone from Rome.13 But along the course 6 Cic. De Rep. ii. 13; Dionys. ii. 14, &c. •Varro, L.L. v. 155. For the position of the Comitium, see Smith, Diet. Geog., s.v. " Roma," and Jordan, Topog. d.Stadt Rom. (Petersen). 7 Dionys. l.c. ' Livy i. 26; Dionys. iii. 22. 9 Gaius ii. 101. 10 Gell. xv. 27. 11 Gell. v. 19, " Comitia praebentur, quae curiata appellantur." Cf. Cic. Pro Domo, 13, 14; and see ROMAN LAW. n By far the most complete criticism of the traditional accounts of the first four kings will be found in Schwegler's Rom. Geschichte, vol. i.; compare also Ihne's Early Rome and Sir G. C. Lewis's Credibility of Early Roman History. More recently, E. Pais (Storia d" Italia) has subjected the early legends to learned and often sug- gestive criticism, but without attaining very solid results. 13 The fossa Cluilia, 5 m. from Rome (Livy ii. 39), is regarded by Schwegler (i. 585) and by Mommsen (i. 45) as marking the Roman frontier towards Latium. Cf. Ovid. Fast. ii. 681 ; Strabo 230, " lura^it yovv TOV irf/iirrou ijoTOt . . . opioc TTJS rbrt 'Puitalwv 7tjs." 6i8 ROME [REGAL PERIOD of the Tiber below the city there was a decided advance. The fortification of the Janiculum, the building of the pans sub- licius, the foundation of Ostia and the acquisition of the salt- works near the sea may all be safely ascribed to this early period. Closely connected, too, with the control of the Tiber from Rome to the sea was the subjugation of the petty Latin com- munities lying south of the river; and the tradition of the conquest and destruction of Politorium, Tellenae and Ficana is confirmed by the absence in historical times of any Latin communities in this district. With the reign of the fifth king Tarquinius Priscus a marked change takes place. The traditional accounts of the last three kings not only wear a more historical air than those of ^e first four, but they describe something like a trans- formation of the Roman city and state. Under the rule of these latter kings the separate settlements are for the first time enclosed with a rampart of colossal size and extent.1 The low grounds are drained, and a forum and circus elaborately laid out; on the Capitoline Mount a temple is erected, the massive foundations of which were an object of wonder even to Pliny.2 To the same period are assigned the redi vision of the city area into four new districts and the introduction of a new military system. The kings increase in power and surround themselves with new splendour. Abroad, too, Rome suddenly appears as a powerful state ruling far and wide over southern Etruria and Latium. These startling changes are, moreover, ascribed to kings of alien descent, who one and all ascend the throne in the teeth of established constitutional forms. Finally, with the expulsion of the last of them — the younger Tarquin — comes a sudden shrinkage of power. At the commencement of the Republic Rome is rnce more a comparatively small state, with hostile and independent neighbours at her very doors. It is impossible to. doubt the conviction that the true explanation of this pheno- menon is to be found in the supposition that Rome during this period passed under the rule of powerful Etruscan lords.3 In the 7th and 6th centuries B.C., and probably earlier still, the Etruscans appear as ruling widely outside the limits of Etruria proper. They were supreme in the valley of the Po until their power there was broken by the irruption of Celtic tribes from beyond the Alps, and while still masters of the plains of Lombardy they established themselves in the rich lowlands of Campania, where they held their ground until the capture of Capua by the Samnite highlanders in 423 B.C. It is on the face of it improbable that* a power which had extended its sway from the Alps to the Tiber, and from the Liris to Surrentum, should have left untouched the intervening stretch of country between the Tiber and the Liris. And there is abundant evidence of Etruscan rule in Latium.4 According to Dionysius there was a time when the Latins were known to the Greeks as Tyrrhen- ians, and Rome as a Tyrrhenian city.6 When Aeneas landed in Italy the Latins were at feud with Turnus (Turrhenos? Dionys. {.64) of Ardea.whoseclose ally was the rutnlessMezentius, prince of Caere, to whom the Latins had been forced to pay a tribute of wine.6 Cato declared the Volsci to have been once subject to Etruscan rule,7 and Etruscan remains found at Velitrae,8 as well as the second name of the Volscian Anxur, Tarracina (the city of Tarchon) , confirm his statement. Nearer still to Rome is Tusculum, with its significant name, at Praeneste we have a great number of Etruscan inscriptions and bronzes, and at Alba we hear of a prince Tapxenos,' lawless and cruel like Mezentius, who consults the " oracle of Tethys in Tyrrhenia." Thus we find the Etruscan power encircling Rome on all sides, and in Rome itself a tradition of the rule of princes of Etruscan 1 Livy i. 36. * Ibid. i. 38, 55 ; Plin. N.H. xxxvi. 15. 1 This was the view of O. Mtiller, and more recently of Deecke, Gardthausen and Zoller. 4 W. Schulze, Gesch. d. Lai. Eigennamen, passim (esp. pp. 579 ff.) ; Zoller, Latium u. Rom, 166, 189; Gardthausen, Ma.sta.rna (Leipzig, 1882). f Dionys. i. 29. • Livy i. 2; Dionys. i. 64, 65; Plut. Q.R. 18. 7 Cato ap. Serv. Aen. xi. 567. 8 Helbig, Ann. d. Inst. (1865). * Plut. Rom. 2. vapavoti&TaTof KO.I fci/ujroToj \ cf. RutuHan Tarquitius, Virg. Aen. x. 550. origin. The Tarquinii come from south Etruria; their name can hardly be anything else than the Latin equivalent of the Etruscan Tarchon, and is therefore possibly a title ( = " lord " or " prince ") rather than a proper name.10 Even Servius Tullius was identified by Tuscan chroniclers with an Etruscan " Mast- arna."11 Again, what we are told of Etruscan conquests does not represent them as moving, like the Sabellian tribes, in large bodies and settling down en masse in the conquered districts. We hear rather of military raids led by ambitious chiefs who carve out principalities for themselves with their own good swords, and with their followers rule oppressively over alien and subject peoples.12 And so at Rome the story of the Tarquins implies not a wave of Etruscan immigration so much as a rule of Etruscan princes over conquered Latins. The achievements ascribed to the Tarquins are not less char- acteristic. Their despotic rule and splendour contrast with the primitive simplicity of the native kings. Only Etruscan builders, under the direction of wealthy and powerful Etruscan lords, could have built the great cloaca, the Servian wall, or the Capitoline temple, — monuments which challenged comparison with those of the emperors themselves. Nor do the traces of Greek influence upon Rome during this period u conflict with the theory of an Etruscan supremacy; on the contrary, it is at least possible that it was thanks to the extended rule and wide connexions of her Etruscan rulers that Rome was first brought into direct contact with the Greeks, who had long traded with the Etruscan ports and influenced Etruscan culture.14 The Etruscan princes are represented, not only as having raised Rome for the time to acommandingpositioninLatium and lavished upon the city itself the resources of Etruscan civilization, The but also as the authors of important internal changes. Servian Theyarerepresentedasfavouringnewmenattheexpense relorms- of the old patrician families, and as reorganizing the Roman army on a new footing, a policy natural enough in military princes of alien birth, and rendered possible by the additions which conquest had made to the original community. From among the leading families of the conquered Latin states a hundred new members were admitted to the senate, and these gentes thenceforth ranked as patrician, and became known as gentes minores.™ The changes in the army begun, it is said, by the elder Tarquin and completed by Servius Tullius were more important. The basis of the primitive military system had been three tribes, each of which furnished 1000 men to the legion and 100 to the cavalry.16 Tarquinius Priscus, we are told, contemplated the creation of three fresh tribes and three addi- tional centuries of horsemen with new names,17 though in face of the opposition offered by the old families he contented himself with simply doubling the strength without altering the names of the old divisions.18 But the change attributed to Servius Tullius went far beyond this. His famous distribution of all freeholders (assidui) into tribes, classes and centuries,19 though subsequently adopted with modifications as the basis of the 10 Miiller- Deecke, i. 69, 70; Zoller, Latium u. Rom, 168; cf. Strabo, p. 219; Serv. on Aen. x. 179, 198. The existence of an independent " gens Tarquinia " of Roman extraction (Schwegkr, i. 678) is unproven and unlikely. See now Schulze, Lai. Eigennamen, pp. 95 and 402 n. 6. 11 See speech of Claudius, Tab. Lugd. App. to Nipperdey's edit ion of the Annals of Tacitus, " Tusce Mastarna ei nomen erat." For the painting in the Frangois tomb at Vulci, see Gardthausen, Mastarna, 29 seg.; Annali dell. Instil. (Rome, 1859). 12 Cf. the traditions of Mezentius, of Caeles Vibenna, Porsena, &c. 13 Schwegler, R.G. i. 679 seq. 14 Ibid. i. 791, 792. He accepts as genuine, and as represent- ing the extent of Roman rule and connexions under the Tarquins, the first treaty between Rome and Carthage mentioned by Polybius (iii. 22); see, for a discussion of the question, Vollmer, Rhein. Mus. xxxii. 614 seq.; Mommsen, Rom. Chronologic, 20; Dyer, Journ. of Philol. ix. 238. 16 Livy i. 35 ; Dionys. iii. 67 ; Cic. De Rep. ii. 20. 16 Varro, L.L. v. 89. » Livy i. 36 ; Dionys. iii. 71 . 18 The six centuries of horsemen were thenceforward known as " primi secundique Ramnes " (Fest. 344; cf. Schwegler, 1.685 seq.). It is possible that the reforms of Tarquinius Priscus were limited to the cavalry. u Cic. De Rep. ii. 22 ; Livy i. 42 ; Dionys. iv. 16. REPUBLIC] ROME 619 political system, was at first exclusively military in its nature and objects.1 It amounted, in fact, to the formation of a new and enlarged army on a new footing. In this force, excepting in the case of the centuries of the horsemen, no regard was paid either to the old clan divisions or to the semi-religious, semi- political curiae. In its ranks were included all freeholders within the Roman territory, whether members or not of any of the old divisions, and the organization of this new army of assidui was not less independent of the old system with its clannish and religious traditions and forms. The unit was the centuria or company of 100 men; the centuriae were grouped in " classes " and drawn up in the order of the phalanx.2 The centuries in front were composed of the wealthier citizens, whose means enabled them to bear the cost of the complete equipments necessary for those who were to bear the brunt of the onset. These centuries formed the first class. Behind them stood the centuries of the second and third classes, less completely armed, but making up together with those of the first class the heavy- armed infantry.3 In the rear were the centuries of the fourth and fifth classes, recruited from the poorer freeholders, and serving only as light-armed troops. The entire available body of freeholders was divided into two equal portions, a reserve corps of seniores and a corps of juniores for active ser- vice. Each of these corps consisted of 85 centuries or 8500 men, i.e. of two legions of about 4200 men each, the normal strength of a consular legion under the early Republic.4 It is noticeable also that the heavy-armed centuries of the three first classes in each of these legions represented a total of 3000 men, a number which agrees exactly with the number of heavy-armed troops in the legion as described by Polybius. Attached to the legions, but not included in them, were the companies of sappers and trumpeters. Lastly, to the six centuries of horsemen, which still retained the old tribal names, twelve more were added as a distinct body, and recruited from the wealthiest class of citizens.5 The four " tribes " also instituted by Servius were probably intended to serve as the bases for the levy of freeholders for the new army.6 As their names show, they corresponded with the natural local divisions of the city territory.7 The last of these Etruscan lords to rule in Rome was Tarquin the Proud. He is described as a splendid and despotic monarch. Fall of His sway extended over Latium as far south as Circeii. themon- Aristodemus, tyrant of Cumae, was his ally, and archy. kinsmen of his own were princes at Collatia, at Gabii, and at Tusculum. The Volscian highlanders were chastised, and Signia with its massive walls was built to hold them in check. In Rome itself the Capitoline temple and the great cloaca bore witness to his power. But his rule pressed heavily upon the Romans, and at the last, on the news of the foul wrong done by his son Sextus to a noble Roman matron, Lucretia, the indignant people rose in revolt. Tarquin, who was away besieging Ardea, was deposed; sentence of exile was passed upon him and upon all his race; and the 'This is recognized by Mommsen, Gen/, and Soltau, as against Niebuhr, Schwegler and Ihne. Even in the later comitia centuriata the traces of the originally military character of the organization are unmistakable. 1 The century ceased to represent companies of one hundred when the whole organization ceased to be military and became exclusively political. 1 The property qualification for service in the first class is given at 100,000 asses (Livy), for the second at 70,000, third 50,000, fourth 25,000, fifth 11,000. It was probably originally a certain number of cows, afterwards translated into terms of money; cf. W. Ridgeway, The Origin of Coinage and Metallic Currency (Cambridge, 1892), p. 391. The same scholar, in his Who were the Romans? p. 17, has pointed out the ethnical meaning of the varieties of armature in the early army. 4 Pplyb. vi. 20; Mommsen, Rom. Trib. 132 seq. 6 Livy i. 43. Dionys. (iv. 18) and Cic. (De Rep. ii. 22) ascribe the whole eighteen to Servius. But the six older centuries remained distinct, as the "sex suffragia " of the comitia centuriata; Cic. De Rep. ii. 22. 6 Dionys. iv. 14, «ts ris (cara-ypa<£raetores maximi and hence aipantyol DTOTOI or simply Birarot in Greek. 13 The view of the patrum auctoritas here adopted is that taken by T. Mommsen (Forsch. i.). 620 ROME [REPUBLIC abolition of the monarchy brought with It a change of the utmost importance in the actual working of the constitution. Though the distinction between patricians and plebeians was at least as old as the state itself, it is not until the establish- ment of the Republic that it plays any part in the history of Rome. No sooner, however, was the overshadowing authority of the king removed than a struggle commenced between the two orders which lasted for more than two centuries. It was in no sense a struggle between a conquering and a conquered class, or between an exclusive citizen body and an unenfranchised mass outside its pale. Patricians and plebeians were equally citizens of Rome, sprung of the same race and speaking the same tongue (but see above).1 The former were the members of those ancient gentes which had possibly been once the " chiefly " families in the small communities which preceded the united state, and which claimed by hereditary right a privileged position in the community. Only patricians could sit in the council of patres, and hence probably the name given to their order.1 To their representatives the supreme authority reverted on the death of the king; the due trans- mission of the auspicia and the public worship of the state gods were their special care; and to them alone were known the traditional usages and forms which regulated the life of the people from day to day. To the plebs (the multitude, jrXfjflos) belonged all who were not members of some patrician gens, whether independent freemen or attached as "clients"3 to one of the great houses. The plebeian was a citizen, with civil rights and a vote in the assembly of the curies, but he was excluded by ancient custom from all share in the higher honours of the state, and intermarriage with a patrician was not recog- nized as a properly legal union4 (see PATRICIANS). The revolution which expelled the Tarquins gave the patricians, who had mainly assisted in bringing it about, an overwhelming ascendancy in the state. The plebs had indeed gained something. Not only is it probable that the strictness of the old tie of clientship had somewhat relaxed, and that the number of the clientes was smaller and their dependence on patrician patrons less complete, but the ranks of the plebs had, under the later kings, been swelled by the admission of conquered Latins, and the freeholders among these had with others been enrolled in the Servian tribes, classes and centuries. The establishment of the Republic invested this military levy of landholders with political rights as an assembly, for by their votes the consuls were chosen and laws passed, and it was the plebeian landholders who formed the main strength of the plebs in the struggle that followed. But these gains were greater in appearance than in reality. The plebeian land- holders commanded only a minority of votes in the comitia centuriata. In their choice of magistrates they were limited to the patrician candidates nominated by patrician presiding magistrates, and their choice required confirmation not only by the older and smaller assembly of the curiae, in which the patricians and their clients predominated, but also by the patrician patres. They could only vote on laws proposed by patrician consuls, and here again the subsequent sanction of the patres was necessary. The whole procedure of the comitia was in short absolutely in the hands of their patrician pre- sidents, and liable to every sort of interruption and suspension from patrician pontiffs and augurs (for details see further COMITIA and SENATE). But these political disabilities did not constitute the main grievance of the plebs in the early years of the Republic. What they fought for was protection for their lives and liberties, and the object of attack was the despotic authority of the 1 This is the view taken by the present writer, as against Schwegler and others. For Ridgeway's theory, see above. *Cf. aedilis, aediltcius, &c.; Cic. De Rep. ii. 12; Liyy i. 8; for a full discussion of other views, see Soltau 179 seq. ; Christensen, Hermes, ix. 196. * For the clientela, see Mommsen (Forsch. i. 355 sqq. ; Staalsr. iii. 54 sqq.); Schwegler (i. 638 sqq.); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklo- padie, iv. 23 sqq. (von Premerstein). 4 The offspring of such a union ranked as plebeians. patrician magistrates. The consuls wielded the full imperium o( the kings, and against this " consular authority " the plebeian, though a citizen, had no protection and no appeal, nor were matters improved when for the two consuls was substituted in some emergency a single, all-powerful, irresponsible dictator. The history of this struggle between the orders opens with a concession made to the plebs by one of the consuls themselves, a concession possibly due to a desire to secure the Lex allegiance of the plebeian landholders, who formed Valeria the backbone of the army. In the first year of deprovo- the Republic, according to the received chronology, catloae- P. Valerius Publicola or Poplicola carried in the comitia centuriata his famous law of appeal.6 It enacted that no magistrate, saving only a dictator, should execute a capital sentence upon any Roman citizen unless the sentence had been confirmed on appeal by the assembly of the centuries. But, though the " right of appeal " granted by this law was justly regarded in later times as the greatest safeguard of a Roman's liberties, it was by no means at first so effective a protection as it after- wards became. For not only was the operation of the law limited to the bounds of the city, so that the consul in the field or on the march was left as absolute as before, but no security was provided for its observance even within the city by consuls resolved to disregard it.6 It was by their own efforts that the plebeians first obtained any real protection against magisterial despotism. The tradi- tional accounts of the first secession are confused The first and contradictory,7 but its causes and results are secession tolerably clear. The seceders were the plebeian ana the legionaries recently returned from a victorious cam- trlbunate- paign. Indignant at the delay of the promised reforms, they ignored the order given them to march afresh against Volsci and Aequi, and instead entrenched themselves on a hill across the Anio, some 3 m. from Rome, and known afterwards as the Mons Sacer. The frightened patricians came to terms, and a solemn agreement (lex socrato) 8 was concluded between the orders, by which it was provided that henceforth the plebeians should have annual magistrates of their own called tribunes (tribuni plebis), members of their own order, who should be authorized to protect them against the consuls,9 and a curse was invoked upon the man who should injure or impede the tribune in the performance of his duties.10 The number of tribunes was possibly at first two, then five; before 449 B.C. it had been raised to ten. The tribunate is an institution which has no parallel in history. The tribune was not, and, strictly speaking, never became, a magistrate of the Roman people. His one proper prerogative was that of granting protection to the oppressed plebeian against a patrician officer. This prerogative (jus auxilii) was secured to him, not by the ordinary constitution, but by a special compact between the orders, and was protected by the ancient oath (vetus jusjurandum) ,u which invoked a curse upon the violator of a tribune. This exceptional and anomalous right the tribunes could only exercise in person, within the limits of the " pomoerium," and against individual acts of magisterial oppression.12 It was only gradually that it expanded into a wide power of interference with the whole machinery of government, and was supplemented by the legislative powers which ren- dered the tribunate of the last century B.C. so formidable (see TRIBUNE). But from the first the tribunes were for the plebs not only protectors but leaders, under whom they organized themselves in opposition to the patricians. The tribunes convened Lex assemblies of the plebs (concilia plebis), and carried Pubfflla. resolutions on questions of interest to the order. This incipient 5Livy ii. 8, lex Valeria de provocations, Cic. De Rep. ii.3i; cf. Livy iii. 20. 6 Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time, pp. 344 sqq. 7 Schwegler ii. 226 seq. 8 Ibid. ii. 251 n. ; Livy i. 33. 9 Cic. De Rep. ii. 34, " contra consulare imperium creati." 0 Livy iii. 55. " Festus 318. 12 Gell. xiii. 12, " ut injuria quae coram fieret arceretur." REPUBLIC] ROME 621 plebeian organization was materially advanced by the Publilian law of 471 B.C.,1 which appears to have formally re- cognized as lawful the plebeian concilia, and established also the tribune's right cum plebe agere, I.e. to propose and carry resolutions in them. These assemblies were tributa, or, in other words, the voting in them took place not by curies or centuries but by tribes. In them, lastly, after the Publilian law, if not before, the tribunes were annually elected.2 By this law the foundations were laid both of the powerful concilia plebis of /ater days and also of the legislative and judicial prerogatives of the tribunes. The patricians maintained indeed that resolutions (plebiscita) carried by tribunes in the concilia plebis were not binding on their order, but the moral weight of such resolutions, whether they affirmed a general principle or pronounced sentence of condemnation on some single patrician, was no doubt con- siderable. The next stage in the struggle is marked by the attempt to substitute a public written law for unwritten usage. The proposal of C. Terentilius Arsa (462 B.C.) to ap- point a plebeian commission to draw up laws restricting the powers of the consuls3 was resolutely opposed by the patricians, but after ten years of bitter party strife a compromise was effected. A commission of ten patricians was appointed, who rhe should frame and publish a code of law binding equally Decem- on both the orders. These decemviri were to be the viratc. sOie an(j supreme magistrates for the year, and the law of appeal was suspended in their favour.4 The code which they promulgated, the famous XII. Tables, owed little of its importance to any novelties or improvements contained in its provisions. For the most part it seems merely to have reaffirmed existing usages and laws (see ROMAN LAW) . But it imposed, as it was intend- ed to do, a check on the arbitrary administration of justice by the magistrates. With the publication of the code the proper work of the decemvirs was finished; nevertheless, for the next year a fresh decemvirate was elected, and it is conceivable that the intention was permanently to substitute government by an irresponsible patrician " council of ten " for the old consti- tution.6 However this may have been, the tyranny of the decemvirs themselves was fatal to the continuance of their power. We are told of a second secession of the plebs, this time to the Janiculum, and of negotiations with the senate, the result of which was the enforced abdication of the decemvirs. The plebs joyfully chose for themselves tribunes, and in the comitia centuriata two consuls were created. But this restora- tion of the old regime was accompanied by legislation which Valeria- made it an important crisis in the history of the Horatian struggle between the orders. With the fall of the laws. decemvirate this struggle enters upon a new phase. The tribunes appear as at once more powerful and more strictly constitutional magistrates; the plebeian concilia take their place by the side of the older assemblies; and finally this im- proved machinery is used not simply in self-defence against patrician oppression but to obtain complete political equality. This change was no doubt due in part to circumstances outside legislation, above all to the expansion of the Roman state, which swelled the numbers and added to the social importance of the plebs as compared with the dwindling forces of the close corporation of patrician geni.es. Still the legislation of 449 clearly involved more than a restoration of the old form of government. The Valerio-Horatian laws, besides reaffirming the right of appeal and the inviolability of the tribunes, im- proved the position of the plebeian assemblies by enacting that plebiscita passed in them, and, as seems probable, approved by the palres, should be binding on patricians as well as plebeians.6 1 Livy ii. 56, 60; Dionys. ix. 41; Schwegler ii. 541; Soltau 493- 2 For theories as to the original mode of appointing tribunes see Mommsen, Forsch. i. 185, Staatsr. ii. 274 sqq. ' Livy iii. 9. 4 Ibid. iii. 32. 6 On the disputed question of the date of the XII. Tables see Pais, Storia di Roma, vol. i. chap, iv., and Greenidge, Eng. Hist. Review (1905), pp. I sqq. * Livy iii. 55, " quum veluti in controverso jure esset, tenerenturne 310-88. By this law the tribunes obtained a recognized initiative in legislation. Henceforth the desired reforms were introduced and carried by tribunes in what were now styled comitia tributa, and, if sanctioned by the patres, became laws of the state. From this period, too, must be dated the legalization at any rate of the tribune's right to impeach any citizen before the assembly of the tribes.7 Henceforward there is no question of the tribune's right to propose to the plebs to impose a fine, or of the validity of the sentence when passed. The efficiency of these new weapons of attack was amply proved by the subse- quent course of the struggle. Only a few years after the Valerio- Horatian legislation came the lex Canuleia, itself a plebiscitum (445 B.C.) , by which mixed marriages between patricians /.«» and plebeians were declared lawful, and the social Caauieia. exclusiveness of the patriciate broken down. In the 309~ same year with this measure, and like it in the interests primarily of the wealthier plebeians, a vigorous attack commenced on the patrician monopoly of the consulate, and round this Leges stronghold of patrician ascendancy the conflict raged i.iCiniae until the passing of the Licinian laws in 367. The Sextiae. original proposal of the tribune Gaius Canuleius. in 445, that the people should be allowed to elect a plebeian consul was evaded by a compromise. The senate resolved that for the next year, in the stead of consuls, six military tribunes with consular powers should be elected,8 and that the new office should be open to patricians and plebeians alike. The consulship was thus for the time saved from pollution, as the patricians phrased it, but the growing strength of the plebs is shown by the fact that in fifty years out of the seventy-eight between 444 and 366 they succeeded in obtaining the election of consular tribunes rather than of consuls. Despite, however, these discouragements, the patricians fought on. Each year they strove to secure the creation of consuls rather than consular tribunes, and failing this strained every nerve to secure for their own order at least a majority among the latter. Even the institution of the censorship (435), though rendered desirable by the increasing importance and complexity of the census, was, it is probable, due in part to their desire to discount beforehand the threatened loss of the consul- ship by diminishing its powers.9 Other causes, too, helped to protract the struggle. Between the wealthier plebeians, who were ambitious of high office, and the poorer, whose minds were set rather on allotments of land, there was a division of interest of which the patricians were not slow to take advantage, and to this must be added the pressure of war. The death struggle with Veii and the sack of Rome by the Gauls absorbed for the time all the energies of the community. In 377, how- ever, two of the tribunes, C. Licinius Stolo (see LJCJNITJS STOLO, GAIUS) and L. Sextius,came forward with proposals which united all sections of the plebs in their support. Their proposals were as follows:10 (i) that consuls and not consular tribunes be elected; (2) that one consul at least should be a plebeian; (3) that the priestly college, which had the charge of the Sibylline books, should consist of ten members instead of two, and that of these half should be plebeians; (4) that no single citizen should hold in occupation more than 500 acres of the common lands, or pasture upon them more than 100 head of cattle and 500 sheep; (5) that all landowners should employ a certain amount of free as well as slave labour on their estates; (6) that interest already paid on debts should be deducted from the principal, and the remainder paid off in three years. The three last proposals were obviously intended to meet the patres plebiscitis legem comitiis centuriatis tulere, ut quod tributim plebs jussisset populum teneret, qua lege tribuniciis rogationibus telum acerrimum datum est." What were the precise conditions under which a plebiscitum became law can only be conjectured. The control of the patres over legislation certainly remained effective until 287 B.C. (See below.) 7 After the decemvirate, the tribunes no longer pronounce capital sentences. They propose fines, which are confirmed by the comitia tributa. 8 Livy iv. 6; cf. Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 181. 9 Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 331." 10 Livy vi. 35, 42; Appian, B.C. i. 8. 319. 377. 622 ROME [REPUBLIC 387. demands of the poorer plebeians, and to secure their support for the first half of the scheme. Ten years of bitter conflict followed, but at last, in 367 B.C., the Licinian rogations became law, and one of their authors, L. Sextius, was created the first plebeian consul. For the moment it was some consolation to the patricians that they not only succeeded in detaching from the consulship the administration of civil law, which was entrusted to a separate officer, praetor urbanus, to be elected by the comitia of the centuries, with an understand- ing apparently that he should be a patrician, but also obtained the institution of two additional aediles (aediles curules), who were in like manner to be members of their own order.1 With the opening of the consulship, however, the issue of the long con- test was virtually decided, and the next eighty years witnessed a rapid succession of plebeian victories. Now that a plebeian consul might preside at the elections, the main difficulty Opening in the way of the nomination and election of plebeian of the candidates was removed. The proposed patrician Irarfcs monopoly of the new curule aedileship was almost instantly abandoned. In 356 the first plebeian 398. 404. was ma(je dictator; in 350 the censorship, and in 417 ' 337 tne praetorship were filled for the first time by 4S4. plebeians; and lastly, in 300, by the lex Ogulnia, even the sacred colleges of the pontiffs and augurs, the old strongholds of patrician supremacy, were thrown open to the plebs? The patricians lost also the control they had exercised so long over the action of the people in assembly. The patrum auctoritas, the sanction given or refused by the patrician senators to laws and to elections, had hitherto been a powerful 415. weapon in their hands. But in 339 a law of Q. Publilius Pubiuiaa Philo, a plebeian dictator, enacted that this sanction laws. should be given beforehand to laws enacted in the comitia centuriata? and a lex Maenia of uncertain date extended the rule to elections in the same assembly. Livy ascribes to the same Publilius a law emancipating the concilium plebis Lex from the control of the patres ; but this seems in reality Horteasia, to have been effected by the famous lex Hortensia, 467- carried by another plebeian dictator.4 Henceforward the patrum auctoritas sank into a meaningless form, though as such it still survived in the time of Livy. From 287 onwards it is certain that measures passed by the plebs, voting by their tribes, had the full force of laws without any further conditions whatsoever. The legislative independence of the plebeian assembly was secured, and with this crowning victory ended the long struggle between the orders. (b) Conquest of Italy. — Twelve years after the passing of the lex Hortensia, King Pyrrhus, beaten at Beneventum, withdrew from Italy, and Rome was left mistress of the peninsula. The steps by which this supremacy had been won have now to be traced.6 The expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome, followed as it seems to have been by the emancipation from Etruscan suprem- acy of all the country between the Tiber and the Liris, entirely altered the aspect of affairs. North of the Tiber the powerful Etruscan city of Veii, after a vain attempt to restore the Tar- quins, relapsed into an attitude of sullen hostility towards Rome, which, down to the outbreak of the final struggle in 407, found vent in constant and harassing border forays. The Sabines recommenced their raids across the Anio; from their hills to the south-east the Aequi pressed forward as far as the eastern spurs of the Alban range, and ravaged the low country between that range and the Sabine mountains; the Volsci overran the coast-lands as far as Antium, established them- 1 Livy vi. 42. 2 Ibid. vii. 17, 22; viii. 15; x. 6. * Ibid. viii. 12, " ut . . . ante initum suffragium patres auc tores fierent," cf. Livy. i. 17. For the lex Maenia, see Cic. Brut. 14, 55; Soltau 112. 4 Plin. N.H. xyi. 10; Cell. xv. 27; Gaius i. 3, " plebiscita lege Hortensia non minus valere quam leges." 6 For details of these wars see articles on the various cities, districts and tribes. For ethnographic and philological evidence see ITALY, Ancient Peoples. 347. selves at Velitrae and even wasted the fields within a few miles of Rome. But the good fortune of Rome did not leave her to face these foes single-handed, and it is a significant League fact that the history of the Roman advance begins, »«* the not with a brilliant victory, but with a timely alliance. ^ad'tter- According to Livy, it was in 493, only a few years after oicaas.^ the defeat of the prince of Tusculum at Lake Regillus, 261. that a treaty was concluded between Rome and the Latin com- munities of the Campagna.6 The alliance was in every respect natural. The Latins were the near neighbours and kinsmen of the Romans, and both Romans and Latins were just freed from Etruscan rule to find themselves as lowlanders and dwellers in towns face to face with a common foe in the ruder hill tribes on their borders. The exact terms of the treaty cannot, any more than the precise circumstances under which it was concluded, be stated with certainty (see LATIUM), but two points seem clear. There was at first a genuine equality in the relations between the allies; Romans and Latins, though combining for defence and offence, did so without sacrificing their separate freedom of action, even in the matter of waging wars indepen- dently of each other.7 But, secondly, Rome enjoyed from the first one inestimable advantage. The Latins lay between her and the most active of her foes, the Aequi and Volsci, and served to protect her territories at the expense of their own. Behind this barrier Rome grew strong, and the close of the Aequian and Volscian wars left the Latins her dependents rather than her allies. Beyond the limits of the Campagna Rome found a second ally, hardly less useful than the Latins, in the tribe of the Hernici (" the men of the rocks "), in the valley of the Trerus, who had equal reason with the Romans and Latins to dread the Volsci and Aequi, while their position midway between the two latter peoples made them valuable auxiliaries to the lowlanders of the Campagna. The treaty with the Hernici is said to have been concluded in 486,* and the confederacy of the three peoples — Romans, Latins and Hernicans — lasted down to the great Latin war in 340. Confused and untrustworthy as are the chronicles of the early wars of Rome, it is clear that, notwithstanding the acquisition of these allies, Rome made but little way against her foes during the first fifty years of the existence of the Republic. In 474, it is true, an end was put for a time to the harassing border feud with Veii by a forty years' peace, an advantage due not so much to Roman valour as to the increasing dangers from other quarters which were threatening the Etruscan states.9 But this partial success stands alone, and down to 449 the raids of Sabines, Aequi and Volsci continue without intermission, and are occasionally carried up to the very walls of Rome. Very different is the impression left by the annals of the next sixty years (449-390). During this period there is an unmistakable development of Roman power on all sides. In southern Etruria the capture of Veii (396) capture virtually gave Rome the mastery as far as the Ciminian of Veil. forest. Sutrium and Nepete, " the gates of Etruria," 3Sg became her allies and guarded her interests against any attack from the Etruscan communities to the north, while along the Tiber valley her suzerainty was acknowledged as far as Capena and Falerii. On the Anio frontier we hear of no disturbances from 449 until some ten years after the sack of Rome by the Gauls. In 446 the Aequi appear for the last time before the gates of Rome. After 418 30S- they disappear from Mount Algidus, and in the same 336. year the communications of Rome and Latium with the Hernici in the Trerus valley were secured by the capture and colonization of LabicHm. Successive invasions, too, broke the strength of the Volsci, and in 393 a Latin colony was founded as far south as Circeii. In part, no doubt, these Roman successes were due to the improved condition of • Livy ii. 33 ; Cic. Pro Balbo, 23. 7 Livy viii. 2. 268. 414. 305. 1 From the Celts in the north especially. 8 Ibid. ii. 41. REPUBLIC] ROME 623 affairs in Rome itself, consequent upon the great reforms carried 304-312 Between 450 and 442; but it is equally certain that now, as often afterwards, fortune befriended Rome by weakening, or by diverting the attention of, her opponents. In particular, her rapid advance in southern Etruria was Decline of facii;tate(i by the heavy blows inflicted upon the poiven111 Etruscans during the sth century B.C. by Celts, Greeks and Samnites. By the close of this century the Celts had expelled them from the rich plains of what was afterwards known as Cisalpine Gaul, and were even threatening to advance across the Apennines into Etruria proper. The Sicilian Greeks, headed by the tyrants of Syracuse, wrested from them their mastery of the seas, and finally, on the capture of Capua by the Samnites in 423, they lost their possessions in the fertile Campanian plain. These conquests of the Samnites were part of a great southward movement of the highland Sabellian peoples, the immediate effects of which upon the fortunes of Rome were not confined to the weakening of the Etruscan power. It is probable that the cessation of the Sabine raids across the Anio was partly due to the new outlets which were opened southwards for the restless and populous hill tribes which had so long disturbed the peace of the Latin lowlands. We may conjecture, also, that the growing feebleness exhibited by Volsci and Aequi was in some measure caused by the pressure upon their rear of the Sabellian clans which at this time established themselves near the Fucine lake and along the course of the Liris. But in 390, only six years after the great victory over her ancient rival Veii, the Roman advance was for a moment Sac* of checked by a disaster which threatened to alter the Rome by course of history in Italy, and which left a lasting the aauis. impress on the Roman mind. In 391 a Celtic horde 363' left their newly won lands on the Adriatic, and, cross- ing the Apennines into Etruria, laid siege to the Etruscan city of Clusium (Chiusi). Thence, provoked, it is said, by the conduct of the Roman ambassadors, who, forgetting their sacred character, had fought in the ranks of Clusium and slain a Celtic chief, the barbarians marched upon Rome. On July the i8th of 390 B.C., only a few miles from Rome, was fought the disastrous battle of the Allia. The defeat of the Romans was complete, and Rome lay at the mercy of her foe. But in characteristic fashion the Celts halted three days to enjoy the fruits of victory, and time was thus given to put the Capitol at least in a state of defence. The arrival of the bar- barians was followed by the sack of the city, but the Capitol remained impregnable. For seven months they besieged it, and then in as sudden a fashion as they had come they dis- appeared. The Roman chroniclers explain their retreat in their own way, by the fortunate appearance of M. Furius Camillus with the troops which he had collected, at the very moment when famine had forced the garrison on the Capitol to accept terms. More probably the news that their lands across the Apennines were threatened by the Veneti, coupled with the unaccustomed tedium of a long siege and the difficulty of obtain- ing supplies, inclined the Celts to accept readily a heavy ransom as the price of their withdrawal. But, whatever the reason, it is certain that they retreated, and, though during the next fifty years marauding bands appeared at intervals in the neigh- bourhood of Rome, and even once penetrated as far south as Campania (361-60), the Celts never obtained any footing in Italy outside the plains in the north which they had made their own. Nor, in spite of the defeat on the Allia and the sack of the city, was Rome weakened except for the moment by the Celtic Annexa- attack. The storm passed away as rapidly as it had tion of come on. The city was hastily rebuilt, and Rome dis- southern mayed the enemies who hastened to take advantage ra* of her misfortunes by her undiminished vigour. Her conquests in southern Etruria were successfully defended against repeated attacks from the Etruscans to the north. The creation in 387 of four new tribes (Stellatina, Sabatina, Tromentina, Arnensis) marked the final annexation of the territory of Veii and of the lands lying along the Tiber valley. 401. A few years later Latin colonies were established at Sutrium and Nepete for the more effectual defence of the frontier, and finally, in 353, the subjugation of South Etruria was completed by the submission of Caere (q.v.) and its partial incorporation with the Roman state as a " municipium sine suffragio " — the first, it is said, of its kind.1 Next to the settlement of southern Etruria, the most im- portant of the successes gained by Rome between 390 and 343 B.C. were those won against her old foes the Aequi and Volsci, and her old allies the Latins and Hernicans. The Aequi indeed, already weakened by their long Aequi'and feud with Rome, and hard pressed by the Sabellian Voitci. tribes in their rear, were easily dealt with, and after 364-411 the campaign of 389 we have no further mention of an Aequian war until the last Aequian rising in 304. The Volsci, who in 389 had advanced to Lanuvium, were met and utterly defeated by Camillus, the conqueror of Veii, and this victory was followed up by the gradual sub- jugation to Rome of all the lowland country lying between the hills and the sea as far south as Tarracina. Latin colonies were established at Satricum (385), at Setia (379), and 36g 37J at Antium and Tarracina some time before 348. In 358 two fresh Roman tribes (Pomptina and Publilia) were formed in the same district.2 Rome had now nothing more to fear from the foes who a century ago had threatened her very existence. The lowland country, of which she was the natural centre, from £e. the Ciminian forest to Tarracina, was quiet, and orgaoiza- within its limits Rome was by far the strongest 'power, tion of But she had now to reckon with the old and faithful the Ltttla allies to whose loyal aid her present position was '•**""' largely due. The Latini and Hernici had suffered severely in the Aequian and Volscian wars; it is probable that not a few of the smaller communities included in the league had either been destroyed or been absorbed by larger states, and the independence of all alike was threatened by the growing power of Rome. The sack of Rome by the Celts gave them an oppor- tunity of reasserting their independence, and we are conse- quently told that this disaster was immediately followed by the temporary dissolution of the confederacy, and this again a few years later by a series of actual conflicts between Rome and her former allies. Between 383 and 358 we hear of wars with Tibur, Praeneste, Tusculum, Lanuvium, Circeii and the Hernici. But in all Rome was successful. In 382 Tusculum was fully incorporated with the Roman 372^ state by the bestowal of the full franchise;3 in 358, ' according to both Livy and Polybius, the old alliance was formally renewed with Latini and Hernici. We cannot, however, be wrong in assuming that the position of the allies under the new league was far inferior to that accorded them by the treaty of Spurius Cassius.4 Henceforth they were the subjects rather than the equals of Rome, a position which it is evident that they accepted much against their will, and from which they were yet to make one last effort to escape. We have now reached the close of the first stage in Rome's advance towards supremacy in Italy. By 343 B.C. she was already mistress both of the low country stretching from the Ciminian forest to Tarracina and Circeii and of the bordering highlands. Her own territory had largely increased. Across the Tiber the lands of Veii, Capena and Caere were nearly all Roman, while in Latium she had carried her frontiers to Tusculum on the Alban range and to the southernmost limits of the Pomptine district. And th'S territory was protected by a circle of dependent allies and colonies reach- ing northward to-Sutrium and Nepete, and southward to Sora on the upper Liris, and to Circeii on the coast. Already, too, she was beginning to be recognized as a power outside the 1 For the status of Caere and the " Caerite franchise," see Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 28 seq ; Madvig, R. Verf. i. 39; Beloch, /to/. Bund, 120; Mommsen, Sta'atsr. iii. 583 sqq. 1 Livy vii. 15. * Ibid. vi. 26. 4 Mommsen, R.G. i. 347 n ; Beloch, /to/. Bund, cap. ix. 371-96. 411. 624 ROME [REPUBLIC limits of the Latin lowlands. The fame of the capture of Rome by the Celts had reached Athens, and her subsequent victories over marauding Celtic bands had given her prestige in South jgg Italy as a bulwark against northern barbarians. In 354 she had formed her first connexions beyond the Liris by a treaty with the Samnites, and in 348 followed a far more important treaty with the great maritime state of Carthage.1 Rome had won her supremacy from the Ciminian forest to the Liris as the champion of the comparatively civilized com- Advaace munities of the lowlands against the rude highland beyond tribes which threatened to overrun them, and so, when lad't'in' her legions first crossed the Liris, it was in answer to Samaite an appeal from a lowland city against invaders from Wars. the hills. While she was engaged in clearing Latium of Volsci and Aequi, the Sabellian tribes of the central Apennines had rapidly spread over the southern half of the peninsula. Foremost among these- tribes were the Samnites, a portion of whom had captured the Etruscan city of Capua in 331 334 423> ^e Greek Cumae in 420, and had since then ruled as masters over the fertile Campanian territory. But in their new homes the conquerors soon lost all sense of re- lationship and sympathy with their highland brethren. They dwelt in cities, amassed wealth, and inherited the civilization of the Greeks and Etruscans whom they had dispossessed;2 above all, they had before long to defend themselves in their turn against the attacks of their ruder kinsmen from the hills, and it was for aid against these that the Samnites of Campania appealed to the rising state which had already made herself known as the bulwark of the lowlands north of the Liris, and which with her Latin and Hernican allies had scarcely less interest than the Campanian cities themselves in checking the raids of the highland Samnite tribes. The Campanian appeal was listened to. Rome with her confederates entered into alliance with Capua and the neigh- First bouring Campanian towns, and war was formally declared (343) against the Samnites.3 While to the Latins and Hernicans was entrusted apparently the defence of Latium and the Hernican valley against the northerly members of the Samnite confederacy, the Romans themselves undertook the task of driving the invaders out of Campania. After two campaigns the war was ended in 341 by a treaty, and the Samnites withdrew from the lowlands, leaving Rome the recognized suzerain of the Campanian cities which had sought her aid.4 There is no doubt that the check thus given by Rome to the advance of the hitherto invincible Sabellian highlanders not only made her the natural head and champion of the low countries, south as well as north of the Liris, but also consider- ably added to her prestige. Carthage sent her congratulations, and the Etruscan city of Falerii voluntarily enrolled herself among the allies of Rome. Of even greater service, however, was the fact that for fifteen years the Samnites remained quiet, for this inactivity, whatever its cause, enabled Rome triumph- antly to surmount a danger which threatened for the moment to wreck her whole position. This danger was nothing less than a desperate effort on the part of nearly all her allies and dependants south of the Tiber to throw off the yoke of her supre- The Latin macy- The way was led by her ancient confederates War. the Latini, whose smouldering discontent broke into open flame directly the fear of a Samnite attack was removed. From the Latin Campagna and the Sabine hills the revolt spread westward and southward to Antium and Tarracina, and even to the towns of the Campanian plain, 1 Livy vii. 27. For the whole question of the early treaties with Carthage, see Polybius iii. 22 ; Mommsen, vol. ii. Appendix (p. 523) ; Strachan-Davidson, Polybius, pp. 50 ff. ; Pais, Storia di Roma, i. 2, 305, n. i ; also article CARTHAGE. * For the Samnites in Campania, see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, i. 453 ; Schwegler-Clason, R.G. v. 98 seq.; Beloch, Campanien (Berlin, 1879). 8 Livy vii. 32. 4 For the difficulties in the traditional accounts of this war, see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, i. 459 n. ; Schwegler-Clason, R.G. v. 14 seq. War. 411. 413. where the mass of the inhabitants at once repudiated the alliance formed with Rome by the ruling class. The struggle was sharp but short. In two pitched battles* the strength of the insurrection was broken, and two more campaigns sufficed for the complete reduction of such of the insurgent communities as still held out. The revolt crushed, Rome set herself de- liberately to the task of re-establishing on a new and firmer basis her supremacy over the lowlands, and in doing Settle- so laid the foundations of that marvellous organization meat of which was destined to spread rapidly over Italy, Latium; and to withstand the attacks even of Hannibal. The old historic Latin league ceased to exist, though its memory was still preserved by the yearly Latin festival on the Alban Mount. Most if not all of the common land of the league became Roman territory;6 five at least of the old Latin cities were compelled to accept the Roman franchise7 and enter the pale of the Roman state. The rest, with the Latin colonies, were ranked as Latin allies of Rome, but on terms which secured their complete dependence upon the sovereign city. The policy of isolation, which became so cardinal a principle of Roman rule, was now first systematically applied. No rights of conubium or com- mercium were any longer to exist between these communities. Their federal councils were prohibited, and all federal action independent of Rome forbidden.8 In Campania and the coast-lands connecting Campania with Rome, a policy of annexation was considered safer than that of alliance. Of the two frontier posts of the Volsci, an(/ 0/ Antium and Velitrae, the former was constituted a Cam- Roman colony, its long galleys burnt and their pania. prows set up in the Forum at Rome, while the walls of Velitrae were razed to the ground, its leading men banished beyond the Tiber, and their lands given to Roman settlers. Farther south on the route to Campania, Fundi and Formiae were, after the precedent set in the case of Caere, declared Roman and granted the civil rights of Roman citizenship, while lastly in Campania itself the same status was given to Capua, Cumae, and the smaller communities dependent upon them.' During the ten years from 338 to 328 the work of 410-26 settlement was steadily continued. Tarracina, like Antium, was made a Roman colony. Privernum, the last Volscian town to offer resistance to Rome, was subdued ^ in 330, part of its territory allotted to Roman citizens, and the state itself forced to accept the Roman franchise. Lastly, to strengthen the lines of defence against the Sabellian tribes, two colonies with the rights of Latin allies were estab- lished at Cales (334) and at Fregellae (328). The ^g 426 settlement of the lowlands was accomplished. As a single powerful and compact state with an outer circle of closely dependent allies, Rome now stood in sharp contrast with the disunited and degenerate cities of northern Etruria, the loosely organized tribes of the Apennines, and the decaying and disorderly Greek towns of the south. The strength of this system was now to be tried by a struggle with the one Italian people who were still ready and able to contest with Rome the supremacy of the peninsula, second The passive attitude of the Samnites between 342 and Samaite 327 was no doubt largely due to the dangers which Y2V'o4- had suddenly threatened them in South Italy. But 427-so7 the death of Alexander of Epirus, in 332,10 removed 412-27. their only formidable opponent there, and left them 422- free to turn their attention to the necessity of checking the steady advance of Rome. In 327, the year after the ominous foundation of a Roman colony at Fregellae, a pretext for renewing the struggle was offered them. The 6 At the foot of Mount Vesuvius, Livy viii. 9 ; at Trifanum, ibid, viii. II. « Livy viii. II. ' Livy viii. 14; Lanuvium, Aricia, Momentum, Pedum, Tusculum. 8 Ibid. loc. cit., " ceteris Latinis populis conubia commerciaque et concilia inter se ademerunt." 9 For the controversy as to the precise status of Capua and the " equites Campani " (Livy viii. 14), see Beloch, Ital. Bund, 122 seq.; idem, Campanien, 317; Mommsen, Staatsr. iii. 574. 10 Livy viii. 3, 17, 24. 427. REPUBLIC] ROME 625 433, 436. Cumaean colony of Palaepolis1 had incurred the wrath of Rome by its raids into her territory in Campania. The Samnites sent a force to defend it, and Rome replied by a declaration of war. The two opponents were not at first sight unequally matched, and had the Sabellian tribes held firmly together the issue of the struggle might have been different. As it was, however, the Lucanians to the south actually joined Rome from the first, while the northern clans, Marsi, Vestini, Paeligni, Frentani, after a feeble and lukewarm resistance, subsided into a neutrality which was exchanged in 304 for a formal alliance with Rome. An even greater advantage to Rome from the outset was the enmity existing between the Samnites and the Apulians, the latter of whom from the first joined Rome and thus gave her a position in the rear of her enemy and in a country eminently well fitted for maintaining a large military force. These weaknesses on the Samnite side were amply illustrated by the events of the war. The first seven or eight years were marked by one serious disaster to the Roman arms, the defeat at the Caudine Forks (321), but, when in 318 the Samnites asked for and obtained a two years' truce, Rome had suc- ceeded not only in inflicting several severe blows upon her enemies but in isolating them from outside help. The Lucanians to the south were her allies. To the east, in the rear of Samnium, Apulia acknowledged the suzerainty of Rome, and Luceria, captured in 320, had been established as a base of Roman operations. Finally to the north the Romans had easily overcome the feeble resistance of the Vestini and Frentani, and secured through their territories a safe passage for their legions to Apulia. On the renewal of hostilities in 316, the Samnites, bent on escaping from the net which was being slowly drawn round them, made a series of desperate efforts to break through the lines of defence which protected Latium and Campania. Sora and Fregellae on the upper Liris were captured by a sudden attack; the Ausones in the low country near the mouth of the same river were encouraged to revolt by the appearance of the Samnite army; and in Campania another army, attracted by rumours of dis- turbance, all but defeated the Roman consuls under the very walls of Capua. But these efforts were unavailing. Sora and Fregellae were recovered as quickly as they had been lost, and the frontier there was strengthened by the establishment of a colony at Interamna. The Ausones were punished by the confiscation of their territory, and Roman supremacy further secured by the two colonies of Suessa and Pontia (312). The construction of the famous Via Appia,2 the work of the censor Appius Claudius Caecus, opened a safe and direct route to Campania, while the capture of Nola deprived the Samnites of their last important stronghold in the Campanian lowlands. The failure of these attempts broke the courage even of the Sam- nites. Their hopes were irtdeed raised for a moment by the news that Etruria had risen against Rome (310), but their daring scheme of effecting a union with the Etruscans was frustrated by the energy of the Roman generals. Five years later (305) the Romans revenged a Samnite raid into Campania by an invasion of Samnium itself. Arpinum on .the frontier was taken, and at last, after a twenty-two years' struggle, the Second Samnite War was closed by a renewal of the ancient treaty with Rome (304).* The six years of peace which followed (304-298) were employed by Rome in still further strengthening her position. Already, two years before the peace, a rash revolt of the Hernici4 had given Rome a pretext for finally annexing the territory of her ancient allies. The tribal con- federacy was broken up, and all the Hernican communities, with the exception of three which had not joined the revolt, were incorporated with the Roman state as municipia, with the civil rights of the Roman franchise. Between the Hernican 1 Livy viii. 22. 1 Ibid. ix. 45. 2 Ibid. ix. 29; see APPIA, VIA. 4 Ibid. ix. 43. valley and the frontiers of the nearest Sabellian tribes lay what remained of the once formidable people of the Aequi. In their case, too, a revolt (304) was followed by the 4SO annexation of their territory, which was marked in this case by the formation there (301) of two Roman tribes (Aniensis and Teretina).6 Not content with thus carrying the borders of their own territory up to the very frontiers of the Sabellian country, Rome succeeded (304) in finally detaching from the Sabellian confederacy all the tribes lying' between the north-east frontier of Latium and the Adriatic Sea. Henceforward the Marsi, Paeligni, Vestini, Marrucini and Frentani were enrolled among the allies of Rome, and not only swelled her forces in the field but interposed a useful barrier between her enemies to the north in Etruria and Umbria and those to the south in Samnium, while they connected her directly with the friendly Apulians. Lastly, as a security for the fidelity at least of the nearest of these allies, colonies were planted in the Marsian territories at Alba Fucentia (303) and at Carsioli (298). A significant indication of the widening range of Rome's influence in Italy, and of the new responsibilities rapidly pressing upon her, is the fact that when in 302 the Spartan Cleonymus landed in the territory of the Sallentini, far away in the south-east, he was met and repulsed by a Roman force.7 Six years after the conclusion of the treaty which ended the Second Samnite War, news arrived that the Samnites were harassing the Lucanians. Rome at once interfered to Third protect her allies. Samnium was invaded in force, Samnite the country ravaged and one stronghold after another War, captured. Unable any longer to hold their own in a •*** position where they were hedged round by enemies, the Samnite leaders turned as a last hope to the com- munities of northern Etruria, to the free tribes of Umbria and to the once dreaded Celts. With a splendid daring they formed the scheme of uniting all these peoples with them- selves in a last desperate effort to break the power of Rome. For some forty years after the final annexation of southern Etruria (351 B.C.) matters had remained unchanged in that quarter. Sutrium and Nepete still guarded Romans the Roman frontier; the natural boundary of the I" N. Ciminian forest was still intact; and up the valley of Etruria. the Tiber Rome had not advanced beyond Falerii, a 403~ few miles short of the most southerly Umbrian town Ocriculum. But in 311, on the expiry, apparently of the long truce with Rome, concluded in 351, the northern Etruscans, alarmed no doubt by the rapid advances which Rome was making farther south, rose in arms and attacked Sutrium. The attack, however, recoiled disastrously upon the heads of the assailants. A Roman force promptly relieved Sutrium, and its leader, Q. Fabius Rullianus, without awaiting orders from home, boldly plunged into the wilds of the Ciminian forest, and crossing them safely swept with fire and sword over the rich lands to the north. Then turning southward he met and utterly defeated the forces which the Etruscans had hastily raised in the hopes of intercepting him at the Vadimonian Lake.8 This decisive victory ended the war. The Etruscan cities, dis- united among themselves, and enervated by long years of peace, abandoned the struggle for the time, paid a heavy indemnity and concluded a truce with Rome (309-8). In the 445-46 same year the promptitude of Fabius easily averted a threatened attack by the Umbrians, but Rome proceeded nevertheless to fortify herself in her invariable fashion against future dangers on this side, by an alliance with Ocriculum, which was followed ten years later (299) by a colony at Nequinum,' and an alliance with the Picentes, whose position in the rear 6 Liyy x. 9- * Ibid. ix. 45. r Ibid. x. 2. 8 Ibid. ix. 39. Ihne (Romische Geschichte, i.2 394 seq.) throws some doubts on the traditional accounts of this war and of that in 296. 9 It received the name of Narnia (Livy x. 10). 626 ROME [REPUBLIC 464. of Umbria rendered them as valuable to Rome as the Apulians had proved farther south. Fourteen years had passed since the battle on the Vadimonian Lake, when the Samnites appeared on the borders of Etruria and Battle of caUed on tne peoples of northern Italy to rise against Sen- the common enemy. Their appeal, backed by the i inuin. presence of their troops, was successful. The Etruscans 29S-4S9. £ouncj courage to face the Roman legions once more; a few of the Umbrians joined them; but the most valuable allies to the Samnites were the Celts, who had for some time threatened a raid across the Apennines, and who now marched eagerly into Umbria and joined the coalition. The news that the Celts were in motion produced a startling effect at Rome, and every nerve was strained to meet this new danger. While two armies were left in southern Etruria as reserves, the two consuls, Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus and P. Decius Mus the younger, both tried soldiers, marched northwards up the valley of the Tiber and into Umbria at the head of four Roman legions and a still larger force of Italian allies. At Sentinum, on the further side of the Apennines, they encountered the united forces of the Celts and Samnites, the Etruscans and Umbrians having, it is said, been withdrawn for the defence of their own homes. The battle that followed was desperate, and the Romans lost one of their consuls, Decius, and more than 8000 men.1 But the Roman victory was decisive. The Celts were annihilated, and the fear of a second Celtic attack on Rome removed. All danger from the coalition was over. The Etruscan communities gladly purchased peace by the payment of indemnities. The rising in Umbria, never formidable, died away, and the Samnites were left single-handed to bear the whole weight of the wrath of Rome. During four years more, however, they desperately defended their highland homes, and twice at least, in 293 and 292, they 461, 462. managed to place in the field a force sufficient to meet the Roman legions on equal terms. At last, in 290, the consul M'.Curius Dentatus finally ex- hausted their power of resistance. Peace was concluded, and it is significant of the respect inspired at Rome by their indomitable courage that they were allowed to become the allies of Rome, on equal terms and without any sacrifice of independence.2 Between the close of the Third Samnite War and the land- ing of Pyrrhus in 281 B.C. we find Rome engaged, as her wont was, in quietly extending and consolidating her power. In southern Italy she strengthened her hold on Apulia by planting on the borders of Apulia and Lucania the strong colony of Venusia.3 In central Italy the annexation of the Sabine country (290) carried her frontiers eastward to the borders of her Picentine allies on the Adriatic.4 Farther east, in the territory of the Picentes them- selves, she established colonies on the Adriatic coast at Hadria and Castrum (285-83).* North of the Picentes lay the territories of the Celtic Senones stretching inland to the north-east borders of Etruria, and these too now fell into her hands. Ten years after their defeat at Sentinum (285-84) a Celtic force descended into Etruria, besieged Arretium and defeated the relieving force despatched by Rome. In 283 the consul L. Cornelius Dolabella was sent to avenge the insult. He completely routed the Senones. Their lands were annexed by Rome, and a colony established at Sena on the coast. This success, followed as it was by the decisive defeat of the neighbouring tribe of the Boii, who had invaded Etruria and penetrated as far south as the Vadimonian Lake, awed the Celts into quiet, and for more than forty years there was comparative tranquillity in northern Italy.6 In the south, however, the claims of Rome to supremacy 1 Livy x. 27. * Livy, Epit. xi., " pacem petentibus Samnitibus foedus quarto renovatum est." 3 Dion. Hal. Exc. xvi. xvii. 5 ; Veil. Pat. i. 14. 4 Livy, Epit. xi. ; Veil. Pat. i. 14. • Livy, Epit. x. • Ibid. xii. ; Polyb. ii. 20. 473. 464. 469-71. 473-74. were now to be disputed by a new and formidable foe. At the close of the Third Samnite War the Greek cities War wlth on the southern coast of Italy found themselves once Pyrrhus, more harassed by the Sabellian tribes on their borders, 281-75= whose energies, no longer absorbed by the long struggles 473~79- in central Italy, now found an attractive opening southward. Naturally enough the Greeks, like the Capuans sixty years before, appealed for aid to Rome (283-82), and like the Capuans they offered in return to recognize the suzerainty of the great Latin Republic. In reply a Roman force under C. Fabricius Luscinus marched into south Italy, easily routed the marauding bands of Lucanians, Bruttians and Samnites, and established Roman garrisons in Locri, Croton, Rhegium and Thurii. At Tarentum, the most powerful and flourishing of the Greek seaports, this sudden and rapid advance of Rome excited the greatest anxiety. Tarentum was already allied by treaty (301) with Rome, and she had now to decide whether this treaty should be exchanged for one which would place her, like the other Greek communities, under the protectorate of Rome, or whether she should find some ally able and willing to assist in making a last stand for independence. The former course, in Tarentum, as before at Capua, was the one favoured by the aristocratic party ; the latter was eagerly supported by the mass of the people and their leaders. While matters were still in suspense, the appearance, contrary to the treaty, of a Roman squadron off the harbour decided the controversy. The Tarentines, indignant at the insult, attacked the hostile fleet, killed the admiral and sunk most of the ships. Still Rome, relying probably on her partisans in the city, tried negotiation, and an alliance appeared likely after all, when suddenly the help for which the Tarentine demo- crats had been looking appeared, and war with Rome was resolved upon (281-80).' King Pyrrhus,8 whose timely appearance seemed for the moment to have saved the independence of Tarentum, was the most brilliant of the military adventurers whom the disturbed times following the death of Alexander the Great had brought into prominence. High-spirited, generous and ambitious, he had formed the scheme of rivalling Alexander's achievements in the East, by winning for himself an empire in the West. He • aspired not only to unite under his rule the Greek communities of Italy and Sicily, but to overthrow the great Phoenician state of Carthage — the natural enemy of Greeks in the West, as Persia had been in the East. Of Rome it is clear that he knew little or nothing; the task of ridding the Greek seaports of their barbarian foes he no doubt regarded as an easy one; and the splendid force he brought with him was intended rather for the conquest of the West than for the preliminary work of chastising a few Italian tribes, or securing the sub- mission of the unwarlike Italian Greeks. He defeated the Roman consul, M. Valerius Laevinus, on the banks of the Liris (280), and gained the support of .the Greek cities as well as that of numerous bands of Samnites, ' * Lucanians and Bruttians. But, to the disappointment of his new allies, Pyrrhus showed no anxiety to follow up his advan- tage. His heart was set on Sicily and Africa, and his imme- diate object was to come to terms with Rome. But though he advanced as near Rome as Anagnia (279), nothing could shake the resolution of the senate, and in the next year 475' (278) he again routed the legions at Asculum (Ascoli), but only to find that the indomitable resolution of the enemy was strength- ened by defeat. He now crossed into Sicily, where, though at first successful, he was unable to achieve any lasting result. Soured and disappointed, Pyrrhus returned to Italy (276) to find the Roman legions steadily moving southwards, and his Italian allies disgusted by his desertion of their cause. In 275 the decisive battle of the war was fought at Beneventum. The consul, M'. Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of Samnium, gained a complete victory, 7 Livy, Epit. xii.; Plut. Pyrrh. 13. 8 For his career and for the story of his wars with Rome, see the article PYRRHUS. REPUBLIC] ROME 627 484. 48S. 481, 491. 481, 486, 491. 486. and Pyrrhus, unable any longer to face his opponents in the field, and disappointed of all assistance from his allies, retreated to disgust to Tarentum and thence crossed into Greece.1 A few years later (272) Tarentum was surrendered to Rome by its Epirot garrison; it was granted a treaty of alliance, but its walls were razed and its fleet handed over to Rome. In 270 Rhegium also entered the ranks of Roman allies, and finally in 269 a single campaign crushed the last efforts at resistance in Samnium. Rome was now at leisure to consolidate the position she had won. Between 273 and 263 three new colonies were founded in Samnium and Lucania — Paestum in 273, Beneventum in 268, Aesernia in 263. In central Italy the area of Roman territory was increased by the full enfranchisement (268) of the Sabines,2 and of their neighbours to the east, the people of Picenum. 486 To guard the Adriatic coast colonies were established 49g at Ariminum (268), at Firmum and at Castrum Novum (264), while to the already numerous maritime colonies was added that of Cosa in Etruria.3 Rome was now the undisputed mistress of Italy. The limits of her supremacy to the north were represented roughly by a Rome the line drawn across the peninsula from the mouth of mistress the Arno on the west to that of the Aesis on the east.4 of Italy. Beyond this line lay the Ligurians and the Celts; all south of it was now united as "Italy" under the rule of Rome. But the rule of Rome over Italy, like her wider rule over the Mediterranean coasts, was not an absolute dominion over conquered subjects. It was in form at least a confederacy under Roman protection and guidance; and the Italians, like the pro- vincials, were not the subjects, but the " allies and friends " of the Roman people.5 In the treatment of these allies Rome con- sistently followed the maxim, divide et impera. In every possible way she strove to isolate them from each other, while binding them closely to herself. The old federal groups were in most cases broken up, and each of the members united with Rome by a special treaty of alliance. In Etruria, Latium, Campania and Magna Graecia the city state was taken as the unit ; in central Italy where urban life was non-existent, the unit was the tribe. The northern Sabellian peoples, for instance — the Marsi, Paeligni, Vestini, Marrucini, Frentani — were now constituted as separate communities in alliance with Rome. In many cases, too, no freedom of trade or intermarriage was allowed between the allies themselves, a policy afterwards systematically pursued in the provinces. Nor were all these numerous allied communities placed on the same footing as regarded their relations with Rome herself. To begin with, a sharp distinction was drawn between the " Latini" and the general mass of Italian allies. The " Latins " of this period had little more than the name in common with the old thirty Latin peoples of the days of Spurius Cassius. With a few exceptions, such as Tibur and Praeneste, the latter had either disappeared or had been incorporated with the Roman state, and the Latins of 268 B.C. were almost exclusively the " Latin colonies," that is to say, communities founded by Rome, composed of men of Roman blood, and whose only claim to the title " Latin " lay in the fact that Rome granted to them some portion of the rights and privileges formerly enjoyed by the old Latin cities under the Cassian treaty.6 Though nominally allies, they were in fact offshoots of Rome herself, bound to her by community of race, language and interest, and planted as Roman garrisons among alien and conquered peoples. The Roman citizen who joined a Latin colony lost his citizenship — to have allowed him to retain it would no doubt have been regarded as enlarging too rapidly the limits of the citizen body; but he received in 1 Livy, Epit. xiv. ; Plut. Pyrrh. 26. 2 Veil. Pat. i. 14, " suffragii ferendi jus Sabinis datum." 'Ibid.; Livy, Epit. xv. 4 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 60, note I ; Nissen, /to/. Landeskunde, i. p. 71. 6 Beloch, Ital. Bund, 203; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 60, note 2. s For the coloniae Latinos founded before the First Punic War, see Beloch, 136 seq. The Latins. 486. exchange the status of a favoured ally. The member of a Latin colony had the right of commercium and down to 268 7 of conubium also with Roman citizens. Provided they left sons and property to represent them at home, they were free to migrate to Rome and acquire the Roman franchise. In war-time they not only shared in the booty, but claimed a portion of any land confiscated by Rome and declared " public." These privileges, coupled with their close natural affinities with Rome, successfully secured the fidelity of the Latin colonies, which became not only the most efficient props of Roman supremacy, but powerful agents in the work of Romanizing Italy. Below the privileged Latins stood the Italian The allies; and here again we know generally that there Italian were considerable differences of status, determined allies. in each case by the terms of their respective treaties with Rome. We are told that the Greek cities of Neapolis and Heraclea were among the most favoured;8 the Bruttii, on the other hand, seem, even before the Hannibalic War, to have been less gener- ously treated. But beyond this we have no detailed information. Rome, however, did not rely only on this policy of isolation. Her allies were attached as closely to herself as they were clearly separated from each other, and from the first she took every security for the maintenance of her own paramount authority. Within its own borders, each ally was left to manage its own affairs as an independent state.9 The badges which marked subjection to Rome in the provinces — the resident magistrate and the tribute — were unknown in Italy. But in all points affecting the relations of one ally with another, in all questions of the general interests of Italy and of foreign policy, the decision rested solely with Rome. The place of a federal constitution, of a federal council, of federal officers, was filled by the Roman senate, assembly and magistrates. The main- tenance of peace and order in Italy, the defence of the coasts and frontiers, the making of war or peace with foreign powers, were matters the settlement of which Rome kept entirely in her own hands. Each allied state, in time of war, was called upon for a certain contingent of men, but, though its contingent usually formed a distinct corps under officers of its own, its numerical strength was fixed by Rome, it was brigaded with the Roman legions, and was under the orders of the Roman consul.10 This paramount authority of Rome throughout the peninsula was confirmed and justified by the fact that Rome herself was now infinitely more powerful than any one of her The numerous allies. Her territory, as distinct from that Romaa of the allied states, covered something Eke one-third *tate' of the peninsula south of the Aesis. Along the west coast it stretched from Caere to the southern borders of Campania. Inland, it included the former territories of the Aequi and Hernici, the Sabine country, and even extended eastward into. Picenum, while beyond these limits were outlying districts, such as the lands of the Senonian Celts, with the Roman colony of Sena, and others elsewhere in Italy, which had been con- fiscated by Rome and given over to Roman settlers. Since the first important annexation of territory after the capture of Veii (396), twelve new tribes had been formed,11 and the number of male citizens registered at the census had risen from 152,000 to 2f)o,ooo.n Within this enlarged Roman 7 The year of the foundation of Ariminum, the first Latin colony with the restricted rights; Cic. Pro Coec. 35, 202; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 52 n.; Staatsr. iii. 624; Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 54; Beloch, 155-58, takes a different view. 8 Beloch, Camp. 39; Cic. Pro Balbo, 8, 21, 22, 50. 9 For the relation of the socii Italici to Rome, see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 53 ff. ; Beloch, Ital. Bund, cap. x. 10 Beloch, 203. The importance of this duty of the allies is ex- pressed in the phrase, " socii nominisve Latini quibus ex formula togatorum milites in terra Italia imperare solent." 11 Four in South Etruria (387), two in the Pomptine territory (358), two in Latium (332), two in the territory of the southern Volsci and the Ager Falernus (313), two in the Aequian and Hernican territory (299). The total of thirty-five was completed in 241 by formation of the Velina and Quirina, probably in the Sabine and Picentine dis- tricts, enfranchised in 268. See Beloch, 32. 12 Livy, Epit. xvi. ; Eutrop. ii. 18; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iu 55 n. ; Beloch, cap. iv. pp. 77 seq. ROME [REPUBLIC state were now included numerous communities with local Coioakt institutions and government. At their head stood and the Roman colonies (colonioe civium Romanorum), ci"!a' founded to guard especially the coasts of Latium and Campania.1 Next to these eldest children of Rome came those communities which had been invested with the full Roman franchise, such, for instance, as the old Latin towns of Aricia, Lanuvium, Tusculum, Nomentum and Pedum. Lowest in the scale were those which had not been considered ripe for the full franchise, but had, like Caere, received instead the civitas sine suffragio, the civil without the political rights.2 Their members, though Roman citizens, were not enrolled in the tribes, and in time of war served not in the ranks of the Roman legions but in separate contingents. In addition to these organized town communities, there were also the groups of Roman settlers on the public lands, and the dwellers in the village communities of the enfranchised highland districts in central Italy. The administrative needs of this enlarged Rome were obviously such as could not be adequately satisfied by the system which had done well enough for a small city state with a few square miles of territory. The old centralization of all government in Rome itself had become an impossibility, and the Roman states- men did their best to meet the altered requirements of the time. The urban communities within the Roman pale, colonies and municipia, were allowed a large measure of local self-govern- ment. In all we find local assemblies, senates and magistrates, to whose hands the ordinary routine of local administration was confided, and, in spite of differences in detail, e.g. in the titles and numbers of the magistrates, the same type of consti- tution prevailed throughout.3 But these local authorities were carefully subordinated to the higher powers in Rome. The local constitution could be modified or revoked by the Roman senate and assembly, and the local magistrates, no less than the ordinary members of the community, were subject to the para- mount authority of the Roman consuls, praetors and censors. In particular, care was taken to keep the administration of justice well under central control. The Roman citizen in a colony or municipium enjoyed, of course, the right of appeal to the Roman people in a capital case. We may also assume that from the first some limit was placed to the jurisdiction of the local magistrate, and that cases falling outside it came before the central authorities. But an additional safeguard for the „ . , equitable and uniform administration of Roman law, Prefects. . ^ in communities to many of which the Roman code was new and unfamiliar, was provided by the institution of prefects (praefecti juri dicundo),4 who were sent out annually, as representatives of the Roman praetor, to administer justice . in the colonies and municipia. To prefects was, moreover, assigned the charge of those districts within the Roman pale where no urban communities, and consequently no organized local government, existed. In these two institutions, that of municipal government and that of prefectures, we have already two of the cardinal points of the later imperial system of government. Lastly, the changes which the altered position and increased responsibilities of Rome had effected in her military system 5 The tended to weaken the intimate connexion between military the Roman army in the field and the Roman people system. at home, and thus prepared the way for that com- plete breach between the two which in the end proved fatal to the Republic. It is true that service in the legion was still the first duty and the highest privilege of the fully qualified citizen. But this service was gradually altering in character. Though new legions were still raised each year for the summer 1 Ostia, Antium, Tarracina, Minturnae, Sinuessa, and, on the Adriatic, Sena and Castrum Novum. 2 To both these classes the term municipia was applied. ' For details, see Beloch, /to/. Bund, caps, v., vi., vii. The enfran- chised communities in most cases retained the old titles for their magistrates, and hence the variety in their designations. 4 For the praefecti, see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 49, 67, and Staatsr. ii. 608; Beloch, 130-35. 6 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 72 seq. ; Livy viii. 8 ; Polyb. vi. 17-42. campaigns, this was by no means always accompanied, as formerly, by the disbandment of those already on foot, and this increase in the length of time during which the citizen was kept with the standards had, as early as the siege of Veii, necessitated a further deviation from the old theory of military service — the introduction of pay.* Moreover, while in the early days of the Republic the same divisions served for the soldier in the legion and the citizen in the assembly, in the new manipular system,7 with its three lines, no regard was paid to civic distinctions, but only to length of service and military efficiency, while at the same time the more open order of fighting which it involved demanded of each soldier greater skill, and therefore a more thorough training in arms than the old phalanx. One other change resulted from the new military Thepro, necessities of the time, which was as fruitful of results ^,,,^1^, as the incipient separation between the citizen and the soldier. Under the early Republic, the chief command of the legions rested with the consuls of the year. But, as Rome's military operations increased in area and in distance from Rome, a larger staff became necessary, and the inconvenience of summoning home a consul in the field from an unfinished campaign became intolerable. The remedy found, that of prolonging for a further period the imperium of the consul, was first applied in 327 B.C. in the case of Q. Publilius Philo,8 and between 327 and 264 instances of this prorogatio imperil became increasingly common. This proconsular authority, originally an occasional and subordinate one, was destined to become first of all the strongest force in the Republic, and ultimately the chief prop of the power of the Caesars. PERIOD B: ROME AND THE MEDITERRANEAN STATES, 265- 146 B.C. — (a) Conquest of the West. — Though marked out by her geographical position as the natural centre of the Mediterranean, Italy had hitherto played no active part in Mediterranean politics, but, now that she was for the first time united, it was felt throughout the Mediterranean world that a new power had arisen, and Rome, as the head and representative of Italy, found herself irresistibly drawn into the vortex of Mediterranean affairs. Egypt sought her alliance, and Greek scholars began to interest themselves keenly in the history, constitution, and character of the Latin Republic which had so suddenly become famous. But Rome looked naturally westward rather than eastward. The western coasts of the peninsula were the most fertile and populous and wealthy; and it was in this direction that the natural openings for Italian commerce were to be found. It was, however, precisely on this side that Rome had serious ground for anxiety. Carthage was now at the height of her power. Her outposts were threateningly near to Italy in Sardinia and in Sicily, while her fleets swept the seas and jealously guarded for the benefit of Carthage alone the hidden treasures of the West. In the east of Sicily, Syracuse still upheld the cause of Greek independence against the hereditary foe of the Greek race; but Syracuse stood alone, and her resources were comparatively small. What Rome had to fear was the establishment, and that at no distant date, of an absolute Carthaginian domination over the Western seas — a domination which would not only be fatal to Italian commerce, but would be a standing menace to the safety of the Italian coasts. It was above all things essential for Rome that the Cartha- ginians should advance no farther eastward. But already in 272 Tarentum had almost fallen into their grasp, plrst and seven years later Rome was threatened with the puaic establishment of Carthaginian rule at Messana, within War, sight of the Italian coast. The intervention of both 26Sg?s',~, powers in a quarrel between the Mamertines, a body of Campanian mercenaries who had occupied Messana, and Hiero II. 8 Livy iv. 59. 7 This system was probably introduced in order to meet the charge of the Celtic swordsmen, but it was perfected during the Samnite wars. See Marquardt, Staatsverw. iii. 350 seq.; Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites, s.v. " Legio " (Cagnat). 8 Livy viii. 23, " ut pro consule rem gereret quoad debellatum esset." REPUBLIC] ROME 629 of Syracuse, led to the outbreak of war between Rome and Carthage in 264 B.C. The military history of the struggle which followed is treated in the article PUNJC WARS; it will suffice to note here that the war lasted until 241 B.C., when the Carthaginians were compelled to cede Sicily and the Lipari islands to Rome, and to pay an indemnity of 3200 talents (about £800,000). The struggle was one in which both Rome and Carthage were serving an apprenticeship in a warfare the conditions of which were unfamiliar to both. The Roman legions were foes very unlike any against which the Carthaginian leaders had ever led their motley array of mercenaries, while Rome was called upon for the first time to fight a war across the sea, and to fight with ships against the greatest naval power of the age. The novelty of these conditions accounts for much of the vacillating and uncertain action observable on both sides. It is possible that Hamilcar had already made up his mind that Rome must be attacked and crushed in Italy, but his government attempted nothing more than raids upon the coast. There are indications also that some in the Roman senate saw no end to the struggle but in the destruction of Carthage; yet an invasion of Africa was only once seriously attempted, and then only a half-hearted support was given to the expedition. But these peculiarities in the war served to bring out in the clearest relief the strength and the weakness of the two contending states. The chief dangers for Carthage lay obviously in the jealousy exhibited at home of her officers abroad, in the difficulty of controlling her mercenary troops, and in the ever-present possibility of dis- affection among her subjects in Libya — dangers which even the genius of Hannibal failed finally to surmount. Rome, on the other hand, was strong in the public spirit of her citizens, the fidelity of her allies, the valour and discipline of her legions. What she needed was a system which should make a better use of her splendid materials than one under which her plans were shaped from day to day by a divided senate, and executed by officers who were changed every year, and by soldiers most of whom returned home at the close of each summer's campaign. The interval between the First and Second Punic Wars was employed by both Rome and Carthage in strengthening their respective positions. The eastern end of Sicily was still left under the rule of Hiero as the ally of Rome, but the larger western portion of the island became directly subject to Rome, and a temporary arrangement seems to have been made for its government, either by one of the two praetors, or possibly by a quaestor.1 Sardinia and Corsica had not been surrendered to Rome by the treaty of 241, but three years later (230), on the invitation of the Carthaginian mercenaries stationed in the islands, a Roman force occupied them; Carth- age protested, but, on the Romans threatening war, she gave way, and Sardinia and Corsica were formally ceded to Rome, though it was some seven or eight years before all resistance on the part of the natives themselves was crushed. In 227, however, the senate considered matters ripe for the establishment of a separate administration in her oversea possessions. In that year two additional praetors were elected; to one was assigned the charge of western Sicily, to the other that of Sardinia and Corsica,2 and thus the first stones of the Roman provincial system were laid. Of at least equal importance for the security of the peninsula was the subjugation of the Celtic tribes in the valley of the Po. These, headed by the Boii and Insubres and assisted by levies from the Celts to the westward, had in 225 alarmed the whole of Italy by invading Etruria and penetrating to Clusium, only three days' journey from Rome. Here, however, their courage seems to have failed them. They retreated northward along the Etruscan coast, until at Telamon their way was barred by the Roman legions, returning from Sardinia to the defence of Rome, while a second consular army hung upon their rear. Thus hemmed in, the Celts fought desperately, 1 Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 243 ; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 209 ; Appian, Sic. 2. * Livy, Epit. xx. S2S. S26. but were completely defeated and the flower of their tribesmen slain. The Romans followed up their success by invading the Celtic territory. The Boii were easily reduced to submission. The Insubres, north of the Po, resisted more obstinately, but by 222 the war was over, and all the tribes in the rich M2 Po valley acknowledged the supremacy of Rome. The conquered Celts were not enrolled among the Italian allies of Rome, but were treated as subjects beyond the frontier. Three colonies were founded to hold them in check — Placentia (218) and Cremona in the territory of the Insubres, Mutina (183)' in that of the Boii; and the great northern road (Via Flaminia) was completed as far as the Celtic border at Ariminum. On the Adriatic coast the immediate interests of Rome were limited to rendering the sea safe for Italian trade. It was with this object that, in 229, the first Roman expedition crossed the Adriatic, and inflicted severe chastisement on the Illyrian pirates of the opposite coast.3 This expedition was the means of establishing for the first time direct political relations between Rome and the states of Greece proper, to many of which the suppression of piracy in the Adriatic was of as much importance as to Rome herself. Alliances were con- cluded with Corcyra, Epidamnus, and Apollonia; and em- bassies explaining the reasons which had brought Roman troops into Greece were sent to the Aetolians, the Achaeans, and even to Athens and Corinth. Everywhere they were well received, and the admission of the Romans to the Isthmian games4 (228) formally acknowledged them as the natural allies of the free Greek states against both barbarian tribes and foreign despots. Meanwhile Carthage had acquired a possession which promised to compensate her for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. The genius of her greatest citizen and soldier, Hamilcar Barca, had appreciated the enormous value of the Spanish peninsula, and conceived the scheme of founding there a Carthaginian dominion which should not only add to the wealth of Carthage, but supply her with a base of operations for a war of revenge with Rome. The conquest of southern and eastern Spain, begun by Hamilcar (236-28) and carried on by his kinsman Hasdrubal (228-21), was completed by his son Hannibal, who, with all his father's genius, inherited also his father's hatred of Rome, and by 219 the authority g^g of Carthage had been extended as far as the Ebro (see SPAIN, History). Rome had not watched this rapid ad- vance without anxiety, but, probably owing to her troubles with the Celts, she had contented herself with stipu- lating (226) that Carthage should not carry her arms beyond the Ebro, so as to threaten Rome's ancient ally, the Greek Massilia (mod. Marseilles), and with securing the inde- pendence of the two nominally Greek communities, Emporiae and Saguntum,5 on the east coast. But these precautions were of no avail against the resolute determination of Hannibal, with whom the conquest of Spain was only preliminary to an attack upon Italy, and who could not afford to leave behind him in Spain a state allied to Rome. In 219, therefore, disregarding the protests of a Roman embassy, he attacked and took Saguntum, an act which, as he had fore- seen, rendered a rupture with Rome inevitable, while it set his own hands free for a further advance. For the details of the war which followed, the reader may be referred to the articles PUNJC WARS, HANNIBAL, and SCIPJO. From the outbreak of hostilities until the crowning second victory of Cannae in 216 Hannibal's career of success Punk was unchecked; and the annihilation of the Roman army in that battle was followed by the defection of almost the whole of southern Italy, with the ex- ception of the Latin colonies and the Greek coast towns. In 215, moreover, Philip V. of Macedon formed an alliance 538. with Hannibal and threatened to invade Italy; in 214 Syracuse revolted, and in 212 the Greek cities in S. Italy went over to Hannibal. But the indomitable spirit » Pplyb. ii. 8 seq. ' Ibid. ii. 12. 6 Livy xxi. 2, 5; Polyb. Hi. 15, 31. 518-26. 526-33. 528. 630 ROME [REPUBLIC 551. 5S2. of the Romans asserted itself in the face of these crushing misfortunes. In 212 Syracuse was recovered; in 211 Capua fell after a long siege which Hannibal failed to raise, even by his famous march up to the gates of Rome, and in the same year a coalition was formed in Greece against Philip V. of Macedon, which effectually paralysed his offensive action. Hannibal was now confined to Lucania and Bruttium; and his brother Hasdrubal, marching from Spain to join him, was defeated and slain on the river Metaurus (207). The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, though during four years more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he was powerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughout the peninsula. Sicily was once more ,.g secure; and finally in 206, the year after the victory ' on the Metaurus, the successes of the young P. Scipio in Spain (211-6) were crowned by the complete expulsion of the Carthaginians from the peninsula. On his return from Spain Scipio eagerly urged an immediate invasion of Africa. The senate hesitated; but Scipio gained the day. He was elected consul for 205, and given the province of Sicily, with permission to cross into Africa if he thought fit. Voluntary contributions of men, money, and supplies poured in to the support of the popular hero; and by the end of 205 Scipio had collected in Sicily a sufficient force for his purpose. In 204 he crossed to Africa, where he was welcomed by the Numidian prince Massinissa, whose friendship he had made in Spain. In 203 he twice defeated the Carthaginian forces, and a large party at Carthage were anxious to accept his offer of negotiations. But the advocates of resistance triumphed. Hannibal was recalled from Italy, and returned to fight his last battle against Rome at Zama, where Scipio, who had been continued in command as proconsul for 202 by a special vote of the people, won a complete victory. The war was over. The Roman assembly voted that the Carthaginian request for peace should be granted, and en- trusted the settlement of the terms to Scipio and a com- mission of ten senators. Carthage was allowed to retain her territory in Africa; but she undertook to wage no wars outside Africa, and none inside without the consent of Rome. She surrendered all her ships but ten triremes, her elephants, and all prisoners of war, and agreed to pay an indemnity of 10,000 talents in fifty years. The Numidian Massinissa (q.v.} was rewarded by an increase of territory, and was enrolled among the " allies and friends " of the Roman people. The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthage was broken and her supremacy passed to Rome. The West Henceforth Rome had no rival to fear westward of under Italy, and it rested with herself to settle within what Roman limits her supremacy should be confined and what form it should take. For the next fifty years, however, Rome was too deeply involved in the affairs of the East to think of 63f extending her rule far beyond the limits of the rich inheritance which had fallen to her by the defeat of Carthage; but within this area considerable advance was made in the organization and consolidation of her rule. In Sicily and Spain, the immediate establishment of a Roman Sicily government was imperatively necessary, if these and possessions were not either to fall a prey to internal Spain. anarchy, or be recovered for Carthage by some second Hamilcar. Accordingly, we find that in Sicily the former dominions of Hiero were at once united with the western half of the island as a single province,1 and that in Spain. SS3. after nine years of a provisional government (206-197), S48-S7. two Provinces were in 197 2 definitely established, and each, like Sicily, assigned to one of the praetors for the year, two additional praetors being elected for the ' Liyy xxvi. 40. The union was apparently effected in 210. ! Ibid, xxxii. 27 ; cf . Marquardt, Stoatsverw. i. 252, and h in Hermes, i. 105 seq. Hubner 618. 574-JS. 621. purpose. But here the resemblance between the two cases ends. From 201 down to the outbreak of the Slave ^^ War in 136 there was unbroken peace in Sicily, and its part in the history is limited to its important functions in supplying Rome with corn and in provisioning and clothing the Roman legions.3 It became every year a more integral part of Italy; and a large proportion even of the land itself passed gradually into the hands of enterprising Roman speculators. The governors of the two Spains had very different work to do from that which fell to the lot of the Sicilian praetors. The condition of Spain required that year after year the praetors should be armed with the consular authority, and backed by a standing force of four legions, while more than once the presence of the consuls themselves was found necessary. Still, in spite of all difficulties, the work of pacification proceeded. To M. Porcius Cato, the censor, and to Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (praetor and pro- SS9 praetor, 180-79), father of the two tribunes, is mainly due the credit of quieting the Celtiberian tribes of central Spain, and the government of Gracchus was followed by thirty years of comparative tranquillity. The insurrection headed by Viriathus in 149 was largely caused byexac- MS tions of the Roman magistrates themselves, while its obstinate continuance down to the capture of Numantia, in 133, was almost as much the result of the incapacity of the Roman commanders.4 But the re-settlement of the country by Scipio Africanus the younger in that year left all Spain, with the exception of the highland Astures and Cantabri in the north-west, finally and tranquilly subject to Rome. Roman traders and speculators flocked to the sea- port towns and spread inland. The mines became centres of Roman industry; the Roman legionaries quartered in Spain year after year married Spanish wives, and when their service was over gladly settled down in Spain in pre- ference to returning to Italy. The first Roman com- munities established outside Italy were both planted in Spain, and both owed their existence to the Roman legions.5 In Africa there was no question at first of the introduction of Roman government by the formation of a province (see AFRICA, ROMAN). Carthage, bound hand and foot by Africa— the treaty of 201, was placed under the jealous watch Third of the loyal prince of Numidia, who himself willingly w°r acknowledged the suzerainty of Rome. But it was 153-46= impossible for this arrangement to be permanent. 605-8. Every symptom of reviving prosperity at Carthage was regarded at Rome with feverish anxiety, and neither the expulsion of Hannibal in 195 nor his death in 183 did „„ much to check the growing conviction that Rome would never be secure while her rival existed. It was therefore with grim satisfaction that many in the Roman senate watched the increasing irritation of the Carthaginians under the harassing raids and encroachments of their favoured neighbour Massinissa, and waited for the moment when Carthage should, by some breach of the conditions imposed upon her, supply Rome with a pretext for interference. At last in 151 „, came the news that Carthage, in defiance of treaty obligations, was actually at war with Massinissa. The anti- Carthaginan party in the senate, headed by M. Porcius Cato, eagerly seized the opportunity, and war was declared, and nothing short of the destruction of their city itself was demanded from the despairing Carthaginians. The demand was refused, and in 149 the siege of Carthage begun. During the next two years little progress was made, but in 147 P. Cornelius MJ Scipio Aemilianus, grandson by adoption of the con- queror of Hannibal; was, at the age of thirty-seven, and though 3 Livy xxvii. 5, " pace ac bello fidissimum annonae subsidium " ; cf. xxxii. 27. 4 Some fresh light has been thrown upon the later campaigns in Spain by the recently discovered fragment of an epitome of Livy (Oxyrhynchus Papyri, iv. 668; Kornemann, Die neue Liviusepitome aus Oxyrhynchos (1904). 6 Italica (206), Appian, Iber. 38; Carteia (171), Livy xliii. 3. REPUBLIC] ROME 631 574. only a candidate for the aedileship, elected consul, and given the command in Africa. In the next year (146) Carthage was taken and razed to the ground. Its territory became the Roman province of Africa, while Numidia, now ruled by the three sons of Massinissa, remained as an allied state under Roman suzerainty, and served to protect the new province against the raids of the desert tribes (see CARTHAGE). In Italy itself the Hannibalic war had been followed by im- portant changes. In the north the Celtic tribes paid for their sympathy with Hannibal by the final loss of all separ- ate political existence. Cispadane Gaul, studded with colonies and flooded with Roman settlers, was rapidly Romanized. Beyond the Padus (Po) in Polybius's time Roman civilization was already widely spread. In the extreme north- east the Latin colony of Aquileia, the last of its kind, was founded in 181, to control the Alpine tribes, while in S73- the north-west the Ligurians were held in check by the colony of Luna (180), and by the extensive settle- ments of Roman citizens and Latins made on Ligurian 581. territory in I73.1 In southern Italy the depression of the Greek cities on the coast, begun by the raids of the Sabellian tribes, was completed by the repeated blows inflicted upon them during the Hannibalic struggle Some of them lost territory;2 all suffered from a decline of population and loss of trade; and their place was taken by such new Roman settle- ments as Brundusium (Brindisi) and Puteoli (Pozzuoli).3 In the interior the southern Sabellian tribes suffered scarcely less severely. The Bruttii were struck off the list of Roman allies, and nearly all their territory was confiscated.4 To the Apulians and Lucanians no such hard measure was meted out; but their strength had been broken by the war, and their numbers dwindled; large tracts of land in their territories were seized by Rome, and allotted to Roman settlers, or occu- pied by Roman speculators. That Etruria also suffered from declining energy, a dwindling population, and the spread of large estates is clear from the state of 621' things existing there in 133. It was indeed in central Italy, the home of the Latins and their nearest kinsmen, and in the new Latin and Roman settlements throughout the peninsula that progress and activity were henceforth concentrated. 553-608 W Rome in the East> 200-133. — Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus from Italy, Rome had been slowly drifting 554-621. jnto closer contact with the Eastern states. With one of the three great powers which had divided between them the empire of Alexander, with Egypt, she had formed an alliance in 273, and the alliance had been cemented by the growth of commercial intercourse between the two countries.6 In S26 228 her chastisement of the Illyrian pirates had led naturally enough to the establishment of friendly re- 540' lations with some of the states of Greece proper. In 2 1 4 the alliance between Philip V. and Hannibal, and the former's threatened attack on Italy, forced her into war with Macedon, at the head of a coalition of the Greek states against him, which effectually frustrated his designs against herself; at the first opportunity, however (205), she ended the war by a peace which left the position unchanged. The results of the war were not only to draw closer the ties which bound Rome to the Greek states, but to inspire the senate with a genuine dread of Philip's restless ambition, and with a bitter resentment against him for his union with Hannibal. The 1 Livy xlii. 4. 2 E.g. Tarentum, Livy xliv. 16. A Roman colony was established at Croton in 194, and a Latin colony (Copia) at Thurii in 193 (Livy xxxiv. 45, 53). * Brundusium was established in 246 (Liv. Epit. xix.) or 245 (Veil. i. 14). Puteoli was fortified during the Second Punic War and became a Roman colony in 194 (Livy xxxiv. 45«'Appian, Hann. 61 ; Aul. Cell. x. 3; cf. Beloch, ltd. * Egypt had supplied corn to Italy during the Second Punic War (Polyb. ix. 44). 549. 553. 554. events of the next four years served to deepen both these feelings. In 205 Philip entered into a compact with Antiochus III. of Syria for the partition between them of the dominions of Egypt,* now left by the death of Ptolemy Philopator to the rule of a boy-king. Antiochus was to take Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, while Philip claimed for his share the districts subject to Egypt on the coasts of the Aegean and the Greek islands. Philip no doubt hoped to be able to secure these unlawful acquisitions before the close of the Second Punic War should set Rome free to interfere with his plans. But the obstinate resistance offered by Attalus of Pergamum and the Rhodians upset his calculations. In 201 Rome made peace with Carthage, and the senate had leisure to listen to the urgent appeal for assistance which reached her from her Eastern allies. With Antiochus indeed the senate was not yet prepared to quarrel; but with Philip the senate had no thoughts of a peaceful settlement. Their animosity against him has been deepened by the assistance he had recently rendered to Carthage. Always an unsafe and turbulent neighbour, he would, if allowed to become supreme in the Aegean, prove as dangerous to her interests in the East as Carthage had been in the West. To cripple or at least to stay the growth of Philip's power was in the eyes of the senate a necessity; but it was only by representing a Macedonian invasion of Italy as imminent that they persuaded the assembly, which was longing for peace, to pass a declaration of war7 (200). The war began in the summer of 200 B.C., and, though the landing of the Roman legions in Epirus was not followed, as had been hoped, by any general rising against Philip, Second yet the latter had soon to discover that, if they were Maam not enthusiastic for Rome, they were still less inclined w"'*" actively to assist himself. Neither by force nor 20&-197— by diplomacy could he make any progress south of 554-57. Boeotia. The fleets of Pergamum and Rhodes, now the zealous allies of Rome, protected Attica and watched the eastern coasts. The Achaeans and Nabis of Sparta were obstinately neutral, while nearer home in the north the Epirots and Aetolians threatened Thessaly and Macedonia. His own resources both in men and in money had been severely strained by his constant wars,8 and the only ally who could have given him effective assistance, Antiochus, was fully occupied with the conquest of Coele-Syria. It is no wonder then that, in spite of his dashing generalship and high courage, he made but a brief stand. T. Quinctius Flamininus (consul 198), in his first year of command, defeated him on the Aous, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and in the next year utterly routed him at Cynoscephalae. Almost at the same moment the Achaeans, who had now joined Rome, took Corinth, and the Rhodians defeated his troops in Caria.' Further resistance was impossible; Philip submitted, and early the next year a Roman commission reached Greece with instruc- tions to arrange terms of peace. These were such as effectually secured Rome's main object in the war, the removal of all danger to herself and her allies from Macedonian aggression.10 Philip was left in possession of his kingdom, but was degraded to the rank of a second-rate power, deprived of all possessions in Greece, Thrace and Asia Minor, and forbidden, as Carthage had been in 201, to wage war without the consent of Rome, whose ally and friend he now became. The second point in the settlement now effected by Rome was the liberation of the Greeks. The " freedom of Greece " was proclaimed at the Isthmian games amid a scene of The wild enthusiasm,11 which reached its height when two liberation years later (194) Flamininus withdrew his troops even otaret£.' from the "three fetters of Greece" — Chalcis, Demetrias and Corinth.12 There is no reason to doubt that, in acting thus, not only Flamininus himself, but the senate and people at home were influenced, partly at any rate, by feelings of genuine ' Polyb. iii. 2, xv. 20; Livy xxxi. 14. 7 Ibid. xxxi. 6, 7. « Ibid, xxxiii. 3. • Ibid. 18. 10 Polyb. xviii. 44-47; Livy xxxiii. 30^34. 11 Ibid, xxxiii. 32, 33. u Ibid, xxxiv. 48-52. 556. 553. 632 ROME [REPUBLIC sympathy with the Greeks and reverence for their past. It is equally clear that no other course was open to them. For Rome to have annexed Greece, as she had annexed Sicily and Spain, would have been a flagrant violation of the pledges she had repeatedly given both before and during the war; the attempt would have excited the fiercest opposition, and would probably have thrown the Asiatic as well as the European Greeks into the arms of Antiochus. But a friendly and inde- pendent Greece would be at once a check on Macedon, a barrier against aggression from the East, and a promising field for Roman commerce. Nor while liberating the Greeks did Rome abstain from such arrangements as seemed necessary to secure the predominance of her own influence. In the Peloponnese, for instance, the Achaeans were rewarded by considerable accessions of territory; and it is possible that the Greek states, as allies of Rome, were expected to refrain from war upon each other without her consent.1 Antiochus III. of Syria, Philip's accomplice in the proposed partition of the dominions of their common rival, Egypt, War with returned from the conquest of Coele-Syria (198) to learn first of all that Philip was hard pressed by the Romans, and shortly afterwards that he had been decisively beaten at Cynoscephalae. It was already too late to assist his former ally, but Antiochus resolved at any rate to lose no time in securing for himself the possessions of the Ptolemies in Asia Minor and in eastern Thrace, which Philip had claimed, and which Rome now pronounced free and inde- 557-58. pendent. In 197-96 he overran Asia Minorand crossed into Thrace.2 But Antiochus was pleasure-loving, S62' irresolute, and no general, and it was not until 102 that the urgent entreaties of the Aetolians, and the withdrawal of the Roman troops from Greece, nerved him to the decisive step of crossing the Aegean; even then the force he took with him was so small as to show that he completely failed to appre- ciate the nature of the task before him.3 At Rome the prospect of a conflict with Antiochus excited great anxiety, and it was not until every resource of diplomacy had been exhausted that war was declared,4 and the real weakness which lay behind the once magnificent pretensions of the " king of kings " was revealed. Had Antiochus acted with energy when in 192 he landed in Greece, he might have won the day before the Roman legions appeared. As it was, in spite of the warnings of Hannibal,5 who was now in his camp, and of the Aetolians, he frittered away valuable time between his pleasures at Chalcis and useless attacks on petty Thessalian towns. In 191 Glabrio landed at the head of an imposing force; and a single battle at Thermopylae broke the courage of Antiochus, who hastily recrossed the sea to Ephesus, leaving his Aetolian allies to their fate. But Rome could not pause here. The safety of her faithful allies, the Pergamenes and Rhodians, and of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, as well as the necessity of chastising Antiochus, demanded an invasion of Asia. A Roman fleet had already (191) crossed the Aegean, and in concert with the fleets of S64 Pergamum and Rhodes worsted the navy of Antiochus. In 190 the new consul L. Scipio, accompanied by his famous brother, the conqueror of Africa, led the Roman legion for the first time into Asia. At Magnesia ad Sipylum, in Lydia, he met and defeated the motley and ill-disciplined hosts of the great king.6 For the first time the West, under Roman leader- ship, successfully encountered the forces of the East, and the struggle began which lasted far on into the days of the Settle- emperors. The terms of the peace which followed men tot the victory at Magnesia tell their own story clearly western enough. There is no question, any more than in Greece, of annexation ; the main object in view is that of securing the predominance of Roman interests and influence 1 For the conflicting views of moderns on the action of Rome, see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 442; Holm, Hist, of Greece, iv. 349; and on the other side Ihne, Hist, of Rome, iii. 76 ff ., and C. Peter, Studien zur rom. Gesch. (Halle, 1863), pp. 158 seq. 1 Livy xxxiii. 38; Polyb. xviii. 50. 3 Livy xxxv. 43. * Ibid. xxxv. 20, xxxvi. I. 6 Ibid, xxxvi. 7. 6 Livy (xxxvii. 40) describes the composition of Antiochus's army. S54 65. „. throughout the peninsula of Asia Minor, and removing to a safe distance the only eastern power which could be considered dangerous.7 The line of the Halys and the Taurus range, the natural boundary of the peninsula eastward, was established as the boundary between Antiochus and the kingdoms, cities and peoples now enrolled as the allies and friends of Rome. This line Antiochus was forbidden to cross; nor was he to send ships of war farther west than Cape Sarpedon in Cilicia. Immediately to the west of this frontier lay Bithynia, Paphlagonia and the immigrant Celtic Galatae, and these frontier states, now the allies of Rome, served as a second line of defence against attacks from the east. The area lying between these " buffer states " and the Aegean was organized by Rome in such a way as should at once reward the fidelity of her allies and secure both her own paramount authority and safety from foreign attack. Pergamum and Rhodes were so strengthened — the former by the gift of the Chersonese, Lycaonia,Phrygia,Mysia and Lydia, thelatter by that of Lycia and Caria — as not only amply to reward their loyalty, but to constitute them effective props of Roman interests and effective barriers alike against Thracian and Celtic raids in the north and Syrian aggression in the south. Lastly, the Greek cities on the coast, except those already tributary to Pergamum, were declared free, and established as independent allies of Rome. In a space of little over eleven years (200-189) Rome had broken the power of Alexander's successors and established throughout the eastern Mediterranean a Roman protectorate. It was in the western half of this protectorate that the first steps in the direction of annexation were taken. The enthusiasm provoked by the liberation of the Greeks had died Third away, and its place had been taken by feelings of dis- /Mace- satisfied ambition or sullen resentment. Internecine doaian feuds and economic distress had brought many parts of Greece to the verge of anarchy, and, above all, the very foundations of the settlement effected in 197 were threatened by the reviving power and aspirations of Macedon. Loyally as Philip had aided Rome in the war with Antiochus, the peace of Magnesia brought him nothing but fresh humiliation. He was forced to abandon all hopes of recovering Thessaly, and he had the mortification to see the hated king of Pergamum installed almost on his borders as master of the Thracian Chersonese. Resistance at the time was unavailing, but from 189 until his death (179) he laboured patiently and quietly to increase the internal re- sources of his own kingdom,8 and to foment, by dexterous intrigue, feelings of hostility to Rome among his Greek and barbarian neighbours. His successor, Perseus, his son by a left-handed alliance, continued his father's work. He made friends among the Illyrian and Thracian princes, connected himself by mar- riage with Antiochus IV. of Syria and with Prusias of Bithynia, and, among the Greek peoples, strove, not without success, to revive the memories of the past glories of Greece under the Macedonian leadership of the great Alexander.9 The senate could no longer hesitate. They were well aware of the rest- lessness and discontent in Greece; and after hearing from Eumenes of Pergamum, and from their own officers, all details of Perseus's intrigues and preparations, they declared war." The struggle, in spite of Perseus's courage and the incapacity at the outset of the Roman commanders, was short and decisive. The sympathy of the Greeks with Perseus, which had been encouraged by the hitherto passive attitude assumed by Rome, instantly evaporated on the news that the Roman legions were on their way to Greece. No assistance came from Prusias ot Antiochus, and Perseus's only allies were the Thracian king Cotys and the Illyrian Genthius. The victory gained by L. Aemilius Paulus at Pydnaji68) ended the war.11 Perseus fg6 became the prisoner of Rome, and as such died in Italy a few years later.12 Rome had begun the war with the 7 Livy xxxvii. 55, xxxviii. 38; Polyb. xxi. 17. 8 Livy xxxix. 24 seq. • Ibid. xlii. 5. l° Ibid. xlii. 19, 36. 1 Ibid. xliv. 36-41 ; Plut. Aemil. 15 seq. 12 Diod. xxxi. 9 ; Livy xlv. 42 ; Polyb. xxxvii. 16. REPUBLIC] ROME 633 fixed resolution no longer of crippling but of destroying the Macedonian state. Perseus's repeated proposals for peace during the war had been rejected; and his defeat was followed by the final extinction of the kingdom of Philip and Alexander.1 Macedonia, though it ceased to exist as a single state, was not, however, definitely constituted a Roman province.2 On the contrary, the mistake was made of introducing some of "the main principles of the provincial system — taxation, disarma- ment and the isolation of the separate communities — without the addition of the element most essential for the maintenance of order — that of a resident Roman governor. The four petty republics now created were each autonomous, and each separated from the rest by the prohibition of commercium and conubium, but no central controlling authority was substituted for that of the Macedonian king. The inevitable result was confusion 6os-8. and disorder, resulting finally (140-48) in the attempt Mace- °f a pretender, Andriscus, who claimed to be a son doniaa of Perseus, to resuscitate the ancient monarchy.3 Roman Qn his defeat in 148 the senate declared Macedonia province, & Roman province, and placed a Roman magis- trate at its head.4 From 189 to the defeat of Perseus in 168 no formal change of importance in the status of the Greek states had been made by Affairs la Rome. The senate, though forced year after year to Greece, listen to the mutual recriminations and complaints of S6S-87. rjyaj communities an(j factions, contented itself as a rule with intervening just enough to remind the Greeks that their freedom was limited by its own paramount authority, and to prevent any single state or confederacy from raising itself too far above the level of general weakness which it was the interest of Rome to maintain. After the victory at Pydna, however, the sympathy shown for Perseus, exaggerated as it seems to have been by the interested representations of the romanizing factions in the various states, was made the pre- text for a more emphatic assertion of Roman ascendancy. All those suspected of Macedonian leanings were removed to Italy, as hostages for the loyalty of their several communities,5 and the real motive for the step was made clear by the excep- tionally severe treatment of' the Achaeans, whose loyalty was not really doubtful, but whose growing power in the Pelopon- nese and independence of language had awakened alarm at Rome. A thousand of their leading men, among them the historian Polybius, were carried off to Italy (see POLYBIUS). In Aetolia the Romans connived at the massacre by their so- called friends of five hundred of the opposite party. Acarnania was weakened by the loss of Leucas, while Athens was re- warded for her unambitious loyalty by the gift of Delos and Samos. But this somewhat violent experiment only answered for a time. In 148 the Achaeans rashly persisted, in spite of warn- Settle- i"Ss' in attempting to compel Sparta by force of meat of arms to submit to the league. When threatened by Greece, Rome with the loss of all that they had gained since 146=608. Cyrioscephalae, they madly rushed into war.6 They were easily defeated, and a " commission of ten," under the presi- dency of L. Mummius, was appointed by the senate thoroughly to resettle the affairs of Greece.7 Corinth, by orders of the senate, was burnt to the ground and its territory confiscated. Thebes and Chalcis were destroyed, and the walls of all towns which had shared in the last desperate outbreak were razed to the ground. All the existing confederacies were dissolved; no commercium was allowed between one community and another. Everywhere an aristocratic type of constitution, according to the invariable Roman practice, was established, and the pay- 1 Liyy xlv. 9. a Ibid, xlv. 17, 29; Plut. Aemil. 28; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 508; Ihne, Hist, of Rome, iii. 258; Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 316. 3 Polyb. xxxvii. 2 ; Livy, Epit. 1. * For the boundaries of the province, see Ptolemy iii. 13; Mar- quardt, loc. cit, 318 f. 6 Livy xlv. 31. « Ibid. Epit. li., Hi. 7 Ibid. Epit. Iii.; Polyb. xl. 9 seq.; Pausanias vii. 16; Momm- sen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 270. 587. ment of a tribute imposed. Into Greece, as into Macedonia in 167, the now familiar features of the provincial system were introduced — disarmament, isolation and taxation. The Greeks were still nominally free, and no separate province with a governor of its own8 was established, but the needed central control was provided by assigning to the neigh- bouring governor of Macedonia a general supervision over the affairs of Greece. From the Adriatic to the Aegean, and as far north as the river Drilo and Mount Scardus, the whole penin- sula was now under direct Roman rule.9 Beyond the Aegean the Roman protectorate worked no better than in Macedonia and Greece, and the quarrels and disorders which flourished under its shadow were aggravated by The its longer duration and by the still more selfish view Roman taken by Rome of her responsibilities.10 At one period fj^orato indeed, after the battle of Pydna, it seemed as if inAsfa* the more vigorous, if harsh, system then initiated 189-46- in Macedon and Greece was to be adopted farther 66S-608. east also. The levelling policy pursued towards Macedon and the Achaeans was applied with less justice to Rome's two faithful and favoured allies, Rhodes and Pergamum. The former had rendered themselves obnoxious to Rome by their independent tone and still more by their power and commercial prosperity. On a charge of complicity with Perseus they were threatened with war, and though this danger was averted " they were forced to exchange their equal alliance with Rome for one which placed them in close dependence upon her, and to resign the lucrative possessions in Lycia and Caria given them in 189. Finally, their commercial pros- .„ perity was ruined by the establishment of a free port at Delos,12 and by the short-sighted acquiescence of Rome in the raids of the Cretan pirates. With Eumenes of Pergamum no other fault could be found than that he was strong and success- ful; but this was enough. His brother Attalus was invited, but in vain, to become his rival. His turbulent neighbours, the Galatae, were encouraged to harass him by raids. Pam- phylia was declared independent, and favours were heaped upon Prusias of Bithynia. These and other annoyances and humilia- tions had the desired effect. Eumenes and his two successors — his brother and son, Attalus II. and Attalus III. — contrived indeed by studious humility and dexterous flattery to retain their thrones, but Pergamum (q.v.) ceased to be a powerful state, and its weakness, added to that of Rhodes, increased the pre- valent disorder in Asia Minor. During the same period we have other indications of a temporary activity on the part of Rome. The frontier of the protectorate was pushed forward to the confines of Armenia by alliances with the kings of Pontus and Cappadocia beyond the Halys. In Syria, on the death of Antiochus Epiphanes (164), Rome intervened to place a minor, Antiochus Eupator, on the throne, under Roman guardianship.13 In 168 Egypt formally ac- sgi\ knowledged the suzerainty of Rome,14 and in 163 the senate, in the exercise of this new authority, restored Ptolemy Philometor to his throne, but at the same time weakened his position by handing over Cyrene and Cyprus to his brother Euegertes.15 But this display of energy was shortlived. From the death of Eumenes in 159 down to 133 Rome, secure in the S9S-621 absence of any formidable power in the East, and busy with affairs in Macedonia, Africa and Spain, relapsed into an 8 Mommsen, loc. cit. note; Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 321 seq.; Niese, Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten, iii. 358. 9 North of the Drilo the former kingdom of Perseus's ally Gentmus had been treated as Macedon was in 167 (Livy xlv. 26) ; cf. Zippel, Rom. Herrschaft in Illyrien (Leipzig, 1877). Epirus, which had been desolated after Pydna (Livy xlv. 34), went with Greece; Marquardt i- 3I9- 10 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 510 ff., iii. 274 ff. 11 Livy xiv. 20; Polyb. xxx. 5. 13 Polyb. xxxi. 7. The Rhodian harbour dues suffered severely. 18 Rome had already intervened between Syria and Egypt : Livy xlv. 12; Polyb. xxix. ii, xxxi. 12. 14 Livy xlv. 13, " Regni maximum ipraesidium in fide populi Romani." " Ibid. Epit. xlvi., xlvii. 634 ROME [REPUBLIC inactivity the disastrous results of which revealed themselves in the next period, in the rise of Mithradates of Pontus, the spread of Cretan and Cilician piracy, and the advance of Parthia. Both the western and eastern Mediterranean now acknow- ledged the suzerainty of Rome, but her relations with the two were from the first different. The West fell to her as the prize of victory over Carthage, and, the Carthaginian power broken, there was no hindrance to the immediate establishment in Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and finally in Africa, of direct Roman rule. To the majority, moreover, of her western subjects she brought a civilization as well as a government of a higher type than any before known to them. And so in the West she not only formed provinces but created a new and wider Roman world. To the East, on the contrary, she. came as the liberator of the Greeks; and it was only slowly that in this part of the Empire her provincial system made way. In the East, moreover, the older civilization she found there obstinately held its ground. Her proconsuls governed and her legions protected the Greek communities, but to the last the East remained in language, manners and thought Greek and not Roman. PERIOD C: THE PERIOD or THE REVOLUTION (146-49 B.C.). — In the course of little more than a century, Rome had 60S-TOS become the supreme power in the civilized world. By all men, says Polybius, it was taken for granted that nothing remained but to obey the commands of the Romans.1 For the future the interest of Roman history centres in her attempts to perform the two Herculean tasks which this unique position laid upon her, — the efficient government of the subject peoples, and their defence against the barbarian races which swarmed around them on all sides. They were tasks under which the old republican constitution broke down, and which finally overtaxed the strength even of the marvellous organiza- tion framed and elaborated by Augustus and his successors. Although in its outward form the old constitution had under- gone little change during the age of war and conquest from Consti- 2^5 to I4^'2 ^e causes> both internal and external, tutionat which brought about its fall had been silently at work changes, throughout. Its form was in strictness that of a moderate democracy. The patriciate had ceased to exist as a privileged caste,3 and there was no longer any order of nobility recognized by the constitution. The senate and the offices of state were in law open to all,4 and the will of the people in assembly had been in the most explicit and unqualified manner declared to be supreme alike in the election of magistrates, in the passing of laws, and in all matters touching the caput of a Roman citizen. But in practice the Ascend- constitution had become an oligarchy. The senate, ancy not the assembly, ruled Rome, and both the senate of the and the magistracies were in the hands of a class senate. which, in defiance of the law, arrogated to itself the title and the privileges of a nobility.5 The ascendancy of the senate is too obvious and familiar a fact to need much illustra- tion here. It was but rarely that the assembly was called upon to decide questions of policy, and then the proposal was usually made by the magistrate in obedience to the express directions of the senate.6 In the enormous majority of cases the matter was settled by a senutus consultum, without any reference to 1 Polyb. iii. 4. 2 The most important change was the assimilation of the division £j^_ by classes and centuries with that by tribes, a change possibly due to the censorship of Gaius Flaminius in 220 (Mommsen, Staalsr. iii. 270). On this point see COMITIA. 3 A few offices of a more or less priestly character were still filled 545. on'y ky patricians, e.g. rex sacrorum, flamen Dialis. A plebeian first became curio maximus in 209 (Livy xxvii. 8). 4 The lectio senatus was in the hands of the censors, but whether before Sulla's time their choice was subject to legal restrictions is doubtful (see SENATE). 6 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 7; Lange, Rom. Alierth. ii. I ff. " Ex auctoritate senatus." The lex Flaminia agraria of 232 was an exception (Cic. De senect. 4; Polyb. ii. 21). In 167 B.C. a praetor brought the question of war with Rhodes directly before the assembly, but this was condemned as unprecedented (novo maloque exemplo, Liv. xlv. 21). the people at all. The assembly decides for war or peace,7" but the conduct of the war and the conditions of peace are matters left to the senate (q.v.). Now and then the assembly confers a command upon the man of its choice, or prolongs the imperium of a magistrate,8 but, as a rule, these and all questions connected with foreign affairs are settled within the walls of the' senate-house.* It is the senate which year after year assigns the commands and fixes the number and disposition of the military forces, w directs the organization of a new province," conducts negotiations, and forms alliances. Within Italy, though its control of affairs was less exclusive, we find that, besides supervising the ordinary current business of administra- tion, the senate decides questions connected with the Italian allies, sends out colonies, allots lands, and directs the suppres- sion of disorders. Lastly, both in Italy and abroad it managed the finances.12 Inseparably connected with this monopoly of affairs to the exclusion of the assembly was the control which in practice, if not in theory, the senate exercised over the magistrates. The latter had become what Cicero wrongly declares they were always meant to be, merely the subordinate ministers of the supreme council,13 which assigned them their departments, provided them with the necessary equipment, claimed to direct their conduct, prolonged their commands, and rewarded them with triumphs. It was now at once the duty and the interest of a magistrate to be in auctoritate senatus, " subject to the authority of the senate," and even the once formidable tribuni plebis are found during this period actively and loyally supporting the senate, and acting as its spokesmen in the assembly.14 The causes of this ascendancy of the senate are to be found firstly in the fact that the senate was the only body capable of conducting affairs in an age of incessant war. The voters in the assembly, a numerous, widely scattered body, could not readily be called together, and when assembled were very imperfectly qualified to decide momentous, questions of military strategy and foreign policy. The senate, on the contrary, could be summoned in a moment,15 and included in its ranks all the skilled statesmen and soldiers of the common- wealth. The subordination of the magistrates was equally the result of circumstances, for, as the numbers of the magis- trates, and also the area of government, increased, some central controlling power became absolutely necessary to prevent collisions between rival authorities, and to secure a proper division of labour, as well as to enforce the necessary concert and co-operation.16 No such power could be found anywhere in the republican system but in the senate, standing as it necessarily did in the closest relations with the magistrate, and composed as it was increasingly of men who were or had been in office. Once more, behind both senate and magistrates, lay the whole power and influence of the new nobility.17 These nobiles were essentially distinct from the older and more legiti- fi,e mate patrician aristocracy. Every patrician was of aobiles. course noble, but the majority of the " noble families " in 146 were not patrician but plebeian.18 The title had been gradually appropriated, since the opening of the magistracies, by those families whose members had held curule office, and had thereby acquired the ius imaginum. It was thus in theory within the reach of any citizen who could, win election even to the curule aedileship, and, moreover, it carried with it no legal privileges whatsoever. Gradually,. 7 Livy xxxi. 5, xxxiii. 25, xxxvii. 55. 8 Ibid. xxx. 27, &c. 9 Polyb. (vi. 15) expressly includes the prorogation of a command among the prerogatives of the senate. 10 Livy xxvi. I, " consules de republica, de administratione belli,, de provmciis exercitib.usque patres consuluerunt." 11 Ibid. xlv. 18. a Ihne, Hist, of Rome, iv. 43; Polyb. vi. 13. 13 Pro Sestio 65, " quasi ministros gravissimi consilii." 14 Livy xxvii. 5, xxviii. 45. 15 Ibid. xxii. 7. In 191 the senators were forbidden to leave Rome for more than a day, nor were more than five to be absent at once (Livy xxxvi. 3). 16 Ibid, xxvii. 35. 17 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 7 fi. 18 E.g. Livii, Sempronii, Caecilii. Licinii, &c. REPUBLIC] ROME 635 however, the ennobled plebeian families drew together, and combined with the older patrician gentes to form a distinct order. Office brought wealth and prestige, and both wealth and prestige were liberally employed in securing for this select circle a monopoly of political power, and excluding new men.1 Already by the close of the period it was rare for any one but a noble to find his way into high office or into the senate. The senate and magistrates are the mouthpieces of this order, and identified with it in policy and interest. Lastly, it must be allowed that both the senate and the nobility had to some extent justified their power by the use they made of it. It was their tenacity of purpose and devoted patriotism which had carried Rome through the dark days of the Hannibalic War. The heroes of the struggle with Carthage belonged to the leading families; the disasters at the Trasimene Lake and at Cannae were associated with the blunders of popular favourites. From the first, however, there was an inherent weakness in this senatorial government. It had no sound constitutional Weakness Dasis> and with tne removal of its accidental supports of the it fell to the ground. Legally the senate had no senatorial positive authority. It could merely advise the magis- govem- trate when asked to do so, and its decrees were strictly """*'• only suggestions to the magistrate, which he was at liberty to accept or reject as he chose.2 It had, it is true, become customary for the magistrate not only to ask the senate's advice on all important points, but to follow it when given. But it was obvious that if this custom were weakened, and the magistrates chose to act independently, the senate was powerless. It might indeed anathematize* the refractory official, or hamper him if it could by setting in motion against him a colleague or the tribunes, but it could do no more, and these measures failed just where the senate's control was most needed and most difficult to maintain — in its relations with the generals and governors of provinces abroad. The virtual in- ggg^ dependence of the proconsul was before 146 already exciting the jealousy of the senate and endangering its supremacy.4 Nor again had the senate any legal hold over the assembly. Except in certain specified cases, it rested with the magistrate to decide whether any question should be settled by a decree of the senate or a vote of the assembly.6 If he decided to make a proposal to the assembly, he was not bound except by custom to obtain the previous approval of the senate,6 and the constitution set no limits to the power of the assembly to decide any question whatsoever that was laid before it. gg7 From 167, at least, onwards, there were increasing indications that both the acquiescence of the people in senatorial government and the loyalty of the magistrates to the senate were failing. The absorbing excitement of the great wars had died away; the economic and social disturbance and dis- tress which they produced were creating a growing feeling of discontent; and at the same time the senate provoked inquiries into its title to govern by its failure any longer to govern well. In the East there was confusion; in the West a single native chieftain defied the power which had crushed ' Carthage. At 1 Livy xxii. 34, " plebeios nobiles . . . contemnere plebem, ex quo contemni a patnbus desierint, coepisse"; cf. Sail, Jug. 41, paucorum arbitrio belli domique agitabatur; penes eosdem aerarium, provinciae, magistratus." Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 15 n. The number of new families ennobled dwindles rapidly after 200 B.C. ; Willems, Le S6nat de la rtpublique romaine, i. 366 seq. (Paris, 1878). 4 The senators' whole duty is " sententiam dicere." The senator was asked " quid censes?" the assembly "quid velitis jubeatis?" Cf. also the saving clause, " Si eis videretur " (sc. consulibus, &c.) in Seta., e.g. Cic. Phil. v. 19, 53. 3 By declaring his action to be " contra rempublicam." The force of this anathema varied with circumstances. It had no legal value. 4 Livy xxxviii. 42, of Cn. Manlius Vulso in Asia, 189 B.C.; cf. also the position of the two Scipios. 6 Hence the same things, e.g. founding of colonies, are done. in one year by a Sctum., in another by a lex; cf. Cic. De rep. ii. 32, 56; Phil, i 2, 6, of Antony as consul," mutata omnia, nihil per senatum, omnia per populum." • There was no legal necessity, before Sulla's time, for getting .the senatus auctoritas for a proposal to the assembly. home the senate was becoming more and more simply an organ of the nobility, and the nobility were becoming every year more exclusive, more selfish, and less capable and unanimous.7 But if the senate was not to govern, the difficulty arose of find- ing an efficient substitute, and it was this difficulty that mainly determined the issue of the struggles which convulsed Rome from 133 to 49. As the event showed, neither the assembly 62I-70S nor the numerous and disorganized magistracy was equal to the work; the magistrates were gradually pushed aside in favour of a more centralized authority, and the former became only the means by which this new authority was first encouraged in opposition to the senate and finally established in a position of impregnable strength. The assembly which made Pompey and Caesar found out too late that it could not unmake them. . It is possible that these constitutional and administrative difficulties would not have proved so rapidly fatal to the Effects ol Republic had not its very foundations been sapped conquest by the changes which followed more or less directly on on Roman the conquests of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. For society. the opening of the world to Rome, and of Rome to the world, produced a radical change in the structure of Roman society. The subjugation of the Mediterranean countries, by placing at the disposal of Rome the vast natural resources of the West and the accumulated treasures of the East, caused a rapid rise in the standard of wealth and a marked change in its distribution. The Roman state was enabled to dispense with the direct taxation of its citizens,8 since it derived all the revenue which it needed from the subject countries. But the wealth drawn from the provinces by the state was trifling in amount compared with that which flowed into the pockets of individual citizens. Not only was the booty taken in war largely appropriated by the Roman commanders and their men, but a host of money-makers settled upon the conquered provinces and exploited them for their profit. The nobles engaged in the task of administration, the contractors (publicani) who farmed the revenues, and the " men of business " (negolia- lores) who, as money-lenders, merchants or speculators, pene- trated to every corner of the Empire, reaped a rich harvest at the expense of the provincials. Farming in Italy on the old lines became increasingly laborious and unprofitable owing to the importation of foreign corn and foreign slaves,9 and capi- talists sought easier methods of acquiring wealth. If this had meant that capital was expended in developing the natural re- sources of the provinces, the result would have been to increase the prosperity of the countries subject to Rome; but it was not so. The Roman negotiators, who were often merely the agents of the great families of Rome, drained the accumulated wealth of the provinces by lending money to the subject com- munities at exorbitant rates of interest. Cicero, for example, found when governor of Cilicia that M. Junius Brutus had lent a large sum to the people of Salamis in Cyprus at 48% com- pound interest; and we cannot suppose that this was an exceptional case. Such practices as these, together with the wasteful and oppressive system of tax-farming, and the de- liberate extortions carried on by senatorial governors, reduced the flourishing cities of the Greek East, within the space of two generations, to utter economic exhaustion. But the reaction of the same process on Rome herself had far more important consequences. The whole structure of Roman society was altered, and the equality and homogeneity Accent- which had once been its chief characteristics were nation at destroyed. The Roman nobles had not merely ceased, clas* **• as in old days, to till their own farms; they had found tjactl01"- a means of enriching themselves beyond the dreams of avarice, 7 See generally Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, i. bk. iii. cap. 6;Lange, Rom. Alterth. vol. ii.; Ihne, bk. v. cap. i. The first law against bribery at elections was passed in 181 B.C. (Livy xl. 19), and against magisterial extortion in the provinces in 149 (Lex Calpurnia de pecuniis repetundis). The senators had special seats allotted to them in the theatre in 194 B.C.; Livy xxxiv. 44, 54. 8 The tributum was no longer levied after 167 B.C. (Cic. Off. u. 22; Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 56). 9 See, however, p. 637, note I and reff. 636 ROME [REPUBLIC and when they returned from the government of a province it was to build sumptuous villas, filled with the spoils of Greece and Asia, to surround themselves with troops of slaves and dependents, and to live rather as princes than as citizens of a republic. The publicani and negolialores formed a second order in the state, which rivalled the first in wealth and coveted a share in its political supremacy; while the third estate, the plebs urbana, was constantly increasing in numbers and at the same time sinking into the condition of an idle proletariat. The accentuation of class distinctions is indeed inevitable in a capitalist society, such as that of Rome was now becoming. But the process was fraught with grave political danger owing to the peculiarities of the Roman constitution, which rested in theory on the ultimate sovereignty of the people, who were in practice represented by the city mob. To win the support of the plebs became a necessity for ambitious politicians, and the means employed for this end poisoned the political life of Rome. The wealth derived from the provinces was freely spent in bribery,1 and the populace of Rome was encouraged to claim as the price of its support a share in the spoils of empire. It was not only the structure and composition of Roman society that underwent a transformation. The victory of The new Rome in her struggle for supremacy in the Medi- learniag terranean basin had been largely due to the powerful aD<* conservative forces by which her institutions were manners. preserve{j from decay. Respect for the mos mojorum, or ancestral custom, imposed an effective check on the desire for innovation. Though personal religion, in the deeper sense, was foreign to the Roman temperament, there was a genuine belief in the gods whose favour had made Rome great in the past and would uphold her in the future so long as she trod in the old paths of loyalty and devotion. Above all, the healthy moral traditions of early Rome were maintained by the discipline of the family, resting on the supreme authority of the father — the patria potestas — and the powerful influence of the mother, to whom the early training of the child was entrusted.2 Finally, the institution of the censorship, backed as it was by the mighty force of public opinion, provided a deterrent which prevented any flagrant deviation from the accepted standard of morals. All this was changed by the influence of Greek civilization, with which Rome was first brought face to face in the 3rd century B.C. owing to her relations with Magna Graecia. At first the results of contact with the older and more brilliant culture of Hellas were on the whole good. In the and century B.C., when constant intercourse was established with the communities of Greece proper and of Asia Minor, " philhellenism " became a passion, which was strongest in the best minds of the day and resulted in a quickened intellectual activity, wider sympathies and a more humane life. But at the same time the "new learning" was a disturb- ing and unsettling force. The Roman citizen was confronted with new doctrines in politics and religion, and initiated into the speculations of critical philosophy.3 Under the influence of this powerful solvent the fabric of tradition embodied in the mos majorum fell to pieces; a revolt set in against Roman discipline and Roman traditions of self-effacement, and the craving for individual distinction asserted itself with irresistible vehemence. As it had been in the days of the " Sophistic " movement at Athens, so it was now with Rome; a higher education, which, owing to its expense, was necessarily confined to the wealthier classes, interposed between the upper and lower ranks of society a barrier even more effectual than that set up by differences of material condition, and by releasing the indi- vidual from the trammels of traditional morality, gave his ambition free course. The effect on private morals may be gauged by the vehemence with which the reactionary opposi- 1 From 181 B.C. onwards a succession of laws de ambitu were passed to prevent bribery, but without effect. 2 Cf. Tacitus's account of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, and Aurelia, the mother of Julius Caesar, in the dialogue De oratoribus, c. 28. 1 It is to be noted that these subjects were, generally speaking, taught by freedmen or slaves. tion, headed by M. Porcius Cato (consul, 195 B.C.; censor, 184 B.C.), inveighed against the new fashions, and by the list of measures passed to check the growth of luxury and licence, and to exclude the foreign teachers of the new learning.4 It was all in vain. The art of rhetoric, which was studied through the medium of Greek treatises and Greek models, furnished the Roman noble with weapons of attack and defence of which he was not slow to avail himself in the forum and the senate-house. In the science of money-making, which had been elaborated under the Hellenistic monarchies, the Roman capitalists proved apt pupils of their Greek teachers. Among the lower classes, contact with foreign slaves and freed- men, with foreign worships and foreign vices, produced a love of novelty which no legislation could check. Even amongst women there were symptoms of revolt against the old order, which showed itself in a growing freedom of manners and im- patience of control,5 the marriage tie was relaxed,6 and the respect for mother and wife, which had been so powerful a factor in the maintenance of the Roman standard of morals, was grievously diminished. Thus Rome was at length brought face to face with a moral and economic crisis which a modern historian has described in the words: " Italy was living through the fever of moral disintegration and incoherence which assails all civilized societies that are rich in the manifold resources of culture and enjoyment, but tolerate few or no restraints on the feverish struggle of contending appetites." In this struggle the Roman Republic perished, and personal government took its place. The world had outgrown the city-state and its political machinery, and as the notions of federalism (on any large scale) and representative government had not yet come into being, no solution of the problem was possible save that of absolutism. But a far stronger resistance would have been opposed to political revolution by the republican system had not public morals been sapped by the influences above described. Political corruption was reduced to a science7 for the benefit of individuals who were often faced with the alternatives of ruin or. revolution;8 there was no longer any body of sound public opinion to which, in the last resort, appeal could be made; and, long before the final catastrophe took place, Roman society itself had become, in structure and temper, thoroughly un- republican. The first systematic attack upon the senatorial government is connected with the names of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (q.v.), and its immediate occasion was an attempt to The deal with no less a danger than the threatened dis- Gracchi, appearance of the class to which of all others Rome 133-21= owed most in the past.9 The small landholders 62'-33- throughout the greater part of Italy were sinking deeper into ruin under the pressure of accumulated difficulties. The Hannibalic war had laid waste their fields and thinned their numbers, nor when peace returned to Italy did it bring with it any revival of prosperity. The heavy burden of military service still pressed ruinously upon them,10 and in addition they were called upon to compete with the foreign corn 4 In 161 B.C. a decree of the senate was passed against " philosophi et rhetores Latini, uti Romae ne essent " (Cell. xv. n). In 155 B.C. the philosopher Carneades was expelled from Rome (Plut. Cato. 22). 'The elder Cato complained of this as early as 195 B.C. (Liv. xxxiv. 2). 6 Divorce was unknown at Rome until 231 B.C. (Dionys. ii. 25). In the last century of the Republic it was of daily occurrence. 7 In the Ciceronian period the lower classes of Rome, with whom the voting power in the comitia. rested, were openly organized for purposes of bribery by means of collegia and sodalicia, nominally- religious bodies. t 8 Caesar had accumulated debts amounting to £800,000 by the time of his praetorship. Catiline and his fellow-bankrupts, amongst whom were several women, including a certain Sempronia who, as we are told by Sallust, " danced and played better than an honest woman need do," hoped to bring about a cancelling of debts (novae tabulae). * For authorities, see under GRACCHUS. 10 To Spain alone more than 150,000 men were sent between 196 and 169 (Ihne iii. 319); compare the reluctance of the people to declare war against Macedon in 200 B.C., and also the case of Spurius Ligustinus in 171 (Livy, xlii. 34). REPUBLIC] ROME 637 574. 594. imported from beyond the sea, and with the foreign slave-labour purchased by the capital of, wealthier men.1 Farming became unprofitable, and the hard laborious life with its scanty returns was thrown into still darker relief when compared with the stirring life of the camps with its opportunities of booty, or with the cheap provisions, frequent largesses and gay spectacles to be had in the large towns. The small holders went off to follow the eagles or swell the proletariat of the cities, and their holdings were left to run waste or merged in the vineyards, oliveyards and above all in the great cattlefarms of the rich, and their own place was taken by slaves. The evil was worst in Etruria and in southern Italy; but everywhere it was serious enough to demand the earnest attention of Roman statesmen. Of its existence the government had received plenty of warning in the declining numbers of able-bodied males returned at the census,2 in the increasing difficulties of recruiting for the legions,3 in servile outbreaks in Etruria and Apulia,4 and 554-94 between 200 and 160 a good deal was attempted by way of remedy. In addition to the foundation of twenty colonies,5 there were frequent allotments of land to veteran soldiers, especially in Apulia and Samnium.6 In 1 80, 40,000 Ligurians were removed from their homes and settled on vacant lands once the property of a Samnite tribe,7 and in 160 the Pomptine marshes were drained for the purpose of cultivation.8 But these efforts were only partially successful. The colonies planted in Cisalpine Gaul and in Picenum flourished, but of the others the majority slowly dwindled away, and two required re- colonizing only eight years after their foundation.9 The veterans who received land were unfitted to make good farmers; and large numbers, on the first opportunity, gladly returned saA as volunteers to a soldier's life. Moreover, after 160 even these efforts ceased, and with the single exception of the colony of Auximum in Picenum (157) nothing was done to check the spread of the evil, until in 133 Tiberius Gracchus, on his election to the tribunate, set his hand to the work. The remedy proposed by Gracchus10 amounted in effect to the resumption by the state of as much of the " common land " as was not held in occupation by authorized persons and conformably to the provisions of the Licinian law,11 and the distribution in allotments of the land thus rescued for the community from the monopoly of a few. It was a scheme which could quote in its favour ancient pre- cedent as well as urgent necessity. Of the causes which led to its ultimate failure something will be said later on; for the present we must turn to the constitutional conflict which it provoked. The senate from the first identified itself with the interests of the wealthy occupiers, and Tiberius found himself forced into a struggle with that body, which had been no part of his original plan. He fell back on the legislative sovereignty of the assembly; he resuscitated the half-forgotten powers of interference vested in the tribunate in order to paralyse the action of the senatorial magistrates, and finally lost his life in an attempt to make good one of the weak points in the tribune's position by securing his own re-election for a second year. But the conflict did not end with his death. It was 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 75 seq. Ihne, Hist, of Rome, iv. 364, argues that Mommsen has exaggerated the depressing effects of foreign competition; cf. Salvioli, Le Capitalisme dans le monde antique, chaps, v.-vii. 2 Beloch, Ital. Bund. 80 seq. 'Livy xliii. 14; Epit. xlviii., Iv. During the period the minimum qualification for service in the legion was reduced from 1 1 ,oop to 4000 asses. 4 Livy xxxii. 26, xxxiii. 36, xxxix. 29, 41. 6 Sixteen Roman and four Latin colonies. See Marquardt, Staatsverw, i. 6 E.g. Livy xxxi. 4, 49, xxxii. I. 7 Livy xl. 38. 8 Livy, Ep it. xlvi. 9 Sipontum and Buxentum in 186; Livy xxxix. 23. 10 Plut. T. G. 9-14; Appian, B.C. i. 9-13; Livy, Epit. Iviii. Compare also Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 320 seq.; Lange, Rom. Alterth. iii. 8 seq.; Nitzsch, Gracchen, 294; Greenidge, Hist, of Rome, i. (1904), pp. no seq. 11 For the details, see the article AGRARIAN LAWS. renewed on a wider scale, and with a more deliberate aim by his brother Gaius, who on his election to the tribunate ( 1 23) aaitt* at once came forward as the avowed enemy of the Ormcchu*. senate.12 The latter suddenly found its control of **'• the administration threatened at a variety of points. On the invitation of the popular tribune the assembly proceeded to restrict the senate's freedom of action in assigning the pro- vinces.13 It regulated the taxation of the province of Asia14 and altered the conditions of military service.16 In home affairs it inflicted two serious blows on the senate's authority by declaring the summary punishment of Roman citizens by the consuls on the strength of a senatus consultum to be a violation of the law of appeal,16 and by taking out of the senate's hands the control of the newly established court for the trial of cases of magisterial misgovernment in the provinces.17 Tiberius had committed the mistake of relying too exclusively on the support of one section only of the community; his brother endeavoured to enlist on the popular side every avail- able ally. The Latins and Italians had opposed an agrarian scheme which took from them land which they had come to regard as rightfully theirs, and gave them no share in the benefit of the allotments.18 Gaius not only removed this latter grievance,19 but ardently supported and himself brought forward the first proposals made in Rome for their enfranchisement.20 The indifference of the city populace, to whom the prospect of small holdings in a remote district of Italy was not a tempting one, was overcome by the establishment of regular monthly doles of corn at a low price.21 Finally, the men of business — the publicans, merchants and money-lenders— were conciliated by the privilege granted to them of collecting the tithes of the new province of Asia, and placed in direct rivalry with the senate by the substitution of men of their own class as judges in the " quaestio de repetundis," in place of senators.22 The organizer of this concerted attack upon the position of the senate fell, like his brother, in a riot. The agrarian reforms of the two Gracchi had little permanent effect.23 Even in the lifetime of Gaius the clause in his brother's law rendering the new holdings inalienable was re- pealed, and the process of absorption recommenced. In 118 a stop was put to further allotment of occupied tempt at lands, and finally, in in, the whole position of the agrarian agrarian question was altered by a law which con- verted all land still held in occupation into private land.24 The old controversy as to the proper use of the lands of the community was closed by this act of alienation. The controversy in future turns, not on the right of the poor 12 On the legislation of C. Gracchus, see Warde Fowler in Eng. Hist. Review (1905), pp. 209 seq., 417 sea. 13 Lex Sempronia de provinciis consularibus; Cic. Pro domo, 9, 24; De Prov. Cons. 2, 3; Sallust, Jug. 27. x de provincia Asia; Cic. K< ii. 125. 14 Lex de provincia Asia; Cic. Verr. 3, 6, 12; Pronto, Ad Ver. 16 Plut. C.G. 5 ; Diod. xxxiv. 25. 16 Plut. C.G. 4; Cic. Pro domo, 31, 82; Pro Rab. Perd. 4, 12. "Quaestio de repetundis, est. 149 B.C. See Plut. C.G. 5; Livy, Epit. Ix. ; Tac. Ann. xii. 60; App. B.C. i. 22. For the lex Acilia, see C.I.L. i. 189; Wordsworth, Fragm. 424; Bruns, Fontes juris Romani, ed. 6, pp. 56 seq. 18 They had succeeded in 129 in suspending the operations of the agrarian commission. App. B.C. i. 18; Livy, Epit. lix.; Cic. De Rep. iii. 29, 41. 19 Lange, R.A. iii. 32; Lex Agr. line 21. 10 The rogatio Fulvia, 125 B.C.; Val. Max. ix. 5, i; App. B.C. i. 21. 21 Plut. C.G. 5; App. i. 21 ; Livy, Epit. Ix.; Festus, 290. _ 22 Hence Gaius ranked as the founder of the equestrian order. Plin. N.H. xxxiii. 34, " judicum appellatione separare eum ordinem . . . instituere Gracchi "; Varro ap. Non. 454, "bicipitcm civitatem fecit." 23 Traces of the work of the commission survive in the Miliarium Popilianum, C.I.L. i. 551, in a few Gracchan "termini," ib. 552, 553. 554- 555> m the " limites Gracchani," Liber Colon., ed. Lachmann, pp. 209, 210, 211, 229, &c. Compare also the rise in the numbers of the census of 125 B.C.; Livy, Eptt. Ix. 24 See App. i. 27. The lex agraria, still extant in a fragmentary condition in the museum at Naples, is that of in. See Mommsen, C.I.L. i. 200; Wordsworth, 441 seq.; Bruns, Pontes juris Rom. ed. 6, pp. 74 seq., and cf. the article AGRARIAN LAWS. 638 ROME [REPUBLIC 118 100 636-54. 642. 643. citizens to the state lands, but on the expediency of purchasing other lands for distribution at the cost of the treasury.1 But, though the agrarian reform failed, the political conflict it had provoked continued, and the lines on which it was waged were in the main those laid down by Gaius Gracchus. The sovereignty of the assembly continued to be the watchword of the popular party, and a free use of the tribunician powers of interference and of legislation remained the most effective means of accomplishing their aims. Ten years after the death of Gaius the populares once more summoned up courage to challenge the supremacy of the senate; but it was on a question of foreign administra- tion that the conflict was renewed. The course of affairs in the client state of Numidia since Micipsa's death in 118 had been such as to discredit a stronger government than that of the senate.2 In defiance of Roman authority, and relying on the influence of his own well-spent gold, Jugurtha had murdered both his legitimate rivals, Hiemp- sal and Adherbal, and made himself master of Numidia. The declaration of war wrung from the senate (112) by popular indignation had been followed by the corrup- tion of a consul3 (in) and the crushing defeat of the proconsul Albinus.4 On the news of this crowning dis- grace the storm burst, and on the proposal of the tribunes a commission of inquiry was appointed into the conduct of the war.6 But the popular leaders did not stop here. Q. Caecilius Metellus, who as consul (109) had succeeded to the com- mand in^umidia, was an able soldier but a rigid aristocrat; and they now resolved to improve their success by entrusting the command instead to a genuine son of the people. Their choice fell on Gaius Marius (see MARIUS), an experienced officer and administrator, but a man of humble birth, wholly illiterate, and one who, though no politician, was by tempera- ment and training a hater of the polished and effeminate nobles who filled the senate.6 He was triumphantly elected, and, in spite of a decree of the senate continuing Metellus as proconsul, he was entrusted by a vote of the assembly with the charge of the war against Jugurtha (ip, threatened it in the future. The real charge against 8I~673- Sulla11 is not that he failed to accomplish all this, for to do so was beyond the powers even of a man so able, resolute and self-confident as Sulla, armed though he was with absolute authority and backed by overwhelming military strength and the prestige of unbroken success. He stands convicted rather of deliberately aggravating some and culpably ignoring others of the evils he should have tried to cure, and of contenting himself with a party triumph when he should have aimed at the regeneration and confirmation of the whole state. His victory was instantly followed, not by any measures of con- ciliation, but by a series of massacres, proscriptions and con- fiscations, of which almost the least serious consequence was the immediate loss of life which they entailed.12 From this time forward the fear of proscription and confiscation recurred as a possible consequence of every political «,///,/ crisis, and it was with difficulty that Caesar himself Suiiaa dissipated the belief that his victory would be followed proscrip- by a Sullan reign of terror. The legacy of hatred and a°as- discontent which Sulla left behind him was a constant source of disquiet and danger. In the children of the proscribed, whom he excluded from holding office, and the dispossessed owners of the confiscated lands, every agitator found ready and willing allies.13 The moneyed men of the equestrian order were more than ever hostile to the senatorial government, which they now identified with the man who cherished towards them a peculiar hatred,14 and whose creatures had hunted them down like dogs. The attachment which the new Italian citizens might in time have learnt to feel for the old republican con- stitution was nipped in the bud by the massacres at Praeneste and Norba, by the harsh treatment of the ancient towns of Etruria, and by the ruthless desolation of Samnium and Lucania.15 Quite as fatal were the results to the economic prosperity of the peninsula. Sulla's confiscations, following on the civil and social wars, opened the doors wide for a long train of evils. The veterans whom he planted on the lands he had seized16 did nothing for agriculture, and swelled the growing numbers of the turbulent and discontented.17 The " Sullan men " became as great an object of fear and dislike as the "Sullan reign."18 The latif undid increased with startling rapidity — whole territories passing into the hands of greedy partisans.19 Wide tracts of land, confiscated but never allotted, ran to waste.20 In all but a few districts of Italy the free popula- tion finally and completely disappeared from the open country; and life and property were rendered insecure by the brigandage which now developed unchecked, and in which the herdsmen slaves played a prominent part. The outbreaks of Spartacus in 73, and of Catiline ten years later, were significant commentaries on this part of Sulla's work.21 His con- stitutional legislation, while it included many useful administrative reforms, is marked by as violent a spirit of partisanship, and as apparently wilful a tlon of blindness to the future. There-establishment on a legal Su"a' basis of the ascendancy which custom had so long accorded to the 11 Compare especially Mqmmsen's brilliant chapter, which is, however, too favourable (bk. iv. cap. x.),and also Lange (iii. 146 seq.). Further references will be found in the article SULLA (q.v.). 12 App. i. 95 seq.; Dio Cassius, fr. 109; Plut. Sulla, 31. The number of the proscribed is given as 4700 (Val. Max.), including, according to Appian, 2600 members of the equestrian order. 13 .E.g. Catiline, in 63. Sail. Cat. 21, 37. For the liberi pro- scriptorum, see Veil. ii. 28. " Cic. Pro. Cluent. 55, 151. 15 Cic. Phil. v. 16, 43, " tot municipiorum maximae calamitates." Cic. Pro Domo, 30, 79; Cic. Ad Alt. i. 19; Florus iii. 21; Strabo, 223, 254. 16 Livy, Epit. Ixxxix.; App. B.C. {. 100; Cicero, Catil. ii. 79. 20. 17 Sail. Cat. 28. w Cic. Agr. ii. 269. 19 Cic. Agr. ii. 26, 69 seq.; 28, 78; iii. 2, 8 — the territories of Praeneste and of the Hirpini. 20Ibid. iii. 4, 14. 21 See especially Cicero's oration Pro Tullio. For the pastores of Apulia, Sail. Cat. 28. 6g/ REPUBLIC] 666. 650. senate was his main object. With this purpose he had already, when consul in 88, made the senatus auctoritas legally necessary for proposals to the assembly. He now as dictator1 followed this up by crippling the power of the magis- tracy, which had been the most effective weapon in the hands of the senate's opponents. The legislative freedom of the tribunes was already hampered by the necessity of obtaining the senate's sanction; in addition, Sulla restricted their wide powers of interference (intercessio) to their original purpose of protecting individual plebeians,2 and discredited the office by prohibiting a tribune from holding any subsequent office in the state.* The control of the courts (quaestiones perpetuae) was taken from the equestrian order and restored to the senate.4 To prevent the people from suddenly installing and keeping in high office a second Marius, he re-enacted the old law against re-election,6 and made legally binding the custom which required a man to mount up gradually to the consulship through the lower offices.6 His increase of the number of praetors from six to eight,7 and of quaestors to twenty,8 though required by adminis- trative necessities, tended, by enlarging the numbers and further dividing the authority of the magistrates, to render them still more dependent upon the central direction of the senate. Lastly, he replaced the pontifical and augural colleges in the hands of the senatorial nobles, by enacting that vacancies in them should, as before the lex Domitia (104), be filled up by co-optation.9 It cannot be said that Sulla was successful in fortifying the republican system against the dangers which menaced it from without. He accepted as an accomplished fact the enfranchisement of the Italians,10 but he made no provision to guard against the con- sequent reduction of the comilia to an absurdity,11 and with them of the civic government which rested upon them, or to organize an effective administrative system for the Italian communities.12 Of all men, too, Sulla had the best reason to appreciate the dangers to be feared from the growing independence of governors and generals in the provinces, and from the transformation of the old civic militia into a group of professional armies, devoted 1 For Sulla's dictatorship as in itself a novelty, see App. i. 98 ; Plut. Sulla, 33; Cic. Ad Alt. 9, 15; Cic. De Legg. i. 15, 42. 2 Cic. De Legg. iii. 9, 22, " injuriae faciendae potestatem ademit, auxilii ferendi reliquit." Cf. Cic. Verr. i. 60, 155; Livy, Epit. Ixxxix. >Cic. Pro Cornel, fr. 78; Ascon. In Corn. pp. 59, 70; Appian i. 100. 4 Veil. ii. 32; Tac. Ann. xi. 22; Cic. Verr. Act. i. 13, 37- 6 App. B.C. i. 100; cf. Livy vii. 42 (3^2 B.C.), " ne quis eundem magistratum intra decem annos caperet.' 8 The custom had gradually established itself. Cf . Livy xxxn. 7. The " certus ordo magistratuum " legalized by Sulla was — quaestor- ship, praetorship, consulate; App. i. 100. 7 Pompon. De orig. juris (Dig. \. 2, 2, 32); Veil. ii. 89. Com- pare also Cicero, In Pison. 15, 35 with Cic. Pro Milone, 15, 39. The increase was connected with his extension of the system of quaestiones perpetuae, which threw more work on the praetors as the magistrates in charge of the courts. « Tac. Ann. xi. 22. The quaestorship henceforward carried with it the right to be called up to the senate. By increasing the number of quaestors, Sulla provided for the supply of ordinary vacancies in the senate and restricted the censors' freedom of choice in filling them up. Fragments of the lex Cornelia de XX quaestoribus survive. See C.I.L. i. 108; Bruns, Fontes juris Romani (ed. 6), p. 91. • Dio xxxvii. 37; Ps. Ascon. 102 (Orelli). He also increased their numbers; Livy, Epit. Ixxxix. 10 He did propose to deprive several communities which had joined Cinna of the franchise, but the deprivation was not carried into effect; Cic. Pro domo, 30, 79. 11 The inadequacy of the comilia as a representative body was increased by the unequal distribution of the new citizens amongst the thirty-five tribes, each of which formed a single voting unit. Some tribes represented only a thinly populated district in the Campagna with one or two outlying communities, others included large and populous territories. See Mommsen, Staatsr. iii. 187; Hermes, xxii. 101 sqq. . . u Sulla does not appear to have passed any general municipal law; the necessary resettlement of the local constitutions after the Social War was seemingly carried out by commissioners. The fragment of a municipal charter found at Tarentum (Ephem. epigr. ix. i, Dessau, Inscr. Lai. sel. 6086) is probably a specimen of such leges datae. XXIII. 21 677. ROME 641 only to a successful leader, and with the weakest possible sense of allegiance to the state. He had himself, as proconsul of Asia, contemptuously and successfully defied the home govern- ment, and he, more than any other Roman general, had taught his soldiers to look only to their leader, and to think only of booty.13 Yet, beyond a few inadequate regulations, there is no evidence that Sulla dealt with these burning questions, the settlement of which was among the greatest of the achievements of Augustus.14 One administrative reform of real importance must, lastly, be set down to his credit. The judicial procedure first established in 149 for the trial of cases of magisterial extortion in the provinces, and applied between 149 605-673 and 81 to cases of treason and bribery, Sulla extended so as to bring under it the chief criminal offences, and thus laid the foundations of the Roman criminal law.1* The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then over- thrown— as it had been established — by a successful soldier. It was the fortune of Cn. Pompeius, a favourite officer over- of Sulla, first of all to violate in his own person throw the fundamental principles of the constitution re- of the established by his old chief, and then to overturn it. ^""MU. In Spain the Marian governor Q. Sertorius (see tioa. SERTORIUS) had defeated one after another of the pro- 70-664. consuls sent out by the senate, and was already in 77 master of all Hither Spain. To meet the crisis, Pompey, who was not yet thirty, and had never held even the quaestorship, was sent out to Spain with proconsular authority.16 Still Sertorius held out, until in 73 he was foully murdered by his own officers. The native tribes 681. who had loyally stood by him submitted, and Pompey 6gJ early in 71 returned with his troops to Italy, where, during his absence in Spain, an event had occurred which had shown Roman society with startling plainness how near it stood to revolution. In 73 Spartacus,17 a Thracian slave, fg^ escaped with seventy others from a gladiators' training school at Capua. In an incredibly short time he found himself at the head of 70,000 runaway slaves, outlaws, brigands and impoverished peasants, and for two years terrorized Italy, routed the legions sent against him, and even threatened Rome. He was at length defeated and slain by the praetor, M. Licinius Crassus, in Apulia. In Rome itself the various classes and parties hostile to the Sullan system had, 676f ever since Sulla's death in 78, been incessantly agi- tating for the repeal of his most obnoxious laws, and needed only "Sail. Cat. ii. " L. Sulla exercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, contra morem majorum luxuriose nimisque liberaliter habuerat." 14 There was a lex Cornelia de prmnnciis ordinandis, but only two of its provisions are known; (l) that a magistrate sent out with the imperiam should retain it till he re-entered the city (Cic. Ad Fam. i. 9, 25), a provision which increased rather than diminished his freedom of action; (2) that an outgoing governor should leave his province within thirty days after his successor's arrival (Cic. Ad Fam. iii. 6. 3). A lex Cornelia de majestate contained, it is true, a definition of treason evidently framed in the light of recent experience. The magistrate was forbidden " exire de provincia, educere exercitum, bellum sua sponte gerere, in regnum injussu populi ac senatus accedere," Cic. Pis. 21, 50. Sulla also added one to the long list of laws dealing with extortion in the provinces. But the danger lay, not in the want of laws, but in the want of security for their observance by an absolutely autocratic proconsul. The present writer cannot agree with those who would include among Sulla's laws one retaining consuls and praetors in Rome for their year of office and then sending them out to a province._ This was becoming the common practice before 81. After 81 it is invari- able for praetors, as needed for the judicial work, and invariable but for two exceptions in the case of consuls; but nowhere is there a hint that there had been any legislation on the subject, and there are indications that it was convenience and not law which maintained the arrangement.^ Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iv. 118 sqq.; Marquardt, Staatsverui. i. 518; cf. also Cic. All. 8, 15; " consules, quibus more majorum concessum est vel omnes adire provincias." 16 For this, the most lasting of Sulla's reforms, see Mommsen, Htst. of Rome, iv. 127 sqq. ; Rein, Criminal- Recht; Zumpt, Criminal-Profess d. Romer; Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time, p. 415 sqq- 16 Plut. Pomp. 17; Livy, Epit. xci. For Pompey's earlier life, see POMPEY. " For the Slave War, see SPARTACUS. 642 ROME [REPUBLIC a leader in order successfully to attack a government discredited by failure at home and abroad. With the return of Pompey Pom e from Spain their opportunity came. Pompey, who a* consul, understood politics as little as Marius, was anxious to obtain a triumph, the consulship for the next year (70), and as the natural consequence of this an important command in the East. The opposition wanted his name and support, and a bargain was soon struck. Pompey and with him Marcus Licinius Crassus, the real conqueror of Spartacus, were elected consuls, almost in the presence of their troops, which lay encamped outside the gates in readiness to assist at the triumph and ovation granted to their respective leaders. Pompey lost no time in performing his part of the agreement. The tribunes regained their pre- rogatives.1 The " perpetual courts " (quaestiones perpetuae) were taken out of the hands of the senatorial judices, who had outdone the equestrian order in scandalous corruption,2 and finally the censors, the first since 86 B.C., purged the senate of the more worthless and disreputable of Sulla's partisans.3 The victory was complete; but for the future its chief signifi- cance lay in the clearness with which it showed that the final decision in matters political lay with neither of the two great parties in Rome, but with the holder of the military authority. The tribunes ceased to be political leaders and became lieu- tenants of the military commanders, and the change was fatal to the dignity of politics in the city. Men became conscious of the unreality of the old constitutional controversies, in- different to the questions which agitated the forum and the curia, and contemptuously ready to alter or disregard the constitution itself when it stood in the way of interests nearer to their hearts. When his consulship ended, Pompey impatiently awaited at the hands of the politicians he had befriended the further Oablaiaa && °f a foreign command. He declined an ordinary and province, and from the end of 70 to 67 he remained Maniiian at Rome jn a somewhat affectedly dignified seclusion.4 But in 67 and 66 the laws of Gabinius and Manilius gave him all and more than all that he expected (see 687, 688. pOMPEY). By the former he obtained the sole com- mand for three years against the Mediterranean pirates.6 He was to have supreme authority over all Roman magistrates in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean and over the coasts for 50 miles inland. Fifteen legati, all of praetorian rank, were assigned to him, with two hundred ships, and as many troops as he thought desirable. The Maniiian law trans- ferred from Lucullus and Glabrio to Pompey the conduct of the Mithradatic War in Asia, and with it the entire control of Roman policy and interests in the East.6 The unrepublican character of the position thus granted to Pompey, and the dangers of the precedent established, were clearly enough pointed out by such moderate men as Q. Lutatius Catulus, the " father of the senate," and by the orator Hortensius — but in vain. Both laws were supported, not only by the tribunes and the populace, but by the whole influence of the publicani and negotiatores, whose interests in the East were at stake. Pompey left Rome in 67. In a marvellously short space of time he freed the Mediterranean from the Cilician pirates and established Roman authority in Cilicia itself. He then crushed Mithradates, added Syria to the list of Roman provinces, 1 The exact provisions of Pompey's law are nowhere given ; Livy, Epit. xcvii., " tribuniciam potestatem restituerunt." Cf. Veil. ii. 30. A lex Aurelia, in 75, had already repealed the law disqualifying a tribune for further office; Cic. Corn. fr. 78. 2This_was the work of L. Aurelius Cotta, praetor in this year. The judices were to be taken in equal proportions from senators, equites and tribuni aerarii. For the latter and for the law generally, see Lange, R. Alt. iii. 193; Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time, pp. 443 sqq. ; and article AERARIUM. Compare also Cicero's language, In Verr., Act. i. i. The prosecution of Verres shortly preceded the lex Aurelia. 8 Livy, Epit. xcviii. Sixty-four senators were expelled. Cf. Plut. Pomp. 22. 4 Veil. ii. 31 ; Plut. Pomp. 23. 6 Plut. Pomp. 25; Dio xxxvi. 6; Livy, Epit. c. 6 Cic. Pro Lege Manilla; Dio xxxvi. 25; Plut. Pomp. 30. 687, 692. 689. and led the Roman legions to the Euphrates and the Caspian, leaving no power capable of disputing with Rome the sovereignty of western Asia.7 He did not return to Italy till towards the end of 62. The interval was marked in Rome by the rise to political importance of Caesar and Cicero, and by Catiline's attempt at revolution. As Caesar the nephew of Marius and the son-in-law of Cinna, Caesar possessed a strong hereditary claim to the leadership of the popular and Marian party.8 He had already taken part in the agitation for the restoration of the tribunate; he had supported the Maniiian law; and, when Pompey's withdrawal left the field clear for other competitors, he stepped at once into the front rank on the popular side.' He took upon himself, as their nearest representative, the task of clearing the memory and avenging the wrongs of the great popular leaders, Marius, Cinna and Saturninus. He publicly reminded the people of Marius's services, and set up again upon the Capitol the trophies of the Cimbric War. He endeavoured to bring to justice, not only the ringleaders in Sulla's bloody work of proscription, but even the murderers of Saturninus, and vehe- mently pleaded the cause of the children of the proscribed. While thus carrying on in genuine Roman fashion the feud of his family, he attracted the sympathies of the Italians by his efforts to procure the Roman franchise for the Latin communities beyond the Po, and won the affections of the populace in Rome and its immediate neighbourhood by the splendour of the games which he gave as curule aedile (65), and by his lavish expenditure upon the improvement of the Appian Way. But these measures were with him only means to the further end of creating for himself a position such as that which Pompey had already won; and this ulterior aim he pursued with an audacious indifference to constitutional forms and usages. His coalition with Crassus, soon after Pompey's departure, secured him an ally whose colossal wealth and wide financial connexions were of inestimable value, and whose vanity and inferiority of intellect rendered him a^ willing tool. The story of his attempted coup d'etat in January 65 is probably false,10 but it is evident that by the beginning of 63 he was bent on reaping the reward of his exertions by obtaining from the people an extraordinary command abroad, which should secure his position before Pompey's return; and the agrarian law proposed early that year by the tribune P. Servilius Rullus had for its object the creation, in favour of Caesar and Crassus, of a commission with powers so wide as to place its members almost on a level with Pompey himself.11 It was at this moment when all seemed going well, that Caesar's hopes were dashed to the ground by Catiline's desperate outbreak, which not only discredited every one connected with the popular party, but directed the suspicions of the well-to-do classes against Caesar himself, as a possible accomplice in Catiline's revolutionary schemes.12 The same wave of indignation and suspicion which for the moment checked Caesar's rise carried Marcus Tullius Cicero to the height of his fortunes. Cicero, as a politician, has been equally misjudged by friends and foes. That he was deficient in courage, that he was vain, and that he attempted the impossible, may be admitted at once. But he was neither a brilliant and unscrupulous adventurer nor an aimless trimmer, nor yet a devoted champion merely of senatorial * See POMPEY and MITHRADATES. 8 For his early life, see CAESAR. 9 Prof. Beesly has vainly endeavoured to show that Catiline and not Caesar was the popular leader from 67 to 63. That this is the inference intentionally conveyed by Sallust, in order to ' screen Caesar, is true, but the inference is a false one. 10 The story is so told by Suetonius, Jul. 8. In Sallust, Cat. 18, it appears as an mtrigue originating with Catiline, and Caesar's name is omitted. 11 Cic. Agr. ii. 6, 15, " nihil aliud act urn nisi ut decem reges constit uerentur. ' ' 12 That Caesar and Crassus had supported Catiline for the consul- ship in 65 is certain, and they were suspected naturally enough of favouring his designs in 63, but their complicity is in the highest degree improbable. REPUBLIC] ROME 643 ascendancy.1 He was a representative man, with a numerous following, and a policy which was naturally suggested to him by the circumstances of his birth, connexions and profession, and which, impracticable as it proved to be, was yet consistent, intelligible and high-minded. Born at Arpinum, he cherished like all Arpinates the memory of his great fellow-townsman Marius, the friend of the Italians, the saviour of Italy and the irreconcilable foe of Sulla and the nobles. A " municipal " himself, his chosen friends and his warmest supporters were found among the well-to-do classes in the Italian towns.2 Un- popular with the Roman aristocracy, who despised him as a peregrinus,3 and with the Roman populace, he was the trusted leader of the Italian middle class, " the true Roman people," as he proudly styles them. It was they who carried his election 691 696 ^or *ne consulship4 (63), who in 58 insisted on his recall 7gs from exile,5 and it was his influence with them which made Caesar so anxious to win him over in 49. He represented their antipathy alike to socialistic schemes and to aristocratic exclusiveness, and their old-fashioned simplicity of life in contrast with the cosmopolitan luxury of the capital.6 By birth, too, he belonged to the equestrian order, the foremost representatives of which were indeed still the publicani and negolialores, but which since the enfranchisement of Italy included also the substantial burgesses of the Italian towns and the smaller " squires " of the country districts. With them, too, Cicero was at one in their dread of democratic excesses and their social and political jealousy of the nobiles.7 Lastly, as a lawyer and a scholar, he was passionately attached to the ancient constitution. His political ideal was the natural outcome of these circumstances. He advocated the mainten- ance of the old constitution, but not as it was understood by the extreme politicians of the right and left. The senate was to be the supreme directing council,8 but the senate of Cicero's dreams was not an oligarchic assemblage of nobles, but a body freely open to all citizens, and representing the worth of the community.9 The magistrates, while deferring to the senate's authority, were to be at once vigorous and public-spirited; and the assembly itself which elected the magistrates and passed the laws was to consist, not of the " mob of the forum," but of the true Roman people throughout Italy.10 For the realiza- tion of this ideal he looked, above all things, to the establishment of cordial relations between the senate and nobles in Rome and the great middle class of Italy represented by the equestrian order, between the capital and the country towns and districts. This was the concordia ordinum, the consensus Italiae, for which he laboured.11 Cicero's election to the consulship for 63 over the heads of Caesar's nominees, Antonius and Catiline, was mainly The the work of the Italian middle class, already coa. rendered uneasy both by the rumours which were rife of revolutionary schemes and of Caesar's boundless dJ='.). But with the consular elections in the autumn of 63 a fresh danger arose from a different quarter. The " conspiracy of Catiline" (see CATILINE) was not the work of the popular 1 Mommsen is throughout unfair to Cicero, as also are Drumann and Professor Beesly. The best estimates of Cicero's political position are those given by Mr Strachan- Davidson in his Cicero (1894), and by Professor Tyrrell in his Introductions to his edition of Cicero's Letters. * Cic. Ad Alt. i. 19, 4, " noster exercitus . . . locupletium." 3 Cic. Pro Sulla, 7, 22; Sail. Cat. 31, " inquilinus urbis Romae." 4 See the De petitione consulates, passim. 6 De Domo, 28, 75; Pro Plancio, 41, 97. • Cic. Pro Quinctw, 8, 31 ; Pro Cluentio, 46, 153. 7 Cic. In Verr. ii. 73; De Pet. Cons. i. He shared with them their dislike of Sulla, as the foe of their order; Pro Cluentio, 55, 151- 8 De Legg. iii. 12. » Pro Sestio, 65. 136; De Legg. iii. 4. 10 Pro Sestio, 45. u Ad Alt. i. 18. party, and still less was it an unselfish attempt at reform; Catiline himself was a patrician, who had held high office, and possessed considerable ability and courage; but he was bank- rupt in character and in purse, and two successive defeats in the consular elections had rendered him desperate. To retrieve his broken fortunes by violence was a course which was only too readily suggested by the history of the last forty years, and materials for a conflagration abounded on all sides. The danger to be feared from his intrigues lay in the state of Italy, which made a revolt against society and the established govern- ment only too likely if once a leader presented himself, and it was such a revolt that Catiline endeavoured to organize. Bank- rupt nobles like himself, Sullan veterans and the starving peasants whom they had dispossessed of their holdings, outlaws of every description, the slave population of Rome, and the wilder herdsmen-slaves of the Apulian pastures, were all enlisted under his banner, and attempts were even made to excite disaffection among the newly conquered people of southern Gaul and the warlike tribes who still cherished the memory of Sertorius in Spain. In Etruria, the seat and centre of agrarian distress and discontent, a rising actually took place headed by a Sullan centurion, but the spread of the revolt was checked by Cicero's vigorous measures. Catiline fled from Rome, and died fighting with desperate courage at the head of his motley force of old soldiers, peasants and slaves. His accomplices in Rome were arrested, and, after an unavailing protest from Caesar, the senate authorized the consuls summarily to put them to death. The Catilinarian outbreak had been a blow to Caesar, whose schemes it interrupted, but to Cicero it brought not only popu- larity and honour, but, as he believed, the realization of his political ideal. But Pompey was now on his way home, l2 and again as in 70 the political future seemed to depend Ketura of on the attitude which the successful general would Pompey assume; Pompey himself looked simply to the attain- tram ment by the help of one political party or another of A*la~ his immediate aims, which at present were the ratification of his arrangements in Asia and a grant of land for his troops. It was the impracticable jealousy of his personal rivals in the senate, aided by the versatility of Caesar, who presented him- self not as his rival but as his ally, which drove Pompey once more, in spite of Cicero's efforts, into the camp of what was still nominally the popular party. In 60, c°atl- on Caesar's return from his propraetorship in Spain, the Pbmpey, coalition was formed which is known by the somewhat Caesar misleading title of the First Triumvirate.11 Pompey aad was ostensibly the head of this new alliance, and in 6o™69j' return for the satisfaction of his own demands he under- took to support Caesar's candidature for the consulship. The wealth and influence of Crassus were enlisted in the same cause, and the publicani were secured by a promise of release from their bargain for collecting the taxes of Asia. Cicero was under no illusions as to the significance of this coalition. It scattered to the winds his dreams of a stable and conservative republic. The year 59 saw the republic powerless in the hands of three citizens. Caesar as consul pro- cured the ratification of Pompey's acts in Asia, granted to the publicani the relief refused by the senate, and carried an agrarian law of the new type, which provided for the purchase of lands for allotment at the cost of the treasury and for the assign- ment of the rich ager Campanus.1' But Caesar aimed at more than the carrying of laws in the teeth of the senate or any party victory in the forum. An important military command Caesar** was essential to him. An obedient tribune, P. Vatinius, command was found, and by the lex Vatinia he was given for to a""1' five years the command of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, to which 11 For the history of the next eighteen years, the most important ancient authority is Cicero in his letters and speeches. 13 Misleading, because the coalition was unofficial. The "triumvirs" of 43 were actual magistrates, " Illviri reipublicae constituendae causa." 14 For the lex Julia Agraria and the lex Campana, see Dio Cass. xxxviii. i; App. B.C. ii. 10; Suet. Jul. 20; Cic. Ad Att. ii. 16, 18. ROME [REPUBLIC was added by a decree of the senate Transalpine Gaul also.1 This command not only opened to him a great military career, but enabled him, as the master of the valley of the Po, to keep an effective watch on the course of affairs in Italy. Early the next year the attack upon himself which Cicero had foreseen was made. P. Clodius (q.v.) as tribune brought Baaish- forward a law enacting that any one who had put a went and Roman citizen to death without trial by the people 2^^0/ should be interdicted from fire and water. Cicero, ss'sr- finding himself deserted even by Pompey, left Rome in 696-97. a panic, and by a second Clodian law he was declared to be outlawed.2 With Caesar away in his province, and Cicero banished, Clodius was for the time master in Rome. But, absolute as he was in the streets, and recklessly as he parodied the policy of the Gracchi by violent attacks on the senate, his tribunate merely illustrated the anarchy which now inevitably followed the withdrawal of a strong controlling hand. A reaction speedily followed. Pompey, bewildered and alarmed by Clodius's violence, at last bestirred himself. Cicero's recall was decreed by the senate, and early in August 57 in the comitia cenluriata, to which his Italian supporters flocked in crowds, a law was passed revoking the sentence of outlawry passed upon him. Intoxicated by the acclamations which greeted him, and encouraged by Potnpey's support, and by the salutary effects Renewal °^ Clodius's excesses, Cicero's hopes rose high.3 With of the indefatigable energy he strove to reconstruct a solid coalition, constitutional party, but only to fail once more. 65-698. Pompey was irritated by the hostility of a powerful section in the senate, who thwarted his desires for a fresh command and even encouraged Clodius in insulting the con- queror of the East. Caesar became alarmed at the reports which reached him that the repeal of his agrarian law was threatened and that the feeling against the coalition was grow- ing in strength; above all, he was anxious for a renewal of his five years' command. He acted at once, and in the celebrated conference at Luca (56) the alliance of the three self- constituted rulers of Rome was renewed. Cicero suc- cumbed to the inevitable and withdrew in despair from public life. Pompey and Crassus became consuls for 55. Caesar's command was renewed for another five years, and to each of his two allies important provinces were assigned for a similar period — Pompey receiving the two Spainsand Africa, and Crassus Syria.4 The coalition now divided between them the control of the empire. For the future. the question was, how long the coalition itself would last. Its duration proved to be short. In 53 Crassus was defeated and slain by the Crassus Parthians at Carrhae, and in Rome the course of 53=701. events slowly forced Pompey into an attitude of hostility to Caesar. The year 54 brought with it a renewal of the riotous anarchy which had disgraced Rome in 58-57. Conscious of its own helplessness, the senate, with the eager assent of all respectable citizens, dissuaded Pompey from leaving Italy; and he accordingly left his pro- vinces to be governed by his legates. But the anarchy and confusion only grew worse, and even strict constitutionalists like Cicero talked of the necessity of investing Pompey with some extraordinary powers for the preservation of order.5 At last 'Suet. Jttl. 22; Dio Cass. xxxviii. 8; App. B.C. ii. 13; Plut. Caes. 14. 2 Both laws were carried in the concilium plebis. The first merely reaffirmed the right of appeal, as the law of Gaius Gracchus had done. The second declared Cicero to be already by his own act in leaving Rome " interdicted from fire and water " — a procedure for which precedents could be quoted. Clodius kept within the letter of the law. • Cicero's speech Pro Sestio gives expression to these feelings; it contains a passionate appeal to all good citizens to rally round the old constitution. The acquittal of Sestius confirmed his hopes. See Ad Q. Fr. ii. 4. 4 Livy, Epit. cv. ; Dio Cass. xxxix. 33. For Cicero's views, see Ep. ad Fam. \. 9; Ad Alt. iv. 5. 6 A dictatorship was talked of in Rome; Plut. Pomp. 54; Cic. Ad Q. Fr. iii. 8. Cicero himself anticipated Augustus in his picture of a princeps civitatis sketched in a lost book of the De republica, 698. 700. 705. 706. in 52 he was elected sole consul, and not only so, but his provincial command was prolonged for five years pom more, and fresh troops were assigned him.6 The r61e ,0/e fey of " saviour of society " thus thrust upon Pompey was coatui, one which flattered his vanity, but it entailed conse- S2-702. quences which it is probable he did not foresee, for it brought him into close alliance with the senate, and in the senate there was a powerful party who were resolved to force him into head- ing the attack they could not successfully make without him upon Caesar. It was known that the latter, whose command expired in March 49, but who in the ordinary course of things would not have been replaced by his successor until January 48, was anxious to be aljpwed to stand for his second consulship in the autumn of 49 without coming in person to Rome.7 His opponents in the senate proposed were equally bent on bringing his command to an end recall of at the legal time, and so obliging him to disband his C****r. troops and stand for the consulship as a private person, or, if he kept his command, on preventing his standing for the consulship. Through 51 and 50 the discussions in the senate and the negotiations with Caesar con- tinued, but with no result. On ist January 49 Caesar made a last offer of compromise. The senate replied by requir- ing him on pain of outlawry to disband his legions. Two tribunes who supported him were ejected from the senate-house, and the magistrates with Pompey were authorized to take measures to protect the republic. Caesar hesitated no longer; he crossed the Rubicon and invaded Italy. The Caefar rapidity of his advance astounded and bewildered crosses his foes. Pompey, followed by the consuls, by the the majority of the senate and a long train of nobles, K"bl^°"' abandoned Italy as untenable, and crossed into Greece.8 At the end of March Caesar entered Rome as the master of Italy. Four years later, after the final victory of Munda (45), he became the undisputed master of the Roman world.9 The task which Caesar had to perform was no easy one. It came upon him suddenly; for there is no sufficient reason to believe that Caesar had long premeditated revolu- Dlctator. tion, or that he had previously aspired to anything thipof more than such a position as that which Pompey had Caesar, already won, a position unrepublican indeed, but accepted by republicans as inevitable.10 War was forced upon him as the alternative to political suicide, but success in war brought the responsibilities of nearly absolute power, and Caesar's genius must be held to have shown itself in the masterly fashion in which he grasped the situa- tion, rather than in the supposed sagacity with which he is said to have foreseen and prepared for it. In so far as he failed, his failure was mainly due to the fact that his tenure of power was too short for the work which he was required to perform. From the very first moment when Pompey 's ignominious retreat left him master of Italy, he made it clear that he was neither a second Sulla nor even the reckless anarchist which many believed him to be.11 The Roman and Italian public were written about this time, which was based upon his hopes of what Pompey might prove to be; Ad Att. viii. ii ; August. Deciv. Dei, v. 13. \ Plut. Pomp. 54; App. B.C. ii. 24. 7 For the rights of the question involved in the controversy between Caesar and the senate, see Mommsen, Rechtsfrage zw. Caesar und d. Senat; Guiraud, Le Difftrend entre Cesar et le Senat (Paris, 1878), and the article CAESAR. 8 Cicero severely censures Pompey for abandoning Italy, but strategically the move was justified by the fact that Pompey's strength lay in the East, where his name was a power, and in his control of the sea. Politically, however, it was a blunder, as it enabled Caesar to pose as the defender of Italy. 9 For the Civil Wars, see CAESAR; CICERO; and POMPEY. 10 On this, as on many other points connected with Caesar, diver- gence has here been ventured on from the views expressed by Mommsen in his brilliant chapter on Caesar (Hist, of Rome, bk. v. cap. xi.). _Too much stress must not be laid on the gossip retailed by Suetonius as to Caesar's early intentions. __11 Cicero vividly expresses the revulsion of feeling produced by Caesar's energy, humanity and moderation on his first appearance in Italy. Compare Ad Att. vii. n, with Ad Att. viii. 13. ' REPUBLIC] ROME 645 first startled by the masterly rapidity and energy of his move- ments, and then agreeably surprised by his lenity and modera- tion. No proscriptions or confiscations followed his victories, and all his acts evinced an unmistakable desire to effect a sober and reasonable settlement of the pressing questions of the hour; of this, and of his almost superhuman energy, the long list of measures he carried out or planned is sufficient proof. The " children of the proscribed " were at length restored to their rights,1 and with them many of the refugees2 who had found shelter in Caesar's camp during the two or three years immediately preceding the war; but the extreme men among his supporters soon realized that their hopes of novae tabulae and grants of land were illusory. In allotting lands to his veterans, Caesar carefully avoided any disturbance of existing owners and occupiers,3 and the mode in which he dealt with the economic crisis produced by the war seems to have satisfied all reason- able men.4 It had been a common charge against Caesar in former days that he paid excessive court to the populace of Rome, and now that he was master he still dazzled and delighted them by the splendour of the spectacles he provided, and by the liberality of his largesses. But he was no indiscriminate flatterer of the mob. The popular clubs and gilds which had helped to organize the anarchy of the last few years were dis- solved.6 A strict inquiry was made into the distribution of the monthly doles of corn, and the number of recipients was reduced by one-half;6 finally, the position of the courts of justice was raised by the abolition of the popular element among the judices.7 Nor did Caesar shrink from the attempt, in which so many had failed before him, to mitigate the twin evils which were ruining the prosperity of Italy — the concentration of a pauper population in the towns, and the denudation and desola- tion of the country districts. His strong hand carried out the scheme so often proposed by the popular leaders since the days of Gaius Gracchus, the colonization of Carthage and Corinth. Allotments of land on a large scale were made in Italy; decay- ing towns were reinforced by fresh drafts of settlers; on the large estates and cattle farms the owners were required to find employment for a certain amount of free labour; and a slight and temporary stimulus was given to Italian industry by the reimposition of harbour dues upon foreign goods.8 The reform of the calendar, which is described elsewhere,9 completes a record of administrative reform which entitles Caesar to the praise of having governed well, whatever may be thought of the validity of his title to govern at all. But how did Caesar deal with what was after all the greatest problem which he was called upon to solve, the establishment of a satisfactory government for the Empire? One point indeed was already settled. Some centralization of the executive authority was indispensable, and this part of his work Caesar thoroughly performed. From the moment when he seized the moneys in the treasury on his first entry into Rome10 down to the day of his death, he recognized on other authority but his throughout the Empire. He alone directed the policy of Rome in foreign affairs; the legions were led, and the provinces governed, not by independent magistrates, but by his "legates";11 and the title Imperator which he adopted was intended to express the absolute and unlimited nature of the imperium he claimed, as distinct from the limited spheres of authority possessed by republican magistrates.12 In so centralizing the executive authority over the Empire at large, Caesar was but 1 Dio xli. 1 8. 2 App. ii. 48; Dio xli. 36. 3 Plut. Caes. 51; Suet. 38, " adsignavit agrps, sed non continues, ne quis possessorum expelleretur." Cf. App. ii. 94. 4 For the lex Julia de pecuniis mutuis, see Suet. Jul. 42 ; Caesar, B.C. iii. i; Dio xh. 37; App. ii. 48. The faeneratores were satisfied; Cic. Ad Fam. viii. 17. But the law displeased anarchists like M. Caelius Rufus and P. Cornelius Dplabella. 6 Suet. Jul. 42. • Ibid. 41 ; Dio xliii. 21. 7 Suet. Jul. 41 ; Dio xliii. 25. * Suet. Jul. 42, 43. 9 See CALENDAR ; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, v. 438, and Fischer, Rom. ZeiUafeln, 292 seq. 10 Plut. Caes. 35. " Dio xliii. 47. 12 Dio xliii. 44. For this use of the title Imperator, see Mommsen, Hist of Rome. v. 332, and note. developing the policy implied in the Gabinian and Manilian laws, and the precedent he established was closely followed by his successors. It was otherwise with the more difficult ques- tion of the form under which this new executive authority should be exercised and the relation it should hold to the republican constitution. We must be content to remain in ignorance of the precise shape which Caesar intended ultimately to give to the new system. The theory that he contemplated a revival of the old Roman kingship13 is supported by little more than the popular gossip of the day, and the form under which he actually wielded his authority can hardly have been regarded by so sagacious a statesman as more than a provisional arrangement. This form was that of the dictatorship; and in favour of the choice it might have been urged that the dictatorship was the office naturally marked out by republican tradition as the one best suited to carry the state safely through a serious crisis, that the powers it conveyed were wide, that it was as dictator that Sulla had reorganized the state, and that a dictatorship had been spoken of as the readiest means of legalizing Pompey's protectorate of the Republic in 53- nl_2 52. The choice nevertheless was a bad one. It was associated with those very Sullan traditions from which Caesar was most anxious to sever himself; it implied necessarily the suspension for the time of all constitutional government; and, lastly, the dictatorship as held by Caesar could not even plead that it conformed to the old rules and traditions of the office. The " perpetual dictatorship " granted him after his crowning victory at Munda (45) was a contradiction in terms rg9f and a repudiation of constitutional government which excited the bitterest animosity.14 A second question, hardly less important, was that of the position to be assigned to the old constitution. So far as Caesar himself was concerned, the answer was for the time sufficiently clear. The old constitution was not formally abrogated. The senate met and deliberated; the assembly passed laws and elected magistrates; there were still consuls, praetors, aediles, quaestors and tribunes; and Caesar himself, like his successors, professed to hold his authority by the will of the people. But senate, assembly and magistrates were all alike subordinated to the paramount authority of the dictator; and this subordination was, in appearance at least, more direct and complete under the rule of Caesar than under that of Augustus. Caesar was by nature as impatient as Augustus was tolerant of established forms; and, dazzled by the splendour of his career of victory and by his ubiquitous energy and versatility, the Roman public, high and low, pros- trated themselves before him and heaped honours upon him with a reckless profusion which made the existence of any authority by the side of his own an absurdity.16 Hence under Caesar the old constitution was repeatedly disregarded, or suspended in a way which contrasted unfavourably with the more respectful attitude assumed by Augustus. For months together Rome was left without any regular magistrates, and was governed like a subject town by Caesar's prefects.18 At another time a tribune was seen exercising authority outside the city bounds and invested with the imperium of a praetor.17 At the elections, candidates appeared before the people backed by a written recommendation from the dictator, which was equivalent to a command.18 Finally, the senate itself was 18 See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, v. 333, and Ranke, Weltgcschichte, ii. 319 seq. According to Appian ii. no, and Plutarch, Caes. 64, the title rex was only to be used abroad in the East, as likely to strengthen Caesar's position against the Parthians. 14 Cicero, Phil. i. 2, 4, praises Antony, " quuin dictatoris nomen . . . propter perpetuae dictaturae recentem memoriam funditus ex republica sustulisset." 16 For the long list of these, see Appian ii. 106; Dio xliii. 43-45: Plut. Caes. 57 ; Suet. Jul. 76. Cf. also Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, v. 329 ff. ; Watson, Cicero's Letters, App. x. ; Zumpt, Sludia Romana, 199 seq. (Berlin, 1859). 19 Zumpt, Stud. Rom. 241 ; Suet. Jul. 76. 17 Cic. Ad Alt. x. 8a. 18 Suet. Jul. 41, "Caesar dictator ... commendo vobis ilium et ilium, ut vestro suffragio suam dignitatem teneant." 646 ROME [REPUBLIC 673. transformed out of all likeness to its former self by the raising of its numbers to 900, and by the admission of old soldiers, sons of freedmen and even " semi-barbarous Gauls." * But, though Caesar's high-handed conduct in this respect was not imitated by his immediate successors, yet the main lines of their policy were laid down by him. These were — (i) the muni- cipalization of the old republican constitution, and (2) its subordination to the paramount authority of the master of the legions and the provinces. In the first case he only carried further a change already in progress. Of late years the senate had been rapidly losing its hold over the Empire at large. Even the ordinary proconsuls were virtually independent potentates, ruling their provinces as they chose, and disposing absolutely of legions which recognized no authority but theirs. The consuls and praetors of each year had since 81 been stationed in Rome, and immersed in purely municipal business; and, lastly, since the enfranchisement of Italy, the comitia, though still recognized as the ultimate source of all authority, had become little more than assemblies of the city populace, and their claim to represent the true Roman people was indignantly questioned, even by republicans like Cicero. The concentration in Caesar's hands of all authority outside Rome completely and finally severed all real connexion between the old institutions of the Republic of Rome and the government of the Roman Empire. But the institutions of the Republic not merely became, what they had originally been, the local institutions of the city of Rome; they were also subordinated even within these narrow limits to the para- mount authority of the man who held in his hands the army and the provinces. Autocratic abroad, at home he was the chief magistrate of the commonwealth; and this position was marked, in his case as in that of those who followed him, by a combination in his person of various powers, and by a general right of precedence which left no limits to his authority but such as he chose to impose upon himself. During the greater part of his reign he was consul as well as dictator. In 48, after his victory at Pharsalia, he was given the tribunicia. potestas for life,2 and after his second success at Thapsus the praefectura morum for three years.3 As chief magistrate he convenes and presides in the senate, nominates candidates, conducts elections, carries laws in the assembly and administers justice in court.4 Finally, as a reminder that the chief magistrate of Rome was also the autocratic ruler of the Empire, he wore even in Rome the laurel wreath and triumphal dress, and carried the sceptre of the victorious imperator.6 Nor are we without some clue as to the policy which Caesar had sketched out for himself in the administration of the Empire, the government of which he had centralized in his own hands. The much-needed work of rectifying the frontiers6 he was forced, by his premature death, to leave to other hands, but within the frontiers he anticipated Augustus in lightening the financial burdens of the provincials,7 and in establishing a stricter control over the provincial governors,8 while he went beyond him in his desire to consolidate the Empire by extending the Roman franchise9 and admitting provincials to a share in the government.10 He completed the Romanization of Italy by his enfranchisement of the Transpadane Gauls," and by establishing throughout the peninsula a uniform system of municipal government, which under his successors was gradu- ally extended to the provinces.12 1 Suet. Jul. 41, 76; Dio xliii. 47. * Dio xlii. 20. * Dio xliii. 14; Suet. Jul. 76. The statement is rejected by Mommsen; see CAESAR. 4 Suet. Jul. 43, " jus laboriosissime ac severissime dixit." 6 App. ii. 1 06; Dio xliii. 43. 6 Plut. Goes. 58, "awiol/a.i T&V K. Epit. cxx. ; App. iv. 7; and article CICERO. 17 Dio xlvii. 35-49; App. iv. 87-138. 18 Veil. ii. 76; Dio xlviii, 28; App. v. 65. 19 For Antony's policy and schemes in the East, see Ranke, Weltgeschichte, ii. 381-85; Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire, ii. p. 24 sqq.; Lange, Rom. Alterth. iii. 573 sqq. '"Suet. Aug. 17; Dio 1. 1-8; Plutarch, Anton. 53. 21 Dio Ii. I ; Zonaras x. 30. EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284] ROME 64.7 by closing the temple of Janus;1 at the end of the next year he formally laid down the extraordinary powers which he had held since 43, and a regular government was established. Til. III. The Empire. PERIOD I.: THE PRINCIPATE, 27 B.C.-A.D. 284 — (a) The Constitution of the Principate. — The conqueror of Antonius at Actium, the great-nephew and heir of the dictator Caesar, was now summoned, by the general consent of a world wearied out with twenty years of war and anarchy,2 to the task of establish- ing a government which should as far as possible respect the forms and traditions of the Republic, without sacrificing that centralization of authority which experience had shown to be necessary for the integrity and stability of the Empire. It was a task for which Octavian was admirably fitted. To great administrative capacity and a quiet tenacity of purpose he united deliberate caution and unfailing tact; while his bourgeois birth3 and genuinely Italian sympathies enabled him to win the confidence of the Roman community to an extent impos- sible for Caesar, with his dazzling pre-eminence of patrician descent, his daring disregard of forms and his cosmopolitan tastes. The new system which was formally inaugurated by Octavian in 28-27 B-c-'1 assumed the shape of a restoration of the republic The under the leadership of a princeps.& Octavian volun- Augustan tarily resigned the extraordinary powers which he had system, held since 43, and, to quote his own words, " handed 28-27= over the republic to the control of the senate and 726~27- people of Rome."6 The old constitutional machinery was once more set in motion; the senate, assembly and magis- trates resumed their functions;7 and Octavian himself was hailed as the " restorer of the commonwealth and the champion of freedom."8 It was not so easy to determine what relation he himself, the actual master of the Roman world, should occupy towards this revived republic. His abdication, in any real sense of the word, would have simply thrown everything back into confusion. The interests of peace and order required that he should retain at least the substantial part of his authority;* and this object was in fact accomplished, and the rule of the emperors founded, in a manner which has no parallel in history. Any revival of the kingly title was out of the question, and Octavian himself expressly refused the dictatorship.10 Nor was any new office created or any new official title invented for his benefit. But by senate and people he was invested according to the old constitutional forms with certain powers, as many citizens had been before him, and so took his place by the side of the lawfully appointed magistrates of the republic; — only, to mark his pre-eminent dignity, as the first of them all, the senate decreed that he should take as an additional cognomen that of " Augustus,"11 while in common parlance he was hence- forth styled princeps, a simple title of courtesy, familiar to re- publican usage, and conveying no other idea than that of a I He celebrated his triumph on the I3th, I4th and I5th of August; Dio li. 21 ; Livy, Epit. cxxxiii. For the closing of the temple of Janus, see Livy i. 19; Veil. ii. 38; Suet. Aug. 22. - Tac. Ann. i. 2, " cunctos dulcedine otii pellexit." 3 Suet. Aug. i. His grandfather was a citizen of Velitrae; " municipalibus magisteriis contentus." 4 Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 745 ff . ; Man. Ancyranum (ed. Mommsen, Berlin, 1883), vi. 13-23, pp. 144-53; Herzog, Gesch. u. System d. rom. Verfassung, ii. p. 126 sqq. 'Tac. Ann. iii. 28, " sexto demum consulatu . . . quae Illviratu jusserat abolevit, deditque jura quis pace et principe uteremur"; Ibid. i. 9, " non regno neque dictatura sed principis nomine con- stitutam rempublicam." 6 Man. Anc. vi. 13. 7 Veil. ii. 89, " pnsca et antiqua reipublicae forma revocata." 8 Ovid, Fasti, i. 589. On a coin of Asia Minor Augustus is styled " libertatis P. R. vindex." The I3th of January, 27 B.C., was marked in the calendar as the day on which the republic was restored (C.I.L. i. p. 384). 9 Dio Cassius describes Augustus as seriously contemplating abdica- tion (Iii. i; liii. I-Il); cf. Suet. Aug. 28. 10 Suet. Aug. 52; Man. Anc. i. 31. II Man. Anc. vi. 16, 21-23. recognized primacy and precedence over his fellow-citizens.12 The ideal sketched by Cicero in his De ReptMica, of a constitu- tional president of a free republic, was apparently realized; but it was only in appearance. For in fact the special prero- gatives conferred upon Octavian gave him back in substance the autocratic authority he had resigned, and as between the restored republic and its new princeps the balance of power was overwhelmingly on the side of the latter. Octavian had held the imperium since 43; in 33, it '"• al- is true, the powers of the triumvirate had legally Jjjfc. expired, but he had continued to wield his authority, meat „/ as he himself puts it," " by universal consent." In 27 2T-T27. he received a formal grant of the imperium from the T27- senate and people for the term of ten years, and his provincia was denned as including all the provinces in which military authority was required and legions were stationed.14 He was declared commander-in-chief of the Roman army, and granted the exclusive right of levying troops, of making war and peace, and of concluding treaties.16 As consul, moreover, he not only continued !o be the chief magistrate of the state at home, but took precedence, in virtue of his majus imperium, over the governors of the " unarmed provinces," which were still nomin- ally under the control of the senate. Thus the so-called " re- storation of the republic " was in essence the recognition by law of the personal supremacy of Octavian, or Augustus, as he must henceforth be called. In 23 an important change was made in the formal basis of Augustus's authority. In that year he laid down the consul- ship which he had held each year since 31, and could The therefore only exert his imperium pro console, like n-*ettie- the ordinary governor of a province. He lost his meat at authority as chief magistrate in Rome and his 23=731. precedence over the governors of senatorial pro- vinces. To remedy these defects a series of extraordinary offices were pressed upon his acceptance; but he refused them all,16 and caused a number of enactments to be passed which determined the character of the principate for the next three centuries.17 Firstly, he was exempted from the disability attaching to the tenure of the imperium by one who was not an actual magistrate, and permitted to retain and exercise it in Rome. Secondly, his imperium was declared to be equal with that of the consuls, and therefore superior to that of all other holders of that power. Thirdly, he was granted equal rights with the consuls of convening the senate and introducing business, of nominating candidates at elections,1* and of issuing edicts.19 Lastly, he was placed on a level with the consuls in outward rank. Twelve lictors were assigned to him and an official seat between those of the consuls themselves (Dio liv. 10). Thus the proconsular authority20 was for the first time admitted within the walls of Rome; but Augustus was too cautious a statesman to proclaim openly the fact that Tribaa- the power which he wielded in the city was the same kt' as that exercised in camps and provinces by a Roman P°te*ta*- military commander. Hence he sought for a title which should disguise the nature of his authority, and found it in the 12 The explanation of princeps as an abbreviated form of princeps senatus is quite untenable. For its real significance, see Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 774; Pelham, Journ. of Phu. vol. viii. It is not an official title. 13 Man. Anc. 6, 14, " per consensum universorum." 14 Dio liii. 12; Suet. Aug. 47. " Dio, l.c. 16 He was offered the dictatorship, a life-consulship, a " cura legum et morum." It is stated by Suetonius (Aug. 53) and Dio (liv. 10) that he accepted the last named; but this is disproved by his own language in the Man. Anc. (i. 31); cf. Pelham, Journ. of Philol. xvii. 47. 17 Dio liii. 32. Part of the law by which the rights essential to the principate were conferred upon Vespasian is extant; see Rushforth, Latin Historical Inscriptions, No. 70 (the Lex de imperio Vespasiani). 18 Tac. Ann. i. 81. " Lex de imperio, 11. 17-21. 20 The term proconsulate imperium, which we find used, e.g., by Tacitus, was not employed in republican times, and Augustus himself speaks of his considare impsrium (Man. Anc. 2, 5, 8). 648 ROME [EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284 710. 731. " tribunician power," which had been conferred upon him for life in 36, and was well suited, from its urban and demo- cratic traditions, to serve in Rome as " a term to ex- press his supreme position." ' From 23 onwards the tribunicia potestas appears after his name in official inscriptions, together with the number indicating the period during which it had been held (also reckoned from 23) ; it was in virtue of this power that Augustus introduced the social re- forms which the times demanded;2 and, though far inferior to the imperium in actual importance, it ranked with or even above it as a distinctive prerogative of the emperor or his chosen colleague.3 The .imperium and the tribunicia potestas were the two pillars upon which the authority of Augustus rested, and the other offices and privileges conferred upon him were 749 752. °^ secondary importance. After 23 he never held the consulship save in 5 and 2 B.C., when he became the colleague of his grandsons on their introduction to public life. He permitted the triumvir Lepidus to retain the chief ponti- ficate until his death, when Augustus naturally became pontifex maximus (12 B.C.).4 He proceeded wifh the like caution in reorganizing the chief departments of the public service in Rome and Italy. The cura annonae, i.e. the supervision of the corn supply of Rome, was entrusted to him in 22 B.C.,6 and this important branch of administration thus came under his personal control; but the other boards (curae), created during his reign to take charge of the roads, the water-supply, the regulation of the Tiber and the public buildings, were composed of senators of high rank, and regarded in theory as deriving their authority from the senate.6 Such was the ingenious compromise by which room was found for the master of the legions within the narrow limits of the old Roman constitution. Augustus could say with truth that he had accepted no office which was " contrary to the usage of our ancestors," and that it was only in dignity that he took precedence of his colleagues. Nevertheless, as every thinking man must have realized, the compromise was unreal, and its significance was ambiguous. It was an arrangement avowedly of an exceptional and temporary character, yet no one could suppose that it would in effect be otherwise than permanent. The powers voted to Augustus were (like those conferred upon ^ Pompey in 67 B.C.) voted only to him, and (save the 727\ tribunicia potestas) voted only for a limited time; in 27 he received the imperium for ten years, and it was afterwards renewed for successive periods of five, five, ten and ten years.7 In this way the powers of the principate were made coextensive in time with the life of Augustus, but there was absolutely no provision for hereditary or any other form of succession, and various expedients were devised in order to indicate the destined successor of the princeps and to bridge the gap created by his death. Ultimately Augustus associated his stepson Tiberius with himself as co-regent. The imperium and the tribunicia potestas were conferred upon him, and he was thus marked out as the person upon whom the remaining powers of the principate would naturally be bestowed after the death of his stepfather. But succeeding emperors did not always indicate their successors so clearly, and, in direct contrast to the maxim that " the king never dies," it has been well said that the Roman principate died with the death of the princeps? In theory, at least, the Roman world was governed according to the " maxims of Augustus" (Suet. Ner. 10), down to the Change* time of Diocletian. Even in the 3rd century there is wnsfttu- sti11 in name at least> a republic, of which the emperor tionofthe *s 'n strictness only the chief magistrate, deriving princi- his authority from the senate and people, and with pate. prerogatives limited and defined by law. The case is quite different when we turn from theory to practice. The *Tac. Ann. iii. 56; " summi fastigii vocabulum." 2 Mon. Anc. Grace. 3, 19. 3 Tac. Ann. i. 3 (of Tiberius), "collega imperii, consors tribuniciae potestatis "; cf. Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 1160. 4 Suet. Aug. 31. 6 Mon. Anc. I, 32; Dio liv. i. 'See Hirschfeld, Verwaltungsgesch. i. 173. 7 Dio liii. 13, 16. * Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 1143. division of authority between the republic and its chief magis- trate became increasingly unequal. Over the provinces the princeps from the first ruled autocratically; and this autocracy reacted upon his position in Rome, so that it became every year more difficult for a ruler so absolute abroad to maintain even the fiction of republican government at home. The republican institutions, with the partial exception of the senate, lose all semblance of authority outside Rome, and even as the municipal institutions of the chief city of the empire they retain but little actual power. The real government even of Rome passes gradually into the hands of imperial prefects and com- missioners, and the old magistracies become merely decorations which the emperor bestows at his pleasure. At the same time the rule of the princeps assumes an increasingly personal char- acter, and the whole work of government is silently concen- trated in his hands and in those of his own subordinates. Closely connected with this change is the different aspect presented by the history of the empire in Rome and Italy on the one hand and in the provinces on the other. Rome and Italy share in the decline of the republic. Political independence and activity die out; their old pre-eminence and exclusive privileges gradually disappear; and at the same time the weight of the overwhelm- ing power of the princeps, and the abuses of their power by individual principes, press most heavily upon them. On the other hand, in the provinces and on the frontiers, where the imperial system was most needed, and where from the first it had full play, it is seen at its best as developing or protecting an orderly civilization and maintaining the peace of the world. The decay of the republican institutions had commenced before the revolutionary crisis of 49. It was accelerated by the virtual suspension of regular government between Decay 49 and 28; and not even the diplomatic deference towards ancient forms which Augustus displayed availed to conceal the unreality of his work of tioas. restoration. The comitia received back from him 70S> 726- " their ancient rights " (Suet. Aug. 40), and during his lifetime they continued to pass laws and to elect magistrates. But after the end of the reign of Tiberius we have only two instances of legislation by the assembly in the ordinary way,9 and the law-making of the empire is performed either by decrees of the senate or by imperial edicts and constitutions. Their prerogative- of electing magistrates was, even under Augustus, robbed of most of its importance by the control which the princeps exercised over their choice by means of his rights of nomination and commendation, which effectually secured the election of his own nominees.10 By Tiberius this restricted prerogative was still further curtailed. The candidates for all magistracies except the consulship were thenceforward nominated and voted for in the senate-house and by the senators,11 and only the formal return of the result (renuntiatio) took place in the assembly (Dio Iviii. 20). And, though the election of consuls was never thus transferred to the senate, the process of voting seems to have been silently abandoned. In the time of the younger Pliny we hear only of the nomination of the candidates and of their formal re- nuntiatio in the Campus Martius.12 The princeps himself as long as the Principate lasted, continued to receive the tribunicia potestas by a vote of the assembly, and was thus held to derive his authority from the people.13 'The plebiscita of Claudius, Tac. Ann. xi. 13, 14, and the lex agraria of Nerva; Digest, xlvii. 21, 3; Dio Ixviii. 2; Plin. Epp. vii. 31. 10 On these rights, the latter of which was not exercised in the case of the consulship until the close of Nero's reign, see Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 916-28; -Tac. Ann. i. 14, 15, 81 ; Suet. Aug. 56; Dio Iviii. 20. uTac. Ann. i. 15, "comitia e campo ad patres translata sunt "; compare Ann. xiv. 28. The magistracy directly referred to is the praetprship, but that the change affected the lower magistracies also is certain; see, e.g., Pliny's Letters, passim, especially iii. 20, vi. 19. u Plin. Paneg. 92. 11 Gaius i. 5, " cum ipse imperator per legem imperium accipiat." The comitia. Q H CO ill O 5§Le*^T K 'supfefiic / i'X.. o >4^^ ••..*-.. 3C:-, -"^ "D'r ?<\ 5 - -^ -Oj V^*ba "Tf EJ \ * A OJ -iiiv/jl * W". — ^ y= 1 •i: ^ 1 5 :; \fj? c .^ iffii ^ ^ UJ > X 1 fi t& t-H I- i\ o a: ! - = f\ :; w -=: S 2 \ * (n h^ ^J CO \*j ? % > " HH E _i a 3 > 1 ^ UJ K. 0 CO ,G ^ UJ Z +^ ^ ^ z Z 5 ~^-_ UJ •^ firfari/ of Prefectures „ ,, Dioceses . , „ „ Provinces . Reference kM 1 1 HH 5 & 2 Pannonia VII B/v'fa V- 4 •—4 X 3 X UJ 8 U UJ z O to UJ a. .LPES COTTiAE ET APEN 1 s I-LJ l__4 **•• ** piarot rbieoi>. " Lex de imp. Vesp., C.I.L. vi. 930: " Senatum habere, relationem facere, remittere; Seta, per relationem discessionemque facere." 650 ROME [EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.U. 284 into the hands of the emperor. Even in Rome and Italy its control of the administration was gradually transferred to the prefect of the city, and after the reign of Hadrian to imperial officers (juridici) charged with the civil administration.1 The part still played by its decrees in the modification of Roman law has been dealt with elsewhere (see SENATE), but it is clear that these decrees did little else than register the expressed wishes of the emperor and his personal advisers. The process by which all authority became centralized in the hands of the princeps and in practice exercised by an organ- Ceatrai- ized bureaucracy2 was of necessity gradual; but it 'author-"1 ^&^ 'ts Beginnings under Augustus, who formed the "ty: the equestrian order (admission to which was henceforth imperial granted only by him) into an imperial service, partly iervice. civil and partly military, whose members, being im- mediately dependent on the emperor, could be employed on tasks which it would have been impossible to assign to senators (see EQUITES). From this order were drawn the armies of " procurators " — the term was derived from the practice of the great business houses of Rome — who ad- ministered the imperial revenues and properties in all parts of the empire. Merit was rewarded by independent governor- ships such as those of Raetia and Noricum, or the com- mand of the naval squadrons at Misenum and Ravenna; and the prizes of the knight's career were the prefectures of the praetorian guard, the corn-supply and the city police, and the governorship of Egypt. The household offices and imperial secretaryships were held by freedmen, almost always of Greek origin, whose influence became all-powerful under such emperors as Claudius.3 The financial secretary (a rationibus) and those who dealt with the emperor's correspondence (ab epislulis) and with petitions (a libellis) were the most important of these. This increase of power was accompanied by a corresponding elevation of the princeps himself above the level of all other Outward citizens. The comparatively modest household and splea- simple life of Augustus were replaced by a more than dour. regal splendour, and under Nero we find all the out- ward accessories of monarchy present, the palace, the palace guards, the crowds of courtiers, and a court ceremonial. In direct opposition to the republican theory of the principate, members of the family of the princeps share the dignities of his position. The males bear the cognomen of Caesar, and are in- vested, as youths, with high office; their names and even those of the females are included in the yearly prayers for the safety of the princeps;4 their birthdays are kept as festivals; the praetorian guards take the oath to them as well as to the princeps himself. The logical conclusion was reached in the practice of Caesar- worship,5 which was in origin the natural expression of a wide- spread sentiment of homage, which varied in form in different parts of the empire and in different classes of society, but was turned to account by the statecraft of Augustus to develop something like an imperial patriotism. The official worship of the deified Caesar, starting from that of the " divine Julius," gave a certain sanctity and continuity to the regular succession of the emperors, but it was of less importance politically than the worship of " Rome and Augustus," first instituted in Asia Minor in 29 B.C., and gradually diffused throughout the provinces, as a symbol of imperial unity. It must be observed that living emperors were not officially worshipped by Roman citizens; yet we find that even in Italy an unauthorized worship of Augustus sprang up during his lifetime in the country towns.6 1 Vit. Hadr. 22; " Juridici " were appointed by Marcus Aurelius, Vit. Ant. ii ; Marquardt i. 224. 1 On the growth of the imperial bureaucracy see Hirschfeld, Die kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten bis auf Diocletian (1905). 3 For the position of the imperial freedmen under Claudius, see Friedlander i. 88 sqq.; Tac. Ann. xii. 60, xiv. 39, Hist. ii. 57, 95. * Acta Fr. Arval. (ed. Henzen), 33, 98, 99. ' For Caesar-worship, see Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 755 sqq. ; Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer, p. 283 sqq., and Kornemann in Beitrdge zur alien Geschichte, i. • See Rushforth, Roman Historical Inscriptions, Nos. 38 sqq. and notes. On the accession of Augustus, there could be little doubt as to the nature of the work that was necessary, if peace and pros- perity were to be secured for the Roman world. He was called upon to justify his position by rectifying the frontiers and strengthening their defences, by reforming the system of pro- vincial government, and by reorganizing the finance; and his success in dealing with these three difficult problems is sufficiently proved by the prosperous condition of the empire for a century and a half after his death. To secure peace it was necessary to establish on all sides of the empire really defensible frontiers; and this became possible now that for the first time the direction of the foreign policy of the state and of its military forces was concentrated in the hands of a single magistrate. To the south and west the generals of the re- public, and Caesar himself, had extended the authority of Rome to the natural boundaries formed by the African deserts and the Atlantic Ocean, and in these two directions Augustus's task was in the main confined to the organization of a settled Roman government within these limits. In Africa the client state of Egypt was ruled by Augustus as the successor of the Ptolemies, and administered by his deputies (praefecti), and the kingdom of Numidia (25 B.C.) was incorporated with the old province of Africa. In Spain the hill-tribes of the north-west were finally subdued and a third province, Lusitania, established.7 In Gaul Augustus (27 B.C.) established in addition to the " old province " the three new ones of Aquitania, Lugdunensis and Belgica,8 which included the territories conquered by Julius Caesar. Towards the north the republic had left the civilized countries bordering on the Mediterranean with only a North very imperfect defence against the threatening mass of barbarian tribes beyond them. The result9 of Augustus's policy was to establish a protecting line of provinces running from the Euxine to the North Sea, and covering the peaceful districts to the south, — Moesia (A.D. 6), Pannonia (A.D. 9), Noricum (15 B.C.), Raetia (15 B.C.) and Gallia Belgica. Roman rule was thus carried up to the natural frontier lines of the Rhine and the Danube. It was originally intended to make the Elbe the frontier of the empire; but after the defeat of P. Quintilius Varus (A.D. 9) the forward policy was abandoned. Tiberius recalled Germanicus as soon as Varus had been avenged; and after the peace with Maroboduus, the chief of the Marcomanni on the upper Danube, in the next year (A.D. 17), the defensive policy recommended by Augustus was adopted along the whole of the northern frontier. The line of the great rivers was held by an imposing mass of troops. Along the Rhine lay the armies of Upper and Lower Germany, consisting of four legions each; eight more guarded the Danube and the frontiers of Pannonia and Moesia. At frequent intervals along the frontier were the military colonies, the permanent camps and the smaller inter- vening castella. Flotillas of galleys cruised up and down the rivers, and Roman roads opened communication both along the frontiers and with the seat of government in Italy. In the East, Rome was confronted with a well-organized and powerful state whose claims to empire were second only to her own. The victory of Carrhae (53 B.C.) had encouraged among the Parthians the idea of an invasion of Syria and ^st Asia Minor, while it had awakened in Rome a genuine fear of the formidable power which had so suddenly arisen in the East. Caesar was at the moment of his death preparing to avenge the death of Crassus by an invasion of Parthia, and Antony's schemes of founding an Eastern empire which should rival that of Alexander included the conquest of the kingdom beyond the Euphrates. Augustus, however, adhered to the policy which he recommended to his successors of " keeping the empire within its bounds"; and the Parthians, weakened by internal feuds and dynastic quarrels, were in no mood for vigorous action. Roman pride was satisfied by the restoration of the standards taken at Carrhae. Four legions guarded the line of the Euphrates, and, beyond the frontiers of Pontus and 7 Marquardt i. 257 ; Mommsen, Provinces, i. 64. 8 Marquardt i. 264; Mommsen, Provinces, \. 84 seq. 9 See especially Mommsen, Provinces, i. caps. 4 and 6. EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284] ROME 651 Cappadocia, Armenia was established as a " friendly and inde- pendent ally."1 Next in importance to the rectification and defence of the frontiers was the reformation of the administration, and the Admiais- restoration of prosperity to the distracted and exhausted trattve provinces. The most serious defect of the republican reforms system had been the absence of any effective control over the Roman officials outside Italy. This was vtoces. now supplied by the general proconsular authority vested in the emperor. The provinces were for the first time treated as departments of a single state, while their governors, from being independent and virtually irre- sponsible rulers, became the subordinate official? of a higher authority.2 Over the legali of the imperial provinces the control of the emperor was as complete as that of the republican proconsul over his staff in his own province. They were ap- pointed by him, held office at his good pleasure, and were directly responsible to him for their conduct. The proconsuls of the senatorial provinces were in law magistrates equally with the princeps, though inferior to him in rank; it was to the senate that they were as of old responsible; they were still selected by lot from among the senators of consular and praetorian rank. But the distinction did not seriously interfere with the paramount authority of the emperor. The provinces left nominally to the senate were the more peaceful and settled districts in the heart of the empire, where only the routine work of civil administration was needed, and where the local municipal governments were as yet comparatively vigorous. The sena- torial proconsuls themselves were indirectly nominated by the emperor through his control of the praetorship and consulship. They wielded no military and only a strictly subordinate financial authority, and, though Augustus and Tiberius, at any rate, encouraged the fiction of the responsibility of the senatorial governors to the senate, it was in reality to the emperor that they looked for direction and advice, and to him that they were held accountable. Moreover, in the case of all governors this accountability became under the empire a reality. Prose- cutions for extortion (de pecuniis repetundis), which were now transferred to the hearing of the senate, are tolerably frequent during the first century of the empire; but a more effective check on maladministration lay in the appeal to Caesar from the decisions of any governor, which was open to every provincial, and in the right of petition. Finally, the authority both of the legate and the proconsul was weakened by the presence of the imperial procurator, to whom was entrusted the administration of the fiscal revenues; while both legate and proconsul were deprived of that right of requisitioning supplies which, in spite of a long series of restrictive laws, had been the most powerful instrument of oppression in the hands of republican governors. The financial reforms of Augustus3 are marked by reforms the same desire to establish an equitable, orderly and economical system, and by the same centralization of authority in the emperor's hands. The institution of an imperial census, or valuation of all land throughout the empire, and the assessment upon this basis of a uniform land tax, in place of the heterogeneous and irregular payments made under the republic, were the work of Augustus, though the system was developed and perfected by the emperors of the 2nd century and by Diocletian. The land tax itself was directly collected, either by imperial officials or by local authorities responsible to them, and the old wasteful plan of selling the privilege of collection to publicani was henceforward applied only to such indirect taxes as the customs duties. The rate of the land tax was fixed by the emperor, and with him rested the power of remission even in senatorial provinces.4 The effect of these reforms is clearly visible in the improved financial condition of 1 Mommsen, Provinces, cap. 9. Armenia, however, long continued to be a debatable ground between Rome and Parthia — passing alternately under the influence of one or the other. 2 For 'the provincial reforms of Augustus, see Marquardt, Staats- verw., i. 544 sqq. " Marquardt, ii. 204 sqq.; Hirschfeld, Verwaltungsbeamten, 55 sqq. 4 Tac. Ann. ii. 47. the empire. Under the republic the treasury had been nearly always in difficulties, and the provinces exhausted and im- poverished. Under the emperors, at least throughout the ist century, in spite of a largely increased expenditure on the army, on public works, on shows and largesses, and on the machinery of government itself, the better emperors, such as Tiberius and Vespasian, were able to accumulate large sums, while the provinces show but few signs of distress. Moreover, while the republic had almost entirely neglected to Ltbtral develop the internal resources of the provinces, policy Augustus set the example of a liberal expenditure toward* on public works, in the construction of harbours, roads and bridges, the reclamation of waste lands, and the erection of public buildings.* The crippling re- strictions which the republic had placed on freedom of inter- course and trade, even between the separate districts of a single province, disappeared under the empire. In the eyes of the republican statesmen the provinces were merely the ltaly aad estates of the Roman people, but from the reign of (Ac pro- Augustus dates the gradual disappearance of the old vioce* pre-eminence of Rome and Italy. It was from the "e^e[rghe provinces that the legions were increasingly recruited; provincials rose to high rank as soldiers, statesmen and men of letters;6 and the methods of administration, formerly distinctive of the provinces, were adopted even in Rome and Italy. From Augustus himself, jealous as he was of the tradi- tions and privileges of the ruling Roman people, date the rule of an imperial prefect7 in the city of Rome, the division of Italy into regiones in the provincial fashion, 'and the permanent quartering there of armed troops.8 Augustus founded a dynasty which occupied the throne for more than half a century after his death. The first and by far the ablest of its members was Tiberius (A.D. 14-37). The Julio- He was undoubtedly a capable and vigorous ruler, Ciaudiaa who enforced justice in the government of the pro- ""'• vinces, maintained the integrity of the frontiers and husbanded the finances of the empire, but he became intensely unpopular in Roman society, and was painted as a cruel and odious tyrant. His successor, Gaius (A.D. 37-41), generally known as Caligula, was the slave of his wild caprices and uncontrolled passions, which issued in manifest insanity. He was followed by his uncle, Claudius (A.D. 41-54), whose personal uncouthness made him an object of derision to his contemporaries, but who was by no means devoid of statesmanlike faculties. His reign left an abiding mark on the history of the empire, for he carried forward its development on the lines intended by Augustus. Client-states were absorbed, southern Britain was conquered, the Romanization of the West received a powerful impulse, public works were executed in Rome and Italy, and the organ- ization of the imperial bureaucracy made rapid strides. Nero (A.D. 54-68), the last of the Julio-Claudian line, has been handed down to posterity as the incarnation of monstrous vice and fantastic luxury. But his wild excesses scarcely affected the prosperity of the empire at large; the provinces were well governed, and the war with Parthia led to a compromise in the matter of Armenia which secured peace for half a century.9 5 Suet. Aug. 18, 47. 6 Jung, Die romanischen Landschaften (Innsbruck, 1881); Budin- sky, Die Ausbreitung d. lateinischen Sprache (Berlin, 1881). 7 The praefectus urbi, unlike the other imperial prefects, was always a senator. He commanded the three cohortes urbanae, which pre- served order in the city, and possessed a power of jurisdiction which tended to increase in importance. The office, which was only tem- porary under Augustus, became a permanent one under his successor. 8 Besides the cohortes urbanae mentioned above, the nine regiments of the imperial guard (cohortes praetorianae) were quartered in Rome. The guards were not at first concentrated but billeted in Rome and the neighbouring towns; the praetorian barracks on the Esquiline were built under Tiberius (Tac. Ann. iv. 2). Augustus also formed the quasi-military police force of the vigiles (in seven cohorts), which performed the duties of a fire brigade and night watch. Police duties in those parts of Italy which were subject to brigandage were performed by stationes militum (Suet. Aug. 32). 9 For an estimate of the Julio-Claudian Caesars, based on the results of recent research, see Pelham in Quarterly Review (April 652 ROME [EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284 The fall of Nero and the extinction of the " progeny of the Caesars " was followed by a war of succession which revealed the military basis of the Principate and the weakness of the tie connecting the emperor with Rome. Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian represented in turn the legions of Spain, the household troops, the army of the Rhine, and a coalition of the armies of the Danube and the Euphrates; and all except Otho were already de facto emperors when they entered Rome. The final survivor in the struggle, Vespasian (A.D. 69-79), was a man °f comparatively humble origin, and as the Principate ceased to possess the prestige of high descent it became imperatively rfle necessary to remove, as far as possible, the anomalies Flavian of the office and to give it a legitimate and permanent a"a form. Thus we find an elaborate and formal system of titles substituted for the personal names of the Julio-Claudian emperors, an increasing tendency to insist on the inherent prerogatives of the Principate (such as the censorial power), and an attempt to invest Caesarism with an hereditary character, either by natural descent or by adop- tion, while the worship of the Divi, or deified Caesars, was made the symbol of its continuity and legitimacy. The dynasty of Vespasian and his sons (Titus, A. D. 79-81, Domitian, A.D. 81-96) became extinct on the murder of the last named, whose high- handed treatment of the senate earned him the name of a tyrant; his successor, Nerva.(A.D. 96-98), opened the series of " adop- tive " emperors (Trajan, A.D. 98-117, Hadrian, 117-38, Antoninus Pius, 138-61, Marcus Aurelius, 161-80) under whose rule the empire enjoyed a period of internal tranquillity and good government. Its boundaries were extended by the subjugation of northern Britain (by Agricola, A.D. 78-84; see BRITAIN, § Roman), by the annexation of the districts included in the angle of the Rhine and Danube under the Flavian emperors, and by the conquest of Dacia (the modern Transyl- vania) under Trajan (completed in A.D. 106). Trajan also annexed Arabia Petraea and in his closing years invaded Parthia and formed provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria; but these conquests were surrendered by his successor, Hadrian, who set himself to the task of consoli- dating the empire and perfecting its defences. To him is due the system of permanent limites or frontier fortifications, such as the wall which protected northern Britain and the palisade which replaced the chain of forts established by the Flavian emperors from the Rhine to the Danube.1 The construction of these defences showed that the limit of expansion had been reached, and under M. Aurelius the tide began to turn. A great part of his reign was occupied with wars against the Marcomanni, Quadi, Sarmatians, &c., whose irruptions seriously threatened the security of Italy. Henceforth Rome never ceased to be on the defensive. Coam Within the frontiers the levelling and unifying ditioa of process commenced by Augustus had steadily pro- thepro- ceeded. A tolerably uniform provincial system viaces. covered the whole area of the empire. The client states had one by one been reconstituted as provinces, and even the government of Italy had been in many respects assimilated to the provincial type. The municipal system had of the spread widely; the period from Vespasian to Aurelius muni- witnessed the elevation to municipal rank of an im- mense number of communities, not only in the old provinces of the West, in Africa, Spain and Gaul, but in the newer provinces of the North, and along the line of the northern frontier; and everywhere under the influence of the central imperial authority there was an increasing uniformity 1905). It is now generally admitted that Tacitus's picture is over- drawn. 1 On the limes imperil, see Pelham, " A Problem of Roman Frontier Policy " (Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 1906), and Kornemann, " Die neueste Limesforschung " (Klio, 1907, pp. 73 ff.). The limes connecting the Rhine with the Danube has been systematically excavated in recent years; for the results see Der obergermanisch-ratische Limes (Heidelberg, 1894- ), and Der rdmische Limes in Osterreich (Vienna, 1900- ). in the form of the local constitutions, framed and granted as they all were by imperial edict.2 Throughout the Bxteasloa empire again the extension of the Roman franchise of the was preparing the way for the final act by which Roman Caracalla assimilated the legal status of all free-born traachlsf- inhabitants of the empire,3 and in the west and north this was preceded and accompanied by the complete Roman- izing of the people in language and civilization. Yet, in spite of the internal tranquillity and the good government which have made the age of the Antonines famous, we can detect signs of weakness. It was in this period that the centralization of authority in the hands of the princeps was completed; the " dual control " established by Augustus, which had been unreal enough in the ist century, was now, though not formally abolished, systematically ignored in practice. The senate ceased to be an instrument of government, and became an imperial peerage, largely composed of men not qualified by election to the quaestorship but directly ennobled by the emperor.4 The restricted sphere of administration left by Augustus to the old magistracies was still further narrowed; their jurisdiction, for example, tended to pass into the hands of the Greek officers appointed by Caesar — the prefect of the city and the prefect of the guards. The complete organization of Caesar's own administrative service, and its recognition as a state bureaucracy, was chiefly the work of Hadrian, who took the secretaryships out of the hands of freedmen and entrusted them to procurators of equestrian rank.5 All these changes, inevitable, and in some degree beneficial, as they were, brought with them the attendant evils of excessive centralization. Though these were hardly felt while the central authority was wielded by vigorous rulers, yet even under Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines we notice a failure of strength in the empire as a whole, and a corresponding increase of pressure on the imperial government itself. The reforms of Augustus had given free play to powers still fresh and vigorous. The ceaseless labours of Hadrian were directed mainly to the careful husbanding of such strength as still remained, or to attempts at reviving it by the sheer force of imperial authority. Among the symptoms of incipient decline were the growing depopulation, especially of the central districts of the empire, the constant financial difficulties, the deterioration in character of the local governments in the provincial communities,6 and the increasing reluctance ex- hibited by all classes to undertake the now onerous burden of municipal office. It is to such facts as these that we must look in passing a final judgment on the imperial government, which is admittedly seen in its best and most perfect form in the Antonine period. In our review of the conditions which brought about the fall of the Roman Republic, we saw that the collapse of the city- state made Caesarism inevitable, since the extension of federal and representative institutions to a world-empire lay beyond the horizon of ancient thought. The benefits which Caesarism conferred upon mankind are plain. In the first place, the Roman world, which had hitherto not been governed in the true sense of the word, but exploited in the interests of a dominant clique, now received an orderly and efficient govern- ment, under which the frightful ravages of misrule and civil strife were repaired. The financial resources of the empire were husbanded by skilled and, above all, trained administrators, to whom the imperial service offered a carriere ouverte aux talents; many of these were Greeks, or half -Greek Orientals, whose business capacity formed an invaluable asset hitherto 2 Marquardt, i. 132 ff . ; cf. especially the leges Salpensanae et Malacitanae] Bruns, Fontes Juris Romani (ed. 6, p. 142). 3 Dio Ixxvii. 9 (A.D. 212). * For the use of adlectio see Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 877. ' Vit. Hadr. 21. „ Besides Hirschfeld's Verwaltungsbeamten reference may be made to Liebenam, Die Laufbahn der Procuratoren (Jena, 1886), and Schurz, De mutationibus in imperio Romano ordinando ab imperatore Hadriano factis (Bonn, 1883). 6 This led to the appointment of the curatores and correctores in the 2nd century. The younger Pliny was one of these imperial com- missioners, and his correspondence with Trajan throws much light on the condition of the provinces. EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284] ROME 653 neglected. Augustus caused an official survey of the empire to be made, and a scientific census of its resources was gradually carried out and from -time to time revised; thus the balance of revenue and expenditure could be accurately estimated and adjusted, and financial stability was established. The system of tax-farming was gradually abolished and direct collection substituted; commerce was freed from vexatious restrictions, and large customs-districts were formed, on whose borders duties were levied for revenue only. The government took even more direct measures for the encouragement of industry and especially of agriculture. The most remarkable of these were the " alimentary " institutions, originally due to Nerva and developed by succeeding emperors. Capital was advanced at moderate rates of interest to Italian landowners on the security of their estates, and the profits of this system of land- banks were devoted to the maintenance and education of poor children. The foundation of colonies for time-expired soldiers, who received grants of land on their discharge, contributed something to the formation of a well-to-do agricultural class; and although the system was not successful in lower Italy, where economic decline could not be arrested, there can be no doubt that central and northern Italy, where the vine and olive were largely cultivated, and manufacturing industries sprang up, enjoyed a considerable measure of prosperity. The extension of the Roman municipal system to the provinces, and the watchful care exercised by the imperial government over the communities, together with the profuse liberality of the emperors, which was imitated by the wealthier citizens of the towns, led to the creation of a flourishing municipal life still evidenced by the remains which in districts such as Asia Minor or Tunis stand in significant contrast with the desolation brought about by centuries of barbaric rule. Mommsen1 has, indeed, expressed the opinion that " if an angel of the Lord were to strike the balance whether the domain ruled by Severus Antoninus were governed with the greater intelligence and the greater humanity at that time or in the present day, whether civilization and national prosperity generally had since that time advanced or retrograded, it is very doubtful whether the decision would prove in favour of the present." But there is another side to the picture. The empire brought into being a new society and a new nationality, due to the fusion of Roman ideas with Hellenic culture, beside which other elements, saving only, as we shall see, those contributed by the Oriental religions, were insignificant. This new nation- ality grew in definition through the gradual disappearance of distinctions of language and manners, the assimilating influence of commercial and social intercourse, and the extinction of national jealousies and aspirations. But the cosmopolitan society thus formed was compacted of so many disparate elements that a common patriotism was hard to foster, and doubly hard when the autocratic system of government pre- vented men from aspiring to that true political distinction which is attainable only in a self-governing community. It is true that there was much good work to be done, and that much good work was done, in the service of the emperors; true, also, that the carrilre ouverte aux talents was in large measure realized. Distinctions of race were slowly but steadily effaced by the grant of citizen rights to provincials and by the manumission of slaves; and the career open to the Romanized provincial or the liberated slave might culminate in the highest distinctions which the emperor could bestow. In the hierarchy of social orders — senate, eguites and plebs — ascent was easy and regular from the lower grade to the higher ; and the more enlightened of the emperors — especially Hadrian — made a genuine endeavour to give a due share in the work of government to the various subject races. But nothing could compensate for the lack of self-determination, and although during the first century and a half of imperial rule a flourishing local patriotism in some degree filled the place of the wider sentiment, this gradually sank into decay and became a pretext under cover of which the lower classes in the several communities 1 Provinces, \. p. 5. took toll of their wealthier fellow-citizens in the shape of public works, largesses, amusements, &c., until the resources at the disposal of the rich ran dry, the communities themselves in many cases became insolvent, and the inexorable claims of the central government were satisfied only by the surrender of financial control to an imperial commissioner. Then the organs of civic life became atrophied, political interest died out, and the whole burden of administration, as well as that of defence, fell upon the shoulders of the bureaucracy, which proved unequal to the task. In a world thus governed the individual was thrown more and more upon his own resources — the pursuit of wealth* and pleasure, or the satisfaction of intellectual interests. Under the rule of the Caesars much was done for education. Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on " teachers of the liberal arts"; Vespasian endowed professorships of Greek and Latin oratory at Rome;3 and later emperors, especially Antoninus Pius, extended the same benefits to the provinces. Local enterprise and munificence were also devoted to the cause of education; we learn from the correspondence of the younger Pliny that public schools were founded in the towns of northern Italy. But though there was a wide diffusion of knowledge under the empire, there was no true intellectual progress. Augustus, it is true, gathered about him the most brilliant writers of his time, and the debut of the new monarchy coincided with the Golden Age of Roman literature; but this was of brief duration, and the beginning of the Christian era saw the triumph of classicism and the first steps in the decline which awaits all literary movements which look to the pasj. rather than the future. Political oratory could not exist under an absolute ruler; public life furnished no inspiring theme to poet or historian; and literature became didactic or imitative, while rhetoric degenerated into declamation. It is true that for some time both literature and philosophy maintained an alliance with the old republican aristocracy and voiced the undercurrent of opposition to the empire; but both had ceased to be irre- concilable before the time of Hadrian. Under his rule classicism gave way to the archaism of which Fronto and Apuleius furnish the most notable examples, and which preferred Cato and Ennius to Cicero and Virgil. But this return to the past was not followed by any renewed creative energy. It was a con- fession of weakness and little more; and the widely diffused culture of the Antonine period, though outwardly brilliant, had no progressive energy and presented but a feeble resistance to the dissolving forces of barbarism. To strike the balance of loss and gain in the field of morals is an exceedingly difficult task. The denunciations of the satirists, especially of Juvenal, might lead us to believe that an appalling state of depravity existed in the society of the early empire; but satirists notoriously paint in glaring colours for literary effect, and whatever may be said of the morality of Rome — which was probably no better and no worse than that of any cosmopolitan capital — there were sound and healthy elements in plenty amongst the population of Italy and the provinces. Doubtless the craving for amusement — especially for the shows of the amphitheatre and the chariot- races of the circus — infected the idle masses of the populace in Rome and the larger towns, and was fostered by the policy of despotism, which always aims at securing cheap popularity with the proletariat; but the tendency of the time, not only in the higher ranks, but also amongst humbler folk, was towards a broader humanity and a more serious view of life and its problems. Greek philosophy, especially the Stoic system, in order to appeal to the practical Roman intelligence, found itself obliged to elaborate a rule of conduct, and in many 1 Immense fortunes were accumulated under the early empire, especially by imperial freedmen, such as Pallas, who is said to have possessed the equivalent of £3,000,000 sterling; and there were instances of extravagant luxury, which was encouraged by Nero. But we are told that there was a return to simpler habits of life under the Flavian dynasty. 1 Quintilian occupied the chair of Latin rhetoric, and received the ornamenta consular-la. 654 ROME [EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284 households the philosopher, generally a Greek, played the part of a director of consciences. The influence of these doctrines is shown in the humane provisions of the civil law as elaborated in the Antonine period, which did much to mitigate the lot of the slave and to smooth the process by which freedom might be attained.1 Above all, a religious movement which drew its motive power not from Greek philosophy, but from Oriental mysticism, carried the human race far from its old moorings, and culminated in the triumph of Christianity. All the Eastern cults — whether of Cybele, of Isis, of the Syrian Baalim or of the Persian Mithras — had this in common, that they promised to their adherents redemption from the curse of the flesh and a glorious immortality after death; and this fact gave them an irresistible attraction for the disillusioned and overburdened subjects of the emperors. The religion of Mithras, whose doctrines were specially suited to the military temperament, made its way wherever the armies of the empire were stationed, and seemed likely at one moment to become universal; but it was forced to yield to Christianity, which refused to tolerate any rival, faced the empire with a claim to absolute dominion in the spiritual sphere, and at length made that claim good (see ROMAN RELIGION; MITHRAS; GREAT MOTHER or THE GODS). Marcus Aurelius died in 180, and the reign of his worthless son, Commodus (A.D. 180-93), was followed by a century of war The and disorder, during which nothing but the stern rule empire of soldier emperors saved the empire from dissolution. from The first and ablest of these was Septimius Severus 180-284. (153-211), whose claims were disputed by Clodius Albinus in the West, and by Pescennius Niger in the East; in these struggles rival Roman forces, for the first time since the accession of Vespasian, exhausted each other in civil war.2 Severus emphasized strongly the military character of the Principate; he abstained from seeking confirmation for his authority from the senate, and deprived that body of most of the share in the government which it still retained; he assumed the title of proconsul in Rome itself, made the prefect of the guard the vicegerent of his authority, and heaped privileges upon the army, which, although they secured its entire devotion to his family, impaired its efficiency as a fighting force and thus weakened Rome in face of the barbarian invader.3 He succeeded in founding a short-lived dynasty, which ended with the attempt of the virtuous but weak Alexander (222-35) to restore the independence of the senate. This led to a military reaction, and the elevation of the brutal Maximinus, a Thracian peasant, to the throne. The disintegration of the empire was the natural result; for the various provincial armies put forward their commanders as claimants to the purple. A hundred ties bound them closely to the districts in which they were stationed; their permanent camps had grown into towns, they had families and farms; the unarmed provincials looked to them as their natural protectors, and were attached to them by bonds of intermarriage and by long intercourse. Now that they found themselves left to repel by their own efforts the invaders from without, they reasonably enough claimed the right to ignore the central authority which was powerless to aid them, and to choose for themselves imperatores whom they knew and trusted. These " tyrants, " as they were called when unsuccessful, sprang up in ever-increasing numbers, and weakened Rome's power of resistance to the new enemies who were threatening her frontiers — the Alamanni and Franks, who broke through the German limes in 236; the Goths, who crossed the Danube in 247, raided the Balkan provinces, and defeated and slew the emperor, Decius, in 251, and the restored Persian kingdom of 1 The massacre of the slaves of Pedanius Secundus, who had been murdered by some person unknown (Tac. Ann. xiv. 42), was, it is true, decreed by the senate; but it was a highly unpopular act, and is chiefly significant as showing that the senatorial aristocracy was out of harmony with the spirit of the time. •Gibbon (ed. Bury), i. chap. v. ; Schiller, Gesch. d. Kaiserzeit, \. (2) 660. 1 The common soldier was now permitted to marry, and ceased to live in camp (Herodian iii. 8. 5). the Sassanidae (see PERSIA), whose rulers laid claim to all the Asiatic possessions of Rome and in 260 captured Antioch and made the emperor, Valerian, a prisoner. During the reign of Gallienus, the son of Valerian (260-68), the evil reached its height. The central authority was para- Reign nt lysed; the Romanized districts beyond the Rhine Oaliienu*, were irrevocably lost; the Persians were threatening 260~268- to overrun the Eastern provinces; the Goths had iormed a fleet of 500 sail which harried Asia Minor and even Greece itself, where Athens, Corinth, Sparta and Argos were sacked; and the legions on the frontiers were left to repel the enemies of Rome as best they could. A provincial empire was established by M. Cassianius Latinius Postumus in Gaul and maintained by his successors, M. Piavonius Victorinus and C. Pius Esuvius Tetricus.4 Their authority was acknowledged, not only in Gaul and by the troops on the Rhine, but by the legions of Britain and Spain; and under Postumus at any rate (259-69) the existence of the Gallic Empire was justified by the repulse of the barbarians and by the restoration of peace and security to the provinces of Gaul. On the Danube, in Greece and in Asia Minor none of the " pretenders " enjoyed more than a passing success. In the Far East, the Syrian Odaenathus, prince of Palmyra5 (. ix. 26. 6 Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 233 ff. Italy, together with Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, was divided into 17 provinciae. Each had its own governor; the governors were subject to the two vicarii (vie. urbis, vie. Italiae), and they in turn to the prefect of Italy, whose prefecture, however, included as well Africa and Western Illyricum. be even in name the seat of imperial authority.6 Throughout the whole area of the empire a uniform system of The new administration was established, the control of which admiai*- was centred in the imperial palace.7 Between the civil trmOn and military departments the separation was com- V*'e/n- plete. At the head of the former were the praetorian prefects,' next below them the vicarii, who had charge of the dioceses; below these again Jhe governors of the separate provinces (praesides, correctores, considares),9 under each cf whom was a host of minor officials. Parallel with this civil hierarchy was the series of military officers, from the magislri militant, the ducts, and comites downwards.10 In both there is the utmost possible subordination and division of authority. The subdivision of provinces, begun by the emperors of the 2nd century, was systematically carried out by Diocletian, and each official, civil or military, was placed directly under the orders of a superior; thus a continuous chain of authority con- nected the emperor with the meanest official in his service. Finally, the various grades in these two imperial services were carefully marked by the appropriation to each of distinctive titles, the highest being that of illustris, which was confined to the prefects and to the military magislri and comites, and to the chief ministers.11 There can be little doubt that on the whole these reforms prolonged the existence of the empire, by creating a machinery which enabled the stronger emperors to utilize effect- Effect* ively all its available resources, and which even to some of the*e extent made good the deficiencies of weaker rulers, reform*. But in many points they failed to attain their object. Diocletian's division of the imperial authority among colleagues, subject to the general control of the senior Augustus, was effectu- ally discredited by the twenty years of almost constant conflict which followed his own abdication (305-23). Constantine's partition of the empire among his three sons was not more successful in ensuring tranquillity, and in the final division of the East and West between Valens and Valentinian (364) the essential principle of Diocletian's scheme, the maintenance of a single central authority, was abandoned. The " tyrants," the curse of the 3rd century, were far from unknown in the 4th. The system, moreover, while it failed altogether to remove some of the existing evils, aggravated others. The already over- burdened financial resources of the empire were strained still further by the increased expenditure necessitated by the substi- tution of four imperial courts for one, and by the multiplication in every direction of paid officials. The gigantic bureaucracy of the 4th century proved, in spite of its undoubted services, an intolerable weight upon the energies of 'the empire. Diocletian and Maximian formally abdicated their high office in 305. Nineteen years later Constantine I., the Great, the sole survivor of six rival emperors, united the whole constan- empire under his own rule. His reign of fourteen tine the years was marked by two events of first-rate import- G/*'t ance, — the recognition of Christianity as the religion of the * The seats of government for Diocletian and his three colleagues were Mediolanum, Augusta Treyirorum, Sirmium, Nicomedia. 7 For these last, see Gibbon, ii. chap. xvii. p. 188; cf. also Notitia Dignitatum and Bocking's notes. 8 At first the number of these varied and there was no fixed division of provinces between them; but by the close of the 4th century there were four prefectures, viz. Onens, Illyricum, Italia, Gallia, to which must be added the prefectures of Rome and Constantinople. See Mommsen in Hermes, xxxvi. 204 ff. 9 There were 12 dioceses and 101 provinces; cf., in addition to the authorities mentioned above, Bethmann-Hollweg, Civil-Prozess, iii. ; Kuhn, Die stadtische und biirgerlicht Verfassung des romischen Reichs (1877). 10 The army was completely remodelled, and the old frontier garrisons (now called Limitanei) were supplemented by a field force attached to the persons of the Augusti and Caesares, and hence called Comitatenses. The change was accompanied by the subdivision of the old legions into units of about 2000 men. For these reforms see Seeck, Untergang der antiken Welt, bk. iii. chap. v. ; Mommsen in Hermes, xxiv. 225 ff. 11 The grades were as follows: illustres, spectabiles, clarissimi, perfectissimi, egregii. For the other insignia, see Madvig, ii. 590. and the Notitia Dignitatum. 656 ROME [EMPIRE: 284-476 empire, and the building of the new capital at Byzantium. Recogal- The alliance which Constantine inaugurated between Uoaot the Christian church and the imperial government, Christ!- while it enlisted on the side of the state one of the most ""•*'• powerful of the new forces with which it had to reckon, imposed a check, which was in time to become a powerful one, on the imperial authority. The establishment of the new " City of Constantine/' as a second Rome paved the wav f°r tne ^na^ seParation °f East and West by providing the former for the first time with a suitable seat of government on the Bosphorus. The death of Constantine in 337 was followed, as the abdication of Diocletian had been, by the outbreak of quarrels among rival Caesars. Of the three sons of Constantine who in 337 divided the empire between them, Constantine the eldest fell in civil war against his brother Constans; Con- stans himself was, ten years afterwards, defeated and slain by Magnentius; and the latter in his turn was in 353 van- quished by Constantine's only surviving son Constantius. Cons/an- Thus for the second time the whole empire was united tius ii., under the rule of a member of the house of Constantine. 351-63. j{ut in 355 Constantius granted the title of Caesar to his cousin Julian and placed him in charge of Gaul, where the momentary elevation of a tyrant, Silvanus, and still more the inroads of Franks and Alamanni, had excited alarm. But Julian's successes during the next five years were such as to arouse the jealous fears of Constantius. In order to weaken his suspected rival the legions under Julian in Gaul were suddenly ordered to march eastward against the Persians (360). They refused; and when the order was re- peated, replied by proclaiming Julian himself emperor and Augustus. Julian, with probably sincere reluc- tance, accepted the position, but the death of Constantius in 361 saved the empire from the threatened civil war. Julian's attempted restoration of pagan and in especial of Hellenic worships had no more permanent effect than the war which he courageously waged against the multitudinous abuses which had grown up in the luxurious court of Constantius.1 But his vigorous administration in Gaul undoubtedly checked the barbarian advance across the Rhine, and postponed the loss of the Western provinces; on the contrary, his campaign in Persia, brilliantly successful at first, ended in his own death (363), and his successor, Jovian, immediately sur- rendered the territories beyond the Tigris won by Diocletian seventy years before. Jovian died on the 1 7th of February 364; and on the 26th of February Valentinian Vaien- was acknowledged as emperor of the army at Nicaea. tiaiaa /., In obedience to the wish of the soldiers that he should 364-rs. associate a colleague with himself, he conferred the Division tit'6 of Augustus upon his brother Valens, and the of the division of the empire was at last effected, — Valen- empire, tinian became emperor of the West, Valens of the East. 364. Valentinian maintained the integrity of the empire until his death (in 375), which deprived the weaker Valens of Valens, a trusted counsellor and ally, and was followed by a 364-78. serious crisis on the Danube. In 376 the Goths, Revolt of hard pressed by their new foes from the eastward, the the Goths. Huns, sought and obtained the protection of the Roman Empire. They were transported across the Danube and settled in Moesia, but, indignant at the treatment they received, they rose in arms against their protectors. In 378 at Adrianople Valens was defeated and killed, and the victorious Goths ad- vanced eastward to the very walls of Constantinople. Once more, however, the danger passed away. The skill and tact Theo- of Theodosius, who had been proclaimed emperor of the East by Gratian,2 conciliated the Goths; they were granted an allowance, and in large numbers entered the service of the Roman emperor. The remaining 1 In especial against the overweening influence of the eunuchs, an jnfluence at once greater and more pernicious than even that of the imperial freedmen in the days of Claudius. 1 The son of Valentinian and ruler of the West. 378-9S. years of Theodosius's reign (382-95) were mainly engrossed by the duty of upholding the increasingly feeble authority of his western colleague against the attacks of pretenders. Maxi- mus, the murderer of Gratian (383), was at first recognized by Theodosius as Caesar, and left in undisturbed command of Gaul, Spain and Britain; but, when in 386 he proceeded to oust Valentinian II. from Italy and Africa, Theodosius marched westward, crushed him, and installed Valentinian as emperor of the West. In the very next year, however, the murder of Valentinian (392) by Arbogast, a Frank, was followed by the appearance of a fresh tyrant in the person of Eugenius, a domestic officer and nominee of Arbogast himself. DMtion Once more Theodosius marched westward, and near oftne Aquileia decisively defeated his opponents. But his victory was quickly followed by his own illness and death (395), and the fortunes of East and West and passed into the care of his two sons Arcadius and Hoaoriu*. Honorius. (b) From the Death of Theodosius to the Extinction of the Western Empire (395-476). — Through more than a century from the accession of Diocletian the Roman Empire Fall of the had succeeded in holding at bay the swarming hordes Western of barbarians. But, though no province had yet Empire. been lost, as Dacia had been lost in the century before, and though the frontier lines of the Rhine and the Danube were still guarded by Roman forts and troops, there were signs in plenty that a catastrophe was at hand. From all the writers who deal with the 4th century we have one long series of laments over the depression and misery of the provinces.3 To meet the increased expenditure Distress necessary to maintain the legions, to pay the hosts of of the officials, and to keep up the luxurious splendour of provinces the imperial courts, not only were the taxes raised '" tne 4th in amount, but the most oppressive and inquisitorial ' methods were adopted in order to secure for the imperiaf treasury every penny that could be wrung from the wretched taxpayer. The results are seen in such pictures as that which the panegyrist Eumenius4 draws of the state of Gaul (306-12) under Constantine, in the accounts of the same province under Julian fifty years later, in those given by Zosimus early in the 5th century, and in the stringent regulations of the Theodosian code, dealing with the assessment and collection of the taxes. Among the graver symptoms of economic ruin were the decrease of popu- lation, which seriously diminished not only the number of taxpayers, but the supply of soldiers for the legions;* the spread of infanticide; the increase of waste lands whose owners and cultivators had fled to escape the tax collector; the de- clining prosperity of the towns; and the constantly recurring riots and insurrections, both among starving peasants, as in Gaul,6 and in populous cities like Antioch.7 The distress was aggravated by the civil wars, by the rapacity of tyrants, such as Maxentius and Maximus, but above all by the raids of the barbarians, who seized every opportunity afforded by the dissensions or incapacity of the emperors to cross the frontiers and harry the lands of the provincials. Constantine (306-12), Julian (356-60) and Valentinian I. (364-75) had each to give a temporary breathing-space to Gaul by repelling the Franks and Alamanni. Britain was harassed by Picts and Scots from the north (367-70), while the Saxon pirates swept the northern seas and the coasts both of Britain and Gaul. On the Danube the Quadi, Sarmatae, and above all the Goths, poured at intervals into the provinces of Pannonia and Moesia, and penetrated to Macedon and Thrace. In the East, in addition to the constant border feud with Persia, we hear of ravages by the Isaurian mountaineers, and by a new enemy, the Saracens.8 8 F. Dill, Roman Society in the Last C,entifry of the Western Empire (2nd ed., 1899). 4 Eumenius, Paneg. Vet. vii. ' Gibbon ii. 179. * For the Bagaudae, see Jung, Die romanischen Landschaften, p. 264, where the authorities are given. 7 In 387; Hodgkin i. 483. • Amra. Marc. xiv. 4. EMPIRE: 284-476] ROME 657 Even more ominous of coming danger was the extent to which the European'half of the empire was becoming barbarized. The policy which had been inaugurated by Augustus himself of settling barbarians within the frontiers within had been taken up on a larger scale and in a more systematic way by the Illyrian emperors of the 3rd century, and was continued by their successors in the 4th. In Gaul, in the provinces south of the Danube, even in Macedon and Italy, large barbarian settlements had been made — Theodosius in particular distinguishing himself by his liber- ality in this respect. Nor did the barbarians admitted during the 4th century merely swell the class of half- servile coloni. On the contrary, they not only constituted to an increasing extent the strength of the imperial forces, but won their way in ever-growing numbers to posts of dignity and importance in the imperial service. Under Constantine the palace was crowded with Franks.1 Julian led Gothic troops against Persia, and the army with which Theodosius defeated the tyrant Maximus (388) contained large numbers of Huns and Alans, as well as of Goths. The names of Arbogast, Stilicho and Rufinus are sufficient proof of the place held by barbarians near the emperor's person and in the control of the provinces and legions of Rome; and the relations of Arbogast to his nominee for the purple, Eugenius, were an anticipation of those which existed between Ricimer and the emperors of the latter half of the sth century. It was by barbarians already settled within the empire that the first of the series of attacks which finally separated the western provinces from the empire and set up a bar- lavastons. baric ruler in Italy were made, and it was in men of barbarian birth that Rome found her ablest and most successful defenders. The Visigoths whom Alaric led into Aiaric Italy had been settled south of the Danube as the and the allies of the empire since the accession of Theodosius. Visigoths. jjut ijke the Germans of the days of Caesar, they wanted land for their own, and Alaric himself aspired to raise himself to the heights which had been reached before him by the Vandal Stilicho at Ravenna and the Goth Rufinus at Constantinople. The jealousy which existed between the rulers of the western and eastern empires furthered his plans. In the name of Arcadius, the emperor of the east, or at least with the connivance of Arcadius's minister Rufinus, he occupied the province of Illyricum, and from thence ravaged Greece, which, according to the existing division of provinces, belonged to the western empire. Thence in 396 he retreated before Stilicho to Illyricum, with the command of which he was now formally invested by Arcadius; he thus gained a base of opera- tions against Italy.2 In 400 he led his people, with their wives and families, their wagons and treasure, to seek lands for themselves south of the Alps. But in this first invasion he penetrated no farther than the plains of Lombardy, and after the desperate battle of Pollentia (402 or 403) he slowly with- drew from Italy, his retreat being hastened by the promises of gold freely made to him by the imperial government. Not until the autumn of 408 did Alaric again cross the Alps. Stilicho was dead; the barbarian troops in Honorius's service had been provoked into joining Alaric by the anti-Teutonic policy of Honorius and his ministers, and Alaric marched .un- opposed to Rome. The payment of a heavy ransom, however, saved the city. Negotiations followed between Alaric and the court of Ravenna. Alaric's demands were moderate, but Honorius would grant neither lands for his people nor the honourable post in the imperial service which he asked for him- self. Once more Alaric sat down before Rome, and the citizens were forced to agree to his terms. Attalus, a Greek, the prefect of the city, was declared Augustus, and Alaric accepted the post of commander-in-chief. But after a few months Alaric formally deposed Attalus, on account of his incapacity, and renewed his offers to Honorius. Again they were declined, 1 Amm. Marc. xv. 5. 1 Hodgkin op. cit. i. 661. and Alaric marched to the siege and sack of Rome (410).* His death followed hard on his capture of Rome. Two years later (412) his successor Ataulf led the Visi- rAe goths to find in Gaul the lands which Alaric had visigotn* sought in Italy. It is characteristic of the anarchical *• °*al- condition of the west that Ataulf and his Goths should have fought for Honorius in Gaul against the tyrants,4 and in Spain against the Vandals, Suebi and Alani; and it was with the consent of Honorius that in 419 Wallia. who had followed Ataulf as king of the Visigoths, finally settled with his people in south-western Gaul and founded the Visigothic monarchy.6 It was about the same period that the accomplished fact of the division of Spain between the three barbarian tribes of Vandals, Suebi and Alani was in a similar manner vaaaai*. recognized by the paramount authority of the emperor Suebi of the west.6 These peoples had crossed the Rhine 'ndAiaai at the time when Alaric was making his first attempt '" Soala- on Italy. A portion of the host led by Radagaisus 7 actually invaded Italy, but was cut to pieces by Stilicho near Florence (405); the rest pressed on through Gaul, crossed the Pyrenees, and entered the as yet untouched province of Spain. Honorius died in 423. With the single exception of Britain,* no province had yet formally broken loose from the empire. But over a great part of the west the authority of the Death of emperors was now little more than nominal; through- Hoaortus, out the major part of Gaul and in Spain the barbarians **•*• had settled, and barbarian states were, growing up which recognized the supremacy of the emperor, but were in all essentials independent of his control. The long reign of Valentinian III. (423-55) is marked by two events of first-rate importance — the conquest of Africa by the Vandals • and the invasion of Gaul and Italy by Valea. Attila. The Vandal settlement in Africa was closely tiaiaa in., akin in its origin and results to those of the Visi- *^3-5S. goths and of the Vandals themselves in Gaul and vandal Spain. Here, as there, the occasion was given by conquest the jealous quarrels of powerful imperial ministers, of Africa. The feud between Boniface, count of Africa, and Aetius, the " master-general " or " count of Italy," opened the way to Africa for the Vandal king Gaiseric (Genseric), as that between Stilicho and Rufinus had before set Alaric in motion west- ward, and as the quarrel between the tyrant Constantine and the ministers of Honorius had paved the way for the Vandals, Suebes and Alans into Spain. In this case, too, land-hunger was the impelling motive with the barbarian invader, and in Africa, as in Gaul and Spain, the invaders' acquisitions were confirmed by the imperial authority which they still professed to recognize. In 429 Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, crossed with his warriors, their families and goods, to the province of Africa, hitherto almost untouched by the ravages of war. Thanks to the quarrels of Boniface and Aetius, their task was an easy one. The province was quickly overrun. In 43 5 w a formal treaty secured them in the possession of a large portion of the rich lands which were the granary of Rome, in exchange for a payment probably of corn and oil. Carthage was taken in 439, and by 440 the Vandal kingdom was firmly established. * For the treatment of Rome by Alaric, see Hodgkin i. 798 ; Gibbon iii. 321 sqq.; Ranke iv. 246. Allowance must be made for the exaggerations of the ecclesiastical writers. 4 For these tyrants, see Freeman in the Eng, Hist. Rev. i. 53-86. 6 The capital of the new state was Tolosa (Toulouse). * Jung, Die Romanischen Landschaften, 73 seq. 7 For the connexion between his movement and those of Alaric and of the Vandals, see Hodgkin i. 711; Gibbon iii. 262 seq. 8 The Roman troops were withdrawn from Britain by Constantine in 407 ; Mommsen, Chron. ntin. i. 465. * Hodgkin vol. ii. bk. iii. chap, ii.; Gibbon ii. 400 sqq.; Jung, 183. The leading ancient authority is Procopius. See Ranke iv. (2) 285 ; Papencordt, Gesch. d. Vandal. Herrschaft in Africa. ™ Prosper 659; Ranke iv. (i) 282. 658 ROME [EMPIRE: 284-476 in Gaul, Battle of Chalons. Sack of Home by the Vandals. Ricimer supreme la Italy, Orestes, the Pan- aoalau. Eleven years later (451) Attila invaded Gaul, but this Hunnish movement was in a variety of ways different from those of the Attna Visigoths and Vandals. Nearly a century had passed and the since the Huns first appeared in Europe, and drove the Hun*. Goths to seek shelter within the Roman lines. Attila was now the ruler of a great empire in central and northern Europe and, in addition to his own Huns, the German tribes along the Rhine and Danube and far away to the north owned him as king. He confronted the Roman power as an equal; and, unlike the Gothic and Vandal chieftains, he treated with the emperors of east and west as an independent sovereign. His advance on Gaul and Italy threatened, not the establishment of one more barbaric chieftain on Roman soil, but the sub- jugation of the civilized and Christian West to the rule of a heathen and semi-barbarous conqueror. But the Visigoths Christian and already half Romanized, rallied to the aid of the empire against a common foe. Attila, defeated at Chalons * by Aetius, withdrew into Pannonia (451). In the next year he overran Lombardy, but penetrated no farther south, and in 453 he died. With the murder of Valentinian III. (455) the western branch of the house of Theodosius came to an end, and the next twenty years witnessed the accession and deposition of nine em- perors. Under the three-months' rule of Maximus, the Vandals under Gaiseric invaded Italy and sacked Rome. From 456-7 2 the actual ruler of Italy was Ricimer, the Suebe. Of the four emperors whom he placed on the throne, Majorian (457-61) alone played any imperial part outside Italy.2 Ricimer died in 472, and two years later a Pannonian, Orestes, attempted to fill his place. He deposed Julius Nepos and proclaimed as Augustus his own son Romulus. But the barbarian mercenaries in Italy determined to secure for themselves a position there such as that which their kinsfolk had won in Gaul and Spain and Africa. Their demand for a third of the lands of Italy was refused by Orestes,3 and they instantly rose in revolt. On the defeat and death of Orestes they pro- claimed their leader, Odoacer the Rugian,4 king of Italy. Rom- Romaius ulus Augustulus laid down his imperial dignity, and Augus- the court at Constantinople was informed that there talus. was no ionger an emperor of the West.6 The installation of a barbarian king in Italy was the natural climax of the changes which had been taking place in the West throughout the 5th century. In Spain, Gaul and Africa barbarian chieftains were already established as kings. In Italy, for the last twenty years, the real power had been wielded by a barbarian officer. Odoacer, when he decided to dispense with the nominal authority of an emperor of the West, placed Italy on the same level of independence with the neighbouring provinces. But the old ties with Rome were not severed. The new king of Italy formally recognized the supremacy of the one Roman emperor at Constantinople, and was invested in return with the rank of " patrician," which had been held before him by Aetius and Ricimer. In Italy too, as in Spain and Gaul, the laws, the administrative system and the language remained Roman.6 But the emancipation of Italy and the Western provinces from direct imperial control, which is signalized by Odoacer's acces- sion, has rightly been regarded as marking the opening of a new epoch. It made possible in the West the development of a Romano-German civilization; it facilitated the growth of new and distinct states and nationalities; it gave a new impulse lFor the battle of Chalons, see Gibbon iv. 464; Hodgkin ii. 124 n. 6, 143, where the topography is discussed. 2 Majorian was the last Roman emperor who appeared in person in Spain and Gaul. 5 Hodgkin ii. 520. 4 The nationality of Odoacer is a disputed point. Hodgkin ii. 516; Ranke iv. (l) 372. ' Gibbon iv. 50 seq. The authority for the embassy to Zeno is Malchus (Muller, Fragm. Hist. Cr. iv. 119). 6 Gibbon iv. 54 seq.; Jung 66 seq.; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, 24-33. See also ROMAN LAW. King Odoacer. to the influence of the Christian church, and laid the foundations of the power of the bishops of Rome. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE ROMAN EMPERORS B.C. 27. Augustus. A.D. 14. Tiberius. 37. Gaius. 41. Claudius. 54. Nero. fGalba. 68, 69. J Otho. [Vitellius. 69. Vespasian. 79. Titus. 81. Domitian. 96. Nerya. 98. Trajan. 117. Hadrian. 138. Antoninus Pius. 161. Marcus Aurelius. 1 80. Commodus. [ Pertinax. 193. J. Didius Julianus. [Septimius Severus. 211. Caracalla. 217. Macrinus. 218. Elagabalus. 222. Alexander Severus. 235. Maximinus. ("The two Gordiani. 238. -< Pupienus and Balbinus. iGordian III. A.D. 244. Philip. 249. Decius. 251. Gallus. 253. Aemilianus. •>hn 4 Valerian. °°' [Gallienus. 268. Claudius. Quintillus. 284. 305- 3"- 324- 337- 350. 361. 363- 275- "lacitus. 276. Probus. 282. Carus. 283. Carinus and Numerian. [Diocletian (Maximian •i associated with him, I 286). Constantius and Galerius. ( Licinius. ) Constantino I. Constantine I. [Constantine II. J Constantius II. LConstans. Constantius II., sole em- peror. Julian, ovian. Division of the Empire. A.D. 364. Valens. 379. Theodosius I. East. A.D. West. 364. Valentinian I. 375. Gratian and Valentinian 1 1. 383. Valentinian II. Theodosius I. 395. Arcadius. 408. Theodosius II. 450. Marcian. 392 395 423 455 455 457 Honorius. Valentinian III. Maximus. Avitus. Majorian. 457. Leo I. 461. Severus. 467. Anthemius. 472. Olybrius. 473. Glycerius. 474. Julius Nepos. 474. Leo II. 475. Romulus Augustulus. (H. F. P.;H.S. J.) AUTHORITIES. — I. REPUBLICAN PERIOD: Ancient Sources.— The writing of history, like other branches of literature, was a late growth amongst the Romans, and it is very difficult to determine how far authentic records were preserved of the earlier republican period. It seems that the calendars issued yearly by the pontifices and posted on the walls of the Regia were inscribed with brief notices of important events (" digna memoratu . . . domi militiaeque terra marique gesta per singulos dies," Serv. Ad Aen. i. 373) • these tabulae were preserved and edited in 80 books by P. Mucms Scaevola (pontifex maximus, 130-?! 14 B.C.) under the name of Annales Maximi. The Commentarii preserved in the archives of the various priestly colleges and official boards (e.g. consuls and censors), which appear to have consisted mainly of instructions as to official procedure, doubtless furnished historical material in the shape of precedents and decisions. It is hard to say how much of this documentary evidence survived the burning of Rome by the Gauls; the fact that the earliest solar eclipse mentioned in the Annales Maximi was that of the 5th of June, 351 B.C., casts doubt on the completeness of the earlier records. Many modern scholars have supposed that these meagre official records were supplemented by — (a) popular poetry, more or less legendary in content; (b) family chronicles, the substance of which was worked up into the funeral orations (laudationes funebres) pronounced at the grave of distinguished Romans. The existence of the former class of documents is, however, quite unsupported by evidence; as to family tradition, we cannot say more than that it has probably left a deposit in the accounts of republican history handed down tonis, and caused the exploits of the members of illustrious houses to be exaggerated in importance. Setting aside the works of Greek historians who incidentally touched on Roman affairs, such as Hieronymus of Cardia, who wrote of the wars of Pyrrhus as a contemporary, and Timaeus of Tauromenium (c. 345-250 B.C.), who treated of the history of Sicily and the West down to 272 B.C., the earliest writers on Roman history AUTHORITIES] ROME 659 were Q. Fabius Pictor J and L. Cincius Alimentus, who lived during the Second Punic War and wrote in Greek. We are told by Dionysius that they treated the earlier history summarily, but wrote more fully of their own times. They were followed in their use of the Greek language by C. Acilius (introduced a Greek embassy to the senate, 155 B.C.) and A. Postumius Albinus (consul, 151 B.C.). In the meantime, however, M. Porcius Cato the Elder (234-149 B.C.), the leader of the national party at Rome and a vigorous opponent of Greek influence, had treated of Roman antiquities in his Origines. This work was not purely annalistic, but treated of the ethnography and customs of the Italian peoples, &c. Cato founded no school of antiquarian research, but his use of the Latin language as the medium of historical writing was followed by the annalists of the Gracchan period, L. Cassius Hemina, L. Calpurnius Piso (consul, 133 B.C.), C. Semprpnius Tuditanus (consul, 129 B.C.), Cn. Gellius, Vennonius, C. Fannius (consul, 122 B.C.), and L. Caelius Antipater.2 By these writers some attempt was made to apply canons of criticism to the traditional accounts of early Roman history, but they did little more than rationalize the more obviously mythical narratives ; they also followed Greek literary models and introduced speeches, &c., for artistic effect. Where they wrote as contemporaries, however, e.g. Fannius in his account of the Gracchan movement, their works were of the highest value. About the beginning of this period Polybius (q.v.) had published his history, which originally embraced the period of the Punic wars, and was afterwards con- tinued to 146 B.C. His influence was not fully exerted upon Roman historians until the close of the 2nd and early part of the 1st century B.C., when a school of writers arose who treated history with a practical purpose, endeavouring to trace the motives of action and to point a moral for the edification of their readers. To this school belonged Sempronius Asellio, Claudius Quadrigarius, Valerius Antias and C. Licinius Macer (d. 66 B.C.). Their writings were diffuse, rhetorical and inaccurate; Livy complains of the gross exaggerations of Valerius (whom he followed blindly in his earlier books), and Macer seems to have drawn much of his material from sources of very doubtful authenticity. Contemporary history was written by Cornelius Sisenna (l 19-67 B.C.), and the work of Polybius was continued to 86 B.C. by the Stoic Posidonius (c. 135-45 B.C.), a man of encyclopaedic knowledge. From the Gracchan period onwards the memoirs, speeches and correspondence of distinguished statesmen were often published; of these no specimens are extant until we come to the Ciceronian period, when the Speeches and Letters of Cicero (q.v.) and the Commentaries of Julius Caesar (q.v.)— the latter continued to the close of the Civil War by other hands — furnish invaluable evidence for the history of their times. We possess examples of historical pamphlets with a strong party colouring in Sallust's tracts on the Jugurthine War and the conspiracy of Catiline. During the same period Roman antiquities, genealogy, chronology, &c., were exhaustively treated by M. Terentius Varro (116-27 B.C.) (q.v.) in his Antiquitates (in 41 books) and other works. Cicero's friend, M. Ppmponius Atticus, also compiled a chronological table which was widely used, and Cornelius Nepos (q.v.) wrote a series of historical biographies which have come down to us. In the Augustan age the materials accumulated by previous generations were worked up by compilers whose works are in some cases preserved. The work of Livy (q.v.) covered the history of Rome from its foundation to 9 B.C. in 142 books; of these only 35 are preserved in their entirety, while the contents of the rest are known in outline from an epitome (periochae) and from the compendia of Florus and later authors. Diodorus Siculus (q.v.) of Agyrium in Sicily followed the earlier annalists in the sections of his Universal History (down to Caesar) which dealt with Roman affairs; Dionysius of Halicarnassus (q.v.), in his Roman Archaeology (published in 7 B.C.), treated early Roman history in a more ambitious and rhetorical style, with greater fulness than Livy, whose work he seems to have used. Universal histories were also written in the Augustan age by Nicolaus of Damascus, a protege of Herod the Great, and Trogus Pompeius, whose work is known to us from the epitome of Justin (2nd century A.D.). Juba, the learned king of Mauretania installed by Augustus, wrote a History of Rome as well as antiquarian works. Strabo (q.v.), whose Geography is extant, was the author of a continuation of Polybius's history (to 27 B.C.). The learning of the time was enshrined in the encyclopaedia of" Verrius Flaccus, of which we possess part of Festus's abridgment (2nd century A.D.), together with an Epitome of Festus by Paulus Diaconus (temp. Charlemagne). An official list of the consuls and other chief magis- trates of the republic was inscribed on the walls of the Regia (rebuilt 36 B.C.), followed somewhat later by a similar list of trium- phatores; the former of these is known as the Fasti Capitolini, (C.I. L.I?, I sqq.), since the fragments which have been recovered are preserved in the Palace of the Conservator! on the Capitol. The Forum of Augustus (see ROME, section A rchaeology) was decorated with statues of famous Romans, on the bases of which were inscribed short accounts of their exploits; some of these elogia are preserved (cf. Dessau, Inscr. Lat. sel. 50 sqq.). Amongst writers of the imperial period who dealt with republican 1 For these writers see further under ANNALISTS and Livy. 1 Caelius's work dealt only with the Second Punic War. history the most important are Velleius Paterculus, whose com- pendium of Roman history was published in A.D. 30; Plutarch (c. A.D. 45-125), in whose biographies much contemporary material was worked up; Appian, who wrote under the Antonlnes and described the wars of the republic under geographical headings (partly preserved) and the civil wars in five books, and Dio Cassius (». infra), of whose history only that portion which deals with events from 69 B.C. onwards is extant. The date of Granius Licinianus, whose fragments throw light on the earlier civil wars, is not certain. The evidence of inscriptions (qv.) and coins (q.v.) begins to be of value during the 150 years of the republic. A series of laws and Senatus consulta (beginning with the Senutus consultum de Bacchana- libus, 189 B.C.) throws light on constitutional questions, while the coins struck from about 150 B.C. onwards bear types illustrative of the traditions preserved by the families to which the masters of the mint (/// vtri monetales) belonged. MODERN AUTHORITIES. — The principles of historical criticism may be said to have been formulated by Giambattista Vice (q.v.), whose principi di scienza nuova were published in 1725. The credibility of the traditional account of Roman republican history was called in question by Louis de Beaufort (Dissertation sur I' incertitude des cinq premiers siecles de I'histoire romaine, 1738); but the modern critical movement dates from Niebuhr, two volumes of whose Romische Geschichte appeared in 1811-12 (the third was published after his death in 1832, his lectures in 1846). The early history of Rome was fully treated by Niebuhr's follower, F. C. A. Schwegler, whose Romische Geschichte in 3 vols. (1853-58) was continued to 327 B.C. by O. Clason (vols. 4 and 5, 1873-76). A reaction against the negative criticism of Niebuhr was headed by J. Rubino, who showed in his Untersuchungen ilber romische Verfassung und Geschichte (1839) that the growth of the Roman constitution might be traced with some approach to certainty by the analysis of institutions. It was left for Theodor Mommsen (Romische Geschichte, ist ed., 1854—56; Eng. trans, new ed. in 5 vols., 1894; Romische Forschungen, 1864-79; Romisches Staatsrecht, 1st ed., 1872-75 [in the Hand- buck der romischen Alterthiimer, begun by Becker in 1843 and con- tinued under the supervision of J. Marquardt]; Romisches Strafrecht, 1899, and many other works) to reduce Roman constitutional history to a science. Mommsen substituted for the detailed criticism of the traditional narrative a picture of the growth of Italian civilization based on linguistic, literary and monumental evidence. W. Ihne (Romische Geschichte, 8 vols., 1868-90) dealt more fully with the course of events as related by ancient historians. L. Lange's Romische Alterthiimer (1856—71), 3 vols., treated con- stitutional history in a narrative form. In more recent times Eduard Meyer has treated of early Italian history in his Geschichte des Alterthums, vols. ii.-y. (1893-1902); and Ettore Pais, in his Storia di Roma, vols. i.-ii. (1898-99), has subjected the narratives of Roman history down to the Samnite wars to a searching and in many cases exaggerated criticism. De Sanctis, in his Storia dei Romani (2 vols., 1907) (down to the establishment of the Roman hegemony in Italy), combines radical criticism of tradition with a constructive use of archaeological and other evidence. Heitland's Roman Republic (3 vols., 1909) is a fresh and independent work. The last century of the republic has been the subject of many works (see reff. in text and biographical articles). W. Drumann (Geschichte Roms, 1834—44; new ed- by Groebe in progress) gave an exhaustive biographical account of the contemporaries of Caesar and Cicero; A. H. J. Greenidge's History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 70 (vol. i. 1904) was unfortunately cut short by the author's early death in 1906; G. Ferrero's Grandezza e Decadenza di Roma (in progress, Eng. trans, of vols. i., ii., 1907; iii.-v., 1909) is ambitious but unsound. II. IMPERIAL PERIOD -.Ancient Sources. — The memoirs of Augustus as well as those of his contemporaries (Messalla, Agrippa, Maecenas, &c.) and successors (Tiberius, Agrippina the younger, &c.) have perished, but we possess the Res gestae divi Augusti inscribed on the walls of his temple at Ancyra (ed. Mommsen, 1883). Few historical works were produced undei the earlier Julio-Claudian emperors; Cremutius Cprdus lost his life under Tiberius for the freedom with which his opinion of the triumvirs was expressed. Aufidius Bassus wrote the history of the civil wars and early empire, perhaps to A.D. 49, and this was continued by Pliny the Elder (q.v.) in 31 books, probably to the accession of Vespasian.3 These works, together with those of Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, and Cluvius Rufus, a courtier under Nero, were amongst the authorities used by Tacitus (q.v.), whose Annals (properly called ab excessu divi Augusti) and Histories, when complete, carried the story of the empire down to A.D. 96.* Tacitus wrote under Trajan, upon whom the younger Pliny pronounced his Panegyric; Pliny's correspondence with Trajan about the affairs of Bithynia, which he administered in A.D. 111-13, is of great historical value. Suetonius (q.v.), who was for some time secretary of state to Hadrian, wrote biographies of the emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian, which contain much interesting gossip. Arrian, a Bithynian Greek promoted by Hadrian •The Jewish Antiquities and Jewish War of Josephus (q.v.), composed under the Flavian dynasty, are of great value for the events of the writer's time. 4 The Histories (A.D. 69-96) were written before the Annals. 66o ROME [MIDDLE AGES to important posts, wrote on Rome's policy and wars in the East. Appian (». supra) dealt with the wars waged under the early empire in the closing books of his work, which have not been preserved. Dio Cassius, a Bithynian who attained to the dignity of a second consulship as the colleague of Severus Alexander, wrote a history of Rome to the death of Elagabalus in 80 books. We possess only epitomes and excerpts of the portion dealing with events from A.D. 46 onwards, except for parts of the 78th and 79th books, in which Dio's narrative of contemporary events is especially valuable. Herodian, a Syrian employed in the imperial service, wrote a history of the emperors from Commodus to Gordian III., which as the work of a contemporary is not without value, although the author had no historical insight. L. Marius Maximus compiled biographies of the emperors from Nerva to Elagabalus which, like those of Suetonius, contained much worthless gossip. His work was amongst the sources used in the compilation of the Historic. Augusta (see further AUGUSTAN HISTORY), upon which we are obliged to rely for the history of the 3rd century A.D. This work consists in a series of lives of the emperors (including most of the pretenders to that title) from Hadrian to Carinus, professedly written by six authors, Spartianus, Vulcacius Gallicanus, Capitolinus, Lampndius, Trebellius Pollio, and Vopiscus, under Diocletian and Constantine. Modern criticism has shown that (at least in its present form) it is a com- pilation made towards the close of the 4th century; it is not even certain that any of the above-named writers really existed, and the documents inserted in the text are palpable forgeries. The earlier biographies, however, contain much authentic information, which seems to have been derived from a good contemporary source. The fragments of Dexippus, an Athenian who successfully defended his native town against the Goths, throw much light on the barbaric invasions of the 3rd century. Under Diocletian and his successors (A.D. 289-321) were delivered twelve Panegyrics by Eumenius and other court rhetoricians which possess slight historical value. The history of the final struggle between church and empire is told from the Christian point of view by the author of the De mortibus per- secutorum — perhaps Lactantius, the tutor of Crispus. Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History and Life of Constantine give an ex parte version of the events which they relate; the first of two tracts published under the name of the Anonymus Valesianus furnishes a brief contemporary narrative of the period 305-37, without Christian prepossessions; while the lost work of Praxagoras treated the history of Constantine from the pagan standpoint. The most important historian of the 4th century was Ammianus Marcellinus, a native of Antioch and an officer in the imperial guard, who con- tinued the work of Tacitus (in Latin) to the death of Valens. We possess the last eighteen books of his history which cover the years A.D. 353-78. Two compendia of imperial history pass under the name of Aurelius Victor, the Caesares, or lives of the emperors from Augustus to Julian, and the Epitome de Caesaribus (not by the same author,) which goes down to Theodosius I. Similar works are the Breviarum of Eutrppius (secretary of state under Valens) and the still more brief epitome of Festus. The writings of the Emperor Julian and of the rhetoricians Libanius, Themistius and Eunapius — the last-named continued the history of Dexippus to A.D. 404 — are of great value for the latter part of the 4th century A.D. They wrote as pagans, while the. Christian version of events is given by the three orthodox historians Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and the Arian Philostorgius, all of whom wrote in the 5th century. An imperial official, Zosimus, writing in the latter half of that century, gave a sketch of imperial history to A.D. 410; the latter part is valuable, being based on contemporary writings, e.g. those of the Egyptian Olympiodorus, of whose work some fragments are pre- served. The bishops Synesius and Palladius, who lived under Arcadius and Theodosius II., furnish valuable information as to their own times; while the fragments of Priscus tell us much of Attila and the Hunnish invasions. Mention must also be made of the poets and letter-writers of the 4th and 5th centuries — Ausonius, Claudian, Symmachus, Paulinus of Nola, Sidonius Apollinaris, Prudentius, Merobaudes and others — from whose writings much historical information is derived. Cassiodorus, the minister of Theodoric, wrote a history of the Goths, transmitted to us in the Historia Gothorum of Jordanes (c. A.D. 550), which gives an account of the earlier barbaric invasions. Several chronological works were compiled in the 4th and 5th centuries. It will suffice to name the Chronology of Eusebius (to A.D. 324), translated by Jerome and carried down to A.D. 378; the Chronicle of Prosper Tiro, based on Jerome and continued to A.p. 455; the Chronography of A.D. 354, an illustrated calendar containing miscellaneous information; and the works based on the so-called Chronica Constantinopolitana (not preserved), such as the Fasti of Hydatius (containing valuable notices of the period A.D. 379-468). Some minor chronological works such as the Chronicon Ravennae are published in Mommsen's Chronica Minora. The Chronicon Paschale, primarily a table giving the cyle of Easter celebrations, was compiled in the 7th century A.D. The Codes of Law, especially the Codex Theodpsianus (A.D. 438) and the Code of Justinian, as well as the Army List of the early 5th century, known as the Notitia Dignitatum, possess great historical value. For the inscriptions of the empire, which are of incalculable importance as showing the working of the imperial system in its details, see INSCRIPTIONS; the coins (o.v.)also throw much light on the dark places of history in the lack of other authorities. Egyptian papyri are not only instructive as to legal, economic and adminis- trative history, but also (by the formulae employed in their dating) contribute to our general knowledge of events. The Zeitschrift fur Papyrusforschung, edited by U. Wilcken, gives an account of pro- gress in this branch of study. MODERN AUTHORITIES. — Tillemont'sHistoiredesempereurs(6 vols., 1690-1738), supplemented by his Memoires pour servir a I'histoire ecclesiastique, a laborious and erudite compilation, furnished Gibbon with material for his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776- 1788), which has never been superseded as a history of the entire imperial period, and has been rendered adequate for the purposes of the modern reader by Professor J. B. Bury s edition (1897-1900). The history of the empire has yet to be written in the light of recent discoveries. Mommsen's fifth volume (Eng. tr., as Provinces of the Roman Empire, 1886) is not a narrative, but an account of Roman culture in the various provinces. C. Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire (8 vols., 1850-62, to Marcus Aurelius) is literary rather than scientific. H. Schiller's Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit (1883-88) is a useful handbook. For the later period we have Bury's History of the Later Roman Empire (1889), beginning from A.D. 395, and T. Hodgkin's Italy and her Invaders (8 vols., 1880-99), which tells the story of the barbaric invasions at great length. The imperial constitution is described by Mommsen in the second volume of his Staatsrecht (v. supra) ; divergent views will be found in Herzog's Geschichte und System der romischen Staatsver- fassung (1884-91); the working of the imperial bureaucracy is treated by O. Hirschfeld, Die romischen Verwaltungsbeamten (1905). The Prosopographia Imferii Romani, compiled by Dessau and Klebs (1897-98), is a mine of information, as is the new edition of Pauly's Realencyklopddie der classischen Alterthumsunssenschaft (in progress). Von Domaszewski's Geschichte der romischen Kaiser (2 vols., 1909) is popularly written and gives no references to authorities. See further the articles on individual emperors and provinces. A general history of Rome to the barbarian invasions, popular in character and richly illustrated, was written in French by Victor Duruy (Eng. tr. in 6 vols., 1883-86). The 2nd, 3rd and 4th vols. of Leopold von Ranke's Weltgeschichte deal with Roman history. An outline of Roman history is given by B. Niese in the 3rd vol. of M filler's Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaft (3rd ed., 1906). A. H. J. Greenidge's Roman Public Life (1901) is an excel- lent guide to Roman institutions. The principal authorities on Roman chronology are: Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie (1825-26); Fynes-Clinton, Fasti Romani (1845) (a continuation of the same author's Fasti Hellenici, 1830-41, which goes down to A.D. 14); Fischer, Romische Zeittafeln (1846); Mommsen, Romische Chronologie (2nd ed., 1859); Matzat, Romische Chronologie (1883-84) and Romische Zeittafeln (1889); Holzapfel, Romische Chronologie (1885); Soltau, Romische Chronologie (1889) ; linger, " Romische Zeitrechnung " in the 1st vol. of Miiller's Hand- buch der klassischen A Iterthumswtssen schafl (2nd ed., 1892). Goyau's Chronologie de I 'empire remain (Paris, 1891) is a useful handbook. (H. S. J.) IV. The Roman Republic in the Middle Ages The history of the Roman commune as distinguished from the papacy during the middle ages has yet to be written, and only by the discovery of new documents can the difficulties of the task be completely overcome. Although very different in its origin, the Roman Republic gradually assumed the same form as the other Italian communes, and with almost identical institutions. But, owing to the special local conditions amid which it arose, it maintained a distinct physiognomy and character. The deserted Campagna surrounding the city checked any notable increase of trade or industry, and prevented the establishment of the gilds on the solid footing that elsewhere made them the basis and support of the commune. There was also the continual and oppressive influence of the empire, and, above all, the presence of the papacy, which often appeared to absorb the political vitality of the city. At such moments the commune seemed annihilated, but it speedily revived and reasserted itself. Consequently there are many apparent gaps in its history, and we have often extreme difficulty in discovering the invisible links connecting the visible fragments. Even the aristocracy of Rome had a special stamp. In the other republics, with the exception of Venice, it was feudal, of German origin, and in perpetual conflict with the popular and commercial elements which sought its destruction. The history of municipal freedom in Italy lay in this struggle. But the infiltration of Teutonic and feudal elements broke up the MIDDLE AGES] ROME 66 1 The Ooths. ancient aristocracy of Rome, gave it a special character and left it at the mercy of the people. Then the popes, by the bestowal of lucrative offices, rich benefices and vast estates, and, above all, by raising many nobles to the purple, introduced new blood into the Roman aristocracy, and endued it with increasing strength and vitality. Always divided, always turbulent, this irrepressible body was a continual source of discord and civil war, of permanent confusion and turmoil. Amidst all these difficulties the commune struggled on, but never succeeded in preserving a regular course or administration for long. What with continual warfare, attacks on the Capitol and consequent slaughter, pillage and incendiarism, it is no wonder that so few original documents are left to illustrate the history of the Roman Republic. Nor have chroniclers and his- torians done much to supply this want, since, in treating of Roman affairs, their attention is mainly devoted to the pope and the emperor. Nevertheless, we will attempt to connect in due order all the facts gleaned from former writers and pub- lished records. The removal of the seat of the empire to Constantinople effected a radical change in the political situation of Rome; nor was this change neutralized by the formation of the weak Western empire soon to be shattered by the Germanic invasions. But we still find Roman laws and institutions; and no sign is yet manifest of the rise of a medieval municipality. The earliest germ of this new type of municipality is seen during the barbarian invasions. Of these we need only enumerate the four most important — those of the Goths, Byzantines (who, however, were not mere barbarians but civilized and corrupt), Lombards and Franks. The Gothic rule merely superimposed upon the Roman social order a Teutonic stratum, that never penetrated beneath its surface. The Goths always remained a conquering army; according to the German custom, they took possession of one-third of the vanquished territory, but, while forbidding the Romans to bear arms, left their local administration intact. The senate, the curiae, the principal magistrates, both provincial and municipal, the prefect of the city, and the Roman judges enforcing the enactments of the Roman law, were all preserved. Already, under the empire, the civil power had been separated from the military, and this separation was maintained. Hence there was no visible change in the constitution of the state. Only, now there were conquered and conquerors. All real and effective power was on the side of brute force, and the Goths alone bore arms. In every province they had their comites, or heads of the army, who had judicial power over their country- men, especially in criminal cases. Here, then, was a combina- tion of civil and military jurisdiction altogether contrary to Roman ideas. Nor can it be denied that the comites, as chiefs of the armed force, necessarily exerted a direct or indirect influence on the civil and administrative power of the provinces, and especially upon the collection of the imposts. The civil arm, being virtually subordinate to the military, suffered un- avoidable change. Notwithstanding the praise lavished on Theodoric, the kingdom founded by him in Italy had no solid basis. It was composed of two nations differing in race and traditions and even in religion, since the Goths were Arians and the Romans Catholics. The latter were sunk in degeneracy and corruption; their institutions were old and decrepit. It was necessary to infuse new life into the worn-out body. This was difficult, perhaps impossible; and at any rate Theodoric never attempted the task. Little wonder then if the Gothic kingdom succumbed to the Byzantine armies from Constanti- nople. The wars of Belisarius and Narses against the Goths lasted twenty years (535-55 A.D.), caused terrible slaughter and The devastation in Italy, and finally subjected her to Byzaatlae Constantinople. In place of a Gothic king she was rufe- now ruled by a Greek patrician, afterwards entitled the exarch, who had his seat of government at Ravenna as lieutenant of the empire. In the chief provincial cities the ruling counts were replaced by dukes, sub- ordinate to the exarch; and the smaller towns were governed by military tribunes. Instead of dukes, we sometimes find magislri militant, apparently of higher rank. The praefeclus praetorio of Italy, likewise a dependent of the exarch, was at the head of the civil administration. The pragmatic sanction (554), promulgating the Justinian code, again separated the civil from the military power, which was no longer allowed to intervene in the settlement of private disputes, and, by conferring on the bishops the superintendence of and authority over the provincial and municipal government, soon led to the increase of the power of the church, which had already considerable influence. The new organization outwardly resembled that of the Goths: one army had been replaced by another, the counts by dukes; there was an exarch instead of a king; the civil and military jurisdictions were more exactly defined. But the army was not, like that of the Goths, a conquering nation in arms; it was a Graeco-Roman army, and did not hold a third of the territory which was now probably added to the possessions of the state (fisc). The soldiery took its pay from Constantinople, whence all instructions and appointments of superior officers likewise proceeded. In Rome we find a magister mtiitum at the head of the troops. The Roman senate still existed, but was reduced to a shadow. Theodoric had left it intact until he suspected it of hostile designs and dealings with the Byzantines, but then began to persecute it, as was proved by the wretched fate of Boetius and Symmachus. Nevertheless the senate survived, added the functions of a curia or municipal council to those of a governmental assembly, and took part -in the election of the pope — already one of the chief affairs of Rome. So many senators, however, were slaughtered during the Byzantine War that it was commonly believed to be extinct. The pragmatic sanction, conferring on senate and pope the superintendence of weights and measures in Italy, might seem a convincing proof to the contrary, although, in the general chaos, now that Rome was a mere provincial city, constantly exposed to attack, we may imagine to what the senate was reduced. All Roman institutions were altered and decayed; but their original features were still to be traced, and no heterogeneous element had been introduced into them. The first dawn of a completely new epoch can only be dated from the invasion of the Lombards (568-72). Their conquest of a large portion of Italy was accompanied by the harshest t,ards°" oppression. They abolished all ancient laws and institutions, and not only seized a third of the land, but reduced the inhabitants almost to slavery. But, in the unsubdued parts of the country — namely, in Ravenna, Rome and the maritime cities — a very different state of things pre- vailed. The necessity for self-defence and the distance of the empire, now too worn out to render any assistance, compelled the inhabitants to depend solely on their own strength. Thus, certain maritime cities, such as Naples, Amalfi, Pisa and Venice, soon attained to a greater or less degree of liberty and inde- pendence. This is the moment in which ancient society seems to disappear completely and a new one begins to rise. Ancient customs disappear, Christian processions take the place of the ancient games, ancient temples are transformed into churches and dedicated to new saints. If Roman tradition in Italy can ever be said to have been completely broken, this could only be during the Longobard domination. It is certain, however, that soon the elements of ancient culture began to revive once more. A special state of things now arose in Rome. We behold the rapid growth of the papal power and the continual increase of its moral and political influence. This had already begun under Leo I., and been further promoted by the popes. pragmatic sanction. Not only the superintendence but often the nomination of public functionaries and judges was now in the hands of the popes. And the accession to St Peter's chair of a man of real genius in the person of Gregory I., surnamed the Great, marked the beginning of a new era. By force of individual character, as well as by historic 662 ROME [MIDDLE AGES necessity, this pope became the most potent personage in Rome. Power fell naturally into his hands; he was the true representa- tive of the city, the born defender of church and state. His ecclesiastical authority, already great throughout Italy, was specially great in the Roman diocese and in southern Italy. The continual offerings of the faithful had previously endowed the church with enormous possessions in the province of Rome, in Sicily, Sardinia and other parts. The administration of all this property soon assumed the shape of a small government council in Rome. In the middle ages the owner of the land was also master of the men who cultivated it, and exercised political authority as well; these administrators therefore protected and succoured the oppressed, settled disputes, nomin- ated judges and controlled the ecclesiastical authorities. The use made by the pope of his revenues greatly contributed to the increase of his moral and political authority. When the city was besieged by the Lombards, and the emperor left his army unpaid, Gregory supplied the required funds and thus made resistance possible. And, when the defence could be no longer maintained, he alone, by the weight of his personal influence and the payment of large sums, indu:ed the Lom- bards to raise the siege. He negotiated in person with Agilulph, and was recognized by him as the true representative of the city. Thus Rome, after being five times taken and sacked by the barbarians, was, on this occasion, saved by its bishop. The exarch, although unable to give any help, protested against the assumption of so much authority by the pope; but Gregory was no usurper; his attitude was the natural result of events. " For twenty-seven years " — so wrote this pontiff to the im- perial government of Constantinople — " we lived in te.Tor of the Longobards, nor can I say what sums •we had to pay them. There is an imperial treasurer with the army at Ravenna; but here it is I who am treasurer. Likewise I have to provide for the clergy, the poor and the people, and even to succour the distress of other churches." It was at this moment that the new Roman commune began to take shape and acquire increasing vigour owing to its dis- The tance from the seat of the empire and its resistance Roman to the Lombard besiegers. Its special character commune. was now to jjg trace(j m tjje preponderance of the military over the civil power. A Roman element had pene- trated into the army, which was already possessed of con- siderable political importance. The prefect of Rome loses authority and seems almost a nullity compared with the magister militum. Hardly anything is heard of the senate. " Quia enim Senatus deest, populus interiit," exclaims Gregory in a moment of despair. The popes now make common cause with the people against the Lombards on the one hand and the emperor on the other. But they avoid an absolute rupture with the empire, lest they should have to face the Lombard power without any prospect of help. Later, when the growing strength of the commune becomes menacing, they remain faithful to the empire in order not to be at the mercy of the people. It was a permanent feature of their policy never to allow the complete independence of the city until they should be its sole and absolute masters. But that time was still in the future. Meanwhile pope and people joined in the defence of their common interests. This alliance was cemented by the religious disputes of the East and the West. First came the Monothelite controversy regarding the twofold nature of Christ. Later a long and violent struggle ensued, in which the people of Rome and of other Italian cities sided so vigorously with the popes that John VI. (701-5) had to interpose in order to release the exarch from captivity and prevent a definitive rupture with the empire. Then (710-11) Ravenna revolted against the emperor, organized its armed population under twelve flags, and almost all the cities of the exarchate joined in a resistance that was the first step towards the independence of the Italian communes. A still fiercer religious quarrel then broke out concerning images. Pope Gregory II. (713-31) opposed the celebrated edict of the iconoclastic emperor Leo the Isaurian. Venice and the Pentapolis took up arms in favour of the pope, and elected dukes of their own without applying to the emperor. Again public disorder rose to such a pitch that the pope was obliged to check it lest it should go too far. In the midst of these warlike tumults a new constitution, almost a new state, was being set up in Rome. During the conflict with Philippicus, the Monothelite and heretical emperor who ascended the throne in 711, the Liber Pontificalis makes the first mention of the duchy of Rome (ducatus Romanae urbis), and we find the people struggling to elect a duke of their own. In the early days of the Byzantine rule the territory appertaining to the city was no greater than under the Roman Empire. But, partly through the weakness of the government of Constanti- nople, and above all through the decomposition of the Italian provinces under the Lombards, who destroyed all unity of government in the peninsula, this dukedom was widely ex- tended, and its limits were always changing in accordance with the course of events. It was watered by the Tiber, and stretched into Tuscia to the right, starting from the mouth of the Marta, by Tolfa and Bleda, and reaching as far as Orte. Viterbo was a frontier city of the Lombards. On the left the duchy extended into Latium as far as the Garigliano. It spread very little to the north-east and was badly defended on that side, inasmuch as the duchy of Spoleto reached to within fourteen miles of the Salara gate. On the other side, towards Umbria, the river Nera was its boundary line. The constitution of the city now begins to show the results of the conditions amid which it took shape. The separation of the civil from the military power has entirely dis- _. appeared. This is proved by the fact that, after the consul- year 600, there is no further mention of the prefect, tloa of His office still survived, but with a gradual change '*• com' of functions, until, in the 8th century, he once more appears as president of a criminal tribunal. The con- stitution of the duchy and of the new republic formed during the wars with the Lombards and the exarch was substantially of an aristocratico-military nature. At its head was the duke, first appointed by the emperor, then by the pope and the people, and, as his strength and influence grew with those of the commune, he gradually became the most respected and powerful personage in Rome. The duke inhabited the palace of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill, and had both the civil and the military power in his hands; he was at the head of the army, which, being composed of the best citizens and highest nobility of Rome, was a truly national force. This army was styled the felicissimus or florens exercitus Romanus or also the militia Romano, Its members never lost their citizen stamp; on the contrary they formed the true body of the citizens. We find mention of other duces in Rome, but these were probably other leaders or superior officers of the army. Counts and tribunes are found in the subject cities bound to furnish aid to the capital. In fact during the pontificate of Sergius II. (844), when the duchy was threatened by a Saracenic invasion, they were requested to send troops to defend the coast, and as many soldiers as possible to the city. At that time the inhabitants of Rome were divided into four principal classes — clergy, nobles, soldiers and simple citizens. The nobles were divided into two categories, first the The genuine optimates, i.e. members of old and wealthy different families with large estates, and filling high, and often classes of hereditary, offices in the state, the church and the *<*i*ty army. These were styled proceres and primates. The '" Kome- second category comprised landed proprietors, of moderate means but exalted position, mentioned as nobiles by Gregory I., and constituting in fart a numerous petty nobility and the bulk of the army. Next followed the citizens, i.e. the commercial class, merchants and craftsmen, who, having as yet no fixed organization and but little influence, were simply designated as honesti cities. These, however, were quite distinct from the plebeians, plebs, vulgus populi, mri humiles, who in their turn ranked above bondsmen and slaves. The honesti cives did not MIDDLE AGES] ROME 663 usually form part of the army, and were only enrolled in it in seasons of emergency. Nevertheless the army was not only national, but became increasingly democratic, so that in the loth century it included every class of inhabitants except churchmen and slaves. At that period we sometimes find the whole people designated as the exercitus, those actually under arms being distinguished as the militia exercitus Ro- miiitum. mani. This again was divided into bands or "numbers," i.e. regiments, and also, in a manner peculiar to Rome, into scholae militum. These scholae were associations derived from antiquity, gaining strength and becoming more general in the middle ages as the central power of the state declined. There were scholae of notaries, of church singers, and of nearly every leading employment; there were scholae of foreigners of diverse nationalities, of Franks, Lombards, Greeks, Saxons, &c. Even the trades and crafts began to form scholae. These were at first very feeble institutions, and only later gained importance and became gilds. As early as the 8th century there were scholae militum in the army, which was thus doubly divided. But we have no precise definition of their functions. They were de facto corporations with separate property, churches and magistrates of their own. The latter were always optimates, and guarded the interests of the army. But the real chiefs of the bands or numeri were the duces or tribunes, and under the Franks the latter became comites. These chiefs were styled magnifici consules, optimates de militia, often too judices de militia, since, as was the custom of the middle ages, they wielded political and judicial as well as military authority. The title of consul was now generally given to superior officers, whether civil or military. The importance of the scholae mililum began to decline in the loth century; towards the middle of the 1 2th they disappeared altogether, and, according to Felix Papencordt, were last mentioned in 1145. It is probable that the scholae militum signified local divisions of the army, corresponding with the city wards, which were twelve in number during the loth and nth centuries, then increased to thirteen, and occasionally to fourteen. It is certain that from the be- ginning the army was distributed under twelve flags; after the scholae had disappeared, we find it classified in districts, which were subdivided into companies. The division of cities into quarters, sestieri or rioni, corresponding with that of the army, and also with that of the municipal government, was the common practice of Florence, Siena and almost all the Italian communes. But, while usually losing importance as the gilds acquired power, in Rome the insignificance of the gilds added to the strength of the regioni or rioni, which not only became part of the army but finally grasped the reins of government. This was a special characteristic of the political constitution of the Roman commune. We now come to a question of weightier import for all desiring to form a clear idea of the Roman government at that period. _. What had become of the senate ? It had undoubtedly senate lost its original character now that the empire was in the extinct. But, after much learned discussion, historical middle authorities are still divided upon the subject. Certain Italian writers of the i8th century— Vendettini, for example — asserted with scanty critical insight that the Roman senate did not disappear in the middle ages. The same opinion backed by much learned research was maintained by the great German historian Savigny. And Leo, while denying the persistence of the curia in Lombard Italy, adhered to Savigny's views as regarded Rome. Papencordt did the same, but held the Roman senate to be no more than a curia. This judgment was vigorously contested, first by Hegel and Giesebrecht, then by Gregorovius. These writers believe that after the middle of the 6th century the senate had a merely nominal existence. According to Gregorovius its last appear- ance was in the year 579. After that date it is mentioned in no documents, and the chroniclers are either equally silent or merely allude to its decay and extinction. In the 8th century, however, the terms senator, senatores, senatus again reappear. We find letters addressed to Pippin, beginning thus: Omnis senatus atque universi populi generalitas. When Leo III. re- turned from Germany he was met by tarn proceres clericorum cum omnibus clericis, quamque optimates el senatus, cunctaque militia (see Anastasius, in Muratori, vol. iii. igSc). But it has been noted that the senate was never found to act as a political assembly; on occasions when it might have been mentioned in that capacity we hear nothing of it, and only meet with it in ceremonials and purely formal functions. Hence the conclusion that the term senator was used in the sense of noble, senatus of nobility, and no longer referred to an institution but only to a class of the citizens. Even when we find that the emperor Otto III. (who sought to revive all the ancient institutions of Rome) addressed an edict to the " consuls and senate of Rome," and read that the laws of St Stephen were issued senatus decrelo, the learned Giesebrecht merely remarks that no important changes in the Roman constitution are to be attributed to the consuls and senate introduced by Otto III. Thus for the next glimpse of the senate we must pass to the I2th century, when it was not only reformed, as some writers believe, but entirely reconstituted. But in this case a serious difficulty remains to be disposed of. Gregorovius firmly asserts that the nobles acquired great power between the yth and loth centuries, not only filling the highest military, judicial and ecclesiastical offices, " but also directing the municipal government, presumably with the prefect at their head." He further adds: " Notwithstanding the disappearance of the senate, it is difficult to suppose that the city was without governing magistrates, or without a council." Thus, after the 7th century, the optimates at the head of the army were also at the head of the citizens, and " formed a communal council in the same manner in which it was afterwards formed by the banderesi." ' Now, if the nobles were called senatores and the nobility senatus, and if this body of nobles met in council to administer the affairs of the republic, there is no matter for dispute, inasmuch as all are agreed that the original senate must have had a different character from the senate of the middle ages. And, since the absence of all mention of a prefect after the 7th century is not accepted as a proof of his non-existence, and we find him reappear under another form in the 8th century, so the silence as to the senate after the year 579, the fresh mention of it in the 8th century, and its reappearance in the I2th as a firmly reconstituted body reasonably lead to the inference that, during that time, the ancient senate had been gradually transformed into the new council. Its meetings must have been held very irregularly, and probably only in emergencies when important affairs had to be discussed, previously to bringing them before the parlia- ment or general assembly of the people. Historians are better agreed as to the significance of the term consul. At first this was simply a title of honour bestowed on superior magistrates, and retained that meaning from the 7th to the nth century, but then became — as in other Italian cities — a special title of the chief officers of the state. During this period the Roman constitution was very simple. The duke, commanding the army, and the prefect, presiding over the criminal court, were the chiefs of the republic; the armed nobility constituted the forces, filled all of superior offices, and occasionally met in a council called the senate, although it had, as we have said, no resemblance to the senate of older times. In moments of emergency a general parliament of the people was convoked. This constitution differed little from that of the other Italian communes, where, in the same way, we find all the leading citizens under arms, a parliament, a council, and one or more chiefs at the head of the government. But Rome had an element that was lacking elsewhere. We have already noted that, in the provinces, the administrators of church lands were important personages, and exercised during the middle ages, when there was no exact division of power, both judicial and political functions. It was very natural that the heads of this vast administration resident in Rome should have a still higher standing, and in fact, from the J Gregorovius, Geschichte, vol. ii. pp. 427-28 and note (and ed.). The consuls. ROME [MIDDLE AGES 6th century, their power increased to such an extent that in the times of the Franks they already formed a species of papal cabinet with a share and sometimes a predominance m tne a^^IS °f tne republic. There were seven principal administrators, but two of them held the chief power — the primicerius notariorum and the secundicerius, i.e. the first and under secretaries of state. When, on the constitution of the new empire, these ministers were declared to be palatine or imperial as well as papal officials, the primicerius and the secundicerius were also in waiting on the emperor, who sat in council with them when in Rome. Next came the arcarius, or treasurer ; the sacellarius, or cashier ; the protoscriniarius, who was at the head of the papal chancery; the primus defensor, who was the advocate of the church and administered its possessions. Seventh and last came the nomendator, or adminiculator, who pleaded the cause of widows, orphans and paupers. There were also some other officials, such as the vestiarius, the vicedominus or steward, the cubicularius or major-domo, but these were of inferior importance. They were ecclesiastics, but not bound to be in priest's orders. The first seven were those specially known as proceres clericorum and oftener still as judices de clero, since they speedily assumed judicial functions and ranked among the chief judges of Rome. But as ecclesiastics they did not give decisions in criminal cases. Thus Rome had two tribunals, that of the judices de clero, or ordinarii, presided over by the pope, and that of the judices de militia, leaders of the army, dukes and tribunes, also bearing the generic title of consuls. First appointed by the exarch and then frequently by the pope, these decided both civil and criminal cases. In the latter they were sole judges under the presidency of the prefect. The pope was thus at the head of a large administrative body with judicial and civil powers that were continually on the increase, and, in addition to his moral authority and The™ over Christendom, was possessed of enormous revenues. paiwer So in course of time he considered himself the real representative of the Roman Republic. Gregory II. (715-31) accepted in the name of the republic the sub- mission of other cities, and protested against the conquest by the Lombards of those already belonging to Rome. He seemed indeed to regard the territory of the duchy as the patri- mony of the church. The duke was always at the head of the army, and, officially, was always held to be an imperial magistrate. But the empire was now powerless in Italy. Meanwhile the advance of the Lombards was becoming more and more threatening; they seized Ravenna in 751, thus putting an end to the exarchate, and next marched towards Rome, which had only its own forces and the aid of neighbouring cities to rely upon. To avoid being crushed by the brute force of a foreign nation unfit to rule, and only capable of oppression and pillage, it was necessary to make an energetic stand. Accordingly, the reigning pope, Stephen II. (752-57), ap- pealed to Pippin, king of the Franks, and concluded with that monarch an alliance destined to inaugurate a new appeal1"18 ePocn °f tne world's history. The pope consecrated Pippin king of the Franks, and named him palricius 'fo'trid. Romanorum. This title, as introduced by Constantine, had no longer the ancient meaning,but now became asign of lofty social rank. When, however, it was afterwards conferred on barbarian chieftains such as Odoacer and Theodoric, and then on the representative of the Byzantine empire in Italy, it ac- quired the meaning of a definite dignity or office. In fact, the title was now given to Pippin as defender of the church, for the pope styled him at the same time patricius Romanorum and defensor or protector ecclesiae. And the king pledged himself not only to defend the church but also to wrest the exarchate and the Pentapolis from the Lombards and give them to Rome, or rather to the pope, which came to the same thing. This was considered as a restitution made to the head of the church, who was also the representative of the republic and the empire. And, to preserve the character of a restitution, the famous " donation of Constanline " was invented during this period (752-77). Pippin brought his army to the rescue (754-55) and fulfilled his promise. The pope accepted the donation in the name of St Peter, and as the visible head of the church. Thus in 755 central Italy broke its connexion with the empire and became independent; thus was inaugurated the temporal power of the papacy, the cause of so much subsequent warfare and revolution in Rome. Its first consequences were speedily seen. In 767 the death of Paul I. was followed by a fierce revolt of the nobles under Duke Toto (Theodoro) of Nepi, who by violent means raised his brother Constantine to the chair of St Peter, although Constantine was a layman and had first to be ordained. For more than a year the new pontiff was a pliable tool in the hands of Toto and of the nobles. But the genuine papal faction, headed by a few judices de clero, asked the aid of the Lombards and made a formidable resistance. Their adversaries were defeated, tortured and put to death. Toto was treacherously slain during a fight. The pope was blinded and left half dead on the highway. Fresh and no less violent riots ensued, owing to the public dread lest the new pope, Stephen III. (768-72), elected by favour of the Lombards, should give them the city in return. But Stephen went over to the Franks, whom he had previously deserted, and his successor, Adrian I. (772-95), likewise adhered to their cause, called the city to arms to resist King Desiderius and his Lombard hordes, and besought the assistance of Charlemagne. This monarch accordingly made a descent into Italy in 773, and not only gained an chaHe- easy victory over Desiderius, but destroyed the marnein Lombard kingdom and seized the iron crown. Entering Rome for the first time in 774, he confirmed and augmented the donation of Pippin by the addition of the dukedom of Spoleto. He returned several times to Italy and Rome, making new conquests and fresh concessions to Adrian I., until the death of the latter in 795. The position of Rome and of the pope is now substantially changed. Duke, prefect, militia and the people exist as heretofore, but are all subordinate to the head of Tfle the church, who, by the donations of Pippin and papacy, Charlemagne, has been converted into a powerful 'public temporal sovereign. Henceforth all connexion with and the Byzantium is broken off, but Rome is still the mainspring of the empire, the Roman duchy its sole sur- viving fragment in Italy, and the pope stands before the world as representative of both. And, although it is difficult to determine how this came about, the pope is now regarded and regards himself as master of Rome. In the year 772 he entrusts the vestiarius with judicial powers over the laity, ecclesiastics, freemen and slaves noslrae Romanae reipublicae. He writes to Charlemagne that he has issued orders for the burning of the Greek ships employed in the slave trade, " in our city of Civita Vecchia " (Centumcellae), and he always speaks of Rome and the Romans as " our city," " our republic," " our people." The donations of Pippin and Charlemagne are restitutions made to St Peter, the holy church and the re- public at the same time. It is true that Charlemagne held the supreme power, had an immensely increased authority and actively fulfilled his duties as patricius. But his power was only occasionally exercised in Rome; it was the result of ser- vices rendered to the church, and of the church's continual need of his help; it was, as it were, the power of a mighty and indispensable ally. The pope, however, was most tenacious of his own authority in Rome, made vigorous protest whenever rebels fled to Charlemagne or appealed to that monarch's arbitration, and contested the supremacy of the imperial officials in Rome. Yet the pope was no absolute sovereign, nor, in the modern sense of the term, did any then exist. He asserted supremacy over many lands which continually rebelled against him, and which, for want of an army of his own, he was unable to reduce to obedience without others' help. Neither did the republic acknowledge him as its head. It profited by MIDDLE AGES] ROME 665 the growing power of the pope, could not exist without him, respected his moral authority, but considered that he usurped undue power in Rome. This was specially the feeling of the nobles, who had hitherto held the chief authority in the republic, and, being still the leaders of the army, were by no means willing to relinquish it. The Roman nobles were very different from other aristocratic bodies elsewhere. They were not as they pretended, descendants of the Camilli and the Scipios, but neither were they a feudal aristocracy, inasmuch as the Teutonic element had as yet made small way among them. They were a mixture of different elements, national and foreign, formed by the special conditions of Rome. Their power was chiefly derived from the high offices and large grants of money and land conferred on them by the popes; but, as no dynasty existed, they could not be dynastic. Every pope aggrandized his own kindred and friends, and these were the natural and often open adversaries of the next pontiff and his favourites. Thus the Roman nobility was powerful, divided, restless and turbulent; it was continually plotting against the pope, threatening not only his power, but even his life; it continually appealed to the people for assistance, stirred the militia to revolt and rendered government an impossibility. Hence, notwithstanding his immense moral authority, the pope was the effective head neither of the aristocracy, the army nor of the as yet unorganized lower classes. The lord of vast but often insubordinate territories, the recognized master of a capital city torn by internecine feud and plots against himself, he needed the support of an effective force for his own preserva- tion and the maintenance of the authority proffered him from all quarters. Hence the necessity of creating an empire of the West, after having snapped every link with that of the East. Thus the history of Rome is still, as in the past, a history of continual strife between pope, emperor and republic; and the city, while imbibing strength from all three, keeps them in perpetual tumult and confusion. Leo III. (796-816) further strengthened the ties between Charlemagne and the church by sending the former a letter with the keys of the shrine of St Peter and the banner of Rome. Charlemagne had already joined to his office of patrician the function of high justice. The new symbols now sent constituted him miles of Rome and general of the church. The pope urged him to despatch an envoy to receive the oath of fealty, thus placing himself, the representative of the republic, in the subordinate position of one of the bishops who had received the immunities of counts. And all these arrangements took place without the slightest reference to the senate, the army or the people. Much resentment was felt, especially by the nobles, and a revolution ensued headed by the primicerius Paschalis and the secundicerius Campulus, and backed by all who wished to liberate the city from the papal rule. During a solemn procession the pope was attacked and barbarously maltreated by his assailants, who tried to tear out his eyes and tongue (799). He was thrown into prison, escaped and overtook Charlemagne at Paderborn, and returned guarded by ten of the monarch's envoys, who con- demned to death the leaders of the revolt, reserving, however, to their sovereign the right of final judgment. Charlemagne arrived in December 800, and as high justice assembled a tribunal of the clergy, nobles, citizens and Franks; he pro- nounced Leo to be innocent, and confirmed the capital sentence passed on the rebels. But through the intercession of the pope, who dreaded the wrath of the nobles, this was presently Charts- commuted into perpetual exile. And finally on magae Christmas day, in St Peter's, before an assemblage of Roman and Prankish lords, the clergy and the people, the pontiff placed the imperial crown on Charlemagne's head and all proclaimed him emperor. Thus the new emperor was elected by the Romans and consecrated by the pope. But he was their real master and supreme judge. The pope existed only by his will, since he alone supplied the means for the maintenance of the temporal power, and already pretended to the right of controlling the papal elections. Yet Charlemagne was not sovereign of Rome; he possessed scarcely any regalia there, and was not in command of the army; he mainly represented a principle, but this principle was the law which is the basis of the state. The pope still nominated the Roman judges, but the emperor or his missi presided over them, together with those of the pope, and his decision was appealed to in last resort. During the Carolingian times no mention is found of the prefect, and it would seem that his office was filled by the imperial missus, or legate, the judices de clero and judices de militia. The power of the pope was now entangled with that of the republic on the one hand and that of the empire on the other. The con- sequent confusion of sacred and secular functions naturally led to infinite complications and disputes. The death of Charlemagne in 814 was the signal for a fresh conspiracy of the nobles against the pope, who, discovering their design, instantly put the ringleaders to death, and was severely blamed by Louis for this violation of the imperial prerogative. While the matter was under discussion the nobles broke out in fiercer tumults, both in Rome and the Campagna. At last, in 824, the emperor Lothair came to re- establish order in Rome, and proclaimed a new and note- worthy constitution, to which Pope Eugenius II. (824-27) gave his oath of adherence. By this the partnership of pope and emperor in the temporal rule of Rome and the states of the church was again confirmed. The more direct power appertained to the pope; the supreme authority, presidence of the tribunals, and final judgment on appeal to the emperor. The new constitution also established the right of contending parties to select either the Roman or the Teutonic code for the settlement of their disputes.- During the Carolingian period it is not surprising that the commune should have been, as it were, absorbed by the church and the empire. In fact, it is scarcely mentioned in history throughout that time. And when, no longer sustained by the genius of its Decline founder, the Prankish empire began to show signs of the of dissolution, the popes, finding their power thereby «"/>''•*• strengthened, began to assume many of the imperial attri- butes. Soon, however, as a natural consequence of the loss of the main support of the papacy, the nobles regained vigour and were once more masters of the city. Teutonic and feudal elements had now largely penetrated into their organiza- tion. The system of granting lands, and even churches and convents, as benefices according to feudal forms, became more and more general. It was vain for the popes to offer opposition, and they ended by yielding to the current. The faU of the Prankish empire left all Italy a prey to anarchy, and torn by the faction fights of Berengar of Friuli and Guido of Spoleto, the rival claimants to the crowns of Italy and the empire. The Saracens were advancing from the south, the Huns from the north; the popes had lost all power; and in the midst of this frightful chaos a way was opened for the rise of the republics. Anarchy was at its climax in Rome, but the laity began to overpower the clergy to such an extent that the judices de militia prevailed over the indices de clero. For a long time no imperial missi or legates had been seen, and the papacy was incredibly lowered. The election of the popes had positively fallen into the hands of certain beautiful women notorious for their evil life and depravity. The aristocracy alone gained strength; now freed from "**"£** the domination of the emperor, it continually wrested >/ the fresh privileges from the impotent pontiffs, and JJ^f.05" became organized as the ruling force of the republic. Gregorovius, notwithstanding his denial of the continuation of the senate after the 6th century, is obliged to acknowledge that it appeared to have returned to life in the power of this new baronage. And, although this body was now permeated with the feudal principle, it did not discard its ancient traditions. The nobles claimed to be the main source of the empire; they wished to regain the dignity and office of palricius, and to make it, if possible, hereditary in some of their families. Nothing is known of their system of organization, but it seems 666 ROME [MIDDLE AGES that they elected a chief bearing the title of consul, senator, princeps Romanorum, who was officially recognized by the pope, as a patricius presided over the tribunals, and was the head of the commune. Theophylact was one of the first to assume this dignity. His wife Theodora, known as the senatrix, was one of the women then dominating Rome by force of their charms and licentious- ness. She was supposed to be the concubine of Pope John X. (914-28), whose election was due to her influence. Her daughter Marozia, in all things her worthy rival, was married to Alberic, a foreign mercenary of uncertain birth who rose to a position of great influence, and, although an alien, played a leading part in the affairs of the city. He helped to increase the power of Theophylact, who seemingly shared the rule of the city with the pope. In the bloody war that had to be waged against the Saracens of southern Italy, and at the defeat of the latter on the Garigliano (916), Theophylact and Alberic were the Roman leaders, and distinguished themselves by their valour. They disappeared from the scene after this victory, but Marozia retained her power, and bore a son, Alberic, who was destined to greater deeds. The pope found himself caught in this woman's toils, and struggled to escape, but Marozia, gaining fresh influence by her marriage with Hugo, margrave of Tuscany, imprisoned the pontiff himself in the castle of St Angelo (928). This fortress was the property of Marozia and the basis of her strength. The unfortunate John died within its walls. Raised to the chair by Theodora, he was deposed and killed by her daughter. The authority of the latter reached its Culminating point in 931, when she succeeded in placing her son John XI. on the papal throne. On the death of her second husband she espoused Hugh of Provence, the same who in 928 had seized the iron crown at Pavia, and now aspired to the empire. Dissolute, ambitious and despotic, he came to Rome in 932, and, leaving his army outside the walls, entered the castle of St Angelo with his knights, instantly began to play the tyrant, and gave a blow to Alberic his stepson, who detested jhe him as a foreign intruder. This blow proved the revolt cause of a memorable revolution; for Alberic rushed of the from the castle and harangued the people, crying that A/fcer/"*" tne t*me was come to shake off the tyrannous yoke of at the a woman and of barbarians who were once the slaves head of Rome. Then, putting himself at the head of the populace, he closed the city gates to prevent Hugh's troops from coming to the rescue, and attacked the castle. The king fled; Marozia was imprisoned, Alberic pro- claimed lord of the Romans, and the pope confined to the Lateran in the custody of his own brother. Rome was again an independent state, a republic of nobles. Rid of the temporal dominion of emperor and pope, and having expelled the foreigners with great energy and courage, it chose Alberic for its chief with the title of princeps atque omnium Romanorum senator. The tendency of the Roman Republic to elect a supreme author- ity, first manifested in the case of Theophylact, was repeated in those of Alberic, Brancaleone, Crescenzio, Cola di Rienzo and others. One of the many causes of this tendency may be traced to the conception of the new empire of which Rome was the original and enduring fountainhead. As Rome had once transferred the empire from Byzantium to the Franks, so Rome was surely entitled to reclaim it. The imperial authority was represented by the office of patrician, now virtually assumed by Alberic. That he gave the name of Octavian to his son is an additional proof of this fact. In the Eternal City the medieval political idea has always the aspect of a resurrection or trans- formation of classic antiquity. This is another characteristic of the history of the Roman commune. Alberic's strength was due to his connexion with the nobility, to his father's valiant service against the Saracens at the battle of Garigliano, and to the militia under his command, on which everything depended amid the internal and external dangers now threatening the new state. As yet no genuine municipal constitution was possible in Rome, where neither the people nor the wealthy burghers engaged in industry and commerce had any fixed organization. All was in the hands of the nobles, and Alberic. as their chief, frequently convened them in council, although obliged to use pressure to keep them united and avoid falling a prey to their disputes. Hence the whole power was concentrated in his grasp; he was at the head of the tribunals as well as of the army. The judices de clero and judices de militia still existed, but no longer met in the Lateran or the Vatican, under the presidency of emperor and pope or their missi. Alberic himself was their president; and, a still more significant fact, their sittings were often held in his private dwelling. There is no longer any mention of prefect or patricius. The papal coinage was inscribed with Alberic's name instead of the emperor's. His chief attention was given to the militia, which was still arranged in scholae, and it is highly probable that he was the author of the new division of the city into twelve regions, with a corresponding classification of the army in as many regiments under twelve flags and twelve banderesi, one for every region. The organization of the scholae could not have been very dissimilar, but doubtless Alberic had some important motive for altering the old method of classification. By means of the armed regions he included the people in the forces. It is certain that after his time we find the army much changed and far more democratic. It was only natural that so excellent a statesman should seek the aid of the popular element as a defence against the arrogance of the nobles, and it was requisite to reinforce the army in order to be prepared for the attacks threatened from abroad. This change effected, Alberic felt prepared for the worst, and began to rule with energy, moderation and justice. His contemporaries award him high praise, and he seems to have been exempt from the vices of his mother and grandmother. In 933 Hugh made his first attack upon the city, and was repulsed. A second attempt in 936 proved still more unfortu- nate, for his army was decimated by a pestilence. Thoroughly disheartened, he not only made peace, but gave his daughter in marriage to Alberic, thus satisfying the latter's desire to ally himself with a royal house. But this union led to no conciliation with Hugh. For Alberic, finding his power increased, marched at the head of his troops to consolidate his rule in the Cam- pagna and the Sabine land. On the death of his brother, Pope John XL, in 936, he controlled the election of several successive popes, quelled a conspiracy formed against him by the clergy and certain nobles instigated by Hugh, and brilliantly repulsed, in 941, another attack by that potentate. At last, however, this inveterate foe withdrew from Rome, being summoned to the north by the victories of his rival Berengarius. But Alberic, after procuring the election of various popes who were docile instruments of his will, experienced a check when Agapetus II. (946-55), a man of firmness and resource, was raised to the papal throne. The fortunes of Berengarius were now in the ascendant. In 950 he had seized the iron crown, and ruled in the Pentapolis and the exarchate. This being singularly painful to the pope, he proceeded to make alliance with all those enemies of Berengarius preferring a distant emperor to a neighbouring and effective sovereign, with the Roman nobles who were discontented with Alberic, and with all who foresaw danger, even to Rome, from the extended power of Berengarius. And Agapetus recurred to the old papal policy, by making appeal to Otto I., whose rule in Germany was distinguished by a prestige almost comparable with that of Charlemagne. Otto immediately responded to the appeal and descended into Italy; but his envoys were indignantly repulsed by Alberic, and, being prudent as well as firm, he decided to wait a more opportune moment for the accomplishment of his designs. Meanwhile Alberic died in 954, and the curtain fell on the first great drama of the Roman Republic. He had reigned for twenty-two years with justice, energy and prudence; he had repelled foreign invaders, maintained order and authority. He seems, however, to have realized that the aspect of affairs was about to change, that the work he had accomplished would be exposed to new dangers. These dangers, in fact, had already begun with the accession of an enterprising pope to the Holy MIDDLE AGES] ROME 667 See. The name of Octavian given by Alberic to his son leads to the inference that he meant to make his power hereditary. But, suddenly, he began to educate this son for the priesthood, and, assembling the nobles in St Peter's shortly before his death, he made them swear to elect Octavian as pope on the decease of Agapetus II. They kept their word, for in this way they freed themselves from a ruler. Possibly Alberic trusted that both offices might be united, and that his son would be head of the state as well as the church. But the nobles knew this to be a delusion, especially in the case of a nature such as Octavian's. The lad was sixteen years old when his father died, received princely honours until the death of Agapetus, and was then elected pope with the name of John XII. He had inherited the ungoverned passions of his grandmother Marozia and great-grandmother Theodora, but without their intelligence and cunning. His palace was the scene of the most scandalous licence, while his public acts were those of a baby tyrant. He conferred a bishopric on a child of ten, consecrated a deacon in a stable, invoked Venus and Jupiter in his games, and drank to the devil's health. He desired to be both pope and prince, but utterly failed to be either. Before long, realizing the impossibility of holding in check Berengarius, who still ruled over the exarchate, he sought in 960 the aid of Otto I., and promised him the imperial crown. Thus the new ruler was summoned by the son of the man by whom he had otto I. been repulsed. Otto vowed to defend the church, to crowned restore her territories, to refrain from usurping the emperor. pOwer of the pope or the republic, and was crowned on the 2nd of February 962 with unheard-of pomp and display. Accordingly, after being extinct for thirty-seven years, the empire was revived under different but no less difficult con- ditions. The politico-religious unity founded by Charlemagne had been dissolved, partly on account of the heterogeneous elements of which it was composed, and partly because other nations were in course of formation. Now too the feudal system was converting the officers of the empire into inde- pendent princes, and the new spirit of communal liberty was giving freedom to the cities. Otto once more united the empire and the church, Italy and Germany, in order to combat these new foes. But the difficulties of the enterprise at once came to light. John XII., finding a master in the protector he had invoked, now joined the discontented nobles who were conspiring with Berengarius against the emperor. But the latter hastened to Rome in November 963, assembled the clergy, nobles and heads of the people, and made them take an oath never again to elect a pope without his consent and that of his son. He also convoked a synod presided over by himself in St Peter's, which judged, condemned and deposed Pope John and elected Leo VIII. (863-65), a Roman noble, in his stead. All this was done at the direct bidding of the emperor, who thus deprived the Romans of their most valued privilege, the right of choosing Risia tne'r own P°Pe- ^ut tne Pe°ple nad now risen to import- considerable importance, and, for the first time, we ance find it officially represented in the synod by the ofthe plebeian Pietro, surnamed Imperiola, together with peope. ^ |ea(jers Of tne militia, which had also become a popular institution since Alberic's reign. It was no longer easy to keep the lower orders in subjection, and by their junction with the malcontent nobles they formed a very respectable force. On the 3rd of January 964 they sounded the battle- peal and attacked the Vatican, where the emperor was lodged. The German knights repulsed them with much slaughter, and this bloodshed proved the beginning of an endless feud. Otto departed in February, and John XII., as the chosen pope of the Romans, returned with an army of followers and com- pelled the defenceless Leo VIII. to seek safety in flight. Soon afterwards Leo was deposed and excommunicated by a new synod, and many of his adherents were cruelly murdered. But on the I4th of May 964 John suddenly expired; the Romans, amid violent struggles and tumults, resumed their rights, elected Benedict V., and procured his consecration in spite of the emperor's veto. Otto now appeared at the head of an army, committed fresh slaughter, besieged the city, re- duced it by famine, and, after holding a council which deposed Benedict and sent him a prisoner to Hamburg, restored Leo VIII. to the papal throne. But, although the emperor thus disposed of the papacy at his will, his arbitrary exercise of power roused a long and obstinate resistance, which had no slight effect upon Another the history of the commune. Leo VIII. died in 965, revotu- and the imperial party elected John XIII. (965-72). tloa- Upon this the nobles of the national party joined the people and there was a general revolt. The nobles were led by Pietro, prefect of Rome. As we have noted, this office seemed to be extinct during the Carolinian rule, but we again meet with it in 955, after an interval of a century and a half. The leaders of the people were twelve decarconi, a term of unknown derivation, but probably indicating chiefs of the twelve regions (dodecarchi, dodecarconi, decarconi). The new pope was seized and confined, first in the castle of St Angelo, then in a fortress in the Campagna. But the emperor quickly marched an army against Rome, and this sufficed to produce a reaction which recalled the pope (November 966), sent the prefect into exile, and put several of the rebellious nobles to death. And shortly after the emperor sacked the city. Many Romans were exiled, some tortured, others, including the twelve decarconi, killed. John XIII. died in 972 and Otto in 973. All these events clearly prove how great a change had now taken place in the conditions of Rome. The people (plebs) had made its appearance upon the stage; the army had become democratic; the twelve regions were regularly organized under leaders. Opposed to them stood the nobles, headed by the prefect, also a noble, precisely as in Florence the nobles and the podesta were later opposed to the gilds and the people. So far, it is true, nobles and people had made common cause in Rome; but this harmony was soon to be interrupted. The feudal spirit had made its way among the Roman aristocrats, had split them into two parties and diminished their strength. It was now destined to spread, and, as it was always vigorously detested and opposed by the people elsewhere in Italy, so the same consequence was inevitable in Rome. Another notable change, and a subject of unending controversy, had aLo occurred in the administration of justice. So far there were the judices de clero, also known as ordinary or palatine judges, and the judices de militia, also r-tyled consules or duces. These judges generally formed a court of seven, three being de clero, four de militia, or vice versa, under the presidency of the papal or imperial missi. In criminal cases the judices de militia had the prefect or the imperial missus for their president. But there was a third order of judges called pedanei, a consulibus creati. It seems clear that the duces, being distributi per judicatus, found them- selves isolated in the provinces, and to obtain assistance nomin- ated these pedanei, who were legal experts. In Rome, with its courts of law, they were less needed, but possibly in those sections of the city where cases of minor importance were submitted to a single magistrate reference was made to the pedanei. But many changes were made under the Franks, and when the edict of Lothair (824) granted free choice of either the Roman or Germanic law, and the duces were replaced by comites and gaslaldiones, chiefly of German origin, the use of legal experts became increasingly necessary. And the custom of employing them was the more easily diffused by being already common among the Franks, whose scabini were legal experts acting as judges, though not qualified to pass sentence. Thus the pedanei multiplied, came to resemble the scabini, and were designated judices dativi (a magistralu dati) or simply dativi. These were to be found in the exarchate in 838, but not in Rome until 961, when the judices de militia had ceased to exist. The great progress of the German legal procedure may then have contributed to the formation of the new office. Meanwhile Pope John XIII. had been succeeded by Bene- dict VI. (973-74) and Otto I. by his son Otto II., a youth 668 ROME [MIDDLE AGES of eighteen married to the Byzantine princess Theophano. Thereupon the Romans, who had supported the election of another pope, and were in no awe of the new emperor, rose to arms under the command of Crescenzio, a rich and power- ful noble. They not only seized Benedict VI. by force, but strangled him in the castle of St Angelo. The national and imperial parties then elected several popes who were either exiled or persecuted, and one of them was said to be murdered. In 985 John XV. was elected (985-96). During this turmoil, alovaaal the national party, composed of nobles and people, cnt- led by Giovanni Crescenzio, son of the other Crescenzio tcazio. mentioned above, had taken complete possession of the government. This Crescenzio assumed the title of patrician, and sought to imitate Alberic, although far his inferior in capacity. Fortunately for him, the reigning pope was a detested tyrant, and the emperor a child entirely guided by his mother. But the new emperor Otto III. was backed by a powerful party, and on coming to Rome in 996 was able, although only aged fifteen, to quell the rebellion, oust Crescenzio from public life, and elect as successor to John XV. his own cousin, Pope Gregory V. (996-99). But this first German pope surrounded himself with compatriots, and by raising them to lofty posts even in the tribunals excited a revolt that drove him from the throne (29th September 999). Crescenzio, being master of the castle of St Angelo, resumed the title of patrician or consul of the Romans, expelled the German judges, recon- stituted the government, prepared his troops for defence, and created a new pope. But the following year Otto III. came to Rome, and his party opened the gates to him. Although deserted by nearly all his adherents, Crescenzio held the castle valiantly against its besiegers. At last, on the 2gth of April 998, he was forced to make terms, and the imperialists, violating their pledges, first put him to torture and then hurled him from the battlements. Gregory V. dying shortly after these events, Sylvester II., another native of southern France, who had been tutor to the emperor Otto III., was raised to the papacy (999-1003). Thus Otto III. was enabled to establish his mastery of Rome. But, as the son of a Greek mother, trained amid Greek influ- 0^ m ences, his fantastic and contradictory nature seemed only to grasp the void. He wished to reconstitute a Romano-Byzantine empire with Rome for his capital. His discourse always turned on the ancient republic, on consuls and senate, on the might and grandeur of the Roman people; and his edicts were addressed to the senate and the people. The senate is now constantly mentioned, and its heads bear the title of consuls. The emperor also gave renewed honour to the title of patrician, surrounded himself with officials bearing Greek and Roman designations, and raised the prestige of the prefect, who, having now almost the functions of an imperial vicar, bore the eagle and the sword as his insignia. Neverthe- less Otto III. was thoroughly German, and during his reign all Germanic institutions made progress in Rome. This was particularly the case with feudalism, and Sylvester II. was the first pope to treat it with favour. Many families of real feudal barons now arose. The Crescenzii held sway in the Sabine hills, and Praeneste and Tusculum were great centres of feudalism in the nth century. The system of feudal bene- fices was recognized by the church, which made grants of lands, cities and provinces in the feudal manner. The bishops, like feudal barons, became actual counts. And, in consequence of these changes, when the emperor, as head of the feudal system, seeks to impose his will upon the church (which has also become feudal) and control the papal elections, he is met by the great question of the investitures, a question destined to disturb the whole world. Meanwhile the Roman barons were growing more and more powerful, and were neither submissive nor faithful to the emperor. On the contrary, they resented his attitude as a master of Rome, and, when he subjected Tivoli to the Holy See, attacked both him and the pope with so much vigour as to put both to flight (i6th February 1001). There- upon Rome again became a republic, headed by Gregory of Tusculum, a man of a powerful family claiming descent from Alberic. By the emperor's death in January 1002 the race of the Ottos became extinct, the papacy began to decline, as at the end of the Carolingian period, and the nobles, divided into an imperial and a national party, were again predominant. They reserved to themselves the office of patrician, and, electing popes from their own ranks, obtained enlarged privileges and power. At the time when Ardoin, marquis of Ivrea, profiting by the extinction of the Ottos and the anarchy of Germany, was stirring Italy in the vain hope of constituting a national kingdom, the Roman Republic was being consolidated The under another Giovanni Crescenzio, of the national tecoad faction. He was now elected patrician; one of alovaaal his kinsmen was invested with the office of prefect, ' and the new pope John XVIII. (1003-9) was one of his creatures. Although the power of Henry of Bavaria was then gaining ascendancy in Germany, and giving strength to the imperialist nobles, Crescenzio still remained supreme ruler of the city and the Campagna. Surrounded by his judges, the senators and his kinsman the prefect, he continued to dispense justice in his own palace until his death in 1012, after ten years' rule. And, Pope Sergius IV. having died the same year, the counts of Tusculum compassed the election of Benedict VIII. (1012-24), one of their own kin. This pope expelled the Crescenzii, changed the prefect and reserved the title of patrician for Henry II., whom he con- secrated emperor on the i4th February 1014. A second Alberic, bearing the title of " eminentissimus consul et dux," was now at the head of the republic and dispensed placila in the palace of his great ancestor, from whom the counts of Tusculum were also descended. The new emperor endeavoured to re-establish order in Rome, and strengthen his own authority together with that of the pope. But the nobles had in all things the upper hand. They were regularly organized under leaders, held meetings, asserted their right to nominate both pope and emperor, and in fact often succeeded in so doing. Even Henry II. himself was obliged to secure their votes before his coronation. The terms senate and senator now recur still more frequently in history. Nevertheless, Benedict VIII. succeeded in placing his own brother, Romano, at the head of the republic with the title of " consul, dux and senator," thus making him leader of the nobles, who met at his bidding, and chief of the militia and the tribunals. The prefect still retained his authority, and the emperor was by right supreme judge. But, a violent revolt breaking out, the emperor only stayed to suppress it and then went to Germany in disgust. The pope, aided by his brother, conducted the government with energy; he awed the party of Crescenzio, and waged war against the Saracens in the south. But he died in 1024, and in the same year Henry II. was succeeded by Conrad II. There was now beheld a repetition of the same strange event that had followed the death of Alberic, and with no less fatal consequences. Benedict's brother Romano, head of the republic, and still retaining office, was, although a layman, elected pope. He took the name of John XIX. (1024-33), and in 1027 conferred the imperial crown on Conrad the Salic, who, abolishing the Lothairian edict of 824, decreed that throughout Rome and its territory justice should be henceforth administered solely by the Justinian code. Thus, notwith- standing the spread of feudalism and Germanic procedure, the Roman law triumphed through the irresistible force of the national character, which was already manifested in many other ways. Meanwhile John XIX. was succeeded by his nephew, Benedict IX. (1033-45^, a lad of twelve, who placed his own brother at the head of the republic. Thus church and state assumed the aspect of hereditary possessions in the powerful house of the counts of Tusculum. But the vices and excesses of Benedict were so monstrous that the papacy sank to the lowest depth of corruption; there followed a series of tumults MIDDLE AGES] ROME 669 and reactionary attempts, and so many conflicting elections that in 1045 three popes were struggling for the tiara in the midst of scandal and anarchy. The streets and neighbourhood of Rome swarmed with thieves and assassins; pilgrims were plundered; citizens trembled for their lives; and a hundred petty barons threatened the rival popes, who were obliged to defend themselves by force. This state of things lasted until Henry III. came to re-establish order. He appointed a synod to depose the three popes, and then, with the consent of the wearied and anarchy-stricken Romans, assuming the right of election, proposed a German, Clement II., who was con- secrated at Christmas 1046. Henry III. was then crowned, and also took the title of patrician. Thus the emperor was lord over church and state. This, however, stirred both people and pope against him, and led to the terrible contest of the investitures, although for the moment the Romans, being exhausted by past calamities, seemed not only resigned but contented. In fact, the idea of reform and independence was already germinating in the church and was soon to become tenacious Hiidc- and irresistible. Hildebrand was the prompter and bnnd nero o{ this idea. He sought to abolish the simony question an(^ concubinage of the priesthood, to give the papal of in vet- elections into the hands of the higher ecclesiastics, titure. and to emancipate the church from all dependence on the empire. Henry III. procured the election of four German popes in succession, and Hildebrand was always at hand to inspire their actions and dominate them by his strength of intellect and still greater strength of will. But the fourth German pope, Victor II., died in 1057, and Henry III. had been succeeded in 1056 by the young Henry IV. under the regency of a weak woman, the empress Agnes. Hildebrand seized this favourable moment for trying his strength and procured the election of Stephen IX. (1057-58), a candidate he had long had in view. Stephen, however, died in 1058; the nobles instantly rose in rebellion; and Gregory of Tusculum, who had assumed the patriciate, caused an incapable cousin to be named pope (Benedict X.). Upon this Hildebrand postponed his design of maintaining the papacy by the help of Italian potentates and had recourse to the empress. In a synod held at Siena with her consent Benedict was deposed and Nicholas II. (1050-61) elected in his stead. This pope entered Rome escorted by the troops of Godfrey of Tuscany, and, when also assured of help from Naples, assembled a council of one hundred and thirteen bishops (1059), who con- demned the deposed pontiff and renewed the prohibition of simony and concubinage among the priesthood. Finally Nicholas instituted the college of cardinals, entrusting it with the election of the pope, who was in future to be chosen from its ranks. The assent of the clergy and people was left purely formal. The decree also contained the proviso — " saving the honour and reverence due to the emperor "; but this too was an empty expression. The new decree was a master-stroke of Hildebrand's genius, for by means of it he placed the papal election in the hands of a genuine ecclesiastical senate and gave a monarchical form to the church. Backed by the Normans who were in Rome, and whose commander, Richard of Capua, did not scruple to strike off the heads of many recalcitrant nobles, Hildebrand and the pope could now pursue their work of reform. Never- theless the nobles again revolted on the death of Nicholas II. in 1061, and declared their purpose of restoring to Henry IV. the patriciate and right of election; but Hildebrand, by speedily convoking the cardinals, procured the election of Alexander II. (1061-73). This pope, although friendly to the empire, did not await the imperial sanction, but, protected by the Romans, at once entered the Lateran and put some other riotous nobles to death. The German bishops, however, elected Honorius II., who had the support of the barons. Thus the city was split into two camps and a deadly civil war ensued, terminating, despite the vigorous resistance of the nobility, in the defeat of Honorius II. But the nobles persevered in the contest and were the real masters of Rome. By conferring the patriciate on the emperor, as their feudal chief, they hoped to organize themselves under the prefect, who now, with greatly increased authority, presided over both thi- civil and criminal courts in the absence of the pope's representative. In a general assembly the Romans elected their prefect, whose investiture was granted by the emperor, while the pope elected another. Thus disorder was brought to a climax. Alexander died on the aist April 1073, and thereupon Hilde- brand was at last raised to the chair as pope Gregory VII. (1073-85). He reconfirmed his predecessors' decrees, dismissed all simoniacal and non-celibate priests, and then in a second council (1075) forbade the clergy to receive investiture at the hands of laymen. No bishop nor abbot was again to accept ring or crozier from king or emperor. Now, as ecclesiastical dignities included the possession of extensive benefices, privileges and feudal rights, this decree gave rise to tremendous dispute and to fierce contest between the empire and the church. The nobles took a very decided part in the struggle. With Cenci, their former prefect, at their head, they rose in revolt, assailed the pope on Christmas day 1075, and threw him into prison. But their fear of the popular wrath compelled his speedy release; and he then decreed the excommunication and deposition of the emperor who had declared him deposed. That monarch afterwards made submission to Gregory at Canossa (1077), but, again turning against him, was again excommunicated. And in 1081 he returned to Italy bringing the antipope .Clement III., and besieged Rome for forty days. Assembling the nobles in his camp, he there arranged a new government of the city with prefect and senate, palatine judges and other magistrates, exactly similar to the existing government within the walls. He then took his departure, returned several times in vain, but at last forced his way into the city (March 1084) and compelled Gregory VII. to seek refuge in the castle of St Angelo. The emperor was then master of Rome, established the government he had previously arranged and, calling a parliament of nobles and bishops, procured the deposition of Gregory and the consecration of Clement III., by whom he was crowned in 1084. He then attacked and seized the Capitol, and assaulted the castle in order to capture the pope. But Robert Guiscard brought his army to the rescue. Emperor and antipope fled; the city was taken, the pope liberated 'and Rome reduced to ruin by fire and pillage. Upon this Gregory VII., broken with grief, went away with the Normans, and died at Salerno on the 25th May 1085. He had separated the church from the people and the empire by a struggle that, as Gregorovius says, disturbed the deep sleep of the middle ages. Pope Paschal II. (1099-1118) found himself entirely at the mercy of the tyrannous nobles who were alike masters of Rome, of its government, and its spiritual lord. As they paschal were divided among themselves, all the pope could «• •"«' the do was to side with one party in order to overcome "oble*- the other. With the help of his own nephew Gualfredo, the prefect Pietro Pierleone, and the Frangipani, he was able to keep down the Corsi, and hold the Colonna in check. Being compelled to repair to Benevento in 1108, he left Gualfredo to command the militia, Tolomeo of Tusculum to guard the Campagna, and the consuls Pierleone and Leone Frangipani, together with the prefect, in charge of the government. The consulship was no longer a mere title of honour. The consuls seem to have been elected, as at Ravenna, in imitation of those of the Lombard cities, and were at the head of the nobles and senate. The expressions " praefectus et consules," " de sena- toribus et consulibus," are now of frequent occurrence. We have no precise knowledge of the political organization of the city at this moment; but it was an aristocratic government, similar to that originally formed in Florence, as Villani tells us, with a senate and consuls. The nobles were so completely the masters that the pope, in spite of having trusted them 670 ROME [MIDDLE AGES of the people. with the government, could only return to Rome with the aid of the Normans. Being now absorbed in the great investiture question, he had recourse to a daring plan. He proposed to Henry V. that the bishops should resign all property derived from the crown and depend solely on tithes and donations, while the empire should resign the right of investiture. Henry seemed disposed to accept the suggestion, but, suddenly chang- ing his mind, took the pope prisoner and forced him to yield the right of investiture and to give him the crown (mi). But the following year the party of reform annulled in council this concession, which the pope declared to have been extorted by force. By the death of Countess Matilda in 1115 and the bequest of her vast possessions to the Holy See, the pope's dominions were greatly enlarged, but his authority as a ruler was nowise increased. Deeds of violence still continued in Rome; and then followed the death of the prefect Pietro. The nobles of the imperial party, joined with the people, wished to elect Pietro's son, also nephew to Tolomeo of Tusculum, who then held the position of a potent imperial margrave, had territories stretching from the Sabine mountains to the sea, was the dictator of Tusculum, master of Latium and consul of the Romans. The pope opposed this election to the best of his strength; but the nobles carried the day, and their new prefect received investiture from the emperor. Upon this the pope again quitted Rome, and on his return, two years later, was compelled to shut himself up in the castle of St Angelo, where he died in 1118. The popes were now the sport of the nobles whom they had aggrandized by continual concessions for the sake of peace. flew And peace seemed at hand when Innocent II. (1130-43), power after triumphing over two antipopes, came to terms with Roger I., recognized him as king of Sicily, and gained his friendship and protection. But now still graver tumults took place. In consequence of the division of the nobles neither party could overcome its foes without the aid of the people, which thus became increasingly powerful. Throughout upper and central Italy the cities were being organized as free and independent communes on a democratic basis. Their example soon followed in the ancient duchy of Rome and almost in the immediate neighbourhood of the city. Even Tivoli was converted into a republic. This excited the deepest jealousy in the Romans, and they became furious when this little city, profiting by its strong position in the Tever- one valley, not only sought to annex Roman territory, but dared to offer successful resistance to the descendants of the conquerors of the world. In 1141 Tivoli openly rebelled against the mother city, and the pope sent the Romans to subdue it. They were not only repulsed, but ignominiously pursued to their own gates. Afterwards, returning to the assault in greater numbers, they conquered the hostile town. Its defenders surrendered to the pope, and he immediately concluded a treaty of peace without consulting either the people or the republic. The soldiery, still flushed with victory, were furious at this slight. They demanded not only sub- mission of Tivoli to the Roman people, but also permission to demolish its walls and dwellings and expel its population. Innocent II. refused consent to these excesses, and a memorable revolution ensued by which the temporal power of the papacy was entirely overthrown. In 1143 the rebellious people rushed to the Capitol, pro- claimed the republic, reconstituted the senate, to the almost Popular entire exclusion of the nobles, declared the abolition revolu- of the temporal power, issued coin inscribed to the wc"on- senate, the people and St Peter, and began to reckon structloa iime from the day of the restoration of liberty. Arnold of senate of Brescia was not, as has been incorrectly stated, the and author of this revolution, for he had not yet arrived in republic. Rome jt was tj,e outcome of an historic necessity — above all, of the renewed vigour of the people and its detesta- tion of the feudal aristocracy. This body, besides being divided into an imperial and a national party, had almost excluded from the government the powerful baronage of the Campagna and the provinces. Also, as we have before noted, the Roman aristocracy was by no means an exclusive caste. Between the great aristocrats and the people there stood a middle or new nobility, which made common cause with the people, whose chief strength now lay in the army. This, divided into twelve and then into thirteen or fourteen regions, assembled under its banners all arm-bearing citizens. Thus the exercitus was also the real populus Romanus, now bent on the destruction of the temporal power. This purpose, originating in the struggle of the investitures, was the logical and inevitable result of the proposals of Paschal II., which, despite their rejection, found a Joud echo in Italy. Lucius II. (1144-45) iried to withstand the revolution by seeking Norman aid and throwing himself into the arms of the feudal party, but this only precipitated the course of events. The people, after having excluded nearly all aristocrats from the senate, now placed at its head the noble Giordano dei Pierleoni, who had joined the revolutionary party. They named him patrician, but without prejudice to the authority of the empire, still held by them in respect, and also conferred on him the judicial powers appertaining to the aristo- cratic and imperial office of prefect. The pope was requested to resign the temporal power, the regalia and every other possession, and content himself with the tithes and offerings of the faithful according to the scheme of Paschal II. He indig- nantly refused, marched at the head of the nobles against the Capitol, but was violently repulsed, and received a blow on the head from a stone, which is supposed to have occasioned his speedy death on the isth February 1145. Eugenius III. was then elected (1145-53), but soon had to fly to Viterbo in quest of armed assistance, in consequence of the senate's resolve to prevent his consecration by force until he recognized the new state of things in the Eternal City. It was at this moment that Arnold of Brescia arrived in Rome. His ideas, already well known in Italy, had inspired anJ promoted the Roman revolution, and he now came to determine its method and direction. Born Brescia. at Brescia in the beginning of the I2th century, Arnold had studied in France under the celebrated Abelard, who had instructed him in theology and philosophy, inspired him with a great love for antiquity, and stimulated his natural independ- ence of mind. On returning to his native land he assumed the monkish habit, and proved the force and fervour of his character by taking part in all struggles for liberty. And, together with political reform, he preached his favourite doctrine of the necessary renunciation by the clergy of all temporal wealth. Expounded with singular eloquence, these doctrines had a stirring effect on men's minds, spread throughout the cities of northern Italy, and were echoed on all sides. It seems un- doubted that they penetrated to Rome and helped to promote the revolution, so that Arnold was already present in spirit before he arrived there in person. It is known that at the Lateran council of 1 139 Innocent II. had declared these doctrines to be inimical to the church and enjoined silence on their author. And, as at that time the party hostile to liberty was triumphant in Brescia, Arnold left his native place, crossed the Alps and returned to France, where other struggles awaited him. He professed no anti-Catholic dogmas, — only maintaining that when the pope and the prelacy deviated from the gospel rule of poverty they should not be obeyed, but fearlessly opposed. In France, finding his master, Abelard, exposed to the per- secutions of St Bernard, he assumed his defence with so much ardour that St Bernard directed the thunders of his eloquence against the disciple as well as the master, saying of the former, " He neither eats nor drinks, suffers hunger, and, being leagued with the devil, only thirsts for the blood of souls." In 1142 we find Arnold a wanderer in Switzerland, and then, suddenly reappearing in Italy, he arrived in Rome. Three different elements entered into his nature and inspired his eloquence — an exalted and mystic temperament, a great and candid admiration for classic antiquity added to an equal admiration for republican freedom independent of the church MIDDLE AGES] ROME 671 and the empire, and a profound conviction, derived from the Vaudois and Paterine doctrines, that the church could only be purified by the renunciation of temporal wealth. Finding Rome already revolutionized in accordance with his own ideas, he immediately began to preach there. His mystic exhorta- tions against the riches of the church had an inflammatory effect, while his classical reminiscences aroused the enthusi- asm of the Romans, and his suggestion that they should imitate the republican institutions of upper Italy met the necessities of the time that had created the revolution. He urged the reconstitution of the ancient senate and senatorial order, which indeed was already partially accomplished, and of the ancient equestrian order, and the reconstruction and fortification of the Capitol. His proposed senate was a body somewhat resembling the communal councils of upper Italy, his equestrian order a mounted force composed of the lesser nobility, since at Rome, as elsewhere, the lower classes had neither time nor means to form part of it. All his suggestions were accepted; the citizens laboured strenuously on the fortification of the Capitol. The pope soon beheld the revolution spread beyond the walls, and several cities of the state proclaimed their independence. The barons of the Campagna profited by the opportunity to act as independent sovereigns. Thus the whole domain of the church was threatened with dissolution. The pope marched towards Rome with his newly gathered army, but hoped to come to terms. The Romans in fact recognized his authority, and he in his turn recognized the republic. The office of patrician was abolished, and seems to have been replaced by that of gonfalonier, and the prefect, answering to the podesta of the other republics, was revived. The senators received investiture from the pope, who returned to Rome at Christmas H4S- There public now seems to have been fully constituted. The senate was drawn from the lower classes and the petty nobility, and this was the special characteristic of the new revolution. In 1144 there were fifty-six senators, probably four to each of the fourteen regions, but the number often varied. By the few existing documents of the period we notice that the senators were divided into senatores consiliarii and ordinary senators. The former constituted a smaller council, which, like the credenza or lesser council found in other cities, consulted with the head or heads of the republic on the more urgent and secret affairs of the state. And, conjointly with the rest of the senators, it formed the greater council. Thus classic traditions were identified with new republican usages, and the common- wealth of Rome resembled those in other parts of Italy. But, of course, every republic had special local customs of its own. So the Roman senate had judicial as well as political attributes, and there was a curia senatus composed of senators and legal experts. As was easily to be foreseen, the agreement with the pope was of short duration. The revolution could not be checked; the Romans desired independence, and their spiritual lord fled to France, whence, in 1147, he proclaimed a new crusade, while the Romans were employed in demolishing Tivoli, banishing its inhabitants, and waging war on other cities. Giordano Pier- leone was gonfalonier and head of the republic, and Arnold, supported by the popular favour and the enthusiasm of the lower clergy, was preaching with even greater fervour than before. But the pope now re-entered Italy, proclaimed Arnold a schismatic, and then advancing to Tusculum assembled an army in order to attack Rome. In this emergency the Romans applied to Conrad III., the first emperor of the house of Hohen- staufen; and their urgent letters are clearly expressive of Arnold's theories and his medley on ancient and modern, sacred and profane, ideas. " Rome," so they said, " is the fountain of the empire confided to you by the Almighty, and we seek to restore to Rome the power possessed by her under Constantine and Justinian. For this end we conquered and destroyed the strongholds of the barons who, together with the pope and the Normans, sought to resist us. These are now attacking us on all sides. Haste to Rome, the capital of the world, thus to establish thy imperial sway over the Italian and German lands." After long hesitation the king of the Romans at last replied to these appeals, stating that he would come " to re-establish order, reward the faithful, and punish the rebellious." These words promised ill. In fact Conrad had already arranged terms with the pope; but his life came to an end on the i$th of February 1152. He was succeeded by Frederick I. surnamed Barbarossa, who took no notice of the numerous letters urging him to come and receive the empire from the Roman people, which alone had the right of conferring it. In accordance Pnaerlck with his design of subduing all the independent cities, he made an agreement with the pope, in which he vowed to give no truce to the Romans, but subject them to their spiritual lord, whose temporal power should be restored. The pope, on his side, promised to crown him emperor. Thereupon the people again rose to arms, and Arnold broke off all negotiations with Eugenius III. The senate was reorganized, formed of one hundred members, and, according to the old Roman pre- cedent, had two consuls, one for internal and the other for external affairs. Frederick was a daring statesman, a valiant soldier in command of a powerful army, and was no friend of half measures. Accordingly the nobles ventured on reaction. Finally, to increase the gravity of the situation, an English pope, Adrian IV., was elected (1154-59), who was also a man of strong and resolute temper. In fact, even before being able to take possession of the Lateran, he requested the Romans to banish Arnold, who, with greater eloquence than ever, was directing his thunders against the papacy. These utterances increased the wrath of Adrian, who, encouraged by the knowledge that Frederick and his host were already in Italy, at last launched an interdict against Rome. It was the first time that a pope had ventured to curse the Eternal City. The interdict put a sum- mary stop to the religious life of the inhabitants. Men's minds were seized with a sudden terror, and a fierce tumult broke out. Thereupon the senators, whose opposition to the pope was less courageous than that of the fallen magnates, prostrated them- selves at his feet and implored pardon. But Adrian demanded the expulsion of Arnold before consenting to raise the interdict. Arnold was therefore obliged to leave Rome. After having for nine years preached successfully in favour of liberty, after having been the moving spirit of the new revolution, the new con- stitution, he was now abandoned by all, and forced to wander from castle to castle, in the hope of reaching some independent city capable of shielding him from the fierce enmity of the pope. Meanwhile Frederick I. had achieved his first victories in Lojn- bardy, and, leaving ruined cities and bloodshed in his track, was rapidly advancing towards central Italy. The pope sent three cardinals to him, with a request for the capture and con- signment of Arnold, who had taken refuge in the castle of the Visconti of Campagnatico. Frederick without delay caused one of the Visconti to be seized and kept prisoner until Arnold was given up, and then consigned the latter to the papal legates. The pope in his turn gave the reformer into the hands of the prefect, Pietro di Vico, who immediately hanged his Arnold's prisoner, burnt his body at the stake and cast his exetu- ashes into the Tiber. The execution took place in June **"'• 1155. The exact date and place of it are unknown ; we only know that Arnold met his fate with great serenity and firmness. But the Romans who had so basely deserted their champion would not give up their republic. Their envoys went to meet Frederick near Sutri, and made an address in the usual fantastic style on the privileges of the Roman people and its sole right to confer the imperial crown. But Frederick indignantly cut short their harangue, and they had to depart full of rage. He then continued his march, and, entering Rome on the i8th of June 1155, was forthwith crowned in St Peter's by the pope. There- upon the Romans rushed to arms, and made a furious attack on the Leonine city and the imperial camp. A desperate battle went on throughout the day; and the knights proved that the equestrian order instituted at Arnold's suggestion was no empty 672 ROME [MIDDLE AGES sham. About a thousand Romans perished by the sword or by drowning, but their fellow-citizens made such determined pre- parations to continue the struggle that Frederick, on the igth of June, hastily retreated, or rather fled, and was escorted as far as Tivoli by the pope and the cardinals. After all, the temporal power of the papacy was not restored, and the republic still sur- The vived in the form bestowed on it by Arnold of Brescia. republic Its existence was in truth favourable rather than •"" injurious to Frederick, whose aim was to rule over nmtta*. Rome g^ treat tne bishops as his vassals. He had not yet discerned that his best policy would have been to use the republic as a lever against the pope. The latter, with keener acumen, while remaining faithful to the feudal party in Rome, made alliance with the communes of Lombardy and en- couraged them in their resistance to the emperor. Adrian IV. died in 1159, and the national party elected Alexander III. (1159-81), who energetically opposed the pretensions of Frederick, but, having to struggle with three antipopes success- ively raised against him by the imperial party, was repeatedly driven into exile. During these schisms the senate quietly carried on the government, administered justice, and made war on some neighbouring cities and barons. An army comprising many nobles of the national party marched against Tusculum, but found it defended by several valiant officers and a strong band of German soldiery, who, on the 29th of May 1167, inflicted on the Romans so severe a defeat that it is styled by Gregorovius the Cannae of the middle ages. Shortly afterwards the emperor arrived in Rome with his antipope Paschal III., and Alexander had to fly before him to Benevento. Then, at last, Frederick came to terms with the republic, recognized the senate, which accepted investiture at his hands, re-established the prefecture as an imperial office, and bestowed it on Giovanni, son of Pietro di Vico. He then hastily departed, without having advanced outside the Leonine city. Meanwhile Pope Alexander continued the crafty policy of Adrian and with better success, for the Lombard cities had Agree- now formed a league and inflicted a signal defeat on meat be- the emperor at Legnano on the zpth of May 1176. One 'npZbiic" of the results of tm's battle was the conclusion of ana the an agreement between the pope and the emperor, the pope. latter resigning his pretensions on Rome and yielding all that he had denied to Adrian. And by the treaty of Venice (ist of August 1177) the antipope was forsaken, Alexander III. recognized and hailed as the legitimate pontiff, and the prefect of Rome again nominated by the pope, to whom the emperor restored the temporal power, acknowledging him the in- dependent sovereign of Rome and of the ecclesiastical state, from Acquapendente to Ceprano. Frederick's troops accom- panied the pope to Rome, where the republic was forced to make submission to him. But, proudly conscious as it still was of its strength, its surrender wore the aspect of a voluntary concession, and its terms began with these words: " Totius populi Romani consilio et deliberatione statutum est," &c. The senators, elected yearly in September, had to swear fealty to the pope, and a certain proportion of nobles was in- cluded in their number. On his return to Rome, Alexander received a solemn welcome from all, but he had neither ex- tinguished nor really subdued the republic. On the contrary, men's minds were more and more inflamed by the example of freedom displayed in the north of Italy. He died on the 3oth of August 1181. The fact that between 1181 and 1187 there were three popes always living in exile proves that the republic was by no means crushed. During the same period another blow was inflicted on- the papacy by the marriage of Henry VI., son and successor to Frederick I., with Constance, sole heiress of the Norman line in Naples. For thus the kingdom was joined to the empire, and the popes were more than ever in the latter's power. On the 2oth of December 1187 Clement III. (1187-91), being raised to the pontificate, made a solemn agree- ment with the government of the Capitol before coming to Rome. And this peace or concordia had the air of a treaty between potentates of equal importance. Rome confronted the pope from the same standpoint from which the Lombard cities had confronted the emperor after Legnano. This treaty, the basis of the new constitution, was confirmed on the last day of May 1 1 88 (Anno XLIV. of the senate). It begins with these words: " Concordia inter Dominum Papam Clementem III. et senatores populumque Romanum super regalibus et aliis dignitatibus urbis." The pope was recognized as supreme lord, and invested the senators with their dignity. He resumed the privilege of coinage, but allowed one-third of the issue to be made by the senate. Almost all the old pontifical rights and prerogatives were restored to him. The pope might employ the Roman militia for the defence of his patrimony, but was to furnish its pay. The rights of the church over Tivoli and Tusculum were confirmed; but the republic reserved to itself the right of making war on those cities, and declared its resolve to dismantle and destroy the walls and castle of Tusculum. In this undertaking the pope was to co-operate with the Romans, even should the unhappy city make surrender to him alone. From all this it is clear that the church had been made inde- pendent of the empire, and that the republic, despite its numerous concessions, was by no means subject to the church. #ome ia. The pope, in fact, had obtained liberty of election, and dependent Frederick I., by resigning the investiture of the pre- °fthe feet, had virtually renounced his claim to imperial emp ' power in Rome. The republic had no patrician nor any other imperial magistrate, and preserved its independence even as regarded the pope, who merely granted investiture to magistrates freely chosen by the people, and had no legislative nor administrative power in the city. His temporal dominion was limited to his great possessions, to his regalia, to a supreme authority that was very indefinite, and to a feudal authority over the barons of the Campagna and many cities of a state that seemed ever on the point of dissolution. The senate continued to frame laws, to govern, and to administer justice. The army carried on the wars of the republic, as we see by the tragic fate of Tusculum, which was razed to the ground on the igth of April 1191. Thus the powerful counts of Tusculum disappeared; they sought refuge in the Campagna, and according to all probability the no less potent family of the Colonna sprang from their line. In consequence of these events, the nobles realized that the papacy sought to reduce them to vassalage. And, seeing that the _.. republic remained firmly established and able to help noble* them, they began to adhere to it and succeeded in re-eater obtaining admission to the new senate. In fact, the whereas since 1143 plebeians and petty nobles had prevailed in its ranks, nobles of ancient descent are now found outnumbering the knights and burghers. But in 1191 this state of things caused a sudden popular outbreak which abolished the aristocratic senate popular and gave the headship of the republic to a single revoiu- senator, summus senator, named Benedetto " Carissi- "°" *"* mus " or " Carus Homo " or " Carosomo," of un- ^""£f known, but undoubtedly plebeian, origin. During tionot the two years he remained in office this personage **e arts- stripped the pope of his revenues, despatched tocracy- justitiarii even to the provinces, and with the aid of the parlia- ment and other popular assemblies promulgated laws and statutes. But he was overthrown by a counter-revolution, and Giovanni Capoccio of the party of the nobles became senator for two years, and had been succeeded by one of the Pierleoni when, in 1197, a fresh revolution re-established a senate of fifty-six members, chiefly consisting of feudal barons in high favour with Henry VI., who had revived the imperial faction in Rome. But this emperor's life ended the same year as the pope's, in 1198, and the new pontiff, Innocent III. (1198-1216), began to make war on the nobles, who were again masters of the republic. Their leader was the prefect Pietro di Vico. Owing to the revolution of 1143, most of the prefectorial attri- butes were now vested in the senate; nevertheless, Pietro still retained a tribunal of police both within and without the MIDDLE AGES] ROME 673 city. But his main strength was derived from the vast posses- The sions of the Vico family, in which the office of prefect office of now became hereditary. Very soon, however, these fit-tomes prefects of Vico were chiefly regarded as the great heredi- feudal lords of Tuscia, and the independent municipal tary. office lost its true character. Then the popes made a point of according great pomp and dignity to this nominal prefect, in order to overshadow the senator, who still re- presented the independence of the republic and had assumed many of the attributes wrested from the prefect. But Innocent III., dissatisfied with this state of things, contrived by bribing the people to arrogate to himself the laaocent r'8nt of electing the senator, who had now to swear ///, elects fealty and submission to the pope, and also that of tae nominating the provincial justitiarii, formerly chosen * e' by the government of the Capitol. This was a deadly blow to the republic, for the principal rights of the people — i.e. the election of pope and emperor, prefect and senate — were now lost. The general discontent provoked fresh revolutions, and Innocent III. employed all his political dexterity to ward off their effects. But shortly afterwards the people made a loud outcry for a senate of fifty-six members ; and the pope, again making a virtue of necessity, caused that number to be chosen by twelve mediani specially named by him for the purpose. Even this did not calm the popular discontent,' which was also stirred by other disputes. The consequence was that when, six months later, the pope again elected a single senator the Romans rose to arms, and in 1204 formed a government of Buoni Uomini in opposition to that created by the pope. But an amicable arrangement being con- cluded, the pope once more nominated fifty-six senators; and when, soon after, he again reduced them to one, the people were too weary to resist (1205). Thus the Capitol was subdued, and Innocent III. spent his last years in tranquillity. On the 22nd of November 1220 Honorius III. (1216-27) conferred the imperial crown on Frederick II., who confirmed to the church the possession of her former states, of those bequeathed to her by Countess Matilda, and even of the March of Ancona. But it was soon seen that he sought to dominate all Italy, and was therefore a foe to be dreaded. The suc- The cessor of Honorius, Pope Gregory IX. (1227-41), was republic speedily insulted and put to flight by the Ghibelline regains nobles, whose courage had revived, and the republic began to subdue the Latian cities on its own account. Peace was several times made and unmade by pope and people; but no enduring harmony was possible between them, since the former wished to subject the entire state to the church, and the latter to escape from the rule of the church and hold sway over " the universal land from Ceprano to Radicofani " formerly belonging to the duchy. Accordingly, the Roman people now appointed judges, imposed taxes, issued coin, and made the clergy amenable to secular tribunals. In 1234 the senator Luca Savelli published an edict declaring Tuscia and Campania territories of the republic, and sent judges thither to exact an oath of obedience. He also despatched the militia to the coast, where it occupied several cities and erected fortresses; and columns were raised everywhere in- scribed with the initials S. P. Q. R. The pope, unable to prevent but equally unable to tolerate these acts, fled from Rome, hurling his anathema against Savelli, " et omnes illos consiliarios urbis quorum consilio," &c. The Romans sacked the Lateran and the houses of many cardinals, and marched on Viterbo, but were driven back by the papal troops. republic When Savelli left office and Angelo Malabranca was submits elected in his stead, the people made peace and sub- mission in 1235, and were obliged to give up their pretensions of subjecting the clergy to ordinary tribu- nals and the urban territory to the republic. Thus matters were virtually settled on the footing established by Innocent III., thanks to the aid given to the pope by Frederick II., who had been one of the promoters of the rebellion. XXIII. 22 It may appear strange that, at this period of their history, the Romans, after showing such tenacious adherence to the republic and senate, should have accepted the rule of a single senator without rushing to arms, and passed and repassed from one form of government to another with such surprising indifference. But on closer examination it is plain that these changes were greater in appearance than reality. We have already seen, in treating of Carosomo, how the single senator convoked the people in parliament to pass sanction Forma- on the laws. But, whenever there is only one senator, tl°" we also continually meet with the expression " con- ^nater silium vel consilia urbis." It is evident that when, and lesser instead of laws to be approved in parliament by a councU*. simple placet or rejected by a non-placet, matters requiring consideration had to be discussed, the senator convoked a much smaller council, consisting only of the leaders of the people. These leaders were the heads of the twelve or thirteen regions of the guilds, now becoming organized and soon to be also thirteen in number, and of the militia. As in the other Italian republics, all these associations had been formed in Rome. The senator therefore held consultation with the leading men of the city; and, although, especially at first, these meet- ings were rather loosely organized, it is clear that they took the form of two councils — one numerous (consiglio maggiore), the other limited (consiglio minore or speciale), co-operating with and forming part of the first. Such was the prevailing custom throughout Italy at the time when Roman institutions most nearly resembled those of the other republics. We already know that, from the date of Arnold's reforms, the senate, with its junta of counsellors, had been divided into two parts, forming when united a species of greater council. Therefore the transition from a senate divided into two parts to the greater and lesser councils must have been very easy and natural. And, seeing that later, when the nomination of a single senator had become a constant practice, the meetings of the two councils are frequently mentioned without the slightest remark or hint as to their origin, it is clear that they had been gradually formed and long established. Not long after the revolution of 1143 the grandees sought to re-enter the senate; and the popes themselves, partly from dread of the people and partly to aggrandize their own kindred, con- tributed to build up the power of a new and no less turbulent nobility. This class, arising between the I2th and I3th centuries, was composed of families newly created by the popes, together with remnants of the old aristocracy, such as the Frangipani, Colonna, &c. These nobles, regaining possession of the senate, so completely eliminated the popular element that, when the popes again opposed them, and, obtaining from the parlia- ment the right of electing the senators, adopted the expedient of appointing one only, the senator was always chosen from the ranks of the nobles. And then the people, unable and unwilling to renounce republican forms, replaced their sup- pressed senate by a greater and a lesser council. This was an easy task — a natural consequence of the fact that the people now began to constitute the real strength of the republic. Later, with an increasing detestation for their nobility, the Romans decreed that the single senator should be of foreign birth, and, as we shall see, chose Brancaleone in the middle of the I3th century. Thus, after a long series of frequent changes and revolutions, the Roman republic became a commonwealth, with an in- creasing resemblance to those of the other Italian cities. The people were organized and armed, the gilds almost established, the two councils gradually constituted, and the aristocracy, while retaining special local characteristics, assumed its definitive shape. It is not surprising to find that The Rome, like other Italian cities, now possessed statutes Roman of its own. There has been much controversy on *tatatft- this point. Certain writers had alluded to a statute of 1246. As no one, however, could discover any statute of that date, others decided that it had never existed. A statute of 1363 ROME [MIDDLE AGES was recently published by Professor Camillo Re, who asserted it to be the first and most ancient that Rome had possessed. But the still more recent researches of Messrs La Mantia and Levi prove that Professor Re's assertions were somewhat too bold. There is certain evidence of a statutum senatus existing between 1212 and 1227, of a slatutum vel capitulare senatoris vel senatus of 1233, followed in 1241 by a statutum urbis. This brings us very near to the statute of 1246 mentioned by Vitale and others. So it is well ascertained that, in the first half of the I3th century, Rome possessed statutes at large composed of older limited statutes. The consuls of the trade gilds were from 1267 regular members of the councils; and the merchants' gild held general meetings in 1255. Its statutes were confirmed in 1296 by the senator Pandolfo Savelli, and the compila- tion of these, published in 1880 by Signer Gatti, refers to 1317- Meanwhile the struggle between Frederick II. and the pope was once more renewed. The former sought to dominate Frederick Italy, separate the state from the church, and repress //. the republics. The latter, although really hostile to and the the Roman free government, joined it against the emperor, who on his side favoured the republic of Rome and the nobles most adverse to the pope. Thus the new nobility, composed, as we have seen, of two different elements, was again split into a Guelph party headed by the Orsini and a Ghibelline party under the Colonna. And in 1238 it was deemed advisable to elect two senators instead of one, in the hope of conciliating both factions by simultaneously raising them to power. Afterwards one only was elected, alternately an Orsini and a Colonna, then again two, and so on. But all these changes failed in their aims, since the struggle between emperor and pope exasperated party feeling in Rome. Fred- erick was king of southern Italy and emperor; had he been able to enforce the whole of his authority he would have been absolute master of all Italy, a state of things which the popes could not in any way tolerate. Hence the obstinate and unin- terrupted struggle which proved injurious both to the papacy and the empire. The political genius of Frederick might have wrought great harm to the city had not his mind teemed with contradictory ideas. Although desirous to emancipate the state from the church, he was opposed to the communal democracy, which was then the chief strength of the secular state in Italy. While combating the church and persecuting her defenders, he yet sent heretics to the stake; although excommunicated, he undertook a crusade; he feasted at his table philosophers, sceptic and atheist poets, bishops and Mussulmans; he proclaimed anti-Christian the possession of wealth by the church, yet made lavish gifts to altar and mon- astery. Thus, although he had a strong party in Rome, it seemed to dissolve at his approach, inasmuch as all feared that he might abolish the statutes and liberties of the commune. In fact, when he advanced towards Rome on the death of Gregory IX. in 1241 he was energetically repulsed by the people, and later even by Viterbo, a city that had always been faithful to him. But after he had withdrawn, his adherents gained strength and put to flight his opponent, Innocent IV. (1243-54), the newly elected pope, who then from his asylum at Lyons hurled an excommunication against him. Frederick's death in December 1250 determined the fall of the Ghibelline party and the close of the imperial epoch in Italy. The pope instantly returned to Rome with the set purpose of destroying the power of the Hohenstaufens. This was no longer difficult when, by the decease of Conrad IV. (1254), the child Conradin became the last legitimate representative of that line, and negotiations were already on foot for placing the Angevins on the Neapolitan throne. The republic meanwhile preserved its independence against the pope, who, among other concessions, had entirely given up to it the right of coinage. Nevertheless, being much harassed by the factiousness of the nobility, it was obliged in 1252 to decide on the election of an alien senator armed with ample powers, precisely as other communes gave the government into the hands of a podesta. Accordingly a Bolognese noble, Brancaleone degli Andalo, count of Casalecchio, and Branca- a Ghibelline of much energy and talent, was invited leone to Rome. But before accepting office he insisted on ^^uA making definite terms. He desired to hold the the first government for three years; and this, although con- foreign trary to the statutes, was granted. Further, to en- senator. sure his personal safety, he demanded that many scions of the noblest Roman houses should be sent as hostages to Bologna; and to this also the republic consented. Then, in August 1252, he came with his judges and notaries, made oath to observe justice and the laws, and began to govern. He was head of the republic in peace and in war, supreme judge and captain in chief. He nominated the podestas of subject terri- tories, despatched ambassadors, issued coin, concluded treaties and received oaths of obedience. The pope, who was then at Perugia, was greatly afflicted by the arrival of this new master, but, despairing of aid from any quarter, was forced to make a virtue of necessity. Thus Brancaleone was able to seize the reins of power with a firm grasp. The parliament still met in the square of the Capitol, and the greater and lesser councils in the church of Ara Coeli. There were besides frequent as- semblies of the college of Capitoline judges or assectamentum. Unfortunately, no records having been preserved of the proceed- ings of the Roman councils and parliament, little can be said of the manner in which affairs were conducted. Certainly Brancaleone's government was not very parliamentary. He convoked the councils as seldom as was possible, although he frequently assembled the people in parliament. The chief complaint made against him was of undue severity in the adminis- tration of justice. He rendered the clergy amenable to secular tribunals, subdued the neighbouring cities of Tivoli, Palestrina, &c., and commanded in person the attacking force. But his greatest energy was directed to the repression of the more turbulent nobles who were opposed to him ; and he soon made them feel the weight of his hand by hanging some, banishing others, and persecuting several more. But he too recognized the expediency of winning the popular favour. He was the first senator to add to his title that of captain of the people (" Almae Urbis Senator 111: et Romani Populi Capitaneus "). He befriended the people by promoting the organization of gilds after the manner of those of his native Bologna. There were already a few in Rome, such as the merchants' gild and that of the agriculturists, Bobacteriorum or Bovattari, who must have resembled the so-called mercanti di campagna or graziers of the present day, since no peasant gild existed in Italian republics. The merchants' gild, definitely estab- lished in 1255 under Brancaleone's rule, had four consuls and twelve councillors, held meetings and made laws. The other gilds, thirteen in all, were organized much on the same plan. The admission of their heads into the councils of the republic in 1267 shows how efficaciously their interests had been promoted by Brancaleone. The death of Innocent IV. and the election of Alexander IV. (1254-61), who was milder and less shrewd than his predecessor, were favourable events for Brancaleone; but he failed to check the growing discontent of the clergy and the more powerful nobles, who had received deadly injuries at his hands. And when, on the expiration of his three years' term of office, his re-election was proposed, his enemies rose against him, accused him before the sindacato, threw him into prison, and vehem- ently protested against the continuance of " foreign tyranny." His life was only spared on account of the hostages sent to Bologna. The next senator chosen was a Brescian Guelph, Emanuele de Madio, a tool of the nobles, who were now masters of the situation. But soon afterwards, in 1257, the gilds rose in revolt, drove the noblesfrom power, put the pope to flight, and recalled Brancaleone for another three years' term. He ruled more sternly than before, hung several nobles, and made alliance with Manfred, the representative of the Swabian party in Italy. This rendered him increasingly odious to the pope and procured his excommunication. But, disregarding the MIDDLE AGES] ROME 675 thunders of the church, he marched against Anagni, the pope's birthplace, and Alexander was quickly obliged to humiliate himself before the senator of Rome. Brancaleone next set to work to destroy the fortified towers of the nobility, and in razing them to the ground ruined many of the adjacent dwellings. Accordingly, a considerable number of nobles became homeless exiles. In 1258, while engaged on the siege of Corneto, Branca- leone was attacked by a violent fever, and, being carried back to Rome, died on the Capitoline Hill. Thus ended the career of a truly remarkable statesman. He was succeeded by his uncle, Castellano degli Andalo, who, lacking the political genius of his nephew, only retained office until the following spring (1259), in the midst of fierce and perpetual disturbances. Then the people, being bribed by the pope, joined with the nobles and •drove him away. His life too was saved by having followed his nephew's shrewd plan of sending hostages to Bologna. Two senators of Roman birth were next elected; and on the death of Alexander IV. a French pope was chosen, Urban IV. (i 261-64) > thus giving fresh predominance in the church to the anti- Swabian policy. But the internal disturbances of the city soon drove Urban to flight. At this period the fall of the empire had induced many Italian republics to seek strength by placing their governments in the hands of some prince willing to swear respect to their laws and to undertake their defence against neighbouring states and the pope. In Rome the Guelphs and Ghibellines proposed various candidates for this office, and after many fierce quarrels ended by electing a committee of boni homines, charged with the revision of the statutes, reorganization of the city, and choice of a senator. This committee sat for more than a year without nominating any one, so, the Guelph party being now predominant, and all being wearied of this provisional state of things, the majority agreed on the election as senator of Charles of Anjou, who, at Charles the pope's summons, was already preparing for the of Anjou conquest of Naples. The Romans thought that he senator. would defend Rome against the pope, and the pope would defend Rome against him; and by thus taking advantage of cither's jealousy the citizens hoped to keep their republic intact. In fact, although Urban IV. had incited Charles to attack Naples, he was by no means willing to see him established as master in Rome. He accordingly declared that, if Charles really wished to obtain the Neapolitan crown, he must only accept the offered dignity pending the conquest of that kingdom. And he must likewise promise to recognize the supremacy of the pope over the senate. Charles soothed him with the amplest verbal promises, but in fact accepted the senatorship for life. In 1265, when Urban was succeeded by Clement IV. (1265-68), who as a Provencal was a subject of Charles, the latter entered Rome and was immediately made senator. Seven days later (28th of June) he received the investiture of the Neapolitan kingdom, and in the following January its crown. On the 26th of February 1266 the battle of Benevento was fought, and, the valiant Manfred being killed, the triumph of the Guelph Angevins in Italy was assured. Then, at the urgent command of the pope, Charles was forced to resign the senatorship in the May of the same year. Two Romans were elected in his stead, but soon fell out with the pope, because the Guelph nobles again tried to exercise tyranny. The people, however, profited by these disturbances to rise on its own account, and formed a democratic government of twenty-six boni homines with Angelo Capocci, Don a Ghibelline, as its captain. By this government Don Henry of Henry, son of Ferdinand III. of Castile, was elected Castile senator; and he came to Rome for the purpose of pro- senator. moting a Ghibelline and Swabian policy in favour of Conradin, who was preparing for conflict. The rule of the new senator was very energetic, for he kept down the clergy, subdued the Campagna, persecuted the Guelph nobles, made alliance with the Tuscan Ghibellines, forcibly drove back the troops of King Charles, who was advancing towards Rome, and gave a splendid reception to Conradin. But the battle of Tagliacozzo (23rd of August 1268), followed by the murder of Conradin, proved fatal to the Ghibelline party. Charles was re-elected senator imme- diately after the battle, and the pope confirmed his powers for a term of ten years, after having already named him imperial vicar in Tuscany. On the i6th of September Charles for the second time took possession of the Capitol, and ruled Rome firmly by means of vice-governors or vicars. The Swabian line was now extinct, and in Charles's hands the Neapolitan kingdom had become a fief of the church. The empire had fallen so low as to be no longer formidable. Now therefore was the moment for treating with it in order to restrain Charles, and also for making use of the French king to keep the empire in check. And this was the policy of Nicholas III. (1277-80), who hastened to extract advantageous promises from Rudolph of Habsburg, the new candidate for the imperial crown. In 1278, the ten years' term having expired, he deprived Charles of the senatorship and appointed Rudolph vicar of Tuscany. After declaring that he left to the people the right of electing the senator, he promulgated a new constitution (i8th of July 1278) which, while confirming the rights of the church over the city, prohibited the election of any foreign emperor, prince, marquis, count or baron as senator of Rome. Thus the Colonna, Savelli, Orsini, Annibaldi and other Roman nobles again rose to power, and the republic was again endangered and plunged in disorder. The Romans then gave the The reconstitution of the city into the pope's hands by senate yielding to him the right of nominating senators, de- ha'nds claring, however, that this was a personal concession of the to himself, and not to the popes in general. So pope*. Nicholas proceeded to name senators, alternating a Colonna with an Orsini, or simultaneously choosing one of each fac- tion. The same power over the senate was granted with the same restriction to Martin IV. (1281-85), and he at once re- elected Charles of Anjou. Thus, greatly to the disgust of the Romans, the Capitol was again invaded by French vicars, notaries, judges and soldiery. But the terrible blow dealt at Charles's power by the Sicilian Vespers (3ist of March 1282) resounded even in Rome. The Orsini, backed by the people, rose to arms, massacred the French garrison, and quickly re-established a popular government. Giovanni Cencio, a kinsman of the Orsini, was elected captain and defender of the people, and ruled the city with the co-operation of the senator and a council of priors of the gilds. This government was of brief duration, for, although the pope had professed his willing- ness to tolerate the experiment, he quickly arranged fresh terms, and, forsaking Charles of Anjou, again nominated two Roman senators. Pope and king both died in 1285, and Nicholas IV. (1288-92), also holding sway over the senate, favoured the Colonna in order to curb the growing mastery of the Orsini. But thus there were two powerful houses instead of one. In fact, Giovanni Colonna, when elected senator, ruled from the Capitol as an independent sovereign, conducted in person the campaign against Viterbo, and subjected that city to the republic on the 3rd of May 1291. When one of the Gaetani, Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), was raised to the papal chair, the extent of the Colonnas' power became evident to all. Boniface opposed them in order to aggrandize his own kin, and they showed v°°^ * equal virulence in return. The Cardinals Colonna refused to acknowledge him as the legitimate pope, and he excommunicated them and proclaimed a crusade against their house. Even after he had subdued them and destroyed Palestrina, their principal fief, the drama did not yet come to an end. Boniface had a very lofty conception of the church, and desired to establish her supremacy over the state. The king of France (Philip the Fair) believed, on the contrary, that the Angevin successes entitled him to fill the place in Italy vacated by the Swabians, and to play the master there. This led to a tremendous contest in which all the French sided with their king. And shortly afterwards a plot was hatched against the pope by the agents of France and the Colonna. These determined enemies of the pope met with much favour in Rome, on account of the general irritation against the Gaetani and the enormous power conferred on them by Boniface. 676 ROME [MIDDLE AGES Suffice it to say that they were now lords of the whole of lower Latium, from Capo Circeo to Ninfa, from Ceprano to Subiaco. Thus Sciarra Colonna and a Frenchman named Nogaret were able to fall on the pope at Anagni, insult him, and take him prisoner. The people rising to his rescue, the conspirators were put to flight. But when Boniface returned to Rome with the escort and protection of the Orsini, who had made themselves masters of the city, he found that he was virtually a captive in their hands. He felt this so keenly that he died of rage and exhaustion on the nth of October 1303. The brief pontificate of his successor Benedict XI. was followed by that of Clement V. (1305-14), a Frenchman, who, instead of coming to Rome, summoned the cardinals to France. This was the beginning of the church's so called exile in Avignon, which, although depriving Rome of a scource of wealth and influence, left the republic to pursue its own course. It employed this The freedom in trying to hold its own against the nobles, republic whose power was much lessened by the absence of 'gala tne pOpe; and endeavoured to gain fresh strength di-iiio- by organizing the thirteen regions, which, as we cratic have shown, were associations of a much firmer form. nature in Rome than the gilds. Accordingly, in 1305, a captain of the people was elected with thirteen elders and a senator, Paganino della Torre, who governed for one year. The pope was opposed to these changes at first, but in 1310 he issued a brief granting Rome full permission to select its own form of government. Thus, the first pope in Avignon restored the rights of the Romans. But the latter, even with church and empire so far removed, still considered Rome the Eternal City, the source of all law, and the only natural seat of the spiritual and temporal government of the world. To their republic, they thought, appertained a new and lofty destiny, nor could it ever be content to descend to the level of other Italian municipalities. On the 6th of January 1309 Henry VII. was crowned king of the Romans at Aix-la-Chapelle; and so greatly were men's minds changed in Italy that, throughout the land, he was hailed as a deliverer. He wished to restore the grandeur of the empire, and the Italians, above all Dante Alighieri, beheld in him the champion of the state against the church, who, after becoming the foe of communal liberty, had forsaken Italy and withdrawn to France. The Roman people shared these ideas, and awaited Henry with equal impatience, but the nobles rose in opposition. The Orsini, leaders of the Guelphs, and allied with Robert of Naples, took possession of the castle of St Angelo and the Trastevere. Hence, when Henry reached Rome in May 1312, after seizing the iron crown at Milan, he was obliged to act on the offensive. He took the Capitol by assault, but, failing in his attack on the castle of St Angelo, was pursued by its Neapolitan garrison. Forsaken by many discouraged adherents, he was forced to recognize the expediency of departure. First, however, he desired to be crowned at the Lateran, St Peter's being held by his foes. The cardinals refused his request, but were com- pelled to yield by the threats of the people, who, reasserting their ancient rights, insisted that the coronation should take place without delay. And the ceremony was performed on the 2gth of June 1312. The emperor then resolved to depart in spite of the popular protest against his leaving the natural seat of the empire, and on -the 2oth of August started for Tuscany, where worse fortune awaited him. Their differences settled, the nobles expelled the captain of the people left by Henry, and elected as senators Sciarra Jacopo Colonna and Francesco Orsini. But this was the AHotti, signal for a popular revolt. The Capitol was captain attacked, the senators put to flight, and Jacopo Arlotti elected captain with a council of twenty-six worthies (buoni homini). The new leader instantly summoned the chief nobles before his tribunal, had them chained and cast into prison, and demolished many of their houses and strongnolds. But, having thus humiliated their pride, Arlotti dared not put them to death, and, releasing them Henry VII. from confinement, banished them to their estates, where they plunged into hostile preparations. Meanwhile the victorious people convoked a parliament and decreed that, the aristocracy being now overthrown, the tribunilia potestas alone should invite the emperor to make his triumphal entry into the Capitol, and receive his authority from the people of Rome. This conception of the Roman power will now be seen to become more and more definite until finding its last expression in Cola di Rienzi. Pope Clement, resigning himself to necessity, acknowledged the new government under the energetic rule of Arlotti. The latter now joined the Ghibellines of the Campagna against the Orsini and the Neapolitans, subdued Velletri, and gave it a podesta. But then the Gaetani, who were Guelphs, united with the Orsini and the Neapolitans, and, giving battle to the Ghibellines in the Campagna, routed them in such wise as to put an end to the popular government. The nobles forced their way into the city, attacked the Capitol, made Arlotti their prisoner, and re-elected the senators Sciarra Colonna and Francesco Orsini. Close upon these reverses came the death of Henry VII. (24th of August 1313) at Buonconvento near Siena, which put an end to the Ghibelline party in Italy. Thereupon King Robert of Naples, being named senator by the pope, immediately appointed a vicar in Rome. Clement likewise profited by the vacancy of the imperial throne to name the king imperial vicar in Tuscany. And he died on the 2oth of April 1314, well content to have witnessed the triumphs of the Guelphs in Italy. Affairs took a fresh turn under Pope John XXII. (1316-34). Rome was still ruled by the vicars of King Robert; but, owing to the continued absence of the popes, matters grew daily worse. Trade and industry declined, revenue diminished, the impoverished nobles were exceedingly turbulent, deeds of murder and violence occurred on all sides; even by day the streets of the city were unsafe. Hence there was universal discontent. Meanwhile Louis the Bavarian, who in 1314 had been crowned king of the Romans, having overcome his German enemies at Miihldorf in 1322, turned against the pope, one of his fiercest opponents. Louis was surrounded by Minorite friars, supporters of the poverty of the church, and consequently enemies to the temporal power. They were men of the stamp of William of Occam, Marsilio of Padua, Giovanni Janduno, and other philosophers favourable to the rights of the empire and the people. Accordingly the Italian Ghibellines hailed Louis as they had previously hailed Henry. Even the Roman people were roused to action, and, driving out the representa- tives and partisans of King Robert, in the spring of 1327, seized on the castle of St Angelo, and again established a democratic government. " Nearly all Italy was stirred to new deeds," says G. Villani, "and the Romans rose to arms and organized the people " (bk. x. c. 20). Regardless of the reproofs of the pope, they elected a haughty Ghibelline, gciarra Sciarra Colonna, captain of the people and general coioana, of the militia, with a council of fifty-two popolani, captain four to each region. Then, ranged under the standards 0£**je of the militia, the Romans gave chase to the foes of the republic, and Sciarra, returning victorious, ascended to the Capitol and invited Louis the Bavarian to Rome. The summons was obeyed; on the 7th of January Bavarian. 1328 the king was already encamped in the Neronian Fields with five thousand horse and a considerable number of foot soldiers, and, with better fortune than Henry VII., was able to enter the Vatican at once. Encircled by a crowd of heretics, reformers and Minorite brethren, he convoked a parliament on the Capitol, asking that the imperial crown might be conferred upon him by the people, from whon\ alone he wished to receive it. And the people proclaimed him their captain, senator and emperor. On the 1 7th of January his coronation took place in St Peter's. But, as he had neither money nor practical sense, his method of taxation and the excesses committed by himself and his over-excited philosophers speedily aroused the popular dis- content. His ecclesiastical vicar, Marsilio of Padua, and MIDDLE AGES] ROME 677 Giovanni Janduno placarded the walls with insulting manifestoes against the pope, whom the Minorites stigmatized as a heretic and wished to depose. In April Louis twice assembled the parliament in St Peter's Square, and, after obtaining its sanction to several anti-papal edicts, declared John XXII. degraded and deposed as a heretic. This was a very strange and novel spectacle, the more so that, as was speedily proved, the Romans were stirred by no anti-Catholic spirit, no yearning for religious reform. Jacopo Colonna, a canon of the Lateran, was able to make his way into Rome with four masked companions, to publicly read, at the top of his voice and before a great multitude, the excommunication launched against the emperor by the deposed pope, to traverse the entire city, and to withdraw un- molested to Palestrina. Meanwhile the emperor contented himself with decreeing that henceforth the popes must reside in Rome, — that if, when invited, they should fail to come they would be thereby held deposed from the throne. As a logical consequence, proceedings were immediately begun for the election of the new pope, Nicholas V., who on the I2th of May was proclaimed by the popular voice in St Peter's Square, and received the imperial sanction. But this ephemeral drama came to an end when the emperor departed with his antipope on the 4th of August. This caused the immediate downfall of the democratic government. Bertoldo Orsini, who had returned to Rome with his Guelphs, and Stefano Colonna were elected senators, and confirmed in the office by Cardinal Giovanni Orsini in the name of the pope. A new parliament cancelled the emperor's edicts, and had them burnt by the public executioner. Later, Nicholas, the antipope, went with a rope about his neck to make submission to John XXII., and Louis promised to disavow and retract all that he had done against the church, provided the sentence of excommunication were withdrawn. This, however, was refused. Never had the empire fallen so low. Meanwhile King Robert was again supreme in Rome, and, being re-elected senator, appointed vicars there as before. Anarchy reigned. The city was torn by factions, and the provinces rebelled against the French representatives of the pope, who, in their ignorance of Italian affairs, were at a loss how to act. And after the election of Benedict XII. (1334-42) confusion reached so great a pitch that, on the expiration of Robert's senatorial term, the Romans named thirteen heads of regions to carry on the government with two senators, while the king still sent vicars as before. The people, for the sake of peace, once more granted the supremacy of the senate to the pope, and he nominated two knights of Gubbio, Giacomo di Cante dei Gabrielli and Bosone Novello dei Gabrielli, who were succeeded by two other senators the following year. But in Reconsti- *339 the Romans attacked the Capitol, named two tution senators of their own choice, re-established a demo- of the cratic government, and sent ambassadors to Florence repu c. £Q ask {or j.ne ordinances of justice (ordinamenti della giustizia), by which that city had broken the power of the nobles, and also that a few skilled citizens should lend their help in the reconstitution of Rome. Accordingly some Florentines came with the ordinamenti, some portions of which may be recognized in the Roman statutes, and, after first re- arranging the taxes, elected thirteen priors of the gilds, a gonfa- lonier of justice, and a captain of the people after the Florentine manner. But there was a dissimilarity in the conditions of the two cities. The gilds having little influence in Rome, the projected reform failed, and the pope, who was opposed to it, re- elected the senators. Thereupon public discontent swelled, and especially when, by the foundation of the papal palace of Avignon, it was evident that Benedict XII. had no intention of restoring the Holy See to Italy. This pope was succeeded in 1342 by Clement VI. (1342-52), and King Robert in 1343 by his niece Joanna; and the latter event, while plunging the kingdom in anarchy, likewise aggravated the condition of Rome. For not only were the Neapolitan sovereigns still very powerful there, but the principal Roman nobles held large fiefs across the Neapolitan borders. Cola dl Rienzi. Shortly before this another revolution in Rome had re- established the government of the thirteen elders and the two senators. The people, being anxious to show their intention of respecting the papal authority, had despatched to Avignon as ambassador of the republic, in 1343, a man destined to make much noise in the world. This was Cola di Rienzi, son of a Roman innkeeper, a notary, and an impassioned student of the Bible, the fathers, Livy, Seneca, Cicero, and Valerius Maximus. Thoroughly imbued with a half pagan, half Christian spirit, he believed that he had a divinely inspired mission to revive the ancient glories of Rome. Of handsome presence, full of fantastic eloquence, and stirred to enthusiasm by contemplation of the ruined monuments of Rome, he harangued the people with a stilted oratory that en- chanted their ears. He hated the nobles, because one of his brothers had been killed by them; he loved the republic, and in its name addressed a stately Latin speech to the astonished pope, and, offering him the supreme power, besought his instant return to Rome. He also begged him to allow the city to cele- brate a jubilee every fifty years, and then, as a personal request, asked to be nominated notary to the urban chamber. The pope consented to everything, and Rienzi communicated this good news to Rome in an emphatically worded epistle. After Easter, in 1344, he returned to Rome, and found to his grief that the city was a prey to the nobles. He immediately began to admonish the latter, and then, draped in a toga adorned with symbols, exhibited and explained allegorical designs to the people, and announced the speedy restoration of the past grandeur of Rome. Finally he and a few burghers and merchants, whom he had secretly inflamed by his discourses, made a solemn vow to overthrow the nobility and consolidate the republic. The moment was favourable, owing to the anarchy of Naples, the absence of the pope, the weakness of the empire and the disputes of the barons, although the latter were still very potent and constituted, as it were, a separate government opposed to that of the people. Rienzi, having gained the pope's ecclesiastical vicar to his side, passed in prayer the night of the igth of May 1347, placing his enterprise under the protection of the Holy Spirit, and the following day marched to the Capitol, surrounded by his adherents, convoked a parliament of the people, and obtained its sanction for the following pro- posals:— that all pending lawsuits should be at once decided; that justice should be equally administered to all; that every region should equip one hundred foot soldiers and twenty-five horse; that the dues and taxes should be rearranged; that the forts, bridges and gates of the city should be held by the rector of the people instead of by the nobility; and that granaries should be opened for the public use. On the same day, amid general homage and applause, Rienzi was proclaimed head of the republic, with the title of tribune and liberator of the Holy Roman Republic, " by authority of the most merciful Lord Jesus Christ." The nobles withdrew scoffing but alarmed. Rienzi engaged a body-guard of one hundred men, and assumed the command of thirteen hundred infantry and three hundred and ninety light horse; he abolished the senators, retained the Thirteen and the general and special councils, and set the administration on a new footing. These measures and the prompt submission of the other cities of the state brought an instant increase of revenue to Rome. This revolution, as will be noted, was of an entirely novel stamp. For its leader despatched envoys to all the cities of Italy, exhorting them to shake off the yoke of their tyrants, and send representatives to the parliament convoked for the ist of August, inasmuch as the liberation of Rome also implied the " liberation of the sacred land of Italy." In Rienzi's judgment the Roman revolution must be, not municipal, but national, and even in some points universal. And this idea was welcomed with general enthusiasm throughout the peninsula. Solemn festivals and processions were held in Rome; and, when the tribune went in state to St Peter's, the canons met him on the steps chanting the Veni, Creator Spiritus. Even the pope, willingly or unwillingly, accorded his approval to 6y8 ROME [MIDDLE AGES Rienzi's deeds. The provincial cities did homage to Rome and her tribune, and almost all the rest of Italy gave him its enthusiastic adherence. The ancient sovereign people seemed on the point of resuscitation. And others besides the multitude were fascinated and carried off their feet. Great men like Petrarch were transported with joy. The poet lauded Cola di Rienzi as a sublime and supernatural being, the greatest of ancient and modern men. But it was soon evident that all this enthusiasm was mainly factitious. On the 26th of July a new parliament was called, and this decreed that all the rights and privileges granted to the empire and church must now be vested in the Roman people, from whom they had first emanated. But on the convocation of the national parliament few repre- sentatives obeyed the summons and the scheme was a failure. All had gone well so long as principles only were proclaimed, but when words had to be followed by deeds the municipal feeling awoke and distrust began to prevail. Nevertheless, on the ist of August Rienzi assumed the spurs of knighthood and passed a decree declaring that Rome would now resume her old jurisdic- tion over the world, invoking the Holy Spirit upon Italy, grant- ing the Roman citizenship to all her cities, and proclaiming them free in virtue of the freedom of Rome. This was a strange jumble of the ancient Roman idea. combined with the medieval. It was a dream of Rienzi's brain, but it was also the dream of Dante and Petrarch. The conception of the empire and the history of Italy, particularly that of ancient and medieval Rome, were inevitably preparing the way for the national idea. This Rienzi foresaw, and this constitutes the true grandeur of his character, which in other respects was not exempt from pettiness and infirmity. He pursued his course, therefore, un- dismayed, and had indeed gone too far to draw back. On the 1 5th of August he caused himself to be crowned tribune with great pomp, and confirmed the rights of Roman citizenship to all natives of Italy. But practical matters had also to be taken into account, and it was here that his weakness and lack of judgment were shown. The nobles remained steadily hostile, and refused to yield to the charm of his words. Hence conflict was unavoidable; and at first Rienzi succeeded in vanquishing the Gaetani by means of Giovanni Colonna. He next endeavoured to suppress the Guelph and Ghibelline factions, and to restore Italy to " holy union " by raising her from her present abase- ment. The pope, however, was weary of toleration, and, coming to terms with the nobles, incited them to war. They accord- ingly moved from Palestrina, and on the 3oth of -November were encamped before Rome. Rienzi now put forth his energy. He had already called the militia to arms, and a genuine battle took place in which eighty nobles, chiefly of the Colonna clan, were left dead. This was a real catastrophe to them, and the aristocracy never again achieved the rule of the republic. But Rienzi's head was turned by this sudden success. In great need of money, he began to play the tyrant by levying taxes and exacting instant obedience. The papal legate saw his opportunity and seized it, by threatening to bring a charge of heresy against the tribune. Rienzi was dismayed. He declared himself friendly to the pope and willing to respect his authority; and he even sought to conciliate the nobles. At this moment certain Neapolitan and Hungarian captains, after levying soldiers with the tribune's consent, joined the nobles and broke out in revolt. On their proving victorious in a pre- liminary encounter with some of Rienzi's guards, the tribune suddenly lost heart, resigned the power he had held for seven months, and took refuge with a few trusty adherents in the castle of St Angelo on the I5th December 1347. Thence he presently fled to Naples, vainly hoping to find aid, and after- wards disappeared for some time from the scene. Meanwhile the Romans remained tranquil, intent on making money by the jubilee; but no sooner was this over than dis- orders broke out and the tyranny of the baronage recommenced. To remedy this state of things, application was made to the pope. He consulted with a committee of cardinals, who sought the advice of Petrarch, and the poet suggested a popular govern- ment, to the complete exclusion of the nobles, since these, he said, were strangers who ruined the city. The people had already elected the Thirteen, and now, encouraged by these counsels, on the z6th of December 1351 chose Giovanni Perrone as head of the republic. But the new leader was unable to with- stand the hostilities of the nobles; and in September 1353 Francesco Baroncelli was elected tribune. He was a follower of Rienzi, had been his ambassador to Florence and did little beyond imitating his mode of government and smoothing the way for his return. Rienzi had spent two years in the Abruzzi, leading a life of mystic contemplation on Monte Maiella. Then, in 1350, he had gone to Prague and endeavoured to convert to his ideas the yet uncrowned emperor Charles IV. When apparently on the point of success, he was sent under arrest to the new pope, Innocent VI. (1352-62), a man of great shrewdness and practical sense. On Rienzi's arrival at Avignon it became evident that his popularity was still very great, and that it would be no easy task to dispose of him. The Romans were imploring his return; Petrarch lauded him as a modern Gracchus or Scipio; and the pope finally released him from confinement. Innocent had decided to send to Italy, in order to settle affairs and bring the state into subjection to the church, that valiant captain and skilled politician, Cardinal Albornoz. And, having no fear that the latter's hand would be forced, he further decided that Rienzi should be sent to give him the support of his own popularity in Rome. In fact, directly the pair arrived Baroncelli was over- thrown, the supremacy of the senate granted to the pope and the government confided to Albornoz, who, without concerning himself with Rienzi, nominated Guido Patrizi as senator. He then marched at the head of his troops against Giovanni, prefect of Vico, and forced him to render submission at Montefiascone on the 5th of June 1354. With the same promptitude and skill he reduced Umbria and the Tuscan and Sabine districts, con- sented to leave the privileges of the cities intact in return for their recognition of the papal authority and planted fortresses in suitable positions. In the meantime Rienzi's popularity was increasing in Rome; without either money or arms, the ex- tribune succeeded by his eloquence in winning over the two Provencal leaders, brothers of the famous free captain Fra Monreale; and, seduced by his promises and hopes, they supplied him with funds. Then, profiting by his prestige, the apparent favour of the pope, and the sums received, he was able to collect a band of five hundred soldiers of mixed nationalities and returned towards Rome. On Monte Mario he was met by the cavallerotti. On the ist of August 1354 he entered the Castello gate, took possession of the government, named Mon- reale's two brothers his captains, and sent them to lay siege to Palestrina, which was still the headquarters of the Colonna. But then money ran short, and he again lost his head. Inviting Fra Monreale to a banquet, he put him to death for the sake of his wealth, and kept the two brothers in confinement. This act excited general indignation. And when, after his ill-gotten gains were spent, he again recurred to violence to fill his purse, the public discontent was vented in a sudden revolt on the 8th of October. The people stormed the Capitol with cries of " Death to the traitor." Rienzi presented himself at a window waving the flag of Rome. But the charm was finally broken. Missiles were hurled at him; the palace was fired. He hid himself in the courtyard, shaved his beard and, disguised as a shepherd with a cloth over his head, slipped into the crowd and joined in their cries against himself. Being recognized, however, by the golden bracelets he had forgotten to remove, he was instantly stabbed. For two days his corpse was left exposed to the insults of the mob, and was then burned. Such was the wretched end of the" man who, at one moment, seemed destined to fill the world with his name as the regenerator of Rome and of Italy. In all the Italian cities the overthrow of the aristocracy had led to military impotence and pressing danger of tyranny. The same thing had happened in Rome when the nobility, weakened by the absence of church and empire, received its death-blow MIDDLE AGES] ROME 679 from Rienzi. But, whereas _ elsewhere tyrants were gradually arising in the citizen class, Rome was always in danger of oppression by the pope. Nor was any aid available from the empire, which had never recovered from its abasement under Louis the Bavarian. In fact, when Charles of Luxemburg came to Rome to be crowned, he was obliged to promise the pope that he would not enter the city. On Easter day 1355 The popes he received the crown, and departed after counselling seek to jne Romans to obey the pope. And the pontiffs had '"Tea" greater need than ever of an established kingdom. temporal Their position in France was much endangered by kingdom, that country's disorder. New states were being formed on all sides; the medieval unityv was shattered; and the shrunken spiritual authority of the church increased her need of material strength. As Italian affairs stood, it would be easy for the popes to found a kingdom, but their presence was required in Rome before it could be firmly estab- lished. The blood-stained sword of Albornoz had prepared the way before them. In 1355-56 he vanquished the lords or tyrants of Rimini, Fano, Fossombrone, Pesaro, Urbino and other cities. And all these places had^een so rudely oppressed that the cardinal was often hailed as a liberator after subduing their masters by fire and sword. But everywhere he had been obliged to leave existing governments and rulers in statu quo after exacting their oaths of fealty. Thus the state was still dissevered, and it was impossible to bind it together with the pope at Avignon and Rome a republic. Bologna was still in- dependent, Ordelam still lord of Forll; Cesena and other cities were still rebellious; and the Campagna was still in the hands of the barons. Some places were ruled by rectors nominated by the pope; at Montefiascone there was an ecclesiastical rector, with a bench of judges, and a captain commanding a mixed band of adventurers. Rome had submitted to the haughty cardinal, but hated him mortally, and, on his departure for Avignon in 1357 to assist the threatened pontiff, immediately conceded to the latter the supremacy of the senate. And the pope, instead of two senators, hastened to name a single one of foreign birth. This was a shrewd device of Albornoz and another blow to the nobles, with whom he was still at war. Thus was inaugurated, by the nomination of Raimondo de' Tolomei in 1358, a series of foreign senators, fulfilling tne functi°ns °f a podesta, and changed every six months, together with their staff of judges, notaries and knights. The people approved of this reform as being inimical to the nobles and favourable to the preservation of liberty. Hitherto the senators had been assisted, or rather kept in check, by the thirteen representatives of the regions. These were now replaced by seven reformers, in imitation of the priors of Florence, the better to follow that city's example. The reformers were soon the veritable chiefs of the republic. They first appeared in 1360, were either popolani or cavalier otti, and were elected by ballot every three months. When Albornoz returned to Italy, although desirous to keep Rome in the same subjection as the other cities, he had first to vanquish Ordelam and reduce Bologna. The latter enterprise was the more difficult task, and provoked a lengthy war with Matteo Visconti of Milan. Thus Rome, being left to herself, continued to be governed by her reformers; and the nobles, already shut out from power, were also excluded from the militia, which had been reorganized, like that of Florence, on the democratic system. Three thousand men, mostly archers, were enrolled under the command of two banderesi, " in the like- ness," says M. Villani, " of our gonfaloniers of the com- panies, " with four anlepositi constituting a supreme council of war. And the whole body was styled the " Felix Societas Balestrariorum et Pavesatorum. " It was instituted to support the reformers and re-establish order in the city and Campagna, to keep down the nobles and defend the republic. It fulfilled these duties with much, and sometimes excessive, severity. Banderesi and antepositi had seats in the special council beside those of the reformers, as, in Florence, the gonfaloniers of the companies were seated beside the priors. Later these officials The band- eretl. constituted the so-called signoria dei banderesi. In 1362, the Romans having subjected Velletri, which was defended by the nobles, the latter made a riot in Rome. Thereupon the banderesi drove them all from the city, killed some of their kindred, and did not even spare the cavallerotti. The fight became so furious that from gate to gate all Rome was in arms, and even mercen- aries were hired. But in the end renewed submission was made to the pope. On the death of Innocent VI. in 1362, an agreement was concluded with his successor, Urban V. (1362-70), also a French- man, who was obliged to give his sanction to the government of the reformers and banderesi. And then, Albornoz being recalled in disgrace to Avignon, and afterwards sent as legate to Naples, these Roman magistrates were able, with or without the co-operation of the foreign senator, to rule in their own way. They did justice on the nobles by hanging a few more; and they defended the city from the threatening attacks of the mercenaries, who had now become Italy's worst foes. It was at this period that the Roman statutes were revised and rearranged in the compilation erroneously attributed by some writers to Albornoz, which has come down to us supplemented by alterations of a later date. But now the popes, being no longer in safety at Avignon, really decided to return to Italy. Even Urban V. had to pay ransom to escape from the threatened attacks of the free com- panies. The Romans implored his return, and he was further urged to it by the Italian literati, with Petrarch at their head. In April 1367 he finally quitted Avignon, and, entering Rome on the 1 6th of October, was given the lordship of the city. Cardinal Albornoz had fallen mortally ill at Viterbo, but, though unable to accompany the pope to Rome, had, before dying, suggested his course of action. Certainly Urban showed much y^,, v acumen in profiting by the first burst of popular begins to enthusiasm to effect quick and dexterous changes in destroy the constitution of the republic. After naming a '*e senator, he abolished the posts of reformers and rePabllc- banderesi, substituting three conservators, or rather a species of municipal council, alone charged with judicial and adminis- trative powers, which has lasted to the present day. The thirteen leaders of the regions and the consuls of the gilds still sat in the councils, which were left unsuppressed. But all real power was in the hands of the pope, who, in Rome, as in his other cities, nominated the principal magistrates. Thus, by transforming political into civil institutions and concentrating the supreme authority in his own grasp, Urban V. dealt a mortal blow to the liberties of Rome. Yet he felt no sense of security among a people who, after the first rejoicings over the return of the Holy See, were always on the brink of revolt. Besides, he felt himself a stranger in Italy, and was so regarded. Accordingly, in April 1370 he decided to return to France; on the zoth of that month he wrote from Viterbo that no change was to be made in the government; and he died in Avignon on the ipth of December. The Romans retained the conservators, conferring on them the political power of the reformers; they re-established the banderesi with the Florentine title of executores jus- #e-es/a6- titiae and the four anlepositi with that of consiliarii. Ushmeat Thus the " Felix Societas Balestrariorum et Pave- %££,% satorum Urbis " was restored, and the two councils aadthe met as before. The new French pope, Gregory XI. ,*•«*• (1370-78), had to be content with obtaining supremacy over the senate and the possession of the castle of St Angelo. It was a difficult moment for him. The Florentines had come to an open rupture with his legates, and had adopted the expedient of inviting all the cities of the Roman state to redeem their lost freedom. Accordingly, in 1375 many of them rose against the legates, who were mostly French and regarded with dislike as foreigners. Florentine despatches, full of classical allusions and chiefly composed by the famous scholar Secretary Coluccio Salutati, were rapidly sent in all directions. Those addressed to the Romans were specially fervid, and emphatically appealed to their patriotism and memories of 68o ROME [MIDDLE AGES the past. But the Romans received them with doubt and mistrust, for they saw that the revolution threatened to dis- member the state, by promoting the independence of every separate city. Besides, while maintaining their republic, they also desired the pope's presence in Rome. Nevertheless, they went with the current to the extent of reforming their constitu- tion. In February 1376 they nominated Giovanni Cenci captain of the people, and gave him uncontrolled power over the towns of the patrimony and the Sabine land. The con- servators, with their new political authority, the executores, the antepositi and the two councils were all preserved, and a new magistracy was created, the " Tres Gubernatores Pacis et Libertatis Reipublicae Romanae." This answered to the Eight (afterwards Ten) of War in Florence, likewise frequently called the Eight of Liberty and Peace. It was this Council of Eight that was now directing the war against the pope and braving his -sentence of excommunication; and their fiery zeal had won them the title of the Holy Eight from the Florentines. Realizing that further absence would cost him his state, Gregory XI. quitted Avignon on the I3th of September 1376, and, reaching Corneto in December, despatched to Rome three legates, who, on the 2ist of the month, concluded an agree- ment with the parliament. The people gave up the gates, the fortresses and the Trastevere, and promised that if the pope returned to Rome he should have the same powers which had been granted to Urban V. But, on his side, he must pledge himself to maintain the executores and their council, and allow the Romans the right of reforming the banderesi, who would then swear fealty to him. The terms of this peace and the pope's epistles clearly prove that the two councils still exercised their functions, that the banderesi were still the virtual heads of the government, and that their suppression was not con- templated. In fact, when the pope made his entry on the i7th of January 1377, accompanied by two thousand armed men, he perceived that there was much public agitation, that the Romans did not intend to fulfil their agreement, and that the government of the banderesi went on as before. Accordingly, after naming Gomez Albornoz, a nephew of the deceased cardinal, to the office of senator, he retired to Anagni, and remained there until November 1377. The Romans presently waited on him with conciliating offers, and begged him to negotiate a peace for them with the prefect of Vico. In fact, the treaty was concluded at Anagni in October, and on the loth of November confirmed in Rome by the general council. The meeting was held in the great hall of the Capitol, ubi consilia generalia urbis fieri solent, in the presence of all the members of the republican government. But the pope was enraged by the survival of this government, and, being worn out by the persistent hostility of the Florentines, which reduced his power to a low ebb, had determined to make peace, when surprised by death on the 27th of March 1378. The next pope, Urban VI. (1378-89), a Neapolitan, was the spirit of discord incarnate. His election was not altogether regular: the French party among the cardinals was against him; and the people were ripe for insurrection. But, regardless of all this, Urban threatened the cardinals in his first con- sistory, saying that church reform must begin with them; and he used the same tone with the people, reproving them for failing to suppress the banderesi. In consequence of this the cardinals of the French party, assembling at Fondi, elected the antipope Clement VII. (1378-94) and started a long and painful schism in the church. Clement resided in Avignon, while Urban in Rome was engaged in opposing Queen Joanna I. of Naples and favouring Charles of Durazzo, who, on conquering the Neapolitan kingdom, was made gonfalonier of the church and senator of Rome, where he left a vicar as his deputy. Shortly afterwards the pope went to Naples, and made fierce war on the king. Then, after many .ad ventures, during which he tortured and put to death several cardinals whom he suspected of hostile intentions, he returned to Rome, where the utmost disorder prevaijed. The conservators and the banderesi were still at the head of the govern- urban vi. ment, and, the pope speedily falling out with them, under- a. riot ensued, after which he excommunicated the *"*" the banderesi. These at last made submission to him, t^a and Urban VI. became master of Rome before his of the death in 1389. He was succeeded by Boniface IX. npubiie. (1389-1404), another Neapolitan, but a man of greater shrewd- ness and capacity. His first act was to crown Ladislaus king of Naples, and secure the friendship and protection of this ambitious and powerful prince. In all the principal cities of the state he chose the reigning lords for his vicars. But he allowed, Fermo, Ascoli and Bologna the privilege of assuming their own vicariate for twenty-five years. And, as . these different potentates and governments had only to pay him an annual tribute, all parties were satisfied, and the pope was able to bestow at least an appearance of order and unity on his state. But fresh tumults soon arose, partly because the conservators and banderesi sought to govern on their own account, and especially because the pope seems for a time to have omitted naming the senator. Boniface was a prudent man; he saw that events were turning in his favour, now that throughout Italy liberty was tottering to its fall, and bided his time. He was satisfied for the moment by obtaining a recognition of the immunities of the clergy, rendering them solely amenable to ecclesiastical tribunals, and thus distinguish- ing the powers of the church from those of the state in Rome. The republic also pledged itself neither to molest the prelates nor to levy fresh contributions on them towards repairing the walls, to aid in recovering the estates of the church in Tuscia, and to try to conciliate the baronage. This concordat, concluded with the conservators and banderesi on the nth of September 1391, was also confirmed on the sth of March 1392 by the heads of the regions, together with a fresh treaty binding both parties to furnish a certain number of armed men to combat the prefect of Vico and the adherents of the antipope at Viterbo. With the exception of this city, Orchi and Civita Vecchia, all other conquered territory was to belong to the republic. But the Romans soon discovered that they were playing into the hands of the pope, who kept everything for himself, without even paying the troops. Upon this a riot broke out; Boniface fled to Perugia in October 139 2, and resolved to exact better terms when next recalled to Rome. Meanwhile the Romans subdued the prefect, captured Viterbo, and, being already repentant, handed it over to the pope and implored his return. He then proposed his own terms, which were approved, not only by the conservators, banderesi Boaitace and four councillors, but also by the special council IX- co°- and by the unanimous vote of a general assembly, ^°"^^e composed of the above-mentioned authorities, heads tion of regions, other officials and a hundred citizens of the (Sth August 1393). These terms prescribed that the «/>"**• pope was to elect the senator, and that, on his failing so to do, the conservators would carry on the government after swearing fealty to him. The senatorial function was to be neither controlled nor hampered by the banderesi. The immunities of the clergy were to be preserved, and all church property was to be respected by the magistrates. The expenses of the pope's journey were to be paid, and he was to be escorted to Rome in state. Boniface tried to complete his work by abolishing the banderesi, the last bulwarks of freedom; but the people, although weakened and weary, made efforts to preserve them and, although their fall was inevitable, the struggle went on for some time. During the spring of 1394 the banderesi provoked an insurrec- tion in which the pope's life was endangered; it was only saved by the arrival of King Ladislaus, who came from Naples with a large force in the early autumn. But for the Neapolitan soldiery Boniface could not have withstood the long series of revolts that continually exposed him to fresh perils and the anxiety caused by the persistent schism of the church. The death of Clement VTI. in 1394 was followed by the election of MIDDLE AGES] ROME 68 1 another antipope, Benedict XIII. But a new jubilee was in prospect for the year 1400, and this was always an efficacious Fall of means of bending the will of the Romans. Depending the band- upon this and the assistance of Ladislaus, Boniface ere si and not only demanded full powers to nominate senators rtf/Mfc. (none having been recently elected), but insisted on the suppression of the banderesi. Both requests were granted; but, directly Angelo Alaleoni was made senator, a conspiracy was hatched for the re-establishment of the banderesi. However, the pope felt sure of his strength; the plot was discovered and the conspirators were beheaded on the stairs of the Capitol. This proved the end of the banderesi and of the liberties of Rome. The government [was again directed by an alien senator together with three conservators; but the latter were gradually deprived of their political attributes, and became mere civil officers. The militia, regions, gilds and other associations now rapidly lost all political importance, and before long were little more than empty names. Thus in 1398 the Romans submitted to the complete sway of the pope, and in July of the same year the senator chosen by him was Malatesta dei Malatesti of Rimini, one of a line of tyrants, a valiant soldier, who was also temporal vicar and captain-general of the church. Boniface continued to appoint foreign senators during the rest of his life; he fortified the castle of St Angelo, the Vatican and the Capitol; he stationed galleys at the mouth of the Tiber, and proved himself in all things a thoroughly temporal prince. He aggrandized all his kindred, especially his brother, and, with the aid of his senator, his armed force and the protection of Ladislaus, succeeded in keeping down all the surviving nobles. In 1400, however, these made an attempt to upset the government. Niccolo Colonna forced his way into the city with cries of " Popolo, popolo! death to Boniface! " But the Romans had grown deaf to the voice of liberty; they refused to rise, and the senator, a Venetian named Zaccaria Trevisan, behaved with much energy. Colonna and his men had to beat a swift retreat to Palestrina. A charge of high treason was immediately instituted against him, and thirty-one rebels were beheaded. The pope then proclaimed a crusade against all the Colonna, and sent a body of two thousand men and some of the Neapolitan soldiery to attack them. Several of their estates were seized and devastated, but Palestrina continued to hold out, and on the 7th of January 1401 the Colonna finally made submission to the pope. Nevertheless, they obtained advantageous terms, for Boniface left them their lands, appointed them vicars of other territories, and made similar agreements with the Gaetani and Orsini. In this way he became absolute master of Rome. One chronicler remarks that " Romanis tanquam rigidus imperator dominabatur," and the same tone is taken by others. But he did not succeed in putting an end to the schism of the church, which was still going on when he died in the Vatican on the ist of October 1404. Innocent VII. (1404-6) was the next pope. He too was a Neapolitan, and on his election the people again rose in revolt and refused to acknowledge him unless he consented to resign the temporal power. But Ladislaus of Naples hastened to his help, and an agreement was made which, under the cover of ap- parent concessions, really riveted the people's chains. Rome was recognized as the seat of the temporal and spiritual sovereignty of the pope, and the pope continued to appoint the senator. The people were to elect seven governors of the city, who were to swear fealty to the pope and carry on the government in conjunction with three other governors chosen by the pontiff or Ladislaus. The stipulations of Boniface IX. concerning ecclesiastical immunities were again confirmed. The barons were forbidden to place more than five lances each at the service of the people, and — which was the real gist of the covenant — the people were henceforth forbidden to make laws or statutes without the permission of the pope. The captain of the people, deprived of his political and judicial functions and reduced to a simple judge, was also to be chosen by the pope. But this treaty, drawn up on the 27th of October 1404, was not signed at the time, and many difficulties and disturbances arose when its terms were to be put into effect. The Romans nominated the seven governors, but, without waiting until the pope had chosen three more, placed the state in their hands, and styled them " governors of the liberty of the Roman Hepublic." They were, in fact, banderesi or reformalori under a new name. But the attempt proved inefficacious, for, at the pope's first threat of departure, the Romans made their submission, and the treaty of October was subscribed on the isth of May 1405. Never- theless, as it only bears the signatures of the " seven governors of the liberty of the Roman Republic," the pope would seem to have made some concessions. His position was by no means assured. Ladislaus was known to aspire to absolute dominion in Italy, and, although willing to aid in suppressing the republic, tried to prepare the way for his own designs, and frequently held out a helping hand to the vanquished. On the 6th of August fourteen influential citizens of Rome boldly presented themselves at the Vatican, and in a threatening manner called the pope to account for giving his whole attention to worldly things, instead of endeavouring to put a stop to the schisms of the church. But, on leaving his presence, they were attacked by Luigi Migliorati, the pope's nephew, and notorious for his violence, who killed eleven of their number, including several heads of the regions and two of the governors. An insurrection ensued, and the pope and his nephew fled to Viterbo. The Colonna tried to profit by these events, and applied to Ladis- laus, who, hoping that the moment had come to make himself master of Rome, sent the count of Troia thither with a troop of three thousand horse. But the people', enraged by this treachery, and determined not to fall under the yoke of Naples, awoke for an instant to the memory of their past glories, and bravely repulsed the Colonna and the Neapolitans. And, on the speedy arrival of the Orsini with some of the papal troops, the people voluntarily restored the papal government, and, assembling the parliament, besought the pope to return on his own terms. Accordingly, after first naming Francesco Pancia- tichi of Pistoia to the senatorship, the pope came back on the I3th of March 1406, bringing his whole curia with him, and also the murderer Migliorati, who, triumphing in impunity, became more arrogant than before. Here indeed was a proof that the Romans were no longer worthy of liberty! And now, by means of the Orsini, Innocent had only to reduce the Colonna and other nobles raised to power by Ladislaus; nor was this very difficult, seeing that the king, in his usual fashion, abandoned them to their fate, and, making terms with the pope, was named gonfalonier of the church and again protected her cause. Innocent, dying in 1406, was succeeded by Gregory XII., a Venetian, who, as we shall presently see, resigned the chair in 1415. On his accession, finding his state firmly established, he seemed to be seriously bent on putting an end to the Great Schism, and for that purpose arranged a meeting with the antipope Benedict XIII. at the congress of Savona in 1408. But Gregory and Benedict only used the congress as a pretext for making war upon each other, and were urged on by Ladis- laus, who hoped by weakening both to gain possession of Rome, where, although opposed by the Orsini, he had the support of the Colonna. Gregory, who had then fled from Rome, made a momentary attempt to win the popular favour by restoring the government of the banderesi; but Ladislaus marched into Rome in June 1408 and established a senator of his Ladislaus own. Meanwhile the two popes were continuing matter of their shameful struggle, and the council of Pisa (March Wo™'- 1409), in attempting to check it, only succeeded in raising up a third pontiff, first in the person of Alexander V. (1409-10), and then in the turbulent Baldassare Cossa, who assumed the name of John XXIII. The latter began by sending a large contingent to assist Louis of Anjou against Ladislaus. But the enterprise failed, and, seeing himself deserted by all, Pope John next embraced the cause of his foe by naming him gonfalonier of the church. Thereupon Ladislaus concluded a sham peace, and then, seizing Rome, put it to the sack and established his own government there. Thus John, like the other two popes, 682 ROME [MIDDLE AGES became a wanderer in Italy. In August 1414 Ladislaus died, and was succeeded by the scandalous Queen Joanna II. The Roman people promptly expelled the Neapolitans, and Cardinal Isolani, John's legate, succeeding in rousing a reaction in favour of the church, constituted a government of thirteen " conser- vators" on the igth of October. In November 1414 the council of Constance assembled, and at last ended the schism by deposing all the popes Bad and incarcerating John XXIII., the most lurbulent of the of the three. On the nth of November 1417 Oddo "aad^ec- c°l°nna was unanimously elected to the papal chair; t ion of he was consecrated in the cathedral on the 27th as Martin v. Pope Martin V., and, being acknowledged by all, hastened without delay to take possession of his see. Mean- while disorder was at its height in Rome. The cardinal legate Rome la Isolani governed as he best could, while the castle a state of of St Angelo remained in the hands of the Nea- anarchy. politans, who still had a party in the city. In this divided state of affairs, Braccio, a daring captain of adventurers, nicknamed Fortebraccio, was inspired with the idea of making himself master of Rome. Overcoming the feeble resistance opposed to him, he succeeded in this on the i6th of June 1416, and assumed the title of " Defensor Urbis." But Joanna of Naples despatched Sforza, an equally valiant captain, against him, and, without offering battle, Fortebraccio withdrew on the z6th of August, after having been absolute master of the Eternal City for seventy days. Sforza marched in on the 2 7th and took possession of the city in the name of Joanna. Martin V. instantly proved himself a good states- man. He confirmed the legate Isolani as his vicar and Giovanni Savelli as senator. Leaving Constance on the i6th of May 1418, he reached Milan on the 1 2th of October, and slowly proceeded on his journey. While in Florence he despatched his brother and nephew to Naples to make alliance with Joanna, and caused her to be crowned on the 28th of October 1419 by his legate Morosini. Upon this she promised to give up Rome to the pope. Her general, Sforza, then entered the service of Martin V., and compelled Fortebraccio, who was lingering in a threatening attitude at Perugia, to make peace with the pope. The latter entrusted Fortebraccio with the conduct of the campaign against Bologna, and that city was reduced to submission on the isth of July 1420. The Romans had already yielded to Martin's brother the legate, and now earnestly besought the arrival of their pope. Accordingly, he left Florence on the igth of September 1420, and entered the Vatican on the 28th. Rome was in ruins; nobility and burghers were equally disorganized, the people unable to bear arms and careless of their rights, while the battered walls of the Capitol recorded the fall of two republics. Martin V. had now to fulfil a far more difficult task than that of taking possession of Rome. Throughout Italy municipal The popes freedom was overthrown, and the Roman Republic ofthe had ceased to exist. The Middle Ages were ended; Reaais- the Renaissance was beginning. The universal unity both of church and of empire was dissolved; the empire was now Germanic, and derived its principal strength from direct dominion over a few provinces. Independent and national states were already formed or forming on all sides. The papacy itself had ceased to claim universal supremacy over the world's governments, and the possession of a temporal state had become essential to its existence. In fact, Martin V. was the first of the series of popes who were real sovereigns, and more occupied with politics than religion. Involved in all the foreign intrigues, falsehoods and treacheries of Italian diplomacy in the 1 5th century, their internal policy was imbued with all the arts practised by the tyrants of the Renaissance, and nepotism became necessarily the basis of their strength. It was natural that men suddenly elected sovereigns of a new country where they had no ties, and of which they had often no knowledge, should seek to strengthen their position by aggrandizing so-called nephews who were not unfrequently their sons. Martin V. reduced the remains of the free Roman govern- ment to a mere civil municipality. Following the method of the other despots of Italy, the old republican The institutions were allowed to retain their names temporal and forms, their administrative and some of their kingdom judicial attributes, while all their political functions ' were transferred to the new government. Order ra&ttfon was re-established, and justice rigidly observed, the ruins Many rebellious places were subdued by the sword, °ftne and many leaders of armed bands were hanged. The npu ' pope, however, was forced to lean on his kinsmen the Colonna and again raise them to power by grants of vast fiefs both in his own state and the Neapolitan territory. And, after first supporting Joanna II., who had assisted his entry into Rome, he next sided with her adversary, Louis of Anjou, and then with Alphonso of Aragon, the conqueror of both and the constant friend of the pope, who at last felt safe on his throne. Rome now enjoyed order, peace and security, but had lost all hope of liberty. And when Martin died (20th February 1431) these words were inscribed on his tomb, " Temporum suorum felicitas. " Eugenius IV. (1431-47) leant on the Orsini, and was fiercely opposed by the Colonna, who excited the people against him. Accordingly on the 2gth of May 1434 the Romans rose A nvoiu. in revolt to the old cry of " Popolo e popolo, " and tioa again constituted the rule of the seven governors expels the of liberty. The pope fled by boat down the Tiber, pope- and, being pursued with stones and shots, narrowly escaped with his life. On reaching Florence, he turned his energies to the recovery of the state. It was necessary to quell the people; but, first of all, the Colonna and the clan of the prefects of Vico, with their renewed princely power, had to be overthrown. The Orsini were still his friends. Eugenius entrusted the campaign to Patriarch (afterwards Cardinal) Vitelleschi, a worthy successor of Albornoz, and of greater ferocity if less talent. This leader marched his army towards Rome, and, instantly attacking Giovanni, prefect of Vico, captured and beheaded him. The family was now extinguished; and its possessions reverting to the church, the greater part of them were sold or given to Count Everso d'Anguillara, of the house of Orsini. The prefecture, now little more than an honorary title, was bestowed at will by the popes. Eugenius gave it to Francesco, founder of the powerful line of the Gravina- Orsini. Thus one noble family was raised to greatness while another perished by the sword. Vitelleschi had already begun to persecute the Colonna and the Savelli, and committed terrible slaughter among them. Many castles were demolished, many towns destroyed; and their inhabitants, driven to wander famine-stricken over the Campagna, had to sell themselves as slaves for the sake of bread. Finally the arrogant patriarch marched into Rome, as into a conquered city, at the head of his men, and the Romans crouched at his feet. The pope now began to distrust him, and sent Scarampo, another prelate of the same stamp, to take his place. This new com- mander soon arrived, and, perceiving that Vitelleschi proposed to resist, had him surrounded by his soldiers, Eugenia* who were obliged to use force to compel his surrender, resumes Vitelleschi was carried bleeding to the castle of St Angelo, where he soon afterwards died. The pope at last returned to Rome in 1443, and remained there quietly till his death in 1447. His successor Nicholas V. (1447-55) was a scholar solely devoted to the patronage of literati and artists. During his reign there was a fresh attempt to restore the republic, but it was rather prompted by literary and classical enthusiasm than by any genuine patriotic ardour. Political passions and interests had ceased to exist. The conspiracy Coum was headed by Stefano Porcari, a man of the people, soiracyol who claimed to be descended from Cato. He had pg^rf. once been captain of the people in Florence, and was made podesta of Bologna by Eugenius IV. He was a caricature of Cola di Rienzi, and extravagantly proud of his POST-MEDIEVAL ROME] ROME 683 Latin speeches in honour of ancient republican liberty. The admiration of antiquity was then at its height, and Porcari found many enthusiastic hearers. Directly after the death of Eugenius IV. he made a first and unsuccessful attempt to pro- claim the republic. Nevertheless Nicholas V., with the same indulgence for scholars that had prompted him to pardon Valla for denying the temporal power of the papacy and laughing to scorn the pretended donation of Constantine, freely pardoned Porcari and named him podesta of Ariagni. He filled this office with credit, but on his return to Rome again began to play the agitator, and was banished to Bologna with a pension from the pope. Nicholas V. had conferred all the state offices upon priests and abbots, and had erected numerous fortresses. Hence there were many malcontents in Rome, in communica- tion with Porcari at Bologna, and ready to join in his plot. Arms were collected, and on the day fixed he presented himself to his fellow-conspirators adorned with rich robes and a gold chain, and harangued them in Latin on the duty of freeing their country from the yoke of the priests. His design was to set fire to the Vatican on the 6th of January 1453, the feast of the Epiphany; he and his followers were to seize the pope, the cardinals and the castle of St Angelo. But Nicholas received timely warning; the conspirators' house was sur- rounded; and Porcari himself was seized while trying to escape, confined in the castle of St Angelo, and put to death with nine of his companions on the 9th of January. Others shortly suffered the same fate. Under Calixtus III. and Pius II. affairs went on quietly enough, but Paul II. (1464-71) had a somewhat troubled reign. Yet he was a skilled politician. He re-ordered the finances and the courts of justice, punished crime with severity, was an energetic foe to the Malatesta of Rimini, put an end to the oppression exercised in Rome by the wealthy and arrogant house of Anguillara, and kept the people in good humour with continual festivities. But — and this was a grave defect at that period — he extended no favour to learning, and, by driving many scholars from the curia to make room for his own kinsmen, brought a storm about his ears. At that time the house of Pomponio Leto was the rendezvous of learned men and the seat of the Roman Academy. Leto was an enthusiast of antiquity; and, as the members of the Academy all assumed old Latin names, they were suspected of a design Meaof to re-establish paganism and the republican govern- learniag ment. It is certain that they all inveighed against perse- the pope; and, as the latter was no man of half susC during the carnival of 1468 he suddenly ot re. imprisoned twenty Academicians, and even subjected publican a few of them to torture. Pomponio Leto, although te"~ absent in Venice, was also arrested and tried; but he exculpated himself, craved forgiveness, and was set at liberty. His friends were also released, for the charge of conspiracy proved to be unfounded. Certain members of the Academy, and notably Platina in his Lives of the Popes, afterwards revenged themselves by stigmatizing Paul II. as the persecutor of philosophy and letters. But he was no more a persecutor than a patron of learning; he was a politician, the author of some useful reforms, and solely intent on the consolidation of his absolute power. Among his reforms may be classed the revision of the Roman statutes in 1469, for the purpose of destroying the substance while preserving the form of the old Roman legislation, and entirely stripping it of all political significance. In fact the pope's will was now ab- solute, and even in criminal cases he could trample unhindered on the common law. There was still a senator of Rome, whose nomination was entirely in the hands of the pope, still three conservators, the heads of the rioni, and an elected council of twenty-six citizens. Now and then also a shadowy semblance of a popular assembly was held to cast dust in the eyes of the public, but even this was not for long. All these officials, together with the judges of the Capitol, retained various attributes of different kinds. They administered justice and gave sentence. There were numerous tribunals all with undefined modes of procedure, so that it was very difficult for the citizens to ascertain in which court justice should be sought. But in last resort there was always the supreme decision of the pope. Thus matters remained to the time of the French Revolution. For the completion of this system a final blow had to be dealt to the aristocracy, whose power had been increased by nepotism; and it was dealt by bloodshed under the three following popes — Sixtus IV. (1471-84), Innocent VIII. (1484-92) and Alexander VI. (1492-1503) — each of whom was worse than his predecessor. The first, by means of his nephews, continued the slaughter of the Colonna, sending an army against them, devastating their estates at Marino, and beheading the protonotary Lorenzo Colonna. Innocent VIII. was confronted by the power of the Orsini, who so greatly endangered his life by their disturbances in the city that he was only saved by an alliance with Naples. Neither peace nor order could be lastingly established until these arrogant barons were overthrown. This task was accom- plished by the worst of the three pontiffs, Alexander VI. All know how the massacre of the Orsini was compassed, almost simultaneously, by the pope in Rome and his equally iniquitous son, Caesar Borgia, at Sinigaglia (1502). This pair dealt the last blow to the Roman aristocracy and the tyrants of Romagna, and thus the temporal dominion of the papacy was finally assured. The republic was now at an end; it had shrivelled to a civil municipality. Its institutions, deprived of all practical value, lingered on like ghosts of the past, subject from century to century to unimportant changes. The history of Rome is henceforth absorbed in that of the papacy. ' Nevertheless the republic twice attempted to rise from its grave, and on the second occasion gave proofs of heroism worthy of its most glorious past. It was first resus- Poglf citated in February 1798, by the influence of the medieval French Revolution, and the French constitution of Rome. the year III. was rapidly imitated. Rome had again two councils — the tribunate and the senate, with five consuls con- stituting the executive power. But in the following year, owing to the military reverses of the French, the government of the popes was restored until 1809, when Napoleon I. annexed to his empire the States of the Church. Rome was then governed by a consulta straordinaria — a special commission — with the municipal and provincial institutions of France. In 1814 the papal government was again reinstated, and the old institutions, somewhat modified on the French system, were recalled to life. Pius IX. (1846-77) tried to introduce political reforms, and to improve and simplify the old machineiy of state; bat the advancing. tide of the Italian revolution of 1848 drove him from Rome; the republic was once more proclaimed, and had a brief but glorious existence. Its programme was dictated by Giuseppe Mazzini, who with Saffi and Armellini formed the triumvirate at the head of the government. United Italy was to be a republic with Rome for her capital. The rhetorical idea of Cola di Rienzi became heroic in 1849. The constituent assembly (gth February 1849) proclaimed the fall of the tem- poral power of the popes, and the establishment of a republic which was to be not only of Rome but of all Italy. France, although then herself a republic, assumed the unenviable task of re-establishing the temporal power by force of arms. But the gallant defence of Rome by Garibaldi covered the republic with glory. The enemy was repulsed, and the army of the Neapolitan king, sent to restore the pope, was also driven off. Then, however, France despatched a fresh and more powerful force; Rome was vigorously besieged, and at last compelled to surrender. On the 2nd of July 1849 the heroic general departed from the city with some thousands of his followers. Almost at the same time the constituent assembly proclaimed in the Capitol the constitution of the Roman Republic. Immedi- ately afterwards the French restored the government of Pius IX., whose reign down to 1870 was that of an absolute sovereign. Then the Italian government entered Rome (2oth September 1870), proclaimed the national constitution (gth October 1870), and the Eternal City became the capital of Italy. Thus the 684 ROME scheme of national unity, the natural outcome of the history of Rome and of Italy, impossible of accomplishment under the rule of the popes, was finally achieved by the monarchy of Savoy, which, as the representative and personification of Italian interests, abolished the temporal power of the papacy and made Rome the seat of government of the united country (see ITALY). AUTHORITIES. — The history of the commune of Rome in the middle ages has to be collected from the scattered materials in special treatises, or from the general histories of the papacy. The greater part of the facts are to be found in the Liber Pontificahs, edited by the Abb<5 Duchesne (2 vols., Paris, 1886-92), and in the excellent histories of Rome by Felix Papencordt and Gregorovius (see below). Vitale, Storia diplomatica de Senatori di Roma (2 vols., Rome, i TO i ) ; Galletti, Del primicerio della Santa Seda A postolica e di altri umciali maggiori del sagro palazzo Lateranense (Rome, 1776); Vendettini, Del Senate Romano (Rome, 1782); Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici, continued by Raynaldus (42 vols. fol., 1738-56), and the recent continuations of Theiner relating to the years 1572-85 ; J. Picker, Forschungen zur Reichs- tmd Rechtsgeschichte Italiens (4 vols., Innsbruck, 1868-74); Sayigny, Geschichte des romischen Rechts im Mittelalter (frequently reprinted and translated into all the principal languages); Leo, Entwickelung der Verfassung der lom- bardischen Slddte (Hamburg, 1824); M. A. von Bethmann-Hollweg, Ursprung der lombardischen Stadtefreiheit (Anhang: Schicksale der romischen Stadtver fas sung im Exarchat und in Rom) (Bonn, 1846) ; Hegel, Geschichte der Stddteverfassung von Italien (Leipzig, 1847) ; Giesebrecht, " Ueber die stadtischen Verhaltnisse im X. Jahrhun- dert," at end of vol. i. of Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Brunswick, 1863) ; " Studi e documenti di Storia e Diritto," in Annuario di Conferenze storico-giuridiche (Rome, 1880 seq.); Archivio della Reale Societil Romana dt, Storia Patria (the other publications of the same society, as, e.g. the Regesto di Farfa, may also be consulted with advantage) ; F. Papencordt, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Paderbprn, 1857); Id. Cola diRienzo (Hamburg, 1841); Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (8 vols., Stuttgart, finished in 1872; 3rd ed., Stuttgart, 1875-81); A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (3 vols., Berlin, 1867-68). Among more recent works see especially M. Creighton, History of the Papacy (London, 1897) ; L. Pastor, Geschichte der Pdpste seit dem Ansgang des Mitielalters (Freiburg i/B., 1886, &c.), a learned work, but wrilten in an extremely clerical spirit; more impartial, although written by a Jesuit, is P. H. Grisar's Storia di Roma e del Papi nel Media Evo (Italian edition, Rome, 1899, &c., not yet completed). For the history of the republic in 1849 accounts will be found in all the histories of the Italian Risorgimento (see under ITALY). A very important and complete work on the events of Rome in 1848-49 is G. Trevelyan's Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic (London, 1907), which contains a full bibliography. (P. V.) , ROME, a province of modern Italy, co-extensive with the compartimento of Lazio, but really covering a considerably larger area than the ancient Latium, even including Latium adjectum. On the S.E. and E. alone it does not extend so far, the boundary being that between the former papal states and the kingdom of Naples, running from a point S.E. of Ter- racina along the eastern edge of the Volscian mountains to Ceprano, and thence along the Liris valley. It then runs N.E. through the mountains to Carsoli, being conterminous with the Abruzzi; it then includes part of the ancient Sabine country, reaching the Tiber near the railway station of Fara Sabina, 25 m. N. of Rome. It follows the river for some dis- tance, where it is conterminous with Umbria, and then runs S.W. to the coast, where it is conterminous with the province of Grosseto (Tuscany), thus including a considerable portion of the ancient Etruria. The resident population in 1901 was estimated at 1,196,909 (including Rome itself, 520,196), and the floating population, Italian and foreign, 54,383. In 1907 the total number was calculated at 1,278,000. In 1871 the aggregate population was only 836,704. Emigration rose from 2222 in 1896 to 18,507 in 1906, there being a great rise in 1905, as over all Italy. The economic crisis in the United States in 1907, led, however, to a set-back, many emigrants being obliged to return to Italy for lack of work. Alum is extracted from the mines principally near Tolfa. At Filettino above Subiaco asphaltic rock is obtained, and salt from a rocksalt mine near Corneto Tarquinia. Chemical fertilizers are manufactured by several firms. The main industries of the district are, however, agricultural (see LATIUM). ROME, a city and the county-seat of Floyd county, in the N.W. part of Georgia, U.S.A., at the junction of the Etowah and Oostanaula rivers, which here form the Coosa. Pop. (1900) 7291, of whom 2830 were negroes; (1910) 12,099. It is served by the Central of Georgia, the Western & Atlantic (leased by the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis), the Southern and the Rome & Northern railways, and the Coosa river is navigable from this i point to the falls of the river in Alabama. The city is the seat 1 of Shorter College (for women), which was established in 1873 as the Cherokee Female College, and received its present name in 1877, when it was rebuilt and endowed by Colonel Alfred Shorter; and of the Berry Industrial School (1902), for mountain boys. Rome is situated in a rich agricultural region producing cotton, cereals, vegetables and fruits, for which it is a trading centre, and is a shipping point for bauxite, mined in the vicinity. Other mineral products of this region are iron, limestone, cement rock, fire-brick clay, coal, slate and marble. Rome's principal manufactures are cotton, cotton-seed oil, lumber, foundry and machine-shop products, bricks and agricultural implements. Its site was originally within the territory of the Cherokee, and on the other side of the Oostanaula river there is said to have been at one time an Indian village, which, like several other Creek villages, was called Chiaha (or Chehaw). Here, in October 1793, in his Etowah campaign, John Sevier, with militia from Tennessee, crushed a party of marauding Indians; the battle is commemorated by a monument in Myrtle Hill cemetery. Floyd county was erected in 1833. The first settlement of Rome was made in 1834, and immedi- ately afterwards it became the county-seat. Rome was first chartered as a city in 1847. In 1863 there were brilliant cavalry manoeuvres in its vicinity, which resulted in the capture (May 3) of Colonel Abel D. Streight (Federal) with 1800 men by General Nathan B. Forrest (Confederate), with a force one-third the size of that of his opponent. On the igth of May 1864 the city was captured by a detachment of the Federal Army of General William T. Sherman, then conducting his Atlanta campaign. In 1848-75 Rome was the home of Charles Henry Smith (1826- 1903), a popular humorist, who wrote under the name " Bill Arp." In 1906 East Rome (pop. 671 in 1900) and North Rome (pop. 960 in 1900), which was formerly called Forestville, were annexed to the city. ROME, a city of Oneida county, New York, U.S.A., on the Mohawk river and Wood Creek, and the Erie and the Black river canals, 14 m. W.N.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890) 14,991; (1900) 15.343. of whom 2527 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 20,497. Rome is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg (controlled by the New York Central), the New York, Ontario & Western, and the Utica & Mohawk Valley (electric) railways. It is about 450 ft. above sea-level. The city is the seat of the Academy of the Holy Names (opened in 1865 as St Peter's Academy), of the State Custodial Asylum for unteachable idiots, of the Central New York Institution for Deaf Mutes (1875), and of the Oneida County Home. The Jervis Public Library (1895), founded by John Bloomfield Jervis (1795-1885), a famous railway engineer, had in 1909 about 15,000 volumes. The surrounding country is devoted largely to farming, especially vegetable gardening, and to dairying. Among the manufactures are brass and copper work, wire for electrical uses, foundry and machine-shop products, locomotives, knit goods, tin cans and canned goods (especially vegetables). In 1005 the value of the factory products was $8,631,427 (55-6% more than in 1900). The portage at this place between the Mohawk river and Wood Creek, which are about i m. apart, gave the site its Indian name, De-o-wain-sta, " place where canoes are carried from one stream to another," and its earliest English name, " The Great (or Oneida) Carrying-Place," and gave it strategic value as a key between the Mohawk Valley and Lake Ontario. About 1725 there were built, to protect the carrying-place here, Fort Bull, on Wood Creek, which was surprised and taken by French and Indians in March 1756, and Fort Williams, on the Mohawk, which, like Fort Craven, also on the Mohawk, was destroyed by Colonel Daniel Webb after the reduction of Oswego by the French ROME DE L'ISLE— ROMILLY, IST BARON 685 in August 1756. General John Stanwix built Fort Stanwix here at an expense of £60,000, and the first permanent settlement dates from about this time. In October-November 1768, Sir William Johnson and representatives of Virginia and Pennsyl- vania met 3200 Indians of the Six Nations here and made a treaty with them, under which, for £10,460 in money and provisions, they surrendered to the crown their claims to what is now Kentucky and West Virginia and the western part of Pennsylvania. Of this cession the part which lay in Pennsyl- vania was secured by purchase from the Indians for the pro- prietors Richard and Thomas Penn (see PITTSBURG). The fort was- dismantled immediately afterward. After 1776, when it was partly repaired by Colonel Elias Dayton, it was called by the continentals Fort Schuyler, in honour of General Philip Schuyler, and so is sometimes confused with (old) Fort Schuyler at Utica. The third regiment of the New York line under Colonel Peter Gansevoort occupied the fort in April 1777 and completed the repairs begun in 1776; on the 3rd of August in the same year (one month before the official announcement by Congress of the design of the flag) the first flag of the United States, made according to the enactment of the i4th of June and used in battle, was raised here: it was made from various pieces of cloth. On the 2nd of August an advance party of Colonel Barry St Leger's forces coming from the west arrived before the fort, and the main body (altogether about 650 whites, including loyalists — the Royal Greens — under Sir John Johnson, and more than 800 Indians, some led by Joseph Brant) arrived soon afterwards. The fort then contained about 750 men under Colonel Gansevoort, with Lieut. -Colonel Marinus Willett as second in command. The danger to the fort roused General Nicholas Herkimer to gather a force of between 700 and 1000 men (including some Oneida Indians), who during their advance on the 6th of August were ambuscaded in a ravine near Oriskany (f turning it to the purposes of satirical invective and descriptive narration. But that work is, as has been said, very extensive (we possess at a rough guess not much short of a hundred thousand lines of his), and it is extraordinarily varied in form. He did not introduce the sonnet into France, but he practised it very soon after its introduc- tion and with admirable skill — the famous " Quand vous serez bien vieille " being one of the acknowledged gems of French literature. His odes, which are very numerous, are also very interesting and in their best shape very perfect compositions. He began by imitating the strophic arrangement of the ancients, but very soon had the wisdom to desert this for a kind of adjustment of the Horatian ode :o rhyme, instead of exact quantitative metre. In this latter kind !ie devised some exquisitely melodious rhythms of which, till our own day, the secret died with the I7th century. His more sustained work sometimes displays a bad selection of measure; and his occasional poetry — epistles, eclogues, elegies, &c. — is injured by ts vast volume. But the preface to the Franc.iade is a very fine piece of verse, far superior (it is in alexandrines) to the poem itself, generally speaking, Ronsard is best in his amatory verse (the long series of sonnets and odes to Cassandre, Marie, Genevre, Helene— He'l&ne de Surgeres, a later and mainly " literary " love— -&c.), and n his descriptions of the country (the famous " Mignonne aliens roir si la rose," the " Fontaine Bellerie," the " Foret de Gastine," and so forth), which have an extraordinary grace and freshness. No one used with more art than he the graceful diminutives which RONSDORF— RONTGEN, D. 693 his school set in fashion. He knew well too how to manage the gorgeous adjectives (" marbrine," " cinabrine," " ivoirine " and the like) which were another fancy of the Pleiade, and in his hands they rarely become stiff or cumbrous. In short, Ronsard shows eminently the two great attractions of French 16th-century poetry as compared with that of the two following ages — magnificence of language and imagery and graceful variety of metre. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chief separately published works of Ronsard are noted above. He produced, however, during his life a vast number of separate publications, some of them mere pamphlets or broadsheets, which from time to time he collected, often striking out others at the same time, in the successive editions of his works. Of these he himself published seven— the first in 1560, the last in 1584. Between his death and the year, 1630 ten more complete editions were published, the most famous of which is the folio of 1609. A copy of this presented by Sainte-Beuve to Victor Hugo, and later in the possession of M. Maxime du Camp, has a place of its own in French literary history. The work of C. Binet in 1586, Discours de la vie de Pierre de Ronsard, is very important for early information, and the author seems to have revised some of Ronsard's work under the poet's own direction. From 1630 Ronsard was not again reprinted for more than two centuries. Just before the close of the second, however, Sainte-Beuve printed a selection of his poems to accompany the above-mentioned Tableau (1828). There are also selections by M. Noel (in the Collection Didot) and Becq de Fouquidres. In 1857 M. Prosper Blanchemain, who had previously published a volume of (Euvres inedites de Ronsard, undertook a complete edition for the Bibliotheque Elzevirienne. The eighth and last volume of this appeared ten years later. It is practically complete; a few pieces of a somewhat free character which are ascribed with some certainty to the poet are, however, excluded. A later and better edition still is that of Marty-Layeaux (1887-1893), and another that of B. Pifteau (1891). As for criticism, Sainte-Beuve followed up his early work by articles in the Causeries du lundi, and the chief later critics have dealt with him in their collected works. Of books may be mentioned those of E. Gandar (Metz, 1 854) .which considers him chiefly in his relation to the ancients, Ronsard, imitateur d'Homere et de Pindare; the marquis de Rocham- beau, La Famille de Ronsard (1868) ; G. Scheffler, Ronsard et sa reforme litteraire (1874); G. Bizos, Ronsard (1891); the Abb6 Froger, Les Premieres poesies de Ronsard (1892); L. Mellerio, Lexigue de Ron- sard (1895); P. Perdrizet, Ronsard et la reforme (1902), with a still more recent series of articles in different publications by M. Paul Lemonnier. In English Mr A. Tilley's Literature of the French Renaissance (1904) may be consulted, and on Ronsard's critical standpoint Saintsbury's History of Criticism, vol. ii. (G. SA.) RONSDORF, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, situated on the Morsbach, a small affluent of the Rhine, 18 m. E. of Dusseldorf and 5 m. S. of Elberfeld-Barmen by rail. Pop. (1905) 14,005. It is the seat of iron, steel and copper industries, besides carrying on extensive manufactures of ribbons, trimmings and silk goods generally. It has also breweries, distilleries and electrical works. Founded in 1737 by the followers of Elias Eller, a religious enthusiast, Ronsdorf received civic rights in 1745. The Rons- dorf sect, the members of which called themselves Zionites, is now extinct. RONTGEN, DAVID, sometimes called DAVID DE LUNEVILLE (1743-1807), German cabinet-maker, eldest son of Abraham Rontgen, was born at Herrenhag. In 1753 his father migrated to the Moravian settlement at Neuwied, near Coblenz, where he established a furniture factory. He learned his trade in his father's workshop, and succeeded to the paternal business in 1772, when he entered into some kind of partnership with the clock-maker Kintzing. At that time the name of the firm appears already to have been well known, at all events in France; but it is a curious circumstance that although he is always reckoned as one of the little band of foreign cabinet- makers and workers in marquetry who, like Oeben and Riesener, achieved distinction in France during the superb floraison of the Louis Seize style, he never ceased to live at Neuwied, where apparently the whole of his furniture was made, and merely had a shop, or show-room, in Paris. We have, as it happens, a record of his first appearance there. The engraver Wille enters in his journal of August 30, 1774, that " M. Rontgen, c61ebre 6beniste, etabli a Nieuwied, pres de Coblenz, m'est venu voir, en m'apportant une lettre de recommandation de M. Zick, peintre a Coolenz . . . Comme M. Rontgen con- naissait personne a Paris, je lui fus utile en lui enseignant quelques sculpteurs et dessinateurs dont il avail besoin." Rontgen was first and foremost an astute man of business and it is not improbable that the moving cause of this opening up of relations with Paris was the accession to the throne of Marie Antoinette, whose Teutonic sympathies were only too well known. Before very long she appointed him her ibtniste- mtchanicien. He appears, indeed, to have acquired con- siderable favour with the queen, for on several occasions she took advantage of his journeys through Europe to charge him with the delivery of presents and of dolls dressed in the Paris fashions of the moment — they were intended to serve as patterns for the dressmakers — to her mother and her sisters. He appears at once to have opened a shop in Paris, but despite, and perhaps because of, the favour in which he was held at court, all was not plain sailing. The powerful trade corporation of the maitres-ebenistes disputed his right to sell in Paris furniture of foreign manufacture, and in 1780 he found that the most satisfactory way out of the difficulty was to get himself admitted a member of the corporation to which all his great rivals belonged. By this time he had attracted a good deal of attention by the introduction of a new style of marquetry, in which light and shade, instead of being represented as hitherto by burning, smoking or engraving the materials, were indicated by small pieces of wood so arranged as to create the impression of pietra dura. We have seen that Rontgen had been appointed ebeniste-mechanicien to Marie Antoinette, and the appoint- ment is explained by his fondness for and proficiency in con- structing furniture in which mechanical devices played a great part. The English cabinet-makers of the later eighteenth century often made what was called, with obvious allusion to its character, " harlequin furniture," especially little dressing- tables and washstands which converted into something else or held their essentials in concealment until a spring was touched. David was a past master in this kind of work, and unquestion- ably much of the otherwise inexplicable reputation he enjoyed among contemporaries who were head and shoulders above him is explained by his mechanical genius. The extent of his fame in this direction is sufficiently indicated by the fact that Goethe mentions him in Wilhelm Meister. He compares the box inhabited by the fairy during her travels with her mortal lover to one of Rontgen's desks, in which " at a pull a multitude of springs and latches are set in motion." For a desk of this kind Louis XVI. paid him 80,000 livres. Outwardly it was in the form of a commode, its marquetry panels symbolizing the liberal arts. A personification of sculpture was in the act of engraving the name of Marie Antoinette upon a column to which Minerva was hanging her portrait. Above a riot of architectural orders was a musical clock (the work of the partner Kintzing), surmounted by a cupola representing Par- nassus. The interior of this monumental effort, n ft. high, was a marvel of mechanical precision; it disappeared during the First Empire. Rontgen did not confine his activities to Paris, or even to France. It has been said that he travelled about Europe accompanied by furniture vans, and undoubtedly his aptitude as a commercial traveller was remarkable. He had shops in Berlin and St Petersburg, and himself apparently twice went to Russia. On one of these visits he sold to the Empress Catherine furniture to the value of 20,000 roubles, to which she added a personal present of 5000 roubles and a gold snuff-box — in recognition, it would seem, of his readiness and ingenuity in surmounting a secretaire with a clock indicating the date of the Russian naval victory over the Turks at Cheshme, news of which had arrived on the previous evening. This suite of furniture is believed still to be in the Palace of the Hermitage, the hiding-place of so much remarkable and forgotten art. To the protection of the queen of France and the empress of Russia David added that of the king of Prussia, Frederick William II., who in 1792 made him a Commerzienrath and commercial agent for the Lower Rhine district. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars which so speedily followed, eclipsed Rontgen's star as they eclipsed those of so many other great cabinet-makers of the period. In 1793 the Revolutionary government, regarding him as an emigre, seized the contents RONTGEN, W. K.— RONTGEN RAYS of his show-rooms and his personal belongings, and after that date he appears neither to have done business in Paris nor to have visited it. Five years later the invasion of Neuwied led to the closing of his workshops; prosperity never returned, and he died half ruined at Wiesbaden on the 1 2th of February 1807. Rontgen was not a great cabinet-maker. His forms were often clumsy, ungraceful ana commonplace; his furniture lacked the art- istry of the French and the English cabinet-makers of the great period which came to an end about 1790. His bronzes were poor in design and coarse in execution — his work, in short, is tainted by com- mercialism. As a marqueteur, however, he holds a position of high distinction. His marquetry is bolder and more vigorous than that of Riesener, who in other respects soared far above him. As an adroit deviser of mechanism he fully earned a reputation which former generations rated more highly than the modern critic, with his facilities for comparison, is prepared to accept. On the mechanical side he produced, with the help of Kintzing, many Jong-cased and other clocks with ingenious indicating and register- ing apparatus. Rontgen delighted in architectural Forms, and his marquetry more often than not represents those scenes from classical mythology which were the dear delight of the i8th century. He is well represented at South Kensington. RONTGEN, WILHELM KONRAD (1845- ), German physicist, was born at Lennep on the 27th of March 1845. He received his early education in Holland, and then went to study at Zurich, where he took his doctor's degree in 1869. He then became assistant to Kundt at Wurzburg and after- wards at Strassburg, becoming privat-docent at the latter uni- versity in 1874. Next year he was appointed professor of mathematics and physics at the Agricultural Academy of Hohenheim, and in 1876 he returned to Strassburg as extra- ordinary professor. In 1879 he was chosen ordinary professor of physics and director of the Physical Institute at Giessen, whence in 1885 he removed in the same capacity to Wurzburg. It was at the latter place that he made the discovery for which his name is chiefly known, the Rontgen rays. In 1895, while experimenting with a highly exhausted vacuum tube on the conduction of electricity through gases, he noticed that a paper screen covered with barium platinocyanide, which happened to be lying near, became fluorescent under the action of some radiation emitted from the tube, which at the time was enclosed in a box of black cardboard. Further investigation showed that this radiation had the power of passing through various substances which are opaque to ordinary light, and also of affecting a photographic plate. Its behaviour being curious in several respects, particularly in regard to reflection and refraction, doubt arose in his mind whether it was to be looked upon as light or not, and he was led to put forward the hypo- thesis that it was due to longitudinal vibrations in the ether, not to transverse ones like ordinary light; but in view of the uncertainty existing as to its nature, he called it X-rays. For this discovery he received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in 1896, jointly with Philip Lenard, who had already shown, as also had Hertz, that a portion of the cathode rays could pass through a thin film of a metal such as aluminium. Rontgen also conducted researches in various other branches of physics, including elasticity, capillarity, the conduction of heat in crystals, the absorption of heat-rays by different gases, piezo-electricity, the electromagnetic rotation of polarized light, &c. RONTGEN RAYS, W. K. Rontgen discovered in 1895 (Wied. Ann. 64, p. i) that when the electric discharge passes through a tube exhausted so that the glass of the tube is brightly phosphorescent, phosphorescent substances such as potassium platinocyanide became luminous when brought near to the tube. He found that if a thick piece of metal, a coin for example, were placed between the tube and a plate covered with the phosphorescent substance a sharp shadow of the metal was cast upon the plate; pieces of wood or thin plates of aluminium cast, however, only partial shadows, thus showing that the agent which produced the phosphorescence could traverse with considerable freedom bodies opaque to ordinary light. He found that as a general rule the greater the density of the substance the greater its opacity to this agent. Thus while this effect could pass through the flesh it was stopped by the bones, so that if the hand were held between the discharge tube and a phosphorescent screen the outline of the bones was distinctly visible as a shadow cast upon the screen, or if a purse containing coins were placed between the tube and the screen the purse itself cast but little shadow while the coins cast a very dark one. Rontgen showed that the cause of the phosphorescence, now called Rontgen rays, is propagated in straight lines starting from places where the cathode rays strike against a solid obstacle, and the direc- tion of propagation is not bent when the rays pass from one medium to another, i.e. there is no refraction of the rays. These rays, unlike cathode rays or Canalstrahlen, are not deflected by magnetic force; Rontgen could not detect any deflection with the strongest magnets at his disposal, and later experiments made with stronger magnetic fields have failed to reveal any effect of the magnet on the rays. The rays affect a photographic plate as well as a phosphorescent screen, and shadow photographs can be readily taken. The time of ex- posure required depends upon the intensity of the rays, and this depends upon the state of the tube, and the electric current going through it, as well as upon the substances traversed by the rays on their journey to the photographic plate. In some cases an exposure of a few seconds is sufficient, in others hours may be required. The rays coming from different discharge tubes have very different powers of penetration. If the pressure in the tube is fairly high, so that the potential difference between its electrodes is small, and the velocity of the cathode rays in consequence small, the Rontgen rays coming from the tube will be very easily absorbed; such rays are called " soft rays." If the exhaustion of the tube is carried further, so that there is a considerable increase' in the potential differences between the cathode and the anode in the tube and therefore in the velocity of the cathode rays, the Rontgen rays have much greater penetrating power and aie called " hard rays." With a highly exhausted tube and a powerful induction coil it is possible to get appreciable effects trom rays which have passed through sheets of brass or iron several millimetres thick. The penetrating power of the rays thus varies with the pressure in the tube; as this pressure gradually diminishes when the dis- charge is kept running through the tube, the type of Rontgen ray coming from the tube is continually changing. The lower- ing of pressure due to the current through the tube finally leads to such a high degree of exhaustion that the discharge has great difficulty in passing, and the emission of the rays becomes very irregular. Heating the walls of the tube causes some gas to come off the sides, and by thus increasing the pressure creates a temporary improvement. A thin-walled platinum tube is sometimes fused on to the discharge tube to remedy this defect; red-hot platinum allows hydrogen to pass through it, so that if the platinum tube is heated, hydrogen from the flame will pass into the discharge tube and increase the pressure. In this way hydrogen may be introduced into the tube when the pressure gets too low. When liquid air is available the pressure in the tube may be kept constant by fusing on to the discharge tube a tube containing charcoal; this dips into a vessel containing liquid air, and the charcoal is saturated with air at the pressure which it is desired to maintain in the tube. Not only do bulbs emit different types of rays at different times, but the same bulb emits at the same time rays of different kinds. The property by which it is most convenient to identify a ray is the absorption it suffers when it passes through a given thickness of aluminium or tin-foil. Experiments made by McClelland and Sir J. J. Thomson on the absorption of the rays produced by sheets of tin-foil showed that the absorption by the first sheets of tin-foil traversed by -the rays was much greater than that by the same number of sheets when the rays had already passed through several sheets of the foil. The effect is just what would occur if some of the rays were much more readily absorbed by the tin-foil than others, for the first few layers would stop all the easily absorbable rays while the ones left would be those that were but little absorbed by tin-foil. RONTGEN RAYS 695 The fact that the rays when they pass through a gas ionize it and make it a conductor of electricity furnishes the best means of measuring their intensity, as the measurement of the amount of conductivity they produce in a gas is both more accurate and more convenient than measurements of photographic or phosphorescent effects. Rontgen rays when they pass through matter produce — as Perrin (Comptes rendus, 124, p. 455), Sagnac (Jour, de Phys., 1899, (3), 8, and J. Townsend (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1899, 10, p. 217, have shown — secondary Rontgen rays as well as cathodic rays. A very complete investigation of this subject has been made by Barkla and Sadler (Barkla, Phil. Mag., June 1906, pp. 812-828; Barkla one kind is of the same type as the primary incident ray and may be regarded as scattered primary rays, the other kind depends only on the matter struck by the rays — their quality is independent of that of the incident ray. When the atomic weight of the element exposed to the primary rays was less than that of calcium, Barkla and Sadler could only detect the first type of ray, i.e. the second- ary radiation consisted entirely of scattered primary radiation; elements with atomic weights greater than that of calcium gave out, in addition to the scattered primary radiation, Rontgen rays characteristic of the element and independent of the quality of the primary rays. The higher the atomic weight of the metal the more penetrating are the characteristic rays it gives out. This is shown in the table, which gives for the different elements the reciprocal of the distance, measured in centimetres, through which the rays from the element can pass through aluminium before their energy sinks to 1/2-7 °f 'he value it had when entering the aluminium; this quantity is denoted in the table by X. Element. Atomic weight. Chromium Iron . Cobalt . Nickel Copper . Zinc . Arsenic Selenium . Strontium Molybdenum Rhodium Silver . . Tin 52 55-9 59-o 58-7? 63-6 65-4 75-o 79-2 87-6 96-0 103-0 107-9 119-0 X. 367 239 193-2 159-5 128-9 106-3 60-7 51-0 35-2 12-7 8-44 6-75 4-33 The radiation from chromium cannot pass through more than a few centimetres of air without being absorbed, while that from tin is as penetrating as that given out by a fairly efficient Rontgen tube. Barkla and Sadler found that the radiation characteristic of the metal is not excited unless the primary radiation is more penetrating than the characteristic radiation. Thus the characteristic radiation from silver can excite the characteristic radiation from iron, but the characteristic radiation from iron cannot excite that from silver. We may compare this result with Stokes's rule for phosphorescence, that the phosphorescent light is of longer wave-length than the light which excites it. The discovery that each element gives out a characteristic radia- tion (or, as still more recent work indicates, a line spectrum of char- acteristic radiation) is one of the utmost importance. It gives us, for example, the means of getting homogeneous Rontgen radiation of a perfectly definite type : it is also of fundamental importance in connexion with any theory of the Rontgen rays. We have seen that there is no evidence ol refraction of the Rontgen rays; it would be interesting to try if this were the case when the rays passing through the refracting substance are those characteristic of the substance. Secondary Cathodic Rays. — The incidence of Rontgen rays on matter causes the matter to emit cathodic rays. The velocity of these rays is independent of the intensity of the primary Rontgen rays, but depends upon the "hardness" of the rays; it seems also to be independent of the nature of the matter exposed to the primary rays. The velocity of the cathodic rays increases as the hardness of the primary Rontgen rays increases. Innes (Proc. Roy. Soc. 79, p. 442) measured the velocity of the cathodic radiation excited by the rays from Rontgen tubes, and found velocities varying from 6- 2 X io9cm./sec. to 8-3 X io9 cm./sec. according to the hardness of the rays given out by the tube. The cathodic rays given out under the action of the homogeneous secondary Roptgen radiation characteristic of the different elements have been studied by Sadler (Phil. Mag., March 1910) and Beatty (Phil. Mag., August 1910). The following table giving the properties of the cathode rays excited by the radiation from various elements is taken from Beatty's paper; tt is the thickness of air at atmospheric pressure and temperature required to absorb one-half of the energy of the cathode particles, h is the corresponding quantity for hydrogen. Radiator. ti h Iron . . . . • . . . -00804 -0410 Copper -0135 -0733 Zinc -0164 -0909 Arsenic '°255 Tin . -1672 1-37 The properties of the cathode rays excited by the radiation from tin correspond very closely with those produced in a discharge :ube when the potential difference between the anode and cathode is about 30,000 volts. When Rontgen rays pass through a thin plate the cathodic radiation on the side the rays emerge is more intense than on the side they enter. Kaye (Phil. Trans. 209, p. 123) lias shown that when cathode rays fall upon a metal two kinds of Rontgen rays are excited, one being the characteristic radiation of the metal and the other a kind independent of the nature of the metal and dependent only upon the velocity of the cathode rays. The faster the cathode rays the harder the Rontgen rays they pro- duce. It would be interesting to see if there is any connexion between the velocity of the cathode rays required to excite Rontgen rays as hard as those given out say by tin and the velocity of the cathode rays which the radiation from tin produces when it falls upon any metal. Sadler has shown that metals can give off cathodic radiation even when the incident Rontgen rays are too soft to excite the characteristic Rontgen radiation of the metal, but that there is a large increase in the cathodic radiation as soon as the characteristic Rontgen radiation is excited. It is possible that the shock produced by the emission of these cathode particles starts the vibrations which give rise to the characteristic rays; the cathode particles emitted when the incident rays are too soft to excite the characteristic radiation coming from a different source from those tapped by the hard rays. Absorption of Rontgen Rays. — The wide ' variations in the penetrating power of Rontgen rays from different sources is shown by the above table of the penetrating power of the characteristic rays of the different elements. Many experi- ments have been made on the penetration of the same rays for different substances. It is a rule to which there is no well- established exception that the greater the density of the sub- stance the greater is its power of absorbing the rays. The connexion, however, between the absorption and the density of the substance is not in general a simple one, though there is evidence that for exceedingly hard rays the absorption is pro- portional to the density. The power of any material to absorb rays is usually measured by a coefficient X, the definition of which is that a plate i/X centimetres thick reduces the energy of the rays when they pass through it normally to i/e of their original value, where e is the base of the Napierian logarithms and equal to 2-7128. It has been shown that however the physical state of a substance may alter, — if, for example, it changes from the liquid to the gaseous, — X/D, where D is the density of the substance, remains constant. It has also been shown that if we have a mass M made up of masses MI, M2, M8) . . . of substances having coefficients of absorption Xi, X2, X3, ._. . and densities Di, D2, D3, . . . then if X/D for the mixture is given by the equation MX/D = MIX1/D1+M2X2/D2+M3XS/D3+ . . . this equation is true whether the substances are chemically com- bined or chemically mixed. From this equation, when we know X/D for a binary compound and for one of its constituents, we can find the value of X/D for the other constituent. By the use of this principle we can find the value of X/D for the elements which cannot be obtained in a free state. Benoist (Jour, de Phys. (7), 28, p. 289) has shown that if the values of X/D are plotted against the atomic weight we get a smooth curve; if we draw this curve it is evident that we have the means of determining the atomic weight of an element by measuring its transparency to Rontgen rays when in combination with elements whose transparency is known. Benoist has applied this method to determine the atomic weight of indium. The value of X/D for any one substance depends upon the type of ray used, and the ratio of the values of X/D for two substances may vary very greatly with the type of ray; this is especially the case when one of the substances is hydrogen. Thus Crowther (Proc. Roy. Soc., March 1909) has shown that the ratio of X for air to X for hydrogen varied from 100 for rays given out by a Rontgen tube at a comparatively high pressure when the rays were very soft to 5-56 when the pressure in the bulb was very low and the rays very hard. Beatty (Phil. Mag., August 1910) found that this ratio was as large as 175 for the characteristic rays given out by iron, copper, zinc and arsenic, but fell to 25-0 for the rays from tin. Polarization of Rontgen Rays. — A great deal of attention has been paid to a phenomenon called the polarization of the 696 ROOD FIG. i. Rontgen rays. The nature of this effect may be illustrated by fig. i. Suppose that AB is a stream of cathode rays striking against a solid obstacle B and p giving rise to Rontgen rays, let these rays impinge on a small body P, P under these condi- tions will emit secondary rays in all directions. Barkla (Phil. Trans., 1905, A, 204, p. 467; Proc. Roy. Soc. 77, p. 247) found that the intensity of the secondary rays, tested by the ionization they produced in air, was less intense in the plane ABP than in a plane through PB at right angles to this plane, the distances from P being the same in the two cases; the difference in the intensities amounting to about 15%. Haga (Ann. d. Phys. 28, p. 439), who tried a similar ex- periment but used a photographic method to measure the intensity of the secondary rays, could not detect any difference of intensity in the two planes, but experiments by Sassier (Ann. der Phys. 28, p. 808) and Vegard (Proc. Roy. Soc. 83, p. 379) have confirmed Barkla's original observations. The " polarization " is much more marked if instead of exciting the secondary radiation in P by the Rontgen rays from a discharge tube we do so by means of secondary rays. If, for example, in the case illustrated by fig. I we allow a beam of Rontgen rays to fall upon B instead of the cathode rays, the difference between the intensities in the plane ABP and in the plane at right angles to it are very much increased. It is only the scattered secondary radiation which shows this " polarization " ; the characteristic secondary radiation emitted by the body at P is quite unpolarized. The existence of this effect has a very important bearing on the nature of Rontgen rays. Whether Rontgen rays are or are not a form of light, i.e. are some form of electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the aether, is a question on which opinion is not unanimous. They resemble light in theirrectilinearpropagation ; they affect a photographic plate and, Brandes and Dorn have shown, they produce an effect, though a small one, on the retina, giving rise to a very faint illumination of the whole field of view. They resemble light in not being deflected by either electric or magnetic forces, while the characteristic secondary radiation may be compared with the phosphorescence produced by ultra-violet light, and the cathodic secondary rays with the photo-electric effect. The absence of refraction is not an argument against the rays being a kind of light, for all theories of refraction make this property depend upon the relation between the natural time of vibration T of the refracting substance and the period t of the light vibrations, the refraction vanishing when \ ' * \mrnt' mm XXIII. 698- FIG. 25. -HALL OF THE MIDDLE TEMPLE. PLATE II. ROOF o Q Z s b, O ROOFS 699 The Mansard roof (fig. 5) is a useful form of construction which obtains its name from Francois Mansard, a distinguished French architect who lived in the lyth century. This kind of roof has been largely used, especially in France and other European countries, as well as in America in the old colonial days. It adapts itself well to some styles of architecture, but should be very carefully applied, since it Mansard root. Iron root*. FlG. 5. — Mansard Roof Truss: detail of outline as A; other outlines at B, C, D and E. is apt to appear ungainly in some situations. By the use of a Mansard roof extra rooms can be obtained at a small expense without adding an additional storey to the building proper. The outward thrust upon the supporting walls is not so great as with an ordinary pitched roof, the load coming practically vertically upon them. There is no recognized rule for the proportion or pitch of a roof of this description, which should be designed to suit the particular building it is intended to cover. Fig. 5, A, B, C, D and E show various forms. A similar type of curb roof is often used having a flat lead- or zinc-covered top in place of the pitched slate- or tile-covered top of the ordinary Mansard roof. Composite roof trusses of wood and iron are frequently used for all classes of buildings, and have proved very satisfactory. They are built upon the same principles as wooden types of roof trusses. The struts — that is, those members subjected to compressional stress — are of wood, and iron bars or rods are used for the ties, which have to withstand tensile forces. When any shrinkage occurs to loosen the joints of the framing, as usually happens in large trusses, the tie-rods are tightened up by the bolts attached to them. Figs. 6, 7 and 8 are the sections and plan of a simple method of constructing the roof for an ordinary domestic building with plaster ceilings to the top rooms. It is a simple construction of the couple close order with the addition of a collar and struts and king-rod to every fourth rafter. Trimming is necessary for openings and where portions of the structure, such as chimney stacks, cut into the roof. The trimming rafters are made an inch thicker than the others. The dragon tie is framed in connexion with the wall-plate at the hipped corners to take the thrust of the hip rafters. Steel and iron trusses in many cases follow the wood models already described. The struts and principal rafters are usually of T section, the tensional members being rods or flat bars. Flat plates and bolts or rivets are used to form the connexions between the members, and a means is provided in the tie-rod for tightening up the truss should any of the members " give " slightly under their load. Large trusses for very spans are specially designed for their work and be of many different types of design. Big roofs on the tie-rod principle are now being discarded as being more liable to failure, through deterioration or defect, than those built on the girder principle in one form or another. Fig. 9 is a queen-rod roof principal for a span of 50 ft., and shows the sizes of the different members, a line diagram of the truss and large details of the joints. Fig. 10 in a similar manner shows the roof at Cardiff railway station, which has a span of 43 ft. The steel roof covering the great hall at Olympia, London, is an example of a carefully designed and well-built roof which combines with strength an extremely light and elegant appear- ance. This is due to the fact that every member of the roof is adapted to meet the particular stresses found by calculation to affect it. By careful study of conditions the sections of steelwork used for the various members have been reduced 0*1 BR. FIGS. 6 and 7. — Roof for Domestic Building. to the smallest size compatible with safety. In this way any unnecessary surplus of material is avoided, and so is the heavy, overwhelming effect noticeable in many roofs of large span. There is an entire absence of long wide plates and webs; the various members" are composed wholly of flat bars and angle irons riveted together, and plates are introduced only where re- quired to cover joints. Some notes on its size and construction yoo ROOFS A. Angle tie. B. Boarding. B.B. Barge board. C. Collar. C.J. Ceiling joist. C.K. Common rafter. D. Drip. D.P. Dragon-piece. F. Flue. G. Gutter. G.B. Gutter bearer. H.R. Hip rafter. J.R. Jack rafter. K.B. King-bolt. P. Purlin. P.W. Parapet wall. P.E. Projecting eaves.- R. Ridge. S. Strut. T. Trimmer. T.F. Tilting fillet. T.R. Trimming rafter. V. Valley. W.P. Wall-plate. will be interesting. The dimensions of the great hall are 440 ft. long by 250 ft. wide, the height to the crown of the roof being about 100 ft. The main ribs of the roof have a clear span of 170 ft. and are placed 34 ft. apart. They are of box- girder form and measure 7 ft. deep and 2 ft. wide. The gallery around the hall is 40 ft. wide on three sides and 26 ft. wide on the remaining side. It is covered by a lean-to roof which abuts against the curved ribs on the north and south sides, and is attached to horizontal members of the screens on the east and west sides. The bricks walls of the building are not called upon to resist any portion of the thrust from the roof, as the side frames through which the gallery floor passes form a self-contained system of steelwork in which the thrust is ultimately conveyed to the ground. The screens which close the semicircular ends of the roof are of vertical ridge and furrow construction, as can be clearly seen in the illustrations, this form offering great resistance to wind pressure while at the same time requiring a minimum amount of material. Of the two illustrations, fig. n is a detailed cross-section showing fully the method of construction of the foot of the main rib and column, and the arrangement of the side frames above referred to is shown in fig. 12, which is a com- plete cross-section view, and will convey to the reader some idea of the vast size of the building and its general pro- portions. The following five roofs are examples of large span: Crystal Palace (104 ft.); Olympia, London (170 ft.); §t Enoch station, Glasgow (198 ft.); Central station, Manchester (210 ft.); St Pancras station, London (240 ft.). Domes may be framed up with wood rafters cut to shape. For small spans this construction is satisfactory, but when the dome is of considerable size it is often framed in steel as being stronger and more rigid than wood, and therefore not exerting so great a thrust upon the supporting walls. The outer dome of St Paul's cathedral in London is of lead-covered wood, framed upon and supported by a conical structure of brickwork which is raised above the inner dome of brick. Concrete is a very suitable material for use in the construction of domes, and may be employed simply or with iron or steel reinforcement in the shape of wires, bars or perforated plates. One of the best modern examples of concrete vaulting and domical roofing without metal rein- forcement occurs in the Roman Catholic cathedral at West- minster, a remarkable building designed by Mr J. F. Bentley. A few details of the roofs will be interesting. The circle developed by the pendentives of the nave domes is 60 ft. in diameter. The thickness of the domes at the springing is 3 ft. gradually reduced to 13 in. at the crown; the curve of equi- librium is therefore well within the material. The domes were turned on closely boarded centring in a series of superimposed rings of concrete averaging 4 ft. in width. The concrete is not reinforced in any way. The independent external covering of the domes is formed of 3 in. artificial stone slabs cast to the curve. They rest on radiating ribs 5 in. deep of similar material fixed on the concrete and rebated to receive the slabs; thus an air space of 2 in. is left between the inner shell and the outer covering, the object being to render the temperature of the interior more uniform. At the springing and at the ROOFS 701 FIG. 9. — Queen-rod Roof Truss. Roofing felt is an inexpen- sive fabric of animal or vege- table fibre treated _ ., with asphalt to make it capable of resisting the weather. It is largely used as a roofing material for tem- porary buildings. When ex- posed to the weather it should be treated with an application of a compound of tar and slaked lime well boiled and applied hot, the surface being sprinkled with sand before it becomes hard. Felt is also used on permanent buildings as a good non-conductor of heat under slating and other roof -covering materials. In this case it is not tarred and sanded. It is supplied in rolls containing from 25 to 35 yds. 30 in. wide. The sheets should In- laid with a lap of 2 in. at the joints and secured to the boarding beneath by large- headed clout-nails driven in about 2 in. apart. Corrugated iron is supplied either black or galvanized. It is especially suited for the roofs of out- buildings and build- ings of a more or less temporary character, to a large extent self-support- ing, it requires a specially de- signed roof framework of light construction. If, as is usually the case, the sheets are laid wjth the corrugations running with the slope of the roof, they can be fixed directly on purlins spaced 5 ft. to 10 ft. apart according to the stiffness and length of the sheets. In Cor- rugated Iron. Being crown the spaces between the ribs are left open for ventilation. The sanctuary dome differs in several respects from those of the nave. Unlike the latter, which seem to rest on the flat roofing of the church, the dome of the sanctuary emerges gradually out of the sub- structure, the supporting walls on the north and south being kept down so as to give greater elegance to the eastern turrets. The apsidal ter- mination of the choir in the east is covered in with a concrete vault surmounted by a timber roof, in striking contrast to the domes cover- ing the other portions of the struc- ture. Fig. 13 is a section through the nave showing how the domes are buttressed, fig. 14 is a section through the sanctuary dome, and figs. 15 and 1 6 a section and part plan of the vaulting of the choir with its wood span roof above the con- crete vault. Covering Materials for Roofs.- — There are a large number of different roof- covering materials in common use, of which short descriptions, giving the principal characteristics, may be useful. The nature of the material employed as the outer covering affects the details of roof construction very considerably. A light covering such as felt or corru- gated iron can be safely laid upon a much lighter timber framing than is necessary for a heavy covering of tiles or slates. oar SHOES. FIG. 10. — Roof at Cardiff Station. 702 •"V-i ROOFS MAIN RIB FIG. II. — Detail of Main Rib and Column, Olympia. pure air zinc coating of the galvanized sheets is durable for many years, but in large cities and manufacturing towns its life is short unless protected by painting. In such districts it has often been found that plain un- galvanized sheets well coated with paint will last longer than those galvanized, for the latter are attacked by corrosive influences through minute flaws in the zinc coating developed in the process of corrugation or resulting from some defect in the coating. The stock sizes of corrugated sheets vary from 5 ft. to 10 ft. long, and from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 9 in. wide with corrugations mea- suring 3 in. to 5 in. from centre to centre. For roofing purposes the sheets are supplied in several thick- nesses ranging from No. 16 to No. 22 Standard Wire Gauge. No. 1 6 is for excep- tionally strong work, No. 18 and No. 20 are used for good- class work, and No. 22 for the roofs of temporary build- ings. The sheets when laid should lap about 3 in. at their side! and from 3 in. to 6 in. at the ends. Rivet- ing is the best method of connecting the sheets, al- though galvanized bolts, which are not so satisfac- tory, are frequently em- ployed. The joints should be made along the raised corrugations to lessen the risk of leakage. Holes can be punched during the erec- tion of the roof; their posi- tions should first be deter- mined by placing the sheets in position and marking the necessary point of fixing. Sheets are usually attached to timber framework with galvanized screws, or nails with domed washers placed under their heads. ^Fixing to a steel frame- work is effected by means of galvanized hooked bolts clipping the purlins passed through the sheet and held tight by nuts FIG. 13. — Westminster Cathedral: section through nave. on the outside. Sheets corrugated in the Italian pattern have raised half-rounds every 15 in. or so, the portions be- tween being flat. Such sheets have a very neat appearance and give a better effect .in some positions than the ordinary cor- rugations FIG. 12. — Cross-Section of Olympia from the Drawings of the architect, A. T. Walmisley, Esq. ROOFS 703 Zinc in sheets is a material largely used as a roof covering, and if care be taken to ensure metal of good quality, it proves itself light, strong and durable, as well as inexpensive. Zinc is •"""• stronger weight for weight than lead, slate, tile and glass, but weaker than copper, wrought-iron and steel, although with the exception of the two last mentioned it is not so durable when exposed to the weather. It is not liable to easy breakage as are slate, tile and glass. It is usually supplied in flat sheets, although it can also be had in the cor- rugated form similar to corru- gated sheet-iron. When exposed, a thin coating of oxide _ is formed on the surface which FIG. 14.— Westminster Cathe- FIGS. 15 and 16. — Westminster dral : diagonal section through Cathedral : choir-vaulting, sanctuary dome. protects the metal beneath from any further change, and obviates the necessity of painting. In laying the sheets, the use of solder and nails should be avoided entirely except for fixing clips and tacks which do not interfere with the free expansion and con- traction of the sheets. The reason for this is that zinc expands freely, and sheets laid with soldered seams or fixed with nails are liable to buckle and probably break away owing to movements set up by changes of temperature. The usual sizes of zinc sheets are 7 ft. or 8 ft. long by 3 ft. wide. The thickness and weights of zinc are shown in the following table, which compares the Vieille Mon- tagne Gauge with the Old Belgian Gauge and the British Imperial Standard Wire Gauge. O.B.G. S.W.G. approximately, approximately. Weight per sq. ft. 9 25 n^oz. 10 24 13$ 11 23 15 12 22 17 13 21 18 14 20 21 15 19 24 The best method of laying a zinc flat roof is with the aid of wood " rolls " of about 2 in. X2 in. in section, splayed at sides and spaced 2 ft. 8 in. apart and fixed to the roof boarding with zinc nails. Iron nails should not be used as this metal affects the zinc. The sheets of zinc are laid between the rolls with their sides bent up I \ in. or 2 in. against them, and held firmly in position by clips of zinc attached to the rolls. A cap of the same metal is then slipped over each roll and fastened down by tacks about 3 in. long soldered inside it so as to hook under the same clips that hold the sheet down. Drips of about 2j in. are made in the slope at intervals of 6 ft. or 7 ft. — that is, the length of a sheet — and special care must be taken at these points to keep the work waterproof. The lower sheet is bent up the face of the drip and under the projecting portion of the upper sheet, which is finished with a roll edge to turn off the water. The end of the roll has a specially folded cap which also finishes with a curved or beaded water check, and this in conjunction with the saddle piece of the roll beneath forms a weather-proof joint (figs. 17 and 18). The fall between the drips is usually made about ij in., V.M.G. 10 ii 12 13 H 15 16 Zirvt roll. 17 18 FIGS. 17 and 18. — Details of Zinc Flats. but where necessary it may be less, the least permissible fall being about i in 80. Felt laid beneath zinc has the effect of lengthening the life of the roof and should always be used, as the edges of the boarding upon which it is laid are, when the latter warps, apt to cut the sheets. It also forms a cushion protecting the zinc if there is traffic across the roof. Sheet-lead forms a much heavier roof covering than zinc, but it lasts a great deal longer and more easily withstands the attacks of impure air. Lead must be laid on a close boarding, for Lead its great ductility prevents it from spanning even the smallest spaces without bending and giving way. This character- istic of the metal, however, conduces largely to its usefulness, and enables it to be dressed and bossed into awkward corners without the necessity of jointing. The coefficient of expansion for lead is nearly as great as that for zinc and much higher than in the case of iron, and this fact requires precautions similar to those affecting zinc to be taken when laying the roofing. The manner of laying is with rolls and drips as in the case of zinc, the details of the work differing somewhat to suit the character of the material (see figs. 19, 20 and 2l). Allowances must be made for expansion 19 2O 21 FIGS. 19, 20 and 21. — Details of Lead Flats. and contraction, and the use of nails and solder avoided as far as possible. Contact with iron sets up corrosion in lead, and when nails are necessary they should be of copper; screws should be of brass. Lead is supplied in rolls of 25 to 35 ft. long and 6 ft. to 7 ft. 6 in. wide. That in general use varies from one-fourteenth to one- seventh of an inch in thickness. The weights most suitable for employment in roofing work are 7 or 8 Ib per square foot for flats and gutters, 6 ft for ridges and hips, and 5 Ib for flashings. As a roof covering copper is lighter, stronger and more durable than either zinc or lead. It expands and contracts much less than these metals, and although not so strong as wrought-iron coooer and steel it is much more durable. From a structural point of view these qualities enable it to be classed as the best available metal for roof covering, although its heat-conducting properties require it to be well- insulated by layers of felt and other non-conducting material placed beneath the metal. _ On exposure to the air copper develops a feature of great beauty in the coating of green carbonate which forms upon its surface protecting it from further decomposition. Perhaps the chief disadvantage in the use of copper lies in its first cost, but against this must be set the almost imperishable nature of the metal and the fact that by reason of its light weight less substantial framework is required for its support. Copper roofing should be laid in a similar manner to zinc, with wood rolls at intervals of about 2 ft. 4 in. It is, however, often laid with welted seams. The general stock sizes of sheets are from 4 ft. to 5 ft. 3 in. long and 2 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in. wide. The thickness almost invariably used is known as 24 S.W.G. and weighs 16 pz. per square foot. Thinner metal would suffice, but owing to the increased cost of rolling very little would be gained by adopting the thinner gauges. In the United States of America " tin " roofs are quite commonly used. Sheets of wrought-iron coated either. with tin or zinc are used of a size usually 14 in. by 20 in., though they may ^mfricma be had double this size. Preparation for laying is made Ua rootSi by fixing an insulating foundation of somewhat stout paper or felt; this must be dry, else it is apt to spoil the impermeable covering laid upon it by causing it to rust. Junctions between the sheets are made by welted seams in which the four edges of the sheets are turned over so as to lock together, thus forming one large sheet of tin covering the roof. In high-class work of a permanent nature the seams in addition are soldered, rosin only being used as a flux. Each sheet also is secured to the roof with two or three tin cleats. The life of such roofs may be practically doubled by the application of a good coat of paint, which, however, adds consider- ably to the cost. Slate is a strong and very impermeable material, and these qualities and the fact that it is easily split into thin plates suitable for laying, as well as its low cost, cause it to be by far the slate. most generally used of all materials for roof covering. Some of the best known varieties of slates, classed according to their colour, are as follows : — Blue . . North Wales (Penrhyn, Festiniog, Dinorwic, &c.), France, Norway, Germany. Blue-grey . Cornwall (Delabole). Grey . . North Wales (Penrhyn, Dinorwic). 7°4 ROOFS Purple . . North Wales (Bangor, Penrhyn, Dinorwic), New- foundland, Germany. Green . South Wales (Precelly), Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire, Ireland, Newfoundland, Norway, United States and Germany. Slates are cut to many different sizes varying in length from 10 in. to 36 in. and in width from 5 in. to 24 in. There are perhaps thirty or more recognized sizes, each distinguished by a different name. In common practice those generally used are "large ladies," 16 in. by 8 in.; " countesses, 20 in. by 10 in.; and duchesses," 24 in. by 12 in. Generally speaking, the rule governing the use of the different sorts is that the steeper the pitch the smaller the slate, and vice versa. Buildings in very exposed positions naturally require steeply pitched roofs. Some of the technical terms used by the slater are as follows: — Bed, the under surface of a slab when laid. Back, the upper surface of the slate. Gauge, the distance between the lines of nailing. This depends on the length of the slate and equals half the length of the slate after the lap plus an inch for the nail-hole has been deducted. This is for slates nailed near the top edge; for those fixed near the middle the gauge would be half an inch more, as no allowance for nail-holes is required. Margin, the width of the exposed portion of each course which equals the width apart of the nailing. Head and tail, the top and bottom edges of the slate. Lap, the lap of the tail of one course of slates over the head of the second course below it. The lap is made from 2j in. to 4 in. (usually 3 in.), and for this distance there are three thicknesses of slate, namely, the tail of the top course, the middle of the next and the head of the third course. Slates may be fixed by nailing at the head (see fig. 22) or at about the middle. The latter method is the stronger, as the levering effect of the wind cannot attain so great a strength. There is a small economy effected by centre nailing, as the margin is slightly larger and fewer slates are required to cover a given space; longer nails, however, are required, for as slates are laid at an angle with the pitch of the roof their centres cannot be made to approach so near FIG. 22. — Detail of a Slated Roof. to the slating battens or boarding as the head, which lies close on the surface to which- it is fixed. Another point worth noticing is that the nail-holes in the centre nailed slating are only covered by 3 in. of the tail (the amount of the " lap ") of the course of slates above, and rain is very liable to be forced under by the wind and cause the wood battens or other woodwork to rot. Head-nailed slates, on the other hand, have their holes covered by two layers of slate, and are removed from exposure by the length of the gauge plus the lap, which in the case of " countess " slating equals II in. " Open slating " is an economical method of laying slates that is often adopted for the roofs of sheds and temporary buildings. The slates in the same course are not laid edge to edge as in close slating, but at a distance of two or more inches apart. This forms a roof covering light in weight and inexpensive, which, although not strictly weather-proof, is sufficiently so for the buildings upon which it is used. Slates are laid upon open battens fixed upon the rafters or upon close boarding or upon battens fixed upon boarding. The battens are \ in. or I in. thick and li in. to 3 in. wide, and are spaced to suit the gauge of the slates. When close boarding is used it is often covered with inodorous asphalted felt. While taking these pre- cautions to make the roof sound and tight it should be borne in mind that slate is liable to decay if not ventilated, and to effect this the battens are sometimes fixed vertically, ridge ventilators introduced and air inlets arranged at the eaves. ^The bed of slates laid without provision for the admission of air will be found on removal after some time to have rotted so as to scale off and easily crumble into powder. The nails used in slating are a very important item, and the durability of the work depends to a large extent upon them. They should have large flat heads. The most satisfactory are those made of a composition of copper and zinc, but others of copper, zinc, galvanized iron and plain iron are used. Those of copper are most durable, but are soft and expensive. Zinc nails are soft and not very durable; they will last about twenty years. Iron nails even if galvanized are objectionable in permanent work, though they may be used for temporary roofs. When the plain-iron nails are employed they should be heated and plunged in boiled linseed oil. The pitch of a roof intended for slating should not incline less than 25° with the horizontal, while 30° is a safer angle to adopt. Tiles for roofing purposes are made from clay and burned in a manner similar to bricks. The clay from which they are made is, however, of a specially tenacious nature and prepared r/fe with great care so as to obtain a result as strong and as nearly non-porous as possible. Tilesare obtainable in many different colours, and some of these have a very beautiful effect when fixed and improve with age. They comprise a large number of tints from yellowish red, red and brown to dark blue. As with bricks the quality depends to a large extent upon the burning; underburnt tiles are weak and porous, liable to early decay, while everburning, though improving the tiles as regards durability, will cause them to warp and will spoil colour. The usual shape is the " plain tile," but they are made in various other shapes with a view both to easier fixing and lighter weight, and to ornamental effect. There are also several patented forms on the market for which the makers claim special advantages. The ordinary tiles are slightly curved in shape to enable them to lie close one upon the other. Some of them have small " nibs " moulded on at the head by which they may be hung upon the battens and nailing avoided (see fig. 23). Nail-holes are provided, and _ upon steep slopes it is ad- visable to make use of them. Others are made without the nibs, and are fixed either by nailing to the battens or boarding or hung by means of oaken pegs wedged in the holes to the bat- tens, the pegs in the latter case acting in the same way as the above-mentioned nibs. Plain tiles are of rec- tangular form, _the standard dimensions are loj in. long by 6J in. wide. They are usually \ in. thick and weigh about 2j Ib each. FIG. 23.— Detail of a Tiled Roof. There are many forms of ornamental tiles, which are plain tiles having their tails cut to various shapes instead of moulded square. A number of patented forms of tiles also are on the market, some of which possess considerable merit. Pantiles are suitable for tem- porary and inferior buildings such as sheds and outhouses. They are laid on a different principle from plain tiles, merely overlapping each other at the edges, and this necessitates bedding in mortar and pointing inside ana sometimes outside with mortar or cement. This pointing plays an important part in keeping the interior of the building free frbm the penetration of wind and water. Pantiles are generally made to measure 135 in. long by gj in. wide, and weigh from 5 Ib to si Ib each. Moulded on at the head of each tile is a small projecting nib which serves for the purpose of hanging the tile to the lath or batten. They are laid with a lap of 3? in., 2\ in. or ij in., giving a gauge (and margin) of 10 in., II in. and 12 in., respectively. The side lap is generally ij in., leaving a width of 8 in. exposed face. There are many other forms based upon the shape of the pantile, some of which are patented and claim to have advantages which the original form does not possess. Among such are " corrugated tiles," of the ordinary shape or with angular flutes, and also the Italian pattern " double roll tiles," " Foster's lock-wing tiles." Poole's bonding roll tiles are a development of the Italian pattern tile. Glass as a roof covering and the different methods of fixing it are dealt with in the article GLAZING. There are many other materials used for roof covering besides those already described^ many of them of considerable value. Some have in the past enjoyed considerable vogue, but have „. _ practically died out of use owing to the development and ce^^laeoas cheapening of other forms of roofing. Among these may materjals be included thatch and wood shingles, the use of which in these days is practically reduced to special cases. Other little used roofing materials are those of recent invention, some of which perhaps ROOK— ROOKE 705 have a great future before them. Plates of asbestos used as slates or tiles make a light, strong and fireproof covering. Large terra- cotta tiles or slabs are much used in the United States of America. A good form of flat roof is that in which concrete is used as a founda- tion for a waterproof layer of asphalt, laid to slight falls to allow the water to run off easily. This is the usual method adopted when a roof garden is required. Shingles or thatch look extremely well on a roof, but their use is debarred in a great many districts owing to the danger of fire. Galvanized iron tiles, zinc tiles and copper tiles may be employed on small areas with good effect. " Willesden paper," often used as an insulating layer beneath slates and tiles, is also at times used as a roof covering. It is cardboard chemically treated to render it tough, waterproof and fire-resisting. The weights of some of the various materials used in the con- struction and covering of roofs are given in the following table. The Welzht weights which are approximate are for a square foot of roofing. The roof trusses are taken to be spaced I o f t. apart and include the necessary purlins. King-post wood truss 20 ft. to 30 ft. span . Queen-post „ 30 ft. to 50 ft. . Wood rafters Ceiling joists and ceiling J-in. boarding for roof covering .... i-in. „ „ ij-in. „ „ 2j-in.Xi in. slate battens for 8j-in. gauge . Felt Thatch Slates (ordinary laid with 3-in. lap) Tiles, plain flat Pantiles . . . . ... Zinc 12 to 16 gauge laid complete including rolls Copper 25 to 19 gauge laid complete including rolls Lead weighing 6 ft per square foot laid complete including rolls Corrugated iron 20 S.W. gauge .... Wind pressure is usually calculated at 22 to 25 ft on a roof with pitch of 30°, and 27 to 30 Ib on a roof of 45° pitch. From these particulars it is easy to calculate the weight of a square (100 superficial ft.) of roofing material, this being the usual standard of measurement for many roofing materials. The London Building Act of 1894 and its amendments set forth with regard to roofs erected in the London district that every _ . structure on a roof is to be covered with slate, tile, metal or other incombustible material, except wooden cornices and barge boards to dormers not exceeding 12 in. in depth, and doors and windows and their frames. Every dwelling-house or factory above 30 ft. in height and having a parapet must have means of access to the roof. The pitch of the roofs of warehouse buildings must not exceed 47°, and those of other buildings must not exceed 75°, but towers, turrets and spires are excepted. In domestic buildings not more than two storeys are to be formed in the roof, and if the floor is more than 60 ft. above the street level fireproof materials must be used throughout and a sufficient means of escape provided. The building by-laws of the municipality of Johannesburg contain several clauses affecting the designing of roofs and their method of construction. In the designing of build- ings roof-slopes must be within a line drawn and produced from the ground level at the opposice side of the street to the top of the eaves, gutter or parapet. No roof in the municipal fire limit may be constructed of thatch, reed or other inflammable material. With- out the fire area they may be so constructed if the building stands at least 20 ft. from the boundary of its site. Roofs having a pitch of less than 225° must be constructed to bear safely a load of at least 28 Ib per square foot of surface. Roofs of steeper pitch must be able to support a live load of 21 ft per square foot. The framing of Mansard or other roofs of more than 60° pitch on a building exceeding 45 ft. high must be constructed of approved fireproof material at least 2 in. thick. No roofs except those of towers, turrets or spires shall exceed 70° pitch for a Mansard or 60° for an ordinary roof. Every fireproof roof, in addition to a door or scuttle for access from below, must have a skylight or skylights with metallic framing, having an area equal to at least one-sixtieth the area of the roof. Skylights placed over rooms or areas to which the public have access must be protected by wire netting below or be glazed with wire-wove glass. The Building and Health Laws and Regulations and Amendments of 1905 affecting the city of New York are based, so far as the construction of roofs goes, upon the same lines as those of London, the principal exceptions being that they give very full working details, under part 24, as to the strengths of materials required to be used and the wind pressure to be provided against. In part 17 they provide that where a building exceeds three storeys or 40 ft. in height and the roof has a pitch of over 60°, it shall be constructed of iron rafters and be lathed with iron or steel on the inside and plastered or be filled in with fireproof material not less than 3 in. thick and covered with metal, slate or tile. The provision as to access to roof and fire escapes therefrom adopted by the London xxiii. 23 County Council in 1907 under the London Building Act Amendment Act 1905 were in operation in New York in 1899. LITERATURE. — The principal reference books on this subject are the following: — Thomas Tredgold, Elementary Principles of Carpentry; J. Newland, Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant; G. L. Sutcliffe, The Modern Carpenter, Joiner and Cabinet Maker; J. Griffiths, Trusses in Wood and Iron; F. Bond, Gothic Architecture; J. Gwilt, Encyclopaedia of Architecture; F. E. Kidder, Trussed Roofs and Roof Trusses; J. Brandon, Analysis of Gothic Architecture; A. Pugin, Ornamental Gables; M. Emy, L'Art de la charpenterie; Viollet le Due, Dictionnaire; J. K. Colling, Details of Gothic Archi- tecture. (J. BT.) ROOK (O.E. Hr6c, Icel. Hrokr,1 Swed. Rdka, Du. Roek, Gael. Rocas), the Corvus frugilegus of ornithology, and through- out a great part of Europe the commonest and best-known of the crow-tribe, belonging to the Passerine family Corvidae. Besides its pre-eminently gregarious habits, which did not escape the notice of Virgil (Georg. i. 382)" and are so unlike those of nearly every other member of the Corvidae, the rook is at once distinguished from the rest by commonly losing at an early age the feathers from its face, leaving a bare, scabrous and greyish-white skin that is sufficiently visible at some distance. In the comparatively rare cases in which these feathers persist, the rook may be readily known from the black form of crow (q.v.) by the rich purple gloss of its black plumage, especially on the head and neck, the feathers of which are soft and not pointed. In a general way the appearance and manners of the rook are well known, and particularly its habit of forming communities in the breeding-season, which it possesses in a measure beyond that of any other land bird of the northern hemisphere. Yet each of these communities, or rookeries, seems to have some custom intrinsically its own. In a general way the least-known parts of the rook's mode of life are facts relating to its migration and geographical distribution. Though the great majority of rooks in Britain are sedentary or only change their abode to a very limited extent, it is now certain that a very considerable number arrive in or towards autumn, not necessarily to abide, but merely to pass onward, like most other kinds of birds, to winter farther southwards; and, at the same season or even a little earlier, it cannot be doubted that a large proportion of the young of the year migrate in the same direction. As a species the rook on the European continent only resides during the whole year throughout the middle tract of its ordinary range. Farther to the northward, as in Sweden and northern Russia, it is a regular summer- immigrant, while farther to the southward, as in southern France, Spain and most parts of Italy, it is, on the contrary, a regular winter-immigrant. The same is found to be the case in Asia, where it extends eastward as far as the upper Irtish and the Ob. It breeds throughout Turkestan, in the cold weather visiting Afghanistan, Cashmere and the Punjab, and Sir Oliver St John found a rookery of considerable size at Casbin in Persia. In Palestine and in lower Egypt it is only a winter- visitant, and H. B. Tristram noticed that it congregates in great numbers about the mosque of Omar in Jerusalem. The same writer (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1864, p. 444; Ibis, 1866, pp. 68, 69) considered the Palestine rook entitled to specific distinction as Corvus Agricola. The rook of China has also been described as a distinct species, C. pastinalor (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1845, P- J) horn having the feathers of its face only partially deciduous. ROOKE, SIR GEORGE (1650-1709), English naval com- mander, was born near Canterbury in 1650. Entering the navy as a volunteer, he served in the Dutch Wars and became post- captain in 1673. After the Revolution of 1688, he commanded 1 The bird, however, does not inhabit Iceland, and the language to which the name belongs would perhaps be more correctly termed Old Teutonic. From this word is said to come the French Freux. There are many local German names of the same origin, such as Rooke, Rouch, Ruck and others, but the bird is generally known in Germany as the Saat-Krahe, i.e. seed-( = corn-)crow. 3 This is the more noteworthy as the district in which he was born and educated is almost the only part of Italy in which the rook breeds. Shelley also very truly speaks of the " legioned rooks " to which he stood listening " mid the mountains Euganean." yo6 ROOM— ROORKEE the squadron which raised the siege of Londonderry in 1689. He became rear-admiral in 1690, and fought at the battle of Beachy Head. In May of 1692 he served under Russell at the battle of Barfleur, and he greatly distinguished himself in a night attack on the French fleet at La Hogue, when he suc- ceeded in burning six of their ships. Shortly afterwards he received the honour of knighthood and a reward of £1000. In 1693 he commanded the Smyrna convoy, which was scattered and partly taken by the French admiral Tourville near Lagos Bay. Till the peace of Nymwegen(i697),he continued to serve in the Channel and Mediterranean. In 1702 he commanded the expedition against Cadiz, and on the passage home destroyed the Plate fleet in Vigo. With Sir Cloudesley Shovel he took part in the capture of Gibraltar on the 2ist of July 1704. On the 1 3th of August of the same year he attacked the French fleet off Malaga, the battle being drawn. On account of the dissatisfaction expressed indirectly at the result of the contest, he retired from the service in February 1705. He died on the 24th of January 1709. Rooke's Journal for 1700-2 has been printed by 'the Navy Record Society. ROOM, originally a word meaning space or accommodation; the ordinary meaning of an apartment in a building, one of the interior divisions of a house, dates from the isth century. The word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. ruim, Ger. Raum, Swed. and Dan. rum, with the original meaning of space. Skeat connects the word with the root seen in Lat. rus, open country. ROON, ALBRECHT THEODOR EMIL, COUNT VON (1803- 1879), Prussian general field-marshal, was born at Pleushagen, near Colberg, in Pomerania, on the soth of April 1803. His family was of Flemish origin, and was settled in Pomerania. His father, an officer of the Prussian army, died in poverty during the French occupation, and young von Roon was brought up, in a country ravaged in the War of Liberation and in straitened circumstances, by his maternal grandmother. He entered the corps of cadets at Kulm in 1816, whence in 1818 he proceeded to the military school at Berlin, and in January 1821 received a commission in the I4th (3rd Pomeranian) regiment quartered at Stargard in Pomerania. In 1824 he went through the three years' higher course of study at the war school in Berlin, where he also applied himself with the greatest energy to improving his general education. In 1826 he was transferred to the i5th regiment at Minden, but in the same year was appointed an instructor in the military cadet school at Berlin, where he devoted himself especially to the subject of military geography. He published in 1832 the well-known Principles of Physical, National and Political Geography, in three volumes (Gnmdziige der Erd-, Volker- und Staaten-Kunde), which gained him a great reputation, and of which over 40,000 copies were sold in a few years. This work was followed in 1834 by Elements of Geography (Anfangs- grtinde der Erdkunde), in 1837 by Military Geography of Europe (Mililarische Landerbeschreibung von Europa), and in 1839 by The Iberian Peninsula (Die Iberische Halbinsel). Meantime, in 1832, he rejoined his regiment, and was after- wards attached to the headquarters of General von MurHing's corps of observation at Crefeld, when he first became alive to the very inefficient state of the Prussian army. In 1833 he was appointed to the Topographical Bureau at Berlin, in 1835 he entered the General Staff, and in the following year was pro- moted captain and became instructor and examiner in the military academy at Berlin. In 1842, after an illness of two years brought on by overwork, he was promoted to be major and attached to the staff of the VII. corps, in which post he was again impressed with the inefficiency of the organization of the army, and occupied himself with schemes for its reform. Two years later, as tutor to Prince Frederick Charles, he attended him at Bonn university and in his European travels. In 1848 he was appointed chief of the staff of the VIII. Army Corps at Coblenz. During the disturbances of that year he served under the Crown Prince William (afterwards German emperor) in the suppression of the insurrection at Baden, and distinguished himself by his energy and bravery, receiving the 3rd class of the order of the Red Eagle in recognition of his services. While attached to the Crown Prince's staff at that time he broached to him the subject of his schemes of army reform. In 1850 came the revelation of defective organization and efficiency which led to the humiliating treaty of Olmiitz. In the same year Roon was made a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1851 full colonel. He now enjoyed the confidence of Prince William, and began active work as reorganizer of the army. Promoted to be major-general in 1856 and lieutenant-general in 1859, Roon had held since 1850 several commands and had been employed on important missions. Prince William became regent in 1857, and in 1859 he appointed Roon a member of a commission to report on the reorganization of the army. Sup- ported by Manteuffel and Moltke, 'Roon was able to get his plans seriously considered and generally adopted. His aim was to create an armed nation, to extend Scharnhorst's system and to adapt it to Prussia's altered circumstances. To attain this he proposed a universal three years' service, and a reserve (Landwehr) for the defence of the country when the army was actively engaged. During the Italian War he was charged with the mobilization of a division. At the end of 1859, though the junior lieutenant-general in the army, he succeeded von Bonin as war minister, and two years later the ministry of marine was also entrusted to him. His proposals of army reorganization met with the bitterest opposition, and it was not until after long fighting against a hostile majority in the chambers that, with Bismarck's aid, he carried the day. Even the Danish campaign of 1864 did not wholly convince the country of the necessity of his measures, and it required the war with Austria of 1866 to convert obstinate opposition into enthusiastic support. After that von Roon, from being the best-hated man in Prussia, became the most popular, and his reforms were ultimately copied throughout continental Europe. He was promoted general of infantry at the outbreak of this war, was present at the brilliant and decisive victory of Koniggratz, and received the Black Eagle at Nikolsburg on the road to Vienna. His system, adopted after 1866 by the whole North German Con- federation, produced its inevitable result in the victorious war with France 1870-71, throughout which von Roon was in attendance on the German emperor. The fiftieth anniversary of his entrance into the army was celebrated at Versailles on the 1 9th of January 1871, when the emperor expressed his grati- tude for the great services he had rendered. He was created a count, and in December 1871, having resigned the ministries of war and marine, he succeeded Bismarck as president of the Prussian ministry. Ill-health compelled him to resign in the following year. He was promoted to be field-marshal on the ist of January 1873. He died at Berlin on the 23rd of February 1879. After his death his son published the valuable Denkwurdigkeiten aus dem Leben des Generalfeldmarschalls Kriegsministers Grafen Roon (2 vols., Breslau, 1892), and Kriegsminister von Roon als Redner politisch und militarisch erldutert (Breslau, 1895). His correspond- ence with his friend Professor Cl. Perthes, 1864-67, was also pub- lished at Breslau in 1895. ROORKEE, or RURKI, a town of British India, in the Saharan- pur district of the United Provinces, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, 22 m. E. of Saharanpur. Pop. (1901) 17,197. It is the headquarters of the workshops of the Ganges canal, and also of the Bengal Sappers and Miners. Two heavy batteries of artillery are usually stationed in the cantonment. The Thomason Civil Engineering College, founded in 1848, was transferred from the Public Works to the Education Depart- ment in 1895 and reorganized. It was instituted in order to train natives in engineering, and students originally received stipends. After 1875 the emoluments were limited, and became in the nature of scholarships, but the education of all students remained practically free till 1896, when fees began to be charged. The college works in co-operation with the workshops and foundry of the canal, and also trains in surveying, photo- graphy and other subjects, having chemical, physical, electrical and mechanical laboratories and workshops. ROOSEVELT 707 ROOSEVELT, THEODORE (i&sS-l), twenty-sixth presi- dent of the United States, was born in New York City on the 27th of October 1858. The Roosevelt family1 has been prominent in the life of New York for many generations, and is of Dutch origin. Mr Roosevelt's mother, Martha Bullock, came from a family of Scotch-Irish and Huguenot origin equally prominent in Georgia. Each family may lay just claims to a history of more than ordinary social and political distinction. Although born in New York, Mr Roosevelt spent much of his boyhood' at Oyster Bay, the country home of his father, on Long Island Sound, where he began with a distinct purpose, unusual among boys of his age, to build up a naturally frail physique by rowing and swimming in the waters of Long Island Sound, and by riding over the hills and tramping through the woods of Long Island. That his early outdoor life furnished a definite training for his after career is indicated by the fact that when he was about fourteen years of age he went with his father on a tour up the Nile as far as Luxor, and on this journey he made a collection of Egyptian birds found in the Nile valley, which is now in the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, B.C. Mr Roosevelt was educated at Harvard University, where he graduated in the class of 1880; 2 his record for scholarship was creditable, and his interest in sports and athletics was especially manifest in his skill as a boxer. On leaving college he made a short visit to Europe, was elected to the London Alpine Club for climbing the Jungfrau and the Matterhorn, and returning to New York studied law for a brief period in the Law School of Columbia University and in the office of his uncle Robert B. Roosevelt. Determining to enter active politics, he gave up his legal studies without qualifying for the bar, and in 1881 was elected to the New York legis- lature as a regular Republican, although in opposition to the " boss" of the assembly district for which he was a candidate. He was elected again in 1882 and in 1883, and at the age of twenty-four was his party's candidate for Speaker of the Assembly. In 1884 he was a delegate of the Republican party to the convention in Chicago which nominated James G. Blaine for president. In the convention he opposed the nomination of Mr Blaine, and in a speech which attracted considerable 1 Claas Martenszen van Roosevelt (or Rosenvelt) settled in New Amsterdam in 1649; his son Claas (or Nicholas) in 1700-1 was a New York alderman of the Leislerian party; in the next three generations, Johannes, Cornelius and Jacobus (James) were merchants and (in 1748-67, 1785-1801 and 1797-99 and 1809, respectively) aldermen of New York; in the third generation the family became allied with the Schuylers. Isaac Roosevelt was a member of the Provincial Congress in 1775-77 and of the state Senate in 1777-86 and in 1 788-^2; in the state Assembly were James Roosevelt (1796-97), Cornelius C. Roosevelt (1803), James I. Roosevelt, jun. (1835-40), and Clinton Roosevelt (1837- 40). James I. Roosevelt, jun. (1795-1875), was a Democratic member of the national House of Representatives in 1841-43, and a justice of the state Supreme Court in 1851-59. Nicholas J. Roosevelt (1767-1854), with John Stevens, Robert R. Living- stone and Robert Fulton, was prominent in the development of steam navigation. His brother, Cornelius van Schaik Roosevelt (1794-1871), was a founder of the Chemical National Bank of New York, and the grandfather of the president. The president's uncle, Robert Barnwell Roosevelt (1829-1906), was a New York lawyer, New York state fish commissioner in 1866-68, a member of the Committee of Seventy which exposed the corruption of Tammany in New York City, a Democratic member of the national House of Representatives in 1871-73, U.S. minister to the Netherlands in 1888, and author of works on American game birds and fish. R. B. Roosevelt's brother, the president's father, Theodore Roosevelt (1831-1878), was a glass importer, prominent in city charities, an organizer of the Union League Club, and the founder of the Ortho- paedic Hospital. A cousin, James Henry Roosevelt (1800-1863), was founder of the Roosevelt Hospital in New York City. The president's mother, Martha Bullock, was of an old Georgia family of Scotch-Irish and Huguenot extraction; her grandfather was Archibald Bullock (1730-1777), first president (1776-77) of Georgia; and her brother, James Dunwoody Bullock, often com- pared by Theodore Roosevelt to Colonel Newcome, was in the Confederate navy, and equipped in England vessels (including the " Alabama ") as Confederate cruisers. 2 In the same year he married Alice Hathaway Lee of Boston, who di"d in 1884 leaving one daughter. Later (in 1886) he married Edith Kermit Carow of New York City, and by this marriage had four sons and one daughter. attention for its vigour and courage advocated the nomination of Senator George F. Edmunds. After Mr Elaine's nomina- tion, however, he supported him in the campaign as the chosen candidate of the party, in spite of the fact that an important wing of the Republican party " bolted " the nomination and espoused the candidacy of Grover Cleveland, who was elected president. In 1884, partly because his political life seemed at least for the immediate present to be at an end, partly on account of the freedom and activity of out-of-door life, he bought two cattle ranches near Medora on the Little Missouri river in North Dakota, where he lived for two years, becoming inti- mately associated with the life and spirit of the western portion of the United States. In 1886 he was the Republican candidate for mayor of New York City, but was defeated by Abram F. Hewitt, the Tammany candidate, and received a smaller vote than Henry George, the candidate of the United Labor party. Mr Roosevelt, however, received a larger proportion of the total vote cast than any mayoralty candidate of the Republican party had previously received in New York City. In April 1889, on the accession to the presidency of Benjamin Harrison, Mr Roose- velt, then closely identified with the work of Civil Service reform, was appointed a member of the United States Civil Service Commission. In this office, until then one of minor importance, he served for six years. He made it not only nationally prominent, but instrumental in shaping the course of legislative and executive action by introducing into the work of the Commission an entirely new spirit and new methods. The annual reports, of which he was the chief author, became controversial pamphlets; he published bold replies to criticisms upon the work of the Commission; he explained its purposes to newspaper correspondents; when Congress refused to appro- priate the amount which he believed essential for the work, he made the necessary economies by abandoning examinations of candidates for the Civil Service in those districts whose representatives in Congress had voted to reduce the appropria- tion, thus very shrewdly bringing their adverse vote into dis- favour among their own constituents; and during the six years of his commissionership more than twenty thousand positions for government employes were taken out of the realm of merely political appointment and added to the classified service to be obtained and retained for merit only. In 1895 he resigned from the Civil Service Commission and became President of the Board of Police Commissioners for the City of New York. After a strenuous two years in this office, he was appointed by President McKinley in 1897 assistant-secretary of the navy. He was certain that war with Spain was inevitable, and he did much to prepare the navy for hostilities, framing an important personnel bill, collecting ammunition, getting large appropriations for powder and ammunition used in improving the marksmanship of the navy by gunnery practice, buying transports and securing the distribution of ships and supplies (especially in the Pacific) in such a way that, when hostilities were declared, American naval victories would be assured. He urged upon the administration the bold policy of protesting against the sailing of Cervera's fleet, on the ground that it would be regarded as a warlike measure not against the Cuban revolutionaries, who had no navy, but against the United States; and he advised that, if Cervera sailed, an Ameri- can squadron be sent to meet him and to prevent his approach to America. At the outbreak of the war with Spain he resigned from the Navy Department and raised the first volunteer regiment of cavalry, popularly known as the " Rough Riders," because many of its members were Western cowboys and ranchmen expert in the handling of the rough and often un- broken horses of the Western frontier. The regiment also included college athletes, city clubmen and members of the New York police force, every man possessing some special qualification for the work in view. Mr Roosevelt declined the colonelcy of the regiment, preferring to take the post of lieutenant-colonel under his intimate friend Dr Leonard Wood, who, while a surgeon in the United States army, had served 708 ROOSEVELT in action with gallantry and skill against the Indians. On the promotion of Colonel Wood to the command of the brigade, Mr Roosevelt became colonel of the regiment, which took an especially prominent part in the storming of San Juan Hill. In this battle Colonel Roosevelt became the ranking officer and, abandoning his horse, led the charge up the hill on foot under severe fire at the head of his troops. This charge, in which many of the " Rough Riders " were killed or wounded, drove the Spaniards from the trenches and opened the way to the surrender of Santiago. At the conclusion of the war, while the troops were still in camp in the South, Mr Roosevelt joined in a " round robin " of protest against the mismanagement in the War Department, which had resulted in widespread suffering among the troops from wretched food and bad sanitary arrangements. This " round robin " created a sensation which aroused public opinion and was instrumental in bringing about some desirable reforms in the War Department. When his regiment was mustered out of service in September 1898, Mr Roosevelt was nominated by the Republican party for the governorship of New York State and was elected in November by a substantial plurality. He was governor for two years. He reformed the administration of the state canals, making the Canal Commission non-partisan; he introduced the merit system into many of the subordinate offices of the state; and he vigorously urged the passage of and signed the Ford Franchise Act (1899), taxing corporation franchises. In various contests, in which he was almost uniformly victorious, he showed himself to be independent of " boss " control. In 1900, although he wished to serve another term as governor in order to complete and establish certain policies within the state, he was nominated for the vice-presidency of the United States on the ticket with President McKinley by the Republican National Convention in Philadelphia in spite of his protest. It was very commonly believed at the time that this nomination for the vice-presidency was participated in and heartily approved of by the machine politicians or " bosses " of the State of New York in their belief that it would result in his elimination from active political life. The office of vice-president of the United States had so far in the history of the country been almost purely a perfunctory one, and has rarely, if ever, led to political promotion. The vice-president is ex officio president of the Senate, but has little voice or part in shaping either legislation or the affairs of the party. Mr Roosevelt never, however, presided over the deliberations of the Senate, because before the session following his inauguration convened he had ceased to be vice-president. Upon the assassination of McKinley, on the I4th of Sep- tember 1901, he succeeded to the presidency. No previous president had entered the office at so early an age as forty-three. It was his frankly expressed wish to be nominated and elected president in 1904, and he was nominated unani- mously by the Republican National Convention at Chicago, and was elected in November of that year by the largest popular majority ever given to any candidate in any presi- dential election. He received 7,623,486 popular votes and 336 electoral votes to 5,077,971 popular votes and 140 electoral votes cast for Judge Alton B. Parker, the nominee of the Democratic party. Immediately after his election he publicly declared that he would not accept the nomination for the presidency in 1908, and he adhered to that pledge in spite of great popular pressure brought to bear upon him to accept the nomination of the party for another term. The nomination and election of President Taft, who had been a member of Mr Roosevelt's cabinet, was very largely due to the latter's great influence in the party. On March 23rd, two weeks after he ceased to be president, Mr Roosevelt sailed for Africa, to carry out a long-cherished plan of con- ducting an expedition for the purpose of making a scientific collection of the fauna and flora of the tropical regions of that continent. Expert naturalists accompanied the party, which did not emerge from the wilderness until the middle of the following March, bringing with it a collection which scientists pronounce of unusual value for students of natural history. Most of the specimens were sent to the National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. The experiences of his African journey were recorded by Mr Roosevelt in a volume entitled African Game Trails: The Wanderings of an American Hunter Naturalist. The spring and early summer of 1910 were spent by Mr Roosevelt in travelling through Egypt, the continent of Europe, and England, in acceptance of invitations which he had received to make various public speeches in these countries. Honorary academic degrees were conferred upon him by the universities of Cairo, Christiania, Berlin, Cambridge and Oxford, and he was given both popular and official ovations of almost royal distinction — ovations which were repeated by his own countrymen on his return to America. It may be said without exaggeration that no American public man in the history of the country has achieved such extraordinary popularity during his lifetime as Mr Roosevelt had attained at fifty years of age, both at home and abroad. Great popularity necessarily brings with it bitter enmity and genuine criticism. To understand clearly his career as a public man, and to appreciate the forces at work which caused both the popularity and the enmity, two facts must be kept dis- tinctly in mind: first, that at twenty-two years of age he deliberately decided to make politics his life-work at a time when in the United States the word " politics " had a sinister sound in the ears of almost all of the so-called cultivated classes; and secondly, that in making this deliberate choice he recognized that the government of the United States is primarily a party government. He therefore allied himself with the Republican party, to which by tradition, by family association, and by political principles he was naturally drawn. In the history of the United States the politician has been too often the man who, in connexion with some other trade or profession, has taken up politics as a tool to carve out some personal ambition or manufacture a financial profit. Mr Roosevelt from the beginning apparently believed with the lexicographers that politics is the science and practice of government. He has himself told the story of an early experience that illustrates his point of view. When in 1881 he decided to join the Republican Association of his assembly district in New York City, members of his family were shocked. " You will find at the meetings, " they said, " nobody but grooms, liquor dealers and low politicians." " Well, " said Mr Roosevelt in reply, " if that is so, they belong to the governing class, and you do not. I mean if I can to be one of the governing class. " He forthwith became an active member of the political organization of his district. He also early determined to work with his party as being the only way in which a legislator can work. A free lance, an independent, a journalist, or a preacher, without definite political affiliations, may create public opinion, but a legislator or an administrator must belong to a party. Mr Roosevelt was severely criticized by many " independent Republicans " for having supported the presidential candidacy of James G. Elaine in 1884, when he had vigorously opposed his nomination in the convention on moral grounds. The reply to this criticism is that Mr Blaine was the choice of the majority of the party, and that while Mr Roosevelt felt free to fight within the party vigorously for reform, he did not feel that the nomination justified a schism like that which occurred in the Democratic party over the free silver issue in 1896 — a schism which remained after- wards a hopeless weakness in that party. His position in the Blaine campaign, his attitude in tariff discussions and legisla- tion, his relations with United States senators, congressional representatives, and other party leaders, his methods in making official appointments, were entirely consistent with his con- stantly reiterated conviction that in politics permanent good is achieved not by guerilla warfare, but by working through and within the party. He was so often accused by political purists for associating politically with men of discredited reputation that his own picturesque statement of his con- version to a belief that in legislative or administrative politics ROOSEVELT 709 one must work with all sorts and conditions of men is illuminating. This statement is related by his intimate friend Jacob A. Riis,1 to whom Mr Roosevelt made it in commenting upon his first political success in the New York legislature. " I suppose that my head was swelled. It would not be strange if it was. I stood out for my own opinion alone. I took the best ' mugwump ' stand — my own conscience, my own judgment were to decide in all things. I would listen to no argument, no advice. I took the isolated peak on every issue, and my associates left me. When I looked around, before the session was well under way, I found myself alone. I was absolutely deserted. The people didn't understand. The men from Erie, from Suffolk, from any- where, would not work with me. ' He won't listen to anybody, they said, and I would not. My isolated peak had become a valley; every bit of influence I had was gone. The things I wanted to do I was powerless to accomplish. I looked the ground over, and made up my mind that there were several other excellent people there, with honest opinions of the right, even though they differed from me. I turned in to help them, and they turned to and gave me a hand. And so we were able to get things done. We did not agree in all things, but we did in some, and those we pulled at together. That was my first lesson in real politics. It is just this: if you are cast on a desert island with only a screw-driver, a hatchet and a chisel to make a boat with, why, go make the best one you can. It would be better if you had a saw, but you haven't. So with men. Here is my friend in Congress who is a good man, a strong man, but cannot be made to believe in some things in which I trust. It is too bad that he doesn't look at it as I do, but he does not, and we have to work together as we can. There is a point, of course, where a man must take the isolated peak and break with all his associates for clear principle: but until that time comes he must work, if he would be of use, with men as they are. As long as the good in them overbalances the evil, let him work with them for the best that can be obtained." In his successive offices Mr Roosevelt not merely exerted a strong influence upon the immediate community, whose official representative he was at the time being, but by reason both of his forceful personality and of the often unconventional, although always effective, methods of work which he employed he achieved a national prominence out of ordinary proportion to the importance of his official position. His record in the Assembly was such that his party nominated him for the mayoralty of the city of New York when he was absent on his ranch in Dakota. Although defeated in the mayoralty election, his work on behalf of the merit system, as opposed to the spoils system of politics, was such that he was made a Civil Service commissioner — probably the last office a politician would wish to hold who desired further promotion, for the conflict which a Civil Service commissioner must have with members of Congress and other party leaders on questions of patronage is usually, or, at any rate, has been in the past history of American politics, inevitably detrimental to further official advancement. He was taken from the Federal service in Washington to New York City by a reform mayor and put in charge of the police, because he had shown both physical and moral courage in fighting corruption of all sorts; and the New York police force at that time was thoroughly tainted with corruption, not in its rank and file, but among its superior officers, who used the power in their hands to extort money bribes chiefly from saloon- keepers, liquor-dealers, gamblers and prostitutes. As police commissioner Mr Roosevelt brought to his side every honest man on the force. By personal detective work, that is, by visiting police stations at unexpected times and by making the rounds at night of disorderly places which were suspected of violating the law, he not only displayed personal courage in positions of some danger, but aroused public opinion. The very sensation created by the novelty of his methods set standards and started reforms which have greatly improved the morale of the entire force. The hopelessly vicious policemen hated him, but no man ever had a stronger personal hold upon the great body of the honest officers — a hold which existed long after he left the police department, and was frequently expressed by members of the force as he passed through the city streets. When he became assistant- secretary of the navy, his work was not so publicly conspicuous, 1 In a volume entitled Roosevelt the Citizen, which, while it is frankly written as the enthusiastic tribute of a personal admirer, may be relied upon for accuracy in its statement of historical or biographical facts. but in this office he gained an experience which was of great value in his administration of naval affairs during his presidency. It is doubtful if, without the experience of this secretaryship, he could have successfully originated and carried out the plan of sending the United States navy around the world in 1907. He went to the Spanish War as a volunteer against the urgent wishes of his political advisers, and in spite of the protests of some of his best and most intimate friends. The conditions in Cuba had long convinced him that war with Spain was inevit- able, and that, for humane reasons alone, it was both right and necessary to drive the Spanish power out from the Carribean Sea. Having urged this view upon the country, when war was declared he felt that it would be inconsistent for him not to share personally in the perils of a conflict which he believed to be a just one, and which he had done as much as he could to bring about. His record in the war for efficiency and personal gallantry no doubt contributed largely to his nomination and election as governor of the state of New York; but he attained the governorship not on this ground alone. There are many instances in American politics of nominations made solely on a war record which have led to hopeless defeat in election. His work in the governorship brought him still more into prominence as a national leader. His uncompromising antagonism to political blackmail and bribery, and his determination to pursue the right, as he saw the right, only in a common-sense fashion, made bitter enemies on the one hand among the corrupt politicians, and, on the other hand, among theoretical reformers, and discussions raged in the newspapers about his executive acts, his speeches, and his official messages much as they raged during his seven years in the White House. If he had never/ reached the presidency he would probably have been a figure long remembered in American political life. But it was his course in the presidency that gave him his international reputation, and it is as President Roosevelt that future historians of American political life must chiefly discuss him. Mr Roosevelt entered the presidency definitely committed to two principles which profoundly affected his course as chief executive of the United States. He had a well wrought-out belief in centralized authority in government and a passionate hatred of political and commercial corruption. He believed the United States to be a unified republic, a sovereign nation, and not a federation of independent states united only for mutual benefit and protection. He not only hated corruption per se, but he clearly saw that as efficiency has a greater power for good, so corruption has a greater power for evil in a strongly centralized government. He understood that political materialism, selfishness and corruption in federal administration afford the strongest possible argument for those who advocate strengthening the independent power of the separate states at the expense of nationalism. At the very outset of his administration he therefore set himself to work, not only to improve the personnel of the government service, but by exhortations in his messages and public speeches to arouse a sense of civic responsibility both among office-holders and among all the citizens. His official messages to Congress, probably more frequent, certainly much longer than those of any of his predecessors, were quite as often treatises on the moral principles of government as they were recommendations of specific legis- lative or administrative policies. The effect of his exhortations, as well as of his personal character and public acts, upon the standards and spirit of official life in the United States, was a pronounced one in attracting to the federal service a group of men who took up their work of public office with the same spirit of enthusiasm and self-sacrifice that actuates the military volunteer in time of war. No American president has done so much to discredit and destroy the old Jacksonian theory of party government that " to the victors belong the spoils," and to create confidence in the practical success as well as the moral desirability of a system of appointments to office which rests upon efficiency and merit only. Mr Roosevelt not only attacked dishonesty in public affairs but in private business as well, asserting that " malefactors of great wealth " endeavour to ROOSEVELT control legislation so as to increase the profits of monopolies or " trusts," and that to prevent such control it is necessary to extend the powers of the federal government. In carrying out this policy of government regulation and supervision of cor- porations he became involved in a great struggle with the powerful financial interests whose profits were threatened, and with those legislators who sincerely believed that government should solely concern itself with protecting life and property, and should leave questions of individual and social relations in trade and finance to be settled by the operation of so-called natural economic laws. In the struggle, although he was bitterly accused of violating the written constitution, of arrest- ing and destroying business prosperity and of attempting a radical departure from the accepted social system of the country, he was remarkably successful. By his speeches and messages, and by his frank use of one of the greatest of modern social engines— the newspaper press — he created a public opinion which heartily supported him. Under his effective influence laws were framed which were not merely in them- selves measures of stringent regulation of business and the accumulation of wealth, but which establish^ precedents, that as time goes on will inevitably make the dqctrine of federal control permanent and of wider application. The struggle against some of the most powerful financial and political influences of the time not unnaturally gave ri^ to the idea that his work as president was destructive — perhaps the necessarily destructive work of the reformer — but not ^ssentially con- structive. Even those friendly to him sometimes felt it necessary to defend his political course by sayingVhat he was compelled to raze the old buildings and prepare the\ground on which his successors might build new and better structures. A brief consideration of some of the constructive achievwnents of his administration will show that the " destructive" theory of his political activities is not sustained by the facts. Civil Service Reform. — Some reference has already been made to the fact that in every office which Mr Roosevelt held he constantly dwelt upon the truism, often forgotten or ignored, that no govern- ment can accomplish any permanent good unless its administrative and legislative officers are chosen and maintained for merit only. As assemblyman, as police commissioner, as naval secretary and as president, he advocated this fundamental doctrine. When Federal Civil Service commissioner he did more than any other single public man in the United States has had either the ability or the oppor- tunity to do, to promote the doctrine of service for merit only out of the realm of theory into the realm of governmental practice. While he was criticized by the friends of Civil Service Reform for not going far enough during his presidency to protect the encroach- ments of those who desire to have the offices distributed as political rewards or for partisan ends, such specific acts as his transference to the classified service of all fourth-class postmasters east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio rivers, his insistence upon a thorough investigation of the scandals in the Post Office department, and his order forbidding federal employes to use their offices for political purposes in the campaign of 1908 are typical of his vigorous support of the merit system. Conservation of National Resources.— If Mr Roosevelt did not invent this term he literally created as well as led the movement which made Conservation in 1910 the foremost political and social question in the United States. The old theory was that the general prosperity of the country depends upon the development of its natural resources — a development which can best be achieved by private capital, acting under the natural incentive of financial profits. Upon this theory public land was either given away or sold for a trifle by the nation to individual holders. While it is true that the building of railways, the opening of mines, the growth of the lumber industry and the settlement of frontier lands by hardy pioneers was rapidly promoted by this policy, it also resulted naturally in the accumulation of great wealth in the hands of a comparatively few men who were controlling lumber, coal, oil and railway transportation in a way that was believed to be a menace to the public welfare. Nor was the concentration of wealth the only danger of this policy; it led to the destruction of forests, the exhaustion of farming soils and the wasteful mining of coal and minerals, since the desire for quick profits, even when they entail risk to permanency of capital, is always a powerful human motive. Mr Roosevelt not only framed legislation to regulate this concentration of wealth and to preserve forests, water power, mines and arable soil, but organized departments in his administra- tion for carrying his legislation into effect (see IRRIGATION: United States). His official acts and the influence of his speeches and messages led to the adoption by both citizens and government of a new theory regarding natural resources. It is that the government acting for the people, who are the real owners of all public property, shall permanently retain the fee in public lands, leaving their pro- ducts to be developed by private capital under leases which are limited in their duration and which give the government complete power to regulate the industrial operations of the lessees. Government Regulation of Corporations. — The growth of the cor- poration as an industrial machine had in recent 'years been very rapid in the United States. The industrial and financial corpora- tions had grown so powerful as to venture to contend for the first place with the authority of the government itself. As Mr Roose- velt often pointed out, no nation will live long in which the authority of government — especially in a democracy — is supplanted by the private interest of a real money power. Early in his political career, Mr Roosevelt foresaw this conflict, and as president he aroused public opinion so that the people understood it, and threw his effective influence into the framing of legislation under which the Federal government is now successfully combating the illegal acts of the powerful trusts. He established the Federal Department of Commerce and Labor, the secretary of which has a seat in the cabinet, and in which there exists a bureau of corporations possessing the specific function of inspecting and supervising interstate cor- porations— an entirely new feature in American government. He strengthened the interstate commission for the regulation of railroads, inaugurated successful suits against monopolies — notably the Standard Oil Company and the so-called Sugar Trust, — and achieved distinct practical results in favour of a system of " industrial democracy " where all men shall have equal rights under the law and where there shall be no privileged interests exempt from the operation of the law. ,Both his friends and his enemies agree that he did more than any other public man to effect these changed relations of government and industry. There is, however, a violent disagreement regarding the desirability and the results of his course. His critics assert that he simply interrupted the orderly course of business, inspired panic and dangerously arrested prosperity. Mr Roosevelt and his supporters were convinced that his policy was necessary to save the country from the social and political dangers of plutocracy, and that in establishing a definite system of government regulation not only were popular rights preserved and justice promoted but industrialism and finance were placed upon a basis of regularity and honesty that paved the way for an era of general prosperity in the United States, un- hampered by feverish speculation and shrewd scheming, such as the country had so far in its history been unable to enjoy. The Army and Navy. — Mr Roosevelt was a pronounced advocate of international peace but also an advocate of law and order. He believed that international controversies would ultimately be settled by judicial procedure, and in the Russo-Japanese War and the establishment of the Hague Court he took an active part in pro- moting the judicial settlement of disputes between nations. For his efforts leading to the settlement of the Russo-Japanese War he received the Nobel Peace Prize, and in May 1910 he delivered an address on " International Peace " before the Nobel committee in Christiania. But, with this advocacy of international peace, he also advocated the maintenance by the United States of an efficient and thoroughly equipped army and navy. To some of his critics these two positions seem inconsistent. Mr Roosevelt argued not only that they were consistent but that the one logically followed the other. In his Nobel address he said: " In any community of any size the authority of the courts rests upon actual potential force; on the existence of a police or on the knowledge that the able-bodied men of the country are both ready and willing to see that the decrees of judicial and legislative bodies are put into effect ;" and he expressed the opinion that until a recognized international supreme court was firmly established, every nation must be prepared to defend itself, and when it was established all the nations must be prepared to maintain its decrees against any recalcitrant nation. On this ground during his presidential administration Mr Roosevelt was deeply concerned in many measures for improving the admini- strative side of the War Department and educating, training and strengthening the army. Although he himself served in the army during the Spanish War his special interest was in the navy, springing probably from his relationship with the navy during his brief term as assistant secretary. The successful and dramatic voyage of the American fleet around the world, undertaken in spite of pre- dictions of disaster made by naval experts in Europe and the United States, was conceived and inspired by him, and this single feat would alone justify the statement that no American public man had done so much since the Civil War as he to strengthen the physical power and the moral character of the United States navy. The Panama Canal. — The greatest single material achievement of Mr Roosevelt's presidency was the taking over by the United States of the project to build a Panama Canal. The prtjject itself is nearly four centuries old; for a century Great Britain and the United States had been sometimes in friendly, sometimes in acrimonious dispute as to how this was to be accomplished; the French undertook the work and failed. Mr Roosevelt recognized the new republic of Panama, and obtained from it for ROOT, E. 711 the United States, in return for a commercial and military pro- tection advantageous to Panama, the right to build a canal and control it in perpetuity. His critics said that his course in this matter was unconstitutional, although the question of constitution- ality has never been raised before any national or international tribunal. The fact remains that the construction of the Panama Canal was undertaken to the practical satisfaction to the civilized world. But for Mr Roosevelt's vigorous official action and his characteristic ability to inspire associates with enthusiasm the canal would still be a subject of diplomatic discussion instead of a physical actuality. Colonial Policy. — Strictly speaking, the United States has no colonial policy, for the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico can scarcely be called colonies. It has, however, a policy of territorial expansion. Although this policy was entered upon at the conclusion of the Spanish War under the presidency of Mr McKinley it has been very largely shaped by Mr Roosevelt. He determined that Cuba should not be taken over by the United States, as all Europe expected it would be, and an influential section of his own party hoped it would be, but should be given every opportunity to govern itself as an independent republic; by assuming supervision of the finances of San Domingo, he put an end to controversies in that unstable republic, which threatened to disturb the peace of Europe; and he personally inspired the body of administrative officials in the Philippines, m Porto Rico and (during American occupancy) in Cuba, who for efficiency and unselfish devotion to duty compare favourably with any similar body in the world. In numerous speeches and addresses he expressed his belief in a strong colonial government, but a government administered for the benefit of the people under its control and not for the profit of the people at home. In this respect, for the seven years of his administration at Washing- ton, he developed a policy of statesmanship quite new in the history of the United States. No account of Mr Roosevelt's career is complete without a reference to his literary work, which has been somewhat overshadowed by his reputation as a man of public affairs. He was all his life an omnivorous reader of the best books in very varied fields of literature, and he developed to an unusual degree the faculty of digesting and remembering what he has read. His history of the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain, written when he was twenty- four years old, is still the standard history of that conflict, and his Winning of the West is probably the best work which has been written on American frontier life of the igth century, a life that developed certain fundamental and distinctive Ameri- can social and political traits. His African Game Trails, the record of his scientific hunting expedition in Africa in 1900-10, is much more than a narrative of adventures on a wild continent. It is a study of social and ethnological conditions, and contains many passages of literary charm, describing bird life, animal life and natural scenery. An appendix that gives some account of the " Pigskin Library" which he carried with him for daily reading in the heart of Africa is a surprising exposition of the wide range of his reading. As a public speaker his style was incisive, forceful and often eloquent, although he made no effort to practise oratory as an art. The volume of his African and European addresses, published in the autumn of 1910, not only presents an epitome of his political philosophy, but discloses the wide range of his interest in life and the methods by which he had striven to bring public opinion to his point of view. Personally of great physical and mental vigour, his work was done at high pressure and he had the faculty of inspiring his colleagues or his subordinates with his own enthusiasm for doing things. The volume of his letters and his writings in books, articles for the press and speeches and official messages, is enormous, and yet this work was done in the midst of the executive labours of a long political career. Besides being famous as a hunter of big game, he was a skilful horseman and a good tennis player. Regular physical exercise in the open air contributed much to his abounding vitality. A man of decisive action when his mind was made up on any given question, his very decisiveness sometimes gave the impression that his judgments were hasty. On the contrary, few men were more deliberate in considering all sides of an important problem. His long experience, his wide reading and his thorough knowledge of all sorts and conditions of men, enabled him to act quickly at a time of crisis, but his important speeches, or a course of political action that might be far-reaching in its effect, were not cast into their final form without careful con- sultation with the best advisers he could obtain. The first form of his written speeches was always painstakingly edited and revised, and not infrequently entirely rewritten. He ex- pressed his own judgment of his success as a public man by say- ing that it was not due to any special gifts or genius, but to the fact that by patience and laborious persistence he had developed ordinary qualities to a more than ordinary degree. (L. F. A.) The following is a list of his principal works : — The Naval Opera- tions of the War between Great Britain and the United States — 1812- 1815 (1882), written to correct the history of James; Thomas Hart Benton (1887) and Gouverneur Morris (1888), both in the American Statesmen Series; New York City (1891; revised 1895) in the Historic Towns Series; Hero Tales, from American History (1895) with H. C. Lodge; Winning of the West (4 vols., 1889-96); a pit of the sixth volume of the History of the Royal Navy of England (1898) by W. L. Clowes; The Rough Riders (1899); Oliver Crom- well (1901); the following works on hunting and natural history, Hunting Trips of a Ranchman (1886), Ranch Life and Hunting Trail (1888), The Wilderness Hunter (1893), Big Game Hunting in the Rockies and on the Plains (1899; a republication of Hunting Trips of a Ranchman and The Wilderness Hunter), The Deer Family (1902), with other authors, and African Game Trails (1910) ; and the essays, American Ideals (2 vols., 1897) and The Strenuous Life (1900) ; and State Papers and Addresses (1905) and African and European Ad- dresses (1910). Several of hjs works have been translated into French and German. Uniform editions were published in 1900 and 1903. Early in 1909 he became a "contributing editor" of the Outlook. The biographical sketches by Jacob A. Riis (New York, 1904), F. E. Leupp (ibid., 1904), G. W. Douglas (ibid., 1907), James Morgan (ibid., 1907), and Murat Halstead (Akron, 1902) are personal or political eulogies. John Burroughs's Camping and Tramping with Roosevelt (Boston, 1907) is an appreciation of Roosevelt as a naturalist. J. W. Bennett, Roosevelt and the Republic (New York, 1908), is bitterly hostile. There is a sketch by F. V. Greene in Roosevelt's American Ideals. ROOT, ELIHU (1845- ), American lawyer and political leader, was born at Clinton, New York, on the isth of February 1845, the son of Oren Root (d. 1885), professor of mathe- matics at Hamilton College from 1849-81. He graduated at Hamilton College in 1864, taught at the Rome (N.Y.) Academy in 1865, and graduated at the University Law School, New York City, in 1867. As a corporation lawyer he soon attained high rank and was counsel in many famous cases. Politically, he became identified with the reform element of the Republican party. He was United States attorney for the Southern District of New York (1883-85), and a delegate to the State Constitutional Convention of 1894, acting as chairman of its judiciary committee. From August 1899 until February 1904 he was secretary of war in the cabinets of Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt, and in this position reorganized the army and created a general staff, and in general administered his depart- ment with great ability during a period marked by the Boxer uprising in China, whither troops were sent under General A. R. Chaffee, the insurrection of the Filipinos, the withdrawal of the United States troops from Cuba, and the establishment of a government for the Philippines under a Philippine Com- mission, for which he drew up the " instructions," in reality comprising a constitution, a judicial code and a system of laws. In 1903 he was a member of the Alaskan Boundary Tribunal. In July 1905 he re-entered President Roosevelt's cabinet as secretary of state. In the summer of 1906, during a visit to the Pan-American Conference at Rio de Janeiro, he was elected its honorary president, and during a tour through the Latin- American republics, brought about a better understanding between the United States and these republics. In general he did much to further the cause of international peace, and he concluded treaties of arbitration with Japan, Great Britain, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland and other countries. Upon his resignation from the cabinet he was elected, in January 1909, as United States senator from New York. In 1910 he was chief counsel for the United States before the Hague tribunal for the arbitration of the long-standing dispute con- cerning fisheries between his country and Great Britain (see NEWFOUNDLAND). He received the degree of LL.D. from 712 ROOT Hamilton, 1896; Yale, 1900; Columbia, 1904; New York University, 1904; Williams, 1905; Princeton, 1906; Uni versity of Buenos Aires, 1906; University of San Marcos of Lima, 1906; and Harvard, 1907. ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. anc Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, repre- sented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix), the underground part of a plant. This is the popular meaning of the word. In its botanical use the term is more restricted (see below). The various other meanings have all developed from this, its primary, significance. Of these the principal are: the source or origin of a condition, state, quality, &c. ; the base or embedded part of a structure of the body, such as a nail, tooth, the hair, &c.; in mathematics, a number, quantity or dimension which produces a given expression when multiplied by itself a requisite number of times; and in philology an ultimate element of language, incapable of further analysis. A par- ticular extension of the primary meaning is that which applies the word generally to a class of plants, such as the turnip or carrot, whose root is fleshy, and edible either by man or domestic animals. The embryo of a typical plant, for instance a pea plant (fig. i), has an ascending axis which will grow into the shoot, and a descending axis or radicle which will grow into the root. When the seed germinates, the radicle is the first to appear; it grows downwards, and its primary function is to act as a holdfast for the plant; its most important function, however, is the absorption of water and ,, ~, dissolved nutrient substances 1an vertical section through the root-tip; the cap protects it in its passage through the soil. The root also generally bears root-hairs, slender unicellular outgrowths of the outer layer, borne in the region a little behind the root- tip. It is by means of the root - hairs especially that the root is brought into close rela- tion with the soil particles and absorbs the nutrient materials in solution in the water which sur- rounds these particles. The older root-hairs are continually dying off, so that they are borne only on a small part of the area behind the apex. Branches of the root, which repeat the form From Vines's student's Botany, by and structure of the main root, i , , . a.re developed in regular succes- Slon lrom above downwards permission. FIG. 2,-Lateral Roots n aris- ing endogenously from the pericycle of the Tap- Root (acropetal) , and owing to the fact that they originate in a definite the interior of the (endogenous) they develop in longitudinal rows and have to break through the overlying tissue of the parent root (fig. 2). True forking of the root (dichotomy) occurs in the Lycopodiaceae (the shoots of which also branch dichotomously), but is unknown in the higher plants. of Vicia Faba (longitudinal c'ylinde'r && /' cSS of main root; h, root-cap of lateral root. Roots which originate elsewhere than as acropetal out- growths of a main root are known as adventitious, and may From Green's Vegetable Physiology, by permission. FIG. 3 a and b. Root-hair in contact with par- I Ultimate root-branches, showing tides of soil (highly magnified). I position of root-hairs. arise on any part of a plant. They are especially numerous on underground stems, such as the under side of rhizomes, and also develop from stem nodes under favourable conditions, such as moisture and absence of light ; a young shoot or a cutting placed in moist soil quickly forms adventitious roots. They may also arise from leaves under similar conditions, as, for instance, from begonia leaves when planted in soil. The forms of roots depend on their shape and mode of branching. When the central axis goes deep into the ground in a tapering manner,- without dividing, a tap-root is produced. This kind of root is some- times shortened, and becomes swollen by storage of food-stuffs, forming the conical root of carrot, or the fusiform or spindle-shaped root of radish, or the napiform root of turnip. In ordinary forest trees the first root protruded continues to elongate and forms a long primary root-axis, whence secondary axes come off. In primary plants, especially Monocotyledons, the primary axis soon dies and the secondary axes take its place. When the descending axis is very short, and at once divides into thin, nearly equal fibrils, the root is called fibrous, as in many grasses (fig. 4) ; when the fibrils are thick and succulent, the root is fasciculated, as in Ranunculus Ficaria, Asphodelus luteus, and Oenanthe crocata; when some of the fibrils are developed in the form of tubercules, the root is tubercular, as in dahlia (fig. 5) ; when the fibrils enlarge in certain 'IG. 4. — Fibrous Root of a Grass. Numerous fibrils coming off from one point. From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanit, by per- mission of Gustav Fischer. FIG. 5. — Root-Tubers of Dahlia variabilis. s, the lower portions of the cut stems ($ nat. size). >arts only, the root is nodulose, as in Spiraea Filipendula, or monili- orm, as in Pelargonium triste, or annulated, as in Ipecacuanha. borne of these so-called roots are formed of a stem and root combined, as in Urchis (fig. 6), where the tuber consists of a fleshy swollen ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING 7J3 root bearing at the apex a stem bud. As in the case of the stem, growth in length occurs only for a short distance behind the apex, but in long-lived roots increase in diameter occurs continually in a similar manner to growth in thickness in the stem. Roots are usually underground and colour- less, but in some cases where they arise from the stem they pass for some distance through the air before reaching the soil. Such roots are called aerial. They are well seen in the screw-pine (Pandanus), the Banyan (Ficus indica, fig. 7), and many other species of Ficus, where they assist in supporting the stem and branches. In the mangrove they often form the entire support of the stem, which has decayed at its lower part. In tree- ferns they form a dense coating around, and completely concealing, the stem; such is also the case in some Dracaenas and palms. In Epiphytes, or plants growing in the air, attached to the trunks of trees,,such as orchids of warm climates, the aerial roots produced _ gase Qf do not reach the soil ; they continue always r n*fv,i* aerial and greenish, and they possess stomata. showing tuber' Delicate hairs are often seen on these epi- cufeTof tuberous PMal rootsf- as «*» as, a peculiar spongy t investment formed by the cells of the epi- dermis which have lost their succulent con- tents and are now filled with air. This layer is called the velamen, and serves to condense the moisture contained in the air, on which pIG FIG. 7. — Ficus indica, the Banyan tree, sending out numerous aerial roots, which reach the soil, and prop the branches. the plant is dependent for its water-supply. The aerial roots of the ivy are not the nutritive roots of the plant, but are only intended for mechanical support. The climbing roots of many orchids, aroids and epiphytic ferns branch and form places of lodgment for humus into which absorbent branches of the climbing roots penetrate. Some leafless epiphytic orchids, such as species of Angraecum, depend entirely upon their aerial roots for nourishment; the roots, which are green, perform the functions both of leaves and roots. A respiratory or aerating function is performed by roots of certain mangroves growing in swampy soil or water and sending vertical roots up into the air which are provided with aerating passages by which the root system below can communicate with true outside air. Parasitic plants, as the mistletoe ( Viscum), broom-rape (Orobanche) and Rafflesia, send root-like processes into the substance of the plants whence they derive nourishment. In the dodder (Cuscuta), the tissue around the root swells into a kind of sucker (haustorium), which is applied flat upon the other plant, and ultimately becomes concave, so as to attach the plant by a vacuum. From the bottom of the sucker the root protrudes, and penetrates the tissue of the host plant. Leaf-buds are sometimes formed on roots, as in plum, cherry and other fruit trees; the common elm affords an excellent example, the young shoots which grow up in the neighbourhood of a tree arising from the roots beneath the soil. In some plants no roots are formed at all; thus in the orchid Corallorhiza, known as coral-root, a stem-structure, the shortly branched underground rhizome, performs all the functions of a true root which is absent. In aquatic plants the root acts merely as a holdfast or is altogether absent as in Salvinia, Utricularia and others. ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING. All varieties of cordage having a circumference of an inch or more are known by the general name of " rope." Twisted cordages of smaller dimensions are called cords, twines and lines, and when the sectional area is still smaller, the article is known as thread or doubled yarn. All these varieties of cordage are composed of a number of separate yarns, each of which is made from some kind of textile fibre by preparing and spinning machinery. The number of separate yarns which ultimately form the rope or cord depends upon the fineness of the yarn, and also upon the circumference of the finished article. From thread and fine twine upwards the whole art of manufacture is that of twisting together fibres and yarns; but the comparative heaviness and coarseness of the materials operated on in rope-making render necessary the adoption of heavy machinery and modified processes which clearly define this manufacture as a distinct calling. The modern trade of rope-making is again divided into two distinct branches dealing with vegetable fibres and metallic wire. Many different vegetable fibres are used for rope-making, but for the combined qualities of strength, flexibility and durability, none can compete with the common hemp, which is consequently the staple of the rope-maker. Cotton ropes are, however, much more flexible, and in addition are strong and durable; they are, therefore, much preferred for power transmission in textile and other works. Manila hemp is a fibre of remarkable tenacity, of unapproached value for heavy cordage, but too stiff for small cords and twines. After these in utility come Sisal hemp of Central America (Agava Sisalana), Phormium hemp of New Zealand (Phormium lenax) and Sunn hemp of the East Indies (Crotalaria juncea) — all fibres of great strength, and largely used by rope-makers. Jute (q.v.) of India (Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorus) is now largely used by rope-makers on account of its cheapness. When used alone it is deficient in strength and durability, but when used in conjunction with proper proportions of hemp it makes a very satisfactory and useful rope. Among fibres more rarely seen in rope-works are Jubbulpore hemp (Crotalaria tenuifolia), boxstring hemp (Sanseviera zeylanica), and other hemps of the East Indies, plantain fibre (Musa paradisica), and agave fibre (Agave americana) of America. Coir and many other fibres are used, but principally in the localities of their production. A rope is composed of a certain number of " strands," the strand itself being made up of a number of single threads or yarns. Three strands laid or twisted together form a " hawser- laid " rope, and three jsuch hawsers similarly laid make a " cable-laid " rope or " cable." A " shroud-laid " rope usually consists of four strands laid around a central strand or core. The prepared fibre is twisted or spun to the right hand to form yarn; the required number of yarns receive a left-hand twist to make a strand; three strands twisted to the right make a hawser; and three hawsers twisted to the left form a cable. Thus the twist in each operation is in a different direction from that of the preceding one, and this alternation of direction serves, to some extent, to preserve the parallelism of the fibres. The primary object of twisting fibres together in a rope is that by mutual friction they may [be held together when a strain is applied to the whole. Hard twisting has the further advantage of compacting the fibres and preventing, to some extent, the penetration of moisture when the ropes are exposed to water; but the yield of rope from a given length of yarn diminishes in proportion to the increase of twist. The proper degree of twist given to ropes is generally such that the rope is from three-fourths to two-thirds the length of yarn composing it. Rope-walk Spinning. — The sequence of operations in this method of working is as follows: (i) hackling the fibre; (2) spinning the yarn; (3) tarring the yarn when necessary; (4) forming the strands; (5) laying the strands into ropes. Hackling differs but slightly from the hand-hackling process used in the preparation of flax. The hackle board consists of a wooden block studded with strong, tapered and sharp- pointed steel prongs. A series of such hackle boards is used in the progressive hackling operation, the prongs diminishing ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING in size and being more closely set together. For the commoner kinds of ropes, however, hackling through the coarsest board is found to be sufficient, while in most other cases two hacklings are adopted. The hackler takes up a handful or "streak"1 of hemp from the bundle, wraps one end firmly round his hand, and with his fingers distributes a little oil over the hemp. The oil softens the material, keeps the hackle pins in good condition, and facilitates generally the splitting up of the fibre as the streak is drawn through the pins. In the first place, only the ' ends of the streak are hackled; they are dashed into the pins and drawn through them in order to separate the fibres and to lay them parallel; but as the operation proceeds a gradually increasing length of the streak is thrown on and drawn through the pins. The process is indeed very similar to the combing out of a head of human hair. When half the length of the streak is thoroughly combed, the other half is treated in pre- cisely the same manner. The hackled streak is then weighed, doubled up to prevent any entanglement, and laid aside for the process of spinning. During the hackling process a large quantity of comparatively short fibres are retained in the pins; the longest of these are separated, and the remainder used for tow yarns. The above description refers entirely to hand hackling; machine hackling of hemp is very similar to flax hackling. The spinning is done in what is termed the " rope-walk," and from the nature of hand-spinning, and the length of the rope required, it is necessary that this walk should be from 300 to 400 yds. in length. It is sometimes completely covered in with walls and roof; at other times only a roof is built; while in exceptional cases the whole of the walk, with the exception of a small hut at each end, is without shelter of any kind. The operation of spinning is very important, as the weight of the yarn and the appearance of the finished product depend upon it. A description of spinning and laying as per- formed by the aid of the hand-wheel will perhaps be the best means of giving an idea of this useful branch of manufacture. B«D<&= FIG. i. FIG. 2. The front and end elevations of one variety of spinning-wheel are shown in figs. I and 2. The apparatus is fixed to some convenient part of the1 building, or to special supports. The wheel A, which is turned by hand, and always in the same direction, communicates motion to the rotating hooks or " whirls " B, C, D and E by means of a listing band or strap F. The arrangement of the listing shows clearly that the hook E will revolve in the opposite direction to hooks B, C, and D. The spinner takes two streaks of the hackled hemp, wraps them round his waist with the ends at his back, and keeps the fibre in position by adjusting his apron partly round it. From the middle of the streak — that is, midway between the two ends — he takes hold of a quantity of fibre and hangs it on to one of the 1 See note in the article on JUTE for variations of spelling. hooks B, C or D ; the assistant at the wheel begins to turn, and thus a certain amount of twist is imparted to the material between the spinner and the hook. The spinner now walks backwards down the walk, drawing put the fibre with his left hand and adjusting it with his right. A piece of flannel or woollen cloth held in his right hand aids in the formation of the thread and protects his fingers from the rough fibre. In some cases two threads are spun simultaneously; when this is done, two of the hooks, say B and C, are used at the same time. Since the revolutions of the hook divided by the length of yarn spun give the amount of twist per inch or foot, it follows that the ratio ofthe walking pace of the spinner to the revolutions of the wheel A should be constant, otherwise the yarn will not be uniform. The spinner calls to the assistant when there is any irregularity in speed, or when, from any cause, he is obliged to stop walking. At convenient intervals in the length of the walk, and projecting from posts, are short horizontal bars ; the top of each bar is provided with wires or pegs to form a number of vertical partitions something like a very coarse comb. As the spinner proceeds down the walk, he throws the spun yarn into one of these partitions, thus relieving himself of the weight and keeping the yarn off the ground. When a sufficient length of yarn has been spun, he breaks off the fibres and fastens the yarn to a convenient peg or hook until he has spun a sufficient number (usually three) to form a small rope or cord. The person at the wheel hangs these three yarns one on each of the three hooks B, C and D, while the spinner attaches the other ends to a revolving hook termed a " looper." All is now ready for "laying " the yarns. For small cords, this may be done, with or without a " top." This top is a conical-shaped piece of hard wood provided with three equidistant grooves which merge towards each other at the thin end, and into which the yarns are laid. The thick end of the top is nearest the wheel, so that the yarns may be kept separate on that side. As the hooks twist the three threads, the spinner goes up the walk with the top; the twist in the yarns causes the looping hook to revolve in the opposite direction to the other hooks, and thus it twists the three threads in the opposite direction to the original twist. FIG. 3. Fig. 3 shows one form of top, the three yarns being shown in distinctive marks so that the path of each may be more easily followed by the reader ; a plan of the thick end of the top appears to the left of the figure. If four yarns of strands are required, the top would contain four grooves, as well as a hole through the centre to admit of a core when such a thing is required. As soon as the spinner, who carries the top, arrives at the wheel, the assistant takes the yarns off hooks B, C and D (figs. I and 2), and puts them all on hook E. The other ends of the strands are removed from the looper and attached to a block of wood called a " drag." The wheel is then rotated as before, which puts more twist into the cord. While this operation, which is termed hardening, proceeds, a shrinkage in the length of the cord takes place, and the drag is consequently drawn up the walk. The drag, however, holds the cord taut, and serves to retain the twist which is imparted by the hook E. If the strands require tarring before they are laid, they are separately taken off the hooks, after they have been spun, and tied at both ends to pegs to keep them taut until a sufficient number has collected to be conveniently handled at the tarring tank. The tar is heated to about 220° F., and the strands are then passed through it at a speed not greater than 15 ft. per minute. Before emerging from the tank, the strands pass between squeezing rollers which remove all superfluous tar. In a short time the strands are dry, while in the space of a few days the tar is hard enough to allow the strands to be formed into ropes. Such is, in general, the hand process of forming ropes when they are composed of only three or four single yarns. It very often happens, however, that a number of single yarns are required to form each strand of the rope. The single yarns may be spun by hand, as described above, or by machinery. In the former case a group of yarns is usually termed a " haul," while the machine-spun yarns are formed into what is known as a " warp " or " chain. ' In any case, the group of yarns is stretched down the rope-walk, at each end of which is a " jack " twister. A few of the yarns taken from the group — the number depending upon the size of the yarn and also upon the required diameter of the strand — are then placed on a hook of the jack twister and twisted together. When three such strands are made they are laid into a rope in a similar manner to that explained above. A simple form of hand jack twister is illustrated in figs. 4 and 5. The wheel A gears with pinions B on the shafts of the hooks or whirls, and this imparts the necessary motion to the latter. At the other end of the walk is a similar machine which moves upon rails as the twist is put into the strands. When the hooks are empty, pinions B and wheel A (fig. 4) are out of gear, but those hooks carrying yarn are drawn out, as shown at C, until the pinion B gears with wheel A, when the hooks are rotated. The ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING PLATE I. FIG. 9.— ROPE-MAKIXG, POTTINGER MILL. FIG. io.— MANILA ROPE YARN PREPARING, POTTINGER MILL, OF THE BELFAST ROPEWORK CO. LTD. XXIIL 714. PLATE II. ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING FIG. ii.— GOOD'S HACKLING AND SPREADING MACHINE. FIG. 12— HEAVY SPIRAL OR SCREW-GILL DRAWING FRAME; ONE HEAD, SIX GILLS. I FIG. 13.— SPINNER OR JENNY. ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING l-l / sequence of operations is very similar to that described for the simple hand-wheel. FIGS. 4 and 5. Machine or Factory Rope-Making. — The most modern methods of rope-making are far superior to the foregoing, which, as stated, have been introduced to show the principle. One of the greatest drawbacks in the formation of a strand from a haul or chain, even for a small number of yarns, is the irregularity of the tension of the yarns at different parts of the strand. If a large number of yarns be required for each strand, it would be almost impossible to make a satisfactory rope by the above system. If, however, the strand be made from bobbins, each yarn bears its proper share of the tension, and an almost perfect rope is obtained. Two mechanical methods are in use for the spinning of long vegetable fibres — the ordinary and the special. When flax or jute yarns are required, they are almost invariably spun on the ordinary spinning frames, and the yarn rewound from the spinning bobbins on warping bobbins, or else rewound in the shape of rolls or cheeses. Hemp yarns, especially the finer kinds, are sometimes treated in the same manner, but Manila hemp, New Zealand hemp (Phormium), and similar fibres, are invariably spun on bobbins by special machinery. The strands for light ropes may then be made on the twisting frames, and the rope finished on what is called a " house machine." . When a large rope is desired, a slightly different method is usually employed. The bobbins from the automatic spinner, or the rolls from the winding frame, are placed upon pegs in a frame which answers the same purpose as a bank or creel used in conjunction with a warping machine. If the rope is to be say 35 in. in ^circumference, there may be, with fine yarns, 300 or more individual threads in its composition. Suppose that 300 threads are to be used, then 300 bobbins would be placed on the pegs of the bobbin bank or creel, and divided into three sets of 100 threads each for a three-strand rope. The threads are passed separately through a register- plate, which is simply a plate containing a sufficient number of holes for the maximum quantity required, and arranged in a series of concentric circles. There are three sets of concentric rings used in the plate for a three-strand rope, and four sets for one of four strands. As the threads emerge from the register plate they are grouped together and passed through a tapered tube, the sectional area of the smaller end of the tube being equal to the sectional area of the strand. This operation is done for each group of 100 threads, and finally the three or four groups are attached to separate rotating hooks of the forming machine or " traveller." As the latter moves down the walk on rails, it draws the threads from the bobbins in the bank, and through the register plate and tubes, while the hooks put in the twist. A perfectly circular strand, without slack threads, is thus formed; and, at the same time, a uniform strand is obtained, since the ratio of the speed of the traveller to the number of turns per inch of the hooks is constant. The process is con- tinued until the desired length of strand is made — about 150 fathoms (300 yds.) of each of the three strands are required for too to 120 fathoms of rope — then a little more twist is introduced. Afterwards, all three strands are placed on one hook of the traveller, and the ends from the shaping tubes are cut off and put on the hooks of the fixed machine, called the " fore-turn." The carriage containing the " top " is now brought close to the traveller, and the strands are placed in the grooves of the top as explained under hand-laying. Similar means to those used in hand-spinning are adopted for keeping the rope off the ground. The two machines are now started, the three hooks of the fore-turn machine revolving in one direc- tion and the single hook of the traveller revolving in the opposite direction. Simultaneously the carriage with the laying top moves forward towards the head of the walk. Fig. 9, Plate I., shows many stages in the process of rope-making. The most prominent part shows the carriage with the top in position approaching the fore-turn machine at the head of the walk. The person on the right of the carnage is holding a top in his left hand, while the top in the carriage is laying a rope of four strands. _At other parts of the figure appear three or four travellers, some twist- ing the strands, others moving up the walk as the laying proceeds, while on the extreme right one machine is laying two ropes, of three strands each, at the same time. We have already stated that the yarns for the above machine may be prepared by two systems. When the hemp fibre is spun on the ordinary frame, the method of preparation for such a frame is some- what similar to that employed for flax, but since the fibre is harsher than flax, it invariably requires softening. The softening machines crush the streaks as in the case of jute, but the fluted rollers are arranged to form part of a circle. The coarser fibres receive a somewhat different treatment; the first process in the preparation of Manila hemp and similar fibres used for rope yarn is illustrated in fig. 10, Plate I. The streaks are clearly shown as being led between fluted rollers on to the pins of the hackling and spreading machine; the lanterns or skeleton rollers, seen on the extreme right, press the fibres into the pins. A little oil is made to drop on to-the fibre in order to soften it and to facilitate the operation. The oiling ap- paratus is usually of a simple character, and consists of a revolving roller partly immersed in an oil bath. The roller is driven as shown in the figure, and the oil which it draws up is scraped off its surface by a knife-edge, and led, by means of a sheet, upon the fibre between the fluted rollers and the gill-pins. A view of a similar machine is shown in fig. n, Plate II., from which it will be seen that there are two sheets of revolving gill-pins. The sheet nearest the feed-cloth revolves slightly quicker than the surface speed of the fluted feed rollers, while the second sheet moves at a much higher rate. The difference in the speeds of the gill-pins results in the fibre being combed out and straightened, while the delivery rollers, the surface speed of which is slightly greater than that of the second sheet of gill-pins, help further to complete the process, and finally deliver the fibre in the form of a broad ribbon, termed a sliver. In general, three such machines are used for the process; the pins in the gill-sheets are graded, those in the second machine being finer and more closely set than those in the first machine, while a still finer and closer arrangement obtains in the third machine. The slivers from the third hackling and spreading machine are now placed at the back of the first drawing frame, one type of which appears in fig. 12, Plate II. Each sliver is passed separately over a guide pulley, led upon the pins, drawn out and joined by others, and finally delivered as a sliver ready for the second drawing frame. A similar process is carried on in this machine, from which the sliver emerges ready for the spinning frame. It will thus be seen that a system of doubling, as well as of drawing, obtains in these processes as in flax- preparing; such a system is adopted in order to obtain uniformity of sliver and the correct weight. The slivers are taken from the drawing frame to the automatic spinner — a beautiful piece of mechanism. Fig. 13, Plate II., illustrates the machine as it leaves the makers. Two sliver cans from the second drawing frame are placed behind the machine, and the slivers passed between the rollers. They are then deflected and made to enter a trumpet-mouthed conductor which guides them on to the pins of the chain-sheet. As the two slivers emerge from these pins, each enters a separate self-feeding and adjusting apparatus, the function of which is, as its name implies, to regulate the delivery of the sliver to the nippers. The delivery is increased or decreased according as the sliver is thin or thick. Consequently, a very even yarn results; indeed, it is claimed that for uniformity of yarn this system of spinning has no equal. The bobbins, which ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING are placed in a horizontal position, have a lateral movement, so that the finished yarn may be wound on evenly. This machine is made for ordinary rope yarn, and for binder twine for self-reaping machines. When all three spreading machines are used in con- junction with the spiral drawing frames, the automatic feeding arrangement is sometimes considered unnecessary, because of the uniformity of the slivers when delivered from the finishing drawing frame. Figs. 14 and 15, Plate III., show two sheds filled with preparing machinery for the manufacture of binder twine. A complete system of Manila machinery, as recommended by Messrs Lawsons, Leeds, would consist of the following : — No. I spreading and hackling machine. spiral 1st drawing frame, I head, 88 in. reach, 4 slivers per head. „ 2nd „ 2 heads, 88 in. ,, 6 „ „ 20 improved automatic spinners or jennies of 2 spindles each. The length of sliver from a given length of fibre is proportional to the drafts and inversely proportional to the doublings. Thus, if d\, dz, dz, d\, (1.,, ur8CT''. Left™* ?" Boianik, with the base of the cup-shaped torus, ^ pension of Gustav F^cher. which enlarges to form a dry covering FIG. 4.— Fruit of Rose, round the one-seeded fruits. consisting of the Suborder V. Prunoideae (fig. 7) is fleshy hollowed axis, characterized by a free solitary carpel with a terminal style and two pendulous ovules, and the fruit a one-seeded drupe. The torus forms a cup from the edge of which spring the five sepals, five alter- nating petals and the ten to indefinite stamens. The plants are deciduous or evergreen trees or shrubs with simple leaves, often s', the persistent sepals s, and the carpels jr. The stamens e have withered. rf' FIG. 5. — Carpel of Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla) with lateral style i ; o, ovary; st, stigma, enlarged. FIG. 6.— Floral Dia- gram of Sanguisorba. b, bract ; a', /3', bracte- oles ; d, disk. with small caducous stipules, and racemes or umbels of generally showy, white or pink flowers. There are five genera, the chief of which is Prunus, to which belong the plum (Prunus com- munis), with several well-marked subspecies — P. spinosa (sloe or blackthorn), P. insititia (bullace), P. domestica (wild plum), the almond (P. Amygdalus), with the nearly allied peach (P. persica), cherry (P. Cerasus), birdcherry (P. Padus) and cherry After Wossidlo from Strasburger's Lehrbuch tier Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer. FIG. 7. — Prunus Cerasus. I, flowering branch; 2, a flower cut throug'i longitudinally; 3, fruit in longitudinal section. laurel (P. Laurocerasus). The tribe is distributed through the north temperate zone, passing into the tropics. Suborder VI. Chrysobalanoideae resembles the last in having a single free carpel and the fruit a drupe, but differs in having the style basal, not terminal, and the ovules ascending, not pendulous; the flowers are also frequently zygomorphic. The 12 genera are tropical evergreen trees or shrubs, the great majority being South American. The zygomorphic flowers indicate an affinity with the closely allied order Leguminosae. 724 ROSAMOND— ROSARY ROSAMOND, known as "The Fair" (d. c. 1176), mistress of Henry II., king of England, is believed to have been the daughter of Walter de Clifford of the family of Fitz-1'once. The evidence for the paternity is, however, only an entry of a statement made by the jurors of the manor of Corfham in a Hundred Roll of the second year of the reign of Edward I. (1274), great grandson of Henry II. Rosamond is said to have been Henry's mistress secretly for several years, but was openly acknowledged by him only when he imprisoned his wife Eleanor of Acquitaine as a punishment for her encouragement of her sons in the rebellion of 1173-74. She died in or about 1176, and was buried in the nunnery church of Godstow before the high altar. The body was removed by order of St Hugh, bishop of Lincoln, in 1191, and was, seemingly, reinterred in the chapter house. The story that she was poisoned by Queen Eleanor first appears in the French Chronicle of London in the i4th century. The romantic details of the labyrinth at Wood- stock, and the clue which guided King Henry II. to her bower, were the inventions of story-writers of later times. There is no evidence for the belief that she was the mother of Henry's natural son William Longsword, earl of Salisbury. ROSARIO, a city and river port of Argentina, in the province of Santa Fe, on the W. bank of the Parana, 186 m. by rail N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimate) 120,000. It is acces- sible to ocean-going steamers of medium draught. The city stands on the eastern margin of the great pampean plain, 65 to 75 ft. above the wide river-bed washed out by the Parana. It extends back a considerable distance from the river, and there are country residences and gardens of the better class along the line of the Central Argentine railway and northward toward San Lorenzo. The city is laid out with chessboard regularity, and the streets are paved (in great part with cobble- stones), lighted with gas and electricity, traversed by tramway lines, and provided with sewers and water mains. The Boule- vard El Santafecino is an attractive residence street with double driveways separated by a strip of garden and bordered by fine shade trees. The chief edifices of an official character are the custom house, post office, municipal hall and law courts. There is a large charity hospital, and the English and German colonies maintain a well-equipped infirmary. The largest sugar refinery in Argentina is here, and there are flour-mills, breweries and some smaller manufactures. The city is chiefly commercial, being the shipping port for a large part of northern Argentina, among its exports being wheat, flour, baled hay, linseed, Indian corn, sugar, rum, cattle, hides, meats, wool, quebracho extract, &c. The railway connexions are good, including the Buenos Aires and Rosario and the Central Argen- tine lines to the national capital, the Buenos Aires and Rosario line northward to Tucuman, where it connects with the govern- ment line to Salta, Jujuy and the Bolivian frontier, the Central Argentine line westward to Cordoba, with connexions at Villa Maria for Mendoza and the Chilean frontier, and two narrow- gauge lines, one running to Santa Fe and the other to Cordoba. The port of Rosario has hitherto consisted of a deep river anchorage and wooden wharves on the lower bank for the accommodation of steamers. Since 1902 work has been in progress under a contract with a French company for the construction of 12,697 ft- of quays, 23 m. of railway tracks along the quays to connect with the several railways entering the city, drawbridges, roadways, sheds, depots, elevator, offices, electric plant, fixed and movable cranes, and other appliances, &c., for the handling of produce and merchandise. The trade of the port was officially valued at 21,276,672 Arg. gold dollars imports, and 68,503,231 gold dollars exports in Rosario was founded in 1730 by Francisco Godoy, but it grew so slowly that it was still a small village up to the middle of the I9th century. In 1854 General Justo Jose de Urquiza, then at the head of the Argentine Confederation, made it the port of the ten inland provinces then at war with Buenos Aires, and in 1857 imposed differential duties on the cargoes of vessels first breaking bulk at the southern port. This gave Rosario a start, and its trade and population have grown since then with great rapidity. ROSARY (Lat. rosarium), a popular devotion of the Roman Catholic Church, consisting of 15 Paternosters and Glorias and 1 50 Aves, recited on beads. It is divided into three parts, each containing five decades, a decade comprising i Pater, 10 Aves and a Gloria, in addition to a subject for meditation selected from the " mysteries " of the life of Christ and of the Blessed Virgin. The Christian practice of repeating prayers is traceable to early times: Sozomen mentions (H.E. v. 29) the hermit Paul of the 4th century who threw away a pebble as he recited each of his 300 daily prayers; and a canon of the English synod of Cealcythe in 816 (Mansi xiv. 360) directed seplem beltidum Paternoster to be said for a deceased bishop. In many orders the lay brothers daily said a large number of Paternosters instead of reading the breviary; it was natural that the Pater- noster should be the prayer most often repeated. The Ave Maria is first mentioned as a form of prayer in the second half of the nth century, but it was not until the i6th century that it became general in its present form. It is not known precisely when the mechanical device of the rosary was first used. William of Malmesbury (De gest. pont. Angl. iv. 4) says that Godiva, who founded a religious house at Coventry in 1040, left a string of jewels, on which she had told her prayers, that it might be hung on the statue of the Blessed Virgin. Thomas of Chantimprfi, who wrote about the middle of the I3th century, first men- tions the word " rosary " (De apibus, ii. 13), using it apparently in a mystical sense as Mary's rose-garden. There is no con- temporary confirmation of the story that the rosary was given to St Dominic through revelation of the Blessed Virgin and was employed during the crusade against the Albigenses, although the story was later accepted by Leo X., Pius V., Gregory XIII., Sixtus V., Alexander VII., Innocent XI. and Clement XI. According to Benedict XIV. (De Fest. 160), the belief rests on the tradition of the Dominican order. Whatever may have been the origin of the rosary, the Dominicans did much to propagate the devotion. The practice of meditating on the mysteries doubtless began with a Dominican, Alanus de Rupe (born 1428), and another Dominican, Jacob Sprenger (d. 1495), grand-inquisitor in Germany, founded the first con- fraternity of the rosary at Cologne in 1475. This society spread rapidly, and was specially privileged by Sixtus IV., Innocent VIII. and Leo. X. After the battle of Lepanto (ist Sunday in October 1571), which was won while the members of the confraternity at Rome were making supplication for Christian success, Pius V. ordered an annual commemoration of " St Mary of Victory," and Gregory XIII., by bull of the ist of April 1583, set aside the ist Sunday in October as' the feast of the Rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary, to be observed in such churches as maintained an altar in honour of the rosary. Clement XL, by bull of the 3rd of October 1716, directed the observance of the feast by all Christendom. The devotion has been particularly fostered by the Jesuits, St Ignatius Loyola having expressly ordered its use. It has been repeatedly indulgenced by various popes. Leo XIII. issued eight encyclicals on the devotion; he urged its recitation throughout October, and directed (1883) the insertion of the title regina sacratissimi rosarii in the Litany. There are several varieties of the rosary more or less in use by Roman Catholics: the Passionists, or rosary of the five wounds, approved by Leo XII. in 1823; the Crown of Our Lord, attributed to Michael of Florence, a Camaldolese monk (c. 1516), and consisting of 33 Paters, 5 Aves and a Credo; St Bridget's, 7 Paters and 63 Aves, in honour of the joys and sorrows of the Blessed Virgin and the 63 years of her life. The Living Rosary, in which 15 persons unite to say the rosary every month, was approved by Gregory XVI. (1832) and placed in charge of the Dominican order by Pius IX. (1877). Similar expedients to assist the memory in repetitions of prayers occur among Buddhists and Mahommedans: in the former case the prayers are said on a string of some hundred beads, called the tibel-pren-ba or the len-wa; in the latter case, ROSAS— ROSCOE, SIR H. E. the so-called tasbih has 33, 66 or 99 beads, and is used for the repetition of the 99 names which express the attributes of God. See the critical dissertation in the Acta sanctorum, Aug. I, 422 sqq ; Quetif and Echard, Script. Ord. Praed. i. 411 sqq.; Benedict XIV olim Prospero de Lambertini, De festis B.V.M- i. 170 sqq.; H. Holzapfel, O.F.M., St Dominikus u. der Rosenkranz (Munich, 1903) ; Pradel, Rosenkranz-Buchel (Trier, 1885); D. D&hm.Die Bruderschaft torn hi. Rosenkranz (Trier, 1902). For the indulgences attached to the devotion consult Beringer, S.J., Die Ablasse, nthed. 292 ff., 354 ff. (Paderborn, 1895). For the corresponding devotion among Buddhists, consult Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet, or Lamaism (London, 1895), and an article by Monier Williams in the Athenaeum, 9th of Feb. 1878; for that of the Mahommedans, see L Petit, Les Confreres musulmanes (Paris, 1899), and E. Arnold, Pearls of the Faith, or Islam's Rosary (London, 1882). There is an excellent article, " Rosenkranz," by Zockler in Herzog-Hauck, Realency- klopadie, 3rd ed. vol. 17, pp. 144-50. (C. H. HA.) ROSAS, JUAN MANUEL (1793-1877), tyrant of Buenos Aires, was born on the 3Oth of March 1793, in the city of that name. His father, Leon Ortiz de Rosas, was an owner of cattle runs (estancias) and a trader in hides, who took an active part in defeating the English attack on the city in 1807. Juan Rosas received so little education that he had to learn to read and write when he was already a married man and a successful cattle breeder. From a very early age he was left in charge of one of his father's establishments. When he was eighteen he married Maria de la Encarnacion Escurra. His mother having suspected him of appropriating money, he left his parents, and for some time subsisted by working as a vaquero or cowboy, and then as overseer on the estates of other owners; but he accumulated money, and by the help of a loan from a friend he became possessed of a cattle run of his own, Los Cerrillos. The anarchical state of the country since its independence of Spain had favoured the Indians, who had taken the offensive and raided up to within forty miles of Buenos Aires. Rosas ob- tained leave to arm his cowboys. Under his management Los Cerrillos became a refuge for adventurers, whom he paid and fed well, but from whom he exacted implicit obedience. His followers became a fighting force of acknowledged efficiency, and Rosas took practically the position of an independent ruler whose help was sought by contending political parties. By attending to his own interest only, and by astute intrigue, or savage fighting when necessary, he grew in power from 1820 onwards, and from 1835 to 1852 ruled as dictator (see ARGENTINA). It is probable that he would have continued to govern in Buenos Aires till his death if his ambition had not led him into wars with all his neighbours. He wished to extend the authority of the Republic over all the territory which had belonged to the Spanish viceroyalty of Buenos. This led him directly into wars with Uruguay, Paraguay and Chile, and into " warlike operations " with England and France, with whom he had other causes of quarrel arising out of the complaints of traders and bondholders. His government was overthrown in 1852 by a coalition of his neighbours and the defection of several of his generals, and even members of his own family who lived in fear of his suspicions and violence. He took refuge in England, and lived at Swaythling, near Southampton, till his death on the I4th of March 1877. A portrait taken in 1834 and reproduced by Sir Woodbine Parish in his Buenos Ayres and Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (London, 1852) represents Rosas as a fine-looking man of the handsome Spanish type. See O. Martens, Ein Caligula unseres Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1896), which contains a full bibliography. ROSCELLINUS (RUCELINUS, or ROUSSELIN) (c. loso-c. 1122), often called the founder of Nominalism (see SCHOLASTICISM), was born at Compiegne (Compendium). Little is known of his life, and our knowledge of his doctrines is mainly derived from Anselm, Abelard and John of Salisbury. He studied at Soissons and Reims, was afterwards attached to the cathedral of Chartres, and became canon of Compiegne. It seems most probable that Roscellinus was not strictly the first to promulgate nominalistic doctrines; but in his exposition they received more definite expression, and, being applied to the dogma of the Trinity, attracted universal attention. Roscellinus maintained that it is merely a habit of speech which prevents our speaking of the three persons as three substances or three Gods. If it were otherwise, and the three persons were really one substance or thing (una res), we should be forced to admit that the Father and the Holy Spirit became incarnate along with the Son. Roscellinus seems to have put forward this doctrine in perfect good faith, and to have claimed for it at first the authority of Lanfranc and Anselm. In 1092, however, a council con- voked by the archbishop of Reims condemned his interpretation, and Roscellinus, who was in danger of being stoned to death by the orthodox populace, recanted his error. He fled to England, but having made himself unpopular by an attack on the doctrines of Anselm, he left the country and repaired to Rome, where he was well received and became reconciled to the Church. He then returned to France, taught at Tours and Loc-menach (Loches) in Brittany (where he had Abelard as a pupil), and finally became canon of Besanfon. He is heard of as late as 1121, when he came forward to oppose Abelard's views on the Trinity. Of the writings of Roscellinus, nothing is preserved except a letter to Abelard, mainly concerned with the doctrine of the Trinity (ed. J. A. Schmellcr, Munich, 1850). See F. Picaret, Rosselin, philosophe et theologien (1896), and authorities quoted under SCHOLASTICISM. ROSCHER, WILHELM GEORG FRIEDRICH (1817-1894), German economist, was born at Hanover on the 2ist of October 1817. He studied at Gottingen and Berlin, and obtained a professorship at Gottingen in 1844 and subsequently at Leipzig in 1848. Omitting preparatory indications and undeveloped germs of doctrine, the origin of the " historical " school of political economy may be traced to Roscher. Its fundamental principles are dated, though with some hesitation, and with an unfortunate contrast of the historical with the philosophical method, in his Grundriss zu Vorlesungen iiber die Staalswirth- schaft nach geschichtlicher Melhode (1843). This short study was afterwards expanded into his great System der Volkswirth- schaft, published in five volumes between 1854 and 1894, and arranged as follows: vol. i., Die Grundlagen der National- okonomie, 1854 (trans, by J. J. Lalor, Principles of Political Economy, Chicago, 1878); vol. ii., Die National okonomie des Ackerbaues und der verwandten Urproduktionszweige, 1859; vol. iii., Die National okonomie des Handels und Gewerbfleisses, 1881; vol. iv., System der Finanzwissenschaft, 1886; vol. v., System der Armenpflege und Armenpolilik, 1894. His Geschichte der National okonomie in Deutschland (1874) is a monumental work. He also published in 1842 an excellent commentary on the life and works of Thucydides. He died at Leipzig on the 4th of June 1894. See T. Roscher, Zur Geschichte der Familie Roscher in Nieder- sachsen (Hanover, 1892); Brasch, Wilhelm Roscher und die sozial- wissenschaftlichen Stromungen der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1895). ROSCIUS GALLUS, QUINTUS (c. 126-62 B.C.), Roman actor, was born, a slave, at Solonium, near Lanuvium. Endowed with a handsome face and manly figure, he studied the delivery and gestures of the most distinguished advocates in the Forum, especially Q. Hortensius, and won universal praise for his grace and elegance on the stage. He especially excelled in comedy. Cicero took lessons from him. The two often engaged in friendly rivalry to try whether the orator or the actor could express a thought or emotion with the greater effect, and Roscius wrote a treatise in which he compared acting and oratory. Q. Lutatius Catulus composed a quatrain in his honour, and the dictator Sulla presented him with a gold ring, the badge of the equestrian order, a remarkable distinction for an actor in Rome, where the profession was held in contempt. Like his contemporary Aesopus, Roscius amassed a large fortune, and he appears to have retired from the stage some time before his death. In 76 B.C. he was sued by C. Fannius Chaerea for 50,003 sesterces (about £400), and was defended by Cicero in a famous speech. See H. H. Pfliiger, Cicero's Rede pro Q. Roscio Comoedo (1904). ROSCOE, SIR HENRY EN FIELD (1833- ), English chemist, was born in London on the 7th of January 1833. After 726 ROSCOE, W. studying at Liverpool High School and University College, London, he went to Heidelberg to work under R. W. Bunsen, of whom he became a lifelong friend. In 1857 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester, where he remained for thirty years, and from 1885 to 1895 he was M.P. for the south division of Manchester. He served on several royal commissions appointed to consider educational questions, in which he was keenly interested, and from 1896 to 1902 was vice-chancellor of London University. He was knighted in 1884. His scientific work includes a memorable series of re- searches carried out with Bunsen between 1855 and 1862, in which they laid the foundations of comparative photochemistry. In 1867 he began an elaborate investigation of vanadium and its compounds, and devised a process for preparing it pure in the metallic state, at the same time showing that the substance which had previously passed for the metal was contaminated with oxygen and nitrogen. He was also the author of researches on niobium, tungsten, uranium, perchloric acid, the solubility of ammonia, &c. His publications include, besides several elementary books on chemistry which have had a wide circula- tion and been translated into many foreign languages, Lectures on Spectrum Analysis (1869); a Treatise on Chemistry (the first edition of which appeared in 1877-1892); A New View of Dalian's Atomic Theory, with Dr A. Harden (1896); and an Autobio- graphy (1906). The Treatise on Chemistry, written in colla- boration with Carl Schorlemmer (1834-1892), who was appointed his private assistant at Manchester in 1859, official assistant in the laboratory in 1861, and professor of organic chemistry in 1874, is a standard work. ROSCOE, WILLIAM (1753-1831), English historian and miscellaneous writer, was born on the 8th of March 1753 at Liverpool, where his father, who was a market gardener, kept a publichouse known as the Bowling Green at Mount Pleasant. Roscoe was eager in the acquisition of knowledge, and at twelve he left school, having learned all that his schoolmaster could teach. He now assisted his father in the work of the garden, and gave his leisure hours to reading and study. " This mode of life," he says, " gave health and vigour to my body, and amusement and instruction to my mind; and to this day I well remember the delicious sleep which succeeded my labours, from which I was again called at an early hour. If I were now asked whom I consider to be the happiest of the human race, I should answer, those who cultivate the earth by their own hands." At fifteen it was necessary to decide upon a path in life. A month's trial of bookselling sufficed to disgust him, and in 1769 he was articled to a solicitor. Although a diligent student of law, he did not bid farewell to the Muses, but continued to read the classics, and made that acquaintance with the language and literature of Italy which became the instrument of his distinction in after life.' He wrote many verses: his Mount Pleasant was composed when he was sixteen, and this and other verses, though now forgotten, won the esteem of good critics. In 1774 he commenced business as an attorney, and as soon as his professional gains warranted he married (1781) Jane, second daughter of William Grimes, a Liverpool tradesman, and had seven sons and three daughters. He had the courage to denounce the African slave trade in his native town, where not a little of the wealth came from this source. He wrote the Wrongs of Africa (1787-1788), and entered into a controversy with an ex-Roman Catholic priest, who undertook to prove the " licitness of the slave trade " from the Bible. Roscoe was also a political pamphleteer, and like many other Liberals of the day hailed the promise of liberty in the French Revolution. Meanwhile he had steadily pursued his Italian studies, and had made extensive collections relating to the great ruler of Florence. The result was his Life of Lorenzo de' Medici, which appeared in 1796, and at once placed him in the front rank of contemporary historians. The work has often been reprinted, and translations in French, German and other languages show that its popularity was not confined to its author's native land. Perhaps the most gratifying testimony was that of Fabroni, who had intended to translate his own Latin life of Lorenzo, but abandoned the design and induced Gaetano Mecherini to undertake an Italian version of Roscoe. In 1796 Roscoe gave up practice as an attorney, and had some thought of going to the bar, but relinquished the idea after keeping a single term. Between 1793 and 1800 he paid much attention to agriculture, and helped to reclaim Chat Moss, near Man- chester. He also succeeded in restoring to good order the affairs of a banking house in which his friend William Clark, then resident in Italy, was a partner. This task led to his introduction to the business, which eventually proved dis- astrous. His translation of Tansillo's Nurse appeared in 1798, and went through several editions. It is dedicated in a sonnet to his wife, who had practised the precepts of the Italian poet. The Life and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth appeared in 1805, and was a natural sequel to that by which he had made his reputation. The work, whilst it maintained its author's fame, did not, on the whole, meet with so favourable a reception as the Life of Lorenzo. It has been frequently reprinted, and the insertion of the Italian translation in the Index did not prevent its circulation even in the papal states. Roscoe was elected member of parliament for Liverpool in 1806, but the House of Commons was not a congenial place, and at the dis- solution in the following year he declined to be again a candi- date. The commercial troubles of 1816 brought into difficulties the banking house with which he was connected, and forced the sale of his collection of books and pictures. It was on this occasion that he wrote the fine " Sonnet on Parting with his Books." Dr S. H. Spiker, the king of Prussia's librarian, gives an inter- esting account of a visit to Roscoe at this period of trouble. Roscoe said he still desired to write a biography of Erasmus but " wanted both leisure and youth." This project was not executed (Spiker's Travels through England, &c., 1816). After a five years' struggle to discharge the liabilities of the bank, the action of a small number of creditors forced the partners into bankruptcy in 1820. For a time Roscoe was in danger of arrest, but ultimately he received honourable discharge. On the dispersal of his library, the volumes most useful to him were secured by friends and placed in the Liverpool Athenaeum. The sum of £2500 was also invested for his benefit. The inde- pendent and sensitive nature of Roscoe made both these opera- tions difficult. Having now resigned commercial pursuits entirely, he found a pleasant task in the arrangement of the great library at Holkham, the property of his friend Coke. In 1822 he issued an appendix of illustrations to his Lorenzo and also a Memoir of Richard Robert Jones of Aberdaron, a remarkable self-taught linguist. The year 1824 was memorable for the death of his wife and the publication of his edition of the works of Pope, which involved him in a controversy with Bowles. His versatility was shown by the appearance of a folio monograph on the Monandrian Plants, which was published in 1828. It appeared first in numbers, and the last part came out after his recovery from a paralytic attack. He died on the 3oth of June 1831. Roscoe's character was a fine one. Under circumstances uncongenial and discouraging he steadfastly maintained the ideal of the intellectual life. Sensitive and conscientious, he sacrificed his possessions to a punctilious sense of duty. He had the courage of unpopular opinions, and, whilst pro- moting every good object in his native town, did not hesitate to speak out where plain dealing, as in the matter of slavery, was required. He was a sincere friend and exemplary in his domestic relations. Posterity is not likely to endorse the verdict of Horace Walpole, who thought Roscoe " by far the best of our historians," but in spite of newer lights and of some changes of fashion in tjie world of letters, his books on Lorenzo de' Medici and Leo X. remain important contributions to historical literature. In addition to the writings already named, Roscoe wrote tracts on penal jurisprudence, and contributed to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature and of the Linnean Society. The first collected edition of his Poetical Works was published in 1857, and ROSCOFF— ROSCOMMON 727 is sadly incomplete, omitting, with other verses known to be from his pen, the Butterfly's Ball, a fantasy, which has charmed thousands of children since it appeared in 1807. Other verses are in Poems for Youth, by a Family Circle (1820). The Life by his son Henry Roscoe (2 vols., London, 1833} contains full details of Roscoe's career, and there are references to him in the Autobiographical Sketches of De Quincey, and in Washington Irving's Sketch Book. (W. E. A. A.) ROSCOFF, a maritime town and watering-place of north- western France, in the department of Finistere, on the English Channel, 17! m. N.N.W. of Morlaix by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 1984; commune, 5054. Roscoff, separated from the He de Batz by a narrow channel, has a tidal port used by fishing and coasting vessels. Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the cultivation of early vegetables, to the growth of which the mild climate and fertile soil is eminently favourable. The church of Roscoff (i6th century) has a fine Renaissance tower and contains inter- esting alabaster bas-reliefs. The ruined chapel of St Ninian commemorates the landing at Roscoff in 1548 of Mary Stuart, previous to her betrothal with the dauphin, son of Henry II. In 1746 Charles Edward, the young Pretender, landed at the port after his defeat at Culloden. ROSCOMMON, WENTWORTH DILLON, 4™ EARL OF (c. 1630-1685), English poet, was born in Ireland about 1630. He was a nephew of Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford, and was educated partly under a tutor at his uncle's seat in Yorkshire, partly at Caen in Normandy and partly at Rome. After the Restoration he returned to England, and was well received at court. In 1649 ne nad succeeded to the earldom of Ros- common, which had been created in 1622 for his great-grand- father, James Dillon; and he was now put in possession by act of parliament of all the lands possessed by his family before the Civil War. As captain of the Gentleman Pensioners he found abundant opportunity to indulge the love of gambling, which appears to have been his only vice. Disputes with the Lord Privy Seal about his Irish estates necessitated his presence in Ireland, where he gave proof of some business capacity. On his return to London he was made master of the horse to the duchess of York. He was twice married, in 1662 to Lady Frances Boyle, widow of Colonel Francis Courtenay, and in 1674 to Isabella Boynton. His reputation as a didactic writer and critic rests on his blank verse translation of the Ars Poetica (1680) and his Essay on Translated Verse (1684). The essay contained the first definite enunciation of the principles of " poetic diction," which were to be fully developed in the reign of Queen Anne. Roscommon, who was fastidious in his notions of " dignified writing," was himself a very correct writer, and quite free from the indecencies of his contemporaries. Alexander Pope, who seems to have learnt something from his carefully balanced phrases and the regular cadence of his verse, says that " In all Charles's days, Roscommon only boasts unspotted bays." He saw clearly that a low code of morals was necessarily followed by a corresponding degradation in literature, and he insists that sincerity and sympathy with the subject in hand are essential qualities in the poet. This elevated conception of his art is in itself no small merit. He has, moreover, the dis- tinction of having been the first critic to avow his admiration for Paradise Lost. Roscommon formed a small literary society which he hoped to develop into an academy with authority to formulate rules on language and style, but its influence only extended to a limited circle, and the scheme fell through after its promoter's death. He was buried in Westminster Abbey on the 2ist of January 1685. The title passed to his uncle, Carey Dillon (1627-1689). In 1746, on the death of James, the 8th earl, it passed to Robert Dillon (d. 1770), a descendant of the first earl. His family became extinct in 1816, and in 1828 Michael James Robert Dillon, another descend- ant of the 1st earl, established his title to the earldom before the House of Lords. When he died in May 1850 it became extinct. Roscommon's poems were collected in 1701, and are included in Anderson's and other collections of the British poets. He also translated into French from the English of Dr W. Sherlock, Traitte touchant I'obeissance passive (1686). ROSCOMMON, a county of Ireland in the province of Con- naught, bounded N.E. by Leitrim, N.W. by Sligo, W. by Mayo, W. and S. by Galway, E. by Longford and E. and S. by West- meath and King's County. The area is 629, 633 acres, or about 985 sq. m. The greater part of the county belongs to the great limestone plain of central Ireland, and is either flat or very slightly undulating. In the north-east, on the Leitrim border, the Braulieve Mountains, consisting of rugged and precipitous ridges with flattened summits, attain an elevation in Cashel Mountain of 1377 ft.; and in the north-west the Curlew Moun- tains, of similar formation, between Roscommon and Sligo, rise abruptly to a height over 800 ft. In the east the Slieve- bawn range, formed of sandstone, have a similar elevation. The Shannon with its expansions forms nearly the whole eastern boundary of the county, and on the west the Suck from Mayo forms for over 50 m. the boundary with Galway till it unites with the Shannon at Shannon Bridge. The other tributaries of the Shannon within the county are the Arigna, the Feorish and the Boyle. The lakes formed by expansions of the Shannon on the borders of Co. Roscommon are Loughs Allen, Boderg, Boffin, Forbes and Ree. Of the numerous other lakes within the county th'e most important are Lough Key in the north, very picturesquely situated with finely wooded banks, and Lough Gara (mostly in Co. Sligo) in the north-west. In this long county one may travel fifty miles across the Carboniferous Limestone plain, with the grey rock cropping out here and there, and long grass-covered esker-ridges forming the only obstacle to the roads. Lough Ree is a typical lake of the plain. Two inliers of Silurian rocks have been thrust up, form- ing hills between Lough Ree and Lough Boffin. At Boyle, however, higher Old Red Sandstone country is encountered, and farther north the Millstone Grit and Coal-Measure series cap the mountains almost horizontally at Arigna near Lough Allen. The nodules of clay-ironstone here were formerly smelted, and the seams of bituminous coal, mostly on Millstone Grit horizons, are worked successfully on a high level of the mountains. The subsoil is principally limestone, but there is some light, sandy soil in the south. In the level parts the land when drained and properly cultivated is very fertile, especially in the district known as the plains of Boyle, which includes some of the richest grazing land in Ireland. Along the banks of the Suck and Shannon there is, however, a large extent of bog and marsh. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as one to three. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but the acreage devoted to them decreases; the numbers of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry, on the other hand, are proportionately large and increasing. Communications are afforded by the Midland Great Western railway, the Sligo line of that system crossing the northern part of the county by Boyle, the Athlone and Mayo line passing from S.E. to N.W. by the towns of Roscommon and Castlerea, and the Athlone and Galway line crossing the southern part. The population was 116,552 in 1891, and 101,791 in 1901; 97% are Roman Catholics, and nearly the whole popula- tion is rural. The chief towns are Boyle, Roscommon, Elphin and Castlerea; and a small portion of Carrick-on-Shannon, including the railway station, • is in this county, the major portion being in Co. Leitrim. The county is divided into ten baronies. Ecclesiastically it belongs to the Protestant dioceses of Elphin and Ardagh (united with Kilmore and Tuam), and to the Roman Catholic dioceses of Tuam, Clonfert, Achonry, Elphin and Ardagh. Assizes are held at Roscommon and quarter sessions at Boyle, Strokestown and Roscommon. The county returns two members to parliament. To the Irish parliament before the Union of 1800 two members were re- turned for the county, and two each for the boroughs of Boyle, Roscommon and Tulsk. The district was granted by Henry III. to Richard de Burgo, but remained almost wholly in the possession of the native septs. Until the time of Elizabeth Connaught was included in the two districts of Roscommon and Clare, but in 1570 it 728 ROSCOMMON— ROSE, G. was further subdivided by Sir Henry Sydney, and was assigned its present limits. All the old proprietors were dispossessed at the Cromwellian settlement, except the O'Conor family headed by the O'Conor Don. The most interesting antiquarian remains within the county are the ruins of Crogan, the ancient palace of the kings of Connaught. The principal ancient castles are the old stronghold of the M'Dermotts on Castle Island, Lough Key, the dismantled castle of the M'Donoughs at Ballinafad, and the extensive fortress at Roscommon rebuilt by John d'Ufford, justiciary of Ireland in 1268. There are fragments of a round tower at Oran. The abbey of Boyle is in remarkably good preservation, and exhibits fine specimens of the Norman arch. The other monastic remains within the county, with the exception of the abbey of Roscommon, are of comparatively small importance. The Irish bard Carolan, who died in 1738, is buried by the ruined church of Kilronan, in the extreme north of the county. The bishopric of Elphin was united with Kilmore and Ardagh in 1833, and the former cathedral and episcopal buildings are largely modernized. ROSCOMMON, a market town and the county town of Co. Roscommon, Ireland, situated on rising ground in a bare plain in the centre of the county, on the Mayo line of the Midland Great Western railway, i8j m. N.W. by N. from Athlone. Pop. (1901) 1891. It contains the county buildings, and has Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, the latter of which is a fine building completed in 1903. An extensive trade is carried on in agricultural produce and live stock. A castle, dating from 1268, when it was founded by John d'Ufford, justiciary of Ireland, stands, an imposing mass of ruins, but far gone in decay, overlooking the plain. It fell to besiegers in 1566, 1642 and 1652, and was partially burned after the battle of Aughrim in 1691. There are also remains of a Dominican priory of the middle of the I3th century, founded by Felim O'Conor, king of Connaught, and exhibiting fine, though mutilated, details of the style of that period. The name of the town, signifying St Coman's wood, is derived from the saint who founded the monastery of Canons Regular here in the 6th century. The town received charters from Edward I. and James I. Two m. N,E. are small remains of the abbey of Deerane. ROSCREA, a market town near the north-western border of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, pleasantly situated on undulating ground connecting the Devil's Bit and the Slieve Bloom moun- tains. Pop. (1901) 2325. It is 77 m. W.S.W. from Dublin on the Ballybrophy and Limerick branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. A branch line runs northward to Birr or Parsonstown. Flour-milling and tanning are industries, and monthly cattle fairs are held. There is a branch here of the Trappist Monastery of Mount Melleray in Co. Waterford. The antiquarian remains are of interest. These include portions of an Augustinian abbey, founded by St Cronan, early in the 7th century, which are incorporated into the church. Out of this abbey a diocese grew, to be united with that of Killaloe in the I2th century. Here also was produced the Book of Dimma, consisting of the gospels and accompanied by a brazen shrine, ornamented with silver and tracery, and preserved in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. A cross and a shrine of St Cronan are in the churchyard. There are also a round tower, 80 ft. in height, but lacking the upper storeys, and a Franciscan friary (1490); while a circular tower, and a square keep (occupied as barracks), mark strongholds, the one built by King John and the other by the Ormondes, and testify to the former importance of the town, which was doubtless accen- tuated by its physical position in a passway between the neighbouring mountain ranges. Leap Castle, about 4 m. N., is another fortified mansion, which is still inhabited. ROSE, the name of a distinguished family of German chemists. VALENTINE ROSE the elder was born on the i6th of August 1736 at Neu-Ruppin, and died on the 28th of April 1771 at Berlin, where he was an apothecary and for a short time before his death assessor of the Ober Collegium Medicum. He was the discoverer of " Rose's fusible metal " (see FUSIBLE METAL). His son, VALENTINE ROSE the younger, born on the 3ist of October 1762 at Berlin, was also an apothecary in that city and assessor of the Ober Collegium Medicum from 1797. It was he who in 1800 proved that sulphuric ether contains no sulphur. He died in Berlin on the loth of August 1807, leaving four sons, one of whom, Heinrich, was a distinguished chemist, and another, Gustav, a crystallographer and mineralogist. HEIN- RICH ROSE, born at Berlin on the 6th of August 1795, began to learn pharmacy in Danzig, where, during the siege of 1807, he nearly lost his life from typhus. Like his brother he served in the campaign of 1815. During the summer of the following year he studied at Berlin under M. H. Klaproth, a devoted friend of the family, and in the autumn entered a pharmacy at Mitau. In 1819 he went to Stockholm, where he spent a year and a half with J. J. Berzelius, and in 1821 he graduated at Kiel. Returning to Berlin he became a Privatdozent in the university in 1822, extraordinary professor of chemistry in 1823 and ordinary professor in 1835, and there he died on the 27th of January 1864. He devoted himself especially to inorganic chemistry and the development of analytical methods, and the results of his work are summed up in the successive issues of his classical work, Ausjuhrliches Handbuth der analytischen Chemie, of which he published the first edition at Berlin in 1829, and the sixth, practically a new work in French, at Paris in 1861. He was the discoverer of antimony pentachloride, and mentioq may also be made of his researches on the influence of the mass-action of water in many reactions, carried out before the investigations of Guldberg and Waage in 1867. GUSTAV ROSE, born at Berlin on the i8th of March 1798, began his career as a mining engineer, but soon turned his attention to theoretical studies. A pupil of Berzelius like his brother, he graduated in 1820 at Berlin University where he became successively Privatdozent (1823), extraordinary professor of mineralogy (1826) and ordinary professor (1839). In 1856 he succeeded to the directorship of the Royal Mineralogical Museum at Berlin, and he helped to found the German Geological Society, of which he was president from 1863 until the end of his life. He made many journeys in different parts of Europe for the sake of mineralogical study, and in 1829 with A. von Humboldt and C. G. Ehrenberg (1795-1876), professor of medicine at Berlin, took part in an expedition to the Ural and Altai moun- tains and the Caspian Sea, which yielded information of primary importance concerning the mineralogy of the Russian Empire. His work covered every branch of mineralogy, including crys- tallography and the artificial formation of minerals. The science of petrography, according to Gerhard vom Rath, originated with him. He was the first in his own country to use the reflect- ing goniometer for the measurement of the angles of crystals, and to teach the method of studying rocks by means of micro- scopic sections. He also devoted special attention to meteorites and to the problem presented by the different structure of the stony matter in them and in the crust of the earth, and just before his death, which took place at Berlin on the isth of July 1873, he was engaged in investigating the formation of the diamond. In addition to many scientific memoirs he published Elements der Krystallographie (1830); Mineralogischgeognoslische Reise nach dent Ural, dem Altai und dem Kaspische Meere (1837) vol. i.; (1842) vol. ii.; Das Krystallo-chemische Mineral- system (1852); and Beschreibung und Einthettung der Meleoriten (1863). ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818), British politician, was born on the 1 7th of June 1744, and was educated at Westminster school, afterwards entering the navy, a service which he left in 1762 after he had taken part in some fighting in the West Indies. He then obtained a position in the Civil Service, becoming joint keeper of the records in 1772 and secretary to the board of taxes in 1777. In 1782 he gave up the latter appointment to become one of the secretaries to the treasury under Lord Shelburne, though he did not enter parliament. He left office with his colleagues in April 1783, but in the following December he returned to his former position at the treasury in Pitt's ministry, being henceforward one of this minister's most steadfast supporters. He entered parliament as member for Launceston ROSE, H. J.— ROSE early in 1784, and his fidelity and friendship were rewarded by Pitt, who gave him a lucrative post in the court of exchequer; in 1788 he became clerk of the parliaments. In 1801 Rose left office with Pitt, but returned with him to power in 1804, when he was made vice-president of the committee on trade and joint paymaster-general. He resigned these offices a few days after Pitt's death in 1806, but he served as vice-president of the committee on trade and treasurer of the navy under the duke of Portland and Spencer Perceval from 1807 to 1812. He was again treasurer of the navy under Lord Liverpool, and he was still member of parliament for Christchurch, a seat which he had held since 1790, when he died at Cuffnells, in Hampshire, on the i3th of January 1818. Rose was an able and conscientious public servant, although he and his two sons drew a large amount of money from sinecures, a fact referred to by William Cobbett in his " A New Year's Gift to old George Rose." He wrote several books on economic subjects, and his Diaries and Correspondence, edited by the Rev. L. V. Harcourt, was published in 1860. His elder son, Sir George Henry Rose (1771-1855), was in parliament from 1794 to 1813, and again from 1818 to 1844, and in the meantime he was British minister at Munich and at Berlin; in 1818 he succeeded his father as clerk of the parlia- ments. He was the father of Baron Strathnairn (q.ii.). The second son was the poet William Stewart Rose (q.v.). ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795-1838), English divine, was born at Little Horsted in Sussex on the 9th of June 1795, and was educated at Uckfield school and at Trinity College, Cam- bridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1817, but missed a fellow- ship. Taking orders, he was appointed to Buxted, Sussex, in 1819, and to the vicarage of Horsham in 1821. He had already attained some repute as a critic, which was enhanced when, after travelling in Germany, he delivered as select preacher at Cambridge, four addresses against rationalism, published in 1825 as The State of the Protestant Religion in Germany. The book was severely criticized in Germany, and in England by E. B. Pusey. In 1827 Rose was collated to the prebend of Middleton; in 1830 he accepted the rectory of Hadleigh, Suffolk, and in 1833 that of Fairsted, Essex, and in 1835 the perpetual curacy of St Thomas's, Southwark. In 1833-1834 he was professor of divinity at Durham, a post which ill-health forced him to resign. In 1836 he became editor of the Encyclopaedia Metropolilana, and he projected the New General Biographical Dictionary, a scheme carried through by his brother Henry John Rose (1800-1873). He was appointed principal of King's College, London, in October 1836, but he was attacked by influenza, and after two years of ill-health he died at Florence on the 22nd of December 1838. Rose was a high- churchman, who to propagate his views in 1832 founded the British Magazine and so came into touch with the leaders of the Oxford movement. Out of a conference at his rectory in Hadleigh came the Association of Friends of the Church, formed by R. H. Froude and Wm. Palmer. See J. W. Burgon, Lives of Twelve Good Men (1891). ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843), English poet and translator, second son of George Rose ( 1878 ") in the Scient. Trans. R. Dublin Soc. vol. ii. The drawing of the nebula of Orion was published in the Phil. Trans, for 1868 See obituary notice in the Proc. Roy. Soc. (1868), 16, 36, and in the Monthly Notices of Roy. Astr. Soc. vol. 29, p. 123. ROSSELLI, COSIMO (i43o-c. 1507), Florentine painter, was born in 1439. At the age of fourteen he became a pupil of Neri di Bicci, and in 1460 he worked as assistant to his cousin Bernardo di Stefano Rosselli. The first work of Cosimo men- tioned by Vasari exists in S. Ambrogio, in Florence, over the third altar on the left. It is an " Assumption of the Virgin," a youthful and feeble work. In the same church, on the wall of one of the chapels, is a fresco by Cosimo which Vasari praises highly, especially for a portrait of the young scholar Pico of Mirandola. The scene, a procession bearing a miracle-working chalice, is painted with much vigour and less mannerism than most of this artist's work. A picture painted by Rosselli for the church of the Annunziata, with figures of SS. Barbara, Matthew and the Baptist, is in the Academy of Florence. Rosselli also spent some time in Lucca, where he painted several altar-pieces for various churches. A picture attributed to him. taken from the church of S. Girolamo at Fiesole, is now in the National Gallery of London. It is a large retable, with, in the 746 ROSSELLINO— ROSSETTI, C. G. centre, St Jerome in the wilderness kneeling before a crucifix, and at the sides standing figures of St Damasus and St Eusebius, St Paolo and St Eustachia; below is a predella with small subjects. Though dry and hard in treatment, the figures are designed with much dignity. The Berlin Gallery possesses three pictures by Rosselli: "The Virgin in Glory," " The Entombment of Christ, "and " The Massacre of the Innocents." In 1480 Rosselli, together with the chief painters of Florence, was invited by Sixtus IV. to Rome to assist in the painting of the frescoes in the Sistine Chapel. Three of these were executed by him — " The Destruction of Pharaoh's Army in the Red Sea," " Christ Preach- ing by the Lake of Tiberias," and " The Last Supper." The last of these is well preserved, but is a mediocre work. Vasari's story about the pope admiring Rosselli's paintings more than those of his abler brother painters has probably little foundation. Rosselli's Sistine frescoes were partly painted by his assistant Piero di Cosimo, who was so called after Cosimo Rosselli. His chief pupil was Fra Bartolommeo. According to Vasari, Rosselli died in 1484, but this is a mistake, as his will exists dated 25th of November 1506 (see Gaye, Car. ined. ii. 457 n.). For an account of Rosselli's Sistine frescoes, see Plainer and Bunsen, Beschreibung der Sladt Rom, ii. pt. i. ; and Rumohr, Ilalien. Forschungen, ii. 265. ROSSELLINO, ANTONIO (1427-^ 1479), Florentine sculptor, was the son of Matteo di Domenico Gamberelli, and had four brothers, who all practised some branch of the fine arts. Almost nothing is known about the life of Antonio, but many of his works exist, and are full of religious sentiment, and executed with the utmost delicacy of touch and technical skill. The style of Antonio and his brother Bernardo is a development of that of Donatello and Ghiberti; it possesses all the refinement and sweetness of the earlier masters, but is not equal to them in vigour or originality. Antonio's chief work, still in perfect preservation, is the lovely tomb of a young cardinal prince of Portugal, who died in 1459. It occupies one side of a small chapel, also built by Rossellino, on the north of the nave of San Miniato al Monte.1 The recumbent effigy of the cardinal rests on a handsome sarcophagus, and over it, under the arch which frames the whole, is a beautiful relief of the Madonna between two flying angels. The tomb was begun in 1461 and finished in 1466; Antonio received four hundred and twenty-five gold florins for it. A reproduction of this tomb with slight Marble Relief by Antonio Rossellino. alterations, and of course a different effigy, was made by Antonio for the wife of Antonio Piccolomini, duke of Amalfi, in the 1 Illustrated by Gonnelli, Mon. Sepol. delta Toscana (Florence, 1819), pi. xxiii. church of S. Maria del Monte at Naples, where it still exists. For the same church he also executed some delicate reliefs, which perhaps err in being too pictorial in style, especially in the treatment of the backgrounds. A fine medallion relief by him in marble, originally modelled in terra-cotta, is preserved in the Bargello at Florence (see fig.). BERNARDO ROSSELLINO (1400-1464), Florentine sculptor, was no less able than his younger brother Antonio. His finest piece of sculpture is the tomb, in the Florentine Santa Croce, of Leonardo Bruni of Arezzo, the historian of Florence, executed in 1443 some years after Bruni's death; the recumbent effigy is of great merit. The inner cathedral pulpit at Prato, circular in form on a tall slender stem, was partly the work of Mino da Fiesole and partly by Bernardo Rossellino. The latter executed the minute reliefs of St Stephen and the Assumption of the Virgin. For his part in the work he received sixty-six gold florins. The South Kensington Museum possesses a relief by Bernardo, signed and dated (1456). It is a fine portrait of the physician Giovanni da S. Miniato. Bernardo's works as an architect were numerous and important, and he was also a skilful military engineer. He restored the church of S. Francis at Assisi, and designed several fine buildings at Civita Vecchia, Orvieto and elsewhere. He also built fortresses and city walls at Spoleto, Orvieto and Civita Castellana. He was largely employed by Nicholas V. and Pius II. for restorations in nearly all the great basilicas of Rome, but little trace of his work remains, owing to the sweeping alterations made during the 1 7th and i8th centuries. Between the years 1461 and 1464 (when he died while engaged on the Lazzari monument at Pistoia) he occupied the important post of capo-maestro to the Florentine duomo. A number of buildings at Pienza, executed for Pius II., are attributed to him; the Vatican registers mention the architect of these as M° Bernardo di Fiorenza, but this indication is too slight to make it certain that the elder Rossellino is referred to (see Vasari, ed. Milanesi, iii. 93 seq.). See Wilhelm Bode, Die Italienische Plastik (Berlin, 1902). ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA GEORGINA (1830-1894), English poet, was the youngest of the four children of Gabriele Rossetti (see the article on her brother DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI). She was born at 38 Charlotte Street, Portland Place, London, on the sth of December 1830. She enjoyed the advantages and disadvantages of the strange society of Italian exiles and English eccentrics which her father gathered about him, and she shared the studies of her gifted elder brother and sister. As early as 1847 her grandfather, Gaetano Polidori, printed privately a volume of her Verses, in which the richness of her vision was already faintly prefigured. In 1850 she contributed to The Germ seven pieces, including some of the finest of her lyrics. In her girlhood she had a grave, religious beauty of feature, and sat as a model not only to her brother Gabriel, but to Holman Hunt, to Madox Brown and to Millais. In . 1 853-34 Christina Rossetti for nearly a year helped her mother to keep a day-school at Frome-Selwood, in Somerset. Early in 1854 the Rossettis returned to London, and the father died. In poverty, in ill-health, in extreme quietness, she was now performing her life-work. She was twice sought in marriage, but each time, from religious scruples (she was a strong high- church Anglican), she refused her suitor; on the former of these occasions she sorrowed greatly, and her suffering is reflected in much of her early song. In 1861 she saw foreign countries for the first time, paying a six weeks' visit to Nor-* mandy and Paris. In 1862 she published what was practically her earliest book, Goblin Market, and took her place at once among the poets of her age. In this volume, indeed, is still to be found a majority of her finest writings. The Prince's Progress followed in 1866. In 1867 she, with her family, moved to 56 Euston Square, which became their home for many years. Christina's prose work Commonplace appeared in 1870. In April 1871 her whole life was changed by a terrible affliction, known as " Graves's disease "; for two years her life was in constant danger. She had already composed her book of children's poems, entitled Sing-Song, which appeared ROSSETTI, D. G. 747 in 1872. After a long convalescence, she published in 1874 two works of minor importance, Annus Domini and Speaking Likenesses. The former is the earliest of a series of theological works in prose, of which the second was Seek and Find in 1879. In 1 88 1 she published a third collection of poems, A Pageant, in which there was evidence of slackening lyrical power. She now gave herself almost entirely to religious disquisition. The most interesting and personal of her prose publications (but it contained verse also) was Time Flies (1885) — a sort of symbolic diary or collection of brief homilies. In 1890 the S.P.C.K. published a volume of her religious verse. She collected her poetical writings in 1891. In 1892 she was led to publish a very bulky commentary on the Apocalypse, entitled The Face of the Deep. After this she wrote little. Her last years were spent in retirement at 30 Torrington Square, Bloomsbury, which was her home from 1876 to her death. In 1892 her health broke down finally, and she had to endure terrible suffering. From this she was released on the 29th of December 1894. Her New Poemsf were published posthumously in 1896. In spite of her manifest limitations of sympathy and experience, Christina Rossetti takes rank among the foremost poets of her time. In the purity and solidity of her finest lyrics, the glow and music in which she robes her moods of melancholy reverie, her extraordinary mixture of austerity with sweetness and of sanctity of tone with sensuousness of colour, Christina Rossetti, in her best pieces, may challenge comparison with the most admirable of our poets. The union of fixed religious faith with a hold upon physical beauty and the richer parts of nature has been pointed to as the most original feature of her poetry. Hers was a cloistered spirit, timid, nun-like, bowed down by suffering and humility; her character was so retiring as to be almost invisible. All that we really need to know about her, save that she was a great saint, was that she was a great poet. (E. G.) See the Poetical Works of C. G. R., with Memoir by W. M. Rossetti (1903). Also Edmund Gosse's Critical Kit-Kats (1896); an article by Ford Madox Hueffer in the Fortnightly Review (March 1904) ; and another in The Christian Society (Oct. 1904). The Family Letters of Christina Rossetti were edited by W. M. Rossetti in 1908. ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL (1828-1882), English poet and painter, whose full baptismal name was Gabriel Charles Dante, was born on the I2th of May 1828, at 38 Charlotte Street, Portland Place, London. He was the first of the two sons and the second of the four children of Gabriele Rossetti (1783-1854), an Italian poet and liberal, who, about 1824, after many vicissitudes connected with the part he played in the Naples reform movement against Ferdinand I., came to England, where he married in 1826 Frances Mary Polidori (d. 1886), sister of Byron's physician, Dr John Polidori, and daughter of a Tuscan, Gaetano Polidori, who had in early youth been Alfieri's secretary and who had married an English lady. In 1831 he became professor of Italian in King's College, London, and afterwards achieved a recognized position as a subtle and original, if eccentric, commentator on Dante. In 1852 he published a volume of Italian religious poems. His family, besides Dante Gabriel, consisted of Maria Francesca (1827-1876), who eventually entered an Anglican sisterhood — she is known to Dante scholars by her valuable Shadow of Dante; William Michael (b. 1829), a well-known man of letters who from 1845 to 1894 was in the Inland Revenue Office — he married a daughter of Ford Madox Brown; and Christina (q.v.), the poet. The literary spirit was strongly entrenched here; and the talent which was always distinguished in William Michael rose to the height of rare genius in Dante Gabriel and Christina. Dante Rossetti's education was begun at a private school in Foley Street, Portland Place, where he remained, however, only nine months, from the autumn of 1835 to the summer of 1836. He next went (in the autumn of 1836) to King's College School, where he remained till the summer of 1843, having reached the fourth class. From early childhood he had displayed a marked propensity for drawing and painting. It had there- fore from the first been tacitly assumed that his future career would be an artistic one, and he left school early. In Latin, however, he was already fairly proficient for his age; French he knew well; Italian he had spoken from childhood, and he had some German lessons about 1844-45. But, although he learned enough German to be able to translate the Arme Heinrich of Hartmann von Aue, and some portions of the Nibelungenlied, he afterwards forgot the language almost entirely. His Greek too, such as it had been, he lost. On leaving school he went (1843) to Gary's Art Academy (previously called Sass's), near Bedford Square, and thence obtained admission to the Royal Academy Antique School towards 1846. Of the artistic education of foreign travel Rossetti had very little. But in early life he made a short tour in Belgium, where he was indubitably much impressed and influenced by the works of Van Eyck at Ghent and Memling at Bruges. [It may be convenient to interpolate here a continuous account of Rossetti's career as a pictorial artist. Being much impressed by some of the early works of Ford Madox Brown exhibited at the Academy (1841), Westminster Hall (1844-45) and the British Institution (1845), he sought from that master of technique technical instruction of a more direct and stringent kind than he had previously submitted to. Brown, ever generous in that way, undertook without a fee the training of Rossetti as a painter, and set him to work upon such rudimentary studies as pickle-pots and other " still- life." The pupil's course of such work was, as might be ex- pected, short; the master's example and that of Millais, together with the uncompromising energy of Holman Hunt, with both of whom Rossetti became intimate about this time, helping and encouraging him. Most of all, perhaps, so far as his temporary impressions were concerned, a picture of Brown's which was shown at the " Free Exhibition," Hyde Park Corner, in the spring of 1848 profoundly affected Rossetti. This was, of course, months before the formation of the Pre- Raphaelite Brotherhood in the autumn of the last-named year, when five painter-students, a sculptor (Thomas Woolner) and a layman (W. M. Rossetti) agreed upon certain principles they desired should obtain in art. None of the five owed the initiative of his views to any of the others or to Brown, whose impulse was purely technical and connected with Rossetti only; neither Millais, Holman Hunt, J. Collinson nor F. G. Stephens needed the help of Madox Brown. The point of Pre-Raphaelite crystallization which had so great though brief an influence upon Rossetti's life and art was found at a chance meeting of Rossetti, Millais and Holman Hunt in Millais's house in Gower Street, where certain prints from early Italian frescoes were studied. The enthusiasm of Rossetti led him to propose the formation of a " Brother- hood " with more or less definite views and much loftier aims than artists generally venture to announce. This took effect; the views of the remaining three men were already known, and in a few days they joined the new society and took their shares in the obloquy which attended the doings of Millais, Hunt and Collinson. Brown, though invited, declined to become a P-R.B. Rossetti's first effort was by means of " The Girlhood of Mary, Virgin," which in March 1849 was exhibited at Hyde Park Corner. It was a picture which attested the prodigious value of his studies since the previous October, and the native genius of the painter and the sincere passion with which he had accepted the obligations of Pre-Raphaelitism, as they were then, but not for long, understood. Nothing of his producing was more independent than the inception of " The Girlhood of Mary, Virgin "; indeed the design for it was made some half a year before the meeting in Gower Street, though the execution of this work owed not a little to the influence, if not the actual help, of Millais and Hunt. Its mysticism was Rossetti's own, its technique owed something to Brown. On the whole, there can be no doubt that in this work was the first pronouncement of a new view of art, a fresh technique and power rapidly developing itself. . Of course, the style of this noteworthy and epoch-marking picture was 748 ROSSETTI, D. G. jejune, its handling was timid, while its coloration and tonality were dry, not to say thin. Such was Rossetti's advent in art under the Pre-Raphaelite banner. The picture's reception was not encouraging, nor did the next work from his hands induce him to emerge from that proud exclusiveness in which all such minds as his are content to abide. The diverse moods of the other Brothers chose otherwise, but of Rossetti's im- mediate circle it has been truly said: " It appears that of seven young men and Brethren five have attained eminent positions, four of them being pre-eminent, although for years after the society was formed no single member, whatever his position might be, escaped insult, obloquy and wicked and malicious misrepresentation. The more conspicuous the Brother [e.g. Millais], the more outrageously was he attacked. " No estimate of Rossetti's genius, his triumph and his life as a whole can be justly based without ample allowance being made for the circumstances which attended his advent as a painter. " Ecce Ancilla Domini!" the smaller picture which is now in the National Gallery of British Art at Millbank, was the one perfect outcome of the original motive of the Pre- Raphaelite Brotherhood by its representative and typical member. It is replete with the mystical mood which then ruled the painter's mind; that mood chose what may be called virginal white and its harmonies as its aptest coloration, and the intense light of morning sufficed for its tonality. It was exhibited at the Portland Gallery in 1850. After these pictures were finished, the outside world saw no more of Rossetti as a painter until it had prepared itself to see modern art from a higher plane than before. In December 1850 there appeared the first number of The Germ, a magazine (which lasted for only four numbers) in which Rossetti had a leading place as the poet in verse and prose. The influence of Robert Browning upon Rossetti was more potent in The Germ than in that splendid romance in water-colours called " The Laboratory," where a court lady of the ancien regime visits an old poison-monger to obtain from him a fatal potion for her rival in love. This wonderful gem of colour, glowing in lurid and wicked passion and voluptuous suggestion, marked the opening of the artist's second period and signalized his departure from that phase of Pre-Raphaelitism of which "Ecce Ancilla Domini!" was the crowning achievement, and, so far as he was concerned, the artistic ne plus ultra. Millais and the other Brothers remained faithful during several years yet to come. Later in 1850, Rossetti produced the original, which is in ink, of the famous " Hesterna Rosa," a gambling scene of men and their mistresses in a tent by lamplight, while pallid dawn gathers force between the trees without. Then came from his hands " Borgia," which, like " The Laboratory," is in water-colours, and, like " Hesterna Rosa," is a sardonic tragedy. " How they met Themselves " came next, and, in illustrating a legend similar to that of the Doppelganger, affirmed the force, the originality and the tragic passion of Rossetti's genius. Two lovers are walking in a twilight wood, where they are confronted suddenly by their apparitions, por- tending death. The year 1852 produced " Giotto painting Dante's Portrait," and saw a new development of the painter's mind and mood, dashed with a humour not often to be seen in him. In its somewhat dry coloration it differed from the ardent jewel-like glow and deeper gloom of " Borgia " and its successor and the sumptuous visions of womanhood in later pictures. " Found," Rossetti's sole contribution of the sort which Mr Holman Hunt affected, was begun somewhere about this period; but this piece of pictorial moralizing (the analogue of the poet's own "Jenny"), vigorous and intensely pathetic as it is, was never really finished by its author, being, indeed, far remote from Rossetti's inner self, which was rather over-scornful of didactic art, and thoroughly indisposed towards attempts to ameliorate anybody's condition by means of pictures. Nor did the stringency of naturalistic painting suit his mood or his experience. Nevertheless, what is his in the existing picture remains a masterpiece of poetry with exquisitely finished parts. Passing a few fine but comparatively unimportant drawings, such as " Lancelot and Guinevere at the Tomb of Arthur," " Lancelot looking at the Dead Lady of Shalott," " Mariana of the South," " Sir Galahad," " The Blue Closet," and various works owing subjects to the Arthurian cycle of romances, we may note that the artist illustrated by five cuts Poems by Alfred Tennyson, on which Millais and Mr Holman Hunt were also engaged, and which was published by Moxon in 1857. As in " Ecce Ancilla Domini !" we had virginal white and morning light employed to strengthen the mystical significance of the design, so in " Borgia " Venetian voluptuousness and sensuous splendours obtained, and in " The Blue Closet " is a very potent and suggestive exercise intended to symbolize the association of colour with music. The last is one of the subtlest of the artist's "inventions," and it shows how he had developed upon " Borgia " an artistic sympathy which is but too likely to be " caviare to the general." " The Wedding of St George " is not so fine; nor was " Lancelot's Dream of the Sangreal," Rossetti's part in the luckless decorations of the Oxford Union * (1857-58); nor are " Guinevere and Sir Lancelot," " Galahad in the Chapel " and other Arthurian examples quite worthy of his art. " Bocca Baciata," the super-sensuous portrait of a woman, a work of wonderful fire, and the pictures on the pulpit at Llandaff Cathedral, marked the expiration of the second epoch in Rossetti's art and the beginning of a new, the third, last and most powerful of all the phases of his career. The picture " Dr Johnson at the Mitre," when the " pretty fools " consulted the lexicographer anent Methodism, is a good example of his humour. In 1 86 1 Rossetti produced several fine designs for stained glass, and in the revival of stained-glass painting as an art he had a larger share than has frequently been ascribed to him. The practice of designing upon a large scale, and employment of masses of splendid though deep-toned colours, had probably something to do with the prodigious development of his powers and the enlargement of his views as regards painting which took effect at this period (1862-63). At this time a striking and highly imaginative triptych, representing three events in the careers of Paolo and Francesca, was produced; it is a great improvement upon an earlier design. There is unprecedented energy in the group of the lovers embracing in the garden-house just as they have paused in reading the fatal romance. The composition of this group, with the circular window behind their figures, is as fine as it was comparatively novel hi Rossetti's. practice. Its lurid coloration was so thoroughly in harmony with the pathos of the subject that in this respect the work excelled all the painter had previously produced. The same elements, energy, a sympathetic and poetic scheme of colour, and composition of a fine order, combined with far greater force and originality in " The Bride," or " The Beloved," that magnificent illustration of The Song of Solomon. The last named is a life-size group of powerfully coloured and diversely beautiful damsels accompanying their mistress with music and with song on her way to the bridegroom. This picture, as regards its brilliance, finish, the charms of four lovely faces and the splendour of its lighting, occupies a great place in the highest grade of modern art of all the world. It is likewise, so far as the qualities named are concerned, the crowning piece of Rossetti's art, and stands for him much as the " Sacred and Profane Love " of Titian represents that master. Very fine, indeed, but hardly so passionate and virile, is the " Beata Beatrix," now in the National Gallery of British Art with " Ecce Ancilla Domini ! " which he produced thirteen years earlier. These works belong to a category of fine and quite original examples, all replete with 1 In 1857, Rossetti, when in Oxford with William Morris, con- ceived the design of filling the bays above the gallery in the then new Union debating room (now the library) with paintings from the Morte d' Arthur, ariti he enlisted the co-operation of several of his artistic circle, including Burne-Jones and William Morris, in the work, which was begun in August. Morris's picture was " Sir Palomides watching Tristram and Iseult," Burne-Jones's " Nimue luring Merlin." Unfortunately the walls were too new and not properly prepared for painting; the colour soon began to fade and wear off, and in the course of twenty years or so the pictures became almost indistinguishable. ROSSETTI, D. G. 749 similar technical qualities, poetry and pathos. The group com- prises paintings by which Rossetti is best known, such as " Proserpina in Hades," which is, on the whole, perhaps the most original, if not indeed the most poetical and powerful, of all his output; " Sibylla Palmifera," " Venus Verticordia," " Lilith " (the better of the two versions is now referred to), "Washing Hands," " Monna Vanna," "II Ramoscello," "Aurea Catena," "La Pia," "Rosa Triplex," "Veronica Veronese," "La Ghirlandata," "Pandora," "The Blessed Damozel," and, last and largest, but not, perhaps, the greatest of his paintings (a distinction for which " The Bride " and " Proserpina " must contend), the famous " Dante's Dream," now in the Walker Art Gallery at Liverpool. Besides these, Rossetti produced a large number of fine things. Nearly the whole of them were exhibited by the Royal Academy and at the Burlington Fine Art Club in 1883, after their author's death. (F. G. S.)] Meanwhile, the literary side of Rossetti had developed pari passu with his achievements as a painter. The goal before the young Rossetti's eyes was to reach through art the forgotten world of old romance — that world of wonder and mystery and spiritual beauty which the old masters knew and could have painted had not lack of science, combined with slavery to monkish traditions of asceticism, crippled their strength. In that great rebellion against the renascence of classicism which (after working much good and much harm) resulted in i8th- century materialism — in that great movement of man's soul which may be appropriately named " the Renascence of the Spirit of Wonder in Poetry and Art " — he had become the acknowledged * protagonist before ever the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood was founded, and so he remained down to his last breath. It was by inevitable instinct that Rossetti turned to that mysterious side of nature and man's life which to other painters of his time had been a mere fancy-land, to be visited, if at all, on the wings of sport. For if there is any permanent vitality in the Renascence of Wonder in modern Europe, if it is really the inevitable expression of the soul of man in a certain stage of civilization (when the sanctions which have made and moulded society are found to be not absolute and eternal, but relative, mundane, ephemeral and subject to the higher sanctions of unseen powers that work behind " the shows of things "), then perhaps one of the first questions to ask in regard to any imaginative painter of the ipth century is, In what relation did he stand to the newly awakened spirit of romance ? Had he a genuine and independent sympathy with that temper of wonder and mystery which all over Europe had preceded and now followed the temper of imitation, prosaic acceptance, pseudo-classicism and domestic materialism? or was his apparent sympathy with the temper of wonder, rever- ence and awe the result of artistic environment dictated to him by other and more powerful and original souls around him? We do not say that the mere fact of a painter's or a poet's showing but an imperfect sympathy with the Renascence of Wonder is sufficient to place him below a poet in whom that sympathy is more nearly complete, but we do say that, other things being equal or anything like equal, a painter or poet of this time is to be judged very much by his sympathy with that great movement, which we call the Renascence of Wonder because the word " romanticism " never did express it even before it had been vulgarized by French poets, drama- tists, doctrinaires and literary harlequins. To struggle against the prim traditions of the i8th century, the unities of Aristotle, the delineation of types instead of characters, as Chateau- briand, Madame de Stael, Balzac and Hugo struggled, was well. But in studying Rossetti's works we reach the very key of those " high palaces of romance " which the English mind had never, even in the i8th century, wholly forgotten, but whose mystic gates no Frenchman ever yet unlocked. Not all the romantic feeling to be found in all the French roman- ticists (with their theory that not earnestness but the gro- tesque is the life-blood of romance) could equal the romantic spirit expressed in a single picture or drawing of Rossetti's, such, for instance, as Beata Beatrix or Pandora. For, while the French romanticists — inspired by the theories (drawn from English exemplars) of Novalis, Tieck and Herder — cleverly simulated the old romantic feeling, the " beautifully devotional feeling " which Holman Hunt speaks of, Rossetti was steeped in it: he was so full of the old frank childlike wonder and awe which preceded the great renascence of mate- rialism that he might have lived and worked amidst the old masters. Hence, in point of design, so original is he that to match such ideas as are expressed in " Lilith," " Hesterna Rosa," " Michael Scott's Wooing," the " Sea Spell," &c., we have to turn to the sister art of poetry, where only we can find an equally powerful artistic representation of the idea at the core of the old romanticism — the idea of the evil forces of nature assailing man through his sense of beauty. We must turn, we say, not to art — not even to the old masters themselves — but to the most perfect efflorescence of the poetry of wonder and mystery — to such ballads as the " Demon Lover," to Coleridge's " Christabel " and " Kubla Khan," to Keats's " La Belle Dame sans Merci," for parallels to Rossetti's most characteristic designs. Now, although the idea at the heart of the highest romantic poetry (allied perhaps to that apprehension of the warring of man's soul with the appetites of the flesh which is the basis of the Christian idea) may not belong exclusively to what we call the romantic temper (the Greeks, and also most Asiatic peoples, were more or less familiar with it, as we see in the Saldmdn and Absal of Jami), yet it became peculiarly a romantic note, as is seen from the fact that .in the old masters it resulted in that asceticism which is its logical expression and which was once an inseparable incident of all romantic art. But in order to express this stupendous idea as fully as the poets have expressed it, how is it possible to adopt the asceticism of the old masters ? This is the question that Rossetti asked himself, and answered by his own progress in art. In all of his pictures, the poorest and the best, is dis- played that power which Blake calls vision — the power which, as he finely says, is " surrounded by the daughters of inspira- tion," the power, that is, of seeing imaginary objects and dramatic actions — physically seeing them as well as mentally — and flashing them upon the imaginations (even upon the cor- poreal senses) of others. Mr W. M. Rossetti (in the Preface to the Collected Works, 1886) has given an interesting account of his brother's literary nurturing. Shakespeare, Walter Scott, Byron, the Bible were the earliest influences: then Shelley, Mrs Browning, the older English and Scottish ballads, and Dante. After- wards he preferred Keats to Shelley. By 1847 he was " deep in Robert Browning." Malory's Morte d' Arthur, about 1856, engrossed him; Victor Hugo and De Musset, among French poets, were his delight. In his last years he had an enthusiasm for Chatterton. From childhood's days he had loved to com- pose, but The Germ (1850) contained Rossetti's first pub- lished prose or verse. In it appeared " The Blessed Damozel," the prose poem " Hand and Soul," six sonnets and four lyrics. " The Blessed Damozel " was written so early as 1847 or 1848. " Sister Helen " was produced in its original form in 1850 or 1851. His translations from the early Italian poets also began as far back as 1845 or 1846, and may have been mainly completed by 1849. He published a volume of The Early Italian Poets (Dante and his Circle) in 1861. In 1856 he contributed to the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine, in which among other things the " Burden of Nineveh " appeared. Materials for a volume of original poetry accumulated slowly, and these having been somewhat widely read in manuscript had a very great influence upon contemporary poetic litera- ture long before their appearance in print. He had intended to publish a volume in 1862, but the death of his wife (see below) caused its postponement till 1870. In poetry no less than in art what makes Rossetti so important a figure is the position he took up with regard to the modern revival of the " romantic " spirit. The Renascence of Wonder culminates 750 ROSSETTI, D. G. in Rossetti's poetry as it culminates in his painting. The poet who should go beyond Rossetti would pass out of the realm of poetry into pure mysticism, as certain of his sonnets show. Fine as are the sonnets (of which the sonnet sequence, the " House of Life," in the 1881 volume, may be specially men- tioned), it is in his romantic ballads that Rossetti (notwith- standing a certain ruggedness of movement) shows his greatest strength. " Sister Helen," " The Blessed Damozel," " Staff and Scrip," " Eden Bower," " Troy Town," " Rose Mary," as re- presenting the modern revival of the true romantic spirit, take a place quite apart from the other poetry of the time. Rossetti's poetry, and his prose too, is marked by an extra- ordinary fastidiousness of expression and beauty of diction; the form and colour of his style are alike marvellous in clear- ness and loveliness of language. But the dominant character- istic, after all, is the underlying idea, the romantic motive. By the revival of the romantic spirit in English poetry we mean something much more than the revival, at the close of the 1 8th century, of natural language, the change discussed by Wordsworth in his famous Preface, and by Coleridge in his comments thereon — that change of diction and of poetic methods which is commonly supposed to have arisen with Cowper, or, if not with Cowper, with Burns. The truth is that Wordsworth and Coleridge were too near the great changes in question, and they themselves took too active a part in those changes, to hold the historical view of what the changes really were. Important as was the change in poetic methods which they so admirably practised and discussed, important as was the revival of natural language, which then set in, it was not nearly so important as that other revival which had begun earlier and of which it was the outcome — the revival of the romantic spirit, the Renascence of Wonder, even beneath the weight of iSth-century diction, the first movement of which is certainly English, and neither German nor French in its origin, and can be traced through Chatterton, Macpherson and the Percy Ballads. As a mere question of methods, a reaction against the poetic diction of Pope and his followers was inevitable. But, in dis- cussing the romantic temper in relation to the overthrow of the bastard classicism and didactic materialism of the i8th century, we must go deeper than mere artistic methods in poetry ^ When closely examined, it is in method only that the poetry of Cowper is different from the ratiocinative and unromantic poetry of Dryden and Pope and their followers. Pope treated prose sub- jects in the ratiocinative — that is to say, the prose — temper, but in a highly artificial diction which people agreed to call poetic. Cowper treated prose subjects too — treated them in the same prose temper, but used natural language; a noble thing to do, no doubt. But this was only a part (and by no means the chief part) of the great work achieved by English poetry at the close of last century. That period, to be sure, rendered obsolete the poetic diction of Pope; but it introduced something more precious still — entire freedom from the hard rhetorical materialism imported from France; it gave a new seeing to English eyes, which were opened once more to the mystery and the wonder of the universe and the romance of man's destiny; it revived, in short, the romantic spirit, but the romantic spirit enriched by all the clarity and sanity that the renascence of classicism was able to lend. Of the great move- ment which substituted for the didactic materialism of the 1 8th century the new romanticism of the ipth, the leaders were Coleridge and Scott, admirably followed by Byron, Shelley and Keats. Not that Wordsworth was a stranger to the romantic temper. The magnificent image of Time and Death under the yew tree is worthy of any romantic poet that ever lived, yet it cannot be said that he escaped save at moments from the comfortable iSth-century didactics, or that he was a spiritual writer in the sense that Coleridge, Blake and Shelley were spiritual writers. Of the true romantic feeling, the ever-present apprehension of the spiritual world and of that struggle of the soul with earthly conditions which we have before spoken of, Rossetti's poetry is as full as his pictures — so full, indeed, that it was misunderstood by certain critics, who found in the most spiritualistic of poets and painters the founder of a " fleshly school." Although it cannot be said that " The Blessed Damozel " or " Sister Helen " or " Rose Mary " reaches to the height of the masterpieces of Coleridge, the purely romantic temper was with Rossetti a more permanent and even a more natural temper than with any other igth-century poet, even including the author of " Christa- bel " himself. As to the other 19th-century poets, though the Ettrick Shepherd in " The Queen's Wake " shows plenty of the true feeling, Hogg's verbosity is too great to allow of really suc- cessful work in the field of romantic ballad, where concentrated energy is one of the first requisites. And even Dobell's " Keith of Ravelston " has hardly been fused in the fine atmosphere of fairy- land. Byron's "footlight bogies" and Shelley's metaphysical abstractions had of course but very little to do with the inner core of romance, and we have only to consider Keats, to whose " La Belle Dame sans Merci " and " Eve of St Mark " Rossetti always acknowledged himself to be deeply indebted. In the famous close of the seventh stanza of the " Ode to a Nightin- gale "— " Charmed magic casements opening on the foam Of perilous seas in faery lands forlorn " — there is of course the true thrill of the poetry of wonder, and it is expressed with a music, a startling magic, above the highest reaches of Rossetti's poetry. But, without the evidence of Keats's two late poems, " La Belle Dame sans Merci " and the " Eve of St Mark," who could have said that Keats showed more than a passing apprehension of that which is the basis of the romantic temper — the supernatural ? In contrasting Keats with Rossetti, it must always be remembered that Keats's power over the poetry of wonder came to him at one flash, and that it was not (as we have said elsewhere) " till late in his brief life that his bark was running full sail for the enchanted isle where the old ballad writers once sang and where now sate the wizard Coleridge alone." Though outside Coleridge's work there had been nothing in the poetry of wonder comparable with Keats's " La Belle Dame sans Merci," the latter had previously in "Lamia" entirely failed in rendering the romantic idea of beauty as a maleficent power. The reader, owing to the atmosphere sur- rounding the dramatic action being entirely classic, does not believe for a moment in the serpent woman. The classic accessories suggested by Burton's brief narrative hampered Keats where to Rossetti (as we see in " Pandora," " Cassandra" and " Troy Town ") they would simply have given birth to romantic ideas. It is perhaps with Coleridge alone that Rossetti can be compared as a worker in the Renascence of Wonder. Although his apparent lack of rhythmic spontaneity places him below the great master as a singer (for in these miracles of Coleridge's genius poetry ceases to appear as a fine art at all — it is the inspired song of the changeling child " singing, dancing to itself "), in permanence of the romantic feeling, in vitality of belief in the power of the unseen, Rossetti stands alone. Even the finest portions of his historical ballad " The King's Tragedy " are those which deal with the supernatural. The events of Rossetti's life may be briefly summarized. In the spring of 1860 he married Elizabeth Eleanor Siddall, a milliner's assistant, who, being very beautiful, was constantly painted and drawn by him. From 1856 onwards he had been very intimate with William Morris and Edward Burne- Jones, who had the greatest affection and artistic admiration for him. Mrs Rossetti, whose health was delicate, had one still-born child in 1861, and she died from an overdose of laudanum in February 1862. Rossetti then moved from Blackfriars to 16 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, where for a short time George Meredith, A. C. Swinburne and W. M. Rossetti lived with him. Mrs Rossetti's own water-colour designs show an extraordinary genius for invention and a rare instinct for colour. Rossetti felt her death so acutely that in the first paroxysm of his grief he insisted upon his poems (then in manuscript) being buried in her coffin. But in 1869 the manuscripts were disin- terred, and published in 1870. From this time to his death he ROSSI, LUIGI DE— ROSSINI continued to write poems and produce pictures — in the latter relying more and more upon his manipulative skill but exercising less and less his exhaustless faculty of invention. In 1871 an unsigned article in the Contemporary Review (by Robert Buchanan) on the " Fleshly School of Poetry " made a fierce attack on Rossetti's poems from what was intended to be a moral point of view, to which he answered by one on the " Stealthy School of Criticism." The attack was deeply felt by him, and increased his tendency — previously tempered by natural high spirits — towards gloomy brooding. About 1868 the curse of the artistic and poetic temperament, insomnia, attacked him. One of the most distressing effects of this malady is a nervous shrinking from personal contact with any save a few intimate and constantly seen friends. This peculiar kind of nervousness may be aggravated by the use of narcotics, and in his case was aggravated to a very painful degree; at one time he saw scarcely any one save his own family and immediate family connexions and the present writer. He was frequently away with William Morris at Kelmscot, in Oxfordshire. During the time that his second volume of original poetry, Ballads and Sonnets, was passing through the press (in 1881) his health began to give way, and he left London for Cumberland. A stay of a few weeks in the Vale of St John, however, did nothing to improve his health, and he returned much shattered. He then went to Birchington-on-Sea, but received no benefit from the change, though affectionately tended by friends like Hall Caine and others already mentioned; and, gradually sinking from a complication of disorders, he died on Sunday the 9th of April 1882. In all matters of taste Rossetti's influence has been immense. The purely decorative arts (see ARTS AND CRAFTS) he may be said to have rejuvenated directly or indirectly. And he left the deepest impression upon the poetic methods of his time. One of the most wonderful of Rossetti's endowments, how- ever, was neither of a literary nor an artistic kind: it was that of a rare and most winning personality which attracted towards itself, as if by an unconscious magnetism, the love of all his friends, the love, indeed, of all who knew him. (T. W.-D.) AUTHORITIES. — See various books by W. M. Rossetti — Dante Gabriel Rossetti as Designer and Writer (1889); Ruskin, Rossetti, Pre-Raphaelitism (1899); and Some Reminiscences (1906); Memoir by W. M. Rossetti prefixed to the Collected Works, published in 1886. Lady Burne-Jones's Memorials of Edward Burnt-Jones (1904) is full of interesting sidelights. See also F. G. Stephens, D. G. Rossetti; "Portfolio" monograph (1894); H. C. Marillier, D. G. Rossetti (1899 and 1901); W. Sharp, Dante Gabriel Rossetti: A Record and a Study (1882); T. Hall Came, Recollections of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1882); W. Allingham, Letters of Dante Gabriel Rossetti to William Allingham, 1854-70 (1897). An article by Vernon Lushington in the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine (1856) is an early contemporary view worth noting. ROSSI, LUIGI DE, a 17th-century Italian musical composer, said to have been born at Naples towards the close of the i6th century. Of his life practically nothing is known. An opera of his, II Palazzo Incantato, was given at Rome in 1642; in 1646 he was invited by Cardinal Mazarin to Paris, where he gave his opera Le Manage d'Orphee et d'Euridice (1647), the first Italian opera performed in Paris. A collection of cantatas published in 1646 describes him as musician to Cardinal Antonio Berberini, and G. A. Perti in 1688 speaks of him along with Carissimi and Cesti as " the three greatest lights of our pro- fession." Rossi is noteworthy principally for his chamber- cantatas, which are among the finest that the I7th century produced. A large quantity are in MS. in the British Museum and in Christ Church library, Oxford. La Gelosia, printed by F.A. Gevaert in Les Gloires d'llalie, is an admirable specimen. ROSSI, PELLEGRINO LUIGI EDOARDO, COUNT (1787-1848), Italian economist and statesman, was born at Carrara on the I3th of July 1787. He was educated at Pavia and Bologna, and in 1812 became professor of law at the latter university. In 1815 he gave his support to Joachim Murat, and after his fall escaped to France, whence he proceeded to Geneva. There he began a course of jurisprudence applied to Roman law, the success of which gained him the unusual honour of natural- ization as a citizen of Geneva. In 1820 he was elected as a deputy to the cantonal council, and was a member of the extra- ordinary diet of 1832. He was entrusted with the task of drawing up a revised constitution, which was known as the Pacte Rossi. This was rejected by a majority of the diet, a result which deeply affected Rossi, and induced him to look with favour on the suggestions of Guizot and the due de Broglie that he should settle in France. He was appointed in 1833 to the chair of political economy in the College de France, vacated by the death of J. B. Say. He was naturalized as a French citizen in 1834, and in the same year became professor of constitutional law in the faculty of law at Paris. In 1836 he was elected a member of the Academic des sciences politiques et morales, was raised to the peerage in 1839 and in 1843 became doyen of the faculty of law. In 1845 he was sent to Rome by Guizot to discuss the question of the Jesuits, being finally appointed ambassador of France at Rome. The revolution of 1848 severed his connexion with France, and he remained at Rome and became minister of the interior under Pius IX. He was unpopular, however, owing to his conservative views, and was assassinated on the isth of November, as he was alighting at the steps of the House of Assembly. As a statesman, Rossi was a man of signal ability and intrepid character, but it is as an economist that his name will be best remembered. His Cours d'economie politique (1838-54) gave in classic form an exposition of the doctrines of Say, Malthus and Ricardo. His other works were Traite de droit penal (1829); Cpurs de droit constitutional (1866-67), a°d Melanges d'economie politique, d'histoire et de philosophie (2 vols., 1857). His widow left a sum of 100,000 francs to the Institut de France, to found in his memory scholarships in political economy or law. Carrara erected a statue to his memory in 1876, and in 1887 the Societt d'economie politique celebrated his centenary with a notice of his life and works. See also le Comte Fleury d'Ideville, Le Comte Pellegrino Rossi, sa vie, ses asuvres, sa mart (1887). ROSSINI, GIOACHINO ANTONIO (1792-1868), Italian musical composer, was born at Pesaro on the 2gth of February 1792. His father was town trumpeter and inspector of slaughter- houses, his mother a baker's daughter. The elder Rossini's sympathies for the French became a source of trouble when, after the occupation of the papal state by the French in 1796, the Austrians restored the old regime. He was sent to prison, and his wife took Gioachino to Bologna, earning her living as a prima donna buffa at various theatres of the Romagna, where she was ultimately rejoined by her husband. Gioachino remained at Bologna in the care of a pork butcher, while his father played the horn in the bands of the theatres at which his mother sang. The boy had three years' instruction in the harpsichord from Prinetti of Novara, but Prinetti played the scale with two fingers only, combined his profession of a musician with the business of selling liquor, and fell asleep while he stood, so that he was a fit subject for ridicule with his critical pupil. Gioachino was taken from him and apprenticed to a smith. In Angelo Tesei he found a congenial master, and learned to read at sight, to play accompaniments on the piano- forte, and to sing well enough to take solo parts in the church when he was ten years of age. At thirteen he appeared at the theatre of the Commune in Paer's Camilla — his only appear- ance as a public singer (1805). He was also able to play the horn. In 1807 he was admitted to the counterpoint class of Padre P. S. Mattel, and soon after to that of Cavedagni for the 'cello at the Conservatorio of Bologna. He learned to play the 'cello with ease, but the pedantic severity of Mattel's views on counterpoint only served to accentuate the tendency of his genius towards a freer school of composition, and his insight into orchestral resources is to be ascribed rather to knowledge gained by scoring the quartets and symphonies of Haydn and Mozart, than to any prescribed rules for the com- position of music. At Bologna he was known as " il Tedes- chino " on account of his devotion to Mozart. Through the friendly interposition of the Marquis Cavalli, his first opera, La Cambiale di Matrimonio, was produced at Venice when he was a youth of eighteen. But two years before this he had already received the prize at the Conservatorio of Bologna 752 ROSSLAND— ROSSLYN, EARLS OF for his cantata // pianlo d' armonia per la morte d'Orfeo. Be- tween 1810 and 1813, at Bologna, Rome, Venice and Milan, Rossini produced operas of which the successes were varying. All memory of them is eclipsed in that of Tancredi. The libretto was an arrangement of Voltaire's tragedy by J. A. Rossi. Traces of Pae'r and Paisiello were undeniably present in fragments of the music. But all critical feeling on the part of the public was drowned in the effect of sweetness and clarity produced by such melodies as " Mi rivedrai, ti rivedro " and " Di tanti palpiti," the former of which became so popular that the Italians would sing it in crowds at the law courts until called upon by the judge to desist. Rossini continued to write operas for Venice and Milan during the next few years, but their recep- tion was tame and in some cases unsatisfactory after the success of Tancredi. In 1815 he retired to his home at Bologna, where Barbaja, the impresario of the Naples theatre, who had once been a waiter in a coffee-house and now combined the business of theatrical management with that of farming the public gaming-tables, concluded an agreement with him by which he was to take the musical direction of the Teatro San Carlo and the Teatro Del Fondo at Naples, composing for each of them one opera a year. His payment was to be 200 ducats (about £35 or $175) per month; he was also to receive a share in the gaming-tables amounting to about 1000 ducats (£175 or $875) per annum. The presence of Zingarelli and Paisiello in Naples was an incentive to intrigue against the success of the youthful composer, but all hostility was made futile by the enthusiasm which greeted the court performance of his Elisabetta regina d' Inghilterra, in which Isabella Colbran, who subsequently became the composer's wife, took a leading part. The libretto of this opera by Schmidt was in many of its inci- dents an anticipation of those presented to the world a few years later in Scott's Kenilworth. The opera was the first in which Rossini wrote the ornaments of the airs instead of leaving them to the fancy of the singers, and also the first in which the recitative secco was replaced by a recitative accom- panied by a quartet of strings. In Almaviva, produced in the beginning of the next year in Rome, the libretto, a version of Beaumarchais' Barbier de Seville by Sterbini, was the same as that already used by Paisiello in his Barbier e, an opera which had enjoyed European popularity for more than a quarter of a century. The indignation of Paisiello's admirers expressed itself strongly on the production of the new setting, but in the thirteen days devoted to the composition of his Almaviva,, Rossini had created such a masterpiece of musical comedy that the fame of Paisiello's opera was transferred to his, to which the title of // Barbiere di Siviglia passed as an inalien- able heritage. Between 1815 and 1823 Rossini produced twenty operas. Of these Otello formed the climax to his reform of serious opera, and offers a suggestive contrast with the treat- ment of the same subject at a similar point of artistic develop- ment by the composer Verdi. In Rossini's time the tragic close was so distasteful to the public of Rome that it was neces- sary to invent a happy conclusion to Otello; and there are still places in Italy in which the Shakespearian end of the story can never be performed without interruption from the audience, who warn Desdemona of Otello's deadly approach. Conditions of stage mechanism in 1817 are illustrated by Rossini's accept- ance of the subject of Cinderella for a libretto only on the con- dition that the supernatural element should be omitted. The opera Cenerentola is to be ranked with the Barbiere. The absence of a similar precaution in the construction of his Mose in Egitto led to disaster in the scene depicting the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea, when the defects in stage contrivance always raised a laugh, so that the composer was at length compelled to introduce the chorus " Dal tuo stellate Soglio " to divert attention from the dividing waves. In 1821, three years after the production of this work, Rossini married Isabella Colbran. In 1822 he directed his Cenerentola in Vienna, where Zelmira was also performed. After this he returned to Bologna; but an invitation from Prince Metter- nich to come to Verona and " assist in the general re-establish- ment of harmony " was too tempting to be refused, and he arrived at the Congress in time for its opening on the 2oth of October 1822. Here he made friends with Chateaubriand and Madame de Lieven. In 1823, at the suggestion of the manager of the King's Theatre, London, he came to England, being much f£ted on his way through Paris. In England he was given a generous welcome, which included an introduction to King George IV. and the receipt of £7000 after a residence of five months. In 1824 he became musical director of the Theatre Italien in Paris at a salary of £800 per annum, and when the agreement came to an end he was rewarded with the offices of chief composer to the king and inspector-general of singing in France, to which was attached the same income. The production of his Guillaume Tell in 1829 brought his career as a writer of opera to a close. The libretto was by Etienne Jouy and Hippolyte Bis, but their version was revised by Armand Marrast. The music is remarkable for its freedom from the conventions discovered and utilized by Rossini in his earlier works, and marks a transitional stage in the history of opera. In 1829 he returned to Bologna. His mother had died in 1827, and he was anxious to be with his father. Arrange- ments for his subsequent return to Paris on a new agreement were upset by the abdication of Charles X. and the July Revolu- tion of 1830. Rossini, who had been considering the subject of Faust for a new opera, returned, however, to Paris in the November of that year. Six movements of his Stabat Mater were written in 1832 and the rest in 1839, the year of his father's death, and the success of the work bears comparison with his achievements in opera; but his comparative silence during the period from 1832 to 1868 makes his biography appear almost like the narrative of two lives — the life of swift triumph, and the long life of seclusion, of which the biographers give us pictures in stories of the composer's cynical wit, his speculations in fish culture, his mask of humility and indifference. His first wife died in 1845, and political disturbances in the Romagna compelled him to leave Bologna in 1847, the year of his second marriage with Olympe Pelissier, who had sat to Vernet for his picture of " Judith and Hdlofernes." After living for a time in Florence he settled in Paris in 1855, where his house was a centre of artistic society. He died at his country house at Passy on the i3th of November 1868. He was a foreign associate of the Institute, grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and the recipient of innumerable orders. In his compositions Rossini plagiarized even more freely from him- self than from other musicians, and few of his operas are without such admixtures frankly introduced in the form of arias or overtures. A characteristic mannerism in his musical writing earned for him the nickname of " Monsieur Crescendo." His music is associated with the names of the greatest singers in lyrical drama, such as Tamburini, Mario, Rubini, Delle Sedie, Albani, Grisi, Patti and Nilsson. ROSSLAND, an important city in the Kootenay district of British Columbia, incorporated in 1897. Pop. (1907) 4033. It is situated in a valley 7 m. W. of Trail on the Columbia river and 8 m. N. of the international boundary. It has direct railroad communication with Trail and the Arrow lakes as well as with Northport and Spokane in the state of Washington. Rossland owes its importance to the immense deposits of iron and copper pyrites carrying gold, which occur in the vicinity. The best-known mines are the Le Roy, Centre Star and War Eagle. The city derives its electric light and power service from Bonnington Falls on the Kootenay river. ROSSLAU, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt, on the right bank of the Elbe, here crossed by two railway bridges, 3 m. by rail N. of Dessau and 35 m. S.E. of Magdeburg. Pop. (1905) 11,027. It has a ducal residence, an old castle, a hand- some parish church, and manufactures of machinery, paper, sealing-wax, wire goods, sugar, bricks and chemicals. Rosslau became a town in 1603. ROSSLYN, EARLS OF. The first earl of Rosslyn was Alex- ander Wedderburn (see below), who was succeeded by his nephew, James St Clair Erskine (1762-1837), a son of ROSSLYN, IST EARL OF— ROSSTREVOR 753 Wedderburn's sister Janet by her marriage with Sir Henry Erskine (d. 1765), a Scottish baronet and soldier. Entering the army in 1776, James Erskine served in Portugal, in Denmark and in the Netherlands, and became a general in 1814. From 1782 until 1805, when he became a peer, he was a member of parlia- ment ; a Tory politician and an associate of the duke of Welling- ton, he was lord privy seal in 1820-30 and lord president of the council in 1834-35. He inherited the estates of the family of St Clair and took this name in 1789, and he died on the i8th of January 1837. His son, James Alexander (1802-1866), became 3rd earl, and in 1890 the latter's grandson, James Francis Harry (b. 1869), became 5th earl. ROSSLYN, ALEXANDER WEDDERBURN, IST EARL OF (I733-i8os), Lord Chancellor of Great Britain, was the eldest son of Peter Wedderburn (a lord of session as Lord Chesterhall), and was born in East Lothian on the I3th of February 1733. He acquired the rudiments of his education at Dalkeith, and in his fourteenth year matriculated at the university of Edinburgh. It was from the first his desire to practise at the English bar, though in deference to his father's wishes he qualified as an advocate at Edinburgh, in 1754, but entered himself at the Inner Temple on the 8th of May 1753, so that he might keep the Easter and Trinity terms in that year. His father was called to the bench in 1755, and for the next three years Wedder- burn stuck to his practice in Edinburgh, during which period he employed his oratorical powers in the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and passed his evenings in the social and argumentative clubs which abound in Edinburgh. In 1755 the precursor of the later Edinburgh Review was started, now chiefly remembered because in its pages Adam Smith criticized the dictionary of Dr Johnson, and because the contents of its two numbers were edited by Wedderburn. The dean of facility at this time, Lockhart, afterwards Lord Covington, a lawyer notorious for his harsh demeanour, in the autumn of 1757 assailed Wedderburn with more than ordinary insolence. His victim retorted with extraordinary powers of invective, and on being rebuked by the bench declined to retract or apologize, but placed his gown upon the table, and with a low bow left the court for ever. He was called to the English bar at the Inner Temple in 1757. To shake off his native accent and to acquire the graces of oratorical action, he engaged the services of Thomas Sheridan and Charles Macklin, To secure business and to conduct his cases with adequate knowledge, he studied the forms of English law, he solicited William Strahan, the printer, " to get him employed in city causes," and he entered into social intercourse (as is noted in Alexander Carlyle's autobiography) with busy London solicitors. His local connex- ions and the incidents of his previous career introduced him to the notice of his countrymen Lords Bute and Mansfield. When Lord Bute was prime minister this legal satellite used, says Dr Johnson, to go on errands for him, and it is to Wedderburn's credit that he first suggested to the premier the propriety of granting Johnson a pension. Through the favour of Lord Bute, he was returned to parliament for the Ayr burghs in 1761. In 1763 he became king's counsel and bencher of Lincoln's Inn, and for a short time went the northern circuits, but was more successful in obtaining business in the Court of Chancery. He obtained a considerable addition to his resources (Carlyle puts the amount at £10,000) on his marriage in 1767 to Betty Anne, sole child and heiress of John Dawson of Marly in Yorkshire. When George Grenville, whose principles leaned to Toryism, quarrelled with the court, Wedderburn affected to regard him as his leader in politics. At the dissolution in the spring of 1768 he was returned by Sir Lawrence Dundas for Richmond as a Tory, but in the questions that arose over John Wilkes (y Nicolas Poussin. While young Rousseau went to Rome, where he spent some years in painting the ancient ruins, :ogether with the surrounding landscapes. He thus formed lis style, which was artificial and conventionally decorative. His colouring for the most part is unpleasing, partly owing to his violent treatment of skies with crude blues and orange, and his chiaroscuro usually is much exaggerated. On his return to Paris he soon became distinguished as a painter, and was employed by Louis XIV. to decorate the walls of his palaces at St Germain and Marly. He was soon admitted member of the French Academy of the Fine Arts, but on the revocation of the edict of Nantes he was obliged to take refuge in Holland, and his name was struck off the Academy roll. From Holland he was invited to England by the duke of Montague, who employed him, together with other French painters, to paint the walls of his palace, Montague House (on the site of which is now the British Museum). Rousseau was also employed to paint architectural subjects and land- scapes in the palace of Hampton Court, where many of his decorative panels still exist. He spent the latter part of his life in London, where he died in 1693. Besides being a painter in oil and fresco Rousseau was an etcher of some ability; many etchings by his hand from the works of the Caracci and from his own designs still exist; they are vigorous, though coarse in execution. ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTS (1671-1741), French poet, was born at Paris on the 6th of April 1671; he died at Brussels on the I7th of March 1741. The son of a shoemaker, he was well educated and early gained favour with Boileau, who en- couraged him to write. He began with the theatre, for which he had no aptitude. A one-act comedy, Le Cafe, failed in 1694, and he was not much happier with a more ambitious play, Le Flatleur (1696), or with the opera of Vtnus et Adonis (1697). He tried in 1700 another comedy, Le Capricieux, which had the same fate. He then went with Tallard as an attache to London, and, in days when literature still led to high position, seemed likely to achieve success. His misfortunes began with a club squabble at the Cafe Laurent, which was much frequented by literary men, and where Rousseau indulged in lampoons on his companions. A shower of libellous and sometimes obscene verses was written by or attributed to him, and at last he was turned out of the cafe. At the same time his poems, as yet only singly printed or in manuscript, acquired him a great reputation, due to the dearth of genuine lyrical poetry between Racine and Chenier. He had in 1701 been made a member of the Academic des inscriptions; he had been offered, though he had not accepted, profitable places in the revenue department; he had become a favourite of the libertine but influential coterie of the Temple; and in 1710 he presented himself as a candidate for the Academic francaise. Then began the second chapter of an extraordinary history of the animosities of authors. A copy of verses, more offensive than ever, was handed round, and gossip maintained that Rousseau was its author. Legal proceedings of various kinds followed, and Rousseau ascribed the lampoon to Joseph Saurin. In 1712 Rousseau was prosecuted for defamation of character, and, on his non-appearance in court, was condemned par contumace to perpetual exile. He spent the rest of his life in foreign countries except for a clandestine visit to Paris in 1738, refusing to accept the permission to return which was offered him in 1716 because it was not accompanied by complete rehabilitation. Prince Eugene and then other persons of distinction took him under their protection during his exile, and he printed at Soleure the first edition of his poetical works. Voltaire and he met at Brussels ROUND TOWERS PLATE. Photo, Valentine. IRISH ROUND TOWER: CLONDALKIN.CO. DUBLIN. Photo, Mansell & Co. EAST ANGLIAN ROUND CHURCH-TOWER: LITTLE SAXHAM. Photo, Valentine. BROCH: MOUSA, SHETLAND. Photo by the late Sir Francis Barry, by permission of The Country Some, BROCH: KEISS ROAD, CAITHNESS (INTERIOR, LOWER PART, EXCAVATED). ROUSSEAU, J. J. 775 in 1722. Voltaire's Le Pour el le centre is said to have shocked Rousseau, who expressed his sentiments freely. At any rate the latter had thenceforward no fiercer enemy than Voltaire. His death elicited from Lefranc de Pompignan an ode of real excellence and perhaps better than anything of Rousseau's own work. _ That work is divided, roughly speaking, into two contrasted divisions. One consists of formal and partly sacred odes and cantatas of the stiffest character, of which perhaps the Ode d, la fortune is the most famous; the other of brief epigrams, sometimes licentious and always, or almost always, ill-natured. As an epigrammatist Rous- seau is only inferior to his friend Alexis Piron. In the former he stands almost alone. The frigidity of conventional diction and the disuse of all really lyrical rhythm which characterize his period do not prevent his odes and cantatas from showing at times true poetical faculty, though cramped, and inadequate to explain his extraordinary vogue. Few writers were so frequently reprinted during the 1 8th century, but even in his own century La Harpe had arrived at a truer estimate of his real value when he said of his poetry: " Le fond n'est qu'un lieu commun charg6 de declamations et me'me d'idees fausses.' Besides the Soleure edition mentioned above Rousseau published another issue of his work in London in 1723. The chief edition since is that of J. A. Amar (5 vols., 1820), preceded by a notice of his life. M. A. de Latour published (1869) a useful though not complete edition, with notes and a biographical introduction. ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778), French philo- sopher, was born at Geneva on the 28th June 1712. His family had established themselves in that city at the time of the religious wars, but they were of pure French origin. Rous- seau's father Isaac was a watchmaker; his mother, Suzanne Bernard, was the daughter of a minister; she died in child- birth, and Rousseau, who was the second son, was brought up in a haphazard fashion, his father being dissipated, violent- tempered and foolish. But he early taught his son to read, and seems to have laid the foundation of the flighty sentimental- ism in morals and politics which Rousseau afterwards illustrated with his genius. When the boy was ten years old his father got entangled in a dispute with a fellow-citizen, and being condemned to a short term of imprisonment abandoned Geneva and took refuge at Lyons. The father and son henceforth rarely met. Rousseau was taken charge of by his mother's relations and was committed to the tutorship of M. Lambercier, pastor at Boissy. In 1724 he was removed from this school and taken into the house of his uncle Bernard, by whom he was shortly afterwards apprenticed to a notary. His master, how- ever, found or thought him incapable and sent him back. After a short time (April 25, 1725) he was apprenticed afresh, this time to an engraver. He did not dislike the work, but was or thought himself cruelly treated. In 1728 he ran away, the truancy being by his own account unintentional in the first instance, and due to the fact of the city gates being shut earlier than usual. Then began an extraordinary series of wander- ings and adventures, for much of which there is no authority but his c wn Confessions. He first fell in with some proselytizers of the Roman faith at Confignon in Savoy, and by them he was sent to Madame de Warens at Annecy, a young and pretty widow who was herself a convert. Her influence, however, which was to be so great, was not immediately exercised, and he was passed on to Turin, where there was an institution specially devoted to the reception of neophytes. His experi- ences here were unsatisfactory, but he abjured duly and was rewarded by being presented with twenty francs and senj about his business. He wandered about in Turin for some time, and at last established himself as footman to a Madame de Vercellis. Here occurred the famous incident of the theft of a ribbon, of which he accused a girl fellow-servant. But, though he kept his place by this piece of cowardice, Madame de Vercellis died not long afterwards and he was turned off. He found another place with the Comte de Gouvon, but lost this also through coxcombry. Then he resolved to return to Madame de Warens at Annecy. The chronology of all these events, as narrated by himself, is somewhat obscure, but they seem to have occupied about three years. Even then Rousseau did not settle at once in the anomalous but to him charming position of domestic lover to this lady, who, nominally a converted Protestant, was in reality, as many women of her time were, a kind of deist, with a theory of noble sentiment and a practice of libertinism tempered by good nature. It used to be held that in her conjugal relations she was more sinned against than sinning. But modern investigations seem to show that M. de Vuarrens (which is said to be the correct spelling of the name) was an unfortunate husband, and was deserted and robbed by his wife. However, she welcomed Rousseau kindly, thought it necessary to complete his education, and he was sent to the seminarists of St Lazare to be improved in classics, and also to a music master. In one of his incom- prehensible freaks he set off for Lyons, and, after abandoning his companion in an epileptic fit, returned to Annecy to find Madame de Warens gone. Then for some months he relapsed into the life of vagabondage, varied by improbable adventures, which (according to his own statement) he so often pursued. Hardly knowing anything of music, he attempted to give lessons and a concert at Lausanne; and he actually taught at Neuchatel. Then he became, or says he became, secretary to a Greek archimandrite who was travelling in Switzerland to collect subscriptions for the rebuilding of the Holy Sepul- chre; then he went to Paris, and, with recommendations from the French ambassador at Soleure, saw something of good society; then he returned on foot through Lyons to Savoy, hearing that Madame de Warens was at Chamb6ry. This was in 1732, and Rousseau, who for a time had unimportant employ- ments in the service of the Sardinian crown, was shortly in- stalled by Madame de Warens, whom he still called Maman, as amant en litre in her singular household, wherein she diverted herself with him, with music and with chemistry. In 1736 Madame de Warens, partly for Rousseau's health, took a country house, Les Charmettes, a short distance from Chamb6ry. Here in summer, and in the town during winter, Rousseau led a de- lightful life, which he has delightfully described. In a desultory way he did a good deal of reading, but in 1738 his health again became bad, and he was recommended to go to Montpellier. By his own account this journey to Montpellier was in reality a voyage d Cythere in company with a certain Madame de Lar- nage. This being so, he could hardly complain when on return- ing he found that his official position in Madame de Warens's household had been taken by a person named Vintzenried. He was, however, less likely than most men to endure the position of second in command, and in 1740 he became tutor at Lyons to the children of M. de Mably, not the well-known writer of that name, but his and Condillac's elder brother. But Rousseau did not like teaching and was a bad teacher, and after a visit to Les Charmettes, finding that his place there was finally occupied, he once more went to Paris in 1741. He was not without recommendations. But a new system of musical notation which he thought he had discovered was unfavourably received by the Academic des sciences, where it was read in August 1742, and he was unable to obtain pupils. Madame Dupin, however, to whose house he had obtained the entry, pro- cured him the honourable if not very lucrative post of secretary to M. de Montaigu, ambassador at Venice. With him he stayed for about eighteen months, and has as usual infinite complaints to make of his employer and some strange stories to tell. At length he threw up his situation and returned to Paris (1745). Up to this time — that is to say, till his thirty-third year — Rousseau's life, though continuously described by himself, was of the kind called subterranean, and the account of it must be taken with considerable allowances. From this time, how- ever, he is more or less in view; and, though at least two events of his life — his quarrel with Diderot and his death — are subjects of dispute, its general history can be checked and followed with reasonable confidence. On his return to Paris he renewed his relations with the Dupin family and with the literary group of Diderot, to which he had already been introduced by M. de Mably's letters. He had an opera, Les Muses galantes, privately represented; he copied music for money, and received from Madame Dupin and her son-in-law M. de Francueil a small but regular salary as secretary. He lived at the Hotel St Quentin for a time, and once more arranged for himself an equivocal 776 ROUSSEAU, J. J. domestic establishment. His mistress, whom towards the close of his life he married after a fashion, was Therese le Vasseur, a servant at the inn, whom he first met in 1743. She had little beauty, no education or understanding, and few charms that his friends could discover, besides which she had a detestable mother, who was the bane of Rousseau's life. But he made himself happy with her, and (according to Rousseau's account, the accuracy of which has been questioned) five children were born to them, who were all consigned to the foundling hospital. This disregard of responsibility was partly punished by the use his critics made of it when he became celebrated as a writer on education and a preacher of the domestic affections.1 Diderot, with whom from 1741 onwards he became more and more familiar, admitted him as a contributor to the Encyclopedic. He formed new musical projects, and he was introduced by degrees to many people of rank and influence, among them Madame d'fipinay (?.».), to whom in 1747 he was introduced by her lover M. de Francueil. It was not, however, till 1749 that Rousseau made his mark as a writer. The academy of Dijon offered a prize for an essay on the effect of the progress of civilization on morals. Rousseau took up the subject, developed his famous paradox of the superiority of the savage state, won the prize, and, publishing his essay {Discours sur les arts et sciences) next year, became famous. The anecdotage as to the origin of this famous essay is voluminous. It is agreed that the idea was suggested when Rousseau went to pay a visit to Diderot, who was in prison at Vincennes for his Lettre sur les aveugles. Rousseau says he thought of the paradox on his way down; Morellet and others say that he thought of treating the subject in the ordinary fashion and was laughed at by Diderot, who showed him the advantages of the less obvious treatment. Diderot himself, who in such matters is almost absolutely trustworthy, does not claim the suggestion, but uses words which imply that it was at least partly his. It is very like him. The essay, however, took the artificial and crotchety society of the day by storm. Francueil gave Rousseau a valuable post as cashier in the receiver-general's office. But he resigned it either from conscientiousness, or crotchet, or nerv- ousness at responsibility, or indolence, or more probably from a mixture of all four. He went back to his music-copying, but the salons of the day were determined to have his society, and for a time they had it. In 1752 he brought out at Fontainebleau an operetta, the Devin du milage, which was successful. He received a hundred louis for it, and he was ordered to come to court next day. This meant the certainty of a pension. But Rousseau's shyness or his perversity (as before, probably both) made him disobey the command. His comedy Narcisse, written long before, was also acted, but unsuccessfully. In the same year, however, a letter Sur la musique franc.aise again had a great vogue.2 Finally, for this was an important year 1 Apart from the fact that there were probably no children at all, the whole bearing of the belief of Rousseau that they were sent by him to the Enfants trouves has been falsified by hostile writers. He was a penniless man of letters, with theories as to state maintenance of children; and Th6r6se was a consenting party. Rousseau, however, never saw any of the alleged children; and Mrs Mac- donald has shown good cause for believing that their existence was a myth, an imposition on Rousseau's credulity, invented by TheV&se and her mother to make the tie more binding. (H. CH.) 1 Rousseau's influence on French music was greater than might have been expected from his very imperfect education; in truth, he was a musician by natural instinct only, but his feeling for art was very strong, and, though capricious, based upon true perceptions of the good and beautiful. The system of notation (by figures) con- cerning which he read a paper before the Acade'mie des Sciences, August 22, 1742, was ingenious, but practically worse than useless, and failed to attract attention, though the paper was published in 1743 under the title of Dissertation sur la musique moderne. In the famous " guerre des buffons," he took the part of the " buffonists," so named in consequence of their attachment to the Italian " opera buffa," as opposed to the true French opera; and, in his Lettre sur la musique franfaise, published in 1753, he indulged in a violent tirade against French music, which he declared to be so contemptible as to lead to the conclusion " that the French neither have, nor ever will have, any music of their own, or at least that, if they ever dp have any, it will be so much the worse for them." This silly libel so enraged the performers at the Opera that they hanged and burned with him, the Dijon academy, which had founded his fame, announced the subject of " The Origin of Inequality," on which he wrote a discourse which was unsuccessful, but at least equal to the former in merit. During a visit to Geneva in 1754 Rousseau saw his old friend and love Madame de Warens (now reduced in circumstances and having lost all her charms), while after abjuring his abjuration of Protestantism he was enabled to take up his freedom as citizen of Geneva, to which his birth entitled him and of which he was proud. Shortly afterwards, returning to Paris, he accepted a cottage near Montmorency (the celebrated Hermitage) which Madame d'fipinay had fitted up for him, and established himself there in April 1756. He spent little more than a year there, but it was an important year. Here he wrote La Nouvelle Helotse; here he indulged in the passion which that novel partly represents, his love for Madame d'Huodetot, sister-in-law of Madame d'fipinay, a lady young and amiable, but plain, who had a husband and a lover (St Lambert), and whom Rousseau's devotion seems to have partly pleased and partly annoyed. Here too arose the obscure triangular quarrel between Diderot, Rousseau and Frederick Melchior Grimm, which ended Rousseau's sojourn at the Hermi- tage. The supposition least favourable to Rousseau is that it was due to one of his numerous fits of half-insane petulance and indignation at the obligations which he was nevertheless always ready to incur. That most favourable to him is that he was expected to lend himself in a more or less complaisant manner to assist and cover Madame d'fipinay's adulterous affection for Grimm. At any rate, Rousseau quitted the Her- mitage in the winter of 1757-58, and established himself at Montlouis in the neighbourhood. Hitherto Rousseau's behaviour had frequently made him enemies, but his writings had for the most part made him friends. The quarrel with Madame d'fipinay, with Diderot, and through them with the philosophe party reversed this. In 1758 appeared his Lettre d d'Alembert centre les spectacles, written in the winter of the previous year at Montlouis. This was at once an attack on Voltaire, who was giving theatrical representations at Les Delices, on D'Alembert, who had con- demned the prejudice against the stage in the Encyclopedic, and on one of the favourite amusements of the society of the day. Voltaire's strong point was not forgiveness, and, though Rousseau no doubt exaggerated the efforts of his " enemies," he was certainly henceforward as obnoxious to the philosophe coterie as to the orthodox party. He still, however, had no lack of patrons — he never had — though his perversity made him quarrel with all in turn. The amiable duke and duchess of Luxembourg, who were his neighbours at Montlouis, made his acquaintance, or rather forced theirs upon him, and he was industrious in his literary work — indeed, most of his best books were produced during his stay in the neighbourhood of its author in effigy. Rousseau revenged himself by printing his clever satire entitled Lettre d'un symphoniste de I' Academic Royale de Musique a ses camarades de I'orchestre. His Lettre a M. Burney is of a very different type, and does full justice to the genius of Gluck. His articles on music in the Encyclopedie deal very superficially with the subject; and his Dictionnaire de musique (Geneva, 1767), though admirably written, is not trustworthy, either as a record of facts or as a collection of critical essays. In all these works the imperfection of his musical education is painfully apparent, and his compositions betray an equal lack of knowledge, though his refined taste is as clearly displayed there as is his literary power in the Letters and Dictionary. His first opera, Les Muses galantes, privately prepared at the house of La Popelini&re, attracted very little attention; but Le Devin du village, given at Fontainebleau in 1752, and at the Academic in '753. achieved a great and well-deserved success. Though very unequal, and exceedingly simple both in style and construction, it contains some charming melodies, and is written throughout in the most refined taste. His Pygmalion (1775) is a melodrama without singing. Some posthumous fragments of another opera, Daphnis et Cttob, were printed in 1780; and in 1781 appeared Les Consola- tions des miskres de ma vie, a collection of about one hundred songs and other fugitive pieces of very unequal merit. The popular air known as " Rousseau's Dream " is not contained in this collection, and cannot be traced back farther than J. B. Cramer's celebrated " Variations." M. Castil-Blaze has accused Rousseau of extensive plagiarisms (or worse) in Le Devin du village and Pygmalion, but apparently without sufficient cause. (W. S. R.) ROUSSEAU, J. J. 777 Montmorency. A letter to Voltaire on his poem about the Lisbon earthquake embittered the dislike between the two, being surreptitiously published. La Nouvelle Heloise appeared in the same year (1760), and it was immensely popular. In 1762 appeared the Central social at Amsterdam, and £.mile, which was published both in the Low Countries and at Paris. For the latter the author received 6000 livres, for the Central 1000. Julie, ou La Nouvelle Hiloise, is a novel written in letters describing the loves of a man of low position and a girl of rank, her subsequent marriage to a respectable freethinker of her own station, the mental agonies of her lover, and the partial appeasing of the distresses of the lovers by the influence of noble sentiment and the good offices of a philanthropic Englishman. It is too long, the sentiment is overstrained, and severe moralists have accused it of a certain complaisance in dealing with amatory errors; but it is full of pathos and knowledge of the human heart. The Control social, as its title implies, endeavours to base all government on the consent, direct or implied, of the governed, and indulges in much in- genious argument to get rid of the practical inconveniences of such a suggestion. £mile, the second title of which is De I'fducation, is much more of a treatise than of a novel, though a certain amount of narrative interest is kept up throughout. Rousseau's reputation was now higher than ever, but the term of the comparative prosperity which he had enjoyed for nearly ten years was at hand. The Central social was obviously anti-monarchic; the Nouvelle Heloise was said to be immoral; the sentimental deism of the " Profession du vicaire Savoyard " in £mile irritated equally the philosophe party and the church. On June u, 1762, £mile was con- demned by the parlement of Paris, and two days previously Madame de Luxembourg and the prince de Conti gave the author information that he would be arrested if he did not fly. They also furnished him with means of flight, and he •made for Yverdun in the territory of Bern, whence he trans- ferred himself to Motiers in Neuchatel, which then belonged to Prussia. Frederick II. was not indisposed to protect the persecuted when it cost him nothing and might bring him fame, and in Marshal Keith, the governor of Neuchatel, Rousseau found a true and firm friend. He was, however, unable to be quiet or to practise any of those more or less pious frauds which were customary at the time with the un- orthodox. The archbishop of Paris had published a pastoral against him, and Rousseau did not let the year pass without a Lettre d M . de Beaumont. The council of Geneva had joined in the condemnation of Entile, and Rousseau first solemnly renounced his citizenship, and then, in the Lettres de la mon- tagne (1763), attacked the council and the Genevan constitu- tion unsparingly. All this excited public opinion against him, and gradually he grew unpopular in his own neighbourhood. This unpopularity is said on uncertain authority to have cul- minated in a nocturnal attack on his house. At any rate he thought he was menaced if he was not, and migrated to the lie St Pierre in the Lake of Bienne, where he once more for a short, and the last, time enjoyed that idyllic existence which he loved. But the Bernese government ordered him to quit its territory. He was for some time uncertain' where to go, and thought of Corsica (to join Paoli) and Berlin. But finally David Hume offered him, late in 1765, an asylum in England, and he accepted. He passed through Paris, where his presence was tolerated for a time, and landed in England on January 13, 1766. Therese travelled separately, and was en- trusted to the charge of James Boswell, who had already made Rousseau's acquaintance. Here he had once more a chance of settling peaceably. Severe English moralists like Johnson thought but ill of him, but the public generally was not unwilling to testify against French intolerance, and re- garded his sentimentalism with favour. He was lionized in London to his heart's content and discontent, for it may truly be said of Rousseau that he was equally indignant at neglect and intolerant of attention. When, after not a few displays of his strange humour, he professed himself tired of the capital, Hume procured him a country abode in the house of Mr Daven- port at Wootton in Derbyshire. Here, though the place was bleak and lonely, he might have been happy enough, and he actually employed himself in writing the greater part of his Confessions. But his habit of self-tormenting and tormenting others never left him. His own caprices interposed some delay in the conferring of a pension which George III. was induced to grant him, and he took this as a crime of Hume's. The publication of a spiteful letter (really by Horace Walpole, one of whose worst deeds it was) in the name of the king of Prussia made Rousseau believe that plots of the most terrible kind were on foot against him. Finally he quarrelled with Hume because the latter would not acknowledge all his own friends and Rousseau's supposed enemies of the philosophe circle to be rascals. He remained, however, at Wootton during the year and through the winter. In May 1767 he fled to France, addressing letters to the lord chancellor and to General Conway, which can only be described as the letters of a lunatic. He was received in France by the marquis de Mirabeau (father of the great Mirabeau), of whom he soon had enough, then by the prince de Conti at Trye. From this place he again fled and wandered about for some time in a wretched fashion, still writing the Confessions, constantly receiving generous help, and always quarrelling with, or at least suspecting, the helpers. In the summer of 1770 he re- turned to Paris, resumed music-copying, and was on the whole happier than he had been since he had to leave Montlouis. He had by this time married Therese le Vasseur, or had at least gone through some form of marriage with her. • Many of the best-known stories of Rousseau's life date from this last time, when he was tolerably accessible to visitors, though clearly half-insane. He finished his Confessions, wrote his Dialogues (the interest of which is not quite equal to the promise of their curious sub-title, Rousseau juge de Jean Jacques), and began his Reveries du promeneur solitaire, intended as a sequel and complement to the Confessions, and one of the best of all his books. It should be said that besides these, which complete the list of his principal works, he has left a very large number of minor works and a considerable corre- spondence. During this time he lived in the Rue Platiere, which is now named after him. But his suspicions of secret enemies grew stronger rather than weaker, and at the begin- ning of 1778 he was glad to accept the offer of M. de Girardin, a rich financier, and occupy a cottage at Ermenonville. The country was beautiful; but his old terrors revived, and his woes were complicated by the alleged inclination of Theiese for one of M. de Girardin's stable-boys. On July and he died in a manner which has been much discussed, suspicions of suicide being circulated at the time by Grimm and others.1 There is little doubt that for the last ten or fifteen years of his life, if not from the time of his quarrel with Diderot and Madame d'Epinay, Rousseau was not wholly sane — the com- bined influence of late and unexpected literary fame and of constant solitude and discomfort acting upon his excitable temperament so as to overthrow the balance, never very stable, of his fine and acute but unrobust intellect. He was by no means the only man of letters of his time who had to submit to something like persecution. Fr6ron on the orthodox side had his share of it, as well as Voltaire, Helvetius, Diderot and Montesquieu on that of the innovators. But Rousseau had not, like Montesquieu, a position which guaranteed him From serious danger; he was not wealthy like Helvfitius; he had not the wonderful suppleness and trickiness which even without his wealth would probably have defended Voltaire himself; and he lacked entirely the " bottom " of Fr6ron and Diderot. When he was molested he could only shriek at his 1 The local inquiry into the death, on the following day, resulted in a certificate that he died of apoplexy; but the story that he shot himself persisted. In December 1897 Rousseau's coffin in the Pantheon was opened, and M. Berthelot, who examined the skull, Found no trace of injury by a bullet; and on the whole there is no reason to doubt the verdict of the original inquiry at Ermenonville. (H. CH.) 778 ROUSSEAU, J. J. enemies and suspect his friends. His moral character was undoubtedly weak in other ways than this, but it is fair to remember that but for his astounding Confessions the more disgusting parts of it would not have been known, and that these Confessions were written, if not under hallucination, at any rate in circumstances entitling the self -condemned criminal to the benefit of considerable doubt. If Rousseau had held his tongue, he might have stood lower as a man of letters; he would pretty certainly have stood higher as a man. He was, moreover, really sinned against, if still more sinning. The conduct of Grimm to him was certainly bad; and, though Walpole was not his personal friend, a worse action than his famous letter, considering the well-known idiosyncrasy of the subject, would be difficult to find. It was his own fault that he saddled himself with the Le Vasseurs, but their conduct was probably, if not certainly, ungrateful in the extreme. Only excuses can be made for him; but the excuses for a man born, as Hume after the quarrel said of him, " without a skin " are numerous and strong. His peculiar reputation increased after his death. During his life his personal peculiarities and the fact that his opinions were nearly as obnoxious to the one' -party as to the other worked against him, but it was not so after his death. The men of the Revolution regarded him with something like idolatry, and his literary merits conciliated many who were far from idolizing him as a revolutionist. His style was taken up by Bernardin de Saint Pierre and by Chateaubriand. It was employed for purposes quite different from those to which he had himself applied it, and the reaction triumphed by the very arms which had been most powerful in the hands of the Revolution. Byron's fervid panegyric enlisted on his side all who admired Byron — that is to say, the majority of the younger men and women of Europe between 1820 and 1850 — and thus different sides of his tradition were continued for a . full century after the publication of his chief books. His religious unorthodoxy was condoned because he never scoffed; his political heresies, after their first effect was over, seemed harmless from the very want of logic and practical spirit in them, while part at least of his literary secret was the common property of almost every one who attempted literature. In religion Rousseau was undoubtedly what he has been called above — a sentimental deist; but no one who reads him with the smallest attention can fail to see that sentimentalism was the essence, deism the accident of his creed. In his time orthodoxy at once generous and intelligent hardly existed in France. There were ignorant persons who were sincerely orthodox; there were intelligent persons who pretended to be so. But between the time of Massillon and D'Aguesseau and the time of Lamennais and Joseph de Maistre the class of men of whom in England Berkeley, Butler and Johnson were repre- sentatives did not exist in France. Little inclined by nature to any but the emotional side of religion, and utterly undis- ciplined in any other by education, course of life, or the general tendency of public opinion, Rousseau naturally took refuge in the nebulous kind of natural religion which was at once fashionable and convenient. If his practice fell far short even of his own arbitrary 'standard of morality, as much may be said of persons far more dogmatically orthodox. In politics, on the other hand, Rousseau was a sincere and, as far as in him lay, a convinced republican. He had no great tincture of learning, he was by no means a profound logician, and he was impulsive and emotional in the extreme — character- istics which in political matters predispose the subject to the preference of equality above all political requisites. He saw that under the French monarchy the actual result was the greatest misery of the greatest number, and] he did not look much further. The Central social is for the political student one of the most curious and interesting books existing. His- torically it is null; logically it is full of gaping flaws, practically its manipulations of the volonte de tous and the volontt g&nerale are clearly insufficient to obviate anarchy. But its mixture of real eloquence and apparent cogency is exactly such as always carries a multitude with it, if only for a time. Moreover, in some minor branches of politics and economics Rousseau was a real reformer. Visionary as his educational schemes (chiefly promulgated in £mUe) are in parts, they are admirable in others, and his protest against mothers refusing to nurse their children hit a blot in French life which is not removed yet, and has always been a source of weakness to the nation. But it is as a literary man pure and simple — that is to say, as an exponent rather than as an originator of ideas — that Rousseau is most noteworthy, and that he has exercised most influence. The first thing noticeable about him is that he defies all customary and mechanical classification. He is not a dramatist — his work as such is insignificant — nor a novelist, for, though his two chief works except the Confessions are called novels, Emile is one only in name, and La Nouwlle Htldise is as a story diffuse, prosy and awkward to a degree. He was without command of poetic form, and he could only be called a philosopher in an age when the term was used with such meaningless laxity as was customary in the i8th century. If he must be classed, he was before all things a describer — a describer of the passions of the human heart and of the beauties of nature. In the first part of his vocation the novelists of his own youth, such as Marivaux, Richardson and Prevost, may be said to have shown him the way, though he improved greatly upon them; in the second he was almost a creator. In combining the two and expressing the effect of nature on the feelings and of the feelings on the aspect of nature he was absolutely without a forerunner or 'a model. And, as literature since his time has been chiefly differentiated from literature before it by the colour and tone resulting from this combination, Rousseau may be said to hold, as an influence, a place almost unrivalled in literary history. The defects of all sentimental writing are noticeable in him, but they are palliated by his wonderful feeling, and by the passionate sincerity even of his insincere passages. Some cavils have been made against his French, but none of much weight or importance. And in such passages as the famous " Voila de la pervenche " of the Confessions, as the description of the isle of St Pierre in the Reveries, as some of the letters in the Nouvelle Heloise and others, he had achieved absolute perfection in doing what he intended to do. The reader, as it has been said, may think he might have done something else with advantage, but he can hardly think that he could have done this thing better. (G. SA.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.— The dates of most of Rousseau's works pub- lished during his lifetime have been given above. The Confessions and Reveries, which, read in private, had given much umbrage to persons concerned, and which the author did not intend to be published until the end of the century, appeared in Geneva in 1782. In the same year and the following appeared a complete edition in forty-seven small volumes. There have been many since, the most important of them being that of Musset-Pathay (Paris, 1823). Some unpublished works, chiefly letters, were added by Bosscha (Paris, 1858) and Streckeisen Moulton (Paris, 1861). See also the latter's Rousseau et ses amis (1865). Works on Rousseau are innumerable. The chief biographies are: in French that of Saint Marc Girardin (1874), in English the Life by Viscount Morley. But the materials for his biography are so controversial and so personal — his own Confessions and the memoirs of associates whose accuracy and honesty are disputed — that the correct historical view can hardly be said yet to be standardized. Mrs Frederika Macdonald, in her Jean Jacques Rousseau (1906), makes out a good case for regarding Mme. d Epinay's Memoirs as coloured, if not actually dictated, by the malevolent attitude of Grimm and Diderot; and her study of the documents undoubtedly qualifies a good many of the assump- tions that have been made on the strength of evidence which is at least tainted by contemporary prejudice, and leaves the way open for an interpretation of the facts which would reconcile Rousseau's character as a writer with his actions as a man. Unfortunately for the consistency of historical writing, the view taken of Rousseau s biography affects those of Grimm, Diderot, Mme. d'Epinay and others, and while Mrs Macdonald's researches have done much to suggest a rehabilitation of Rousseau's veracity they have not definitely been accepted to an extent which would justify the rewriting of these other lives in her sense. See also E. Ritter, Famille et jeunesse de Rousseau (1896); A. Houssaye, Les Charmettes (2nd ed., 1864); J. Grand-Carteret, Rousseau juge par les Franfais d'aujourd'hui (1890); L. Ducros, J. J. Rousseau de Genbie a I'Hermitage, 1712-57 (1908). (H. CH.) ROUSSEAU, P. E. T.— ROUSSEAU DE LA ROTTIERE 779 ROUSSEAU, PIERRE &TIENNE THEODORE (1812-1867), French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitude for painting. Although his father regretted the decision at first, he became reconciled to his son [leaving business, and throughout the artist's career (for he survived his son) was a sympathizer with him in all his conflicts with the Salon authorities. Theodore Rousseau shared the difficulties of the romantic painters of 1830 in securing for their pictures a place in the annual Paris exhibition. The whole influence of the classically trained artists was against them, and not until 1848 was Rousseau adequately presented to the public. He had exhibited one or two unimportant works in the Salon of 1831 and 1834, but in 1836 his great work " La Descente des vaches " was rejected by the vote of the classic painters; and from then until after the revolution of 1848 he was persistently refused. He was not without champions in the press, and under the title of " le grand refuse " he became known through the writings of Thore, the critic who afterwards resided in England and wrote under the name of Burger. During these years of artistic exile Rousseau produced some of his finest pictures: " The Chestnut Avenue," " The Marsh in the Landes " (now in the Louvre), " Hoar-Frost " (now in America) ; and in 1851, after the reorganization of the Salon in 1848, he exhibited his masterpiece, " The Edge of the Forest " (also in the Louvre), a picture similar in treatment to, but slightly varied in subject from, the composition called " A Glade in the Forest of Fontainebleau," in the Wallace collection at Hertford House. Up to this period Rousseau had lived only occasionally at Barbizon, but in 1848 he took up his residence in the forest village, and spent most of his remaining days in the vicinity. He was now at the height of his artistic power, and was able to obtain fair sums for his pictures (but only about one-tenth of their value thirty years after his death), and his circle of admirers increased. He was still ignored by the authorities, for while Diaz was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1851, Rousseau was left undecorated at this time, but was nominated shortly afterwards. At the Exposition Universelle of 1855, where all Rousseau's rejected pictures of the previous twenty years were gathered together, his works were acknow- ledged to form one of the finest of the many splendid groups there exhibited. But during his lifetime Rousseau never really conquered French taste, and after an unsuccessful sale of his works by auction in 1861, he contemplated leaving Paris for Amsterdam or London, or even New York. Misfortune then overtook him : his wife, who had been a source of constant anxiety for years, became almost hopelessly insane; his aged father looked constantly to him for pecuniary assistance; his patrons were few. Moreoever, while he was temporarily absent with his invalid wife, a youth living in his home (a friend of his family) committed suicide in his Barbizon cottage; when he visited the Alps in 1863, making sketches of Mont Blanc, he fell dangerously ill with inflammation of the lungs; and when he returned to Barbizon he suffered from insomnia and became gradually _ weakened. He was elected president of the fine art jury for the 1867 Exposition. His disappoint- ment at being passed over in the distribution of the higher awards told seriously on his health, and in August he was seized with paralysis. He slightly recovered, but was again attacked several times during the autumn. Finally, in November, he began to sink, and he died, in the presence of his lifelong friend, J. F. Millet, on the 22nd of December 1867. Rousseau's other friend and neighbour, Jules Dupr6, himself an eminent landscape painter of Barbizon, relates the difficulty Rousseau experienced in knowing when his picture was finished, and how he, Dupre, would sometimes take away from the studio some canvas on which Rousseau was labouring too long. Millet, the peasant painter, for whom Rousseau had the highest regard, was much with him during the last years of his life, and at his death Millet took charge of the insane wife. Rousseau was a good friend to Diaz, teaching him how to paint trees, for up to a certain point in his career Diaz considered he could only paint figures. Rousseau's pictures are always grave in character, with an air of exquisite melancholy which is powerfully attractive to the lover of landscapes. They are weU finished when they profess to be completed pictures, but Rousseau spent so long a time in working up his subjects that his absolutely completed works are comparatively few. He left many canvases with parts of the picture realized in detail and with the remainder somewhat vague; and also a good number of sketches and water-colour drawings. His pen work in monochrome on paper is rare; it is particularly searching in quality. There are a number of fine pictures by him in the Louvre, and the Wallace collection contains one of his most important Barbizon pictures. There is also an example in the lonides collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum. AUTHORITIES. — Alfred Sensier, Souvenirs sur Th. Rousseau, (Paris, 1872); E. Michel, Les Artistes celebres : Th. Rousseau[ (Paris, 1891); J. W. Mollett, Rousseau and Diaz (London, 1890); D. Croal Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters : Th. Rousseau (London, 1 892); Albert Wolff, La Capitate del' art : Th. Rousseau (Pans, 1886); E. Chesneau, Peintres romantiques : Th. Rousseau (Paris, 1880); P. Burty, Maitres et petit-matlres : Th. Rousseau (Paris, 1877). (D. C. T.) ROUSSEAU DE LA ROTTIERE, JEAN SIMEON (b. 1747), French decorative painter, was the youngest son of Jules Antoine Rousseau, " sculpteur du Roi." The territorial addition to his patronymic has never been explained, but it is known to have been in use when he was little more than a boy. He studied at the Academic Royale, where we find him in September 1768 winning the medal given to the best painter of the quarter. He appears with his brother Jules Hugues to have been em- ployed from an early date by his father for the decorative work executed by the family at Versailles. There has been some controversy among the authorities as to the respective shares of father and son in these works, but many of the attributions are fairly determined by dates, Jules Antoine Rousseau having been at work at Versailles for years before the birth of his famous son. The " Bains du Roi," the " Salon de la Meridi- enne," part of the bedchamber of Madame Adelaide, and the " Garde-robe of Louis XVI." were among the achievements which there can be little doubt were shared in by Rousseau de la Rottiere. His most individual and most famous undertaking was, however, the decoration of the lovely " Boudoir de Madame de Sevilly," now at the Victoria and Albert Museum. This little room, 14 ft. long, 10^ ft. wide and 16 ft. high, was removed from the house in the Rue de Saint Louis, in the Marais. The Seigneur de S6villy, who was hereditary " Tresorier- general de 1'Extraordinaire des guerres " under Louis XVI., married his cousin Anne Marie Louise de Pange, a favourite maid-of-honour of Marie Antoinette, and the story runs that his wife and the queen, desiring to give him a surprise, had the room decorated during his absence from Paris. It was purchased for the museum for 60,000 francs in 1869. The wall paintings of this sumptuous room came from the hand of Rousseau de la Rottiere; the overdoor and part of the ceiling were executed by Lagrenee le jeune; the architect was Ledoux; the grey marble figures of aged men on either side of the fire- place were sculptured by Clodion; the mounts of the chimney- piece are apparently from the chisel of Gouthiere. The date of the room is assigned to 1781-82, and Jean Simeon's authorship of much of its decoration is rendered certain by his own still existing sketch. The decoration is Pompeian in feeling, and in the main its taste is admirable; the execution is of the highest excellence. The tall narrow panels are painted in medallions with amorini; festoons and bouquets of flowers fill every available space; the shutters are painted with doves and shepherdesses. Lagren6e's pictures in the upper lunettes represent the elements; upon the ceiling is Jupiter en- throned within a deep blue border. The perfection of detail, the unity* of the whole composition, the dexterity with which so small a chamber, lofty out of proportion to its length and width, 780 ROUSSILLON— ROUTLEDGE has been picked out with recessed arches, the tenderness of its scheme of colour, combine to produce an exquisite effect. It is a melancholy reflection that M. de Sevilly, whom his wife and Marie Antoinette combined to surprise with this chef- d'oeuvre, was guillotined, and that his wife, whose sitting-room it was, was condemned to die with him and with Madame Elisabeth de France, whom they had befriended, but was saved, against her will, by the princess, who made a false declaration as to her condition. She had two subsequent husbands, and lost them both in little more than two years. She herself lived less than five years after her delivery by the fall of Robespierre. There is no information as to Rousseau's later life. The last known mention of him is in 1792. ROUSSILLON, one of the old provinces of France. It now forms the greater part of the department of Pyrenees Orientales (q.v.). It was bounded S. by the Pyrenees, W. by the county of Foix, N. by Languedoc and E. by the Mediterranean. The province derived its name from a small place near Perpig- nan, the capital, called Ruscino (Rosceliona, Castel Rossello), where the Gallic chieftains met to consider Hannibal's request for a conference. The district formed part of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis from 121 B.C. to A.D. 462, when it was ceded with the rest of Septimania to Theodoric II., king of the Visigoths. His successor, Amalaric, on his defeat by Clovis in 531 retired to Spain, leaving a governor in Septimania. In 719 the Saracens crossed the Pyrenees, and Septimania was held by them until their defeat by Pippin in 756. On the invasion of Spain by Charlemagne in 778 he found the border- lands wasted by the Saracenic wars, and the inhabitants hiding among the mountains. He accordingly made grants of land to Visigothic refugees from Spain, and founded several monas- teries, round which the people gathered for protection. In 792 the Saracens again invaded France, but were repulsed by Louis, king of Aquitaine, whose rule extended over all Catalonia as far as Barcelona. The different portions of his kingdom in time grew into allodial fiefs, and in 893 Suniaire II. became the first hereditary count of Roussillon. But his rule only extended over the eastern part of what became the later province. The western part, or Cerdagne, was ruled in 900 by Miron as first count, and one of his grandsons, Bernard, was the first heredi- tary count of the middle portion, or Besalu. In mi Raymond- Berenger III., count of Barcelona, inherited the fief of Besalu, to which was added in 1117 that of Cerdagne; and in 1172 his grandson, Alfonso II., king of Aragon, united Roussillon to his other states on the death of the last count, Gerard II. The counts of Roussillon, Cerdagne and Besalu were not sufficiently powerful to indulge in any wars of ambition. Their energies had been devoted to furthering the welfare of their people. Under the Aragonese monarchs the progress of the united province still con- tinued, and Collioure, the port of Perpignan, became a centre of Mediterranean trade. But the country was destined to pay the penalty of its position on the frontiers of France and Spain in the long struggle for ascendancy between these two powers. By the treaty of Corbeil (1258) Louis IX. surrendered the sove- reignty of Roussillon and the ancient countship of Barcelona to Aragon, and from that time until the I7th century the province ceased to belong to France. James I. of Aragon had wrested the Balearic Isles from the Moors and left them with Roussillon to his son James (1276), with the title of king of Majorca. The consequent disputes of this monarch with his brother Pedro III. of Aragon were not lost sight of by Philip III. of France in his quarrel with the latter about the crown of the Two Sicilies. Philip espoused James's cause and led his army into Spain, but retreating died at Perpignan in 1285. James then became reconciled to his brother, and in 1311 was suc- ceeded by his son Sancho, who founded the cathedral of Per- pignan shortly before his death in 1324. His successor James II. refused to do homage to Philip VI. of France for the seigniory of Montpellier, and applied to Pedro IV. of Aragon for aid. Pedro not only refused it, but on various pretexts declared war against him, and seized Majorca and Roussillon in 13*44. The province was now again united to Aragon, and enjoyed peace until 1462. In this year the disputes between John II. and his son about the crown of Navarre gave Louis XI. of France an excuse to support John against his subjects, who had risen in revolt. Louis turned traitor, and the province having been pawned to him for 300,0x20 crowns, was occupied by the French troops until 1493, when Charles VIII. restored it to Ferdinand and Isabella. During the war between France and Spain (1496-98) the people suffered equally from the Spanish garrisons and the French invaders. But dislike of the Spaniards was soon effaced in the pride of sharing in the glory of Charles V., and in 1542, when Perpignan was besieged by the dauphin, the Roussillonnais remained true to their allegiance. After- wards the decay of Spain was France's opportunity, and on the revolt of the Catalans against the Castilians in 1641, Louis XIII. espoused the cause of the former, and the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 secured Roussillon to the French crown. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Privileges el litres relatifs aux franchises, in- stitutions et proprietes communales du Roussillon el de la Cerdagne depuis le XI' s^ede jusqu'en 1600 (1878); Auguste Brutails, Elude sur la condition des populations rurales du Roussillon au moyen age (1891). See also the publications of the Societe agricole, scientifique et litteraire des Pyrenees Orientales (1834 fol.). ROUTH, EDWARD JOHN (1831-1007), English mathe- matician, was born at Quebec on the 2oth of January 1831. At the age of eleven he came to England, and after studying under A. de Morgan at University College, London, entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1851. In the mathematical tripos three years later he was senior wrangler, beating J. Clerk Maxwell, who, however, tied with him for the Smith's prize. Elected a fellow of his college, he devoted himself to teaching, and quickly proved himself one of the most successful mathe- matical " coaches " ever known at Cambridge. In thirty years, of some 700 pupils who passed through his hands 500 became wranglers; and for twenty-two successive years, from 1861 to 1882, the senior wrangler was trained by him. He made considerable contributions to scientific literature, and among his publications were: An Analytical View of Newton's Principia, with Lord Brougham (1855); an Essay on the Sta- bility of a given Slate of Motion, which won the Adams' prize in 1877; and treatises on the Dynamics of Rigid Bodies, on Analytical Statics, and on the Dynamics of a Particle. He died at Cambridge on the 7th of June 1907. ROUTH, MARTIN JOSEPH (1755-1854), English classical scholar, was born at South Elmham, Suffolk, on the i8th of September 1755. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, and subsequently elected to a fellowship at Magdalen, of which society he became president hi 1791. He died at Oxford on the 22nd of December 1854, and retained his physical and intellectual powers to the last. He was the author of editions of the Euthydemus and Gorgias of Plato (1784), to which Dindorf declared himself indebted for his first ideas of Greek criticism, and of Bishop Burnet's History of his Own Time (2nd ed., 1833) and History of the Reign of King James the Second (1852). Routh was also an authority on patristic literature, his Re- liquiae Sacrae (2nd ed., 1846-48), a collection of the frag- ments of the Fathers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and Scrip- tor um ecclesiasticorum opuscula praecipua quaedam (2nd ed., 840) being valuable contributions to ecclesiastical knowledge. See Gentleman's Magazine, 1855; J. W. Burgon, Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888). ROUTLEDGE, GEORGE (1812-1888), English publisher, was born at Brampton in Cumberland on the 23rd of September 1812. He gained his earliest experience of business with a bookseller at Carlisle. Proceeding to London in 1833, he started in business for himself as a bookseller in 1836, and as a publisher in 1843, making his first serious success by reprint- ing the Biblical commentaries of an American writer, Albert Barnes. His fame as a publisher, however, rests chiefly upon the enormous number of cheap books which he issued. A series of shilling volumes called the " Railway Library " was an immense success, including as it did Mrs Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, and he also published in popular ROUVIER— ROVIGO 781 form some of the writings of Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, Bulwer Lytton and Benjamin Disraeli. He also brought out a number of shilling books in " Routledge's Uni- versal Library." Routledge died in London on the 1310 of December 1888. After being styled Routledge, Warne & Routledge, his firm changed its name to that of George Rout- ledge & Sons. A branch of the business was established in New York in 1854. ROUVIER, MAURICE (1842- ), French statesman, was born at Aix on the lyth of April 1842, and spent the early years of his manhood in business at Marseilles. He supported Gambetta's candidature there in 1867, and in 1870 he founded an anti-imperial journal, L'£galiti. Becoming secretary general of the prefecture of Bouches-du-Rh6ne in 1870-71, he refused the office of prefect. In July 1871 he was returned to the National Assembly for Marseilles at a by-election, and voted steadily with the Republican party. He became a recognized authority on finance, and repeatedly served on the Budget Commission as reporter or president. At the general elections of 1881 after the fall of the Ferry cabinet he was returned to the chamber on a programme which included the separation of Church and State, a policy of decentraliza- tion, and the imposition of an income-tax. He then joined Gambetta's cabinet as minister of commerce and the colonies, and in the 1883-85 cabinet of Jules Ferry he held the same office. He became premier and minister of finance on the 3ist of May 1887, with the support of the moderate republican groups, the Radicals holding aloof in support of General Boulanger, who began a violent agitation against the govern- ment. Then came the scandal of the decorations in which President Grevy's son-in-law Daniel Wilson figured, and the Rouvier cabinet fell in the attempt to screen the president. Rouvier's opposition in his capacity of president of the Budget Commission was one of the causes of the defeat of the Floquet cabinet in February 1889. In the new Tirard ministry formed to combat the Boulangist agitation he was minister of finance. This portfolio he retained consecutively hi the Freycinet, the Loubet and the Ribot cabinets, 1890-93. His relations with Corn61ius Herz and the baron de Reinach compelled his retire- ment, however, from the Ribot cabinet at the time of the Panama scandals in December 1892. Again, in 1902, he became minister of finance, after nearly ten years in exclusion from office, in the Radical cabinet of M. Combes; and on the fall of the Combes ministry in January 1905 he was invited by the president to form a new ministry. In this cabinet he at first held the ministry of finance. In his initial declaration to the chamber the new premier had declared his intention of continuing the policy of the late cabinet, pledging the new ministry to a policy of conciliation, to the consideration of old age pensions, an income-tax, separation of Church and State. Public attention, however, was chiefly concentrated on foreign policy. During the Combes ministry M. Delcasse had come to a secret understanding with Spain on the Moroccan question, and had established an understanding with England. His policy had aroused German jealousy, which became evident in the asperity with which the question of Morocco was handled in Berlin. At a cabinet meeting on June sth it is said that M. Rouvier reproached the Foreign Minister with imprudence in the matter of Morocco, and after a heated discussion M. Delcasse gave in his resignation. M. Rouvier himself took the portfolio of foreign affairs at this anxious juncture. He, after critical negotiations, secured on July Sth an agreement with Germany accepting the international conference proposed by the sultan of Morocco on the assurance that Germany would recognize the special nature of the interest of France in main- taining order on the frontier of her Algerian empire. Lengthy discussions resulted in a new convention in September, which contained the programme of the proposed conference, and in December M. Rouvier was able to make a statement of the whole proceedings in the chamber, which received the assent of all parties. M. Rouvier's government did not long survive the presidential election of 1906. The disturbances arising in connexion with the Separation Law were skilfully handled by M. Clemenceau to discredit the ministry, which gave place to a cabinet under the direction of M. Sarrien. ROVERETO, the most important industrial town in the southern or Italian-speaking portion of the Austrian province of Tirol, though its population (which in 1900 was 10,180, Italian-speaking and Romanist) is less than that of Trent. It is also the principal town of the administrative district of Rovereto. Built on the left bank of the Adige, in the widest portion of the Val Lagarina (the name given to the Adige valley from Acquaviva, above Rovereto, to the Italian frontier), it is divided into two parts by the Leno torrent. It is on the Brenner railway, by which it is 15 m. S.W. of Trent and 41! m. N. of Verona. Save in the newer quarter of the town, the streets are narrow and crooked, several being named after the most distinguished native of the place, Antonio Rosmini-Serbati (q.v). The finest church is that of Santa Maria del Carmine, the old 14th-century church now serving as a sacristy to that built from 1678 to 1750. The church of San Marco dates from the i sth century. The town is dominated by the castle (now used as barracks), which was reconstructed in 1492 by the Venetians, after it had been burnt in 1487 by the count of Tirol. The staple silk industry (which dates from the i6th century) has declined, the number both of filande (establish- ments wherein the cocoons are unwound) and of filatoje (those wherein the silk is spun) having diminished. In 1132 the emperor Lothair found the passage of the gorge above the site of the town barred by a castle, which he took and gave to one of his Teutonic followers, the ancestor of the Castelbarco family. Towards the middle of the i3th century that family obtained by marriage the lands of the Lizzana family (whose castle rises S. of the town), and in 1300 practically founded the town and surrounded it with walls. In 1416 it was taken by the Venetians, who in 1487 successfully resisted, at Galliano, an attempt to take it made by the count of Tirol and the bishop of Trent. In 1509, at the outset of the war of the League of Cambray, the town gave itself voluntarily to the emperor Maximilian, to whom it was ceded formally by Venice in 1517, and next year incorporated with Tirol. South of Rovereto is the village of Marco, near which are certain natural remains (either those of a landslip that occurred in 883, or of a glacier moraine) believed to have been described by Dante (Inf. xii. 4-9), who is said to have spent part of the year 1304, during his exile from Florence, in the castle of Lizzana, between Marco and Rovereto. (W. A. B. C.) ROVIGNO, a seaport of Austria, in Istria, 75 m. S. of Trieste by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,205, mostly Italian. It is situated on the west coast of Istria, and possesses an interesting cathedral, built on the summit of the promontory Monte di Sant' Eufemia. Its campanile, built after the model of the famous campanile in Venice, is crowned with a bronze statue of St Eufemia, the patron saint of the town, whose remains are preserved in the church. It contains a station of the Berlin Aquarium, with a fine collection of the fauna of the Adriatic Sea. In the neigh- bourhood are vineyards, which produce the best wine in Istria, and olive gardens, while its hazel-nuts are reputed the finest in the world. Rovigno is the principal centre of the Austrian tunny and sardine fishery. The industries, in addition to ship- building and the preservation of fish, include the manufacture of tobacco, cement, macaroni and similar preparations, and flour. There is an active export trade. Its inhabitants are renowned seamen. Rovigno is the ancient Arupenum or Rubinum, and according to tradition it was originally built on an island, Cissa by name, which disappeared during the earth- quakes about 737. Rovigno passed definitively into the hands of the Venetians in 1330, and it remained true to the republic till the treaty of Campo Formio (1797). ROVIGO, a town of Venetia, Italy, capital of the province of Rovigo. It stands on the low ground between the lower Adige and the lower Po, 50 m. by rail S.W. of Venice and 27 m. S.S.W. of Padua, and on the Adigetto Canal, 17 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 6038 (town); 10,735 (commune). It is a station ROVUMA— ROWE on the line between Bologna and Padua, with branches to Legnago and Chioggia. The architecture of the town bears the stamp both of Venetian and of Ferrarese influence. The cathedral church of Santo Stefano (1696) is of less interest than La Madonna del Soccorso, an octagon with a fine campanile, begun in 1594 by Francesco Zamberlano of Bassano, a pupil of Palladio. The town hall contains a library including some rare early editions, belonging to the Accademia de' Concord i, founded in 1580, and a fair picture gallery enriched with the spoils of the monasteries. The Palazzo Roncali is a fine Re- naissance building by Sanmicheli (1555). Two towers of its medieval castle remain. Wool, silk, linen and leather are among the local manufactures. Rovigo (Neo-Latin Rhodigium) appears to be mentioned as Rodigo in 838. It was selected as his residence by the bishop of Adria on the destruction of his city by the Huns. From the nth to the i4th century the Este family was usually in authority; but the Venetians took the place by siege in 1482 and retained possession of it by the peace of 1484, and though the Este more than once recovered it, the Venetians, returning in 1514, retained possession till the French Revolution. In 1806 the city was made a duchy in favour of General Savary. The Austrians in 1815 created it a royal city. (T. As.) ROVUMA, a river in East Africa, forming during the greater part of its course the boundary between German and Portuguese territory. The lower Rovuma is formed by the junction in 11° 25' S., 38° 31' E. of two branches of nearly equal importance, the longer of which, the Lujenda, comes from the south-west, the other, which still bears the name Rovuma, from the west. Its source lies on an undulating plateau, 3000 ft. high, immediately to the east of Lake Nyasa, in 10° 45' S., 35° 40' E., the head-stream flowing first due west before turning south and east. In its eastward course the Rovuma flows near the base of the escarpment of an arid sandstone plateau to the north, from which direction the streams, which have cut themselves deep channels in the plateau edge, have almost all short courses. On the opposite bank the Rovuma receives, besides the Lujenda, the Msinje and Luchulingo, flowing in broad valleys running from south to north. The Lujenda rises in close proximity to Lake Chilwa, in the small Lake Chiuta (1700 ft.), the swamps to the south of this being separated from Chilwa only by a narrow wooded ridge. The stream which issues from Chiuta passes by a swampy valley into the narrow Lake Amaramba, from which the Lujenda finally issues as a stream 80 yds. wide. Lower down it varies greatly in width, containing in many parts long wooded islands which rise above the flood level, and are often inhabited. The river is fordable in many places in the dry season. At its mouth it is about a mile wide. The lower Rovuma, which is often half a mile wide but generally shallow, flows through a swampy valley flanked by plateau escarpments containing several small back- waters of the river. The mouth, which lies hi 10° 28' S., 40° 30' E., is entirely in German territory, the boundary near the coast being formed by the parallel of 10° 40'. The length of the Rovuma is about 500 m. ROW, JOHN (c. 1525-1580), Scottish reformer, was born near Stirling and educated in that town and at St Andrews, where he began to practise as an advocate in the consistorial court. In 1550 he was sent to Rome in the interests of John Hamilton, archbishop of St Andrews, and attracted the notice of the highest authorities, who, when his failing health drove him back to Scotland in 1558, nominated him papal nuncio to inquire into the spread of heresy in that country. That in- quiry ultimately led him to change his faith. Much influenced by Knox's preaching, he joined the reformers and in April 1560 was admitted minister of Kennoway in Fife, and in July of the same year minister of the Old or Middle Church at Perth. He was one of the commission of six who drew up the " Con- fession of Faith " and the " First Book of Discipline," and during the struggle with Queen Mary was often employed on important engagements. He was moderator of the Church Assembly at Edinburgh in July 1567 and at Perth in the follow- ing December, and again in Edinburgh 1576 and Stirling 1578. Meanwhile he helped to compile the " Second Book of Discipline," and became more than ever opposed to the Episcopal system of church government. He was a considerable scholar and is said to have been the first to teach Hebrew hi Scotland. He died at Perth on the i6th of October 1580. His son JOHN Row (1568-1646), minister of Camock, wrote a Historic of the Kirk of Scotland 1558 to 1637, which was con- tinued to 1639 by his son, the third John Row (c. 1 598-6. 1672), rector of the Perth grammar school and then (appointed by Cromwell) principal of King's College, Aberdeen, who, with his father and grandfather was a famour Hebraist, but left the Church of Scotland to become an Independent minister. This Historic was published by the Wodrow Society and by the Maitland Club hi 1842. ROWE, NICHOLAS (1674-1718), English dramatist and mis- cellaneous writer, son of John Rowe (d. 1692), barrister and serjeant-at-law, was baptized at Little Barford in Bedford- shire on the 30th of June 1674. Nicholas Rowe was educated at Westminster School under Dr Busby. He became in 1688 a King's Scholar, and entered the Middle Temple in 1691. On his father's death he became the master of an independent fortune. His first play, The Ambitious Stepmother, the scene of which is laid in Persepolis, was produced in 1700, and was followed in 1702 by Tamerlane. In this play the conqueror represented William III., and Louis XIV. is denounced as Bajazet. It was for many years regularly acted on the anni- versary of William's landing at Torbay. The Fair Penitent (1703), an adaptation of Massinger and Field's Fatal Dowry, was pronounced by Dr Johnson to be one of the most pleasing tragedies in the language. In it occurs the famous character of Lothario, whose name passed into current use as the equiva- lent of a rake. Calista is said to have suggested to Samuel Richardson the character of Clarissa Harlowe, as Lothario suggested Lovelace. In 1704 Rowe tried his hand at comedy, producing The Biter at Lincoln's Inn Fields. The play is said to have amused no one except the author, and Rowe returned to tragedy in Ulysses (1706). The Royal Convert (1707) dealt with the persecutions endured by Aribert, son of Hengist and the Christian maiden Ethelinda. The Tragedy of Jane Shore, which was played at Drury Lane with Mrs Oldfield in the title- r61e in 1714, ran for nineteen nights, and kept the stage longer than any of his other works. The Tragedy of Lady Jane Grey followed in 1715. Rowe's friendship with Pope, who speaks affectionately of his vivacity and gaiety of disposition, led to attacks inspired by the publisher Edmund Curll, the best known of these being The New Rehearsal, or Bays the Younger, containing an Examen of Seven of Rowe's Plays, by Charles Gildon. Rowe acted as under-secretary (1709-11) to the duke of Queensberry when he was principal secretary of state for Scotland. On the accession of George I. he was made a sur- veyor of customs, and hi 1715 he succeeded Nahum Tate as poet laureate. He was also appointed clerk of the council to the prince of Wales, and hi 1718 was nominated by Lord Chancellor Parker as clerk of the presentations hi Chancery. He died on the 6th of December 1718, and was buried hi West- minster Abbey. He was twice married, and his widow re- ceived a pension from George I. hi 1719 hi recognition of her husband's translation of Lucan. This verse translation, or rather paraphrase of the Pharsalia, was called by Samuel Johnson " one of the greatest productions in English poetry," and was widely read, running through eight editions between 1718 and 1807. Rowe was the first modern editor of Shakespeare. It is unfortunate that he based his text (6 vols., 1709) on the corrupt Fourth Folio, a course^ in which he was followed by later editors. We owe to him the preservation of a number of Shakespearian traditions, collected for him at Stratford by Thomas Betterton. These materials he used with considerable judgment hi the memoir prefixed to the Works. Moreover, his practical know- ledge of the stage suggested technical improvements. He divided the play into acts and scenes on a reasonable method, ROWEL— ROWING 783 noted the entrances and exits of the players, and prefixed a list of the dramatis personae to each play. Rowe wrote occa- sional verses addressed to Godolphin and Halifax, adapted some of the odes of Horace to fit contemporary events, and translated the Caracteres of La Bruyere and the Callipaedia of C. Quillet. He also wrote a memoir of Boileau prefixed to a translation of the Lutrin. Rowe's Works were printed in 1727, and in 1736, 1747, 1756, 1766 and 1792 ; his occasional poems are included in Anderson's and other collections of the British poets. ROWEL (from 0. Fr. rouel or rod, dim. of roue, Lat. rota, wheel), the name of the small revolving wheel or disk with radiating points forming the termination of a rider's spur. The earliest rowels probably did not revolve but were fixed. They appear on monuments of the i3th century, as in the great seal of Henry III. of England, but the older " prick " spurs remained the standard form till the I4th century (see SPUR). In veterinary science, the word is used of a small disk of leather or other material used as a seton. ROWING (O. Eng. rowan, to row, cf. Lat. remus, Gr. epti>i6s, oar), the act of driving forward or propelling a boat (?.».) along the surface of the wafer by means of oars. History. — The earliest historical records describe battles and voyages in which the ships were propelled by oars. There must, of course, have been from time to time friendly trials of speed between these ancient craft, such as that described by Virgil in the fifth book of the Aeneid, but there is no record in classical or even in medieval times of rowing having been indulged in solely as a recreation, or as a means of promoting athletic contest. The absence of any element of competition is sufficient to account for the fact that the boats, the oars, and the method of rowing of the i7th century differed but little from those of the earliest times. The history of Great Britain abounds in instances of the use of the oar. The ancient Britons propelled themselves in coracles of wickerwork covered with skins, by means of paddles rather than oars, but the Saxons were expert oarsmen, as also were the Danish and Norwegian invaders. It is recorded by William of Malmesbury that Edgar the Peaceable was rowed in state on the river Dee by eight tributary kings, himself acting as coxswain. During the nth and I2th centuries, when roads were often impassable, considerable use was made of the various rivers of England for the transmission of both passengers and mer- chandise; and, until the introduction of coaches, the nobility and gentry who had mansions and watergates on the banks of the Thames relied almost entirely upon their boats and elaborately fitted barges as a means of conveyance from place to place. This use of boats and barges as a means of conveyance for merchandise and passengers provided a means of livelihood for a class of professional oarsmen known as bargemen or water- men. They were professionals, not in the sense of professional athletes, but because they made their living by rowing and navigating passenger and other craft along and across the Thames. Watermen as a class are mentioned in history as early as the i3th century. The distress occasioned to them by the long frosts is referred to in the chronicles of that period. They are mentioned as having been employed to row the barons and their retinues to Runnymede for the signing of the Magna Carta by King John, and about the same time several of the city companies established barges for the pur- poses of processions and other pageants upon the Thames. It is stated by Fabian that in 1454 " Sir John Norman, then lord mayor of London, built a noble barge at his own expense and was rowed by watermen with silver oars, attended by such of the city companies as possessed barges, in a splendid manner." The lord mayor's procession by water to West- minster was annual until 1856, the state barge of the lord mayor being a magnificent species of shallop rowed by water- men, while those of the city companies were propelled by a double bank of oars in the fore half, the after part consisting of a cabin which somewhat resembled that of a gondola. In 1514 and in 1555 acts of parliament were passed for the regula- tion of watermen and their boats and fares upon the Thames (7 Henry VIII. cap. vii. and 2 and 3 Ph. & Mar. cap. xvi.), and from the terms of these statutes there can be no doubt that there were in the isth century a considerable body of men who lived by the " trade of Rowing " as it is there called. During the i6th and I7th centuries there were no doubt com- petitions from time to time between these watermen, but the first actual mention of boat-racing is the record of the estab- lishment in 1715 of Doggett's Coat and Badge. Mr Thomas Doggett, who may fairly be described as the founder of modern boat-racing, was a celebrated comedian. He established a fund to provide an annual prize of a waterman's coat with a large silver badge on the arm. The race was founded in honour of the house of Hanover and to commemorate the anniversary of " King George I.'s happy accession to the throne of Great Britain." The contest was to take place at the be- ginning of August and on the Thames between six young watermen who were not to have exceeded the time of their apprenticeship by more than twelve months. Although the first race took place in 1715 the names of the winners have only been preserved since 1791. Doggett's Coat and Badge is still an annual event, the conditions as to boats to be used and other details having been slightly modified. It is entirely controlled and managed by the Fishmongers' Company. The first English regatta (Ital. regata) — an entertainment introduced, as the Annual Register records, from Venice — of which we have evidence, took place on the Thames off Rane- lagh Gardens in 1775. Great public interest seems to have been taken in the spectacular aspect of this pageant, the barges of the lord mayor and the city companies being present, but there is no record of the competing wager boats or of the names of the watermen who took part in the races. About the years 1800 to 1810 there are instances of matches between watermen for stakes presented by gentlemen who no doubt made wagers upon the result, and from these pro- fessional wager matches it was but a short step to sporting matches between the gentlemen themselves. When once the " gentleman amateur," as he was called, appeared, his evolu- tion, from the sportsman who occasionally rowed a match against a friend, or against time, for a wager, to the amateur oarsman of the present day, was not slow. The amateur rowing which began about the year 1800 on the Thames at Westminster has flourished as a branch of athletic sport, and has spread to every quarter of the globe. Rowing in the United Kingdom. — The earliest rowing clubs in England were small groups of oarsmen who combined to purchase a six-oared or eight-oared boat for the purpose of racing. The club was called by the same name as the ship it possessed, and at the commencement of the igth century the principal clubs in existence upon the Thames were the " Star," the " Arrow," the " Shark " and the " Siren." The two latter have long since disappeared, but the " Star " and the " Arrow " combined about the year 1818 and founded the Leander Club, an institution which after varying fortunes has for many years been recognized as the premier rowing club of the world. The earliest contemporary record of boat-racing is the Water Ledger of Westminster School, which commences in the year 1813 with a list of the crew of the six-oared boat " Fly." In 1811 Eton had a ten-oared boat and three boats with eight oars, but there is no existing record of a race until 1817. In 1818 Eton challenged Westminster School to row from Westminster to Kew Bridge against the tide; but the race was stopped by the authorities, and it was not until 1829 that the first contest between the two schools took place. Between 1829 and 1847 there were eight matches between Eton and Westminster. The race was revived for a few years in the sixties, and in the year 1868 the state of the lower tideway was such that the West- minster boys moved their boathouse first to Wandsworth and then to Putney. This arrangement was found to be incon- venient, and shortly afterwards Westminster rowing came to an 784. ROWING end. Eton rowing, on the other hand, has continued to prosper, and for many years it has been the greatest " nursery " of first- class oarsmen. Since 1861 the Eton College Boat Club has never failed to enter a crew at Henley Regatta. At Oxford the records of periodical races between college boats begin as early as 1815, and those of Cambridge a few years later. The first contest between eight-oared crews representing the two universities took place at Henley-on- Thames in June 1829. The second contest was not until 1836, and was rowed from Westminster to Putney. In 1837 and 1838 the universities were unable to make a match, and in each of those years a race was rowed between Cambridge and the Leander Club, which had thus early become the premier club of the tideway. It was not always easy in the early days of boat-racing for the university boat clubs to agree as to the conditions and time of the match, but on several] occasions when the universities had been unable to meet on the tide- way they fought their battle whilst competing for the Grand Challenge Cup at Henley Regatta. Since 1856 the Oxford and Cambridge boat race has been an annual event. It is rowed about a week or ten days before Easter from Putney to Mortlake over what is known as the championship course, a distance of 4! m. The race is rowed with the flood-tide, and occu- pies as a rule a time varying between 19 and 22 min. The time occupied by a crew in covering this course depends a great deal more upon the conditions of wind and tide than upon the excellence, or the reverse, of the crew. The crew of each university is selected by a president, usually one of the senior members of the last crew, who is elected at the first meeting in the summer term and holds office for a year. Thus the university race comes at the end of his term of office, and he has every opportunity during the summer and autumn of studying the material which will be at his disposal for the forma- tion of a crew in the ensuing spring. The aquatic arrangements at the two universities are very much alike. The university year begins in October. During the winter term the freshmen are instructed in the elements of rowing, while the senior men are engaged in practising for the University (inter-collegiate) Fours, a race which takes place early in November. During the latter portion of the term the president of the University Boat Club is engaged in selecting and coaching the trial eights, two picked crews comprising the bulk of the material available for the formation of the university crew. The trial eight races are rowed in the beginning of December, that of Cambridge on the Ouse at Ely, and that of Oxford on the Thames at Moulsford, neither the Cam nor the Isis being wide enough for two crews to race abreast. During the whole of the Easter term the university crews are engaged in practice and training for the University Boat Race. The attention of the remainder of the rowing men at the universities is devoted to training for the bumping races known at Oxford and Cambridge respectively as the Torpids and Lent Races. Each college is represented in these races, and no oarsman who has rowed in the first boat of his college during the previous summer is qualified to compete. The boats start at fixed distances apart, and each boat endeavours to bump the boat in front of it, and to avoid being bumped by the boat behind. When a bump is effected, the two boats involved draw to the side, and the next night the successful boat starts in front of its victim. Each spring the boats start in the order in which they finished the previous year. The races last for six nights at Oxford and four at Cambridge. In the summer term the important bumping races between the best crews of each college take place. They are known as " The Eights " at Oxford and " The May Races " at Cambridge. To attain the position of " Head of the River " in these races is the summit of a college boat club's ambition. The great arena of rowing contests is Henley Royal Regatta. It was founded in 1839 at a public meeting held in the town hall at Henley-on-Thames, at which it was decided to raise a subscription and purchase two challenge cups, the Grand Challenge Cup to be rowed for annually in eight-oared boats open to all amateur crews, and the Town Challenge Cup for four-oared crews residing within 5 m. of Henley. The first regatta was held on the I4th of June 1839, and was a most successful affair, the Grand Challenge Cup being won by the Trinity Boat Club, Cambridge. In 1840 another district race was added, and in 1841 the Stewards Challenge Cup for four oars was added to the programme, open to competition upon the same conditions as the Grand Challenge Cup. There have now for many years been eight events at the regatta, four of which are open to all amateurs, viz. the Grand Challenge Cup for eight oars, the Stewards Challenge Cup for fours, the Silver Goblets for pair oars founded in 1845, and the Diamond Sculls for single scullers founded in 1844. The races for which the entry is restricted are the Ladies Challenge Plate for eight oars (founded 1845) and the Visitors Challenge Cup for four oars (founded 1847), which are open to crews from schools and colleges in the United Kingdom; also the Thames Challenge Cup for eight oars (founded 1868) and Wyfold Challenge Cup for four oars (founded 1855). The rule as to entry for the Thames Cup is that no one who has won the Grand Challenge or Stewards Cup may compete, nor may any one enter for this race and for the Grand or Stewards Cups in the same year. The rule for the Wyfold Cup is the same, except that a com- petitor may also enter for the Grand Challenge Cup. The original regatta course was from the upper end of the Temple Island to Henley Bridge, but a change was made in 1886 so as to avoid the corner at the finish. The races now start at the lower end of the island and finish at the upper end of the grounds of Phyllis Court. The course is i m. 550 yds. in length and about no ft. in width. The races are rowed against the stream, and the time usually occupied by the winning crew of the Grand Challenge Cup is within a few seconds of 7 min. In 1843 took place the famous " seven- oar " victory of Oxford. At the eleventh hour one of the Oxford crew was incapacitated by illness. Their opponents, the Cambridge Subscription Rooms Club, refused to allow them to introduce a substitute, and the Oxford men gained undying fame by winning the Grand Challenge Cup with seven oars. Ten years later (1853) there was a magnificent race between Oxford and Cambridge in the Grand Challenge Cup, the former winning by 18 in. only. In 1862 there was a dead heat in the final heat of the Diamond Sculls between Mr E. D. Brick- wood and Mr W. B. Woodgate. In 1878 occurred the memorable contest between Mr T. C. Edwards-Moss and Mr G. W. Lee (U.S.A.) in a heat for the Diamond Sculls which was won on the post by the former. In 1891 the Leander Club, after a dead heat with the Thames R.C., began a series of victories in the Grand Challenge Cup, winning the cup on seven occasions in the next ten years. In 1892 the Diamond Sculls left England for the first time, having been won by Mr J. J. K. Ooms of Holland. In 1895 a crew representing Cornell University, U.S.A., entered for the Grand Challenge Cup and were drawn in their heat against the Leander Club. Owing to a misunder- standing between the starter and the Leander crew," the latter failed to start, and the Cornell crew rowed on to the finish without offering to return to the start, a proceeding which caused no little comment at the time. On the following day they were defeated by Trinity Hall, Cambridge, the ultimate winners. In 1897 the Grand Challenge Cup was won by 2 ft. by New College, Oxford, in the record time of 6 min. 51 sees., after a desperate race with Leander. The feature of the next ten years was the persistency with which colonial and foreign crews endeavoured to carry off the principal prizes of the re- gatta, and the invasion culminated in 1906 by the capture of the Grand Challenge Cup by a crew from the Club Nautique de Gand, Belgium. On this occasion the Leander Club was not represented, but in 1907 the Belgians repeated their victory after defeating a strong Leander crew in one of the heats. In 1903 Mr Herbert Steward, the chairman of the regatta com- mittee, published a detailed record of the regatta from its commencement, which gives a complete history of the meeting and an account of every race. Henley regatta is rowed " in accordance with " the rules of ROWING 785 the Amateur Rowing Association, a body which has control of all other amateur rowing in England. The Henley Stewards and the Amateur Rowing Association (or A.R.A.) are in complete harmony. Their rules are identically the same, but the Stewards being the older body are not subject to the A.R.A. , and in the improbable event of a difference occurring they would be entitled to act independently. The A.R.A. was formed in 1882 for the purpose of drawing up a definition of an " amateur," and for the purpose of having a body who could if necessary select a national representative crew to meet any foreign or colonial invaders. It has long since dropped the latter portion of its original programme, and the A.R.A. as at present constituted is an association to which all the principal amateur boat clubs are affiliated. Its objects are to maintain the standard of amateur oarsmanship and to promote the interests of boat racing. It is governed by a committee which occupies in the British rowing world a position not unlike that of the stewards of the Jockey Club in racing matters. The constitution and objects of the A.R.A. are clearly defined in the rules, and their definition of an amateur is so much stricter than that of some other countries that it is advisable to set it out in extenso. It is as follows: — No person shall be considered an amateur oarsman, sculler or coxswain — (1) Who has ever rowed or steered in any race for a stake, money or entrance fee ; (2) Who has ever knowingly rowed or steered with or against a professional for any prize ; (3) Who has ever taught, pursued or assisted in the practice of athletic exercises of any kind for profit ; (4) Who has ever been employed in or about boats or in manual labour for money or wages; (5) Who is or has been by trade or employment for wages a mechanic, artisan or labourer, or engaged in any menial duty ; (6) Who is disqualified as an amateur in any other branch of sport. The rules of the A.R.A. also comprise the " Laws of Boat Racing," which govern the race from start to finish; and the " Rules for Regattas," which deal with a large number of matters such as the definition of the different classes of oarsmen, seniors, juniors and maidens, the making of entries, the powers of regatta committees, &c. A large number of regattas are held under these rules in all parts of the country during the summer months. There are also several matches and other competitions rowed under special rules, the most important of these being the Wingfield Sculls (founded 1830), or amateur championship of the Thames, rowed in the month of July over the championship course from Putney to Mortlake (45 m.). If the number of entries at Henley Regatta, the extension of the sphere of influence of the A.R.A. and the public interest in the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, may be taken as tests, rowing has more than held its own among the various competing forms of recreation in the world of British amateur athletic sport. Rowing in the United Stales. — The earliest record of a boat race in the United States is that of a contest in light barges in the year 1811 between the " Knicker-bocker " of New York and the " Invincible " of Long Island, in which the former was successful. The evolution from racing in heavy pleasure boats to racing in specially constructed craft proceeded with great rapidity, and by the year 1834 a large number of small clubs in New York had combined, under the title of the Castle Garden Boat Club Association. In 1837 the first regatta took place at Poughkeepsie, the race being between " six-oars " for a prize of $200. In those days there was no real distinction in America between amateur and professional, and in spite of rules and definitions the distinction between one who is qualified as an amateur and one who is not has remained in America much less certain and precise than in the United Kingdom. Yale and Harvard Universities became centres of aquatic energy very early in the history of American rowing. The first racing boat at Yale, a six-oar, was bought in 1844, and in the following spring Harvard purchased an eight, and in 1852 a race was rowed between a Harvard crew and three Yale crews at Lake Winnepesaukee, which resulted in a victory for the former. In 1859 Harvard again defeated Yale in a six-oared race, but on the following day at Worcester City Regatta the same crews entered for a prize and Yale defeated Harvard. In 1864 at a college regatta Yale defeated Harvard, but in 1866 Harvard with a very fine crew showed their superiority over all the other colleges. In 1869 Harvard sent a challenge to Oxford and Cambridge to row a four-oared match on the Thames from Putney to Mortlake. It was accepted by the former and the race was rowed on the 2;th of August. The race aroused great public interest, and the banks of the river were crowded from end to end of the course. The crews were: Oxford, F. Willan (bow), A. C. Yarborough, J. C. Tinne and S. Darbishire (stroke); Harvard, J. S. Fay (bow), E. G. Lyman, W. H. Simmons and A. P. Loring (stroke). Harvard led at first, but Oxford eventu- ally rowed them down and won by three lengths. The trip of the Harvard four to England aroused the rowing enthusiasm of other American universities such as Princeton, Cornell, Columbia and Pennsylvania, and during the next ten years considerable improvement was shown in American rowing. In 1875 no fewer than thirteen university or college crews competed in a race, in which Cornell finished first, Columbia second and Harvard third, the ships used being six-oars without coxswains. In 1876 the eight-oared match over a four-mile course between Harvard and Yale was in- stituted, and in 1878 a four from Columbia University went to Henley and won the Visitors Challenge Cup. In 1879 and 1880 there were a very large number of intercollegiate matches and regattas, in several of which Columbia maintained the reputation which they had gained at Henley. In 1881 a Cornell four started at Henley for the Stewards Cup, but were easily beaten. During the next few years there was consider- able difference of opinion between universities as to the correct style of stroke, and in 1882 a Yale crew, coached by Mr Davis, did some fine performances, rowing a very fast short stroke in a very long boat. They were, however, eventually beaten by Harvard after an exciting race, in which it is only fair to them to record that the erratic steering of their coxswain contributed in no small degree to their defeat. The next year, 1883, Yale tried an even faster and shorter stroke, but were easily beaten by Harvard, who rowed with great length and steadiness. This year saw the end of the very fast short stroke, and although the " strokes " of the various crews since that day have differed in minor degrees, they settled down to a longer steadier method of rowing which is spoken of in England as the " American style." It differs from that adopted by English oarsmen in that there is an absence of swing and body work, and in that the oarsmen appear to rely almost entirely upon their long slides and hard leg work. In the early " nineties " Cornell was almost always successful at home, and in 1895 they entered for the Grand .Challenge Cup at Henley. Owing to a misunderstanding at the start the Leander crew were left at the post in the first heat, but on the next day Cornell suffered defeat at the hands of Trinity Hall. In 1896 Yale entered at Henley under the tuition of Cook, but were somewhat easily beaten by Leander. The result of these two expeditions to Henley was an attempt to introduce the English style of rowing in America. The experi- ment was not altogether successful. Mr R. C. Lehmann, who had met with considerable success in England as a coach both at Oxford and Cambridge, went to Harvard for two seasons. The attempt to instruct the American oarsmen in the English methods of swing and body work, instead of the American stroke, resulted in their falling short of perfection in either style, and they were beaten by Yale upon each occasion. Mr Lehmann's visit, if it failed to give pace to the crews he coached, resulted, however, in improving the whole spirit of American college rowing. Mutual confidence and friendly rivalry took the place of the atmosphere of suspicion and almost of enmity which had at times existed between Harvard and Yale. In 1893 an Inter-collegiate Rowing Association was formed by y86 ROWLAND Cornell, Columbia and Pennsylvania to organise contests at Poughkeepsie open to all colleges. In 1899 and 1900 Pennsyl- vania won, in 1902, 1904 and 1908 Syracuse, and in most other years Cornell. The two annual inter-collegiate regattas are the Harvard- Yale at New London, and that at Poughkeepsie, open to all but not participated in by Harvard and Yale. By way of exception, Harvard rowed at Poughkeepsie in 1896, and in 1897 and 1898 Cornell rowed in two regattas. In 1901 Pennsyl- vania was just beaten by Leander Club in the race for the Grand Challenge Cup at Henley. The history of amateur rowing in the United States, other than that of the colleges and universities, is a narrative of continual struggles on the part of the authorities to distinguish between the amateur and the non-amateur. The National Association of Amateur Oarsmen was established in 1872. Many regattas have been held since that date under their rules, but the standard of amateurism which satisfied the N.A.A.O. has never been strict enough to comply with the requirements of the English A.R.A. or the Henley Stewards. In 1883 a Hillsdale four from U.S.A. tendered an entry at Henley, but it was refused by the Stewards, on the ground that the men were not amateurs according to the English definition. In subsequent years several American scullers entered for the Diamond Sculls, and in 1897 they were won by E. H. Ten-Eyck of Wachusett Boat Club, Worcester, U.S.A. In 1898 Ten-Eyck's entry was refused by the Henley Stewards. No little resentment has been caused in America by the re- luctance of the English authorities to accept American entries, but their justification lies in the essential difference, not only in letter but in spirit, between the laws and customs of the two countries with regard to the amateur status and amateur sport. In 1904 a crew of the Vesper B.C. of Philadelphia were duly vouched by the N.A.A.O. and their entry accepted by the Henley Stewards. They competed and were beaten, and it afterwards became known that not only had several of the men made money out of the trip, but that two or three of the oarsmen were not qualified to row at Henley. It also appeared that certain members of the N.A.A.O. had, to say the least of it, been extremely careless in giving assurances as to the status of the Vesper crew, and all relations between the N.A.A.O. and the Henley Stewards were abruptly terminated, the Stewards determining that they would not accept foreign entries except from a country where there was a governing body which had control of amateur rowing and which had an agreement with the Stewards by which they definitely pledged themselves not to send competitors to Henley unless they came within the English definition. In 1906 Harvard challenged Cambridge. The race, which attracted an immense concourse of spectators, was rowed from Putney to Mortlake in September. Cambridge led from the start and won by three lengths. Rowing in other Countries. — During the latter years of the igth century and during the early years of the present century, rowing increased very greatly in popularity as a branch of athletic sport in every quarter of the globe. It would be impossible here to describe the history or organization of boat clubs and regattas in Australia, in Canada, and in the various countries of Europe. Canadian rowing has always been of a high class. In 1904 L. Scholes, a Canadian sculler, won the Diamond Sculls at Henley, and on several occasions Canadian eights and fours have competed for the Grand Challenge and Stewards Challenge Cups at Henley. In Australia they have a regatta which is called the " Australian Henley," and an inter-university contest for a cup presented by Oxford and Cambridge oarsmen. In Europe international championships have been instituted in the hope of bringing together oarsmen and scullers from all countries. The Belgian oarsmen have by their Henley successes achieved the greatest distinction among continental oarsmen. In Holland the principal rowing clubs have their headquarters at Amsterdam, and several Dutch crews have been seen at Henley. In France there are in- numerable rowing clubs which are now governed by the Federa- tion francaise, a body which has a strict code of rules, but which has not adopted quite so strict an amateur definition as that of the English A.R.A. In Germany, also, rowing is very extensively practised under the auspices of the Deutsche Ruderverband ; the chief contests between English and German crews of recent years were at the Cork Regatta of 1902 when Leander Club defeated the Berlin Club in the eight-oared race, and at the Henley Regatta of 1907, when a four of the Lud- wigshafener Club were defeated in a heat of the Stewards Cup by a Leander crew. Methods and Style. — The English style is the only one in which the oarsman swings his body to the full extent fore and aft, at the same time making use of his sliding seat. Most of the foreign crews who have competed in England have sacrificed a portion of their swing in order to enable them, as they believe, to make better use of their leg work. There can be no doubt that the English style is in a sense more exhausting to the oarsman, that is to say it enables him to bring more muscle into play and to make full use of his weight and strength, but in spite of recent defeats it is still believed by English oarsmen to be the most effective. The crews of 1906 and 1907 which were defeated by the Belgians were the best that England could at the time produce, but they undoubtedly rowed in a style which fell a long way short ot ideal English rowing. The secret of good rowing is the simultaneous application of leg and body work from end to end of the stroke. The instant the blades are covered the whole weight must be lifted from the stretcher and applied to the oar-handle, and must remain so applied until the hands come in to the chest. In order to ensure that the pressure so applied to the blade shall be as long and as -hard as possible, the body must be swung for- ward to its full extent, and during the stroke the shoulders must always be swinging back faster than the seat, while at the same time the legs are driving hard at the stretcher. The slide and swing should be finished simultaneously. There are many subsidiary rules of style as to the movements of the hands and arms, but they are all of secondary importance and are devised so as to enable the average man to execute the working portion of the stroke effectively and often, without undue exertion to himself. The movements of a crew must be as nearly as possible simultaneous in every particular. There have been many instances of crews which although inferior in style and strength to their opponents have been victorious owing to being " better together." See the volumes on Rowing in the Badminton and Isthmian Libraries; W. E. Sherwood, Oxford Rowing; W. B. Woodgate, Oars and Sculls; E. D. Brickwood, Boat Racing; H. T. Steward, Henley Royal Regatta. (C. M. P.) ROWLAND, HENRY AUGUSTUS (1848-1901), American physicist, was born at Honesdale, Pennsylvania, on the 27th of November 1848. From an early age he exhibited marked scientific tastes and spent all his spare time in electrical and chemical experiments. At the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, N.Y. he graduated in 1870, and he then obtained an engage- ment on the Western New York railway. But the work there was not to his liking, and after a short time he gave it up for an instructorship in natural science at the university of Wooster, Ohio, which in turn he resigned in order to return to Troy as assistant professor of physics. Finally, in 1876, he became the first occupant of the chair of physics at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, a position which he retained until his premature death on the i6th of April 1901. Rowland was one of the most brilliant men of science that America has pro- duced, and it is curious that at first his merits were not perceived in his own country, In America he was unable even to secure the publication of certain of his scientific papers; but Clerk Maxwell at once saw their excellence, and had them printed in the Philosophical Magazine. When the managers of the Johns Hopkins University asked advice in Europe as to whom they should make their professor of physics, he was pointed out in all quarters as the best man for the post. In the interval between his election and the assumption of his duties at Baltimore, he studied physics under Helmholtz at ROWLANDS, R.— ROWLANDSON 787 Berlin, and carried out a well-known research on the effect of an electrically charged body in motion, showing it to give rise to a magnetic field. As soon as he was settled at Baltimore, two important pieces of work engaged his attention. One was a redetermination of the ohm. For this he obtained a value which was substantially different from that ascertained by the committee of the British Association appointed for the purpose, but ultimately he had the satisfaction of seeing his own result accepted as the more correct of the two. The other was a new determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat. In this he used Joule's paddle-wheel method, though with many improvements, the whole apparatus being on a larger scale and the experiments being conducted over a wider range of temperature. He obtained a result distinctly higher than Joule's final figure; and in addition he made many valu- able observations on thermometrical questions and on the variation of the specific heat of water, which J. P. Joule had assumed to be the same at all temperatures. In 1882, before the Physical Society of London, he gave a description of the diffraction gratings with which his name is specially associated, and which have been of enormous advantage to astronomical spectroscopy. These gratings consist of pieces of metal or glass ruled by means of a diamond point with a very large number of parallel lines, on the extreme accuracy of which their efficiency depends. For their production, therefore, dividing engines of extraordinary trueness and delicacy must be employed, and in the construction of such machines Row- land's engineering skill brought him conspicuous success. The results of his labours may be found in the elaborate Photo- graphic Map of the Normal Solar Spectrum (1888) and the Table of Solar Wave-Lengths (1898). In the later years of his life he was engaged in developing a system of multiplex telegraphy. ROWLANDS, RICHARD (fl. 1560-1620), Anglo-Dutch antiquary, whose real name was Verstegen, was the son of a cooper whose father, Theodore Roland Verstegen, a Dutch emigrant, came to England about 1500. Under the name of Rowlands, Richard went to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1565, where he studied early English history and the Anglo-Saxon language. Leaving the university without a degree, he pub- lished in 1576 a work of antiquarian research, translated from the German, entitled The Post of the World, describing the great cities of Europe; and soon afterwards he moved to Antwerp, where he resumed the name of Verstegen, and set up in business as a printer and engraver. In 1587 he went to Paris, and in 1595 to Spain, where he studied in the college at Seville, after- wards returning to Antwerp, where he lived so far as is known until his death, the date of which, though certainly later than 1620, is unknown. Rowlands was a zealous Roman Catholic, and in 1587 he published at Antwerp Thealrum Crudelitatum haereticorum, in which he criticized the treatment of the Roman Catholics in England under Elizabeth so freely that when a French translation of the book appeared in the following year he was thrown into prison at the instance of the English am- bassador in Paris. Many of his writings were published in the name of Verstegen. His works included A Dialogue on Dying Well (1603), a translation from the Italian; Restitution of Decayed Intelligence in Antiquities concerning the English Nation, dedicated to James I. (1605); Neder Dvytsche Epigrammen (1617); Sundry Successive Regal Governments in England (1620); Spiegel der Nederlandsche Elenden (1621). The verses on the defeat of the Irish rebels under Tyrone, entitled England's Joy, by R. R. (1601), is doubtfully attri- buted to him. Richard Verstegan, author of Nederlanlische Antiquileylen (Brussels, 1646), is probably another person, possibly Rowlands's son. See Anthony a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, edited by P. Bliss (4 vols., London, 1813-20); J. W. Burgon, Life and Times of Sir T. Gresham (2 vols., London, 1839); W. C. Hazlitt, Collections and Notes (London, 1882 and 1887). ROWLANDS, SAMUEL (c. 1573-1630), English author of pam- phlets in prose and verse, which reflect the follies and humours of the lower middle-class life of his time, seems to have had no contemporary literary reputation; but his work throws consider- able light on the social London of his day. Among his works, which include some poems on sacred subjects, are: The Betraying of Christ (1598); The Letting of Humours Blood in the Head-vaine (epigrams and satires) and A Mery Meetinge, or 'tis Mery when Knaves mete (1600) — the two latter being publicly burnt by order, but republished later under other names — (Humors Ordinarie and The Knave of Clubbes)', Greenes Ghost haunting Conie-Catchers (1602), which he pre- tended to have edited from Greene's papers, but which is largely borrowed from his printed works; Tis Merrie when Gossips meete (1602), a dialogue between a Widow, a Wife, a Maid and a Vintner; Looke to it; for He stabbe ye (1604), in which Death describes the tyrants, careless divines and other evil-doers whom he will destroy; Hells broke loose (1605), an account of John of Leyden, and in the same year a Theatre of Divine Recreation (not extant), poems founded on the Old Testament; A Terrible Ballell betwene . . . Time and Death (1606); Democritus, or Doctor Merry-man his Medicines against Melancholy humors, reprinted, with alterations, as Doctor Merrie-man, and Diogenes Lanthorne (1607), in which " Athens " is London; The Famous History of Guy, Earl of Warwick (1607), a long romance in Rowlands's favourite six-lined stanza, and one of his hastiest, least successful efforts; Humors Looking Glasse (1608); and Martin Mark-all, Beadle of Bride- well (1610), a history of roguery containing much information about notable highwaymen and the completest vocabulary of thieves' slang up to that time. Of his later works may be mentioned Sir Thomas Overbury; or the Poysoned Knights Complaint, and The Melancholie Knight (1615), which suggests a hearing of Beaumont and Fletcher's Knight of the Burning Pestle. The last of his humorous studies, Good Newes and Bad Newes, appeared in 1622, and in 1628 he published a pious volume of prose and verse, entitled Heavens Glory, Seeke it: Earts vanitie, Flye it: Hells Horror, Fere it. After this nothing is known of him. Mr Gosse, in his introduction to Rowlands's complete works, edited (1872-80) for the Hunterian Club in Glasgow by Mr S. J. H. Herrtage, sums him up as a " kind of small non-political Defoe, a pamphleteer in verse whose talents were never put into exercise except when their possessor was pressed for means, and a poet of considerable talent without one spark or glimmer of genius." Mr Gosse's notice is reprinted in his Seventeenth Century Studies (1883). A recently discovered poem by Rowlands, The Bride (1617), was reprinted at Boston, U.S.A., in 1905 by Mr A. C. Potter. ROWLANDSON, THOMAS (1756-1827), English caricaturist, was born in Old Jewry, London, in July 1756, the son of a tradesman or city merchant. On leaving school he became a student in the Royal Academy. At the age of sixteen he resided and studied for a time in Paris, and he afterwards made frequent tours on the Continent, enriching his portfolios with numerous jottings of life and character. In 1775 he exhibited at the Royal Academy a drawing of " Delilah visiting Samson in Prison," and in the following years he was represented by various • portraits and landscapes. Possessed of much facility of erfe- cution and a ready command of the figure, he was spoken of as a promising student ; and had he continued his early applica- tion he would have made his mark as a painter. But by the death of his aunt, a French lady, he fell heir to a sum of £7000, plunged into the dissipations of the town and was known to sit at the gaming-table for thirty-six hours at a stretch. In time poverty overtook him; and the friendship and example of Gillray and Bunbury seem to have suggested caricature as a means of filling an empty purse. His drawing of Vauxhall, shown in the Royal Academy exhibition of 1784, had been engraved by Pollard, and the print was a success. Rowlandson was largely employed by Rudolph Ackermann, the art publisher, who in 1809-11 issued in his Poetical Magazine "The Schoolmaster's Tour" — a series of plates with illustrative verses by Dr William Coombe. They were the most popular of the artist's works. Again engraved by Rowlandson himself in 1812, and issued under the title of the " Tour of Dr Syntax y88 ROWLEY— ROWTON, BARON in Search of the Picturesque," they had attained a fifth edition by 1813, and were followed in 1820 by " Dr Syntax in Search of Consolation," and in 1821 by the " Third Tour of Dr Syntax in Search of a Wife." The same Collaboration of designer, author and publisher appeared in the English " Dance of Death," issued in 1814-16, one of the most admirable of Rowlandson's series, and in the " Dance of Life," 1822. Rowlandson also illus- trated Smollett, Goldsmith and Sterne, and his designs will be found in The Spirit of the Public Journals (1825), The English Spy (1825), and The Humourist (1831). He died in London, after a prolonged illness, on the 22nd of April 1827. Rowlandson's designs were usually executed in outline with the reed-pen, and delicately washed with colour. They were then etched by the artist on the copper, and afterwards aqua-tinted — usually by a professional engraver, the impressions being finally coloured by hand. As a designer he was characterized by the utmost facility and ease of draughtsmanship, and the quality of his art suffered from this haste and over-production. He was a true if not a very refined humorist, dealing less frequently than his fierce contemporary Gillray with politics, but commonly touching, in a rather gentle spirit, the various aspects and incidents of social life. His most artistic work is to be found among the more careful drawings of his earlier period; but even among the exaggerated caricature of his later time we find hints that this master of the humorous might have attained to the beautiful had he so willed. See J. Grego, Rowlandson the Caricaturist, a Selection from his Works, &c. (2 vols., 1880). ROWLEY, WILLIAM (c. 1585-0. 1642), English actor and dramatist, collaborator with several of the dramatists of the Elizabethan period, especially with Thomas Middleton. He is not to be identified with " Master Rowley, once a rare scholar of learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge," whom Francis Meres described in his Palladis Tamia as one of the " best for comedy." The only Rowley at Pembroke Hall at the period was Ralph Rowley, afterwards rector of Chelmsford. William Rowley is described as the chief comedian in the Prince of Wales's company, and it was doubtless during the two years' union (1614-16) of these players with the Lady Elizabeth's com- pany that he was brought into contact with Middleton. Rowley joined the King's Servants in 1623, and retired from the stage about four years later. The fact of his marriage is recorded in 1637, and he is supposed to have died about 1642. Four plays attributed to his sole authorship are extant: A new Wonder, A Woman never Vext (printed, 1632); A Match at Midnight (1633); A Tragedie called Alls Lost by Lust (1633); and a Shoomaker a Gentleman with the Life and Death of the Cripple that stole the Weathercock at Paules (1638). They are distinguished by effectiveness of situation and ingenuity of plot, so that we may conjecture why he was in such request as an associate in play-making, and he had further an experi- mental knowledge of the coarse comedy likely to please the pit. It is recorded by Langbaine that he " was beloved of those great men Shakespeare, Fletcher and Jonson." The plays he wrote with Middleton are dealt with under that heading. With George Wilkins and John Day he wrote The Travailes of the Three English Brothers (1607); with Thomas Heywood he prpduced the romantic comedy of Fortune by Land and Sea (printed, 1655); he was associated with Thomas Dekker and John Ford in The Witch of Edmonton l (printed, 1658) ; A Cure for a Cuckold (printed, 1661) and The Thracian Wonder (printed, 1661) are assigned to the joint authorship of Webster and Rowley; while Shakespeare's name was unjustifiably coupled with his on the title-page of The Birth of Merlin: or, The Childe hath found his Father (1662). Rowley also wrote an elegy on Hugh Attwell, the actor, and a satirical pamphlet describing contemporary London, entitled A Search for Money (1609). The dramatist SAMUEL ROWLEY, described without apparent reason by J. P. Collier as William Rowley's brother, was employed 1 It is usual to minimize Rowley's share in this play. Mr Seccombe (Diet. Nat. Biog., s.v. Rowley) says: " Dekker appears to have had the chief share, but Rowley supplied some acceptable buffoonery." J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps (Diet, of Old English Plays), however, defined it as a tragi-comedy by William Rowley, adding that he had help from the other two. by Henslowe as a reader of plays. He wrote some scriptural plays now lost, with William Borne (or Bird, or Boyle)* and Edward Juby. His only extant pieces are: When you see me, You know me. Or the famous Chronicle Historie of King Henry the eight, with the birth and vertuous life of Edward Prince of Wales (1605), of interest because of its possible connexion with the Shakespearian play of Henry VIII., and The Noble Souldier. Or, A Contract Broken, justly reveng'd (1634), which was entered, however, in the Stationers' Register as the work of Thomas Dekker, to whom the major share is probably assignable. ROWLEY REGIS, an urban district in the Kingswinford par- liamentary division of Staffordshire, England, on the Stourbridge branch of the Great Western railway, 7 m. W. of Birmingham, Pop. (1901) 34,670. It lies in a hilly district rich in coal and iron, while a hard basaltic intrusion known as Rowley rag is largely quarried. The town is a modern growth out of a village surrounding the church of St Giles, which dates from the i3th century, though rebuilt in 1840. Iron manufactures are extensive; there are also brick and tile works and breweries. ROWLOCK (pronounced rullock or rottock), a device on the gunwale of a boat in or on which an oar rests, forming a fulcrum for the oar hi rowing. The word is a corruption due to " row " of the earlier " oar-lock," O.E. arloc, a lock or enclosed place for an oar. The simplest form of rowlock is a notch, square or rounded, on the gunwale, in which the oar rests; other kinds are formed by two pins or pegs, " thole pins " (thole being ultimately the same word as Norw. toll, a young fir-tree), and by a swivel with two horns of metals, pivoted in the gun- wale or on an outrigger (see OAR) . ROWTON, MONTAGUE WILLIAM LOWRY-CORRY, BARON (1838-1903), second son of the Right Hon. Henry Corry by his wife Harriet, daughter of the 6th earl of Shaftesbury, was born in London on the 8th of October 1838, educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1863. His father, a son of the 2nd earl of Belmore, re- presented County Tyrone in parliament continuously for forty- seven years (1826-73), and was a member of Lord Derby's cabinet (1866-68) as vice-president of the council and after- wards as first lord of the Admiralty. Montague Corry was thus brought up in close touch with Conservative party politics; but it is said to have been his winning personality and social accomplishments rather than his political connexions that recommended him to the favourable notice of Disraeli, who in 1866 made Corry his private secretary. From this time till the statesman's death in 1881 Corry maintained his con- nexion with Disraeli, the relations between the two men being more intimate and confidential than usually subsist between a private secretary and his political chief. When Disraeli resigned office in 1868 Corry declined various offers of public employment in order to be free to continue his services, now given gratuitously, to the Conservative leader; and when the latter returned to power in 1874, Corry resumed his position as official private secretary to the prime minister. He accom- panied Disraeli (then earl of Beaconsfield) to the congress of Berlin in 1878, where he acted as one of the secretaries of the special embassy of Great Britain. On the defeat of the Con- servatives in 1880, Corry was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Rowton, of Rowton Castle, Shropshire. He had rendered service of an exceptional order to his chief, and after Beaconsfield 's removal to the House of Lords his private secretary became invaluable in keeping him in touch with the rank and file of his party. Lord Rowton was in Algiers when Beaconsfield was stricken with his last illness in the spring of 1881; but returning post-haste across Europe, he was present at the death-bed of his old chief. Beaconsfield (q.v.) bequeathed to Rowton all his correspondence and other papers. Lord Rowton will long be remembered as the originator of the scheme known as the Rowton Houses. Consulted by Sir ! William Borne or Bird engaged to play with the Admiral's Men for three years from 1597. In 1600 he borrowed 303. from Henslowe to pay for a new play, Jugurth, by W. Boyle (probably another name for himself). He helped S. Rowley in Joshua (1601 ), and in additions (1602) to Marlowe's Dr Faustus. His connexion with the theatre ceased about 1621. ROXANA— ROXBURGHSHIRE 789 Edward Guinness (afterwards Lord Iveagh) with regard to the latter's projected gift of £200,000 for endowment of a trust for the improvement of the dwellings of the working classes, Rowton made himself personally familiar with the conditions of the poorest inhabitants of London; and he determined to establish " a poor man's hotel," which should offer better accommodation than the common lodging-houses, at similar prices. In the face of much discouragement and difficulty, the first Rowton House was opened at Vauxhall in December 1892, the cost (£30,000) being defrayed by Lord Rowton, though he was by no means a man of great wealth. In 1894 a com- pany, Rowton Houses (Limited), was incorporated to extend the scheme, a main characteristic of which was that the houses should not be charitable institutions but should be on a paying commercial basis. The scheme proved a gratifying success, and was imitated not only in many of the chief towns of Great Britain, but also in different countries of Europe and in America (see HOUSING). Lord Rowton also devoted himself to the business of the Guinness Trust, of which he was a trustee, and was interested in many philanthropic schemes. Lord Rowton was unmarried, and the title consequently became extinct at his death, which occurred in London on the 9th of November 1903. ROXANA, or ROXANE, daughter of the Bactrian king Oxyartes, and wife of Alexander the Great. After the latter's death she gave birth at Babylon to a son (Alexander IV.), who was accepted by the generals as joint-king with Arrhidaeus. Having crossed over to Macedonia, and thrown in her lot with Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, she was imprisoned by Cassander in the fortress of Amphipolis and put to death (310 or 309 B.C.). The marriage of Alexander and Roxana was the subject of a famous painting by Action. See Plutarch, Alexander, 47, 77; Arrian, Anab. iv. 18, vii. 27; Died. Sic. xviii. 3, 38, xix. II, 52, 105; Strabo xi. p. 517, xvii. p. 794. ROXBURGHE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. ROBERT KER, ist earl of Roxburghe (c. 1570-1650), was the eldest son of William Ker of Cessford (d. 1606) and the grandson of Sir Walter Ker (d. c. 1584), who fought against Mary queen of Scots both at Carberry Hill and at Langside. He was descended from Sir Andrew Ker of Cessford (d. 1526) who fought at Flodden and was killed near Melrose in January 1526 by the Scotts of Buccleuch. The deed was avenged when the Kers under Sir Walter killed Sir Walter Scott of Buccleuch in Edinburgh in 1552. Robert Ker was also descended, on the maternal side, from Andrew Ker of Ferniehurst (c. 1471-1545), a celebrated border chieftain. Another famous member of the family was Andrew's grandson, Sir Thomas Ker of Ferniehurst (d. 1586), who, Camden says, was " of an immovable fidelity to the queen of Scots and the king her son." He was the father of Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, the favourite of James I. After a turbulent life on the border Robert Ker became a Scottish privy councillor in 1 599 and was made Lord Roxburghe about the same time; he accompanied King James to London in 1603, and was created earl of Roxburghe in 1616. He was lord privy seal for Scotland from 1637 to 1649, and in the Scottish parliament he showed his sympathy with Charles I.; but he took no part in the Civil War, although he signed the " engagement " for the king's release in 1648. He died at Floors, his residence near Kelso, on the i8th of January 1650. His son Harry, Lord Ker, had died in January 1643; conse- quently his titles and estates passed by special arrangement to his grandson, WILLIAM DRUMMOND (d. 1675), the youngest son of his daughter Jean and her husband John Drummond, 2nd earl of Perth. William took the name of Ker, became 2nd earl of Roxburghe, and married his cousin Lord Ker's daughter Jean. The second earl's son was ROBERT, 3rd earl (c. 1658-1682), whose son was JOHN, ist duke of Roxburghe (c. 1680-1741). John became 5th earl on the death of his brother Robert, the 4th earl, in 1696, and is described by George Lockhart of Carn- wath as " perhaps the best accomplished young man of quality in Europe." In 1704 he was made a secretary of state of Scotland, and he helped to bring about the union with England, being created duke of Roxburghe in 1707 for his services in this connexion. This was the last creation in the Scottish peerage. The duke was a representative peer for Scotland in four parlia- ments; George I. made him a privy councillor and keeper of the privy seal of Scotland, and he was loyal to the king during the Jacobite rising in 1715. He was again a secretary of state from 1716 to 1725, but he opposed the malt-tax, and in 1725 Sir Robert Walpole procured his dismissal from office. He died on the 24th of February 1741. His only son, ROBERT (c. 1709-1755), who had been created Earl Ker of Wakefield in 1722, became 2nd duke, and was succeeded by his son JOHN, 3rd duke of Roxburghe (1740-1804), the famous bibliophile. John was betrothed to Christiana, daughter of the duke of Mecklen- burg-Strelitz; but when the princess's sister Charlotte was affianced to George III., reasons of state led to the rupture of the engagement, and he died unmarried on the igth of March 1804. The duke's library, including a unique collection of books from Caxton's press, and three rare volumes of broadside ballads, was sold in 1812, when the Roxburghe Club was founded to com- memorate the sale of Valdarfer's edition of Boccaccio. Rox- burghe's cousin William, 7th Lord Bellenden (c. 1728-1805), who succeeded to the Scottish titles and estates, died childless in October 1805, and for seven years the titles were dormant. Then in 1812 Sir JAMES INNES, bart. (1736-1823), a descendant of the ist earl, established his claim to them, and taking the name of Innes-Ker, became 5th duke of Roxburghe. Among the unsuccessful claimants to the Roxburghe dukedom was John Bellenden Ker (c. 1765-1842), famous as a wit and botanist and the author of Archaeology of Popular Phrases and Nursery Rhymes (1837), whose son was the legal reformer, Charles Henry Bellenden Ker (c. 1785-1871). The sth duke's great-grandson, HENRY JOHN INNES-KER (b. 1876), became Sth duke in 1892. The duke of Roxburghe sits in the House of Lords as Earl Innes, a peerage of the United Kingdom, which was conferred in 1837 upon James Henry, the 6th duke (1816-1879). ROXBURGHSHIRE, a Border county of Scotland, bounded W. by Berwickshire, E. and S.E. by Northumberland, S. by Cumberland, S.W. by Dumfriesshire and N.W. by the shires of Selkirk and Mid Lothian. It has an area of 426,060 acres, or 665-7 sq. m. The only low-lying ground in the shire is found in the N. and in the valleys of the larger rivers, and the whole S. is markedly hilly. Though the Cheviots, forming for a con- siderable distance the natural boundary with England, mostly belong to Northumberland, Catcleuch Shin (1742 ft.) and Peel Fell (1964) are Scottish peaks. The chief heights of the moun- tainous mass constituting the watershed between Teviotdale and Liddesdale are Cauldcleuch Head (1996), Greatmoor (1964), Pennygant (1805), Din Fell (1735), Windburgh (1622) and Arnton Fell (1464). In the W. is Crib Law (1369), and in the N., near Melrose, occur the triple Eildons (highest peak, 1385). The county is abundantly watered. The Tweed flows through the N. of the shire for 26 out of its total run of 97 m., though for about 2 m. (near Abbotsford) it is the boundary stream with Selkirkshire, and for 10 m. lower down with Berwickshire (parishes of Earlston and Merton). On the right its affluents are the Bowden and the Teviot, and on the left the Allan and the Eden. The Teviot is the principal river lying entirely in Roxburghshire. From its source near Causeway Grain Head on the Dumfriesshire border, it follows mainly a N.E. direction for 37 m. to its confluence with the Tweed at Kelso. Its chief tributaries are, on the right, Allan Water, the Slitrig, Dean Burn, the Rule, the Jed, the Oxnam and the Kale, and, on the left, Borthwick Water and the Ale, both rising in Selkirkshire. The Liddel is the leading stream in the S. Rising near Peel Fell in the Cheviots it flows S.W. to the Esk after a course of 27 m., receiving on the right Hermitage Water, on the left Kershope Burn. The Kershope and Liddel, during part of their run, serve as boundaries with Cumberland. Excepting the Liddel, which drains to the Esk, much the greater portion of the surface is drained, by the Tweed, to the North Sea. The lakes are few 790 ROXBURGHSHIRE and small, the largest being Yetholm or Primside Loch and Horselaw, both in the parish of Linton among outlying hills of the Cheviots. Teviotdale, Liddesdale, Tweedside and Jedvale are the principal valleys. Geology.— This county contains a considerable range of. sedi- mentary rocks from the Ordovician to the Carboniferous systems, and with these are associated .large tracts of volcanic rocks. The Ordovician and Silurian ro'cks occupy the N.W. and W. part of the county; they have been thrown into numerous sharp folds. It is on the crests of the anticlines that the strata of the former system appear flanked on either side by those of the latter. The oldest rocks are the mudstones and radiolarian cherts with contemporaneous and intrusive igneous rocks of Arenig age; these are followed by shales and greywackes of Llandeilo age and similar rocks of Caradoc age. Then comes the Silurian with the Birkhill shales and massive grits and greywackes of the Gala or Queensberry group with the Hawick rocks; these are all of Llan- dovery age and they occupy the greater part of the Silurian area. Wenlock and Ludlow rocks are found S. of Hawick rocks from Wisp Hill N.E. by Stobs Castle; other inlying masses occur in the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous areas, the largest of these being that which appears in a belt some 14 m. in length from near Riccarton in the direction of Hobkirk. Two divisions of the Old Red Sandstone occur; the lower, which consists of subordinate sandstones and conglomerates in sheets of contemporaneous lavas with some tuffs, is confined to the Cheviots; the strata are uncon- formable upon the upturned Silurian beds. The upper division, which in its turn is unconformable upon the lower, occupies about one-third of the county. It consists of coarse conglomerates at the base followed by sandstones and marls. It is well developed in the N., where volcanic rocks come in; the Trow Crags of Makerstown which cross the Tweed are due to these lavas. It extends from Newtown and Kelso to Kirkton with extensions in the valleys S.W. Carboniferous rocks are represented by the Calciferous sandstone series; in the S.W. in Liddesdale and on the uplands of Carter Fell, Larriston Fell, &c., they are sandstones with shales, some calcareous beds and coal and volcanic beds. In the N.E. corner of the county the outer part of the Berwickshire Carboniferous basin just comes within the boundary. An inter- esting series of volcanic " necks " belonging to this period is ex- emplified in Dunain Law, Black Law, Maiden Paps, Ruberslaw and other hills. Glacial deposits are represented by boulder clay and beds and ridges of sand and gravel. Climate and Industries. — The average annual rainfall is about 37 in., higher in the hilly regions and somewhat lower towards the N. and E. The mean temperature for the year is 48°F., for January 38° F. and for July 60° F. The soil is chiefly loam in the level tracts along the banks of the larger streams, where it is also very fertile. In other districts a mixture of clay and gravel is mostly found, but there is besides a considerable extent of mossy land. Of the area under grain about two-thirds are occupied by oats, the remainder being principally devoted to barley. Among green crops turnips and swedes are most generally cultivated, potatoes covering a comparatively small acreage. In different parts of Tweedside and Jedvale several kinds of fruit are successfully grown. Both in the pastoral and arable localities agriculture is in an advanced condition. The hill country is everywhere covered with a thick green pasturage admirably suited for sheep, which occupy the walks in increasingly large quantities. The herds of cattle are also heavy, horses are kept mostly for farming operations, and pigs are raised in moderate numbers. Fairly large holdings predominate, farms of between loo and 300 acres being general, and only in Berwick- shire is the proportion of farms of more than 1000 acres exceeded. Many districts on the Tweed and Teviot are beautifully wooded, but having regard to the great area once occupied by forest, the acreage under wood is now relatively small. The county is the principal seat of the tweed and hosiery manu- factures in Scotland. Engineering, ironfounding, dyeing and tanning are also carried on at Hawick and Jedburgh, and agricultural implements and machinery, chemical manures and especially fishing tackle are made at Kelso. The salmon fisheries on the Tweed are of considerable value. The Waverley route of the North British railway runs through the county from near Melrose in the N. to Kershopefoot in the S. At St Boswells branches are sent off to Duns and Reston, and to Jedburgh and Kelso via Roxburgh. The North-Eastern railway, an English company, has a line from Berwick to Kelso, via Coldstream and Carham. Population and Administration. — The population in 1901 was 48,804, or 73 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 there were 132 persons who spoke Gaelic and English, but none Gaelic only. The principal towns are Hawick (pop. 17,303), Kelso (4008), Jedburgh (3136), Melrose (2195). The county returns a member to parliament, and Hawick1 belongs to the Border group of parliamentary burghs. Jedburgh, the county town, is a royal burgh, and Hawick, Kelso and Melrose are police burghs. The shires of Roxburgh, Berwick and Selkirk form a sheriffdom, and a resident sheriff-substitute sits at Jedburgh and Hawick. The county is under school-board jurisdiction, and there are secondary schools at Hawick and Kelso, while the board schools at Jedburgh and Melrose have secondary depart- ments. Most of the " residue " grant is expended in assisting teachers to attend science and art classes at Edinburgh Uni- versity and Hawick, and in subsidizing science and art and technical classes at Hawick, Kelso and elsewhere. History and Antiquities. — Among the more important re- mains of the original inhabitants are the so-called " Druidical " stones and circles at Plenderleath between the Kale and Oxnam; on Hownam Steeple, a few miles to the N.W. (where they are locally known as the Shearers and the Bandster); and at Midshiels on the Teviot. The stones on Ninestane Rig, near Hermitage Castle, and on Whisgill are supposed to com- memorate the Britons of Strathclyde who, under Aidan, were defeated with great slaughter by Ethelfrith, king of Bernicia, at the battle of Degsanstane or Dawstane in 603. There are hill forts in Liddesdale on the Allan, in the parish of Oxnam, and on the most easterly of the three Eildons. This last is said to be the largest example of its kind in Scotland. The fortress was defended by palisades around the three circular terraces which form the hill-top. Within the enclosure there was a town of huts, judging from certain marks that indicate the site of such dwellings, and the relics of early British pottery that have been found, while the fact that springs exist renders the theory of a settlement all the more probable. One of the most important and most mysterious of British remains is the Catrail, or Picts' Work Dyke. In its original condition it is supposed to have consisted of a line of double mounds or ramparts, averaging about 30 ft. in width, with an inter- vening ditch 6 ft. broad, the slope from the centre of the mound to the middle of the bottom of the trench being 10 ft. Owing to weather and other causes, however, it is now far from per- fect and in places has disappeared for miles. Beginning at Torwoodlee, N.W. of Galashiels, it ran S.W. to Yarrow church, whence it turned first S. and then S.E., following a meandering course to Peel Fell in the Cheviots, a distance of 48 miles. Though it must have been difficult to defend so long a line, the bulk of opinion is in favour of its being a defence work. Roman remains are also of exceptional interest. Watling Street crossed the Border N. of Brownhart taw (1664 ft.) in the Cheviots, then took a mainly N.W. direction' across the Kale, Oxnam, Jed and Teviot to Newstead, near Melrose, where it is conjectured to have crossed the Tweed and run up Lauderdale into Haddingtonshire. The chief stations were Ad Fines on the Cheviot's, Gadanica (Bonjedward) near Jedfoot and Eildon Hill (? Trimontium). Another so-called Roman road is the Wheel Causeway or Causey, a supposed con- tinuation of the Maiden Way which ran from Overburgh in Lancashire to Bewcastle in Cumberland, and so to the Border. It entered Roxburghshire N. of Deadwater and went (roughly) N. as far as Wolflee, whence its direction becomes a matter of surmise. Of Roman camps the principal appear to have been situated at Cappuck, to the S.E. of Jedburgh, and near New- stead, at the base of the Eildons, the alleged site of Trimontium. After the retreat of the Romans the country was occupied by the Britons of Strathclyde in the W. and the Bernicians in the E. It was then annexed to Northumbria for over four centuries until it was ceded, along with Lothian, to Scotland in 1018. David I. constituted it a shire, its ancient county town of Roxburgh (see KELSO) forming one of the Court of Four Burghs. The castle of Roxburgh, after changing hands more than once, was captured from the English in 1460 and dismantled. Other towns were repeatedly burned down, and the abbeys of Dryburgh, Jedburgh, Kelso and Melrose ulti- mately ruined in the expedition of the earl of Hertford (the Protector Somerset) in 1544-45. The Border freebooters — of whom the Armstrongs and Elliots were the chief — conducted many a bloody fray on their own account. On the union of the crowns the county gradually settled into what was ROXBURY— ROYAL SOCIETY 791 comparatively a state of repose, disturbed to some extent during the Covenanting troubles and, to a much slighter degree, by the Jacobite rebellions. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sir George Douglas, Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles (Edinburgh, 1899); W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country (Edinburgh, -1902); Alexander Jeffrey, The History and Antiquities of Roxburghshire (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1857-64). ROXBURY, formerly a city of Norfolk county, Massachu- setts, U.S.A., situated between Boston and Dorchester, but since 1868 a part of Boston. It is primarily a residential district. Among its institutions are the Roxbury Latin School, established in 1645,' the Fellowes Athenaeum (a part of the Roxbury branch of the Boston Public Library), with about 26,000 volumes in 1909, and the New England Hospital for Women and Children (1863), the New England Baptist Hospital (1893), the Woman's Charity Club Hospital (1890), the Roxbury Homoeopathic Dispensary (1886), the Roxbury Home for Children and Aged Women (1856), a Home for Aged Couples (1884) and the Massachusetts Home, for Intemperate Women (1879). On Mount Bellevue, in West Roxbury (set apart from Roxbury in 1851 and annexed to Boston in 1873), there is an observatory (erected in 1869 by the city of Boston as a stand- pipe for the high service water supply). Among the manu- factures of the district are cotton and woollen goods, cordage, carpets, shoes and foundry products. The town of Roxbury (at first usually spelled Rocksbury) was founded in 1630 by some of the Puritan immigrants who came with Governor John Winthrop; the settlers were led by William Pynchon, who in 1636 led a party from here and founded Springfield, Mass. At the home of Rev Thomas Welde (d. 1662), the first minister, Anne Hutchinson (q.v.) was held in custody during the winter of 1637-38. Associated as teacher with Welde and his suc- cessors, Samuel Danforth and Nehemiah Walter, was John Eliot, the apostle to the Indians, who removed to Roxbury in 1632 and died here in 1690. Roxbury was the home also of Thomas Dudley, of his son Joseph and of his grandson Paul; of Robert Calef (d. 1719), the leader of the opposition to the witchcraft craze; of General Joseph Warren, and of William Eustis (1753-1825), who was U.S. secretary of war (1800- 12), minister to the Netherlands (1814-18), and governor of Massachusetts (1823-25); and from 1837 to 1845 Theodore Parker was the pastor of the Unitarian Church of West Roxbury. Of special interest in the old Roxbury burial-ground is the " Ministers' Tomb," containing the remains of John Eliot, and the tomb of the Dudleys. West Roxbury was the scene of the Brook Farm experiment (see BROOK FARM). Roxbury was chartered as a city in 1846. See F. S. Drake, The Town of Roxbury, its Memorable Persons and Places (Boston, 1878 and 1905). ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790), a famous British surveyor, military draughtsman, antiquary, &c. In 1746, when an assistant in the office of Colonel Watson, deputy quartermaster- general in North Britain, he began the survey of the mainland of Scotland, the results of which were embodied in what is known as the "duke of Cumberland's map." In 1755 he obtained his commission in the 4th King's Own Foot, and in 1759 gained his lieutenancy and went to serve in Germany in the Seven Years' War. In 1765 he appears as deputy quarter- master-general to the forces, surveyor-general of coasts and engineer-director of military surveys in Great Britain; in 1767 he became F.R.S., in 1781 major-general, in 1783 director of Royal Engineers. Besides his campaigns and observations in Germany, his visits to Ireland (1766) and to Gibraltar (1768) were important. In 1783-84 he conducted observations for determining the relative positions of the French and English royal observatories. His measurement of a base-line for that purpose on Hounslow Heath in 1784, the germ of all subse- quent surveys of the United Kingdom, gained him in 1785 the 1 This school was founded, primarily through the influence of the Rev. John Eliot, by inhabitants of Roxbury. In 1672 Thomas Bell, one of the original founders, bequeathed to the school all his Roxbury lands. In 1789 the school was incorporated. Copley medal of the Royal Society. Roy's measurements (not fully utilized till 1787, when the Paris and Greenwich observatories were properly connected) form the basis of the topographical survey of Middlesex, Surrey, Kent and Sussex. He was finishing an account of this work for the Phil. Trans. when he died on the ist of July 1790. Roy's principal book-publication is the Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain (1793). See also notices of him and contributions from him in the records of the War Office and the Royal Engineers, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vols. Ixvii., Ixxv., Ixxvii., Ixxx., Ixxxv., and in the Gentleman's Magazine, vols. lv., Ix. He is whimsically denounced by Jonathan Oldbuck of Monkbarns in Scott's Antiquary. ROYAL FERN, in botany, the common name for the fern Osmunda regalis, a native of Britain, where it grows in bogs, marshy woods, &c. It is a handsome plant with bi-pinnate fronds 2 to 6 ft. long and i ft. or more broad; the tops of the fronds are fertile, the fertile pinnae being cylindrical and densely covered with the spore-cases, giving the appearance of a dense panicle of flowers, whence the plant is known as the flowering fern. There are various cultivated forms — cristata has the ends of the fronds and the pinnae finely crested, and corymbifera has curiously forked and crested fronds. Several other species, such as O. cinnamomea, O. Claytoniana, are known as handsome greenhouse ferns (see also FERNS). ROYAL SOCIETY, THE, the oldest scientific society in Great Britain, and one of the oldest in Europe. The Royal Society (more fully, The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge) is usually considered to have been founded in the year 1660, but a nucleus had in fact been in existence for some years before that date. As early as the year 1645 weekly meetings were held in London of " divers worthy persons, inquisitive into natural philosophy and other parts of human learning, and particularly of what hath been called the New Philosophy or Experimental Philosophy," and there can be little doubt that this gathering of philosophers is identical with the " Invisible College " of which Boyle speaks in sundry letters written in 1646 and 1647. These weekly meetings, according to Wallis, were first suggested by Theodore Haak, " a German of the Palatinate then resident in London," and they were held sometimes in Dr Goddard's lodgings in Wood Street, sometimes at the Bull-Head Tavern in Cheapside. Some of these " Philosophers," resident in Oxford about 1648, formed an association there under the title of the Philosophical Society of Oxford, and used to meet, most usually in the rooms of Dr Wilkins, warden of Wadham College. A close inter- communication was maintained between the Oxford and London Philosophers; but ultimately the activity of the society was concentrated in the London meetings, which were held principally at Gresham College. On November 28, 1660, the first journal book of the society was opened with a " memorandum," from which the following is an extract: " Memorandum that Novemb. 28. 1660, These per- sons following, according to the usuall custom of most of them, mett together at Gresham Colledge to h'eare Mr Wren's lecture, viz. The Lord Brouncker, Mr Boyle, Mr Bruce, Sir Robert Moray, Sir Paul Neile, Dr Wilkins, Dr Goddard, Dr Petty, Mr Ball, Mr Rooke, Mr Wren, Mr Hill. And after the lecture was ended, they did, according to the usuall manner, withdrawe for mutuall converse. Where amongst other matters that were discoursed of, something was offered about a designe of founding a Colledge for the promoting of Physico-Mathematicall Experi- mentall Learning." It was agreed at this meeting that the company should continue to assemble on Wednesdays at three o'clock; an admission fee of ten shillings with a subscription of one shilling a week was instituted; Dr Wilkins was appointed chairman; and a list of forty-one persons judged likely and fit to join the design was drawn up. On the following Wednesday Sir Robert Moray brought word that the king (Charles II.) approved the design of the meetings; a form of obligation was framed, and was signed by all the persons enumerated in the memorandum of the 28th of November and by seventy-three others. On the 1 2th of December another meeting was held at 792 ROYAL SOCIETY, THE which fifty-five was fixed as the number of the society, — per- sons of the degree of baron, Fellows of the College of Physicians, and public professors of mathematics, physics and natural philosophy of both universities being supernumeraries. Gresham College was now appointed to be the regular meeting-place of the society. Sir Robert Moray (or Murray) was chosen president (March 6, 1661), and continued from time to time to occupy the chair until the incorporation of the society, when Lord Brouncker was appointed the first president under the charter. In October 1661 the king offered to be entered one of the society, and next year the society was in- corporated under its present title. The name " Royal Society " appears to have been first applied to the Philosophers by John Evelyn, in the dedication of his translation of a book by Gabriel Naud6, published in 1661. Evelyn received in that year the thanks of the " philosophic assembly " for the honourable mention he had made of them by the name of " The Royal Society." The charter of incorporation passed the Great Seal on the 15th of July 1662, to be modified, however, by a second charter in the following year, repeating the incorporating clauses of the first charter, but conferring further privileges on the society. The second charter passed the Great Seal on the 22nd of April 1663, and was followed in 1669 by a third, confirming the powers granted by the second charter, with some modifications of detail, and granting certain lands in Chelsea to the society. The council of the Royal Society met for the first time on the I3th of May 1663, when resolutions were passed that debate con- cerning those to be admitted should be secret, and that Fellows should pay is. a week to defray expenses. At this early stage of its history the " correspondence " which was actively maintained with' continental philosophers formed an important part of the society's labours, and selec- tions from this correspondence furnished the beginnings of the Philosophical Transactions (a publication now of world-wide celebrity). At first the publication of the Transactions was entirely " the act of the respective secretaries." The first number, consisting of 16 quarto pages, appeared on Monday, March 6, 1664-65, under the title of Philosophical Trans- actions: giving some Accompt of the present undertakings, studies and labours of the Ingenious in many considerable parts of the world, with a dedication to the Royal Society signed by Henry Oldenburg, the first secretary of the society. It was ordered (ist of March 1664-65) " that the tract be licensed by the Council of the Society, being first reviewed by some of the members of the same." In 1750, 496 numbers, or 46 volumes, had been published. After this date the work was issued under the superintendence of a committee, and the division into numbers disappeared. The society also from its earliest years published, or directed the publication of, separate treatises and books on matters of philosophy; most notable among these being the Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica Autore Is. Newton. Imprimatur: S. Pepys, Reg. Soc. Praeses. Julii -5, 1686, 4(0 Londini 1687. In 1887 the Philosophical Transactions was divided into two series, labelled A and B respectively, the former containing papers of a mathematical or physical character, and the latter papers of a biological character. More than 225 quarto volumes have been published. In 1832 appeared the first volume of Abstracts of papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions from the year 1800. This publication developed in the course of a few years into the Proceedings of the Royal Society, which has been continued up to the present time. It is published now in two series, corresponding to the two series of the Philo- sophical Transactions, and is issued in 8vo form at the rate of about three volumes a year. It is, however, certain that one of the most important functions of the society from the beginning was the performance of ex- periments before the members. In the royal warrant of 1663 ordering the mace which the king presented to the society, it is described as " The Royal Society for the improving of Natural Knowledge by experiments "; and during its earlier years the time of the meetings was principally occupied by the perform- ance and discussion of experiments. The society early exercised the power granted by charter to appoint two " curators of experiments^' the first holder of that office being Robert Hooke, who was afterwards elected a secretary of the society. Another matter to which the society gave attention was the formation of a museum, the nucleus being " the collection of rarities formerly belonging to Mr Hubbard," which, by a resolution of council passed on the 2ist of February 1666, was purchased for the sum of £100. This museum, at one time the most famous in London, was presented to the trustees of the British Museum in 1781, upon the removal of the society to Somerset House. A certain number, however, of instruments and models of historical interest have remained in the possession of the society, and some qf them, more peculiarly associated with its earlier years, are still preserved at Burlington House. The remainder have been deposited in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. After the Great Fire of London in September 1666 the apartments of the Royal Society in Gresham College were required for the use of the city authorities, and the society were therefore invited by Henry Howard of Norfolk to meet in Arundel House. At the same time he presented them with the library purchased by his 'grandfather, Thomas earl of Arundel, and thus the foundation was laid of the important collection of scientific works, now exceeding 60,000 volumes, which the society possesses. Of the Arundel MSS. the bulk was sold to the trustees of the British Museum in 1830 for the sum of £3559, the proceeds being devoted to the purchase of scientific books. These MSS. are still kept in the British Museum as a separate collection. The society, however, still possesses a valuable collection of scientific correspondence, official records, and other manuscripts, including the original manuscript, with Newton's autograph corrections, from which the first edition of the Principia was printed, and many other original documents of great interest. Under date December 21, 1671, the journal-book records that " the lord bishop of Sarum proposed for candidate Mr Isaac Newton, professor of the mathematicks at Cambridge." Newton was elected a Fellow January n, 1671-72, and in 1703 he was appointed president, a post which he held till his death in 1727. During his presidency the society moved to Crane Court, their first meeting in the new quarters being held November 8, 1710. In the same year they were appointed visitors and directors of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, a function which they continued to perform until the acces- sion of William IV., when by the new warrant then issued the president and six of the Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society were added to the list of visitors. In 1780, under the presidency of Sir Joseph Banks, the Royal Society removed from Crane Court to the apartments assigned to them by the government in the new Somerset House, where they remained until they removed to Burlington House in 1857. The policy of Sir Joseph Banks was to render the Fellow- ship more difficult of attainment than it had been; and the measures which he took for this purpose, combined with other circumstances, led to the rise of a faction headed by Dr Horsley. Throughout the years 1783 and 1784 feeling ran exceedingly high, but in the end the president was supported by the majority of the society. An account of the controversy will be found in a tract entitled An Authentic Narrative of the Dissensions and Debates in the Royal Society. An important step in pursuance of the same policy was taken in the year 1847, when the number of candidates recommended for election by the council was limited to fifteen, and the election was made annual. This limitation has remained in force up to the present time. Concurrent wifli the gradual restriction of the Fellowship was the successive establishment of other scientific bodies. The founding of the Linnean Society in 1788 under the auspices of several Fellows of the Royal Society was the first instance of the establishment of a distinct scientific association under royal charter; and this has been followed by the formation of the ROYAL SOCIETY, THE 793 large number oi societies now active in the promotion of special branches of science. From the time of its royal founder onwards the Royal Society has constantly been appealed to by the government for advice in con- nexion with scientific undertakings of national importance. The following are some of the principal matters of this character upon which the society has been consulted by, or which it has successfully urged upon the attention of, the government : the improvement and equipment of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in 1710, when it was placed in the sole charge of the society; the change of the calendar in 1752; ventilation of prisons; protection of buildings and ships from lightning; measurement oi a degree of latitude; determination of the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds; comparison of the British and French standards of length; the Geodetic Survey in 1784, and the General Trigonometrical Survey begun in 1791 ; expeditions to observe the transits of Venus in 1761, 1769 (commanded by Captain Cook), 1877 and 1882; the Antarctic expeditions of 1772 (under Captain Cook, whose voyage extended to the circumnavigation of the globe), of 1839 (under Ross), and 1900; observations for determining the density of the earth; Arctic expeditions of 1817 (in search of the North-West Passage), of 1819 (under Parry), of 1827 (Parry and Ross), of 1845 (Franklin), of 1874 (under Nares) ; numerous expeditions for observing eclipses of the sun; 1822, use of coal-tar in vessels of war; best manner of measuring tonnage of ships; 1823, corrosion of copper sheathing by sea-water; Babbage's calculating machine; lightning-conductors for vessels of war; 1825, supervision of gas-works; 1832, tidal observations; 1835, instruments and tables for testing the strength of spirits; magnetic observatories in the colonies; 1862, the great Melbourne telegraph; 1865, pendulum observations in India; 1866, reorganization of the meteorological department; 1868, deep- sea research; 1872, "Challenger" expedition; 1879, prevention of accidents in mines; 1881, pendulum observations; cruise of the " Triton " in Faroe Channel ; 1883, borings in delta of Nile; 1884, Bureau des Poids et Mesures; international conference on a prime meridian; 1888, inquiry into lighthouse illuminants; 1890, the investigation of colour-blindness; 1895, examination of the structure of a coral reef by boring; 1896, inquiry into cylinders for compressed gases; the establishment of an International Geodetic Bureau; 1897, determination of the relations between the metric and imperial units of weights and measures; and, more recently, an inquiry into the volcanic eruptions in the West Indies; international seis- mological investigation; international exploration of the upper atmosphere; measurement of an arc of the meridian across Africa. In recent years also the society, acting at the request of the govern- ment, has taken the leading part in investigations, in the course of which important discoveries have been made, in relation to various tropical diseases, beginning with the tsetse-fly disease of cattle in Africa, followed by investigations into malaria, Mediterranean fever and sleeping sickness. The society has standing committees which advise the Indian government on matters connected with scientific inquiry in India and on the observatories of India. The society has taken a leading part in the promotion of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature from 1900, and of the International Association of Academies, which is composed of all the principal scientific academies of the world, meeting regularly to promote international action in questions of scientific interest. In addition to the occasional services enumerated above, the Royal Society has exercised, and still exercises, a variety of important public functions of a more permanent nature. It still provides seven of the board of visitors of the Royal Observatory at Green- wich. From 1877 until the reconstitution of the Meteorological Office in 1906 the society nominated the meteorological council, which had the control of that office. The society has the custody of standard copies of the imperial standard yard and pound. The president and council have the control of the National Physical Laboratory, an institution established in 1899 in pursuance of the recommendations of a treasury committee appointed by H.M. government in response to representations from the Royal Society. The society had previously for many years had control of the Kew Observatory, now incorporated with the National Physical Laboratory, and still remains trustee of the Gassiot Fund, a fund established for the maintenance of the observatory. The society elects four of the nine members of the managing committee of the Lawes Agricultural Trust, and is officially represented on the governing bodies of a number of important scientific and educational institutions and of the principal public schools. One of the most important duties which the Royal Society performs on behalf of the government is the administration of the annual grant of £4000 for the promotion of scientific research. This grant originated in a proposal by Lord John Russell in 1849 that at the close of the year the president and council should point out to the first lord of the treasury a limited number of persons to whom the grant of a reward or of a sum to defray the cost of experi- ments might be of essential service. This grant of £1000 afterwards became annual, and was continued until -1876. In that year an additional sum of £4000 for similar purposes was granted, and the two funds of £1000 and £4000 were administered concurrently until 1 88 1, in which year the two were combined in a single annual grant of £4000 under new regulations. Since 1896 parliament has also voted annually a grant of £1000 to be administered by the Royal Society in aid of scientific publications, not only those issued by itself, but also scientific matter published through other channels. One of the most useful of the society's publications is the great catalogue of scientific papers — an index now in twelve quarto volumes, under authors' names, of all the memoirs of importance in the chief English and foreign scientific serials from the year 1800 to the year 1883. The work was prepared under the direction of the Royal Society. A continuation carrying the catalogue up to the end of the igth century, and a subject index to the whole catalogue, have also been compiled. A statement of the trust funds administered by the Royal Society will be found in the Year Book published annually, and the origin and history of these funds will be found in the Record of the Royal Society (2nd ed. 1901). The income of the society is derived from the annual contributions and composition fees of the Fellows, from rents and from interest on various investments. The balance- sheet and an account of the estates and property are published in the Year Book. Five medals (the Copley, two Royal, the Davy and the Hughes) are awarded by the society every year; the Rumford and the Darwin medals biennially, the Sylvester triennially and the Buchanan quinquennially. The first of these originated in a bequest by Sir Godfrey Copley (1709), and is awarded " to the living author of such philosophical research, either published or communicated to the society, as may appear to the council to be deserving of that honour "; the author may be an Englishman or a foreigner. The Rumford medal originated in a gift from Count Rumford in 1796 of £1000 3% consols, for the most important discoveries in heat or light made during the preceding two years. The Royal medals were instituted by George IV., and are awarded annually for the two most important contributions to science published in the British dominions not more than ten years nor less than one year from the date of the award. The Davy medal was founded by the will of Mr John Davy, F.R.S., the brother of Sir Humphry Davy, and is given annually for the most important discovery in chemistry made in Europe or Anglo-America. An enumeration of the awards of each of the medals and the conditions of the awards are published in the Year Book. The society also has the award of three research studentships, one founded in 1890 in memory of J. P. Joule, and the others created out of a bequest to the society by Sir William Mackinnon in 1897. Under the existing statutes of the Royal Society every candidate for election into the society must be recommended by a certificate in writing signed by six or more Fellows, of whom three at least must sign from personal knowledge. From the candidates so re- commended the council annually select fifteen by ballot, and the names so selected are submitted to the society for election by ballot. Princes of the blood, however, and not more than two persons selected by the council on special grounds once in two years, may be elected by a more summary procedure. Foreign members, not exceeding fifty, may be selected by the council from among men of the greatest scientific eminence abroad, and proposed to the society for election. Every Fellow of the society is liable to an admission fee of £10 and an annual payment of £4; but, by aid of a fund established in 1878 for the purpose, the admission fees and £l of the annual contribution of all the Fellows elected since that date have been remitted. The composition for annual payments is £60. The anniversary meeting for the election of the council and officers is held on St Andrew's Day. The council for the ensuing year, out of which are chosen the president, treasurer, principal secretaries, and foreign secretary, must consist of eleven members of the existing council and ten Fellows who are not members of the existing council. These are nominated by the president and council previously to the anniversary meeting. The session of the society is from November to June; the ordinary meetings are held on Thursdays during the session, at 4.30 p.m. The selection for publication from the papers read before the society is made by the " Committee of Papers," which consists of the members of the council for the time being aided by committees appointed for the purpose. The papers so selected are published either in the Philo- sophical Transactions (410) or the Proceedings of the Royal Society (8vo), and one copy of each of these publications is presented gratis to every Fellow of the society and to the chief scientific societies throughout the world. The making and repealing of laws is vested in the council, and in every case the question must be put to the vote on two several days of their meeting. The text of the charters of the Royal Society is given in the Record, and in the same work will be found lists of the presidents, treasurers, secretaries and assistant-secretaries from the foundation to the year 1900. The same work gives a chronological list_of all the Fellows, with dates of election, and an alphabetical index. Other histories are Thomson's History of the Royal Society (1812); Weld's History of the Royal Society; Bishop Sprat's (1667), which consists largely of a defence of the society against the attacks of a priori philosophers; and Dr Birch's (1756), which treats mainly of the society's scientific work. (R. W. F H.) 794 ROYALTY— ROYLE ROYALTY (O. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalltas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex), kingly state or personality, hence a royal person, or number of persons of royal birth collectively, a member of a royal family. More particularly " royalty " is used of the rights and attributes of a sovereign, and especially of dues paid to the crown, which belong to the sovereign jure coronae, such as dues from gold and silver mines, waifs, estrays, &c. The term is usually applied to the payment made by a publisher to an author on every copy of his book sold; to the payment made to a patentee on each article manufactured under his patent by a licensee (see PATENTS), and to the payment made to the owner of minerals for the right of working, paid on the ton or other weight raised. ROY AN, a town of W. France, in the department of Charente Inferieure, on the right bank of the Gironde, at its mouth 63 m. below and N.N.W. of Bordeaux. Pop. (1906) 7142. Royan is one of the most frequented bathing resorts on the Atlantic seaboard. The coast is divided into a number of small bays or " conches," forming so many distinct beaches: to the E. of the town is the " Grande Conche" with the municipal casino; to the S. the " Conche de Foncillon," separated from the first-named by a quay which forms a fine terraced esplanade ; beyond the fort of Royan follow in succession the conches " du Chay " and " de Robinson," and the most fashionable of all, that of Pontaillac. The port carries on sardine-fishing and an active coasting trade, but the harbour at high tide is accessible only to vessels drawing from 8 to 10 ft., and at low water is dry. Eugene Pelletan, the author, has a statue in the town, of which he was a benefactor. The lighthouse of Cordouan, 200 ft. in height, rebuilt on the site of an older tower by the architect Louis de Foix in 1584-1610 and added to about the end of the i8th century, stands on a rock 7^ m. W.S.W. of Royan. Royan after passing through many hands came to the family of la Tremoille, in whose favour it was made first a marquisate and then a duchy. During the first half of the isth century it was held by the English. During the wars of religion it was a centre of Calvinism and had to sustain in 1622 an eight days' siege by the troops of Louis XIII. As late as the end of the i8th century it was but a " bourg " of about one thousand inhabitants, noticeable only for its priory, where Brantdme wrote a portion of his Chronicles. The prosperity of the place dates from the Restoration, when steamboat com- munication was established with Bordeaux. ROYAT, a watering-place of central France, in the department of Puy-de-D6me, situated at a height of 1475 ft. on the Tire- tame, i| m. S.W. of Clermont-Ferrand. Pop. (1906) 1451. The thermal springs, situated in the part of Royat known as St Mart, are strongly impregnated with carbonic acid and chloride of sodium and are used in cases of rheumatism, gout, bronchitis, asthma, anaemia, &c. They were known in Roman times, and rums of ancient baths are still to be seen. The village of Royat proper, a little higher up the valley, has a church of the nth and I2th centuries fortified with battle- ments. ROYER-COLLARD, PIERRE PAUL (1763-1845), French statesman and philosopher, was born on the 2ist of June 1763 at Sompuis, near Vitry le Francais (Marne), the son of Antoine Royer, a small proprietor. His mother, Angelique Perpetue Collard, was a woman of unusual strength of character and of austere piety. Pierre Paul Royer was sent at twelve to the college of Chaumont of which his uncle, Father Paul Collard, was director. He subsequently followed his uncle to Saint- Omer, where he studied mathematics. At the outbreak of the Revolution, which moved him to passionate sympathy, he was practising at the Parisian bar. He was returned by his section, the Island of Saint Louis, to the Commune, of which he was secretary from 1790 to 1792. After the revolution of the loth of August in that year he was replaced by J. L. Tallien. His sympathies were now with the Gironde, and after the insurrection of the i2th Prairial (3131 of May 1793) he was in danger of his life. He returned to Sompuis, and was saved from arrest possibly by the protection of Danton and in some degree by the impression made by his mother's courageous piety on the local commissary of the Convention. In 1797 he was returned by his department (Marne) to the Council of the Five Hundred, where he allied himself especially with Camille Jordan. He made one great speech in the council in defence of the principles of religious liberty, but the coup d'ttat of Fructidor (4th of September 1797) drove him again into private life. It was at this period that he developed his legitimist opinions and entered into communication with the' comte de Provence (Louis XVIII.). He was the ruling spirit in the small committee formed in Paris to help forward a Restoration independent of the comte d'Artois and his party; but with the establishment of the Consulate he saw the prospects of the monarchy were temporarily hopeless, and the members of the committee resigned. From that time until the Restora- tion Royer-Collard devoted himself exclusively to the study of philosophy. He derived his opposition to the philosophy of Condillac chiefly from the study of Descartes and his followers, and from his early veneration for the fathers of Port-Royal. He was occupied with the erection of a system which should provide a moral and political education consonant with his view of the needs of France. From 1811 to 1814 he lectured at the Sorbonne. From this time dates his long association with Guizot. Royer-Collard himself was supervisor of the press under the first restoration. From 1815 onwards he sat as deputy for Marne in the chamber. As president of the commission of public instruction from 1815 to 1820 he checked the pretensions of the clerical party, the immediate cause of his retirement being an attempt to infringe the rights of the university of Paris by giving university diplomas, independent of university examinations, to the teaching fraternity of the Christian Brothers. Royer-Collard's acceptance of the Legiti- mist principle did not prevent a faithful adhesion to the social revolution effected in 1789, and he protested in 1815, in 1820, and again under the monarchy of July against laws of exception. He was the moving spirit of the " Doctrinaires," as they were called, who met at the house of the comte de Ste Aulaire and in the salon of Madame de Stae'Ps daughter, the duchesse de Broglie. The leaders of the party, beside Royer-Collard, were Guizot, P. F. H. de Serre, Camille Jordan and Charles de Remusat. In 1820 he was excluded from the council of state by a decree signed by his former ally Serre. In 1827 he was elected for seven constituencies, but remained faithful to his native department. Next year he became president of the chamber, and fought against the reactionary policy which precipitated the Revolution of July. It was Royer-Collard who in March 1830 presented the address of the 221. From that time he took no active part in politics, although he retained his seat in the chamber until 1839. He died at his estate of Chateauvieux, near Vitry, on the 2nd of September 1845. He had been a member of the Academy since 1827. Royer-Collard married in 1799 Mile, de Forges de Chateauvieux. The two daughters who survived to womanhood received an education of the utmost austerity. Royer-Collard left no considerable writings, but fragments of his philosophical work are included in Jouffroy's translation of the works of Thomas Reid. The standard life of Royer-Collard is by his friend Prosper de Barante, Vie politique de M. Royer Collard, ses discours et ses ecrits (2 vols., 1861). There are also biographies by M. A. Philippe (1857), by L. Vingtain (1858), by E. Spuller (1895), in Grands ecrivains franfais. Cf. E. Faguet, Politique et morale du xix" sitcle (1891); H. Taine, Les Philosophes franc,ais du xixf siede (1857); L. Seche, Les Derniers Jansenistes (1891); and Lady Blennerhasset, " The Doctrinaires " in the Cambridge Modern History (vol. x. chap, ii., 1907). For further references see H. P. Thieme, Guide bibliographique (Paris, 1907). ROYLE, JOHN FORBES (1799-1858), British botanist and teacher of materia medica, was born in Cawnpore in 1799. Entering the service of the East India Company as assistant surgeon, he devoted himself to studying botany and geology, and made large collections among the Himalaya Mountains. He also investigated the medical properties of the plants of ROYSTON— RUBBER 795 Hindustan and the history of their uses among the native races. The results of these investigations appeared in an essay On the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine (1837). For nearly ten years he held the post of superintendent of the East India Company's botanic garden in the Himalayas at Saharanpur. In 1837 he was appointed to the professorship of materia medica in King's College, London, which he held till 1856. From 1838 onward* he conducted a special department of correspondence, relating to vegetable products, at the East India House, and at the time of his death he had just completed there an extensive and valuable museum of technical products from the East Indies. In 1851 he superintended the Indian department of the Great Exhibition. He died at Acton near London on the 2nd of January 1858. The work on which his reputation chiefly rests is the Illustrations of the Botany and other branches of Natural History of the Himalaya Mountains, and of the Flora of Cashmere, in 2 vols. 410, begun in 1839. In addition he wrote An Essay on the Productive Resources of India (1840), On the Culture and Commerce of Cotton in India and Elsewhere (1851) and The Fibrous Plants of India fitted for Cordage 0855), together with papers in scientific journals. ROYSTON, a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, close to the border of Cambridgeshire, 48 m. N. of London by the Cambridge branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3517. The church of St John the Baptist is mainly Early English. There are a market house, and institute with library and museum. Beneath a street in the town is a curious example of a hermit's cave, excavated in the chalk, and containing rude carvings of the crucifixion and other sacred subjects. It was discovered in 1742. The town lies on the Roman Ermine Street, at the point where it strikes from the hills across the plain, and its straight course is deflected slightly W. Roman relics have been found, and several barrows and earth-mounds occur on the neighbouring hills. A monastery of Augustinian canons was founded here towards the close of the I2th century, but there are no remains. ROYTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England, within the parliamentary borough of Oldham, 2 m. N. of Oldham on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Though of early origin, it is, as a town, of wholly modern growth. The cotton manufacture is its chief industry. Pop. (1901) 14,881. ROZAS, JUAN MARTINEZ DE (1759-1813), the earliest leader in the Chilean struggle for independence, was born at Mendoza in 1759. In early life he was a professor of law, and of theology and philosophy at Santiago. He held the post of acting governor of Concepcion at one time, and was also colonel in a militia regiment. In 1808 he became secretary to the last Spanish governor, Francisco Antonio Carrasco, and used his position to prepare the nationalist movement that began in 1809. After resigning his position as secretary, Rozas was mainly responsible for the resignation of the Spanish governor, and the formation of a national Junta on the i8th of September 1810, of which he was the real leader. Under his influence many reforms were initiated, freedom of trade was established, an army was organized and a national congress was called together in July 1811. But at the end of that year divisions began to arise between Rozas' followers from Concepcion and the men of Santiago; and a feud broke out between Rozas and Jose Miguel Carrera (q.v.) who had secured control of Santiago. In 1812 Carrera succeeded in securing the banish- ment of his rival, who retired to Mendoza, where he died on the 3rd of March 1813. See P. B. Figueroa, Diccionario biogrdfico de Chile, 1550-1887 (Santiago, 1888}, and J. B. Suarez, Rasgos bioydficos de hombres notables de Chile (Valparaiso, 1886); both giving biographical sketches of prominent characters in Chilean history. RUABON (Rhiwabon), a town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, in the E. parliamentary division, near the Shropshire border, 5 m. S.W. of Wrexham, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3248. It is situated on a small tributary of the Dee. The old Gothic church is thought by some to have been founded by Mabon, a brother of Llewelyn (i3th c.), and has monuments to the Wynn family, by Nollekens and Rhysbrac, and to Dr D. Powel (d. 1598), translator into English of Caradoc's (of Llancarfan) History of Wales. In the neighbourhood are collieries, engineering works, an iron foundry and chemical works, besides an extensive industry in glazed and other bricks. Near Ruabon is Caerdden (Caerddin), an ancient camp (village) surrounded by circular intrenchments, and Wynnstay, with an avenue of fine trees. Anciently the residence of Madoc ab Gruffyd Maelor (founder of Valle Crucis Abbey), it was called Wattstay, from Watt's Dyke, an old rampart on the estate. It was named Wynnstay on its coming into possession of the Wynns (i7th c.). Offa's Dyke, near here, is 10 ft. high, and broad enough for two carriages abreast. Not far is Chirk Castle (supposed to have been built in 1013), besieged by Crom- well's artillery : near it, in the Ceiriog valley, the defeat of Henry II. by Owen Gwynedd took place in 1165. RUBBER, INDIARUBBER or CAOUTCHOUC (a word prob- ably derived from Cahucha or Caucho the names in Ecuador and Peru respectively for rubber or the tree producing it), the chief constituent of the coagulated milky juice or latex furnished by a number of different trees, shrubs and vines. The latex of the best rubber plants furnishes from 20 to 50% of rubber. The latex is not to be confused with the sap of trees, on the circulation of which their nutrition depends. Though frequently occurring, it is not a universal feature of plant life, and does not appear to be necessary or even directly con- nected with the nutritive system of plants. Its exact function is not fully understood. Latex, though chiefly secreted in vessels or small sacs which reside in the cortical tissue between the outer bark and the wood is also found in the leaves and sometimes in the roots or bulbs. The trees and plants whose latices furnish caoutchouc in considerable quantity chiefly belong to the natural orders Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae. The latex is usually obtained from the bark or stem by making an incision reaching almost to the wood when the milky fluid flows more or less readily from the laticiferous vessels. It is, like milk, an emulsion, and when examined with the microscope is seen to consist of numer- ous globules suspended in a watery fluid. On standing, some latices separate, more or less readily, into an upper layer resembling cream and consisting of the globules, and a lower watery layer. This separation can be rapidly effected with some latices by the use of a centrifugal machine, but this method has not yet been applied to any extent commercially. The globules which furnish the cream gradually pass on standing into solid caoutchouc, a process which is facilitated by rapid stirring, or by the addition of an acid or other chemical agent. If the latex is warmed or an acid, an alkali or astringent plant juice is added to it, " coagulation " usually takes place more or less readily, the caoutchouc separating in solid flakes or curds. The efficacy of heat or of an acid, an alkali or other agent in promoting coagulation depends on the character of the latex, and varies with that obtained from different plants. The watery fluid in which the globules are suspended holds certain proteids, carbohydrates and a small proportion of salts in solu- tion. The latex exhibits a neutral, acid or alkaline reaction depending upon the plant from which it has been obtained. When exposed to air the latex gradually undergoes putre- factive changes accompanied by coagulation of the caout- chouc. The addition of a small quantity of ammonia or of formalin to some latices usually has the effect of preserving them for a considerable time. The nature of the coagulation is not yet completely understood. It has been compared with that of milk and of blood, which depend essentially on the coagula- tion or separation in curds of a proteid or albuminous substance, such as takes place when white of egg is warmed. There is, however, reason to believe that the coagulation of latex into rubber is not mainly of this character. The globules in the latex are liquid, and the phenomenon of coagulation would seem to consist in the passage of this liquid into solid caoutchouc through the kind of change known as polymerization or con- densation, in which a liquid passes into solid without alteration 796 RUBBER of composition or by condensation with the elimination of the elements of water. The effect of chemical agents in producing coagulation are in consonance with what is known of other instances of polymeric or condensation changes, whilst the fact that the collection of globules separated by creaming after thorough washing, and therefore removal of all proteid, is susceptible of solidification into caoutchouc by a merely mechanical act such as churning, strongly supports the view that the character of the change is distinct from that of any alteration which may occur in the proteid constituents of the latex. The existence of caoutchouc or rubber was first observed soon after the discovery of America. It was noticed that certain Indian tribes of South America played with a ball composed of a resilient and elastic substance, which afterwards was found to possess the power of removing lead pencil marks from paper and came into commerce as " Indian Rubber." It was not until the middle of the i8th century that the trees which yielded caoutchouc were identified, chiefly by French observers. La Condamine ascertained the nature of the tree, now known as Hevea brasiliensis, from which the Para rubber of S. America was obtained, whilst a little later Fresnau and Aublet described the Euphorbiaceous trees which furnished the rubber of Guiana. The methods adopted by the natives in S. America and in Mexico for incising -the trees and obtaining the rubber are exceedingly primitive, but survive with little modification at the present day. Statistics of Rubber Production. — Until recently rubber was obtained almost exclusively from the tropical forests of S. and Central America, E. and W. Africa and Asia, being the produce of naturally occurring trees and vines. The increase in the demand, for which the employment of rubber tires is largely responsible, has given an increased stimulus to the production of " wild " rubber, with the result that trees and vines have been recklessly cut and destroyed, and in some instances vast regions, as in the S. Sudan, have been nearly entirely denuded of rubber vines. This has led to restrictive measures, the vines being tapped under definite regulations as to the manner and time of tapping, and also to requirements as to replanting vines to take the place of those which have been injured or destroyed, certain areas being periodically closed. Such measures, which are now in operation in the French Sudan, the Congo and in German W. and E. Africa, can, however, only be enforced by special administrative machinery and at considerable expense, and this legislative action can only be regarded as temporary and preliminary to the establishment of plantations of rubber trees, which are not only easier to control, but the trees are less liable to injury from careless tapping. In Africa it seems probable that the production of rubber from vines is likely to be entirely super- seded in process of time, and replaced by the plantations of trees which are already being established in those districts in which careful experiment has determined the kind of rubber tree best adapted to the locality. The forests of tropical America have suffered similarly, trees having been injured or destroyed and in some cases cut down in order to secure the immediate increase of supply which was called for by a con- siderable rise in value. The result has been that in the forests of Brazil and Mexico the conservation of rubber trees has received greater attention, whilst new and extensive areas are planted in S. and Central America. The wild rubber of S. and Central America is still the principal source of the rubber supply of the world, and is likely to continue to be so for many years to come. Although the cost of transport from the remote forest regions of some districts is a serious consideration, this is not likely to be operative in reducing production until there has been a considerable and permanent fall in price, by which time new areas in those countries in which planting is now taking place will probably have come into bearing. The enormous increase in the commercial demand for rubber and the probability of the continuance of this increase in view of the great variety of purposes to which the material can be applied, has led to great activity in rubber planting in other parts of the world, especially in Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, where the Para rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) has been successfully introduced, and numerous plantations, many of which have not been in existence for more than ten or fifteen years, are now contributing to the world's supply. This rubber is known as " Plantation " rubber in contradistinction to the " wild " rubber. " Plantation " Para rubber from Ceylon and the Malay States has brought prices equal to and often exceeding those of fine Para rubber from Brazil. This is largely due to the improved methods of preparing the rubber practised by the planters of Ceylon and Malaya, which lead to the exclusion of the impurities usually found in " wild " rubber. Para rubber from Brazil generally contains about 15% of water, whilst " plantation " Para is usually nearly dry and contains i % of water or less. It would appear, however, that the finest " wild " Para rubber as a rule possesses greater tensile strength than the " plantation " rubber. This has been ascribed by some to the presence in " wild " rubber of certain impurities derived either from the latex or introduced during the prepara- tion of the rubber which are thought to enhance the physical properties of the caoutchouc. It is more probable, however, that the superiority of the " wild " Para is principally due to the greater age of the forest trees from which the rubber is obtained, many of which are from thirty to fifty years old. It is well known that the Hevea tree usually furnishes very inferior rubber if tapped before it is six or seven years old, and there is evidence to show that the quality of the rubber improves with the age of the tree. The oldest of the plantation trees of Ceylon and Malaya are not much more than twelve years old, whilst it is to be feared that immature trees are often tapped and their latex mixed with that of older trees before coagulation, thus forming inferior rubber. It is therefore to be expected that as time goes on the quality of " plantation " rubber will improve, and there would seem to be no reason why it should not eventually be fully equal to that of the " wild " rubber. In 1909 the total production of rubber is stated to have been about 70,000 tons, of which more than one-half came from tropical America, about one-third from Africa, whilst the remainder was chiefly of Asiatic origin, including " planta- tion " rubber from Ceylon and Malaya, which amounted to about 3000 tons. Chiefly owing to the supplies of " wild " rubber which are still available, comparatively little has been done until recently in establishing plantations either in Africa or in tropical America, but in Asia, including Ceylon, India and Malaya, in which there are relatively few important naturally-occurring rubber plants, there has been for some years great activity in forming plantations of rubber trees introduced mainly from tropical America, and there are now many millions sterling of British capital invested in companies established to form rubber plantations chiefly in Ceylon and Malaya. Each year should therefore show an increase in the production of plantation rubber. No trustworthy estimate of the rate of the increase of production can, however, be formed, as several uncertain economic factors have to be taken into account. Among these are the precise extent of demand, the limit of the inevit- able fall in price with largely increased production, the cost of labour as increasing amounts are required, and the effect of changed conditions on the output of " wild " rubber and the competition of the new plantations which are being established in tropical America. There can be little doubt that with a fall in price further uses for rubber would arise, leading to an increased demand, and among them may be mentioned its utilization as a road material. Difficulties in the supply of labour in the East may hinder the further development of the rubber-planting industry, especially at a period when a reduction in the cost of production may be the chief problem. In 1909 the average cost of producing " plantation " rubber in Ceylon and Malaya RUBBER PLATE I. FIG. ii.— PARA RUBBER PLANTATION, CEYLON. FIG. 12.— PARA RUBBER TREES, TAP (Spiral and V Systems.) xxm. 796. From Pkototrapks in the Collections of the Imptrial Institute. PLATE II. RUBBER FIG. 13.— CEARA RUBBER TREE. FIG. 14.— CASTILLOA RUBBER TREES. FIG. is.—FICUS ELASTICA. FIG. 16.—FUNTUMIA ELASTICA. From Photographs in the Collections of the Imperial Institute, RUBBER 797 may be stated approximately to have been from lod. to is. per lb. The cost of collecting " wild " rubber is less easy to state with any approach to accuracy, since the cost varies in different districts of S. and Central America, but the average cost is stated not to be less than is. per lb. In Africa the cost of collection is much less, but the rubber is generally of inferior quality. The market price of commercial rubber is determined by the current price of " fine Para " from S. America. This is subject to considerable fluctuation, 'and varied in 1900 to 1908 from 2s. lod. to 53. gd. a lb. As much as 6s. 9d. per lb was given for specially prepared " plantation Para." Towards the latter part of 1904 the price of fine Para reached a high level and then considerably declined, reaching in 1907-8 a lower figure than had been recorded since 1900. At the beginning of 1908 the price gradually rose again to the neighbourhood of 45. a lb. During 1909, without any serious decline in production, the price rapidly rose, owing to extraordinary causes, to about IDS. a lb, and in the early part of 1910 rose to over izs. a lb, and subsequently fell to about half this price. Having regard to the present cost of producing " plantation " rubber, and to the probability that, apart from a possible increase in the price of labour, this cost is susceptible of further reduction, it may be concluded that rubber production will continue to be profitable even should a considerable fall in market value take place. The Principal Rubber Trees, their Cultivation, and the Prepara- tion of Rubber. — Most commercial rubber is derived from natural supplies, from the wild rubber trees of S. and Central America, India and Africa. Each year, however, the output of " planta- tion " rubber will show a considerable increase, and it is to be ex- pected that ultimately this will form the chief source of supply, unless unforeseen circumstances should arise to interfere with the development of the plantation industry, which has been vigorously started chiefly with European capital in the tropical possessions of Great Britain, France and Germany. The best rubber is now obtained from large trees, of which the following are the more important: — 1. " Para " rubber, which takes the first position in the market, is derived from species of Hevea, principally Hevea brasiliensis, of which there are enormous forests in the valleys of the Amazon and its tributaries, and also in Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela and Guiana. In Brazil alone it is stated that the rubber area amounts to at least one million sq. m. The tree has been recently planted with great success especially in Ceylon and Malaya (Plate I. figs. II and 12). 2. " Ceara " or Manigoba rubber is derived from species of Manihot, chiefly Manihot Glaziovii, a native of S. America especi- ally abundant in Brazil, and successfully introduced into other countries (Plate II. fig. 13). The latex of this tree flows less freely than that of Hevea brasiliensis, and the collection of large quan- tities of the latex is attended with considerable difficulty. The latex is therefore usually allowed to coagulate on the tree, as it slowly exudes from the incision. On this account it is often exported in strings or " scrap " and .not usually in biscuits or balls. Partly for this reason and partly because pieces of wood and dirt are apt to be included with the scrap, the market value of Ceara rubber is usually less than that of Para. The plantations of Manihot estab- lished in E. Africa, Ceylon and S. India have, however, begun to furnish a better quality of Ceara rubber, which is often prepared in biscuit form. Other species of Manihot are also under trial, and some give promise of good results, especially M. dichotoma and M. heptaphylla. 3. The " Ule " rubber of Central America and British Honduras originates from Caslilloa elaslica. In S. America its natural occur- rence appears to be limited to west of the Andes, but the tree is abundant in Mexico, Guatemala and Nicaragua. The rubber comes into commerce in thick strips or sheets or as " scrap." The rubber is usually dark in colour and is often contaminated with proteid impurities derived from the latex. Ule rubber is generally inferior in strength to Para and commands a lower price. The Castilloa tree has been experimentally planted in Ceylon, the West Indies and other countries (Plate II. fig. 14). Other trees occurring in S. America which furnish rubber of secondary commercial importance are Hancornia speciosa, yielding the Mangabeira rubber of Brazil, and species of Sapium furnishing the Colombian rubber and much of the rubber of Guiana (derived from Sapium Jenmani), which is scarcely inferior to the rubber of Para. 4. " Rambong " or Assam rubber is the produce of Ficus elastica, commonly known as the indiarubber tree and cultivated in Europe as an ornamental plant. This tree, indigenous to Asia, attains large dimensions in India, Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago (Plate II. fig. 15). It furnishes most of the lubber of India, Sumatra and Java. Although intrinsically of excellent quality, Kambong rubber, owing to the careless method of collection practised by the natives which leads to the inclusion of much impurity, usually fetches a lower price than Para. The tree has been introduced into W. Africa and Egypt, but has not proved very successful in Africa as a rubber producer. 5. " Lagos " rubber is the produce of the African rubber tree Fun- tumia elastica, which is indigenous to Africa from Uganda to W. Africa (Plate II. fig. 16). It is known as the silk rubber tree, probably on account of the silky hairs which are attached to the seeds. The latex, which is usually coagulated by standing or by heating, is obtained from incisions in the bark of the tree. The rubber is of good quality, though, owing to the method of preparation adopted, the product is often impure and discoloured, and consequently usually brings a lower price than the best rubbers of commerce. 6. Besides the trees described above, a number of climbing plants or vines belonging to the Apocyanaceae secrete a latex which furnishes rubber of good quality. These vines are less satisfactory than trees as rubber producers, owing to the readiness with which they are injured and destroyed by careless tapping, and to the difficulty of regulating these methods in the case of vines distributed over enormous areas of forest. Of these vines the most important are the species of Landolphia which occur throughout tropical E. Africa. The rubber is obtained by incising the stems of the vines and coagulating the latex by exposure, by admixture with acid vegetable juices or by heating. Landolphia rubber is usually roughly prepared and in consequence commands a low price. The vines of species of Clitandra and Carpodinus in W. Africa also furnish good rubber, as do the Forsteroma gracilis of British Guiana and Forsteronia floribunda of Jamaica. Vines resembling Lan- dolphias are widely distributed in Asia. Among these are species of Willughbeia and Leuconotis, from which much of the rubber exported from Borneo is derived; Parameria glandulifera, common in Siam and Borneo, and Urceola esculenta and Cryplostegia grandi- flora, both common in Burma. Among other sources from which rubber is commercially obtained may be mentioned the Guayule plant (Parthenium argentatum) of Mexico, and the " Ecanda plant of Portuguese W. Africa, from the tuberous roots of which rubber is extracted by the natives. The " Ecanda " plant has been named Raphionacme utilis. The root rubber prepared by the natives of the Congo and the S. Sudan is extracted partly from the roots of Landolphia or from the rhizomes of Landolphia Thollonii or Carpodinus lanceolatus. It is obtained by breaking up the roots or rhizomes in hot water and separating the rubber, and machines have now been devised for this purpose. Little is at present known of the large rubber tree of Tonkin (Bleck- rodea tonkinensis) , the latex of which is stated to furnish excellent rubber. SOURCES OF COMMERCIAL RUBBER i. PARA RUBBER is so named from the Para province of Brazil, from the principal town of which, also known as Para, most of the rubber is shipped. This rubber is obtained chiefly from Hevea brasiliensis, Mull. Arg., a large euphorbiaceous tree upwards of 60 ft. in height, and having trifoliate leaves, the leaflets being lanceolate and tapering at both ends (fig. i). The trunk reaches about 8 ft. in circumference. _ The flowers are usually pale green. The fruit is a capsule containing three seeds rather larger than cobnuts, having a brown smooth surface figured with black patches. The seeds readily lose their vitality, and on this account need special care in transport. They should be loosely packed in dry soil or charcoal. These seeds have been examined at the Imperial Institute, and the kernels have been found to contain nearly half their weight (48%) of an oil resembling linseed oil and applicable for the same purposes. The residue or " cake " left after expression of the oil is apparently nutritious and may prove to be of value for feeding animals. There is present in the seeds an enzyme which rapidly decomposes the oil if the seeds are crushed and kept, setting free a fatty acid and glycerin. As the seeds are very abundant, they will probably be utilized commercially as soon as the demand for planting has subsided. In Brazil the trees are found in different districts, but flourish best on rich alluvial clay slopes by the side of rivers, where there is a certain amount of drainage, and the temperature reaches from 89° F. to 94° F. at noon and is never cooler than 73° F. at night, while rain falls during about six months and the soil and atmosphere are moist throughout the year. The genus Hevea was formerly called Siphonia, and the tree named Pao de Xerringa by the Portuguese, [rom the use by the Omaqua Indians of squirts or syringes made from a piece of pipe inserted in a hollow flask-shaped ball of rubber. The trees are not generally tapped until they are ten to fifteen years old, as young trees yield inferior rubber. If carefully conducted, tapping does not injure the tree. The latex is collected in the so-called dry season between June and February. The trees are tapped in the early morning when the latex is most readily obtained. RUBBER To obtain the latex, deep incisions are made near the base of the tree extending up the trunk. Small shallow cups are placed below the FIG. i. — Hevea brasiliensis (\ nat. size). incisions to receive the milk, each cup being attached by sticking a piece of soft clay to the tree and pressing the cup against it. The latex, of which each tree yields only about 6 oz. in three days, has a strong ammoniacal odour, which rapidly disappears, and in consequence of the loss of ammonia the latex will not keep for longer than a day unchanged ; hence when it has to be carried to a distance from the place of collection, 3 % of ammonia solution is added. The latex usually furnished about 30% of rubber. To obtain the rubber, the latex is usually treated in the following manner. A piece of wood about 3 ft. long, with a flattened end forming a kind of paddle, is dipped in the milk, or this is poured over it as evenly as possible. The milk is then carefully dried by turning the mould round and round in the smoke produced by burning wood mixed with certain oily palm nuts; those of A ttalea excelsa are considered best, the smoke being confined within certain limits by the narrowness of the neck of the pot in which the nuts are heated. The creosote and other products from the smoke no doubt act antiseptically and prevent to a large extent the subsequent putrefaction of the prpteids retained by the coagulated rubber. Each layer of rubber is allowed to become firm before forming another; a practised hand can make 5 or 6 lb in an hour. In some districts a stout stick is substituted for the paddle, on which the rubber as it coagulates is wound cylindrically. The rubber thus prepared is the finest that can be obtained. The cakes when completed are, in order to remove them from the mould, slit open with a sharp knife, which is kept wet, and are hung up to dry. The flat rounded cakes of rubber made in this manner are known in the London market as " biscuits. " They retain about 15 % of moisture. The scrapings from the tree, which contain fragments of wood, are mixed with the residues of the collecting pots and the refuse of the vessels employed, and are made up into large rounded balls, which form the inferior commercial quality called " negrohead, " and often contain 25 or 35% of impurity. The yield of rubber varies, but it is stated on an average to be 10 ft of rubber per tree, and if care- fully tapped one tree will yield this amount for many years in succession. Plantations of Hevea brasiliensis. — Hevea brasiliensis was intro- duced to Ceylon and Singapore from seedlings raised at Kew from Brazilian seed, specially collected by Mr H. A. Wickham in S. America. The seedlings rapidly developed and in most places in which they were planted grew into large trees which furnished satisfactory latex when tapped in their sixth or seventh year. Ever since plantations of Hevea have been made on an increasing scale in the Straits Settlements, the Federated Majay States and in Ceylon, and at the present time rubber plantations form the principal industry in these colonies. Successful plantations of Hevea have also been established in Java, Sumatra and Borneo. Many of these plantations have not yet reached the productive stage — that is, the sixth or seventh year. A large number of plantations in British Malaya and Ceylon are now actively exporting increasing quantities of rubber. Hevea seedlings were also introduced into India, but did not apparently succeed except in Burma and S. India. It may be estimated that between one and two million acres of land in the different countries referred to have been already appropriated for rubber plantations. Plantations are also being formed in British, French and German possessions in W. Africa and in the Congo, also in the tropical portions of Australia. In certain districts of British W. Africa the Hevea which has been planted promises well, especially in the Gold Coast, where good yields of latex are stated to have been obtained. It may be useful to summarize here the experience which has been gained in the formation of plantations of Hevea and in the production of rubber. Hevea brasiliensis as a rule flourishes to the greatest extent at low altitudes on rich soil capable of retaining moisture. The nature of the soil appears, however, to be of secondary importance, provided that it is able to hold moisture and that climatic conditions of high and even temperature with considerable rainfall and absence of wind are satisfied. Although the tree is sensitive to such conditions, it appears to possess a certain capacity of adaptation which should be borne in mind. Generally a low altitude is desirable, but good results have been obtained in Ceylon in sheltered positions at elevations of 3000 ft. and over, although at higher altitudes the growth of these trees appears to be slower. In many plantations besides catch crops (cassava, sesame, ground-nuts, &c.) other crops, such as tea, coffee, cocoa and tobacco, are grown with rubber. It is improbable, except in the early stages of the rubber tree, that this procedure will succeed; the rubber will ultimately dominate the position to the detriment and ultimate extinction of the other crop, whilst the growth of the rubber tree will be retarded. A partial exception may perhaps be made in the case of cocoa, when the two plants are placed not too closely in about equal numbers. In these circumstances it appears that satisfactory results may be obtained from both crops, at any rate for a certain number of years. The experience of planters in general is in favour of the complete removal of weeds from a rubber plantation. This practice, which involves periodical weeding, adds considerably to the cost of maintaining plantations, and, although justified so far by results, possesses several other disadvantages. During the tropical rains the soil is liable, to a greater or less extent, to denudation, which becomes very serious when the land slopes; and in any case, the soil is apt to become impoverished by the loss of its soluble constituents. These disadvantages are at their maximum when the rubber trees are quite young. At a later stage the shade of the large trees compensates to a considerable extent for the absence of cover on the ground. Another disadvantage of uncovered soil in a plantation of young rubber trees is that the ground under the heat of a tropical sun rapidly loses its moisture. For this reason proposals have been made to plant in the place of weeds low-growing leguminous plants, the growth of which will not only prevent impoverishment and loss of soil during the rains and conserve moisture in the heat, but will also have the effect of enriching the soil in nitrogenous constituents through the power leguminous plants possess of absorbing nitrogen from the air through nodules on their roots. Among the plants which are being tried for this purpose are various species of Crotolaria, passion-flower, and the well-known sensitive plant of the East. The success of the method cannot yet be judged, but the experiment is one which deserves very full trial. One of the most important subjects in connexion with rubber plantations is the method to be adopted in tapping the trees for latex. The native methods in vogue in Brazil and Mexico are primitive and often in- jurious to the tree. At present it cannot be said that finality has been reached on the subject of the best method, giving a good return of latex with a minimum of damage to the tree. A method at one time largely adopted was to make a series of V-shaged in- cisions on four sides of the tree to a height of about 6 ft. from the base — that is, within the reach of an ordinary man without the need for ladder or scaffold- ing; the latex obtained - from the upper part of the tree is said to furnish less rubber and of poor quality. The latex is collected in cups placed at FIG. 2. — Tapping, herring-bone system. the Other systems are the herring-bone plan of apex of each V. a vertical channel RUBBER 799 with lateral connecting channels about I ft. apart at an angle of about 45°, the latex being collected in cups placed at the base of the vertical channels (fig. 2) ; the spiral system, in which a series of spiral grooves are cut all round the trunk, by which means virtually the entire area of the trunk is tapped. In some instances a combination of. these methods is employed. The V-system is the oldest, but is being largely superseded by the herring-bone; the spiral system is more recent and is still on trial. Instead of the axe or large knives which frequently inflicted serious damage to the trees, special small knives and prickers are now employed so constructed as to avoid injury to the tree through making a larger incision than is necessary, and without penetrating into the wood below the laticiferoMs layer. It is possible to_tap or prick' trees daily for a number of years without apparent injury, but the practice of tapping on alternate days appears to be safer and to afford equally satisfactory if not better results. The yield of latex is at first small, but increases with successive tappings, which appear to stimulate the local production of latex, and finally reaches a maximum. When the bark has been removed a period of from three to four years must elapse before it is so fully renewed as to render fresh incisions possible. In the case of a tree from seven to ten years old, tapping is so arranged that by the time the last incisions on the original growth are made, the new growths on other portions are at least four years old, and ready for new incisions to be made. Too frequent tapping leads to the production of latex poor in caoutchouc, whilst tapping of trees before they are six or seven years old, and from 20-25 in- in circumference, produces inferior rubber. As a rule, an annual yield of more than 1-2 Ib of rubber per tree must not be looked for from recent plantations, although much higher yields up to 10-15 R> and over Per tre5 are recorded from S. America, and it is therefore probable that with greater experience as to the best methods of tapping and with older trees considerably larger yields may be expected from plantations in the future. An average of 150 trees to the acre (20X15 ft.) and a yield of ij Ib of rubber per annum per tree at 2s. 6d. per Ib gives the result of £28, 2s. 6d. per acre. The cost of production may be assumed to be about is. per ft), to which has to be added the expense of transport. The cost of clearing forest land and planting with rubber in Ceylon is estimated at about too Rs. per acre in the first year, and from 20-30 Rs. per acre in subsequent years until the sixth year, when the plantation would begin to be productive. The point of next importance is the coagulation of the latex so as to produce rubber in the form and of the quality required by the manufacturer. The primitive methods of coagulation and curing practised in S. America undoubtedly are susceptible of considerable improvement, and certainly waste can be reduced to a minimum. It is, however, important to remember that rough as these native methods are they result in the production of rubber which commands the highest price. As the removal of the impurities of the latex is one of the essential points to be aimed at, it was thought that the use of a centrifugal machine to separate the caoutchouc as a cream from the watery part of the latex would prove to be a satisfactory process. This method is said to answer well with the latex of Castilloa, but it appears to be inapplicable to the latex of Hevea, which does not cream readily when centrifugalized. The plan usually adopted is to collect the latex in rectangular tanks or casks. It is then coagulated by the addition of an acid liquid, acetic acid or lime juice being generally employed, and the mixture allowed to stand. The coagulated rubber separates as a mass of spongy caoutchouc. If the coagulation has been effected in shallow dishes, the rubber is obtained in a thin cake of similar shape known as a " biscuit." The rubber thus formed is washed and dried. The coagu- lated rubber separated from the watery fluid is cut up into small pieces and passed through the grooved rollers of the washing machine, from which it issues in sheets, long crinkled ribbons or " crepe," which are then dried in hot air chambers or in a vacuum dryer, by which means the water is dissipated at a lower temperature. In order to prevent decomposition of any proteid impurity which may remain incorporated with the rubber, the freshly coagu- lated rubber is sometimes cured in the smoke of burning wood or a small quantity of an antiseptic such as creosote is added during coagulation. Plantation rubber comes into commerce in the form of the crinkled ribbons known as crSpe, in sheets or biscuits, and sometimes in large blocks made by compressing the cre"pe rubber. Block rubber is considered to possess certain advantages in securing a constant proportion of water, and in being satisfactory for transport. The best condition and form in which to export rubber cannot be regarded as settled. The probabilities are that in the end the production of a rubber as nearly as possible free from water and impurities and of constant composition will be realized as best meeting the require- ments of the modern manufacturer. The need for scrupulous cleanliness in the preparation of rubber is now recognized, and the arrangements of a rubber factory in Ceylon or Malaya are comparable with those of the modern dairy. In the present transition stage of rubber production it is necessary for the manufacturer in Europe to wash all rubber. He receives both the wild rubber containing variable quantities of impurity and the purer plantation rubber, the latter, however, in much smaller amount. The fact that at present washing machinery exists in all European factories and that most of the rubber received needs washing, leads to the greater purity of plantation rubber, except for special purposes, being generally discounted by the manufacturer. As soon as the output of plantation rubber of constant composition has reached much larger dimensions it is probable that the manufacturer will be able to dispense with washing. This will operate to the advantage of plantation rubber and against the wild rubber, so long as the latter is not exported in a purer condition. So far the Hevea plantations in Ceylon and the East have not been seriously troubled by insect or fungoid pests, and those which have occurred have succumbed to proper treatment. The most serious trouble has been occasioned in the Malay States by a white thread-like fungus (Fames semitostus) which attacks the roots of the Hevea tree and eventually kills it. The development of this fungus is greatly promoted by the presence of decaying stumps and wood in the plantation. Vigorous measures are now taken in many plantations to remove all old wood and to extract stumps of old trees, which in the first instance it was considered unneces- sary to remove. 2. Manihot Glaziomi belonging to the Euphorbiaceae is the tree of N.E. Brazil which furnishes Ceara or Manicoba rubber (fig. 3). It is closely related to the Manioc, cassava or tapioca plant (Manihot utilissima) which it re- sembles when young and exhibits a similar tuberous root system. The tree grows well on dry and rocky soil with- out rain for a con- siderable period of the year, and flourishes at high altitudes up to about 4000 ft. It is therefore adapted for conditions which are unsuitable for Hevea. The tree grows about 30 ft. high, with a rounded head of foliage, and greyish -green 3 to 7-lobed palmate leaves, somewhat resembling the leaves of the castor-oil plant in shape and size. The seeds (fig. 3), which are abundant and retain FIG. 3.— Manihot Glaziomi. I, branch their vitality well, have w;th flowers (\ nat. size); 2, fruit; a hard thick coat. The 3, seed (J nat. size), seeds take a year to germinate, unless the edges near the end bearing the caruncular projecting are rasped oft. Cuttings, if they have a single bud, strike readily. The trees are tapped when they are about five years old. The mode of collecting the rubber is as follows. After brushing away the loose stones and dirt from the root of the tree by means of a handful of twigs, the collector lays down large leaves for the latex to drop upon. He then slices off the outer layer of the bark to the height of 4 or 5 ft. The latex, which exudes slowly and in many tortuous courses, some of it ultimately falling on the ground, is allowed to remain on the tree for several days, until it becomes dry and solid, when it is pulled off in strings, which are either rolled up into balls or put into bags in loose masses, in which form it enters commerce under the name of Ceara " scrap." Ceara rubber is also exported in the form of lumps and cakes. The annual yield of rubber is rather more than I Ib per tree. The latex coagulates readily, especially if churned or if diluted with water, when a purer rubber is obtained. The Manihot tree has been widely introduced into other countries, and appears to succeed wherever the rainfall is not excessive. In Ceylon and in some parts of India, especially in Madras, it has succeeded well. In W. Africa the tree flourishes, but it is under trial as a rubber producer. The Manihot tree also promises well in E. Africa, Nyasaland and the Mozambique. The pure Ceara rubber, as for example the " biscuits " prepared in Ceylon, is of excellent Quality, scarcely if at all inferior to Para. That derived from Brazil, however, is generally inferior, being mixed with wood and dirt. The cultivation and collection of the rubber being troublesome, it is unlikely to be attended to in those countries in which Hevea is successful. 3. The source of " Ule " rubber exported from Central America, and of the " Caucho " rubber of Peru is Castilloa elastica, Cerv., a lofty tree, N. O. Urticaceae, with a trunk 3 ft. or more in diameter, and large hairy oblong lanceolate leaves often 18 in. long and 7 in. wide (fig. 4). The tree grows most abundantly in a sporadic manner 8oo RUBBER in the dense moist forests of the basin of the Rio San Juan, where the rain falls for nine months in the year. It prefers rich fertile soil on the banks of watercourses, but does not flourish in swamps. It is found also in Costa Rica, Guate- mala, Honduras, Mexico, Cuba and Hayti, and in Panama with another species of Castilloa, and on the W. coast of S. America down to the slopes of Chimborazo; the Cordilleras of the Andes separating the Castilloas from the Heveas of Brazil. In Nicaragua the latex is collected in April, when the old leaves begin to fall and the new ones are appearing, during which time the latex is richest. The tree is tapped either in the same manner as the Hevea, or by encircling the tree with a simple spiral cut at an inclination of 45°, or by two parallel spirals if the tree be large. At the bottom of the spiral an iron spout about 4 in. long is driven into the tree, and the milk is received in iron pails. A tree 20 to 30 ft. high to its first branches, and about 4 ft. in diameter, is expected to yield annually 20 gallons of milk, each gallon giving about 2 Ib of rubber. In the evening the milk is strained through a wire sieve and transferred to barrels. The FlG. 4. — Castilloa elastica. milk, which is acid, is coagulated by i, leaf; 2, twig with the addition of the alkaline juice of male flowers; 3, twig the " achete " plant, or of another with female flowers; plant called " coasso." The strained 4, seed. _ 1-3, J nat. size; juice of either of these plants, ob- 4, nat. size. tained by bruising the moistened herb and subsequent expression, is added to the milk in the proportion of about I pint to the gallon. In British Honduras an alkaline decoction prepared from the Moon plant (Calonictyon speciosum) is used for the same purpose. If these plants are not procurable, two parts of water are added to one of the milk, and the mixture allowed to stand for twelve hours. The coagulum is next flattened out by a wooden or iron roller to get rid of the cavities containing watery liquid, and the sheets are then hung up for fourteen days to dry, when they weigh about 2 Ib, the sheets being usually ^ to j in. thick and 20 in. in diameter. When coagulated in water, the mass is placed in vats in the ground and allowed to dry, this taking place in about a fortnight. It is then rolled into balls. That which dries on the incisions in the tree is called " bola " or " burucha," and is said to be highly prized in New York. The loss of Nicaragua rubber in drying is estimated at 15%. It is exported chiefly from San Juan del Norte, or Grey Town, and the larger proportion goes to the United States. The Castilloa tree appears to be suitable for cultivation only in districts where the Para rubber would grow equally well. The tree is ready for tapping at about the same age as Hevea and the average yield of rubber is about the same. Since the latex " creams " readily the rubber can be separated from the latex by centrifugalizing, and its quality and market value thus .enhanced. Much of the native Castilloa rubber is of inferior quality. The tree has been introduced into S. India, Ceylon and the W. Indies, where it has succeeded well, especially in Trinidad and Tobago. It is also under trial in E. and W. Africa and Nyasaland. Several other species of Castilloa than C. elastica are known to furnish rubber, but •little has been recorded as to their advantages. 4. Funtumia elastica (formerly known as Kickxia or Kixia elastica) is the W. African (Ire or Irai or Lagos) rubber tree, which belongs to the Apocynaceae, a natural order which includes the Landolphia vines as well as other rubber producers. It is a large forest tree of upright habit extending to 60 or 70 ft. in height and 3 to 4 ft. in diameter. The bright green, glabrous leaves are broad and oblong, about 6 in. in length (see fig. 5). The flowers are yellow, and the seeds enclosed in a pod are long and thin with numerous long silky fibres attached to them, which enable the seeds to be readily carried by the wind. The trees are common throughout the central regions of E. and W. Africa (from Uganda to Sierra Leone). The botanical name is taken from a W. African native name for a rubber tree — " Funtum." Many of the trees in the accessible forests of W. Africa have been destroyed by over-tapping and felling. Plantations of Fun- tumia have been established in several districts, including; the Gold Coast and S. Nigeria. The trees are tapped on the " herring-bone " plan and the milk collected in vessels at the base. This "is then poured into the hollowed-out trunk of a tree, where it is allowed to stand covered with palm leaves for about a fortnight. The watery portion of the latex soaks into the trunk, and the soft spongy rubber which remains is kneaded and pressed into lumps or balls. In some districts the collected milk is heated alone or diluted with water, to coagulate the rubber, but if heated alone an inferior rubber is apt to result owing to overheating. FIG. 5. — Funtumia elastica (Lagos rubber). I, twig with flowers (i nat. size) ; 2, part of under side of leaf showing somatia at d d (about nat. size) ; 3, fruit (about J nat. size). The Funtumia latex can also be coagulated by the astringent infusion of Bauhinia leaves or by exposing it in shallow dishes, when the liquid " creams." The yield of rubber is stated as a rule to be less than that of Para. The rubber, if properly prepared, is of excellent quality, and the tree deserves further attention, especially in those regions of W. Africa which are unsuited to Hevea. Funtumia africana furnishes a very inferior rubber, which is highly resinous. 5. Ficus elastica is the tree which produces Rambong or Assam rubber. It is well known in Europe as a small ornamental tree, but in the tropics it attains very large dimensions, and de- velops a system of branching roots which act as buttresses to the large trunk (see fig. 6). It is a native of India, Burma and the Malay Archipel- ago, and is most abundant in those regions in which the climate is dis- tinctly humid, a subject to this condition the tree flourishes at high altitudes. In As- sam and in upper Burma there are extensive forests of Ficus elastica, but to a large ex- tent the trees have been damaged by careless tapping. Large plantations have been formed by the Govern- ment of India both in Assam and FIG- ^.-Ficus elastica. I, twig (i nat. size); ported s sdll ob- *• ^ion of inflorescence (J nat. size). tained from the forest trees. It has been found that although the tree grows well in many different countries and different localities, it only furnishes a satisfactory yield of rubber in mountainous dis- tricts, such as those of Assam and certain parts of Ceylon and Java. The trees are tapped when about ten years old, and as a rule annually furnish from 5-10 Ib of rubber per tree. The latex flows fairly well, but is usually allowed to dry on the tree. The rubber, if of good quality, sells at prices only slightly inferior to that of Para. When the plantations of Ficus in India are in full bearing it is possible that this tree may attract more attention, since the plantation rubber is likely to be of superior quality owing to the greater care taken in its preparation. It seems at present doubtful, however, whether the establishment of plantations of Ficus will be profitable under ordinary conditions in India. In addition to the trees described above there are numerous plants of some importance as rubber producers. Among these may be mentioned the Landolphia vines, which are still the chief source of African rubber. The vines grow upon forest trees, and the stems are periodically tapped. There are numerous species of these climbing plants, of which the most important as furnishing good rubber are Landolphia owariensis (see fig. 7), which occurs throughout RUBBER 801 W. Africa and the Sudan, Landolphia Heudelotii of W. Africa, and Landolphia Kirkii and L'. Dawei, which are found in the forests FIG. 7. — Landolphia owariensis. I, twig with flowers (i nat. size); 2, fruit (J nat. size). of E. Africa. Other species of Landolphia, including Landolphia florida, abundant in both E. and W. Africa, furnish rubber of inferior quality. Among other shrubs and vines which yield rubber of fair quality may be mentioned Willughbeia edulis and Urceola elastica and Parameria glandulifera, which occur in Burma and Malaya. The Sapiums of Colombia and Guiana are large trees resembling Hevea, and certain species furnish good rubber, especially the Sapium Jenmani of Guiana. Most of the native Sapiums have been destroyed by reckless tapping, and the merits of this genus have been somewhat overlooked and deserve reinvestigation. The same applies to certain species of Hevea, other than H. brasiliensis , which are known to produce good rubber in tropical America. Pernambuco or Mangabeira rubber is obtained from Hancornia speciosa, Gom., an apocynaceous tree common on the S. American plateau in Brazil from Pernambuco to Rio de Janeiro, at a height of 3000 to 5000 ft. above the sea. It is about the size of an ordinary apple tree, with small leaves like the willow, and a drooping habit like a weeping birch, and has an edible fruit like a yellow plum called " mangaba," for which, rather than for the rubber, the tree is cultivated in some districts. Only a small quantity of this rubber comes to England, and it is not much valued, being a " wet " rubber. It is produced in " biscuits " or " sheets." The caoutchouc is collected in the following manner: about eight oblique cuts are made all round the trunk, but only through the bark, and a tin cup is fastened at the bottom of each incision by means of a piece of soft clay. The cups when full are poured into a larger vessel, and solution of alum is added to coagulate the latex. In two or three minutes coagulation takes place, and the rubber is then exposed to the air on sticks, and allowed to drain for eight days. About thirty days afterwards it is sent to market. Pernambuco rubber, as is the case with most rubbers coagulated by saline solutions, con- tains a large quantity of water. The tree has been planted in other countries, but has so far not received much attention. It will grow on a dry sandy soil, dislikes much moisture, and needs no shade. Forsteronia gracilis of Guiana is a climbing plant which also belongs to the Apocynaceae. Like the Forsteronia flpribunda of Jamaica it yields rubber of good quality. Ficus Vogelii of W. Africa yields rubber of variable quality. The production of rubber by this tree merits further investigation, as it grows readily in nearly every district of W. Africa and the Sudan. Specimens of the best known and of many of the lesser known rubbers are included in the Colonial and Indian Collections and Sample Rooms of the Imperial Institute, and many of the authentic specimens have been chemically and technically examined in the Scientific and Technical Department of the Institute and com- mercially valued. Reports on many of the lesser known rubbers have been published in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. XXIII. 26 Chemistry of Rubber. Rubber is chiefly composed of the soft, solid, elastic substance known as caoutchouc. It is usually assumed that this substance is present as such in the latex. The globules in the latex, however, consist more probably of a distinct liquid substance which readily changes into the solid caoutchouc. The coagulation of the latex often originates with the " curding " of the proteids present, and this alteration in the proteid leads to the solidification of the globules into caoutchouc. The latter, however, is probably a distinct effect. Under certain conditions, as when latex is allowed to stand or is centrifugalized, a cream is obtained consisting of the liquid globules, which may be washed free from proteid without change, but, either by mechanical agitation or by the addition of acid or other chemical agent, the liquid gradually solidifies to a mass of solid caoutchouc. The phenomenon therefore resembles the change known to the chemist as polymerization, by which through molecular aggregation a liquid may pass into a solid without change in its empirical com- position. The effect may, however, also be due to chemical change known as condensation, and be accompanied by the elimination of the elements of water. So far the chemical nature of the liquid globules of the latex is unknown, and the exact character of the change into solid caoutchouc remains to be determined. The watery liquid known as rubber milk or latex is an emulsion con- sisting chiefly of a weak watery solution of proteids, carbohydrates and salts holding the liquid globules in suspension. In connexion with the production of rubber the most important factor is the proportion of caoutchouc it contains. In a good rubber this ranges from 70-90 % and over. The proportion and nature of the proteids or albuminous materials varies considerably in different latices. The proteids should be as far as possible removed during the pre- paration of the rubber, as these substances are chiefly responsible for the objectionable smell and colour of " native " rubbers, and their presence leads to subsequent change in the commercial material. All crude rubber contains more or less proteid, and in the opinion of some technical experts its presence even affords strength to the material, but this cannot be accepted as proved.' The dissolved salts (potassium, sodium, ammonium, calcium, magnesium, &c.) of the latex are generally nearly entirely absent from the well- prepared rubber. Of considerable importance to the value of the rubber is the absence of the resinous constituents which are present in greater or smaller proportion in all latices. The presence of more than a small percentage of resin in the latex leads to th'e production of rubber containing much resin, which seriously depreciates^ its commercial value for most purposes. The percentage of resin in a good rubber should be as small as possible, and should in any case be less than 10%. There is no feasible method at present known of preventing the inclusion of the resin of the latex with the rubber during coagulation, and although the separation of the resin from the solid caoutchouc by means of solvents is possible, it is not practicable or profitable commercially. A complete examination of a series of different latices has shown that, in many cases, e.g. Hevea and Castilloa, the resin is present in large proportion in the latex derived from young trees, and diminishes in amount as the tree ages. This is one reason why young trees should not be tapped. The composition of latex and of typical rubbers is given below : — RUBBERS Para Latex (Ceylon). % Water . SS'iS Caoutchouc 41-29 Proteids . 2-18 Sugar, etc. . 0-36 Ash (salts) . 0-41 Para Ceara Castilloa Picus Laxdolpkia Rubber Rubber Rubber Elastica Kirkii (Ceylon). (Ceylon). (Ceylon). (Bengal). (E. Africa). Caoutchouc 04-6 Resin . 2-66 Proteids . 1-75 Ash . . 0-14 Moisture . 0-85 76.25 10-04 8-05 2-46 3-2° 86-19 12-42 0-87 0-20 0.32 % 84-3 0-8 0-8 So- 1 6-9 0-3 7-7 The chemical analysis of crude rubber is an important guide to its value. At present, however, the methods of analysis usually employed are not sufficiently delicate to afford all the necessary information as to the intrinsic value of the higher grades of rubber, and do not go much beyond the exclusion of inferior rubber. The tests of the physical properties of crude rubber usually applied to determine its value in the market are also very rough and cannot be relied upon. The development of the rubber industry has now reached a stage at which more exact methods of determining the chemical composition and physical properties (strength and elas- ticity) of rubber are required. At present the caoutchouc present in crude rubber is usually estimated indirectly, and it is possible that what generally passes as caoutchouc may be in some instances a mixture of similar chemical substances, which if separated would be found to differ in those physical properties on which the technical value of rubber depends. It is already certain that some commercial rubbers contain a variable proportion of a substance of the nature of caoutchouc, but having different properties. True caoutchouc, the principal constituent of all rubbers, n probably essentially one and the same substance, from whatever botanical source it may have been derived. This is an elasti solid, almost transparent in thin sheets, composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen, the empirical composition of which is represented by 802 RUBBER the formula C6H>. It thus possesses the same composition as the hydrocarbon of gutta-percha and as that of oil of turpentine and other terpenes which are the chief components of essential oils. The properties of caoutchouc clearly show, however, that its actual molecular structure is considerably more complex than is repre- sented by the empirical formula, and that it is to be regarded as the polymer of a terpene or similar hydrocarbon and composed of a cluster of at least ten or twenty molecules of the formula CiH». When solid caoutchouc is strongly heated it breaks down, without change in its ultimate composition, into a number of simpler liquid hydrocarbons of the terpene class (dipentene, di-isoprene, isoprene, &c.), of which one, isoprene (CeHs), is of simpler structure than oil of turpentine (CioHn), from which it can also be obtained by the action of an intense heat. When this volatile liquid hydrocarbon (isoprene) is allowed to stand for some time in a closed bottle, it gradually passes into a substance having the principal properties of natural caoutchouc. The same change of isoprene into caoutchouc may also be effected by the action of certain chemical agents. It may therefore be said that caoutchouc has been already artificially or synthetically pre- pared, and the possibility of producing synthetic rubber cheaply on a commercial scale remains the only problem. At present the change of isoprene into caoutchouc is mainly of scientific interest in indicating possibilities with regard to the conversion of the liquid globules of the latex into rubber and to the formation of rubber by plants. The exact chemical nature of caoutchouc is, however, not determined, and recent researches point to the view that its molecular structure may even be somewhat different from that of the terpenes. The exact manner in which isoprene passes into caoutchouc is also not understood. These problems are, however, certain to be solved in the near future, and then probably caoutchouc may be formed in other ways than from isoprene. The question as to whether synthetic rubber will ever be produced cheaply on a commerical scale is therefore the important one for those who are largely interested in the rubber-planting industry. No definite answer can be given to this question at the present time. Its settlement will depend in part on the cost of producing rubber from plants, which from their point of view it is to the interests of planters to reduce as far as possible. There are many substances produced by plants which can be synthetically prepared by chemical means, but, as with quinine, the process involved is too costly to enable the synthetic product to compete with the natural product. The chief properties of caoutchouc and its employment for technical purposes may now be considered. Caoutchouc is not dissolved by water or alcohol, and is not affected except by the strongest acids. Alkalis have little effect on it under ordinary circumstances, although prolonged contact with ammonia results in a partial change. The best solvents for rubber are carbon bisulphide, benzol and mineral naphtha, carbon tetra- chloride and chloroform. These liquids, either alone or mixed, are employed in making the rubber solutions used for technical purposes. Vegetable and other oils rapidly penetrate caoutchouc and lead to deterioration of its properties. Sulphur when warmed with caoutchouc combines with it, and on this fact the vulcanization of rubber depends, and also the production, with an excess of sulphur, of the hard black material known as vulcanite or ebonite. Caoutchouc is a soft elastic resilient solid. In this respect it differs from gutta-percha, which, like caoutchouc, is derived from the latices of certain plants. The technical value of caoutchouc chiefly depends on the extent to which it is capable of being stretched without breaking, and the extent to which it at once returns to its original dimensions. Caoutchouc is a bad conductor of heat and electricity, and alone or mixed with other materials is employed as an electrical insulator. When caoutchouc is heated slightly above the temperature of boiling water it becomes softer and loses much of its elasticity, which, however, it recoveres on cooling. At about I5O°-2OO° C. caoutchouc melts, forming a viscous liquid which does not solidify on cooling. This viscous liquid is present in small proportion in some commercial rubbers owing to overheating during their pre- paration. It appears to be the principal cause of stickiness or the ' tacky " condition of some rubbers, which considerably depreciates their commercial value. There is some evidence that " tackiness " may be induced by a kind of fermentation which takes place in crude rubber. At higher temperatures the viscous liquid suffers decomposition with the formation of various liquid hydrocarbons, principally members of the terpene series. Similar products are also formed by heating gutta-percha which closely resembles caoutchouc in its chemical structure. Rubber slowly absorbs oxygen when exposed to air and light, the absorption of oxygen being accompanied by a gradual change in the characteristic properties of rubber, and ultimately to the production of a hard, inelastic, brittle substance containing oxygen. Ozone at once attacks rubber, rapidly destroying it. If ozone is passed into a solution of rubber in chloroform the caoutchouc combines with a molecule of ozone forming a compound of the empirical composition C6H8O8. When this compound is acted on by water, hydrogen peroxide and levulinic aldehyde are formed, the aldehyde being subsequently oxidized by the hydrogen peroxide, forming levulinic acid. The hydrocarbon of gutta-percha yields similar results and is therefore closely related to caoutchouc. The study of the action of .ozone on caoutchouc has thrown new light on the complex question of the chemical structure of this substance, and discloses relationships with the sugars and other carbohydrates from certain of which levulinic acid is obtained by oxidation. Caoutchouc, like other " unsaturated " molecules, forms compounds with chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulphur. Commercial Treatment of Rubber. In the industrial working of indiarubber, the various impurities present in the crude " wild ' rubber (bark, dirt and the principal impurities derived from the latex, except resin) are removed by the following process: The lumps of crude caoutchouc are first softened by the prolonged action of hot water, and then cut into slices by means of a sharp knife — generally by hand, as thus any large stones or other foreign substances can be removed. The softened slices are now repeatedly passed between grooved rollers, known FIG. 8. — Roller of Washing Machine. as washing rollers (fig. 8), a supply of hot or cold water being made to flow over them. Solid impurities speedily become crushed, and are carried away by the water, while the rubber takes the form of an irregular sheet perforated by numerous holes. The loss on washing ranges from 10-15 % with " fine Para " to 40 % with other " wild " rubbers. In the future this washing of wild " rubber may be conducted in the tropics, thus furnishing the manufacturer with rubber which, like " plantation " rubber, need not be subjected to this process in the factory. The washed product contains in its pores a notable proportion of water, which is removed by hanging the rubber for some days in a warm room. It is now ready either for incorporation with sulphur and other materials, or for agglomeration into solid masses by means of the masticating machine — an apparatus which consists of a strong cylindrical cast-iron casing, inside which there revolves a metal cylinder with a fluted or corrugated surface. Some of the rubber having been placed in the annular space between the inner cylinder and the outer casing, the former is made to revolve; and the continued kneading action to which the rubber is subjected works it into a solid mass, something like a gigantic sausage. Before commencing the mastication it is generally necessary to warm the apparatus by means of steam; but as the operation proceeds the heat produced requires to be moderated by streams of cold water flowing through channels provided for the purpose. The inner cylinder is generally placed somewhat excentrically in the outer casing, in order to render the kneading more perfect than would otherwise be the case. To convert the masticated rubber into rectangular blocks, it is first softened by heat, and then forced into iron boxes or moulds. The blocks are cut into thin sheets by means of a sharp knife, which is caused to move to and fro about two thousand times per minute, the knife being kept moistened with water, and the block fed up to it by mechanical means. Cut sheets are largely used for the fabrica- tion of certain classes of rubber goods — these being made by cementing the sheets together with a solution of rubber in'" naphtha or benzol. Most articles made of cut sheet rubber would, however, be of very limited utility were they not hardened or vulcanized by the action of sulphur or some compound of that element. After vulcanization, rubber is no longer softened by a moderate heat, a temperature of 160° C. scarcely affecting it, nor is it rendered rigid by cold, and the ordinary solvents fail to dissolve it. It must, however, be distinctly understood that it is not the mere admixture but the actual combination of sulphur with indiarubber that causes vulcanization. If an article made of cut sheet be immersed for a few minutes in a bath of melted sulphur, maintained at a tempera- ture of 120° C., the rubber absorbs about one-tenth of its weight of that element, and, although somewhat yellowish in colour from the presence of free sulphur, it is still unvulcanized, and unaltered as regards general properties. If, however, it be now subjected for an hour or so to a terqperature of 140° C., a combination occurs, and vulcanized caoutchouc is the result. When a manufactured article has been saturated with sulphur in the melted sulphur bath, the heat necessary for vulcanization may be obtained either by high- pressure steam, by heated glycerin, or by immersion in a sulphur bath heated to about 140° C. In this last case absorption of the sulphur and its intimate combination with the rubber occur simultaneously. Cut sheets, or articles made from them, may be RUBBER 803 saturated by being laid in powdered sulphur maintained for some hours at about 1 10 C. Sheets sulphured in this way can be made up into articles and joined together either by warming the parts to be united, or by means of mdiarubber solution; after which the true vulcanization, or " curing," as it is termed, can be brought about in the usual way. Another method of vulcanizing articles made from cut sheet rubber consists in exposing them to the action of chloride of sulphur. Either they are placed in a leaden cupboard into which the vapour is introduced, or they are dipped for a few seconds in a mixture of one part of chloride of sulphur and forty parts of carbon disulphide or purified light petroleum. Vulcanization takes place in this instance without the action of heat ; but it is usual to subject the goods for a short time to a temperature of 40° C. after their removal from the solution, in order to drive off the liquid which has been absorbed, and to ensure a sufficient action of the chloride of sulphur. Treatment with a warm alkaline solution is afterwards advisable, in order to remove traces of hydrochloric acid generated during the process. Another very excellent method of vulcanizing cut sheet goods consists in placing them in a solution of the poly- sulphides of calcium at a temperature of 140° C. Rubber employed for the manufacture of cut sheets is often coloured by such pigments as vermilion, oxide of chromium, ultramarine, orpiment, antimony, lamp black, or oxide of zinc, incorporation being effected either by means of the masticator or by a pair of rollers heated internally by steam, and so geared as to move in contrary directions at unequal Flo. 9.— The Mixing Rollers. speed (fig. 9). Most of the rub'ber now manufactured is not com- bined with sulphur when in the form of sheets, but is mechanically incorporated with about one-tenth of its weight of that substance by means of the mixing rollers — any required pigment or other matter, such as whiting or barium sulphate, being added. The mixed rubber thus obtained is readily softened by heat, and can be very easily worked into any desired form or rolled into sheets by an apparatus known as the calendering machine. Vulcanization is then ensured by exposure for half an hour or more to a temperature of 135°-! 50° C., usually in closed iron vessels into which high- pressure steam is admitted (fig. 10). Tubes are generally made up around mandrels, and allowed throughout the curing to remain imbedded in pul- verized French chalk, which affords a useful support for many articles that tend to lose their shape during the process. Of late years a considerable amount of seamless tubing has been made, much in the same way as lead piping, by forcing the mixed rub- ber through a die, and curing as above. The calendered sheets are generally cured between folds of wet cloth, the markings of FIG. io.— A Vulcanizer. which they retain; and hollow articles, such as playing balls or injection bottles, are vulcanized in iron or brass moulds, tinned inside and very slightly greased. Before it is put in, the article is roughly put together, and the expansion of the included air forces the rubber into contact with the internal surface of the mould, or a little carbonate of ammonia is enclosed. Belting intended for driving machinery is built up of canvas which has been thoroughly frictioned with the soft mixed rubber, and is cured by placing it in a kind of press kept by means of steam at a dry heat of about 140° C. Packing for the stuffing boxes of steam engines is similarly prepared from strips of rubber and frictioned canvas, as also are the so-called insertion sheets, in which layers of rubber alternate with canvas or even wire gauze. Indiarubber stereotypes are now extensively made use of as hand stamps, and attempts nave been made to introduce them for press and machine printing. A plaster cast of the type is, when dry, saturated with shellac varnish and redried. Rubber mixed in the usual way with about 10% of sulphur is now softened by heat, forced into the mould, and retained there by pressure during the operation of curing, which is usually effected in an iron box heated over a gas burner to 140° C. The ordinary macintosh or waterproof cloth is prepared by spreading on the textile fabric layer after layer of indiarubber paste or solution made with benzol or coal-naphtha. If cotton or linen is used, it is usual to incorporate sulphur with the paste, and to effect vulcanization by steam heat; but, when silk or wool is em- ployed, no sulphur is added to the paste, the»dried coating of rubber being merely brought into momentary contact with the mixture of chloride of sulphur and carbon disulphide already mentioned. Double texture goods are made by uniting the rubber surfaces of two pieces of the coated material. Air goods, such as cushions, beds, gas bags, and so forth, are made of textile fabrics which have been coated with mixed rubber either by the spreading process above described, or by means of heated rollers, the curing being then effected by steam heat. The manufacture of overshoes and fishing boots is an analogous process, only the canvas base is more thickly coated with a highly pigmented rubber of low quality. The articles are first fashioned by joining the soft material; they are then varnished, and afterwards cured in ovens heated to about 135° C. The fine vulcanized " spread sheets " are made by spreading layers of indiarubber solution, already charged with the requisite pro- portion of sulphur, on a textile base previously prepared with a mixture of paste, glue and treacle: Vulcanization is then effected by steam heat, and, the preparation on the cloth being softened by water, the sheet of rubber is readily removed. The required thick- ness of the spread sheet is very often secured by the rubber-faced surfaces of two cloths being united before curing. The threads used in making elastic webbing are usually cut from spread sheets. The manufacture of springs, valves and washers does not require any very special notice, these articles being generally fashioned out of mixed rubber, and vulcanized either in moulds or in powdered French chalk. Rollers are made to adhere to their metal spindles by the intervention of a layer of ebonite, and after vulcanization they are turned. In order to make spongy or porous rubber, some material is incorporated which will give off gas or vapour at the vulcanizing temperature, — such as carbonate of ammonia, crystal- lized alum, and finely ground damp sawdust. Uncombined sulphur is injurious, and often leads to the decay of vulcanized goods, but an excess of sulphur is generally required in order to ensure perfect vulcanization. Sometimes the excess is partially removed by boiling the finished goods with a solution of caustic soda, or some other solvent of sulphur. In other cases the injurious effects of free sulphur are obviated by using instead of it a metallic sulphide, — generally the orange sulphide of antimony; but, for the best results, it is necessary that this should contain from 20 to 30 % of uncom- bined sulphur. It will thus be seen that for nearly all practical purposes, including tires, vulcanized rubber mixed with mineral matter is employed! Such articles contain varying proportions of rubber (l2Hx>%), about 1-2 % of combined sulphur, and from 25-70 % of mineral matter. Vulcanized rubber is also now largely used as an electrical insulator for the construction of cables, &c., instead of gutta-percha. When the vulcanization of rubber is carried too far, from the presence of a very large proportion of sulphur and an unduly long action of heat, the caoutchouc becomes hard, horn-like, and often black. Rubber hardened by over-vulcanization is largely manu- factured under the name of ebonite or vulcanite. It is usually made by incorporating about 40 % of sulphur with purified Borneo rubber by means of the usual mixing rollers, shaping the required articles out of the mass thus obtained, and heating for six, eight or ten hours to from 135° to 150°. Ebonite takes a fine polish, and is valuable to the electrician on account of its insulating properties, and to the chemist and photographer because vessels made of it are unaffected by most chemical reagents. A kind of vulcanite which contains a large proportion of vermilion or other mineral pigment is used, under the name of dental rubber, for making artificial gums and supports for artificial teeth. LITERATURE. — Henri Jumelle, Les Plantes & caoutchouc et a gutta (Paris, 1903); Dr O. Warburg, Les Plantes a caoutchouc el leur culture (Paris, 1902; French translation by J. Vilbouchevitch) ; Herbert Wright, Hevea brasiliensis or Para Rubber (Colombo, 1908); Rubber in the East: the official account of the Ceylon Rubber Exhibi- tion, 1906, edited by J. C. Willis, M. Kelway Bamber and E. B. Denham (Colombo, 1906) ; Yves Henry, Le Caoutchouc dans I' Afrique occidental franfaise (Paris, 1906) ; E. de Wildeman and L. Gentil, Lianes caoutchoutiftres de VEtat Independent du Congo (Brussels, 1904); C. O. Weber, The Chemistry of Indiarubber (London, 1902); Selected papers from the Kew Bulletin, iii. " Rubber " (London, 1906); Kew Bulletin, 1906-9; Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1903-9. (W. R. D.) 8 04 RUBBLE— RUBENS RUBBLE, broken stone, of irregular size and shape. This word is closely connected in derivation with " rubbish," which was formerly also applied to what we now call " rubble." The earlier Middle English form was robeux or robows. It would appear that the original is an O. Fr. fobel. Roba (older form robba) is found in Italian in the sense of refuse, trash. Robba is explained by Florio as a gown, or mantle, robe, wealth, goods, trash. The original sense was " spoil" Thus, " robe," " rob," " rubbish " and " rubble " are all cognate. " Rubble- work " is a name applied to several species of masonry (q.v.). One kind, where the stones are loosely thrown together in a wall between boards and grouted with mortar almost like concrete, is called in Italian muraglia di getto and in French bocage. Work executed with large stones put together without any attempt at courses is also called rubble. RUBELLITE, a red variety of tourmaline (q.v.) used as a gem-stone. It generally occurs crystallized on the walls of cavities in coarse granitic rocks, where it is often associated with a pink lithia-mica (lepidolite). The most valued kinds are deep red; the colour being probably due to the presence of manganese. Some of the fines^ rubellite is found in Siberia, whence it is sometimes called siberite, or passes under the misleading name of " Siberian ruby." The mills at Ekaterin- burg, where it is cut and polished, draw most of their supplies from the Ural Mountains — chiefly from Mursinka, Sarapulskaya and Shaitanka, near Ekaterinburg — but specimens are occa- sionally found at Nerchinsk in Transbaikalia. Burma is famous for rubellite, but little was known as to the conditions of its occurrence there until after the British annexation, when the old workings were visited and described by C. Barrington Brown and by F. Noetling. The pits which yield rubellite are dug in alluvial deposits in the Mong-long valley, some miles to the S.E. of Mogok, the centre of the ruby country. It was here that the Chinese obtained the rubellite so much valued in China for buttons of the caps of mandarins of certain rank. In the British Museum there is a remarkable specimen of crystal- lized rubellite of large size and fine form, but of poor colour, which was presented by the king of Ava to Colonel Michael Symes on the occasion of his mission in 1795. Very fine rubellite is found in the United States, notably at Mount Mica, near Paris, Oxford Co., Maine, where the crystals are often red at one end and green at the other. Mount Rubellite, near Hebron, and Mount Apatite at Auburn, are other localities in the same state from which fine specimens are obtained. Chesterfield and Goshen, Mass., also yield red tourmaline, frequently associated with green in the same crystal. Pink tourmaline also occurs, with lepidolite and kunzite, in San Diego Co., California. In Europe rubellite occurs sparingly at a few localities, as at San Piero in Elba and at Penig in Saxony; but the mineral is rarely if ever fit for the lapidary. (F. W. R.*) RUBENS, PETER PAUL (1577-1640), Flemish painter, was born at Siegen, in Westphalia, on the zgth of June 1577. His father, Johannes Rubens, a druggist, although of humble descent was a man of learning, and councillor and alderman in his native town (1562). A Roman Catholic by birth, he became a zealous upholder of the Reformation, and we find him spoken of as le plus docte Calviniste qui fust pour lors au Bas Pays. After the plundering of the Antwerp churches in 1566, the magistrates were called upon for a justification. While openly they declared themselves devoted sons of the church, a list of the followers of the Reformed creed, headed by the name of Anthony Van Stralen, the burgomaster, got into the hands of the duke of Alva. This was a sentence of death for the magis- trates, and Johannes Rubens lost no time in quitting Spanish soil, ultimately settling at Cologne (October 1568) .with his wife and four children. In his new residence he became legal adviser to Anne of Saxony, the second wife of the prince of Orange, William the Silent. Before long it was discovered that their relations were not purely of a business kind. Thrown into the dungeons of Dillenburg, Rubens lingered there for many months, his wife, Maria Pypelincx, never relaxing her endeavours to get the undutiful husband restored to freedom. Two years elapsed before the prisoner was released, and then only to be confined to the small town of Siegen. Here he lived with his family from 1573 to 1578, and here Maria Pypelincx gave birth to Philip, afterwards town-clerk of Antwerp, and Peter Paul. A year after (May 1578) the Antwerp lawyer got leave to return to Cologne, where he died on the i8th of March 1587, after having, it is said, returned to Roman Catholicism. Rubens went to Antwerp with his mother when he was scarcely ten years of age. He was an excellent Latin scholar, and also proficient in French, Italian, Spanish, English, German and Dutch. Part of his boyhood he spent as a page in the household of the countess of Lalaing, in Brussels; but tradition adds that his mother allowed him to follow his proper vocation, choosing as his master Tobias Verhaecht. Not the slightest trace of this first master's influence can be detected in Rubens's works. Not so with Adam Van Noort, to whom the young man was next apprenticed. Van Noort, whose aspect of energy is well known through Van Dyck's beautiful etching, was the highly esteemed master of numerous painters — among them Van Balen, Sebastian Vrancx, and Jordaens, later his son-in-law. Rubens remained with Van Noort for the usual period of four years, thereafter studying under Otto Vaenius or Van Veen, a gentleman by birth, a most distinguished Latin scholar and a painter of very high repute. He was a native of Leiden, and only recently settled in Antwerp. Though Rubens never adopted his style of painting, the tastes of master and pupil had much in common, and some pictures by Otto Vaenius can be pointed out as having inspired Rubens at a more advanced period. For example, the " Magdalene anointing Christ's Feet," painted for the cathedral at Malaga, and now at the Hermitage in St Petersburg, closely resembles in composition the very important work of Otto Vaenius in the church at Bergues near Dunkirk. In 1598, Adam Van Noort acting as dean of the Antwerp gild of painters, Rubens was officially recognized as " master " — that is, was allowed to work independently and receive pupils. His style at this early period may be judged from the by no means satisfactory " Holy Trinity " at Antwerp Museum, which already shows his bold, vigorous handling, and the " Portrait of a Youth " in the Munich Pinakothek. From 1600 to the latter part of 1608 Rubens belonged to the household of Vincenzo Gonzaga, duke of Mantua. The duke, who spent some time at Venice in July 1600, had his attention drawn by one of his courtiers to Rubens's genius, and immediately induced him to enter his service. The influence of the master's stay at Mantua was of extreme importance, and cannot be too constantly kept in view in the study of his later works. Sent to Rome in 1601, to take copies from Raphael for his master, he was also commissioned to paint several pictures for the church of Santa Croce, by the archduke Albrecht of Austria, sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands, and once, when he was a cardinal, the titular of that see. A copy of " Mercury and Psyche " after Raphael is preserved in the museum at Pesth. The religious paintings — " The Invention of the Cross," " The Crowning with Thorns " and " The Crucifixion " — are to be found in the hospital at Grasse in Provence (Alpes Mari times). At the beginning of 1603, " The Fleming," as he was termed at Mantua, was sent to Spain with a variety of presents for Philip III. and his minister the duke of Lerma, and thus had opportunity to spend a whole year at Madrid and become ac- quainted with some of Titian's masterpieces. Of his own works, known to belong to the same period, in the Madrid Gallery, are " Heraclitus " and "Democritus." Of Rubens's abilities so far back as 1604 we get a more complete idea from an immense picture now in the Antwerp Gallery, the " Baptism of Our Lord," originally painted for the Jesuits at Mantua. Here it may be seen to what degree Italian surroundings had influenced the household painter of Vincenzo Gonzaga. Vigorous to the extreme in design, he reminds us of Michelangelo as much as any of the degenerate masters of the Roman school, RUBENS 805 while in decorative skill he seems to be descended from Titian and in colouring from Giulio Romano. Equally with this picture, " The Transfiguration," now in the museum at Nancy, and the portraits of " Vincenzo and his Consort, kneeling before the Trinity," in the library at Mantua, claim a large share of attention. Two years later we meet a very large altar-piece of " The Circumcision " at St Ambrogio at Genoa, the " Virgin in a Glory of Angels," and two groups of Saints, painted on the wall, at both sides of the high altar in the church of Santa Maria in Valicella in Rome. These works remind us of a saying of Baglione, who was acquainted with Rubens in Italy: Apprese egli buon gusto, e diede in una maniera buona Italiana. While employed "at Rome hi 1608, Rubens received most alarming news as to the state of his mother's health. The duke of Mantua was then absent from Italy, but the dutiful son, without awaiting his return, at once set out for the Netherknds. When he arrived in Antwerp, Maria Pypelincx was no more. However strong his wish might now be to return to Italy, his purpose was overruled by the express desire of his sovereigns, Albrecht and Isabella, to see him take up a permanent residence in the Belgian provinces. On the 3rd of August 1609 Rubens was named painter in ordinary to their Highnesses, with a salary of 500 livres, and " the rights, honours, privileges, ex- emptions," &c., belonging to persons of the royal household, not to speak of the gift of a gold chain. Not least in importance for the painter was his complete exemption from all the regula- tions of the gild of St Luke, entitling him to engage any pupils or fellow-workers without being obliged to have them enrolled — a favour which has been of considerable trouble to the historians of Flemish art. Although so recently returned to his native land, Rubens seems to have been, with one accord, accepted by his country- men as the head of their school, and the municipality was foremost in giving him the means of proving his acquirements. The first in date among the numerous repetitions of the "Adora- tion of the Magi " is a picture in the Madrid Gallery, measuring 12 ft. by 17, and containing no fewer than eight-and-twenty life-size figures, many in gorgeous attire, warriors in steel armour, horsemen, slaves, camels, &c. This picture, painted in Antwerp, at the town's expense, in 1609, had scarcely re- mained three years in the town hall when if went to Spain as a present to Don Rodrigo Calderon, count of Oliva. The painter has represented himself among the horsemen, bare- headed, and wearing his gold chain. From a letter written hi May 1611 we know that more than a hundred young men were desirous to become his pupils, and that many had, " for several years," been waiting with other masters until he could admit them to his studio. Apart from the success of his works, another powerful motive had helped to detain the master hi Antwerp — his marriage with Isabella Brant (October 1609). Many pictures have made us familiar with the graceful young woman who was for seventeen years to share the master's destinies. We meet her at the Hague, St Petersburg, Berlin, Florence, at Grosvenor House, but more especially at Munich, where Rubens and his wife are depicted at full length on the same canvas. " His wife is very handsome," observes Sir Joshua Reynolds, "and has an agreeable countenance;" but the picture, he adds, " is rather hard in manner." This, it must be noted, is the case with all those pictures known to have immediately followed Rubens's return, when he was still dependent on the assist- ance of painters trained by others than himself. Even hi the " Raising of the Cross," now hi the Antwerp cathedral, and painted for the church of St Walburga in 1610, the dryness in outline is very striking. According to the taste still at that time prevailing, the picture is tripartite, but the wings only serve to develop the central composition, and add to the general effect. In Wit- doeck's beautiful engraving the partitions even disappear. Thus, from the first, we see Rubens quite determined upon having his own way, and it is recorded that, when he painted the " Descent from the Cross," " St Christopher," the subject chosen by the Arquebusiers, was altered so as to bring the artistic expressions into better accordance with his views. Although the subject was frequently repeated by the great painter, this first " Descent from the Cross " has not ceased to be looked upon as his masterpiece. Begun in 1611, the celebrated work was placed in 1614, and certainly no more striking evidence could be given of the rapid growth of the author's abilities. Rubens received 2400 florins for this picture. In many respects, Italian influence remains conspicuous in the " Descent from the Cross." Rubens had seen Ricciarelli's fresco at the Trinita de' Monti, and was also acquainted with the grandiose picture of Baroccio in the cathedral of Perugia, and no one conversant with these works can mistake their influence. But in Rubens strength of personality could not be overpowered by reminiscence; and in type, as well as in colouring, the " Descent from the Cross " may be termed thoroughly Flemish and Rubenesque. If Sir Dudley Carleton could speak of Antwerp in 1616 as Magna civitas, magna soliludo, there was no place neverthe- less which could give a wider scope to artistic enterprise. Spain and the United Provinces were for a time at peace; almost all the churches had been stripped of their adornments; monastic orders were powerful and richly endowed, gilds and corporations eager to show the fervour of their Catholic faith, now that the " monster of heresy " seemed for ever quelled. Gothic churches began to be decorated according to the new fashion adopted in Italy. Altars magnified to monuments, sometimes reaching the full height of the vaulted roof, dis- played, between their twisted columns, pictures of a size hitherto unknown. No master seemed better fitted to be associated with this kind of painting than Rubens. The temple erected by the reverend fathers in Antwerp was almost entirely the painter's work, and if he did not, as we often find asserted, design the front, he certainly was the inspirer of the whole building. Hitherto no Fleming had undertaken to paint ceilings with foreshortened figures, and blend the religious with the decorative art after the style of those buildings which are met with hi Italy, and owe their decorations to masters like Titian, Veronese and Tintoretto. No fewer than forty ceiling-panels were composed by Rubens, and painted under his direction ha the space of two years. All were destroyed by fire in 1718. Sketches in water-colour were taken some time before the disaster by de Wit, and from these were made the etchings by Du Pont which alone enable us to form a judgment of the grandiose undertaking. In the Madrid Gallery we' find a general view of the church in all its splendour. The present church of St Charles hi Antwerp is, externally, with some alteration, the building here alluded to. Rubens delighted in undertakings of the vastest kind. " The large size of a picture," he writes to W. Trumbull in 1621, " gives us painters more courage to represent our ideas with the utmost freedom and semblance of reality. ... I confess myself to be, by a natural instinct, better fitted to execute works of the largest size." The correctness of this appreciation he was very soon called upon to demonstrate most strikingly by a series of twenty-four pictures, illustrating the life of Marie de Medicis, queen-mother of France. The gallery at the Luxem- bourg Palace, which these paintings once adorned, has long since disappeared, and the complete work is not exhibited in the Louvre. Drawings, it seems, had been asked from Quentin Varin, the French master who incited Poussin to become a painter, but Rubens was ultimately preferred. This preference may in some degree be ascribed to his former connexion with the court at Mantua, Marie de Medicis and the duchess of Gonzaga being sisters. From the cradle to the day of her reconciliation with Louis XIII., we follow Marie de M£dicis after the manner in which it was customary in those days to consider personages of superior rank. The Fates for her have spun the silken and golden thread; Juno watches over her birth and entrusts her to the town of Florence; Minerva, the Graces and Apollo take charge of her education; Love 8o6 RUBENS exhibits her image to the king, and Neptune conveys her across the seas; Justice, Health and Plenty endow her son; Prudence and Generosity are at her sides during the regency; and, when she resigns the helm of the state to the prince, Justice, Strength, Religion and Fidelity hold the oars. The sketches of all these paintings — now in the Munich Gallery — were painted in Antwerp, a numerous staff of distinguished collaborators being entrusted with the final execution. But the master himself spent much time in Paris, retouching the whole work, which was completed within less than four years. On the I3th of May 1625, Rubens writes from Paris to his friend Peiresc that both the queen and her son are highly satis- fied with his paintings, and that Louis XIII. came on purpose to the Luxembourg, " where he never has set foot since the palace was begun sixteen or eighteen years ago." We also gather from this letter that the picture representing the " Felicity of the Regency " was painted to replace another, the " Departure of the Queen," which had caused some offence. Richelieu gave himself some trouble to get part of the work, intended to represent the life of Henry IV., bestowed upon Cavalier d'Arpina, but did not succeed in his endeavours. The queen's exile, however, prevented the undertaking from going beyond a few sketches, and two or three panels, one of which, the " Triumph of Henry IV.," now in the Uffizi Gallery, is one of the noblest works of Rubens or of any master. On the nth of May 1625, Rubens was present at the nuptials of Henrietta Maria at Notre Dame in Paris, when the scaffolding on which he stood gave way, and he tells us he was just able to catch an adjoining tribune. No painter in Europe could now pretend to equal Rubens either in talent or in renown. Month after month productions of amazing size left the Antwerp studio; and to those un- acquainted with the master's pictures magnificent engravings by Vorsterman, Pontius and others had conveyed singularly striking interpretations. " Whatever work of his I may require," writes Moretus, the celebrated Antwerp printer, " I have to ask him six months before, so as that he may think of it at leisure, and do the work on Sundays or holidays; no week days of his could I pretend to get under a hundred florins." Of the numerous creations of his brush, none, perhaps, will more thoroughly disclose to us Rubens's comprehension of religious decorative art than the " Assumption of the Virgin " at the high altar of Antwerp cathedral, finished in 1625. It is, of twenty repetitions of this subject, the only example still preserved at the place for which it was intended. In spirit we are here reminded of Titian's " Assunta " in the cathedral at Verona, but Rubens's proves perhaps a higher conception of the subject. The work is seen a considerable way off, and every outline is bathed in light, so that the Virgin is elevated to dazzling glory with a power of ascension scarcely, if ever, attained by any master. Although able to rely so greatly on his power as a colourist, Rubens is not a mere decorator. He penetrates into the spirit of his subjects more deeply than, at first sight, seems consistent with his prodigious facility in execution. The " Massacre of the Innocents," in the Munich Gallery, is a composition that can leave no person unmoved — mothers defending their children with nails and teeth. When St Francis attempts to shelter the universe from the Saviour's wrath (Brussels Gallery), Rubens recalls to our memory that most dramatic passage of the Iliad when Hecuba, from the walls of Troy, entreats her son Hector to spare his life. Rubens was a man of his time; his studies of Italian art in no way led him back to the Quattrocentisti nor the Raffaeleschi; their power was at an end. The influence of Michelangelo, Titian, Tintoretto, more especially Baroccio, Polidoro, and even Parmigiano, is no less visible with him than with those masters who, like Spranger, C. Schwartz and Goltzius, stood high in public estimation immediately before his advent. In the midst of the rarest activity as a painter, Rubens was now called upon to give proofs of a very different kind of ability. The truce concluded between Spain and the Nether- lands in 1609 ended in 1621; Archduke Albrecht died the same year. His widow sincerely wished to prolong the arrange- ment, still hoping to see the United Provinces return to the Spanish dominion, and in her eyes Rubens was the fittest person to bring about this conclusion. The painter's comings and goings, however, did not remain unheeded, for the French ambassador writes from Brussels in 1624 — " Rubens is here to take the likeness of the prince of Poland, by order of the infanta. I am persuaded he will succeed better in this than in his negotiations for the truce." But, if Rubens was to fail in his efforts to bring about an arrangement with the Netherlands, other events enabled him to render great service to the state. Rubens and Buckingham met in Paris in 1625; a corre- spondence of some importance had been going on between the painter and the Brussels court, and before long it was pro- posed that he should endeavour to bring about a final arrange- ment between the Crowns of England and Spain. The infanta willingly consented, and King Philip, who much objected to the interference of an artist, gave way on hearing, through his aunt, that the negotiator on the English side, Sir Balthasar Gerbier — a Fleming by birth — was likewise a painter. Rubens and Gerbier very soon met in Holland. Matters went on very well, and Rubens volunteered to go to Spain and lay before the council the result of his negotiations (1628). Nine months were thus spent at Madrid; they rank among the most im- portant in Rubens's career. He had brought with him eight pictures of various sizes and subjects as presents from the infanta, and he was also commissioned to paint several portraits of the king and royal family. An equestrian picture of Philip IV., destroyed by fire in last century, became the subject of a poem by Lope de Vega, and the description enables us to identify the composition with that of a painting now in the Palazzo Pitti, ascribed to Velazquez. Through a letter to Peiresc we hear of the familiar inter- course kept up between the painter and the king. Philip delighted to see Rubens at work in the studio prepared for him in the palace, where he not only left many original pictures, but copied for his own pleasure and profit the best of Titian's. An artistic event of some importance connected with the so- journ in Spain is the meeting of Rubens and Velazquez, to the delight, and, it may be added, advantage of both. Great as was the king's admiration of Rubens as a painter, it seems to have been scarcely above the value attached to his political services. He now commissioned the painter to go to London as bearer of his views to Charles I., and Rubens, honoured with the title of secretary of the king's privy council in the Netherlands, started at once on his new mission. Although he stopped but four days in Antwerp, he arrived in London just as peace had been concluded with France. Received by Charles with genuine pleasure, he very soon was able to ingratiate himself so far as to induce the king to pledge his royal word to take part in no undertakings against Spain so long as the negotiations remained unconcluded, and all the subsequent endeavours of France, Venice and the States found the king immovable in this resolution. The tardiness of the Spanish court in sending a regular ambassador involved the un- fortunate painter in distressing anxieties, and the tone of his despatches is very bitter. But he speaks with the greatest admiration of England and the English, regretting that he should only have come to know the country so late. His popularity must have been very great, for on the 23rd of September 1629 the university of Cambridge conferred upon him the honorary degree of master of arts, and on the 2ist of February 1630 he^was knighted, the king presenting him with the sword used at the ceremony, which is still preserved by the. descendants of the artist. Although, it seems, less actively employed as an artist in EnglarM than in Spain, Rubens, besides his sketches for the decoration of the Banqueting Hall at Whitehall, painted the admirable picture of " The Blessings of Peace " now in the RUBENS 807 National Gallery. There is no reason to doubt, with Smith, that " His Majesty sat to him for his portrait, yet it is not a little remarkable that no notice occurs in any of the royal catalogues, or the writers of the period, of the existence of such a portrait." While in England, Rubens very narrowly escaped drowning while going to Greenwich in a boat. The fact is reported by Lord Dorchester in a letter to Sir Isaac Wake (Sainsbury, cxvi.). At the beginning of March the painter's mission came to a close. Rubens was now fifty-three years of age; he had been four years a widower, and before the end of the year (December 1630) he entered into a second marriage with a beautiful girl of sixteen, named Helena Fourment. She was an admirable model, and none of her husband's works may be more justly termed masterpieces than those in which she is represented (Munich, St Petersburg, Blenheim, Liechtenstein, the Louvre, &c.). Although the long months of absence could not be termed blanks in Rubens's artistic career, his return was followed by an almost incredible activity. Inspired more than ever by the glorious works of Titian, he now produced some of his best paintings. Brightness in colouring, breadth of touch and pictorial conception, are specially striking in those works we know to have been painted in the latter part of his lifetime. Could anything give a higher idea of Rubens's genius than, for example, the " Feast of Venus," the portrait of " Helena Fourment ready to enter the Bath," or the " St Ildefonso "? This last picture — now, as well as the two others just alluded to, in the Vienna Gallery — was painted for the church of the convent of St Jacques, in Brussels. On the wings are repre- sented the archdukes in royal attire, under the protection pf their patron saints. The presence of these figures has led to some mistake regarding the date of the production, but it has been proved beyond doubt, through a document published by Mr Castan (1884), that the " St Ildefonso" (at Vienna- there is another resembling it at St Petersburg) belongs to the series of works executed after the journeys to Spain and England. Archduke Albrecht had been dead ten years. The picture was engraved by Witdoeck in 1638. Isabella died in 1633, and we know that to the end Rubens remained in high favour with her, alike as an artist and as a political agent. The painter was even one of the gentlemen she deputed to meet Marie de Medicis at the frontier in 1631, after her escape from France. Spain and the Netherlands went to war again, the king never ceasing to look upon the Dutch as rebels, and much trouble and suspicion came upon the great artist. As to the real nature of his communings with Frederick Henry of Orange, whom he is known to have interviewed, nothing as yet has been discovered. Ferdinand of Austria, the cardinal-infant of Spain, was called to the government of the Netherlands on the death of his aunt. He was the king's younger brother, and arrived at Antwerp in May 1635. The streets had been decorated with triumphal arches and " spectacula," arranged by Rubens, and certainly never equalled by any other works of the kind.1 Several of the paintings detached from the arches were offered as presents to the new governor-general, a scarcely known fact, which accounts for the presence of many of these works in public galleries (Vienna, Dresden, Brussels, &c.). Rubens was at the time laid up with gout, but Prince Ferdinand was desirous of expressing his satisfaction, and called upon the painter, re- maining a long time at his house. Rubens and Ferdinand had met at Madrid, and only a short time elapsed before the painter was confirmed in his official standing — a matter of small importance, if we consider that the last years of his life were almost exclusively employed in working much more for the king than for his brother. About a hundred and twenty 1 Many sketches of the arches are still preserved in the museums in Antwerp, St Petersburg, Cambridge, Windsor, &c. All the compositions were etched under the direction of Rubens by his ' pupil J. Van Thulden and published under the title of Pompa introitus honori serenissimi Principis Ferdinandi Austriaci S. R. E. card, a S. P. Q. Antverp. decreta el ordinata. paintings of considerable size left Antwerp for Madrid in 1637, 1638 and 1639; they were intended to decorate the pavilion erected at the Pardo, and known under the name of Torre de la Parada. Another series had been begun, when Ferdinand wrote to Madrid that the painter was no more, and Jordaens would finish the work. Rubens breathed his last on the 3oth of May 1646. More fortunate than many artists, Rubens left the world in the midst of his glory. Not the remotest trace of approaching old age, not the slightest failing of mind or skill, can be detected even in his latest works, such as the " Martyrdom of St Peter " at Cologne, the " Martyrdom of St Thomas " at Prague, or the " Judgment of Paris " at Madrid, where his young wife appears for the last time. Rubens has little of the Italian grace and refinement ; he was a Fleming throughout, noth withstanding his frequent recollections of those Italian masters whom he most admired, and who themselves have little, if anything, in common with Raphael. But it must be borne in mind how completely his predecessors were frozen into stiffness through italianization, and how necessary it was to bring back the Flemish school to life and nature. Critics have spoken of Rubens's historical improprieties. Of course nobody could suppose that his classical learning did not go far enough to know that the heroines of the Old Testament or of Roman history were not dressed out as ladies of his time; but in this respect he only follows the example of Titian, Paolo Veronese, and many others. In no other school do we find these animated hunts of lions, tigers, and even the hippopotamus and the crocodile, which may be reckoned among the finest specimens of art, and here again are life and nature dis- Clayed with the utmost power. " His horses are perfect in their ind," says Reynolds; his dogs are of the strong Flemish breed, and his landscapes the most charming pictures of Brabantine scenery, in the midst of which lay his seat of Steen. As a portrait painter, although less refined than Van Dyck, he shows that eminent master the way; and his pure fancy subjects, as the " Garden of Love " (Madrid and Dresden) and the " Village Feast " (Louvre), have never been equalled. For nearly one hundred years the Flemish school may be said to have been but a reflection of the Rubenesque principles. Although Jordaens and Erasmus Quellin lived till 1678, the school might be termed a body without soul. Some etchings have been ascribed to Rubens, but except a head of Seneca, the only copy of .which is in the Print Room at the British Museum, and a beautiful figure of St Catherine, we can admit none of the other plates said to proceed from Rubens as authentic. Rubens nevertheless exercised an immense influence on the art of engraving. Under his direct guidance Soutman, Vorsterman, Pontius, Witdoeck, the two Bolswerts, Peter de Jode, N. Lauwers, and many others of less note, left an immense number of beautiful plates, reproducing the most celebrated of his paintings. To give an idea of what his influence was capable of accomplishing, pictorially speaking, it might be sufficient to notice the transforma- tion undergone by the Antwerp school of engraving under Rubens; even the modern school of engraving, in more than one respect, is a continuation of the style first practised in Antwerp (see LINE ENGRAVING). His influence is scarcely less apparent in sculpture, and the celebrated Luke Fayd'herbe was his pupil. Never did the Flemish school find a second Rubens. None of his four sons became a painter, nor did any of his three daughters marry an artist. According to Rubens's will, his drawings were to belong to that one of hi> sons who might become a painter, or in the event of one of his daughters marrying a celebrated artist, they were to be her portion. The valuable collection was dispersed only in 1659, and of the pictures sold in 1640 thirty-two became the property of the king of Spain. The Madrid Gallery alone possesses over sixty of his works. Four years after her husband s death, Helena Fourment married J. B. Van Brouckhoven de Bergheyck, knight of St James, member of the privy council, &c. She died in 1673. In 1746 the male line of Rubens's descendants was completely extinct. In the female line more than a hundred families of name in Europe trace their descent from him. The paintings of Rubens are found in all the principal galleries in Europe: Antwerp and Brussels, Madrid, Pans, Lille, Dresden, Berlin, Munich, Vienna, St Petersburg, London, Florence, Milan, Turin exhibit several hundreds of his works. J. Smith's Catalogue gives descriptions of more than thirteen hundred compositions. LITERATURE. — A. van Hasselt, Histoire de P. P. Rubens (Brussels, 1840) ; E. Cachet, Lettres inedites de P. P. Rubens (Brussels, 1840) ; W. Noel Sainsbury, Original Unpublished Papers illustrative of the Life of Sir Peter Paul Rubens (London, 1859); C. Ruelens, Pierre Paul Rubens, documents et lettres (Brussels, 1877); Armand Baschet, " Rubens en Italic et en Espagne," in the Gazette des beaux arts, vols. xxii. to xxiv. (Paris, 1867-68) ; A. Michiels, Rubens et I'fcole d'Anvers (Paris, 1877); Cruzada Villaamil, Rubens diplomatico espafiol (Madrid, 1874) ; Gachard, Histoire politiaue et diplomatique de P. P. Rubens (Brussels, 1877) ; P. Genard, P. P. Rubens, Aanteekeningen over den Grooten Meester (Antwerp, 1877) ; Max Rooses, Titres et portraits graves d'apres P. P. Rubens, pour t'imprimerie plantinienne (Antwerp, 8o8 RUBIACEAE— RUBIDIUM i877); J- Smith, Catalogue raisonne of the Works of the most eminent Dutch and Flemish Painters, pt. ii. (London, 1 8,50) ; Waagen, Peter Paul Rubens (translated from the German by R. Noel; edited by Mrs Jameson, London, 1840); H. Hymans, Histoire de la gravure dans I'ecole de Rubens (Brussels, 1879) ; C. G. Voorhelm Schneevoogt, Catalogue des estampes gravies d'apres Rubens (Haarlem, 1873); Max Rooses, Rubens, sa vie el ses osuvres (Antwerp, 1893); R. A. M. Stevenson, P. P. Rubens (Portfolio Monograph; London, 1898); Emile Michel, Rubens: his Life, his Work and his Time (London, 1899) ; H. Knackfuss, Rubens (London, 1904) ; and E. Dillon, Rubens (London, 1909). (H. H.; P. G. K.) RUBIACEAE, in botany, a large natural order of seed plants, belonging to the series Rubiales of the subclass Sympetalae (Gamopetalae) of Dicotyledons, and containing about 350 genera with about 4500 species. It is mainly a tropical family of trees, shrubs and herbs, but some of the tribes, especially Galieae, to which the British representatives belong and which contains only herbs, are more strongly developed in temperate regions; some species of Galium reach the Arctic zone and are found at high elevations on mountains in the tropics. The most striking characteristic of the family are the opposite- decussate, generally entire, stipulate leaves. The stipules are very varied in form ; they generally stand between the petioles of a pair of leaves (interpetiolar). The two stipules of adjacent leaves are usually united, and in the Galieae, as well shown in the British species, are enlarged and leaf-like, forming with the two leaves an apparent whorl ; by fusion or branching of the stipules the number of leaves in the whorl varies from four to eight or more. The flowers are rarely solitary, terminal or axillary, as in Gardenia; generally they are arranged in cymes or panicles or crowded into heads, and are often showy; in British members of the family they are very small, but may be conspicuous from their numbers, as in lady's bedstraw (Galium verum). The flowers are hermaphrodite and regular with parts in fours or fives; the four or five sepals, petals and stamens are placed above the ovary, which consists of two carpels, contains one to indefinite anatropous ovules in each of the two chambers, and is crowned by a simple style ending in a head or in two lobes. The sepals are often small, sometimes reduced to a narrow ring encircling the top of the ovary or altogether absent. The united petals form a corolla which varies widely in form in the different genera; it is often funnel- or salver-shaped, the honey, which is secreted by a disk round the base of the style, being at the bottom of a longer or shorter tube, in which case the flowers are adapted for pollination by Lepidoptera or bees, as in Gardenia, Mussaenda, Guettarda, &c. ; in other cases it is bell-shaped or, as in Galium, rotate, with a short tube and sharply spreading segments; the honey is in these cases freely exposed or only slightly concealed and the flowers are pollinated by flies. The stamens are attached to the corolla-tube and alternate in position with its segments; the flowers are often dimorphic (or heterostyled) with short-styled and long-styled forms as in ipecacuanha (see fig.). The fruit also varies widely in form and is dry or fleshy. When dry it forms a capsule with septicidal or loculicidal dehiscence, or is a schizocarp separating when dry into two one-seeded pericarps which, as in the British cleavers (Galium Aparine), sometimes bear hooked appendages which aid their dispersal. Some genera show a remarkable association with ants. Thus Myrmecodia, Hydnophytum are epiphytic plants, in which the base of the stem forms a large tuber, which is attached to the support by numerous adventitious roots. The substance of the tuber is pene- trated by numerous cork-lined cavities communicating by galleries, which are inhabited by ants. There is no evidence that the presence of the ants is of any service to the plant. The order is divided into a large number of tribes based on the number of ovules in each ovary-chamber, the character of the fruit seed and ovule, and the aestivation of the corolla. These may be arranged in three families as follows: — Cinchoneae, often woody plants with scale-like stipules, and numerous ovules in each ovary-chamber; the fruit is generally a capsule. To this belong Cinchona (q.v.), a genus of large trees with handsome flowers containing about forty species in the Andes of South America — it is well known as the source of Peruvian bark. An allied genus, Bouvardia (q.v.), from tropical America, is cultivated for its flowers. The species of Uncaria climb by means of hooks which are modified inflorescence-axes. Mussaenda, Gardenia (q.v.), and other genera are characterized by having a fleshy fruit. Coffeeae, often woody or shrubby plants with scale-like stipules; each ovary-chamber contains only one ovule. Coffee (q.v.), a genus of shrubs with about twenty-five species in the Old World tropics, includes the coffee plant (C. arabica and C. liberica) ; the fruit is a two-seeded drupe, the seed is the " coffee-bean." The thickened root of Uragoga ipecacuanha yields ipecacuanha (q.v.). Stellateae, herbaceous plants with leaf -like stipules; each ovary- chamber contains one ovule only. Includes the four British genera Rubia, one species of which, R. tinctorum, is madder; Galium, including G. verum (lady's bedstraw), G. Aparine (goose-grass or cleavers), and other British species; Asperula, including A. odorata (woodruff) and Sherardia. The order is closely allied to Caprifoliaceae, the chief distinction being the absence of stipules in the latter. Ipecacuanha Plant. RUBICON, a small stream of ancient Italy, which flowed into the Adriatic between Ariminum and Caesena, and formed the boundary between Italy and the province of Cisalpine Gaul. Hence Caesar's crossing of it in 49 B.C. was tantamount to a declaration of war against Rome as represented by Pompey and the Senate. The historic importance of this event gave rise to the phrase " crossing the Rubicon " for a step which definitely commits a person to a given course of action. There has been much controversy as to the identification of the stream; it appears that its upper course is represented by that of the Pisciatello (called Rubigone in the nth or iath century and now Rugone or Urgone), and its lower portion by the Fiumicino, which the Urgone once joined. The point was marked by a station on the Via Aemilia below their confluence, 12 m. N.W. of Ariminum, bearing the name ad Confluentes; and here is still preserved a three-arched bridge, larger than is necessary for the water carried by the present Fiumicino. RUBIDIUM [symbol Rb, atomic weight 85-45 (O=i6)], a metallic element belonging to the group of the alkali metals. It is found in the minerals lepidolite, petalite and in various specimens of mica and of carnallite, and in some mineral waters. It also occurs in tea, cocoa, coffee, tobacco and in the ashes of beetroot. It was discovered by R. Bunsen and Kirchhoff (Ann., 1860, 113, p. 337), in the spectroscopic examina- tion of the residues obtained on evaporation of water from a mineral spring at Durkheim, being characterized by two distinctive red lines. The best source of rubidium salts is the residue left after extracting lithium salts from lepidolite, the method of separation being based on the different solubilities of the platino-chlorides of potassium, rubidium and caesium RUBINSTEIN 809 in water (R. Bunsen, Ann., 1862, 122, p. 331)- A somewhat similar process based on the varying solubilities of the corre- sponding alums has also been devised by Redtenbacher (Jour, prak. Chem., 1865, 95, p. 148). The metal is prepared by distilling the carbonate with carbon (an explosive compound similar to that obtained from potassium and carbon monoxide is liable to be formed simultaneously); by reducing the hydrox- ide with aluminium: 4RbOH+2Al = Rb2O Al203+2Rb-|-2H2 (N. Beketoff, Ber., 1888, 21, p. 424 ref.); by reducing the carbonate (C. Winckler, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 51) or the hydroxide with magnesium (H. Erdmann and P, Kothner, Ann., 1899, 294, p. 55); and by heating the fused chloride with calcium in an exhausted glass tube at 400-500° C. (L. Hackspill, Comptes rendus, 1905, 141, p. 101). The metal was first obtained electrolytically in 1910 by electrolysing the fused hydroxide in a nickel vessel, with an iron wire cathode and iron cylinder anode; the product on cooling being opened under pyridine cooled by a freezing mixture (G. von Hevesy, Zeil. anorg. Chem., 1910, 67, p. 242). It is a silvery white metal which melts at 38-5° C. and has a specific gravity of 1-52. It oxidizes rapidly on exposure to air, and decomposes cold water very rapidly. It closely resembles caesium and potas- sium in its general properties. The rubidium salts are generally colourless, mostly soluble in water and isomorphous with the corresponding potassium salts. Rubidium hydride, RbH, was obtained in the form of colourless needles by H. Moissan (Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 587) from the direct combination of its constituent elements. It rapidly dis- sociates when heated in vacuo to 300° C. The existence of the oxide RWD appears to be doubtful, the results of Erdmann and Kothner (loc. c-tt.) pointing to the formation of RbO2 by the direct union of the metal with dry oxygen. E. Rengade (Comptes rendus, 1907, 144, p. 920), by partially oxidizing the 0u-tal in a current of dry oxygen and removing excess of metal by distillation in vacuo, has obtained oxides of composition RbjOj (yellowish white), RbjOs (black) and Rb2O« (yellow). Rubidium hydroxide, RbOH, is a colourless solid which is formed by the action of rubidium on water, or by the addition of baryta water to a solution of rubidium sulphate. It is readily soluble in water, the solution being very alkaline and caustic. It melts at 301°. Evaporation of the aqueous solution at 15° C. deposits a crystalline hydrated hydroxide of composition RbOH-2H2O (R. de Forcrand, Comptes rendus, 1909, 149, p. 1341). Rubidium chloride, RbCl, is formed on burning rubidium in chlorine, or on dissolving the hydroxide in aqueous hydrochloric acid. It crystallizes in colourless cubes and volatilizes when heated very strongly. It is soluble in water and combines with many metallic chlorides to form double salts. It combines also with iodine chloride and bromide and with bromine chloride and with bromine (H. L. Wells and H. L. Wheeler, Amer. Jour. Sci., 1891 (3), 43, p. 475). Rubidium sulphate, RbjSCh, is formed by the action of sulphuric acid on the carbonate or hydroxide of the metal, or by the action of milk of lime on rubidium alum, the excess of lime being pre- cipitated by rubidium carbonate and the solution neutralized by sulphuric acid. It forms large colourless hexagonal crystals. Several sulphides of the metal have been described by W. Biltz and E. Wilke-Dorfurt (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1906, 48, p. 297). The normal sulphide, Rb2S-4H2O, is colourless, and when heated in aqueous solution with the requisite amount of sulphur is transformed into the yellow tetrasulphide, Rb2S4-2H2p. A pentasulphide, RbjSs, which crystallizes in red prisms melting at 223° C., is also obtained by the direct union of the normal sulphide with sulphur. When heated in a current of hydrogen it is transformed into the colourless disulphide, whilst if the heating be carried out in a current of nitrogen it yields the trisulphide, Rb2S3-H2O. These sulphides are much less hygroscopic than the corresponding caesium com- pounds. Rubidium nitrate, RbNO3, obtained by the action of nitric acid on the carbonate, crystallizes in needles or prisms and when strongly heated is transformed into a mixture of nitrite and oxide. Rubidium ammonium, RbNHs, was prepared by H. Moissan (Comptes^ rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1177) by the action of liquid ammonia on rubidium. The product combines with acetylene to form rubidium acetylide acetylene, Rb2C2-C2H2, which on heating in vacuo loses acetylene and leaves a residue of rubidium carbide Rb2C2 (ibid. p. 1217). Rubidium carbonate, Rb2COa, formed by the addition of ammonium carbonate to rubidium hydroxide, is a crystalline mass which melts in its water of crystallization when heated. The atomic weight of rubidium was determined by R. Bunsen (Fogg. Ann., 1861, 113, p. 339), Picard (Zeit. anal. Chem., 1862, I, p. 519) and Godeffroy (Ann., 1876, 181, p. 185), the methods being basea on the conversion of rubjaium hahdes into the corresponding silver salt, and the values obtained vary from 85-40 to 85-50. The determination of E. H. Archibald (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 776) from the analysis of the chloride and bromide gives the mean value as 85-485 (O = 16). RUBINSTEIN, ANTON GRIGOROVICH (1829-1894), Russian pianist, born of Jewish parentage on the 28th of November 1829 at Wechwotynetz, in Podolia, was the son of a pencil manufacturer who migrated to Moscow. The Rubin- stein family, at the dictate of Anton's grandfather Roman Rubinstein, had all been baptized at the time of the ukase against the Jews issued in 1830 by the Tsar Nicholas. Anton was then one year old. Besides his mother he had but one teacher, the piano master Alexander Villoing, of whom he declared at the end of his own career that he had never met a better. In July 1838 Rubinstein appeared in the theatre of the Petrowski Park at Moscow; and in the year following he went to Paris after Villoing, and in 1840 played before Liszt. For some time after this Rubinstein travelled in Holland, Germany and Scandinavia, and reached England in 1842, where on the 2oth of May he made his first appearance at a Choral Fund concert. In 1845, after a brief visit to Moscow in 1843, he went with his family (including his brother Nikolaus) to Berlin in order to complete his musical education. Dehn was their master, and Mendelssohn, whom Rubinstein had met previously in London, their best friend. The sudden death of Rubinstein's father necessitated the withdrawal of his mother and Nikolaus to Moscow, while Anton, on Dehn's advice, went to Vienna to seek a livelihood. Hence, after more hard study for nearly two years, he went with the flautist Heindl, and later alone, on a concert tour in' Hungary; and the outbreak of the revolution in Vienna preventing his return there, he went via Berlin to St Petersburg, where the Grand Duchess Helene appointed him Kammervirtuos. About this time an unfortunate error of the police nearly caused his ex- patriation to Siberia, from which he was saved by his patroness. During the next eight years Rubinstein spent most of his time in St Petersburg studying, playing and composing. His opera Dmitri Donskoi was produced there in 1851, and Toms der Narr in 1853. Die Sibirischen Jiiger, written about the same time, was not produced. On the advice of his patroness and Count Wilhorski he visited Hamburg and Leipzig, and arrived for the second time in London in 1857, when at a Philharmonic concert he introduced his own concerto in G. In the following year he was in London again, having in the meantime been appointed Concert Director of the Royal Russian Musical Society. In 1862, in collaboration with Carl Schuberth, he founded the St Petersburg Conservatorium, of which he was director until 1867. In 1868 he travelled in Germany, France and England, and remained for some time in Vienna, where he introduced a large number of his own compositions. Thence he went to America in 1872 and 1873, when he returned to Russia, and after a short rest set off once more on concert tours. In this manner the rest of his life was spent, until in 1885 he began a series of historical recitals of immense interest, which he gave in most of the chief Euro- pean capitals. He died on the 2oth of November 1894. In addition to the works already named, Rubenstein left compositions in almost every known form. Among other of his operas are Die Kinder der Haide, Feramors (Lalla Roukk), Nero, Der Damon and Die Makkabaer, this last perhaps more frequently played than all the others, of which the chief defect is their lack of dramatic point. On the subject of oratorio Rubinstein held original views, though his attempt to realize them in Moses and Christus was not completely successful, while his efforts in Berlin and London to found a Sacred Theatre failed entirely. Nevertheless he himself regarded the Christus as his greatest achievement. The most familiar of his five symphonies are the " Ocean " and the " Dramatic." He wrote scores on scores of pianoforte works, from complex concertos to the most commonplace salonstUcke; abundance of concerted chamber-music, and a number of songs and duets, which enjoyed some popularity. He also published several books, including his Reminiscences and Die geistiiche Oper. 8io RUBRIC— RUBRUQUIS Rubinstein's fame as one of the greatest of pianists will live in history. His technique bore comparison with that of Liszt; he possessed a power for interpreting the most different kinds of music which has not been surpassed. His brother NIKOLAUS (1835-1881) was also a remarkable pianist, and a marvellous teacher of music. He founded the conservatorium of music at Moscow. See Bernhard Vogel, Anton Rubinstein, Biographischer Abriss (Leipzig, 1888); Alexander MacArthur, Anton Rubinstein, a Bio- graphical Sketch (Edinburgh, 1889); Eugen Zabel, Anton Rubin- stein, Ein KiinsUerleben (Leipzig, 1892); Anton von Halten, Anton Rubinstein (Utrecht, 1886) ; Cuthbert H. Cronk, The Works of Anton Rubinstein (London, 1900). RUBRIC (Fr. rubriqwe, Lat. rubrica, ruber, red), in its earliest and original sense, red earth or ochre, ruddle, and hence applied to words written or printed in red lettering, in MSS. or printed books, such as chapter headings, paragraphs, initial letters, &c., thus marking in a distinctive manner that to which atten- tion is to be drawn. The term was also applied to the passages so marked, and more especially to the directions or rules as to the conduct of divine service in liturgical books. This is the chief current usage of the term (see LITURGY). RUBRUQUIS (or RUBROUCK), WILLIAM OF (c. 1215-1270; fl. 1253-55), Franciscan friar, one of the chief medieval travellers and travel-writers. Nothing is known of him save what can be gathered from his own narrative, and from Roger Bacon, his contemporary and brother Franciscan. The name of Rubruquis (" Fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis ") is found in the imperfect MS. printed by Hakluyt in his collection, and followed in his English translation, as well as in the completer issue of the English by Purchas. Writers of the i6th, iyth and igth centuries have called the traveller Risbroucke and Rysbrokius (Rysbroeck and Ruysbroek in the Biographic universelle and Nouv. biog. generale) — an error founded on the identification of his name of origin with Ruysbroeck in Brabant (a few miles south of Brussels) and perhaps promoted by the fame of John of Ruysbroeck or Rysbroeck (1294-1381), a Belgian mystic, whose treatises have been reprinted as late as 1848. It is only within the last twenty years that attention has been called to the fact that Rubrouck is the name of a village and commune in old (medieval) French Flanders, belonging to the canton of Cassel in the department du Nord, and lying some 8| m. N.E.. of St Omer. In the library of the latter city many medieval documents exist referring expressly to de Rubroucks1 of the 1 2th and i3th centuries. It may be fairly assumed that Friar William came from this place;2 thus Hakluyt's conclusion is justified, as expressed in the title he gives to Lord Lumley's MS. printed by him, now in the British Museum, MSS. Reg., 14 C. xiii. fol. 225 r.~36 r. (Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratie 1253, ad paries Orientates. Friar William went to Tartary under orders from Louis IX. (St Louis). That king, at an earlier date, viz. December 1248, when in Cyprus, had been visited by alleged envoys from Elchigaday (Ilchikadai, Ilchikdai), who commanded the Mongol hosts in Armenia and Persia. The king then despatched a return mission consisting of Friar Andrew of Longjumeau or Lonjumel and other ecclesiastics, who carried presents and letters for both Ilchikadai and the Great Khan. They reached the court of the latter in the winter of 1249-50, when there was no actual khan on the throne; and they returned, along with Tatar envoys, bearing a letter to Louis from the Mongol regent-mother which was couched in terms so arrogant that the king repented sorely of having sent such a mission (" li rois se XA detailed notice of such documents was published by M. E. Coussemaker of Lille. See remarks by M. d'Avezac in Bull, de la Soc. de Geog., 2nd vol. for 1868, pp. 569-70. 'The county of Flanders was at this time a fief of the French crown (see Natalis de Wailly, Notes on Joinvitte, p. 576). William's mother-tongue may have been Flemish. From his representation to Mangu Khan (p. 361) that certain " Teutonic! " who had been carried away as slaves by a Tatar chief were " nostrae linguae," Dr Franz Max Schmidt inclines to think this certain. repenti fort quant il y envoia," Joinville, Histoire de Saint Louis, pp. 148-49, in Paris edition of 1858 by F. Michel, Paulin Paris and F. Didot). These returned envoys reached the king when he was at Caesarea, therefore between March 1251 and May 1252. But not long after the king, hearing that the Tatar prince Sartak, son of Batu, was a " baptized Christian," felt moved to open communication with him, and for this purpose deputed Friar William of Rubrouck. The former rebuff had made the king chary of sending formal embassies, and Friar William on every occasion, beginning with a sermon delivered in St Sophia's on Palm Sunday (i.e. April I3th) 1253, dis- claimed that character. Various histories of St Louis, and other documents, give particulars of the despatch of the mission of Friar Andrew from Cyprus, but none mention that of Friar William; and the first dates given by the latter are those of his sermon at Constanti- nople, and of his entrance into the Black Sea (May 7th, 1253). He must therefore have received his commission at Acre, where the king was residing from May 1252 to the 2gth of June 1253; but he had travelled by way of Constantinople, as has just been indicated, and there received letters to some of the Tatar chiefs from the emperor, who was at this time Baldwin de Courtenay, the last of the Latin dynasty. The narrative of the journey is everywhere full of life and interest. The vast conquests of Jenghiz Khan were still in nominal dependence on his successors, at this time represented by Mangu Khan, reigning on the Mongolian steppes, but prac- tically these conquests were splitting up into several great monarchies. Of these the Ulus of Juji, the eldest son of Jenghiz, formed the most westerly, and its ruler was Batu Khan, established on the Volga. Sartak is known in the history of the Mongols as Batu's eldest son, and was appointed his successor, though he died immediately after his father (1256). The story of Sartak's Christianity seems to have had some foundation; it was currently believed among Asiatic Chris- tians, and it is alleged by Armenian writers that he had been brought up and baptized among the Russians. Pope Innocent IV. (August 29, 1254) refers with enthusiasm to Sartak's baptism, of which he had just heard from a priest whom the khan had sent as envoy to the papal court. Rubrouck and his party landed at Soldaia, or Sudak, on the Crimean coast, then a centre of intercourse between the' Mediterranean world and what is now S. Russia. Equipped with horses and carts for the steppe, they travelled success- ively to the courts (i.e. the nomad camps) of Scacatai (Kadan?), Sartak and Batu, thus crossing the Don and arriving at the Volga: of both these rivers Friar William gives vivid and interesting sketches. Batu kept the travellers for some time in suspense, and then referred them to the Great Khan himself, an order involving the enormous journey to Mongolia. The actual travelling of the party from the Crimea to the khan's court near Karakorum cannot have been, on a rough calcula- tion, less than 5000 m., and the return journey to Lajazzo in Cilicia would be longer by 500 to 700 m. The chief dates to be gathered from the narrative are as follows: the envoys embark on the " Euxine," May 7th, 1253; reach Soldaia, May 2ist; set out thence, June ist; reach the camp of Sartak, July 3ist; begin the journey from the camp of Batu E. across the steppes, September i6th; turn S.E., November ist; reach the Talas river, November 8th; leave Cailac3 (S. of Lake Balkash), November 3oth; reach the camp of the Great Khan, December 27th; leave the camp of the Great Khan on or about July loth, 1254; reach camp of Batu again, September i6th; leave Batu's camp at Sarai, November ist; arrive at the Iron Gate (Derbent), November i3th; Christmas spent at Nakh- shivan or Nakhichevan (under Ararat); reach Antioch (from Lajazzo, Layes, or Ayas, of Cilicia, via Cyprus), June 29th, 1255; reach Tripoli, August i sth. 3 Cailac, where Rubrouck halted twelve days, is undoubtedly the Kayalik of the historians of the Mongols, the position of which is somewhat indefinite. The narrative of Rubrouck shows that it must have been near the modern Kopal. RUBRUQUIS 811 The camp of Batu was first reached near the northernmost point of his summer marches, therefore about Ukek or Uvyek, near Saratov (see Marco Polo, Paris ed. of 1824, p. 3). Before the camp was left they had marched with it five weeks down the Volga. The point of departure would lie on that river somewhere between 48° and 50° N. The route taken lay E. by a line running N. of the Caspian and Aral basins; then from about 70° E. to the basin of the Talas river; thence across the passes of the Kirghiz Ala-tau and S. of the Balkash Lake to the Ala-kul and the Baratula Lake (Ebi-nor). From this the travellers struck N. across the Barluk, or the Orkochuk Mountains, and thence, passing S. of the modern Kobdo, to the valley of the Jabkan river, whence they emerged on the plain of Mongolia, coming upon the Great Khan's camp at a spot ten days' journey from Karakorum and bearing in the main S. from that place, with the Khangaj Mountains between. This route is of course not thus defined in the narrative, but is a deduction from the facts stated therein. The key to the whole is the description given of that central portion inter- vening between the basin of the Talas and Lake Ala-kul, which enables the topography of that region, including the passage of the Ili, the plain S. of the Balkash, and the Ala-kul itself, to be identified past question.1 The return journey, being made in summer, after retravers- ing the Jabkan valley,2 lay apparently farther to the N., and passed N. of the Balkash, probably with a fairly straight course, to the mouths of the Volga. Thence the party travelled S. by Derbent, and so by Shamakhi to the Araxes, Nakhshivan, Erzingan, Sivas and Iconium, to Lajazzo, Layas, or Ayas, where they embarked for Cyprus and Syria. St Louis had returned to France a year before. We have alluded to Roger Bacon's mention of Friar William. Indeed, in the geographical section, of the Opus Majus (c. 1262) he cites the traveller repeatedly and copiously, describing him as " frater Wilhelmus quern dominus rex Franciae misit ad Tartaros, Anno Domini 1253 . . . qui perlustravit regiones orientiset aquilonis et loca in medio his annexa, et scripsit haec praedicta illustri regi ; quern librum diligenter vidi et cum ejus auctore contuli " (see Opus Majus, Oxford edition of 1897, i. 353-66). Add to this William's own incidental particulars as to his being — like his precursor, Friar John de Piano Carpini — a very heavy man (ponderosus valde), and we know no more of his personality, except the abundant indications of character afforded by the story itself. These paint for us an honest, pious, stout-hearted, acute and most intelligent observer, keen in the acquisition of knowledge, the author of one of the best narratives of travel in existence. His language indeed is dog-Latin of the most un-Ciceronian quality; but it is in his hands a pithy and transparent medium of expression. In spite of all the difficulties of communication, and of the badness of his turgemannus or dragoman,8 he gathered a mass of particulars, wonderfully true or near the truth, not only as to Asiatic nature, geography, ethno- graphy and manners, but as to religion and language. Of his geography a good example occurs in his account of the Caspian (eagerly caught up by Roger Bacon), which is perfectly accurate, except that he places the hill country occupied by the Mulahids, or Assassins, on the E. instead of the S. shore. He explicitly corrects the allegation of Isidore that it is a gulf of the ocean: " non est verum quod dicit Ysidorus . . . nusquam enim tangit oceanum, sed undique circumdatur terra " (265).* Of his interest and acumen in matters of language we may cite examples. The language of the Pascatir (or Bashkirs) and of the Hungarians is the same as he had 1 See details in Cathay and the Way Thither, pp. ccxi-ccxiv, and Schuyler's Turkistan, i. 402-5. Mr Schuyler points out the true identification of Rubrouck's river with the Ili, instead of the Chu, which is a much smaller stream ; and other amendments have been derived from Dr F. M. Schmidt (see below). 2 This meaning may be put on Rubrouck's words: "Our going was in winter, our return in summer, and that by a way lying very much farther north, only that for a space of fifteen days' journey in going and coming we followed a certain river between mountains, and on these there was no grass to be found except close to the river." The position of the Chagan Takoi or upper Jabkan seems to suit these facts best; but Mr Schuyler refers them to the upper Irtish, and Dr F. M. Schmidt to the Uliungur. 3 " Ego enim percepi postea, quando incepi aliquantulum intelligere idioma, quod quando dicebam unum ipse totum aliud dicebat, secundum cjuod ei occurrebat. Turn, videns oericulum loquendi per ipsum, elegi magis tacere " (248-49). 4 The page references in the text are to d'Avezac's edition of the Latin (see below). learned from Dominicans who had been among them (274).' The language of the Ruthenians, Poles, Bohemians and Slavonians is one, and is the same with that of the Vandals, or Wends (275). In the town of Equius (immediately beyond the Ili, perhaps Aspara)* the people were Mahommedans speaking Persian, though so far remote from Persia (281). The Uighurs (or Yugurs) of the country about Cailac (see note above) had formed a language and character of their own, and in that language and character the Nes- torians of that tract used to perform their office and write their books (281-82). The Uighurs are those among whom are found the fountain and root of the Turkish and Comanian tongue (289). Their character has been adopted by the Mongols. In using it they begin writing from the top and write downwards, whilst line follows line from left to right (286). The Nestorians say their service, and have their holy books, in Syriac, but know nothing of the language, just as some of our monks sing the mass without knowing Latin (293). The Tibet people write as we do, and their letters have a strong resemblance to ours. The Tangut people write from right to left like the Arabs, and their lines advance upwards (329). The current money of Cathay is of cotton paper, a palm in length and breadth, and on this they print lines like those of Mangu Khan's seal: — " imprimunt lineas sicut est sigillum Mangu • — a remarkable expression. They write with a painter's pencil and combine in one character several letters, forming one expression : — " faciunt in una figura plures literas comprehcndentes unam dictionem," — a still more remarkable utterance, showing an approximate apprehension of the nature of Chinese writing (329). Yet this sagacious observer is denounced as an untruthful blunderer by Isaac Jacob Schmidt (a man of useful learning, of a kind rare in his day, but narrow, wrong-headed, and in natural acumen and candour far inferior to the 13th-century friar) simply because Rubrouck's evidence as to the Turkish dialect of the Uighurs traversed a pet heresy, long since exploded, which Schmidt enter- tained, viz. that the Uighurs were by race and language Tibetan.7 L6on Cahun (Introduction a I'histoire de I'Asie, pp. 353-55, 384-86, 392) also shows a strange perversity in depreciating Rubrouck; all this detraction may be contrasted with Oscar PeschePs admirably fair judgment (Geschichte der Erdkunde, p. 165, &c.). At the same time, Rubrouck may be considered inferior as a politician and diplomatist to Carpini ; and the latter's remarkable work has in its turn suffered from undiscriminating eulogy of his successor's Itinerarium. An attempt has been made to strike a balance in the judgment 6f these two great pioneers in the Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 375-81. The narrative of Rubrouck, after Roger Bacon's copious use of it, seems to have dropped out of sight, though five MSS. are still known to exist: the chief of these are (i) Corp. Chr. Coll., Cambridge, No. 66, fols. 67 v.-no v. of about 1320; (2) No. 181 of the same library, fols. 321-98, of about 1270-90; (3) Leiden Univ. Libr., No. 77 (formerly 104), fols. 160 r.-iox) r. of about 1290. It has no place in the famous collections of the I4th century, nor in the earlier Speculum Historiale of Vincent of Beauvais, which gives so much attention to the 13th-century intercourse of Latin Christendom with Tartary. It first appeared imperfectly in Hakluyt (1598 and 1599), as we have mentioned. But it was not till 1839 that any proper edition of the text was published. In that year the Recuetl de Voyages^oi the Paris Geographical Society, vol. iv., contained an edition of the Latin text, and a collation of the MSS. put forth by M. d'Avezac, with the assistance of two young scholars, since of high distinction, viz. Francisque Michel and Thomas Wright. But there is no commentary on the subject-matter, such as M. d'Avezac attached to his edition of Friar John de Piano Carpini in the same volume. Something has been done to supply this deficiency by the two editions in the Hakluyt Society's publications, (i.) William of Rubrouck . . . John of Pian de Carpine, trans, and edited by William W. Rockhill (London, 1900); (ii.) Texts and Versions of . . . Carpini and . . . Rubruquis . . . , edited by C. Raymond Beazley (London, 1903). Richthofen in his China, i. 602-4, has briefly but justly noticed Rubrouck. A French version with some notes, issued at Paris in 1 877, in the Bibliotheque orientale Elzfoirienne hardly deserves mention. Dr Franz Max Schmidt's admirable monograph, Ober Rubruk's Reise (Berlin, 1885), has been separately * The Bashkirs now speak a Turkish dialect ; but they are of Finnish race, and it is quite possible that they then spoke a language akin to Magyar. There is no doubt that the Mussulman historians of that age identified the Hungarians and the Bashkirs (e.g. see extracts from Juvaini and Rashiduddin in App. to D'Ohsson's Hist, des Mongols, ii. 620-23). The Bashkirs are also constantly coupled with the Majar by Abulghazi. See Fr. tr. by Desmaisons. pp. 19, 140, 1 80, 189. >Asp = Equus. Aspara is often mentioned by the historians of Timur and his successors; its exact place is uncertain, but it lay somewhere on the Ili frontier. Dr F. M. Schmidt thinks this identi- fication impossible; but one of his reasons — viz. that Equius was only one day from Cailac — appears to be a misapprehension of the text. 7 See Forschungen im Gebiete . . . der Volker Mitttl-Asitns (St Petersburg, 1824), pp. 90-93. 812 RUBY printed from vol. xx. of the Zeitschrift of the Berlin Geographical Society. See also d'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols (1852), vol. ii. pp. 283-309; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern ' iatic Sources (1888), i. 204-5, 262-63, 299, 301, 305-8, 311, 318, 327, i; ii. 25, 38, 41-42, 70-71, 83-86, 91, 116, 120; Beazley, Dawn of Asiatic Sources (1888), i. 204-5, 262-63, 299, 301, 305-8, 31 1, 318, 327, 334; ii. 25, 38, 41-42, 70-71, 83-86, 91, 116, 120; Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 266, 278-79, 281, 298-99, 303, 320-82, 421, 449-52; iii. 17-18, 31-32, 46, 69, 84-85, 236-37. 544- 101, 105, 188, Y.;C. R. B.) RUBY (Lat. rubeus, red), the most valued of all gem-stones, a red transparent variety of corundum, or crystallized alumina. It is sometimes termed " oriental ruby " to distinguish it from the spinel ruby, which is a stone of inferior hardness, density and value (see SPINEL). When the word ruby is used without any qualifying prefix, it is always the true or so-called oriental stone that is meant in modern nomenclature. Ancient writers, relying chiefly on colour, classed together under a common name several brilliant red stones, such as the ruby, spinel and garnet: thus the avOpat; of Theophrastus and the Carbunculus of Pliny were names which seem to have been applied to several distinct minerals. Although the word ruby is used in the English translation of the Old Testament it is improbable that the true ruby was known to the ancient Hebrews. The ruby crystallizes in the hexagonal system (see COR- UNDUM). The crystals have no true cleavage, but tend to break along certain gliding planes. The colour of ruby varies from deep cochineal to pale rose-red, in some cases with a tinge of purple, the most valued tint being that called by experts pigeon's-blood colour. On exposure to a high tem- perature, the ruby becomes green, but regains its original colour on cooling. The red. colour of ruby may be due to chromium. When a ruby of the most esteemed tint is ex- amined with the dichroscope, one image is generally seen to be carmine and the other aurora-red, the red colour inclining to orange. This test serves to distinguish the true ruby from spinel and from garnet, since these minerals, being _ cubic, are not dichroic. Another means of distinction is afforded by the specific gravity of ruby (about 4), which is higher than that of spinel and garnet, whilst the superior hardness of the ruby (about 9) furnishes yet another test. The high refractivity of ruby is also characteristic, the mean ordinary index being 1-77 and the extraordinary 1-76. When cut and polished the ruby is therefore a brilliant stone, but having weak dispersive power it lacks fire. Subjected to radiant discharge in a Crookes tube, the ruby, like other forms of corundum, phosphoresces with a vivid red glow. The oriental ruby is a mineral of very limited distribution. Its most famous localities are in Upper Burma, but until the British annexation of the country in 1886 the mines were so jealously guarded that little was known as to the conditions under which the mineral occurred. Soon after the annexation, the ruby districts were officially visited, and reported on, by Mr C. Barrington Brown, and specimens from the mines were exhaustively studied by Professor J. W. Judd. The principal district is situated in the neighbourhood of Mogok, 90 m. N.N.E. of Mandalay. The ruby occurs in bands of a crystalline limestone, associated with granitic and gneissose rocks, some of which are highly basic; and it is from the anorthite, or lime-felspar, and the associated minerals in the pyroxene- gneisses, that the corundum, spinel and calcite, may, according to Judd, have been derived. Probably the felspar is first altered to scapolite, and this on decomposition would yield calcium carbonate and hydrous aluminium silicates, from which the anhydrous alumina might ultimately be separated. The limestone contains (in addition to the ruby) spinel, garnet, graphite, wollastonite, scapolite, felspar, mica, pyrrhotite and other minerals. The ruby, like other kinds of corun- dum, suffers alteration under certain conditions, and passes by hydration into gibbsite and diaspore, which by further alteration and union with silica, &c., may yield margarite, vermiculite, chlorite and other hydrous silicates. The Burmese rubies are not generally worked in the lime- stone matrix, 'but are mostly found loose in detrital matter, which is clayey and sandy in character and yellowish-brown in colour, and is known locally as " byon." Some of the deposits occur in limestone caverns, where they may, like cave-earth, represent the insoluble residue of the limestone. Workings in the cave-deposits are called " loodwins " (crooked mines). In the alluvium of the valleys, the ruby-pits are known as " twinlones " (round pits), whilst workings in the ruby- earth on the hillsides are termed " hmyaudwins " (water mines). The byon contains, with the ruby, other coloured corundums and spinels. Burmese rubies are found also in crystalline h'mestone in the hills near Sagyin, about 20 m. N. of Mandalay, and it is of mineralogical interest to note that the limestone here contains chondrodite. Rubies are found in Siam, at several localities in the pro- vinces of Chantabun and Krat; and Professor H. Louis has described their occurrence at Moung Klung in this region. The rubies are found with, sapphires and spinels, in gravels, resting in some cases on basic igneous rocks. The Siam rubies are generally of dark colour, often inclining to a deep reddish brown. Rubies occur, with sapphires and other minerals, in the gem-gravels of Ceylon, but are not usually of such good colour as the Burmese stones. A cloudy variety, which, when cut with a convex surface, exhibits a luminous star, is known as star-ruby (see ASTERIAS). In peninsular India rubies are rarely found, though they have been reported from the corun- dum deposits of Madras and Mysore. The ruby is known, however, to occur in a micaceous limestone at Jagdalak, near Kabul in Afghanistan. Rubies, generally of pale colour, are found with the sapphires of Montana, especially at Yogo Gulch near Utica. In the corundum deposits of N. Carolina ruby is occasionally met with, especially at Cowee Creek, Macon county, where it oc- curs in crystals of tabular, rhombohedral and prismatic habit. These crystals, sometimes of fine colour, are found in gravels resting on a soft rock called saprolite, which results from the weathering of certain basic igneous rocks; and it is notable that the ruby crystals are associated with the variety of garnet termed rhodolite, as described by Professor Judd and W. E. Hidden. Australia has occasionally yielded rubies, but mostly of small size and inferior quality. In New South Wales and in Victoria they have been found in drift gravels, and a magenta- coloured turbid variety from Victoria has been described under the name of barklyite. Rubies have been produced artificially with much success. At one time it was the practice to fuse together small fragments of the natural stone; and gems cut from such material were known as reconstructed rubies. This process has given way to Professor A. Verneuil's method of forming artificial ruby from purified ammonia-alum with a certain proportion of chrome- alum. The finely powdered material is caused to fall periodi- cally into an oxyhydrogen flame, the heat of which decomposes the alum, and the alumina thus set free forms liquid drops which collect and solidify as a pear-shaped mass. When of the characteristic pigeon's-blood colour, the synthetical ruby contains about 2-5% of chromic oxide. The manufactured ruby possesses the physical characters of corundum, but may generally be distinguished by microscopic bubbles and striae. The manufacture is carried out commercially. (For other pro- cesses, see GEM, ARTIFICIAL.) It should be noted that several minerals known popularly as rubies have no relation to the true red corundum. Thus, " Cape rubies " from the South African diamond" mines, " Australian rubies " from South Australia, and " Arizona rubies" are merely fine garnets; "Siberian ruby" is red tourmaline (see RUBELLITE), and " Balas ruby" is spinel (q.v.). Ruby silver is a name applied to light red silver ore, or proustite; ruby copper is merely cuprite, in brilliant crystals; and ruby-blende is a clear red variety of zinc sulphide. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the Burma ruby, see " The Rubies of Burma and Associated Minerals: their mode of occurrence, origin and metamorphoses," by C. Barrington Brown and Professor J. W. Judd, Phil. Trans., 1897, 187, p. 151. For the ruby of Siam, see ' The Ruby and Sapphire Deposits of Moung Klung, Siam," by H. Louis, Mineralog. Mag., 1894, 10, p. 267. For synthetical ruby, RUBY MINES— RUDD 813 see G. F. Herbert Smith, Mineralog. Mag., 1908, 15, p. 153; and J. Boyer, La Synthese des pierres precieuses (Paris, 1909). (F. W. R.*) RUBY MINES, a district in the Mandalay division of Upper Burma, lying along the Irrawaddy river between the Bhamo district on the N., the Shan States on the E., Mandalay district on the S. and Katha on the W. Including the Shan state of Mongmit, which is temporarily administered as part of the district, the total area is 5476 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 87,694. The district geographically forms part of the Shan plateau, and is to a great extent a mass of hills with a general N. and S. direc- tion. It contains considerable numbers of Kachins (13,300) and Palaungs (16,400). The annual rainfall at Mogok averages 98 in. The administrative headquarters are at Mogok, which is also the centre of the ruby-mining industry. It stands in the centre of a valley 4000 ft. above sea-level, and is reached by a cart-road from Thabeikkyin, 61 m. distant, on the Irra- waddy. The Ruby Mines Company employs about 44 Euro- peans and Eurasians in its works, which are situated at the north end of the town. The company has constructed a dam across the Yeni stream and set up an electric installation of about 450 horse-power, which works pumps and the washing machinery. The mines were worked under Burmese rule, but were discontinued on account of the small profit. Now they seem to be established on a sound financial basis. The system adopted is to excavate large open pits, from which the ruby- earth or byon is removed en masse and washed and crushed by machinery. Spinels and sapphires are found with the rubies. In 1904, the produce of rubies alone was 200,000 carats, valued at £80,000, most of which were sent to London for sale. In addition, some mining is carried on by natives, working under a licence which does' not permit the use of machinery. The district contains 994 sq. m. of reserved forests. RUCKERT, JOHANN MICHAEL FRIEDRICH (1788-1866), German poet, was born at Schweinfurt on the i6th of May 1788, the eldest son of a lawyer. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native place and at the universities of Wurz- burg and Heidelberg. For some time (1816-17) he worked on the editorial staff of the Morgenblatt at Stuttgart. Nearly the whole of the year 1818 he spent in Rome, and afterwards he lived for several years at Coburg. He was appointed a professor of Oriental languages at the university of Erlangen in 1826, and in 1841 he was called to a similar position in Berlin, where he was also made a privy councillor. In 1849 he resigned his professorship at Berlin, and went to live on his estate Neuses near Coburg. He died on the 3ist of January 1866. When Ruckert began his literary career, Germany was engaged in her life-and-death struggle with Napoleon; and in his first volume, Deutsche Gedichte, published in 1814 under the pseudonym " Freimund Raimar," he gave, particularly in the powerful "Geharnischte Sonette," vigorous expression to the prevailing sentiment of his countrymen. In 1815-18 appeared Napoleon, eine politische Komodie in drei Stiicken (only two parts were published), and in 1817 Der Kranz der Zeit. He issued a collection of poems, Ostliche Rosen, in 1822; and in 1834-38 his Gesammelle Gedichte were published in six volumes, a selection from which has passed through many editions. Ruckert, who was master of thirty languages, made his mark chiefly as a translator of Oriental poetry and as a writer of poems conceived in the spirit of Oriental masters. Much attention was attracted by a translation of Hariri's Makamen (1826), Nal und Damajanti, an Indian tale (1828), Rostem und Suhrab, eine Heldengeschichte (1838), and Hamasa, oder die iiltesten arabischen Volkslieder (1846). Among his original writings dealing with Oriental subjects are Morgenlandische Sagen und Geschichten (1837), Erbauliches und Beschauliches aus dem Morgenland (1836-38), and Brahmanische Erzdhlungen (1839). The most elaborate of his works is Die Weisheit des Brahmanen, published in six volumes in 1836-39. This last and the Liebesfruhling (1844), a cycle of love-songs, are the best known of all Ruckert's productions. In 1843-45 he issued the dramas Saul und David (1843), H erodes der Grosse (1844), Kaiser Heinrich IV. (1845) and Christofero Colombo (1845), all of which are greatly inferior to the work to which he owes his place in German literature. At the time of the Danish war in 1864 he wrote Ein Dutzend Kampflieder jiir SMeswig- Holstein, which, although published anonymously, produced a considerable impression. After his death many poetical translations and original poems were found among his papers, and several collections of them were published. Ruckert had a splendour of imagination which made Oriental poetry congenial to him, and he has seldom been surpassed in rhythmic skill and metrical ingenuity. There are hardly any lyrical forms which are not represented among his works, and in all of them he wrote with equal ease and grace. A complete edition of Ruckert's poetical works appeared in 12 vols. in 1868-69. Subsequent editions have been edited by L. Laistner (1896), C. Beyer (1896), G. Ellinger (1897). See B. Fortlage, F. Ruckert und seine Werke (1867); C. Beyer, Friedrich Ruckert, ein biographisches Denkmal (1868), Neue MitteUungen uber Ruckert (1873), and Nachgelassene Gedtchte Ruckerts und neue Beitrdge zu dessen Leben und Schriften (1877); R. Boxberger, Riickert-Studien (1878); P. de Lagarde, Erinnerungen an F. Ruckert (1886); F. Muncker, Friedrich Ruckert (1890); G. Voigt, Ruckerts Gedankenlyrik (1891). RUDAGI (d. 954). Farid-eddln Mahommed 'Abdallah, the first great literary genius of modern Persia, was born in Rudag, a village in Transoxiana, about 870-900. Most of his biographers assert that he was totally blind, but the accurate knowledge of colours shown in his poems makes this very doubtful. The fame of his accomplishments reached the ear of the Samanid Nasr II. bin Ahmad, the ruler of Khorasan and Transoxiana (913-42), who invited the poet to his court.. Rudagi became his daily companion, rose to the highest honours and amassed great wealth. In spite of various predecessors, he well deserves the title of " father of Persian literature," " the Adam or Sultan of poets," since he was the first who impressed upon every form of epic, lyric and didactic poetry its peculiar stamp and its individual character. He is also said to have been the founder of the " diwan " — that is, the typical form of the complete collection of a poet's lyrical compositions in a more or less alphabetical order which prevails to the present day among all Mahommedan writers. Of the 1,300,000 verses attributed to him, there remain only 52 kasldas, ghazals and ruba'Is; of his epic masterpieces we have nothing beyond a few stray lines in native dictionaries. But the most serious loss is that of his translation of Ibn Mokaffa's Arabic version of the old Indian fable book Kalilah and Dimnah, which he put into Persian verse at the request of his royal patron. Numerous fragments, however, are preserved in the Persian lexicon of AsadI of Tus (ed. P. Horn, Gottingen, 1897). In his kasidas, all devoted to the praise of his sovereign and friend, Rudagi has left us unequalled models of a refined and delicate taste, very different from the often bombastic compositions of later Persian encomiasts. His didactic odes and epigrams express in well-measured lines a sort of Epicurean philosophy of human life and human happiness; more charming still are the purely lyrical pieces in glorification of love and wine. Rudagi survived his royal friend, and died poor and forgotten by the world. There is a complete edition of all the extant poems of Rudagi, in Persian text and metrical German translation, together with a biographical account, based on forty-six Persian MSS., in Dr H. Ethe's " Rudagi der Samanidendichter " (Goltinger Nachrichten, 1873, pp. 663-742); see also his " Neupersische Literatur " in Geiger^ Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (ii.) ; P. Horn, Gesch. der persischen Literatur (1901), p. 73; E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia, i. (1902); C. J. Pickering, " A Persian Chaucer ' in National Review (May 1890). RUDD, or RED-EYE (Leuciscus erythrophthalmus), a fish of the Cyprinid family, spread over Europe, N. and S. of the Alps, also found in Asia Minor, and common in localities where there are still waters with muddy bottom. The rudd and the roach are very similar and frequently confused by anglers; the former differs principally in the more posterior dorsal fin, which is situated exactly opposite the space between the ventral and anal fins. It is a fine fish, but little esteemed for food, 814 RUDDER— RUDESHEIM and rarely exceeds 12 in. in length and 2 Ib in weight. It feeds on small freshwater animals and soft vegetable matter, and spawns in April or May. It readily crosses with the white bream, and more rarely with the roach and bleak. RUDDER (O.E. Rather, i.e. rower), that part of the steering apparatus of a ship which is fastened to the stern outside, and on which the water acts directly. The word may be found to be used as if it were synonymous with " helm." But the helm (A.S. Hillf, a handle) is the handle by which the rudder is worked. The tiller, which is perhaps derived from a provincial English name for the handle of a spade, has the same meaning as the helm. In the earliest times a single oar, at the stern, was used to row the vessel round. In later times oars with large blades were fixed on the sides near the stern. In Greek and Roman vessels two sets were sometimes employed, so that if the pitching of the ship lifted the after pair out of the water, the foremost pair could still act. As these ancient ships were, at least in some cases, sharp at both ends and could sail either way, steer (or steering) oars were fixed both fore and aft. The steer oar in this form passed through a ring on the side and was supported on a crutch, and was turned by a helm, or tiller. Norse and medieval vessels had, as far as we. can judge, one steer oar only placed on the right side near the stern — hence the name "starboard," i.e. steerside, for the right side of the ship looking forward. In the case of small vessels the steer oar possesses an advantage over the rudder, for it can bring the stern round quickly. Therefore it is still used in whaling boats and rowing boats which have to work against wind and tide, and in surf when the rudder will not act. It is not possible to assign any date for the displacement of the side rudder by the stern, rudder. They were certainly used together, and the • second displaced the first in the course of the I4th century when experience had shown that the rudder was more effective at the stern than at the side. The rudder of a wooden ship when fully developed was composed of four pieces. The first or main piece was hung on to the stern post of the ship. Its upper portion was known as the rudder head, and was at first an oval shaft which passed into the ship through the rudder port, and to which the helm was fixed. A canvas bag called a rudder coat covered the opening to exclude the water. In later days Sir R. Seppings introduced the cylindrical form in order to prevent the water from coming into the round rudder port. Three back pieces were fastened to the main piece longi- tudinally. The whole were fastened together by iron bands called pintle straps, which had at the forward end a pin or pintle, which fitted into braces, i.e. fixed rings on the stern post, so that the rudder hung on hinges. The lower part of the main piece was bevelled, and so was the stern post, so as to allow the rudder to swing freely. A projecting piece called a chock or wood-lock was fixed in the head outside the ship in order to prevent the rudder from being lifted by the water out of its hinges. A small vessel can be steered by the helm or tiller, but in a larger it is necessary to apply a mechanical leverage. This was secured by carrying ropes, or in later times chains, to the sides of the ship, and then through blocks to the upper deck, round a barrel which is worked by the wheel. The principle of the rudder cannot alter, but the means employed to work it have been altered by the introduction of the screw, and by the increased size of ships. A single screw is placed in an open space before the stern post. As the opening thus created prevents the water from flowing directly on to the rudder, a screw steamer is sometimes difficult to steer. In order to make the rudder more manageable, it has been balanced, i.e. pivoted, on a shaft placed at about a third of its length from the foremost edge. In a double screw there is no opening, but the balanced rudder is still used, and the ship can be turned by reversing one of the screws. The need for more power to work the helm has led to the introduction of steam, and hydraulic steering apparatus which can be set in motion by a small wheel. See Burney's Falconer's Dictionary (London, 1830), Torr's Ancient Ships (Cambridge, 1894); Nares, Seamanship (Portsmouth, 1882). RUDDIMAN, THOMAS (1674-1757), Scottish classical scholar, was born in October 1674, at Raggal, Banffshire, where his father was a farmer. He was educated at Aberdeen University, and through the influence of Dr Archibald Pitcairne he was made assistant in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. His chief writings at this period were editions of Florence Wilson's De Animi Tranquillitate Dialogus (1707), and the Cantici Solomonis Paraphrasis Poetica (1709) of Arthur Johnston (1587-1641), editor of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum. On the death of Dr Pitcairne he edited his friend's Latin verses, and arranged for the sale of his valuable library to Peter the Great of Russia. In 1714 he published Rudiments of the Latin Tongue, which was long used in Scottish schools. In 1715 he edited, with notes and annotations, the works of George Buchanan in two volumes folio. As Ruddiman was a Jacobite, the liberal views of Buchanan seemed to him to call for frequent censure. A society of scholars was formed in Edinburgh to " vindicate that incom- parably learned and pious author from the calumnies of Mr Thomas Ruddiman"; but Ruddiman's remains the standard edition, though George Logan, John Love, John Man and others attacked him with great vehemence. He founded (1715) a successful printing business, and in 1728 was appointed printer to the university. He acquired the Caledonian Mercury in 1729, and in 1730 was appointed keeper of the Advocates' Library, resigning in 1752. He died in Edinburgh, on the igth of January 1757- Besides the works mentioned, the following writings of Ruddiman deserve notice: An edition of Gavin Douglas's Aeneid of Virgil (1710); the editing and completion of Anderson's Selectus Diplo- matum et Numismatum Scotiae Thesaurus (1739); Catalogue of the Advocates' Library (1733-42); and a famous edition of Livy (1751). He also helped Joseph Ames with the Typographical Antiquities. Ruddiman was for many years the representative scholar of Scotland. Writing in 1766, Dr Johnson, after reproving Boswell for some bad Latin, significantly adds — " Ruddiman is dead." When Boswell proposed to write Ruddiman's life, " I should take pleasure in helping you to do honour to him," said Johnson. See Chalmers's Life of Ruddiman (1794); Scots Magazine, January 7. 1757- RUDE, FRANQOIS (1784-1855), French sculptor, was born at Dijon on the 4th of June 1784. Till the age of sixteen he worked at his father's trade as a stovemaker, but in 1809 he went up to Paris from the Dijon school of art, and became a pupil of Castellier, obtaining the Grand Prix in 1812. After the second restoration of the Bourbons he retired to Brussels, where he got some work under the architect Van der Straeten, who employed him to execute nine bas-reliefs in the palace of Tervueren. At Brussels Rude married Sophie Fremiet, the daughter of a Bonapartist compatriot to whom he had many obligations, but gladly availed himself of an opportunity to return to Paris, where in 1827 a statue of the Virgin for St Gervais and a " Mercury fastening his Sandals " (now in the Louvre) obtained much attention. His great success dates, however, from 1833, when he received the cross of the Legion of Honour for his statueof a " Neapolitan Fisher Boy playing with a Tortoise," which also procured for him the important commission for all the ornament and one group in the Arc de 1'Etoile. This group, the " Depart des volontaires de 1792," a work full of energy and fire, immortalizes the name of Rude. Amongst other pro- ductions we may mention the statue of the mathematician Gaspard Monge (1848), Jeanne d'Arc, in the gardens of the Luxembourg (1852), a Calvary in bronze for the high altar of St Vincent de Paul (1855), as well as " Hebe and the Eagle of Jupiter," " Love Triumphant " and " Christ on the Cross," all of which appeared at the Salon of 1857 after his death. He died suddenly on the 3rd of November 1855. See also P. G. Hamerton, Modern Frenchmen, five biographies (1878); Carl Adolf Rosenberg, Francois Rude (1884); Louis Gonse, Les Chefs d'ceuvre des musees de France (Paris, 1900) ; L. de Fourcaud, Francois Rude, sculpteur (Paris, 1904). RUDERAL (Lat. rudus, rubbish), a botanical term for plants growing on rubbish heaps or in waste places. RUDESHEIM, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine province on the right bank of the Rhine, 19 m. S.W. of RUDINI— RUDOLF 815 Wiesbaden by the main line from Frankfort-on-Main to Cologne. Pop. (1905) 4773. Its situation, at the lower end of the famous vineyard district of the Rheingau, opposite Bingen and just above the romantic gorge of the Rhine, renders it a popular tourist centre. Behind the town rises the majestic Niederwald (985 ft.), on the crest of which stands the national monument, " Germania," commemorating the war of 1870-71. Riidesheim has some interesting towers. The Bromserburg, or Niederburg, a massive structure built in the I3th century, formerly belonging to the archbishops of Mainz; the Boosen- burg, or Oberburg, which was rebuilt hi 1868, with the exception of the keep; the Adlerturm, a relic of the fortifications of the town; and the Vorderburg, the remains of an old castle. The Gothic church of St James has some interesting paintings and monuments, and there is also a Protestant church. The town has electrical works, but its industries are mainly concerned with the preparation of wine, the best kinds being Rudesheimer Berg, Hinterhaus and Rottland. See I. P. Schmelzeis, Riidesheim im Rheingau (Rudesheim, 1881); and Heiderlinden, Rudesheim und seine Umgebung (Rudesheim, 1888). RUDINl, ANTONIO STARABBA, MARQUIS DI (1830-1908), Italian statesman, was born at Palermo on the 6th of April 1839. In 1859 he joined the revolutionary committee which paved the way for Garibaldi's triumphs in the following year; then after spending a short time at Turin as attache to the Italian foreign office he was elected mayor of Palermo. In 1866 he displayed considerable personal courage and energy in quelling an insurrection of separatist and reactionary tendencies. The prestige thus acquired led to his appointment as prefect of Palermo, and while occupying that position he put down brigandage throughout the province; in 1868 he was prefect of Naples. In October 1869 he became minister of the interior in the Menabrea cabinet, but he fell with that cabinet a few months later, and although elected member of parliament for Canicatti held no important position until, upon the death of Minghetti in 1886, he became leader of the Right. Early in 1891 he succeeded Crispi as premier and minister of foreign affairs by forming a coalition cabinet with a part of the Left under Nicotera; his administration proved vacillating, but it initiated the economies by which Italian finances were put on a sound basis and also renewed the Triple Alliance. He was overthrown in May 1892 by a vote of the Chamber and succeeded by Giolitti. Upon the return of his rival, Crispi, to power in December 1893, he resumed political activity, allying himself with the Radical leader, Cavallotti. The crisis consequent upon the disaster of Adowa (ist March 1896) enabled Rudini to return to power as premier and minister of the interior in a cabinet formed by the veteran Conservative, General Ricotti. He concluded peace with Abyssinia, but endangered relations with Great Britain by the unauthorized publication of confidential diplomatic corre- spondence in a Green-book on Abyssinian affairs. To satisfy the anti-colonial party he ceded Kassala to Great Britain, provoking thereby much indignation in Italy. His internal policy was marked by continual yielding to Radical pressure and by persecution of Crispi. By dissolving the Chamber early in 1897 and favouring Radical candidates in the general election, he paved the way for the outbreak of May 1898, the suppression of which entailed considerable bloodshed and necessitated a state of siege at Milan, Naples, Florence and Leghorn. In- dignation at the results of his policy led to his overthrow in June 1898. During his second term of office he thrice modified his cabinet (July r8g6, December r897, and May 1898) without strengthening his political position. In many respects Rudinr, though leader of the Right and nominally a Conservative politician, proved a dissolving element in the Italian Conserva- tive ranks. By his alliance with the Liberals under Nicotera in r8gr, and by his understanding with the Radicals under Cavallotti in r894-98; by abandoning his Conservative colleague, General Ricotti, to whom he owed the premiership in 1896; and by his vacillating action after his fall from power, he divided and demoralized a constitutional party which, with greater sincerity and less reliance upon political cleverness, he might have welded into a solid parliamentary organization. At the same time he was a thorough gentleman and grand seigneur. One of the largest and wealthiest landowners in Sicily, he managed his estates on liberal lines, and was never troubled by agrarian disturbances. The marquis, who had not been in office since 1898, died on the 6th of August 1908, leaving a son, Carlo, who married a daughter of Mr Henry Labouchere. RUDOK, a small town on the Ladakh frontier of Tibet, through which all the trade of Tibet passes to Leh, and at which is maintained the Chinese outpost that for many years persistently interfered with European exploration. Rudok is picturesquely situated on the side of a hill standing isolated in the plain near the E. end of Lake Pangong, across which the official boundary between Tibet and Kashmir runs. The houses are built in tiers, whitewashed and walled in. At the top of the hill are a large palace and several monasteries painted red. About a mile away from the foot of the hill is another monastery. Rudok is about 13,300 ft. above sea-level, and the greatest altitude on the route connecting it with Lhasa at the pass of Mariom la (the water-parting between the Brahmaputra and the Sutlej) is 15,500 ft. The winter climate of Rudok and of all the towns of the Tsangpo basin, owing to the intense dryness of the air and the light fall of snow, seems to be bracing and exhilarating rather than severe. The thermometer never ap- proaches the minimum record of Puetra (in the same latitude and at half the absolute elevation), according to the observations of native surveyors. RUDOLF (otherwise known as BASSO NOROK and GALLOP), a large lake of E. equatorial Africa, forming- the centre of an inland drainage system, occupying the S. of the Abyssinian highlands and a portion of the great equatorial plateau. The lake itself lies towards the N. of the great East African rift valley, between the parallels of 2° 26' and 5° N., while the meridian of 36° E. is slightly W. of the centre of the northern wider part, the narrower southern portion bending to 36^° E. The length along the curved axis is 185 m., the maximum width 37, and the area roughly 3500 sq. m. Its altitude is 1250 ft. Towards the S. it seems to be deep, but it is com- paratively shallow in the N. Its water is brackish, but drink- able. The country bordering the lake on almost every side is sterile and forbidding. The S. end, for some 50 m. on the W. and for a longer distance on the E., is shut in by high cliffs — the escarpments of a rugged lava-strewn country, which shows abundant signs of volcanic activity, great changes having been reported since 1889. In particular, the great volcano of Lubburua (Teleki's volcano) at the S. end of the lake is said to have been destroyed between 1889 and 1897 by a sudden explosion. The highest point of the S.E. side of the lake is Mount Kulal, 7812 ft., while the culminating height within the basin of the lake is Mount Sil, 9280 ft., which lies about 20 m. S. of Lubburua. Further N., on the W. side, sandy plains alternate with lines of low hills, the immediate shores (on which the water appears to have encroached in very modern times) being marked by spits of sand, which in places cut off lagoons from the main body of the lake. These are the haunt of great numbers of water-birds. In 3° 8' N. the dry bed of the Turkwell — in its upper course a large river descending the slopes of Mount Elgon — approaches the lake. Near the N. end mountains again approach the shores, the most prominent being Mount Lubbur (5200 ft.), an extinct volcano with a well-preserved crater. At the extreme N.W. corner a bay some 35 m. long (Sanderson Gulf) is almost separated from the rest of the lake by two long points of land. On the E. side, open arid plains, with few trees, occupy most of the N. country. One hill, in 3° 20' N., has a height of 3470 ft., and at the N.E. end, separating the lake from Lake Stefanie, is a hilly country, the highest point between the lakes being 3524 ft. Immediately N. of these hills rises the Hummurr Range, with one peak exceeding 7000 ft. Near the S. end is the volcanic island of Elmolo, 10 m. long, and there are a few small islets. Just N. of 4° N. is a small volcanic 8i6 RUDOLPH I. island with highest point 2100 ft. At the N. end of the lake a level swampy plain is traversed by various arms of the lake and by the Nianam river. This river has been shown to be identical with the Omo, the course of which was long one of the most debated questions of African geography. Its northernmost feeders rise on the high plateau S. of the Blue Nile, in 9° 10' N., and being swollen by other streams from the E. and W., soon form a large river. During its lower course it makes two considerable bends to the W. before finally entering the lake as a deep stream a quarter of a mile wide. Lake Rudolf (previously known on the east coast by report) was discovered in 1888 by Count Samuel Teleki and Lieutenant Ludwig von Hohnel. It was subsequently visited by Dr Donaldson Smith, Vittorio Bottego, H. S. H. Cavendish, H. H. Austin, and others, and by 1905 its shores and the neighbouring country had become fairly well known. In 1907, by an agree- ment between the powers concerned, the N.E. end of the lake, into which the Omo debouches, was assigned to Abyssinia, the rest of the lake to Great Britain. AUTHORITIES. — Geographical Journal (September 1896, April 1898, August 1899, May 1904; the last-named issue contains a map by Captain P. Maud, R.E.) ; Ludwig von Hohnel, Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie (London, 1894) ; A. Donaldson Smith, Through Unknown African Countries (London, 1897) ; A. H. Neumann, Elephant-Hunting in East Equatorial Africa (London, 1898); L. Vannutelli and C. Citerni, L'Omo (Milan, 1899); M. S. Wellby, 'Twixt Sirdar and Menelik (London, 1901); H. H. Austin, Among Swamps and Giants in Equatorial Africa (1902) ; C. H. Stigand, To Abyssinia through an Unknown Land (1910). (E. HE.) RUDOLPH I. (1218-1291), German king, son of Albert IV. count of Habsburg, and Hedwig, daughter of Ulrich count of Kyburg, was born at Limburg on the ist of May 1218. At his father's death in 1239 Rudolph inherited the family estates in Alsace, and in 1245 he married Gertrude, daughter of Burk- hard III. count of Hohenberg. He paid frequent visits to the court of his godfather the emperor Frederick II., and his loyalty to Frederick and to his son Conrad IV. was richly rewarded by grants of land, but in 1254 was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV. The disorder in Germany after the fall of the Hohenstaufen afforded an opportunity for Rudolph to increase his possessions. His wife was an heiress; and on the death of his childless uncle, Hartmann VI. count of Kyburg, in 1264, he seized his valuable estates. Successful feuds with the bishops of Strassburg and Basel further aug- mented his wealth and his reputation; rights over various tracts of land were purchased from abbots and others; and he was also the possessor of large estates in the regions now known as Switzerland and Alsace. These various sources of wealth and influence had rendered Rudolph the most powerful prince in S.W. Germany when, in the autumn of 1273, the princes met to elect a king. His election at Frankfort on the 29th of September 1273 was largely due to the efforts of his brother-in-law, Frederick III. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg. The support of Albert duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, and of Louis II. count palatine of the Rhine and duke of upper Bavaria, had been purchased by betrothing them to two of Rudolph's daughters; so that Ottakar II. king of Bohemia, a candidate for the throne, was almost alone in his opposition. Rudolph was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 24th of October 1273, and the feast which followed has been described by Schiller in Der Graf von Hapsburg. To win the approbation of the pope Rudolph re- nounced all imperial rights in Rome, the papal territory and Sicily, and promised to lead a new crusade; and Pope Gregory X., in spite of Ottakar's protests, not only recognized Rudolph himself, but persuaded Alphonso X. king of Castile, who had been chosen German king in 1257, to do the same. In November 1274 it was decided by the diet at Nuremberg that all crown estates seized since the death of the emperor Frederick II. must be restored, and that Ottakar of Bohemia must answer to the diet for not recognizing the new king. Ottakar refused to appear or to restore the provinces of Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola which he had seized. He was placed under the ban; and in June 1276 war was declared against him. Having detached Henry I. duke of lower Bavaria from his side, Rudolph compelled the Bohemian king to cede the four provinces in November 1276. Ottakar was then invested with Bohemia by Rudolph, and his son Wenceslaus was betrothed to a daughter of the German king, who made a triumphal entry into Vienna. Ottakar, however, raised questions about the execution of the treaty, made an alliance with some Polish chiefs and procured the support of several German princes, including his former ally, Henry of lower Bavaria. To meet this combination Rudolph entered into alliance with Ladislaus IV. king of Hungary, and gave addi- tional privileges to the citizens of Vienna. On the 26th of August 1278 the rival armies met on the banks of the river March near Diirnkrut, and Ottakar was defeated and killed. Moravia was subdued and its government entrusted to Rudolph's representatives, while Wenceslaus was again betrothed to one of his daughters. Rudolph's attention was next turned to his new possessions in Austria and the adjacent countries. He spent several years in establishing his authority there, but found some difficulty in making these provinces hereditary in his family. At length the hostility of the princes was overcome, and in December 1282 Rudolph invested his sons Albert and Rudolph with the duchies of Austria and Styria at Augsburg, and so laid the foundations of the greatness of the house of Habsburg. Turning to the west he compelled Philip I. count of upper Burgundy to cede some districts to him in 1281, forced the citizens of Berne to pay the tribute which they had previously refused, and in 1289 marched against Philip's successor, Otto IV., and compelled him to do homage. In 1281 his first wife died, and on the 5th of February 1284 he married Isabella, daughter of Hugh IV. duke of Burgundy. Rudolph was not very successful in restoring internal peace to Germany. Orders were indeed issued for the establishment of landpeaces in Bavaria, Franconia and Swabia, and afterwards for the whole of Germany; but the king lacked the power, or the determina- tion, to enforce them, although in December 1289 he led an expedition into Thuringia where he destroyed a number of robber-castles. In 1291 he attempted to secure the election of his son Albert as German king; but the princes refused on the pretext of their inability to support two kings, but perhaps because they feared the increasing power of the Habsburgs. Rudolph died at Spires on the i5th of July 1291 and was buried in the cathedral of that city. He had a large family, but only one of his sons, Albert, afterwards the German king Albert I., survived him. Rudolph was a tall man with pale face and prominent nose. He possessed many excellent qualities, bravery, piety and generosity; but his reign is memorable rather, in the history of the house of Habsburg than in that of the kingdom of Germany. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The original authorities relating to the time and life of Rudolph are found in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Band xvii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). The following should also be consulted: Acta imperii selecta, Urkunden deutscher Konige und Kaiser, edited by J. F. Bohmer (Innsbruck, 1870); Acta imperii inedita seculi XIII et XIV, Urkunden und Briefe zur Geschichte des Kaiserreichs, edited by E. Winkelmann (Innsbruck, 1885); Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte des deutschen Retches unter den Konigen Rudolf I. und Albrecht I., edited by F. Kalten- brunner (Vienna, 1889); M. Gerbert, Codex epistolaris Rudolph I. (Sanblas, 1772); F. J. Bodmann, Codex epistolaris Rudolf, I. Romanorum regis (Leipzig, 1806). The best modern authorities are K. Hagen, Deutsche Geschichte von Rudolf von Habsburg bis aufdie neueste Zeit (Frankfort, 1854-57) : O. Lorenz, Geschichte Rudolfs von Habsburg und Adolf s von Nassau (Vienna, 1863-67) ; Th. Lindner, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern (Stuttgart, 1888-93); A. Huber, Rudolf von Habsburg^vor seiner Thronbesteigung (Vienna, 1873); J. Hirn, Rudolf von Habsburg (Vienna, 1874); H. von Zeissberg, Ueber das Rechtsverfahren Rudolf von Habsburg gegen Ottokar von Biihmen (Vienna, 1882); H. Otto, Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von Habsburg zu Papst Gregor X. (Erlangen, 1893) ; A. Busson, Der Krieg von 1278 und die Schlacht bei Diirnkrut (Vienna, 1880); and O. Redlich, Rudolf von Habsburg (Innsbruck, 1903). RUDOLPH II.— RUDOLPH THE BALD 817 RUDOLPH II. (1552-1612), Roman emperor, son of the emperor Maximilian II. by his wife Maria, daughter of the emperor Charles V., was born in Vienna on the i8th of July 1552. In 1563 he was sent to Spain, where his natural abilities were improved by a good education, but he lacked the frank and tolerant spirit of his father, resembling rather his uncle Philip II. of Spain. In 1572 he was crowned king of Hungary, three years later king of Bohemia; and in October 1575 he was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Regensburg, becoming emperor on his father's death in October 1576. The importance of Rudolph's reign is negative rather than positive, consisting more in what he did not do than in what he did; although it is questionable whether any ruler could have pre- vented the religious struggles of Germany and the Thirty Years' War. The more active part of the emperor's life was the period from his accession to about 1597. During that time he attended the infrequent imperial diets, and took an interest in the struggle in the Netherlands and the defence of the empire against the Turks. He was at times suspicious of the papal policy, while his relations with Spain were somewhat inharmonious. As a convinced Roman Catholic he forwarded the progress of the counter-reformation, and in general the tolerant policy of Maximilian II. was reversed. Political as well as religious privileges were attacked; the administration was conducted by Germans; and the result was a considerable amount of discontent which became very pronounced about the opening of the 1 7th century. Concurrently with the growth of this unrest Rudolph had become increasingly subject to attacks of depression and eccentricity, which were so serious as to amount almost to insanity. In 1604, after a war with Turkey had been in progress since 1593, many of the Hungarians rebelled against Rudolph and chose Stephen Bocskay as their prince. By this time the members of the Habsburg family were thoroughly alarmed at the indifference or incompetence of the emperor; and their anxieties were not diminished by the knowledge that he was in feeble health, was unmarried, and had refused to take any steps towards securing the election of a successor. In April 1606 they declared Rudolph incapable of ruling, and recognized one of his younger brothers, the archduke Matthias, afterwards emperor, as their head; and in the following June Matthias, having already with the emperor's reluctant consent taken the conduct of affairs into his own hands, made peace by granting extensive concessions to the rebellious Hungarians, and concluded a treaty with the sultan in November of the same year. Then shaking off his lethargy Rudolph prepared to renew the war with the Turks; a move which Matthias met by throwing himself upon the support of the national party in Hungary. Matthias also found adherents in other parts of his brother's dominions, with the result that in June 1608 the emperor was compelled to cede to him the kingdom of Hungary together with the government of Austria and Moravia. Rudolph now sought the aid of the princes of the empire, and even of the Protestants; but he had met with no success in this direction when trouble arose in Bohemia. Having at first rejected the demand of the Bohemians for greater religious liberty, the emperor was soon obliged to yield to superior force, and in 1609 he acceded to the popular wishes by issuing the Letter of Majesty (Majestdtsbrief), and then made similar concessions to his subjects in Silesia and elsewhere. A short reconciliation with Matthias was followed by further disorder in Bohemia, which was invaded by Rudolph's cousin, the archduke Leopold (1586-1632). The Bohemians invoked the aid of Matthias, who gathered an army; and in 1611 the emperor, practically a prisoner at Prague, was again forced to cede a kingdom to his brother. Rudolph died at Prague, his usual place of residence, on the 2oth of January 1612, and was succeeded as emperor by Matthias. Rudolph was a clever and cultured man, greatly interested in chemistry, alchemy, astronomy and astrology; he was a patron of Tycho Brahe and Kepler, and was himself something of a scholar and an artist. He was the greatest collector of his age, his agents ransacking Europe to fill his museums with rare works of art. His education at the Spanish court and an hereditary tendency to insanity, however, made him haughty, suspicious and consequently very unpopular, while even in his best days the temper of his_mind was that of a recluse rather than of a ruler. The sources for the life and times of Rudolph II. are somewhat scanty, as many of the official documents of the reign, which were kept at Prague and not at Vienna, were destroyed, probably during the Thirty Years' War. The best authorities, however, are: Rudolphi II. epislolae ineditae, edited by B. Comte de Pace (Vienna. 1 77 1 ) ; M . Ritter, Quellenbeitrdge zur Geschichte des Kaisers Rudolf II (Munich, 1872); and Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegen- reformation und des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges (Stuttgart, 1887 fol.) ; L. von Ranke, Zur deutschen Geschichte: Vom ReUgionsfrieden bis sum 30-jdhrigen Kriege (Leipzig, 1868); A. Gindely, Rudolf 11. und seine Zeit (Prague, 1862-68); F. Stieve, Die Verhandlungen uber die Nachfolge Kaiser Rudolfs II. (Munich, 1880); in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Band xxix. (Leipzig, 1889); and Der Ursprung des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges (Munich, 1875); F. von Bezold, Kaiser Rudolf II. und die heilige Liga (Munich, 1886) ; J. Janssen, Geschichte des Deutschen Volks seit dent Ausgang des Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1878 fol.), of which there is an English trans- lation by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie (London, 1896 fol.) ; and H. Montz, Die Wahl Rudolfs II. (Marburg, 1895). RUDOLPH, or RAOUL (d. 936), king of the Franks and duke of Burgundy, was a son of Richard duke of Burgundy, and was probably a member of the Carolingian family. He became duke of Burgundy on his father's death in 921, and having married Emma, daughter of Robert duke of the Franks, assisted his father-in-law to drive the Frankish king, Charles III. (the Simple), from his throne. Robert then became king of the Franks, and when he was killed in battle in June 923 he was succeeded by Rudolph, who was crowned at Soissons in the following month. Giving Burgundy to his brother-in-law Giselbert of Vergi (d. 956), the new king was fully occupied in resisting the attacks of the Normans, and in combating the partisans of Charles the Simple; but his enterprises were mainly unsuccessful, and his authority was not generally recognized. But when engaged in a struggle with his brother-in-law, Herbert II. count of Vermandois, over the possession of the county of Laon, Rudolph experienced happier fortunes. At Limoges a great victory was gained over the Normans, whose duke, William I., did homage to him in 933 ; invasions of Aquitaine led to his recognition as king by the powerful lords of that district; and Herbert of Vermandois was defeated and put to flight. In 935 peace was made between these rivals; and on the 1 4th of January 936 Rudolph died at Auxerre, leaving no sons. See W. Lippert, Konig Rudolf von Frankreich (Leipzig, 1886). RUDOLPH (d. 1080), German king, and duke of Swabia, opponent of the emperor Henry IV., was a son of Kuno count of Rheinfelden, who possessed estates in both Burgundy and Swabia. He received the duchy of Swabia from Agnes, regent and mother of the young king, Henry IV., in 1057, and two years later married the king's sister Matilda (1045-1060), and was made administrator of the kingdom of Burgundy, or Aries. Differences soon arose between the king and his brother-in-law, whose loyalty was suspected during the Saxon War of 1073. When Henry was excommunicated and deposed by pope Gregory VII., the princes met at Forchheim, and elected Rudolph as German king. He renounced the right of investi- ture, disclaimed any intention of making the crown hereditary in his family, and was crowned at Mainz on the 27th of March 1077. He found no support in Swabia, but, uniting with the Saxons, won two victories over Henry's troops, and, in 1080, was recognized by the pope. On the isth of October 1080, Rudolph was severely wounded at Hohenmolsen, and died the next day. He was buried at Merseburg, where his beautiful bronze tomb is still to be seen. See O. Grund, Die Wahl Rudolfs von Rheinfelden zum Gegenkdnig (Leipzig, 1880). RUDOLPH, or RAOUL, known as RUDOLPH GLABER (Rudolph the Bald) (d. c. 1050), French chronicler, was born in 8i8 RUDOLSTADT— RUFF Burgundy about 985, and was in turn an inmate of the mon- asteries of St Leger at Champeaux and St Benigne at Dijon, afterwards entering the famous abbey of Cluny, and becoming a monk at St Germain at Auxerre before 1039. He also appears to have visited Italy. His Historiarum sui temporis libri V., dedicated to St Odilon, abbot of Cluny, purports to be a uni- versal history from 900 to 1044; but is an irregular narration of events in France and Burgundy. Rudolph was a strong believer in the approaching end of the world. The Historiarum was first printed in 1596, and published by A. Duchesne in the Historiae Francorum Scriptores, tome iv. (Paris, 1639-49). Extracts are printed in the Monumenta Germaniae historica, Band vii.; but perhaps the best edition of the work is the one edited by M. Prou in the Collection de textes pour servir a I'etude et I'enseignement de I'histoire (Paris, 1886). Rudolph also wrote a Vita, S. Gulielmi, abbatis S. Benigni, published by J. Mabillon in the Acta Sanctorum, tome vi. (Paris, 1668). See A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome 11. (Paris, 1902); and A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica (Berlin, 1896). RUDOLSTADT, a town of Germany, capital of the princi- pality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, and the chief residence of the prince, lies on the left bank of the Saale, 18 m. S.W. of Jena, by the railway Grossheringen-Saalfeld, in one of the most beautiful districts of Thuringia. Pop. (1905) 12,494. The picturesque town is a favourite tourist resort. Besides con- taining the government buildings of the little principality, Rudolstadt is well provided with schools and other institutions, including a library of 65,000 volumes. The residence of the prince is the Heidecksburg, a palace on an eminence 200 ft. above the Saale, which was rebuilt after a fire in 1735, and contains a picture gallery, a magnificent banqueting hall and a library. The Ludwigsburg, another palace in the town, built in 1 742, accommodates the natural history collections belonging to the prince. The principal church dates from the end of the i $th century and contains tombs and effigies of many former princes. In the Anger, a public park between the town and the river, is the theatre. The Rudolsbad — a handsome hydro- pathic establishment with a richly decorated interior — lying amidst extensive grounds, is also noticeable. Various memorials in and near the town commemorate the visits of Schiller to the neighbourhood in 1787 and 1788. The industries of the place include the manufacture of porcelain, chocolate and dye- stuffs, wool-spinning and bell-founding. The name of Rudolstadt occurs in an inventory of the posses- sions of the abbey of Hersfeld in the year 800. After passing into the possession of the German kings and then of the rulers of Orlamiinde and of Weimar, it came into the hands of the counts of Schwarzburg in 1335. Its civic rights were confirmed in 1404, and since 1599 it has been the residence of the ruling house of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. See Renovanz, Chronik von Rudolstadt (Rudolstadt, 1860); Anemiiller, Geschichtsbilder aus der Vergangenheit Rudolstadts (Rudolstadt, 1888); and Woerl, Rudolstadt (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1890). RUDRA (probably from the root rud, " to howl," hence " the howler "), in Hindu Vedic mythology, a storm god, and father of the Maruts who are frequently called Rudriyas. He shoots tempests at the earth, but is not essentially a malevolent deity, being invoked as a protector of cattle. In the Atharvaveda he is lord of life and death, and in later Hinduism one of the Hindu trinity, the god Siva. See A. A. Macdpnell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897); Sir William Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, iv. 299—420. RUE (Fr. rue, Lat. ruta, from Gr. frvrii, the Pelopon- nesian word for the plant known as irrryavov), the name of a woody or bushy herb, belonging to the genus Ruta, especially Ruta graveolens, the " common rue," a plant with bluish green spotted leaves and greenish yellow flowers. It has a strong pungent smell and the leaves have a bitter taste. The plant was much used in medieval and later medicine as a stimulative and irritant drug. It was commonly supposed to be much used by witches. From its association with " rue," sorrow, repentance (O. Eng. hreow, from hreowan, to be sorry for, cf. Ger. reuen), the plant was also known as " herb of grace," and was taken as the symbol of repentance. RUEDA, LOPE DE (1510?-! 565?), Spanish dramatist, was born early in the i6th century at Seville, where, according to Cervantes, he worked as a metal-beater. His name first occurs in 1554 as acting at Benavente, and between 1558 and 1561 he was manager of a strolling company which visited Segovia, Seville, Toledo, Madrid, Valencia and C6rdova. In the last-named city Rueda fell ill, and on the 2ist of March 1565 made a will which he was too exhausted to sign; he probably died shortly afterwards, and is said by Cervantes to have been buried in C6rdova cathedral. He was twice married; first to a disreputable actress named Mariana, who became the mistress of the duke de Medinaceli; and second to Rafaela Angela, who bore him a daughter. His works were issued posthumously in 1567 by Timoneda, who toned down certain passages in the texts. Rueda's more ambitious plays are mostly adapted from the Italian; in Eufemia he draws on Boccaccio, in Medora he utilizes Giancarli's Zingara, in Armelina he combines Raineri's Attilia with Cecchi's Servigiale, and in Los Enga.nad.os he uses Gl'Ingannati, a comedy produced by the Intronati, a literary society at Siena. These follow the original so closely that they give no idea of Rueda's talent; but in his pasos or prose interludes he displays an abundance of riotous humour, great knowledge of low life, and a most happy gift of dialogue. His predecessors mostly wrote for courtly audiences or for the study; Rueda with his strollers created a taste for the drama which he was able to gratify, and he is admitted both by Cervantes and Lope de Vega to be the true founder of the national theatre. His works have been reprinted by the marquis de la Fuensanta del Valle in the Coleccion de libros raros 6 curwsos, vols. xxiii. and xxiv. RUEIL, a town of N. France, in the department of Seine-et- Oise, at the W. foot of Mt Valerien, 6 m. W. of Paris by tramway. Pop. (1906) 10,439. Rueil has a church rebuilt under Napoleon III. in exact imitation of a previous church in the Renaissance style, and containing the tombs of the Empress Josephine and her daughter Hortense de Beauharnais. In the i7th century Richelieu built a chateau which no longer exists. Rueil has important photographic works and manufactures of lime and cement, &c. Close to the town is the chateau of Malmaison, a building of the i8th century famous as the residence of the empress Josephine. It was afterwards occupied by Maria Christina, queen of Spain, and by the empress Eugenie. In 1900 the owner, Daniel Osiris, presented it and the park to the nation; the apartments have been as far as possible restored to the condition in which they were when inhabited by Josephine and Napoleon. RUFF, a bird so called from the very beautiful and remark- able frill of elongated feathers that, just before the breeding- season, grow thickly round the neck of the male, who is considerably larger than the female, known as the reeve. In many respects this species, the Tringa pugnax of Linnaeus and the Machetes pugnax of modern ornithologists, is one of the most singular in existence. The best account is that given in 1813 by G. Montagu (Suppl. Orn. Dictionary), who seems to have been struck by the peculiarities of the species, and, to investigate them, visited the fens of Lincolnshire, possibly excited thereto by the example of T. Pennant, whose information, collected there in 1769, was of a kind to provoke further inquiry, while Daniel (Rural Sports, iii. p. 234) had added some other parti- culars, and subsequently G. Graves in 1816 repeated in the same district the experience of his predecessors. Since that time the great changes produced by the drainage of the fen-country have banished this species from nearly the whole of it, so that R. Lubbock (Obs. Fauna of Norfolk, pp. 68-73) and H. Steven- son (Birds of Norfolk, ii. pp. 261-271) can alone be cited as modern witnesses of its habits in England, while the trade of netting or snaring ruffs and fattening them for the table has for many years practically ceased. The cock bird, when, to use the fenman's expression, he has RUFFIAN— RUFFO 819 not " his show on," and the hen at all seasons, offer no very remarkable deviation from ordinary sandpipers; outwardly l there is nothing, except the unequal size of the two sexes, to rouse suspicion of any abnormal peculiarity. But when spring comes all is changed. In a surprisingly short time the feathers clothing the face of the male are shed, and their place is taken by papillae or small caruncles of bright yellow or pale pink. From each side of his head sprouts a tuft of stiff curled feathers, while the feathers of the throat change colour, and beneath and around it sprouts the frill or ruff already mentioned as giving the bird his name. The feathers which form this remarkable adornment are, like those of the " ear-tufts," stiff and incurved at the end, but much longer — measuring more than 2 in. They are closely arrayed, capable of depression or elevation, and form a shield to the front of the breast impenetrable by the bill of a rival.2 More extraordinary than this, from one point of view, is the great variety of coloration that obtains in these temporal^ outgrowths. Considering the really few colours that the birds exhibit, the variation is some- thing marvellous, so that fifty examples may be compared without finding a very close resemblance between any two of Ruff, them, while the individual variation is increased by the " ear- tufts," which generally differ in colour from the frill. The colours range from deep black to pure white, passing through chestnut or bay, and many tints of brown or ashy-grey, while often the feathers are more or less closely barred with some darker shade, and the black is very frequently glossed with violet, blue or green — or, in addition, spangled with white grey or gold-colour. The white, on the other hand, is not rarely freckled, streaked, or barred with grey, rufous-brown or black. In some examples the barring is most regularly concentric, in others more or less broken-up or undulating, and the latter may be said of the streaks. It was ascertained by Montagu, and has since been confirmed by A. D. Bartlett, that every ruff assumes tufts and frill exactly the same in colour and markings as those he wore in the preceding season; and thus, polymorphic as is the male as a species, as an individual he is unchangeable. The white frill is said to be the rarest, and birds exhibiting it have white necks even in winter. That all this wonderful " show " is the consequence of the polygamous habit of the ruff can scarcely be doubted. No 1 Internally there Is a great difference in the form of the posterior margin of the sternum, as long ago remarked by Nitzsch. 2 This " ruff " has been compared Jo that of Elizabethan or Jacobean costume, but it is essentially different, since that was open in front and widest and most projecting behind, whereas the bird's decorative apparel is most developed in front and at the sides and scarcely exists behind. other species of Limicoline bird has, so far as is known, any tendency to it. Indeed, in many species of Limicolae, as the dotterel, the godwits (q.v.), phalaropes and perhaps some others, the female is larger and more brightly coloured than the male, who in such cases seems to take upon himself some at least of the domestic duties. Both Montagu and Graves, to say nothing of other writers, state that the ruffs, in England, were far more numerous than the reeves; and their testimony can hardly be doubted; though in Germany J. F. Naumann ( Vog. Deutschland's, vii. p. 544) considers that this is only the case in the earlier part of the season, and that later the females greatly outnumber the males. By no one have the ruff's characteristics been more happily described than by J. Wolley, in a communication to W. C. Hewitson (Eggs of Brit. Birds, 3d ed., p. 346), as follows: — " The ruff, like other fine gentlemen, takes much more trouble with his courtship than with his duties as a husband. Whilst the reeves are sitting on their eggs, scattered about the swamps, he is to be seen far away flitting about in flocks, and on the ground dancing and sparring with his companions. Before they are con- fined to their nests, it is wonderful with what devotion the females are attended by their gay followers, who seem to be each trying to be more attentive than the rest. Nothing can be more expressive of humility and ardent love than some of the actions of the ruff. He throws himself prostrate on the ground, with every feather on his body standing up and quivering; but he seems as if he were afraid of coming too near his mistress. If she flies off, he starts up in an instant to arrive before her at the next place of alighting, and all his actions are full of life and spirit. But none of his spirit is expended in care for his family. He never comes to see after an enemy. In the [Lapland] marshes, a reeve now and then flies near with a scarcely audible ka-ka-kuk; but she. seems a dull bird, and makes no noisy attack on an invader." The breeding-grounds of the ruff extend from Great Britain across N. Europe and Asia; but the birds become less numerous towards the E. They winter in India, reaching even Ceylon, and Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope. The ruff also occasionally visits Iceland, and there are several well-authen- ticated records of its occurrence on the E. coast of the United States, while an example is stated (Ibis, 1875, p. 332) to have been received from the N. of S. America. (A. N.) RUFFIAN (Fr. rufian, It. ruffiano), a brutal, violent person, a swaggering, low bully. The etymology is obscure, but the word has been connected with " ruffler," a bully, swaggerer, one who "ruffles" (M. Du. rqffeln, to pander). An early derivation, quoted in Du Cange, derives it from Lat. rufus, red, as the hair of the meretrices, with whom the ruffiani were generally associ- ated, was red or gold, as contrasted with the black hair of sober matrons. RUFFO, FABRIZIO (1744-1827), Neapolitan cardinal and politician, was born at San Lucido in Calabria on the i6th of September 1744. His father, Litterio Ruffo, was duke of Baran- ello, and his mother, Giustiniana, was of the family of Colonna. Fabrizio owed his education to his uncle, the cardinal Thomas Ruffo, then dean of the Sacred College. In early life he secured the favour of Giovanni Angelo Braschi di Cesera, who in 1775 became Pope Pius VI. Ruffo was placed by the pope among the chierici di camera — the clerks who formed the papal civil and financial service. He was later promoted to be treasurer-general, a post which carried with it the ministry of war. Ruffo's conduct in office was diversely judged. Colletta, the historian of Naples, speaks of him as corrupt, and Jomini repeats the charge. Ruffo's biographer, Sachinelli, says that he incurred hostility by restrict- ing the feudal powers of some of the landowners in the papal states. In 1791 he was removed from the treasurership, but was created cardinal on the zgth of September, though he was not in orders. He never became a priest. Ruffo went to Naples, where he was named administrator of the royal domain of Caserta, and received the abbey of S. Sophia in Benevento in commendam. When in December 1798 the French troops advanced on Naples, Ruffo fled to Palermo with the royal family. He was chosen to head a royalist movement in Calabria, where his family, though impoverished by debt, exercised large feudal powers. He was named vicar-general on the 25th of January 1799. On the 8th of February he landed at 820 RUFIJI— RUFINUS La Cortona with a small following, and began to raise the so- called " army of the faith " in association with Fra Diavolo and other brigand leaders. Ruffo had no difficulty in upsetting the republican government established by the French, and by June had advanced to Naples (see NAPLES and NELSON). The campaign has given rise to much controversy. Ruffo appears to have lost favour with the king by showing a tendency to spare the republicans. He resigned his vicar-generalship to the prince of Cassero, and during the second French conquest and the reigns of Joseph Bonaparte and Murat he lived quietly in Naples. Some notice was taken of him by Napoleon, but he never held an important post. After the restoration of the Bourbons he was received into favour. During the revolu- tionary troubles of 1822 he was consulted by the king, and was even in office for a very short time as a " loyalist " minister. He died on the I3th of December 1827. The account of Ruffo given in Colletta's History of Naples (English translation, Edinburgh, 1860) must be taken with caution. Colletta was a violent liberal partisan, who wrote in exile, and largely from memory. He has been corrected by the Duca de Lauria, Inlorno alia storia del Reame di Nappli di Pietro Colletta (Naples, 1877). Ruffo's own side of the question is stated in Memorie Storiche sulla vita del Cardinale Fabrizip Ruffo, by Domenico Sacchinelli (Naples, 1836). See also Fabrizio Ruffo: Revolution and Gegen-Revolution von Neapel, by Baron von Helfert (Vienna, 1882). RUFIJI, a large river of German East Africa, entering the sea by a considerable delta, between 7° 45' and 8° 13' S. Its upper basin, which extends from N. to S. through over 300 m., is drained by three main branches, which unite to form the lower Rufiji. Of the three upper branches, the two southern, the Luvegu and the Ulanga, though shorter than the northern- most (the Ruaha), carry a greater volume of water, as they come from a more rainy region, and by their junction in 8° 35' S-, 37° 25' E., the Rufiji proper may be said to be formed. The Luvegu rises 10° 50' S., 35° 50' E., and flows N.E. in a wooded valley, generally narrow, and bordered by a broken country in great part uninhabited and covered with thin forest. In its lower course it is a large stream — 100 to 150 yds. wide. The Ulanga is formed by a number of streams descending from the outer escarpment of the high plateau which runs N.E. from the head of Lake Nyasa and in Uhehe becomes broken up in ranges of mountains. The most important head-stream, the Ruhudye, rises in about 9° 30' S., 34° 40' E. As a whole, the Ulanga valley is broad, level and swampy, the river running in a very winding course and sending off many diverging arms. It is navigable throughout the greater part of its course, haying even in the dry season a general depth of 3 to 12 ft., with a width of 40 to 120 yds. In April and May nearly all the streams overflow their banks and cover a great part of the plain. Just below the junction of the Luvegu and Ulanga, the Rufiji flows through a narrow pass by the Shuguli falls, and continues N.E. in a fairly straight course to the junction of the Ruaha, in 7° 55' S., 37° 52' E. The most remote branches of the Ruaha rise N. of Lake Nyasa in the Livingstone mountains. The united stream makes a wide sweep to the N. of the Uhehe mountains, from which it receives various tributaries, finally flowing S.E. and E. to the Rufiji. A little below the junction the Rufiji is broken by the Pangani falls, but is thence navigable by small steamers to its delta. In this part of its course the river receives no large tributaries but sends out divergent channels. The country on either side is a generally level plain, inundated, on the south, in the rains, and the river varies in width from 100 to 400 yds., with an average current of 3 m. an hour. The main mouth of the river is that known as Simba Uranga, the bar of which can be crossed by ocean vessels at high water, but all the branches are very shallow as the apex of the delta is approached. Much of the delta is suited for rice- growing. RUFINUS, TYRANNIUS, presbyter and theologian, was born at or near Aquileia at the head of the Adriatic, probably be- tween 340 an 345. In early manhood he entered the cloister as a catechumen, receiving baptism about 370. About the same time a visit of Jerome to Aquileia led to a close friendship between the two, and shortly after Jerome's departure for the East Rufinus also was drawn thither (in 372 or 373) by his interest in its theology and monasticism. He first settled in Egypt, hearing the lectures of Didymus, the Origenistic head of the catechetical school at Alexandria, and also cultivating friendly relations with Macarius the elder and other ascetics in the desert. In Egypt, if not even before leaving Italy, he had become intimately acquainted with Melania, a wealthy and devout Roman widow; and when she removed to Palestine, taking with her a number of clergy and monks on whom the persecutions of the Arian Valens had borne heavily, Rufinus (about 378) followed her. While his patroness lived in a con- vent of her own. in Jerusalem, Rufinus, at her expense, gathered together a number of monks in a monastery on the Mount of Olives, devoting himself at the same time to the study of Greek theology. This combination of the contemplative life and the life of learning had already developed in the Egyptian monasteries. When Jerome came to Bethlehem in 386, the friendship formed at Aquileia was renewed. Another of the intimates of Rufinus- was John, bishop of Jerusalem, and formerly a Nitrian monk, by whom he was ordained to the priesthood in 390. In 394, in consequence of the attack upon the doctrines of Origen made by Epiphanius of Salamis during a visit to Jerusalem, a fierce quarrel broke out, which found Rufinus and Jerome on different sides; and, though three years afterwards a formal reconciliation was brought about between Jerome and John, the breach between Jerome and Rufinus remained unhealed. In the autumn of 397 Rufinus embarked for Rome, where, finding that the theological controversies of the East were exciting much interest and curiosity, he published a Latin translation of the Apology of Pamphilus for Origen, and also (398-99) a somewhat free rendering of the irtpi &px£n> (or De Principiis) of that author himself. In the preface to the latter work he referred to Jerome as an admirer of Origen, and as having already translated some of his works with modifications of ambiguous doctrinal expressions. This allu- sion annoyed Jerome, who was exceedingly sensitive as to his reputation for orthodoxy, and the consequence was a bitter pamphlet war, very wonderful to the modern onlooker, who finds it difficult to see anything discreditable in the accusation against a biblical scholar that he had once thought well of Origen, or in the countercharge against a translator that he had avowedly exercised editorial functions as well. At the instigation of Theophilus of Alexandria, Anastasius (pope 398- 402) summoned Rufinus from Aquileia to Rome to vindicate his orthodoxy; but he excused himself from a personal attend- ance in a written Apologia pro fide sua. The pope in his reply expressly condemned Origen, but left the question of Rufinus's orthodoxy to his own conscience. He was, however, regarded with suspicion in orthodox circles (cf. the Decretum Gelassii, § 20) in spite of his services to Christian literature. In 408 we find Rufinus at the monastery of Pinetum (in the Campagna?); thence he was driven by the arrival of Alaric to Sicily, being accompanied by Melania in his flight. In Sicily he was engaged in translating the Homilies of Origen when he died in 410. The original works of Rufinus are^-(l) De Adulteratione Librorum Origenis — an appendix to his translation of the Apology of Pamphilus, and intended to show that many of the features in Origen's teaching which were then held to be objectionable arise from interpolations and falsifications of the genuine text; (2) De Benedictionibus XII Patriarcharum Libri II — an exposition of Gen. xlix. ; (3) Apologia s. Invectivarum in Hieronymum Libri II; (4) Apologia pro Fide Sua ad Anastasiunt Pontificem; (5) Historia Eremitica — consisting of the lives of thirty-three monks of the Nitrian desert ; 1 (6) Expositio Symboli, a commentary on the creed of Aquileia comparing it with that of Rome, which is valuable for its evidence as to church teaching in the 4th century. The Historiae Ecclesiasticae Libri XI of Rufinus consist partly of a free translation of Eusebius (10 books in 9) and partly of a continuation (bks. x. and xi.) down to the death of Theo- dosius the Great. The other translations of Rufinus are — (l) the Instituta Monachorum and some of the Homilies of Basil: (2) the Apology of Pamphilus, referred to above; (3) Origen's Principia; (4) Origen's Homilies (Gen.-Kings,also Cant, and Rom.) ;(s) Opusctila of Gregory of Nazianzus; (6) the Sententiae of Sixtus, an unknown Greek philosopher; (7) the Sententiae of Evagrius; (8) the Clementine Recognitions (the only form in which that work is now extant); (9) the Canon Paschalis of Anatolius Alexandrinus. We can hardly overestimate the influence which Rufinus exerted on Western theologians by thus putting the great Greek fathers into the Latin tongue. D. Vallarsi's uncompleted edition of Rufinus (vol. i. fol., Verona, 1745) contains the De Benedictionibus , the Apologies, the 1 On this work see Dom Butler in Texts and Studies, vi. i. pp. 10 ff. RUFUS— RUGE 821 Expositio Symboli, the Historia Eremitica and the two original books of the Hist. Eccl. See also Migne, Patrol, (vol. xxi. of the Latin series). For the translations, see the various editions of Origen, Eusebius, &c. See W. H. Freemantle in Diet. Chr. Biog. iv. 555-60; A. Ebert, Allg. Gesch. d. Lilt. d. Mittelalters im Aberuuande, i. 321-27 (Leipzig, 1889); G. Kriiger in Hauck-Herzog's Real-encyk.fur prot. Theol., where there is a full bibliography. RUFUS, GAIUS VALGIUS, Lain poet, friend of Horace and Maecenas, and consul in 12 B.C. He was known as a writer of elegies and epigrams, and his contemporaries believed him capable of great things in epic. The author of the pane- gyric on Messalla declares Rufus to be the only poet fitted to be the great man's Homer. Rufus did not, however, confine himself to poetry. He discussed grammatical questions by correspondence, translated the rhetorical manual of his teacher Apollodorus of Pergamum, and began a treatise on medicinal plants, dedicated to Augustus. Horace addressed to him the ninth ode of the second book. Fragments in R. Weichert, Poetarum Latinorum Vilae el Carminum Reliquiae (1830); R. Unger, De C. Valgii Rufi Poematis (1848); O. Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (1889), ii. ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur (1899), ii. I; Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 241. RUFUS, LUCIUS VARIUS (c 74-14 B.C.), Roman poet of the Augustan age. He was the friend of Virgil, after whose death he and Plotius Tucca prepared the Aeneid for publica- tion, and of Horace, for whom he and Virgil obtained an intro- duction to Maecenas. Horace speaks of him as a master of epic and the only poet capable of celebrating the achievements of Vipsanius Agrippa (Odes, i. 6) ; Virgil (under the name of Lycidas, Eel. ix. 35) regrets that he had hitherto produced nothing comparable to the work of Varius or Helvius Cinna. From Macrobius (Saturnalia, vi. i, 39; 2, 19) we learn that Varius composed an epic poem De Morte, some lines of which are quoted as having been imitated or appropriated by Virgil; Horace (Sat. i. 10, 43) probably alludes to another epic, and, according to the scholiast on Epistles, i. 16, 27-29, these three lines are taken bodily from a panegyric of Varius on Augustus. But his most famous literary production was the tragedy Thyestes, which Quintilian (Inst. Oral. x. i, 98) declares fit to rank with any of the Greek tragedies. The didascalia (which is preserved in a Paris MS.) informs us that it was produced at the games celebrated (29 B.C.) by Augustus in honour of the victory at Actium, and that Varius received a present of a million sesterces from the emperor. Fragments in E. Bahrens, Frag. Poetarum Romanorum (1886); monographs by A. Weichert (1836) and R. Unger (1870, 1878, 1898) ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur (1899), ii. I; Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 223. RUG, a term of Scandinavian origin (cf. Swed. rugg, rough hair; Norw. dial, rugga, rough), and probably connected with " rough " and " rag," originally for a kind of coarse woollen material, like frieze; hence it is used of a piece of thick material used as a wrap or covering for the knees or body in travelling or in bed, and especially for a thick mat or small-sized carpet laid on the floor (see CARPET). RUGBY, a market town in the Rugby parliamentary division of Warwickshire, England, finely situated on a tableland rising from the S. bank of the Avon, near the Oxford Canal. Pop. of urban district (1901), 16,830. It is an important junction on the London & North-Western railway, by which it is 82^ m. N.W. from London; it is served also by the Great Central railway and by a branch of the Midland railway from Leicester. The boys' school, ranking as one of the most famous public schools in England, was founded and endowed under the will (1567) of Laurence Sheriff, a merchant grocer and servant to Queen Elizabeth, and a native either of Rugby or of the neigh- bouring village of Brownsover. The endowment consisted of the parsonage of Brownsover, Sheriff's mansion house in Rugby, and one-third (8 acres) of his estate in Middlesex, near the Foundling Hospital, London, which, being let on building leases, gradually increased to about £5000 a year. The full endowment was obtained in 1653. The school originally stood opposite the parish church, and was removed to its present site on the S. side of the town between 1740 and 1750. In 1809 it was rebuilt from designs by Henry Hakewill (1771- 1830); the chapel, dedicated to St Lawrence, was added in 1820. At the tercentenary of the school in 1867 subscriptions were set on foot for founding scholarships, building additional schoolrooms, rebuilding or enlarging the chapel and other objects. The chapel was rebuilt and reconsecrated in 1872, and further additions were made in 1898. A swimming bath was erected in 1876; the Temple observatory, containing a fine equatorial refractor by Alvan Clark, was built in 1877, and the Temple reading-room with the art museum in 1878. The workshops underneath the gymnasium were opened in 1880, and a new big school and class-rooms were erected in 1885. From about 70 to 1777 the numbers attending the school have increased to nearly 600. A great impulse was given to the progress of the school during the headmastership of Thomas Arnold, 1827-42. Among Arnold's successors were Archibald Campbell Tail and Frederick Temple, both after- wards archbishops of Canterbury. The parish church of St Andrew was rebuilt from designs by W. Butterfield and reconsecrated in 1879. A tower and spire were added in 1895. An aisle commemorates John Moultrie (1799-1874), rector, widely known as the "poet pastor." The church of Holy Trinity is by Sir G. G. Scott, and the Roman Catholic church of St Marie by A. W. Pugin. Trade is mainly agricultural; there is a large cattle market, and several fairs are held annually. The early history of Rugby is obscure, but a settlement of the Danes is presumed from the name, and from the neighbouring tract of Dunsmore Heath (Danesmpor). Rugby was originally a hamlet of the adjoining parish of Clifton-on-Dunsmore7 and is separately treated of as such in Domesday Book. Ernaldus de Bosco (Ernald de Bois), lord of the manor of Clifton, seems to have erected the first chapel in Rugby, in the reign of Stephen, about 1140. It was afterwards granted by him, with certain lands, to endow the abbey of St Mary, Leicester, which grant was confirmed by his successors and by royal charter of Henry II. In the second year of King John (1200) a suit took place between Henry de Rokeby, lord of the manor of Rugby, and Paul, abbot of St Mary, Leicester, which resulted in the former obtaining possession of the advowson of Rugby, on condition of homage and service to the abbot of Leicester. By virtue of this agreement the chapel was converted into a parish church and the vicarage into a rectory. RUGE, ARNOLD (1802-1880), German philosopher and political writer, was born at Bergen, in the island of Riigen, on the I3th of September 1802. He studied at Halle, Jena and Heidelberg, and became an adherent of the party which sought to create a free and united Germany. For his zeal he was confined for five years in the fortress of Kolberg, where he studied Plato and the Greek poets. On his release in 1830 he published Schill und die Seinen, a tragedy, and a translation of Oedipus in Colonus. Ruge settled in Halle, where in 1837 with E. T. Echtermeyer he founded the Hallesche Jahrbucher fur deutsche Kunst und Wissenschaft. In this periodical he discussed the questions of the time from the point of view of the Hegelian philosophy. The Jahrbucher was detested by the orthodox party in Prussia; and was finally suppressed by the Saxon government in 1843. In Paris Ruge tried to act with Karl Marx as co-editor of the Deutsch-Franzosische Jahr- bucher, but had little sympathy with Marx's socialistic theories, and soon left him. In the revolutionary movement of 1848 he organized the Extreme Left in the Frankfort parliament, and for some time he lived in Berlin as the editor of the Die Reform. The Prussian government intervened and Ruge soon afterwards left for Paris, hoping, through his friend Alexandre Ledru-Rollin, to establish relations between German and French republicans; but in 1849 both Ledru-Rollin and Ruge had to take refuge in London. Here, in company with Giuseppe Mazzini and other advanced politicians, they formed a " Euro- pean Democratic Committee." From this Ruge soon withdrew, and in 1850 went to Brighton, where he supported himself by teaching and writing. In 1866 and 1870 he vigorously 822 . RUGELEY— RUHNKEN supported Prussia against Austria, and Germany against France. In his last years he received from the German government a pension of 1000 marks. He died on the 3 ist of December 1880. Ruge was a leader in religious and political liberalism, but did not produce any work of enduring importance. In 1846-48 his Gesammelte Schriften were published in ten volumes. After this time he wrote, among other books, Unser System, Revolutions- novellen, Die Loge des Humanismus, and Aus fruherer Zeit (his memoirs). He also wrote many poems, and several dramas and romances, and translated into German various English works, including the Letters of Junius and Buckle's History of Civilization. His Letters and Diary (1825-80) were published by Paul Nerrlich (Berlin, 1885-87). See A. W. Bolin's L. Feuerbach, pp. 127-52 (Stuttgart, 1891). RUGELEY, a market town in the Lichfield parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, in the Trent valley. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4447. The London & North-Western railway has stations on the main line (Trent Valley, 124^ m. N.W. from London), and at the town, on a branch line to Walsall. The Grand Trunk canal here follows the Trent. To the S.W. lie the hills of Cannock Chase. The church of St Augustine is modern; of the parish church of the i4th century only the tower and chancel remain. The municipal offices, market hall and assembly-room are contained in one building (1879). A grammar school was founded in 1611. There are ironfoundries, corn-mills and tanneries; and the parish includes several collieries. RUGEN, an island of Germany, in the Baltic, immediately opposite Stralsund, 15 m. off the north-west coast of Pomerania in Prussia, from which it is separated by the narrow Strelasund, or Bodden. Its shape is exceedingly irregular, and its coast- line is broken by numerous bays and peninsulas, sometimes of considerable size. The general name is applied by the natives only to the roughly triangular main trunk of the island, while the larger peninsulas, the landward extremities of which taper to narrow necks of land, are considered to be as distinct from Riigen as the various adjacent smaller islands which are also included for statistical purposes under the name. The chief peninsulas are those of Jasmund and Wittow on the north, and Monchgut, at one time the property of the monastery of Eldena, on the south-east; and the chief neighbouring islands are Ummanz and Hiddensee, both off the north-west coast. Riigen is the largest island in Germany. Its greatest length from N. to S. is 32 m.; its greatest breadth is 255 m.; and its area is 377 sq. m. The surface gradually rises towards the west to Rugard (335 ft.) — the " eye of Rugen " — near Bergen, but the highest point is the Hertaburg (505 ft.) in Jasmund. Erratic blocks are scattered throughout the island, and the roads are made with granite. Though much of Riigen is flat and sandy, the fine beech woods which cover a great part of it, and the bold northern coast scenery combine with the convenient sea-bathing offered by the various villages around the coast to attract large numbers of visitors. The most beauti- ful and attractive part of the island is the peninsula of Jasmund, which terminates to the north in the Stubbenkammer (Slavonic for " rock steps "), a sheer chalk cliff, the summit of which, the Konigsstuhl, is 420 ft. above the sea. The east of Jasmund is clothed with an extensive beech wood called the Stubbenitz, in which lies the Borg, or Herta Lake. Connected with Jas- mund by the narrow isthmus of Schabe to the west is the peninsula of Wittow, the most fertile part of the island. At its north-west extremity rises the height of Arcona, with a lighthouse. A ferry connects the island with Stralsund, and from the landing-stage at Altefahr a railway traverses the island, passing the capital Bergen to Sassnitz, on the north-east coast. Hence a regular steamboat service connects with Trelleborgin Sweden, thus affording direct communication between Berlin and Stock- holm. The other chief places are Garz, Sagard, Gingst and Putbus, the last being the old capital of a barony of the princes of Putbus. Sassnitz, Gohren, Sellin and Lauterbach- Putbus are among the favourite bathing resorts. Schoritz was the birthplace of the patriot and poet, Ernst Moritz Arndt. Ecclesiastically Riigen is divided into 75 parishes, in which the pastoral succession is said to be almost hereditary. The in- habitants are distinguished from those of the mainland by peculiarities of dialect, costume and habits; and even the various peninsulas differ from each other in these particulars. The peninsula of Monchgut has best preserved its peculiarities; but there, too, primitive simplicity is yielding to the influence of the annual stream of summer visitors. The inhabitants raise some cattle, and Riigen has long been famous for its geese; but the only really considerable industry is fishing, — the herring-fishery being especially important. Riigen, with the neighbouring islands, forms a governmental department, with a population (1905) of 47,023. The original Germanic inhabitants of Riigen were dispossessed by Slavs; and there are still various relics of the long reign of paganism that ensued. In the Stubbenitz and elsewhere Huns' or giants' graves are common; and near the Hertha Lake are the ruins of an ancient edifice which some have sought to identify with the shrine of the heathen deity Hertha or Nerthus, referred to by Tacitus. On Arcona in Wittow are the remains of an ancient fortress, enclosing a temple which was destroyed in 1 168 by the Danish king Waldemar I., when he made himself master of the island. Riigen was ruled then by a succession of native princes, under Danish supremacy, until 1218. After being for a century and a half in the possession of a branch of the ruling family in Pomerania, it was finally united with that duchy in 1478, and passed with it into the possession of Sweden in 1648. With the rest of Western Pomerania Riigen has belonged to Prussia since. 1815. See Fock, Rugensch-pommersche Geschichten (6 vols., Leipzig, 1861-72); R. Baier, Die Insel Rugen nach ihrer archdologischen Bedeutung (Stralsund, 1886); R. Credner, Rugen. Eine Inselstudie (Stuttgart, 1893); Edwin Miiller, Die Insel Rugen (i7th ed., Berlin, 1900); Schuster, Fuhrer durch die Insel Riigen (7th ed., Stettin, 1901); Boll, Die Insel Rugen (Schwerin, 1858); O. Wendler, Geschichte Rugens seit der altesten Zeit (Bergen, 1895); A. Haas, Riigensche Sagen und Mdrchen (Greifswald, 1891); U. John, Volkssagen aus Rugen (Stettin, 1886); and E. M. Arndt, Fairy Tales from the Isle of Rugen (London, 1896). RUHLA, a town of Germany, partly in the duchy of Saxe- Weimar and partly in that of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Pop. (1905) 7017. It stretches along the valley of the Erb in the Thuringian forest 8 m. S. of Eisenach, and attracts a number of visitors owing to its beautiful natural surroundings and its mineral springs. Its staple industry is the making of wooden and meerschaum pipes; it has also electrical works, and some small manufactures. Ruhla, which is known locally as Die Ruhl, was famous in the middle ages for its armourers, and subsequently for its cutlers. See Ziegler, Das Thuringerwalddorf Ruhla (Dresden, 1876). RUHNKEN, DAVID (1723-1798), one of the most illustrious scholars of the Netherlands, was of German origin, having been born in Pomerania in 1723. His parents had him educated for the church, but after two years at the university of Wittenberg he determined to live the life of a scholar. At Wittenberg Ruhnken lived in close intimacy with the two most distinguished professors, Ritter and Berger. To them he owed a thorough grounding in ancient history and Roman antiquities and litera- ture; and from them he learned a pure and vivid Latin style. At Wittenberg, too, Ruhnken derived valuable mental training from study in mathematics and Roman law. Probably nothing would have severed him from his surroundings there but a desire which daily grew upon him to explore the inmost recesses of Greek literature. Neither at Wittenberg nor at any other German university was Greek in that age seriously studied. It was taught in the main to students in divinity for the sake of the Greek Testament and the early fathers of the church. F. A. Wolf is the real creator of Greek scholarship in modern Germany, and Person's gibe that " the Germans in Greek are sadly to seek " was barbed with truth. It is significant of the state of Hellenic studies in Gerniany in 1743 that their leading exponents were Gesner and Ernesti. Ruhnken was well advised by his friends at Wittenberg to seek the university of Leiden, where, stimulated by the influence of Bentley, the great scholar Tiberius Hemsterhuis had founded the only real school of Greek learning which had existed on the Continent since the days of Joseph Scaliger and Isaac Casaubon. RUHR— RUIZ 823 Perhaps no two men of letters ever lived in closer friendship than Hemsterhuis and Ruhnken during the twenty-three years which passed from Ruhnken's arrival in the Netherlands in 1743 to the death of Hemsterhuis in 1766. A few years made it clear that Ruhnken and Valckenaer were the two pupils of the great master on whom his inheritance must devolve. As his reputation spread, many efforts were made to attract Ruhnken back to Germany, but after settling in Leiden, he only left the country once, when he spent a year in Paris, ransacking the public libraries (1755). For work achieved, this year of Ruhnken may compare even with the famous year which Ritschl spent in Italy. In 1757 Ruhnken was appointed lecturer in Greek, to assist Hemsterhuis, and in 1761 he succeeded Ouden- dorp, with the title of " ordinary professor of history and elo- quence," but practically as Latin professor. This promotion drew on him the enmity of some native Netherlanders, who deemed themselves (not without some show of reason) to possess stronger claims for a chair of Latin. The only defence made by Ruhnken was to publish works on Latin literature which eclipsed and silenced his rivals. In 1766 Valckenaer succeeded Hem- sterhuis in the Greek chair. The intimacy between the two colleagues was only broken by Valckenaer's death in 1785, and stood without strain the test of common candidature for the office (an important one at Leiden) of university librarian, in which Ruhnken was successful. Ruhnken's later years were clouded by severe domestic misfortune, and by the political commotions which, after the outbreak of the war with Eng- land in 1780, troubled the Netherlands without ceasing, and threatened to extinguish the university of Leiden. He died in 1798. Personally, Ruhnken was as far as possible removed from being a recluse or a pedant. He had a well-knit and even hand- some frame, attractive manners (though sometimes tinged with irony), and a nature simple and healthy, and open to im- pressions from all sides. Fond of society, he cared little tp what rank his associates belonged, if they were genuine men in whom he might find something to learn. His biographer even says of him in his early days that he knew how to sacrifice to the Sirens without proving traitor to the Muses. Life in the open air 'had a great attraction for him; he was fond of sport, and would sometimes devote to it two or three days in the week. In his bearing towards other scholars Ruhnken was generous and dignified, distributing literary aid with a free hand, and meeting onslaughts for the most part with a smile. In the records of learning he occupies an important position. He forms a principal link in the chain which connects Bentley with the modern scholarship of the Continent. The spirit and the aims of Hemsterhuis, the great reviver of Continental learning, were committed to his trust, and were faithfully maintained. He greatly widened the circle of those who valued taste and precision in classical scholarship. He powerfully aided the emancipation of Greek studies from theology; nor must it be forgotten that he first in modern times dared to think of rescuing Plato from the hands of the professed philosophers — men pre- sumptuous enough to interpret the ancient sage with little or no knowledge of the language in which he wrote. Ruhnken's principal works are editions of (i) Timaeus's Lexicon of Platonic Words, (2) Thalelaeus and other Greek commentators on Roman law, (3) Rutilius Lupus and other grammarians, (4) Velleius Paterculus, (5) the works of Muretus.' He also occupied himself much with the history of Greek literature, particularly the oratorical literature, with the Homeric hymns, the scholia on Plato and the Greek and Roman grammarians and rhetoricians. A dis- covery famous in its time was that in the text of the work of Apsines on rhetoric a large piece of a work by Longinus was embedded. Modern views of the writings attributed to Longinus have lessened the interest of this discovery without lessening its merit. The biography of Ruhnken was written by his great pupil, Wyttenbach, Soon after his death. (J- S. R.) RUHR, a river of Germany, an important right-bank tribu- tary of the lower Rhine. It rises on the north side of the Winter- berg in the Sauerland, at a height of about 2000 ft. above the sea. It first takes a northerly and north-westerly course, and in a deep and well-wooded valley winds past the romantically situated town of Arnsberg. Shortly after reaching Neheim it bends to the south-west, courses through the mining district around Hagen, and receives from the left the waters of the Lenne. Hence in a tortuous course it works its way past Witten, Steele, Kettwig and Mtilheim, and, after a course of 142 m., discharges itself into the Rhine at Ruhrort. From this place the Ruhr canal connects it with Duisburg. The river is navigable from Witten downwards (43 m.), by the aid of eleven locks; but navigation is often greatly impeded through dearth of water. RUHRORT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, situated at the junction of the Ruhr and the Rhine, in the midst of a productive coal district, 15 m. N. of Dusseldorf and 12 E. of Crefeld by rail. Ruhrort has the largest river harbour in Europe, with quays extending nearly 5 m. along the river, and it is the principal shipping port for the coal of the Westphalian coalfield, which is despatched in the fleet of steam-tugs and barges belonging to the port. The coal is sent principally to South Germany and the Netherlands. Grain and timber are also exported and iron ore is imported. In 1905 the port was entered and cleared by over 27,000 vessels of 7,418,065 tons. The industries of the town include large iron and steel works, ship- building yards and tanneries. Ruhrort has three Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, and several schools and public institutions. Rurhort is first mentioned in 1379, and obtained civic rights in 1551. Having been in the possession of the counts of La Marck, it passed into that of Brandenburg in 1614. In 1905 it was united with Duisburg and Meiderich to form a single munici- pality, the joint population being 41,416. See Geschichte der Stadt Ruhrort (Ruhrort, 1882"). RUIZ, JUAN (c. iz83-c. 1350), Spanish poet, was born probably at Alcala de Henares, and became arch-priest of Hita. Though he draws his physical portrait in the Libra de buen amor, he gives no exact biographical details. It may be inferred from his writings that he was not an exemplary priest, and one of the manuscript copies of his poems states that he was imprisoned by order of Gil Albornoz, archbishop of Toledo. It is not known whether he was sentenced for his irregularities of conduct, or on account of his satirical reflections on his ecclesiastical superiors. Nor is it possible to fix the precise date of his imprisonment. Albornoz nominally occupied the see of Toledo from 1337 to 1368, but he fell into disgrace in 1351 and fled to Avignon. A consideration of these circumstances points to the probable conclusion that Ruiz was in prison from 1337 to 1350, but this is conjecture. What seems established is that he finished the Libra de buen amor in 1343 while in gaol, and that he was no longer arch-priest of Hita in January 1351; it is assumed that he died shortly before the latter date. Ruiz is by far the most eminent poet of medieval Spain. His natural gifts were supplemented by his varied culture; he clearly had a considerable knowledge of colloquial (and perhaps of literary) Arabic; his classical reading was apparently not exten- sive, but he knew by heart the Disticha of Dionysius Cato, and admitsTiis indebtedness to Ovid and to the De Amore ascribed to Pamphilus; his references to Blanchefleur, to Tristan and to Yseult, indicate an acquaintance with French literature, and he utilizes the fabliaux with remarkable deftness; lastly, he adapts fables and apologues from Aesop, from Pedro Alfonso's Disciplina clericalis, and from medieval bestiaries. All these heterogeneous materials are fused in the substance of his versified autobiography, into which he intercalates devout songs, parodies of epic or forensic formulae, and lyrical digressions on every aspect of life. Ruiz, in fact, offers a complete picture of picaresque society in Spain during the first half of the i4th century, and his impartial irony lends a deeper tone to his rich colouring. He knows the weaknesses of both clergy and laity, and he dwells with equal complacency on the amorous adventures of great ladies, on the perverse intrigues arranged by demure nuns behind their convent walls, and on the simpler instinctive animalism of country lasses and Moorish dancing-girls. In addition to the faculty of genial observation Ruiz has the gift of creating characters and pre- senting types of human nature: from his Don Fur6n is derived 824 RUKWA— RULLUS the hungry gentleman in Lazarillo de Tormes, in Don Mel6n and Dona Endrina he anticipates Calisto and Melibea in the Celestina, and Celestina herself is developed from Ruiz" Trota- conventos. Moreover, Ruiz was justly proud of his metrical innovations. The Libra de buen amor is mainly written in the cuaderna via modelled on the French alexandrine, but he im- parts to the measure a variety and rapidity previously unknown in Spanish, and he experiments by introducing internal rhymes or by shortening the fourth line into an octosyllabic verse; or he boldly recasts the form of the stanza, extending it to six or seven lines with alternate verses of eight and five syllables. But his technical skill never sinks to triviality. All his writing bears the stamp of a unique personality, and, if he never attempts a sublime flight, he conveys with contagious force his enthusiasm for life under any conditions — in town, country, vagabondage or gaol. His influence is visible in El Corbacho, the work of another jovial goliard, Alphonso Martinez de Toledo, arch-priest of Talavera, who wrote more than half a century before the Libra de buen amor was imitated by the author of the Celestina. Ruiz is mentioned with respect by Santillana, and that his reputa- tion extended beyond Spain is proved by the surviving fragments of a Portuguese version of the Libra de buen amor. By some strange accident he was neglected, and apparently forgotten, till 1790, when an expurgated edition of his poems was published by Tomas Antonio Sanchez; from that date his fame has steadily increased, and by the unanimous verdict of all competent judges he is now ranked as the greatest Spanish poet of his century. An accurate edition of his works was published by M. Jean Ducamin at Toulouse in 1901, and he is the subject of Sr. D. Julio Puyol y Alonso's critical study, El Arcipreste de Hita (Madrid, 1906). Q. F.-K.) RUKWA (sometimes also Rikwa and Hikwa), a shallow lake in German East Africa, lying 2650 ft. above the sea in a N.W. continuation of the rift-valley which contains Lake Nyasa. The sides of the valley here run in steep parallel walls 30 to 40 m. apart, from S.E. to N.W., leaving between them a level plain extending from about 7^° to 8£° S. iThis whole area was probably once covered by the lake, but this has shrunk so that the permanent water occupies only a space of 30 m. by 12 at the S. immediately under the E. escarpment. In the rains its extends some 40 m. farther N., and the north of the plain is likewise then covered with water to a depth of about 4 ft. The rest of the plain is a bare expanse intensely heated by the sun in the dry season, and forming a tract of foul mud near the lake shores. But in 1903-4 the level of the lake rose so that the waters covered the whole depression. The lake has two large feeders, one coming from the W., the other from the S.E. The W. feeder, the Saisi, or Momba, rises in 80° 50' S., 31° 30' E., and traverses a winding valley cut out of the high plateau between lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika. It enters the lake on its N.W. side. The other chief feeder, the Songwe, rises in 9° 8' S., 33° 30' E. on the same plateau as the Saisi and flows N.W., enteringjlukwa at its S. end. The Songwe is joined about 50 m. about its mouth by the Rupa, whose head-waters are in the high-lying land N.E. of Rukwa. The maximum depth of the lake is about io£ ft. Its water is very brackish and of a milky colour from the mud stirred up by the wind. It contains great quantities of fish. First seen from the north by Joseph Thomson in 1880, it was visited by Dr Kaiser, a German, in 1882, and has since been thoroughly explored by various British and German travellers. See " Begleitworte zu der Karte der Gebiete am sudlichen Tangan- jika- und Rukwa-See," by Paul Sprigade, in Mitteil. v. Forsch. u. Gdehrten a. d. deutschen Schutzgebieten (Berlin, 1904), with map on the scale of 1 : 500,000. RULHIERE (or RuLHiiREs), CLAUDE CARLOMAN DE (1735- 1791), French poet and historian, was born at Bondy, near Paris, on the i2th of June 1735. He became aide-de-camp to Marshal Richelieu, whom he followed through the Hanoverian campaign of 1757 and to his government at Bordeaux in 1758; and at twenty-five he was sent to St Petersburg as secretary of legation. Here he actually saw the revolution which seated Catherine II. on the throne, and thus obtained the facts of Anecdotes sur la revolution de Russie en 1762. Catherine made repeated efforts to secure the destruction of the MS., which remained unpublished until after the empress's death. Rul- hiere became secretary to the comte de Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.) in 1773, and he was admitted to the Academy in 1787. The later years of his life were spent chiefly in Paris, where he held an appointment in the Foreign Office and went much into society; but he visited Germany and Poland in 1776. His unfinished Histoire de I' anarchic de Pologne (4 vols., 1807) was published posthumously under the editorship of P. C. F. Daunou. The only important historical work which he published during his lifetime was his £claircissements his- loriques sur les causes de la revocation de I' edit de Nantes . . . (2 vols., 1788), undertaken in view of the restoration to the Protestants of their civil rights. Rulhiere died at Bondy on the 3oth of January 1791. His short sketch of the Russian revolution is justly ranked among the masterpieces of the kind in French. Of the larger Poland Carlyle, as justly, complains that its allowance of fact is too small in proportion to its bulk. The author was also a fertile writer of vers de societe, short satires, epigrams, &c., and he had a considerable reputation among the witty and ill-natured group also containing Nicolas Chamfort, Antoine de Rivarol, Louis Rene de Champcenetz, &c. On the other hand he has the credit of caring for J. J. Rousseau in his morose old age, until Rousseau as usual quarrelled with him. Rulhiere's works were edited, with a notice by P. R. Anguis, in 1819 (Paris, 6 vols. 8vo). The Russian Revolution may be found in the Chefs-d'oeuvre historiques of the Collection Didot, and the Poland, with title altered to Resolutions de Pologne, in the same collection. See^also a notice by Eugene Asse prefixed to an edition 1890) of Rulhiere's Anecdotes sur U Marechal de Richelieu; Sainte- Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. iv.). RULLUS, PUBLIUS SERVILIUS, Roman tribune of the people, in 64 B.C., well known as the proposer of one of the most far-reaching agrarian laws brought forward in Roman history. This law provided for the establishment of a com- mission of ten, empowered to purchase land in Italy for dis- tribution amongst the poorer citizens and for the foundation of colonies. Its professed object was to clear Rome of the large number of pauper citizens, who formed a standing menace to peace. The members of the commission were to be invested with powers so extensive that Cicero spoke of them as ten " kings." They were to be elected for five years by seventeen of the tribes chosen by lot from the thirty-five; the imperium was to be conferred upon them by the lex curiata, together with judicial powers and the rank of praetor. Only those were eligible who personally gave in their names, a clause obviously intended to exclude Pompey, who was at the time absent in the East. In fact, the commission as a whole was intended to act as a counterpoise to his power. The only land available for the purposes of the bill was the Ager Campanus and the Ager Stellatis, where 5000 citizens were to be settled at once, but as these were utterly insufficient, other lands were to be acquired by purchase. The necessary money was to be found by the sale of all the public property in Italy which had been ordered to be sold by resolutions of the senate (in 81, or subsequently), but which the fear of unpopularity had deterred the consuls from selling; by the sale of lands, &c., in the provinces which had become public property since 88, and even of the domains acquired during the Mithradatic war. A special article, the object of which was to pacify those who had received grants of land from Sulla, declared such possessions to be private property, for which compensa- tion was to be paid in case of surrender. The revenues of the provinces which were now being organized by Pompey, and the booty and money taken or received by generals during war were also to be applied to this purpose. The places to which colonies were to be sent were not specified (with the exception mentioned above), so that the commissioners would be able to sell wherever they pleased, and it was left to them to decide what was public or private property. RUM— RUMANIA 825 Cicero delivered four speeches against the bill, of which three are still extant, although the first is mutilated at the beginning. The second is the most important for the history of the bill; nothing is known of the fourth. Very little enthusiasm was shown in the matter by the people, who pre- ferred the distribution of doles in the city to the prospect of distant allotments. One of the tribunes even threatened to put his veto on the bill, which was withdrawn before the voting took place. The whole affair was obviously a political move, probably engineered by Caesar, his object being to make the democratic leaders the rulers of the state. Although Caesar could hardly have expected the bill to pass, the aristocratic party would be saddled with the odium of rejecting a popular measure, and the people themselves would be more ready to welcome a proposal by Caesar himself, an expectation fulfilled by the passing of the lex Julia in 59, whereby Caesar at least partly succeeded where Rullus had failed. See the orations of Cicero De lege rgraria, with the introduction in G. Long's edition, and the same author's Decline of the Roman Republic, hi. p. 241; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, bk. v. ch. 5; art. AGRARIAN LAWS. RUM, or ROUM (Arab. ar-Rum), a very indefinite term in use among Mahommedans at different dates for Europeans generally and for the Byzantine empire in particular; at one time even for the Seljuk empire in Asia Minor, and now for Greeks inhabit- ing Ottoman territory. When the Arabs met the Byzantine Greeks, these called themselves 'Pupaiot, or Romans, a reminiscence of the Roman conquest and of the founding of the new Rome at Byzantium. The Arabs, therefore, called them "the Rum" as a race-name (already in Kor. xxx. i), their territory " the land of the Rum," and the Mediterranean " the Sea of the Rum." The original ancient Greeks they called " Yunan " (lonians), the ancient Romans, " Rum " and some- times " Latmlyun " (Latins) . Later, inasmuch as Muslim contact with the Byzantine Greeks was in Asia Minor, the term Rum became fixed there geographically and remained even after the conquest by the Seljuk Turks, so that their territory was called the land of the Seljuks of Rum. But as the Mediterranean was " the Sea of the Rum," so all peoples on its N. coast were called sweepingly, " the Rum." In Spain any Christian slave-girl who had embraced Islam was named Rumlya, and we find the crew of a Genoese vessel being called Romans by a Muslim traveUer. The crusades introduced the Franks (Ifranja), and later Arabic writers recognize them and their civilization on the N. shore of the Mediterranean W. from Rome; so Ibn Khaldun in the latter part of the I4th century. But Rumi is still used in Morocco for a Christian or European in general, instead of the now elsewhere commoner Ifranji. (D. B. MA.) RUM (according to Skeat, a corruption of Malay brum or brant; the adjective " rum," i.e. " queer," being a distinct word, in Gipsy row), a potable spirit distilled chiefly from fermented cane-sugar. It is mainly the produce of the West Indian Islands, notably Jamaica, and of Demerara. There are two kinds of Jamaica rum, namely, " common " or " clean " rum, and " flavoured " or " German " rum. The latter is used almost entirely for purposes of blending with lighter types of spirit. Compared with other potable spirits such as whisky and brandy, the Jamaica rums are distinguished by their very high propor- tion of secondary products, particularly of the compound esters. Among the latter butyric " ether " (ethyl butyrate) predomi- nates. The Demerara rums are of a lighter character. Rum has a deep brown colour imparted by caramel or by storage in sherry casks, or, most generally, by both. " Tafia " is an in- ferior quality of rum produced in the French colonies. " Negro " rum, which is the lowest quality of all, and into the wash for which the debris of the sugar-cane enters, is consumed locaUy by the coloured workers. The spirit prepared from beet-sugar molasses cannot be regarded as rum, for, unless it is highly rectified, it possesses a disagreeable'odour'and taste. Fictitious rum is, however, sometimes prepared from highly rectified beet spirit and rum " essence " — a mixture of artificial esters (ethyl butyrate, &c.V birch bark oil and so on. Highly rectified Description. Alcohol per cent Total Acid. Volatile Acid. Esters. Higher Alco- hols. Fur- fural. Alde- hydes. by vol. (Results expressed in grams per 100 litres of absolute alcohol.) I. Jamaica Rums — A. "Common Clear " Average Maximum. 79-1 82.1 78.5 "55 61 146 366.5 1058 08.5 150 4-5 Il.S IS3 30.0 Minimum . 68.6 30 21 88 46 1.0 5.0 B. " F'.ax«ured " Average . Z7'3 102.5 95-5 768.5 107 5.2 20 7 Maximum . 80.0 US 137 1204 144 12.0 37 5 Minimum . 66.1 45 39 391 80 9-7 2. Demfrara Rums . 71 tot 13 18.41075 37 to 96 o.6tO2- 7 beet spirit is also occasionally used for blending with genuine rum, particularly with the " flavoured " or " German " rum. The latter name originated in the fact that this kind of rum was exported very largely to Germany for the purpose of blending. The general composition of various kinds of rum is manifest from the annexed table. The consumption of rum in the United Kingdom has fallen off considerably of late years, con- currently with the general tendency of the public towards lighter and "drier " alcoholic beverages (see SPIRITS). COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF RUM (Analyses by W. Collingwood Williams; cf. /. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1907, p. 498.) RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romania], a kingdom of south- eastern Europe, situated to the north-east of the Balkan Pen- insula,1 and on the Black Sea. Pop. (1910, estimate) 6,850,000; area, about 50,720 sq. m., or about 6500 sq. m. less than the combined areas of England and Wales. Rurnania begins on the seaward side with a band of territory called the Dobrudja (q.v.) ; and broadens westward into the form of a blunted cres- cent, its northern horn being called Moldavia, its southern Walachia. Physical Features. — Along the inner edge of this crescent run the Carpathian Mountains, also called, towards their western extremity, the Transylyanian Mountains (q.v.) or Transylvanian Alps; and the frontier which marks off Rumania from Hungary is drawn along their crests. The eastern boundary is formed by the river Prutn (Prutu), between Moldavia and Russia; farther south by the Kilia mouth of the Danube (Dunarea), between the Dobrudja and Russia, and by the Black Sea. In the extreme south-east, an irregular line, traced from Ilanlac, 10 m. S. of Mangalia, on the coast, as far as the Danube at Silistria, 85 m. inland, separates the Dobrudja from Bulgaria. Otherwise, the Danube constitutes the whole southern frontier; its right bank being Bulgarian for 290 m., and Servian, in the extreme west, for 50 m. The Danube (q.v.) enters Rumania through the Verciorova or Kazan * Pass. It here resembles a long lake, overshadowed by precipitous mountains, which vary from 1000 to 2000 ft. in height, and are covered by birches and pines. In this neighbourhood the channel contracts to about 116 yds. in width, with a depth of 30 fathoms. At the eastern end of the pass are the celebrated Iron Gates, a rapid so named by the Turks, not from the surrounding heights, which here descend gradually to the river, but from the number of submerged rocks m the waterway. As it flows eastward from the frontier, the Danube gains in breadth and volume. Islands are frequent; the banks recede and become lower until, after 50 m., they stand almost level with the water. Henceforward, for 290 m., the Rumanian shore is a desolate fen-country, varied only by a few hills, by cities, and by lagoons often 15 m. long. East of Bucharest, a chain of lagoons and partially drained marshes stretches inland for 45 m. At Silistria the river bends N.N.E. for no m. with the Dobrudja on its right, and a barren plain, called the Baragan Steppe, on its left. It here encloses two large swampy islands, the upper being 57 m., the lower 43 m. long. Both have an average breadth of 10 m. Beyond Galatz, the river again turns eastward, branching out, near Tulcea, into three great waterways, which wind througn a low-lying alluvial delta to the sea. The northern estuary is named the Kilia Mouth; the central, the Sulina; the southern, the St George's. Between Verciorova and the Sulina Mouth, the Danube traverses 540 m. Its current is rapid, and supplies* the motive 1 In 1904, in a lecture read before the Rumanian Geographical Society, M. A. Sturdza showed that Rumania should not be included in the Balkan Peninsula, where it is placed by many writers and cartographers. This view was accepted by the Society, and a copy of the lecture was forwarded to all similar associations in Europe. See A. Sturdza, La Roumanie n'appariient pas a la peninsule balkanigue (Bucharest, 1904). * I.e. Cauldron. 826 RUMANIA [PHYSICAL FEATURES D RUMANIA Scale. 1 13.360.000 English Miles 2O 30 40 50 60 Boundaries of Prouince* Boundaries o Capital* of Proi'tncs»< Capital! of Department* Railways Continuation North, Same Scale Longitude East 28° of Greenwich JJ) power for thousands of floating watermills, which lie moored in the shallows. It is fed by many tributaries, which rise in the Carpathians as mountain torrents, growing broad and sluggish as they flow south-eastward through the central Rumanian plain. In Walachia, it is joined by the Jiu (or Schyl) opposite Rahova; by the Olt (ancient Aluta) at Turnu Magurele; by the united streams of the Dimboyitza (Dambovija) and Argesh (A rges,} at Oltenitza ; by the Jalomitza (lalomi^a) opposite Hirsova. The Olt pierces the Carpathians, by way of the Rothenthurm Pass, and forms the boundary of Little (i.e. western) Walachia, or Oltland. The Sereth (Siretu or Serel") flows for about 340 m. from its Transylvanian source through Moldavia, and meets the Danube near Galatz, after receiving the Moldova, Bistritza (Bislrija), Trotosh (Troto$u), Milcovu, Putna, Ramnicu and Buzeu on the west; and the Berlad (Berladu) on the east. The Milcovu was the former boundary between Walachia and Moldavia. The Pruth rises on the northern limit of Moldavia, forms the eastern frontier for 330 m., and falls into the Danube 10 m. E. of Galatz. Its chief Rumanian tributaries are the Basheu (Ba$eu) and Jijia, rivers of the north. The Dobrudja (g.t>.) or Dobrogea covers about 2900 sq. m. between the Black Sea and the lower reaches of the Danube. Its high crystalline rocks, covered with sedimentary formations, descend abruptly towards the delta, but more gradually towards the south, where the Bulgarian steppes encroach upon Rumanian soil. The few small rivers which drain the hills generally flow seaward, but those of the delta and steppes belong to the Danubian system. The coast is a low-lying region of sandhills, meres and marshes with one lagoon, 42 m. long, connected by a short stream with the St George Mouth. Its outlet on the sea is named the Portidje Mouth (Gura partial) of the Danube. North of this, the lagoon is called Lake Razim ; while its southern half, shut off by three long islands, is the Blue Lake (Sinoe Osero,\n Bulgarian). Apart from the Dobrudja, the whole of Rumania is included in the northern basin of the lower Danube. It consists of a single inclined plane stretching upwards, with a north-westerly direction, from the left bank of the river to the summits of the Carpathians. It is divided into three zones — steppe, forest and alpine. The first begins beyond the mud-flats and reed-beds which line the water's edge, and is a vast monotonous lowland, sloping so gently as to seem almost level. The surface is a yellow clay, with patches of brown or dark grey, outliers of the Russian " black earth. " Cereals, chiefly maize, with green crops and fields of gourds, alternate with fallow land overgrown by coarse grasses, weeds and stunted shrubs. Among the scanty trees, willows and poplars are commonest. The second zone extends over the foothills and lower ridges of the Carpathians. This region, called by Rumans " the district of vines, " is the most fertile portion of the country. In it grow most fruits and flowers which thrive in a temperate climate. Oaks, elms, firs, ashes and beeches are the principal forest trees. The third zone covers the higher mountains on their southern and eastern sides, whose violently contorted strata leave many transverse valleys, though usually inclining laterally towards the south-east. The birch and larch woods of this zone give way to pine forests as the altitude increases ; and the pines to mosses, lichens and alpine plants, just below the jagged iron-grey peaks, many of which attain altitudes of 6000 to 8000 ft. Geology. — The axis of the Transylvanian Alps consists of sericite schists and other similar rocks; and these are followed on the south by Jurassic, Cretaceous and Early Tertiary beds. The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are ordinary marine sediments, but from the Cenomanian to the Oligocene the deposits are of the peculiar facies known in the Alps and Carpathians as Flysch. Farther north, the Flysch forms practically the whole of the Rumanian flank of the Carpathians. Along the foot of the Car- pathians lies a broad trough of Miocene salt-bearing beds, and in this trough the strata are sometimes horizontal and sometimes strongly folded. Outside the band of Miocene beds the Sarmatian, Pontian and Levantine series, often concealed by Quaternary deposits, cover the great part of the Danube plain. Even the Pontian beds are sometimes folded. In the Dobrudja crystalline rocks, presumably of ancient date, rise through the Tertiary and recent deposits and form the hills which lie between the Danube and the Black Sea.1 Climate. — The Rumanian climate alternates between extreme cold in winter, when the thermometer may; fall to -20° Fahrenheit and extreme heat in summer, when it may rise to 100° in the shade. Autumn is the mildest season; spring lasts only for a few weeks. Spring at Bucharest has a mean temperature of 53°; summer, 1 SeeL. Teisseyre and L. Mrazec, Aperfti geologique sur les forma- tions saliferes et les gisements de sel en Roumanie, Moniteur des interets petroliferes roumains (1902), pp. 3-51 ; S. Stefanescu, Etude sur les terrains tertiaires de Roumanie (1897) ; J. Bergeron, " Observations relatives a la structure de la haute vallee delajalo- mita (Roumanie) et des Carpathes roumaines, " Bull. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 4, vol. iv. (1904), pp. 54-77. AGRICULTURE: LAND TENURE] RUMANIA 827 72-5°; autumn, 65°; winter, 27-5°. For about 155 days in each year, Rumania suffers from the bitter north-east wind (crivets) which sweeps over south Russia; while a scorching west or south- west wind (austrii) blows for about 126 days. Little snow falls in the plains, but among the mountains it may lie for five months. The frosts are severe, the Danube being often icebound for three months. The rainfall, which is heaviest in summer, averages about 15-20 in. Fauna. — In its fauna, Walachia has far more affinity to the lands lying south of the Danube than to Transylvania, although several species of Claudilia, once regarded as exclusively Transylvanian, are found south of the Carpathians. Moldavia and the Baragan Steppe resemble the Russian prairies in their variety of molluscs and the lower kinds r' Danubian Principalities in a single narrative, owing to the uniform system of administration adopted by the Turkish authorities, and the rapid contemporary growth of a national consciousness among the Vlachs. At last, in 1859, the two principalities were finally united under the name of Rumania. The subjoined history of the country is arranged under the four headings: Walachia, Moldavia, the Danubian Principalities and Rumania, in order to emphasize this his- torical development. (2) Walachia. — Tradition, as embodied in a native chronicle of the i6th century, entitled the History of the Ruman Land since the arrival of the Rumans (Istoria tieret Rom&nescl de Foanda- cdndu au descSlicata Romdnii), gives a precise account ttoa of the of the founding of the Walachian state by Radu Negru, Priad- or Rudolf the Black (otherwise known as Negru Voda, **•"*>'• the Black Prince), voivode of the Rumans of Fogaras in Transylvania, who in 1290 descended with a numerous people into the Transalpine plain and established his capital first at Campulung and then at Curtea de Argesh. Radu dies in 1310, and is succeeded by a series of voivodes whose names and dates are duly given; but this early chapter of Walachian history has been rudely handled by critical historians. A considerable body of Vlachs doubtless emigrated from Hungary at this time, and founded in Walachia a principality dependent 1 i.e. Walachia east of the Olt, not to be confused with the MrydXi? BXaxia in southern Macedonia (see BALKAN PENINSULA). 1 In later Rumanian history there arose a class who obtained their rank by merit or favour, and did not necessarily bequeath it to their heirs. But the hereditary aristocracy also survived, and feudalism remained characteristic of Rumanian society up to 1860. RUMANIA [HISTORY nines. on the Hungarian crown; but material is lacking for a detailed description of the movement. In 1330 the voivode John Bassaraba * or Bazarab the Great (1310-38) succeeded in inflicting a crushing defeat on his Hun- suzerain King Charles I. of Hungary, and for fourteen tariaa years Walachia enjoyed complete independence. Louis Sapnm- the Great (1342-82) succeeded for a while in restor- acy' ing the Hungarian supremacy, but in 1367 the voivode Vlad or Vladislav inflicted another severe defeat on the Hun- garians, and succeeded for a time in ousting the Magyar governor of Turnu Severin, and thus incorporating Oltland in his own dominions. Subsequently, in order to retain a hold on the loyalty of the Walachian voivode, the king of Hungary invested him with the title of duke of Fogaras and Omlas, Ruman dis- tricts in Transylvania. Under the voivode Mircea (1386-1418), whose prowess is still celebrated in the national folk-songs, Walachia played for a while a more ambitious part. This prince during the earlier part of his reign sought a counterpoise to Hungarian influence in close alliance with King Ladislaus V. of Poland. He added to his other titles that of " count of Severin, despot of the Dobrudja, and lord of Silistria," and both Vidin and Sistora appear in his possession. A Walachian contingent, apparently Mircea's, aided the Servian tsar Lazar in his vain endeavour to resist the Turks at Kossovo (1389); later he allied himself with his former enemy Sigismund of Hungary against the Turkish sultan Bayezid I., who inflicted a crushing defeat on the allied armies at Nikopolis in 1396. Bayezid subsequently invaded and laid waste a large part of Walachia, but the voivode succeeded in inflicting considerable loss on the retiring Turks, and the capture of Bayezid by Timur in 1402 gave the country a reprieve. In the internecine struggle that followed amongst the sons of Bayezid, Mircea espoused the cause of Musa; but, though he thus obtained for a while con- siderable influence in the Turkish councils, this policy eventually drew on him the vengeance of the sultan Mahomet I., who succeeded in reducing him to a tributary position. During the succeeding period the Walachian princes appear alternately as the allies of Hungary or the creatures of the Relations Turk. In the later battle of Kossovo of 1448, between wtth the Hungarians, led by Hunyadi Janos and the sultan Hungary Murad II., the Walachian contingent treacherously »adthe surrendered to the Turks; but this did not hinder the victorious sultan from massacring the prisoners and adding to the tribute a yearly contribution of 3000 javelins and 4000 shields. In 1453 Constantinople fell; in 1454 Hunyadi died; and a year later the sultan invaded Walachia to set up Vlad IV. (1455-62), the son of a former voivode. The father of this Vlad had himself been notorious for his ferocity, but his son, during his Turkish sojourn, had improved on his father's example. He was known in Walachia as Dracul, or the Devil, and has left a name in history as Vlad the Impaler. The stories of his ferocious savagery exceed belief. He is said to have feasted amongst his impaled victims. When the sultan Mahomet, infuriated at the impalement of his envoy, the pasha of Vidin, who had been charged with Vlad's deposition, invaded Walachia in person with an immense host, he is said to have found at one spot a forest of pales on which were the bodies of men, women and children. The voivode Radu (1462-75) was substituted for this monster by Turkish influence, and con- strained to pay a tribute of 12,000 ducats; but Vlad returned to the throne in 1476-77. The shifting policy of the Walachian princes at this time is well described in a letter of the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus (1458-00) to Casimir of Poland. " The voivodes," he writes, " of Walachia and Moldavia fawn alternately upon the Turks, the Tatars, the Poles and the Hungarians, that among so many masters their perfidy may remain unpunished." The 1 A. Sturdza gives) a genealogical table, showing that Radu belonged to the great native dynasty of Bassarab (q.v.) or Bassaraba, which continued, though not in unbroken succession, to rule in Walachia until 1658, and in Moldavia until 1669. prevalent laxity of marriage, the frequency of divorce, and the fact that illegitimate children could succeed as well as those born in lawful wedlock, by multiplying the candidates for the voivodeship and preventing any regular system of succession, contributed much to the internal confusion of the country. The elections, though often controlled by the Turkish Divan, were still constitutionally in the hands of the boiars, who were split up into various factions, each with its own pretender to the throne. The princes followed one another in rapid succession, and usually met with violent ends. A large part of the popu- lation led a pastoral life, and at the time of Verantius's visit to Walachia in the early part of the i6th century, the towns and villages were built of wood and wattle and daub. Tirgovishtea alone, at this time the capital of the country, was a considerable town, with two stone castles. A temporary improvement took place under Neagoe Bassaraba (1512-21). Neagoe was a great builder of monasteries; he founded the cathedrals of Curtea de Argesh (q.v.) and Tirgovish- tea, and adorned Mount Athos with his pious works. He trans- ferred the direct allegiance of the Walachian Church from the patriarchate of Ochrida in Macedonia to that of Constantinople. On his death, however, the brief period of comparative prosperity which his architectural works attest was tragically interrupted, and it seemed for a time that Walachia was doomed to Turkish sink into a Turkish pashalic. The Turkish commander, op/>re»- Mahmud Bey, became treacherously possessed of Nea- «'<>«»• goe's young son and successor, and, sending him a prisoner to Stambul, proceeded to nominate Turkish governors in the towns and villages of Walachia. The Walachians resisted desperately, elected Radu, a kinsman of Neagoe, voivode, and succeeded with Hungarian help in defeating Mahmud Bey at Grumatz in 1522. The conflict was prolonged with varying fortunes until in 1524 the dogged opposition of the Walachians triumphed in the sultan's recognition of Radu. But the battle of Mohacs in 1526 decided the long preponder- ance of Turkish control. The unfortunate province served as a transit route for Turkish expeditions against Hungary and Transylvania, and was exhausted by continual requisitions. Turkish settlers were gradually making good their footing on Walachian soil, and mosques were rising in the towns and villages. The voivode Alexander, who succeeded in 1591, and like his predecessors had bought his post of the Divan, carried the oppres- sion still further by introducing a janissary guard and farming out his possessions to his Turkish supporters. Meanwhile the Turkish governors on the Bulgarian bank never ceased to ravage the country, and again it seemed as if Walachia must share the fate of the Balkan States and succumb to the direct government of the Ottoman. In the depth of the national distress the choice of the people fell on Michael, the son of Petrushko, ban of Craiova, the first dignitary of the realm, who had fled to Transylvania to escape Alexander's machinations. Supported at Constantinople by two influential personages, Sigismund Bathory, prince of Transylvania (1581-98 and 1601-2), and the English ambassador, Edward Barton, and aided by a loan of 200,000 florins, Michael succeeded in procuring from the Divan the deposition of his enemy and his own nomination. The genius of Michael "the Brave" (1593-1601) secured Walachia for a time a place in universal history. The moment for action was favourable. The emperor Rudolph II. had gained some successes over the Turks, and Sigismund the Brave. Bathory had been driven by Turkish extortions to throw off the allegiance to the sultan. But the first obstacle to be dealt with was the presence of the enemy within the walls. By previous concert with the Moldavian voivode Aaron, on the i3th of November 1594, the Turkish guards and settlers in the two princi- palities were massacred at a given signal. Michael followed up these " Walachian Vespers " by an actual invasion of Turkish territory, and, aided by Sigismund Bathory, succeeded in carrying by assault Rustchuk, Silistria and other places on the right bank of the lower Danube. A simultaneous invasion of Walachia by a large Turkish and Tatar host was successfully defeated; RUMANIA 833 the Tatar khan withdrew with the loss of his bravest followers, and, in the great victory of Mantin on the Danube (1595), the Turkish army was annihilated, and its leader, Mustafa, slain. The sultan now sent Sinan Pasha, " the Renegade," to invade Walachia with 100,000 men. Michael withdrew to the mountains before this overwhelming force, but, being joined by Bathory with a Transylvanian contingent, the voivode resumed the offen- sive, stormed Bucharest, where Sinan had entrenched a Turkish detachment, and, pursuing the main body of his forces to the Danube, overtook the rearguard and cut it to pieces, capturing enormous booty. Sinan Pasha returned to Constantinople to die, it is said, of vexation; and in 1597, the sultan, weary of a disastrous contest, sent Michael a red flag in token of recon- ciliation, reinvested him for life in an office of which he had been unable to deprive him, and granted the succession to his son. In 1599, on the abdication of Sigismund Bathory in Transyl- vania, Michael, in league with the imperialist forces, and in Conquest connivance with the Saxon burghers, attacked and of Traa- defeated his successor Andreas Bathory near Hermann- syivaais. stacjt; an(jj sejzing himself the reins of government, secured his proclamation as prince of Transylvania. The emperor consented to appoint him his viceroy (locum tenens per Transylvaniam) , and the sultan ratified his election. As prince of Transylvania he summoned diets in 1399 and 1600, and, having expelled the voivode of Moldavia, united under his sceptre three principalities. The partiality that he showed for the Ruman and Szekler parts of the population alienated, however, the Transylvanian Saxons, who preferred the direct government of the emperor. The imperial commissioner General Basta lent his support to the disaffected party, and Michael was driven out of Transylvania by a successful revolt, while a Polish army invaded Walachia from the Moldavian side. Michael's coolness and resource, however, never deserted him. He resolved to appeal to the emperor, rode to Prague, won over Rudolph by his singular address, and, richly supplied with funds, reappeared in Transylvania as imperial governor. In con- junction with Basta he defeated the superior Transylvanian forces at Goroslo, expelling Sigismund Bathory, who had again aspired to the crown, and taking one hundred and fifty flags and forty-five cannon. But at the moment of his returning prosperity Basta, who had quarrelled with him about the supreme command of the imperial forces, procured his murder on the igth of August 1601. Not only had Michael succeeded in rolling back for a time the tide of Turkish conquest, but for the first and last time in modern history he united what once had been Trajan's Dacia, in its widest extent, and with it the whole Ruman race north of the Danube, under a single sceptre. Michael's wife Florika and his son Nicholas were carried off into Tatar captivity, and §erban or Sherban, of the Bassaraba family, was raised to the voivodeship of Walachia by imperialist influences, while Sigismund resumed the government of Tran- sylvania. On his deposition by the Porte in 1610, there fol- lowed a succession of princes who, though still for the most part of Ruman origin, bought their appointment at Stambul. Walachian contingents were continually employed by the Turks in their Polish wars, and the settlement of Greeks in an official or mercantile capacity in the principality provoked grave discontent, which on one occasion took the form of a massacre. The reign of the voivode Matthias Bassaraba (1633-54) was an interval of comparative prosperity. Matthias repulsed Matthias his powerful rival, Basil the Wolf, the voivode of Bassa- Moldavia and his Tatar and Cossack allies. His last ***"• days were embittered, however, by an outbreak of military anarchy. His illegitimate son and successor, Con- stantine §erban (1654-58), was the last of the Bassaraba dynasty to rule over Walachia; and on his death the Turkish yoke again weighed heavier on his country. The old capital, Tlrgovishtea, was considered by the Divan to be too near the Transylvanian frontier, and the voivodes were accordingly compelled to transfer their residence to Bucharest, which was finally made the seat of government in 1698. xxni. 27 The mechanical skill of the Walachians was found useful by the Turks, who employed them as carpenters and pontonniers; and during the siege of Vienna in 1683 the Walachian §ert>an contingent, which, under the voivode §erban Cantacu- caata- zene, had been forced to co-operate with the Turks, «"*•«•• was entrusted with the construction of the two bridges over the Danube above and below Vienna. The Walachian as well as the Moldavian prince, who had been also forced to bring his contingent, maintained a secret system of communication with the besieged, which was continued by §erban after his return to Walachia. The emperor granted him a diploma creating him count of the empire and recognizing his descent from the imperial house of Cantacuzene, §erban meanwhile collecting his forces for an open breach with the Porte. His prudence, however, perpetually postponed the occasion, and Walachia enjoyed peace to his death in 1688. This peaceful state of the country gave the voivode leisure to promote its internal culture, and in the year of his death he had the satisfaction of seeing the first part of a Walachian Bible issue from the first printing- press of the country, which he had established at Bucharest. He had also caused to be compiled a history of Walachia, and had called to the country many teachers of the Greek language, whose business it was to instruct the sons of the boiars in grammar, rhetoric and philosophy. Immediately on §erban's death the boiars, to prevent the Porte from handing over the office to the Greek adventurer who bid the highest, proceeded to elect his sister's son &„, Constantine Brancovan. The Turkish envoy then in ttaatioe Bucharest was persuaded to invest Brancovan with the Brma- caftan, or robe of office, in token of Turkish approval, covta- and the patriarch of Constantinople, who was also present, and the archbishop of Walachia, Theodosius, consecrated him together at the high altar of the cathedral, where he took the coronation oath to devote his whole strength to the good of his country and received the boiars' oath of submission. Bran- covan, it is true, found it expedient to devote his predecessor's treasure to purchasing the confirmation of his title from the Divan, but the account of his coronation ceremony remains an interesting landmark in the constitutional history of the country. In his relations with the Habsburg power he displayed the same caution as the voivode §erban. In spite of defeats inflicted on the Turks by the imperial troops at Pozharevats, Nish and Vidin, in 1689, it was only by an exercise of force that they secured winter quarters in Walachia; and though, after the battle of Poltava in 1709, Brancovan concluded a secret treaty with the tsar Peter the Great, he avoided giving open effect to it. The tranquillity which he thus obtained was employed by Brancovan as by his predecessor in furthering the internal well-being of the country, with what success is best apparent from the description of Walachia left by the Florentine Del Chiaro, who visited the country in 1709 and spent seven years there. He describes the stoneless Walachian plain, with its rich pastures, its crops of maize and millet, and woods so symmetrically planted and carefully kept by Brancovan's orders that hiding in them was out of the question. Butter and honey were exported to supply the sultan's kitchen at Stambul; wax and cattle to Venice; and the red and white wine of Walachia, notably that of Pitesei, to Transylvania. The Walachian horses were in demand among the Turks and Poles. Near Ribnik and elsewhere were salt-mines which supplied all the wants of the Transdanubian provinces of Turkey; there were considerable copper mines at Maidan ; and iron was worked near Tlrgovishtea. The gipsy community was bound to bring fifteen pounds weight of gold from the washings of the Argesh. Many of the boiars were wealthy, but the common people were so ground down with taxation that " of their ancient Roman valour only the name remained." To avoid the extortion of their rulers numbers had emigrated to Transylvania and even to the Turkish provinces. The principal Walachian city was Bucharest, con- taining a population of about 50,000; but, except for two large hans or merchants' halls built by Brancovan and his 834 RUMANIA [HISTORY predecessor, and the recently erected palace, which had a marble staircase and a fine garden, the houses were of wood. The dress of the men was thoroughly Turkish except for their lamb- skin caps, that of the women half Greek, half Turkish. The houses were scrupulously clean and strewn with sweet herbs. Del Chiaro notices the great imitative capacity of the race, both artistic and mechanical. A Walachian in Venice had copied several of the pictures there with great skill; the copper-plates and wood engravings for the new press were executed by native hands. The Walachians imitated every kind of Turkish and European manufacture; and, though the boiars imported finer glass from Venice and Bohemia, a glass manufactory had been established near Tlrgovishtea which produced a better quality than the Polish. From the Bucharest press, besides a variety of ecclesiastical books, there were issued in the Ruman tongue a translation of a French work entitled The Maxims of the Orientals and The Romance of Alexander the Great. In 1700 Brancovan had a map of the country made and a copperplate engraving of it executed at Padua. The prosperity of Walachia, however, under its " Golden Bey," as Brancovan was known at Stambul, only increased the Pall of Turkish exactions; and, although all demands were Bran- punctually met, the sultan finally resolved on the covatt. removal of his too prosperous vassal. Brancovan was accused of secret correspondence with the emperor, ^he tsar, the king of Poland and the Venetian republic, of betray- ing the Forte's secrets, of preferring Tlrgovishtea to Bucharest as a residence, of acquiring lands and palaces in Transylvania, of keeping agents at Venice and Vienna, in both of which cities he had invested large sums, and of striking gold coins with his effigy.1 An envoy arrived at Bucharest on the 4th of April 1714, and proclaimed Brancovan mazil, i.e. deposed. He was conducted to Constantinople and beheaded, together with his four sons. A scion of the rival Cantacuzenian family was elected by the pasha's orders, and he, after exhausting the principality for the benefit of the Divan, was in turn deposed and executed in 1716. From this period onwards the Porte introduced a new system with regard to its Walachian vassals. The line of national The princes ceased. The office of voivode or hospodar Phan- was sold to the highest bidder at Stambul, to be farmed ariotv out from a purely mercenary point of view. The rigfme, princes who now succeeded one another in rapid succes- sion were mostly Greeks from the Phanar quarter of Con- stantinople who had served the palace in the quality of dragoman (interpreter), or held some other court appointment. They were nominated by imperial firman without a shadow of free election, and were deposed and transferred from one principality to another, executed or reappointed, like so many pashas. Like pashas they rarely held their office more than three years, it being the natural policy of the Porte to multiply such lucrative nominations. The same hospodar was often reappointed again and again as he succeeded in raising the sum necessary to buy back his title. Constantine Mavrocordato was in this way hospodar of Walachia at six different times, and paid on one occasion as much as a million lion-dollars (£40,000) for the office. The princes thus imposed on the country were generally men of intelligence and culture. Nicholas Mavrocordato, the first of the series, was himself the author of a Greek work on duties, and maintained at his court Demeter Prokopios of Moschopolis in Macedonia, who wrote a review of Greek literature during the i7th and beginning of the 1 8th centuries. Constantine Mavrocordato was the author of really liberal reforms. He introduced an urbarium or land law, limiting to 24 the days of angaria, or forced labour, owed yearly by the peasants to their feudal lord. In 1747 he decreed the abolition of serfdom, but this enactment was not carried 1 One of these, with the legend " CONSTANTINVS BASSARABA DE BRANCOVAN D.G.VOEVODA ET PRINCEPS VALACHIAE TRANSALPINAE," and having on the reverse the crowned shield of Walachia containing a raven holding a cross in its beak between a moon and a star, is engraved by Del Chiaro. They were of 2, 3 and 10 ducats weight. into effect. But the rule of the Phanariotes could not but be productive of grinding oppression, and it was rendered doubly hateful by the swarms of Greek adventurers who accompanied them. Numbers of the peasantry emigrated, and the population rapidly diminished. In 1745 the number of tax-paying families, which a few years before had amounted to 147,000, had sunk to 70,000. Yet the taxes were continually on the increase, and the hospodar Scarlat Ghica (1758-61), though he tried to win some popularity by the removal of Turkish settlers and the abolition of the vakarit or tax on cattle and horses, which was peculiarly hateful to the peasantry, raised the total amount of taxation to 25,000,000 lion-dollars, about £1,000,000. The Turks meantime maintained their grip on the country by hold- ing on the Walachian bank of the Danube the fortresses of Giurgevo, Turnu Severin and Orsova, with the surrounding districts. But the tide of Ottoman dominion was ebbing fast. Already, by the peace of Passarowitz Pozharevats in 1718, the banat of Craiova had been ceded to the emperor, though by the peace of Belgrade in 1739 it was recovered by the Porte for its Wala- chian vassal. In 1769 the Russian general Romanzov occupied the principality, the bishops and clergy took an oath of fidelity to the empress Catherine, and a deputation of boiars followed. The liberties of the country were guaranteed, taxation reformed and in 1772 the negotiations at Fokshani between Russia and the Porte broke down because the empress's representatives insisted on the sultan's recognition of the independence of Walachia and Moldavia under a European guarantee.. Turkish rule was, however, definitely restored by the treaty of Kutchuk Kainardji, in 1774; and as from this period onwards Walachian history is closely connected with that of Moldavia, it may be convenient before continuing this review to turn to the earlier history of the sister principality. (3) Moldavia. — According to the native traditional account, as first given by the Moldavian chroniclers of the i6th, I7th and iSth centuries, Dragosh the son of Bogdan, the founder of the Moldavian principality, emigrated with his followers from the Hungarian district of Marmaros in the northern Carpathians. The dates assigned to this event vary from 1299, given by Urechia, to 1342, given by the monastic chronicle of Putna. The story is related with various fabulous accompaniments. From the aurochs (zimbru), in pursuit of which Dragosh first arrived on the banks of the Moldova, is derived the ox-head of the Moldavian national arms, and from his favourite hound who perished in the waters the name of the river. From the Hungarian and Russian sources, which are somewhat more precise, the date of the arrival of Dragosh, who is confused with the historical Bogdan Voda (1340-1365), appears to have been 1349, and his departure from Marmaros was carried out in defiance of his Hungarian suzerain. These legendary accounts seem to show that the Moldavian voivodate was founded, like that of Walachia, by Vlach immi- grants from Hungary, during the first half of the i4th century. Its original strength lay probably in mstory. the compact Ruman settlements among the eastern Carpathians, first mentioned by Nicetas of Chonae, about 1164. The Moldavian lowlands were still held by a variety of Tatar tribes, who were only expelled after 1350, by the united efforts of Andrew Laszkovich, voivode of Transylvania, and Bogdan Voda, the first independent prince of Moldavia. Coins bearing the name of Bogdan are still extant; and there is an inscription over his tomb at the monastery of Radautzi, in Bukovina, placed there by Stephen the Great of Moldavia (1457-1504). In the agreement arrived at between Louis of Hungary and the emperor Charles IV. in 1372, the voivodate of Moldavia was recognized as a dependency of the crown of St Stephen. The overlordshipxover the country was, however, claims of contested by the king of Poland, and their rival Poland claims were .a continual source of dispute between the "d two kingdoms. In 1412 a remarkable agreement was arrived at between Sigismund, in his quality of king of Hungary, and King Ladislaus Il.of Poland, by which both parties HISTORY] RUMANIA 835 consented to postpone the question of suzerainship in Moldavia. Should, however the Turks invade the country, the Polish and Hungarian forces were to unite in expelling them, the voivode was to be deposed, and the Moldavian territories divided be- tween the allies. During the first half of the isth century Polish influence was preponderant, and it was customary for the voivodes of Moldavia to do homage to the king of Poland at his cities of Kameniec or Snyatin. In 1456 the voivode Peter, alarmed at the progress of the Turks, who were now dominant in Servia and Walachia, offered the sultan Mahomet II. a yearly tribute of 2000 ducats. tbfareat. On his deposition, however, in 1457 by Stephen, known as " the Great," Moldavia became a power formidable alike to Turk, Pole and Hungarian, Throughout the long reign of this voivode, which lasted forty-six years, from 1458 to 1504, his courage and resources never failed. In the early part of his reign he appears, in agreement . with the Turkish sultan and the king of Poland, turning out the Hungarian vassal, the ferocious Vlad, from the Walachian throne, and annexing the coast cities of Kilia and Cetatea Alba or Byelgorod, the Turkish Akkerman. These cities he refused to cede to the sultan, and, about this period, he entered into negotiations with Venice and the shah of Persia, in the vain hope of organizing a world-wide coalition against the Turks. In the autumn of 1474 the sultan Mahomet entered Moldavia at the head of an army estimated by the Polish historian Dlugosz at 120,000 men. The voivode Stephen withdrew into the interior at the approach of this overwhelming host, but on the I7th of January 1475, turned to bay at Rahova (Podul Inalt, near Vaslui) and gained a complete victory over the Turks. Four pashas were among the slain; over a hundred banners fell into the Moldavian hands; and only a few survivors succeeded in reaching the Danube. In 1476 Mahomet again invaded Moldavia, but, though successful in the open field, the Turks were sorely harassed by Stephen's guerilla onslaughts, and, being thinned by pestilence, were again constrained to retire. In 1484 the same tactics proved successful against an invasion of Bayezid II. Three years later a Polish invasion of Moldavia under John Albert with 80,000 men ended in disaster, and shortly afterwards the voivode Stephen, aided by a Turkish and Tatar contingent, laid waste the Polish territories to the upper waters of the Vistula, and succeeded in annexing for a time the Polish province of Pokutia, between the Carpathians and the Dniester. Exclusive of this temporary acquisition, the Moldavian terri- tory at this period extended from the river Milcovu, which formed Moldavia the boundary of Walachia, to the Dniester. It in- circa eluded the Carpathian region of Bukovina, literally /500. " tne beechwood, " where lay Sereth and Suciava (Suczawa), the earliest residences of the voivodes, the maritime district of Budzak (the later Bessarabia), with Kilia, Byelgorod and the left bank of the lower Danube from Galatz to the Sulina mouth. The government, civil and ecclesiastical, was practically the same as that described in the case of Walachia, the officials bearing for the most part Slavonic titles derived from the practice of the Bulgaro-Vlachian tsardom. The church was Orthodox Oriental, and depended from the patriarch of Ochrida. In official documents the language used was Slavonic, the style of a Moldavian ruler being Nachalnik i Voievoda Moldovlasi, prince and duke ( = Ger. Fiirst and Herzog) of the Moldov- lachs. The election of the voivodes, though in the hands of the boiars, was strictly regulated by hereditary principles, and Cantemir describes the extinction of the house of Dragosh in the 1 6th century as one of the unsettling causes that most contributed to the ruin of the country. The Moldavian army was reckoned 40,000 strong, and the cavalry were especially formidable. Ver- antius of Sebenico, an eye-witness of the state of Moldavia at the beginning of the i6th century, mentions three towns of the interior provided with stone walls — Suciava, Chotim (Khotin) and Ncamtzu; the people were barbarous, but more warlike than the Walachians and more tenacious of their national costume, punishing with death any who adopted the Turkish. In 1 504 Stephen the Great died, and was succeeded by his son, Bogdan III. " the One-eyed. " At feud with Poland about Pokutia, despairing of efficacious support from hard- Moldavia pressed Hungary, the new voivode saw no hope of tributary safety except in a dependent alliance with the ad- t°lhe vancing Ottoman power, which already hemmed Moldavia in on the Walachian and Crimean sides. In 1513 he agreed to pay an annual tribute to the sultan Selim in return for the sultan's guarantee to preserve the national constitution and religion of Moldavia, to which country the Turks now gave the name of Kara Bogdan, from their first vassal. The terms of Moldavian submission were further regulated by a firman signed by the sultan Suleiman at Budapest in 1529 by which the yearly present or bockshish, as the tribute was euphoniously called, was fixed at 4000 ducats, 40 horses and 25 falcons, and the voivode was bound at need to supply the Turkish army with a contingent of 1000 men. The Turks pursued much the same policy as in Walachia. The tribute was gradually increased. A hold was obtained on the country by the occupation of various fortresses on Moldavian soil with the surrounding territory — in 1538 Cetatea Alba, in 1592 Bender, in 1702 Chotim (Khotin). Already by the middle of the i6th century the yoke was so heavy that the voivode Elias (1546-51) became Mahommedan to avoid the sultan's anger. At this period occurs a curious interlude in Moldavian history. In 1561 the adventurer and impostor Jacob Basilicus succeeded with Hungarian help in turning out the voivode Alexander Lapusheanu (1552-61 and 1563-68) and seizing on the reins of government. A Greek by birth, adopted son of Jacob Heraklides, despot of Paros, Samos and other Aegean islands, acquainted with Greek and Latin literature, and master of most European languages; appearing alternately as a student of astronomy at Wittenberg, whither he had been invited by Count Mansfeld, as a correspondent of Melanchthon, and as a writer of historical works which he dedicated to Philip II. of Spain, Basilicus, finding that his Aegean sovereignty wag of little practical value beyond the crowning of poet laureates, fixed his roving ambition on a more substantial dominion. He published an astounding pedigree, in which, starting from " Hercules Triptolemus," he wound his way through the royal Servian line to the kinship of Moldavian voivodes, and, having won the emperor Ferdinand to his financial and military support, succeeded, though at the head of only 1600 cavalry, in routing by a bold dash the vastly superior forces of the voivode, and even in purchasing the Turkish confirmation of his usurped title. He assumed the style of BaatXtw MoXSa/ftas, and eluded the Turkish stipulation that he should dismiss his foreign guards. In Moldavia he appeared as a moral reformer, endeavouring to put down the prevalent vices of bigamy and divorce. He erected a school, placed it under a German master, and collected children from every part of the country to be maintained and educated at his expense. He also busied himself with the col- lection of a library. But his taxes — a ducat for each family — were considered heavy; his orthodoxy was suspected, his foreign counsellors detested. In 1 563 the people rose, massacred the Hungarian guards, the foreign settlers, and finally Jacob himself. The expelled voivode Alexander was now restored by the Porte, the schools were destroyed, and the country relapsed into its normal state of barbarism under Bogdan IV. (1568- 72). Bogdan's successor, John the Terrible (1572^74), was provoked by the Forte's demand for 120,000 ducats as tribute instead of 60,000 as heretofore to rise against the oppressor; but after gaining three victories he was finally defeated and slain (1574), and the country was left more than ever at the mercy of the Ottoman. Voivodes were now created and deposed in rapid succession by the Divan, but the victories of Michael the Brave in Walachia infused a more independent spirit into the Moldavians. The Moldavian dominion was now disputed by the Transylvanians and Poles, but in 1600 Michael succeeded in annexing it to his " Great Dacian " realm. On Michael's murder the Poles under Zamoyski again 836 RUMANIA [HISTORY asserted their supremacy, but in 1618 the Porte once more recovered its dominion and set up successively two creatures of its own as voivodes — Gratiani, an Italian who had been court jeweller, and a Greek custom-house official, Alexander. As in Walachia at a somewhat later date, the Phanariote regime seemed now thoroughly established in Moldavia, and The it became the rule that every three years the voivode Phaa- should procure his confirmation by a large baksheesh, «*><• and every year by a smaller one. But Prince Basil rtglme. ^ Wolf (Vasilie Lupul), an Albanian, who succeeded in 1634, showed great ability, and for twenty years maintained his position on the Moldavian throne. He introduced several internal reforms, codified the written and unwritten laws of the country, established a printing press, Greek monastic schools, and also a Latin school. He brought the Moldavian Church into more direct relation with the patriarch of Con- stantinople, but also showed considerable favour to the Latins, allowing them to erect churches at Suciava, Jassy and Galatz. The last voivode of the Bassaraba family, Elias Voda, reigned from 1667 to 1669. During the wars between Sobieski, king of Poland (1674- 96), and the Turks, Moldavia found itself between hammer and anvil, and suffered terribly from Tatar devastations. The voivode Duka was forced like his Walachian contemporary to supply a contingent for the siege of Vienna in 1683. After Sobieski's death in 1696, the hopes of Moldavia turned to the advancing Muscovite power. In 1711 the voivode Caatetair. Demetrius Cantemir, rendered desperate by the Turkish exactions, concluded an agreement with the tsar Peter the Great by which Moldavia was to become a protected and vassal state of Russia, with the enjoyment of its traditional liberties, the voivodeship to be hereditary in the family of Cantemir. On the approach of the Russian army the prince issued a proclamation containing the terms of the Russian protectorate and calling on the boiars and people to aid their Orthodox deliverers. But the long Turkish terrorism had done its work, and at the approach of a Turkish and Tatar host the greater part of the Moldavians deserted their voivode. The Russian campaign was unsuccessful, and all that Peter could offer Cantemir and the boiars who had stood by him was an asylum on Russian soil. In his Russian exile Cantemir composed in a fair Latin style his Descriptio Moldaviae, the counterpart, so far as Moldavia is concerned, to Del Chiaro's contemporary descrip- tion of Walachia. The capital of the country was now Jassy, to which city Stephen the Great had trans- ^erre^ ^s court from Suciava, the earlier residence of the voivodes. It had at this time forty churches — some of stone, some of wood. Fifty years before it had con- tained 12,000 houses, but Tatar devastations had reduced it to a third of its former size. The most important commercial emporium was the Danubian port of Galatz, which was fre- quented by vessels from the whole of the Levant from Trebizond to Barbary. The cargoes which they here took in consisted of Moldavian timber (oak, deal and cornel), grain, butter, honey and wax, salt and nitre. Kilia, at the north mouth of the Danube, was also frequented by trading vessels, including Venetian and Ragusan. Moldavian wine was exported to Poland, Russia, Transylvania, and Hungary; that of Cotnar was in Cantemir's opinion superior to Tokay. The excellence of the Moldavian horses is attested by a Turkish proverb; and annual droves of as many as 40,000 Moldavian oxen were sent across Poland to Danzig. Moldavia proper was divided into the upper country or Terra de sus, and the lower country, or Terra de josu. Bessarabia had been detached from the rest of the principality and placed under the direct control of the military, authorities. It was divided into four provinces: that of Budzak, inhabited by the Nogai Tatars; that of Cetatea Alba, the Greek Monkastron, a strongly fortified place; and those of Ismaila and Kilia. The voivodes owed their nomination entirely to the Porte, and the great officers of the realm were appointed at their discretion. These were the Can- tfmlr's lion of Great Logothete (Marele Logofetu) or chancellor ; the governor of Lower Moldavia — Vorniculu de terra dejosu; the governor of Upper Moldavia — Vorniculu de terra de sus; the Hatman or commander -in -chief; the high chamberlain — Marele Postel- nicu; the great Spathar, or sword-bearer; the great cup- bearer— Marele Paharnicu; and the treasurer, or Vistiernicu, who together formed the prince's council and were known as Boiari de Svatu. Below these were a number of subordinate officers who acted as their assessors and were known as boiars of the Divan (Boiari de Divanu). The high court of justice was formed by the prince, metropolitan and boiars: the Boiari de Svatu decided on the verdict; the metropolitan declared the law; and the prince pronounced sentence. The boiars were able to try minor cases in their own residences, but subject to the right of appeal to the prince's tribunal. Of the char- acter of the Moldavian people Cantemir does not give a very favourable account. Their best points were their hospitality and, in Lower Moldavia, their valour. They cared little for letters, and were generally indolent, and their prejudice against mercantile pursuits left the commerce of the country in the hands of Armenians, Jews, Greeks and Turks. The pure- blood Ruman population, noble and plebeian, inhabited the cities and towns or larger villages; the peasantry were mostly of Little Russian and Hungarian race, and were in a servile condition. There was a considerable gipsy population, almost every boiar having several Zingar families in his possession; these were mostly smiths. From this period onwards the character of the Ottoman domination in Moldavia is in every respect analogous to that of Walachia. The office of voivode or hospodar was _ farmed out by the Porte to a succession of wealthy atioaot Greeks from the Phanar quarter of Constantinople. Phaa- All formality of election by the boiars was now dis- *J*™ pensed with, and the princes received their caftan of n*a office at Constantinople, where they were consecrated by the Greek patriarch. The system favoured Turkish extortion in two ways: the presence of the voivode's family connexions at Stambul gave the Porte so many hostages for his obedience; on the other hand the princes themselves could not rely on any support due to family influence in Moldavia itself. They were thus mere puppets of the Divan, and could be deposed and shifted with the same facility as so many pashas — an object of Turkish policy, as each change was a pretext for a new levy of baksheesh. The chief families that shared the office during this period were those of Mavrocordato, Ghica, Callimachi, Ypsilanti and Murusi. Although from the very conditions of their creation they regarded the country as a field for ex- ploitations, they were themselves often men of education and ability, and unquestionably made some praiseworthy attempts to promote the general culture and well-being of their subjects. In this respect, even the Phanariote regime was preferable to mere pasha rule, while it had the further consequence of pre- serving intact the national form of administration and the historic offices of Moldavia. Gregory Ghica (1774-77), who himself spoke French and Italian, founded a school or " gym- nasium " at Jassy, where Greek, Latin and theology were taught in a fashion. He encouraged the settlement of German Protestant colonists in the country, some of whom set up as watchmakers in Jassy, where they were further allowed to build an evangelical church. J. L. Carra, a Swiss who had been tutor to Prince Ghica's children, and who published in 1781 an account of the actual state of the principalities, speaks of some of the boiars as possessing a taste for French literature and even for the works of Voltaire, a tendency actively com- bated by the patriarch of Constantinople. The Russo-Turkish War, which ended in the peace of Kutchuk Kainardji (1774)^ was fatal to the integrity of Moldavian territory. The house of Austria, which had already annexed Galicia in 1772, profited by the situation to Bukovina. arrange with both contending parties for the peace- ful cession of Bukovina to the Habsburg monarchy. This richly wooded Moldavian province, containing Suciava HISTORY] RUMANIA »37 (Suczawa), the earliest seat of the voivodes, and Cernautil or Czernovicz, was in 1774 occupied by Habsburg troops with Russian connivance, and in 1777 Baron Thugut procured its formal cession from the sultan. (4) The Danubian Principalities: 1774-1859. — By the treaty of Kutchuk Kainardji Russia consented to hand back Treaty at the principalities to the sultan, but by Article xvi. Kutchuk several stipulations were made in favour of the Wal- Kainan/ji. achians and Moldavians. The people of the princi- palities were to enjoy all the privileges that they had possessed under Mahomet IV.; they were to be freed from tribute for two years, as some compensation for the ruinous effects of the last war; they were to pay a moderate tribute; the agents of Walachia and Moldavia at Constantinople were to enjoy the rights of national representatives, and the Russian minister at the Porte should on occasion watch over the interests of the principalities. The stipulations of the treaty, though deficient in precision (the Walachians, for instance, had no authentic record of the privileges enjoyed under Mahomet IV.), formed the basis of future liberties in both principalities; but for the moment all reforms were postponed. The treaty was hardly concluded when it was violated by the Porte, which refused to recognize the right of the Walachian boiars to elect their voivode, and nominated Alexander Ypsilanti, a creature of its own. In 1777 Constantine Murusi was made voivode of Moldavia in the same high-handed fashion. The Divan seemed intent on restoring the old system of government in its entirety, but in 1783 the Russian representative extracted from the sultan a decree (hattisherif) defining more precisely the liberties of the principalities and fixing the amount of the annual tribute — for Walachia 619 purses exclusive of various " presents " amounting to 130,00x2 piasters, and for Moldavia 135 purses and further gifts to the extent of 115,000 piasters. By the peace of Jassy in 1792 the Dniester was recognized as the Russian frontier, and the privileges of the principalities as specified in the hattisherif confirmed. In defiance of treaties, however, the Porte continued to change the hospodars almost yearly and to exact extraordinary installation presents. The revolt of Pasvan Oglu in Bulgaria was the cause of great injury to Walachia. The rebels ravaged Little Walachia in 1801-2, and their ravages were succeeded by those of the Turkish troops, who now swarmed over the country. Exaction followed exac- tion, and in 1802 Russia resolved to assert her treaty rights in favour of the oppressed inhabitants of the principalities. On the accession of Constantine Ypsilanti (1802-6) in Walachia, and of Alexander Murusi (1802-6) in Moldavia, the Porte was constrained to issue a new hattisherif by which every prince Russian was to hold his office for at least seven years, unless the pntec- Porte satisfied the Russian minister that there were good tl0"' and sufficient grounds for his deposition. This clause of the hattisherif was not enforced. All irregular contributions were to cease, and all citizens, with the exception of the boiars and clergy, were to pay their share of the tribute. The Turkish troops then employed in the principalities were to be paid off, and one year's tribute remitted for the purpose. The boiars were to be responsible for the maintenance of schools, hospitals and roads; they and the prince together for the militia. The number of Turkish merchants resident in the country was limited. Finally, the hospodars were to be amenable to repre- sentations made to them by the Russian envoy at Constanti- nople, to whom was entrusted the task of watching over the Walachian and Moldavian liberties. This, it will be seen, was a veiled Russian protectorate. In 1804 the Serbs under Karageorge rose against the Turkish dominion, and were secretly aided by the Walachian voivode Ypsilanti. The Porte, instigated by Napoleon's ambassador Sebastiani, resolved on Ypsilanti's deposition, but the hospodar succeeded in escaping to St Petersburg. In the war that now ensued between the Russians and the Turks, the Russians were for a time successful, and even demanded that the Russian territory should extend to the Danube. They occupied the principalities from 1806 to 1812. In 1808 they formed a governing committee consisting of the metropolitan, another bishop, and four or five boiars under the presidency of General Kusnikov. The seat of the president was at Jassy, and General Engelhart was appointed as vice-president at Bucharest. By the peace of Bucharest, however, in 1812, the principalities were restored to the sultan under the former conditions, with the exception of Bessarabia, which was ceded to the tsar. The Pruth thus became the Russian boundary. The growing solidarity between the two Ruman principalities received a striking illustration in 1816, when the Walachian and Moldavian hospodars published together a code applicable to both countries, and which had been elaborated by a joint com- mission. The Greek movement was now beginning to assume a practical shape. About 1780 Riga Velestiniul, a Hellenized Vlach from Macedonia who is also known by the purely Greek name of Rigas Phereos, had founded in Bucharest a patriotic and revolutionary association known as the Society of Friends (ereupia T&V iKuv) which gradually attained great in- Ttlt fluencc. In 1810 Ignatius, the metropolitan of Walachia, •• Hetser- founded a Greek literary society in Bucharest which l*t" soon developed into a political association, and many "">**• similar bodies were formed throughout the Greek world, ' and finally united into one powerful secret society, the Hetairia. Some of the members even cherished the fantastic hope of restoring the ancient Byzantine empire. In 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti, a son of the voivode, and an aide-de-camp of the tsar Alexander I., entered Moldavia at the head of the Hetaerists, and, representing that he had the support of the tsar, prevailed on the hospodar Michael Sutzu to aid him in invading the Otto- man dominions. To secure Walachian help, Ypsilanti advanced on Bucharest, but the prince, Theodore Vladimirescu, who repre- sented the national Ruman reaction against the Phanariotes, repulsed his overtures with the remark " that his business was not to march against the Turks, but to clear the country of Phanariotes." Vladimirescu was slain by a Greek revolu- tionary agent, but Ypsilanti rashly continuing his enterprise after he had been repudiated by the Russian emperor, his forces were finally crushed by the Turks at Dragashani, in Walachia, and at Skuleni, in Moldavia; and the result of his revolt was a Turkish occupation of the principalities. In 1822 the Turkish troops, who had committed great excesses, were withdrawn on the combined representations of Russia, Austria and Great Britain. The country, however, was again ravaged by the retiring troops, quarters of Jassy and Bucharest burnt, and the complete evacuation delayed till 1824, when the British government again remonstrated with the Porte (see EASTERN QUESTION; GREECE; YPSILANTI; ALEXANDER). By the convention of Akkerman between the Russians and the Turks in 1826 the privileges of the principalities were once more confirmed, and they were again ratified in 1829, pgfce of under Russian guarantee, by the peace of Adrianople. Ad Ha- By this peace all the towns on the left bank of the Danube were restored to the principalities, and the Porte undertook to refrain from fortifying any position on the Walachian side of the river. A Russian army occupied the country until the Porte fulfilled its promises. The princi- palities were to enjoy commercial freedom, and the right of establishing a quarantine cordon along the Danube or else- where. The internal constitution of the countries was to be regulated by an " Organic Law," which was drawn up by assem- blies of bishops and boiars at Jassy and Bucharest, acting, however, under Russian control. The Organic Law thus elabo- rated was by no means of a liberal character, and amongst other abuses maintained the feudal privileges of the boiars. It was ratified by the Porte in 1834, and the Russian army of occu- pation thereupon withdrew. The newly elected hospodars, Alexander Ghica (1834-42) and George Bibescu (1842-48) in Walachia, and Michael Sturdza (1834-49) in Moldavia, ruled in accordance with the Organic Law. Their reigns were marked by the social, financial and political predominance of Russia, which had steadily increased since 1711. The treaty of 1774 had given Russia a firm foothold in Rumanian politics. This 838 RUMANIA [HISTORY had been strengthened by the hattisherif of 1802; while the treaties of 1812, 1826 and 1829 had respectively yielded up Bessarabia, the Sulina mouth of the Danube and the St George mouth to the tsar. From 1834 to 1848 the Russian consul at Bucharest was all-powerful. The revolutionary movement of 1848 extended from the Rumans of Hungary and Transylvania to their kinsmen of the Move- Transalpine regions. Here its real object was the over- men* of throw of Russian influence. In Moldavia the agitation 1848. was mostly confined to the boiars, and the hospodar Michael Sturdza succeeded in arresting the ringleaders. In Walachia, however, the outbreak took a more violent form. The people assembled at Bucharest, and demanded a constitu- tion. Prince Bibescu, after setting his signature to the con- stitution submitted to him, fled to Transylvania, and a provisional government was formed. The Turks, however, urged thereto by Russian diplomacy, crossed the Danube, and a joint Russo-Turkish dictatorship restored the Organic Law. By the Balta-Liman convention of 1849 the two governments agreed to the appointment of Barbu Stirbeiu (Stirbey) as prince »f Walachia, and Gregory Ghica for Moldavia. On the entry of the Russian troops into the principalities in 1853, the hospodars fled to Vienna, leaving the government in Russian the hands of their ministers. During the Danubian and campaign that now ensued great suffering was inflicted /o^uH*a on tne inhabitants, but in 1854 the cabinet of Vienna tioa, induced the Russians to withdraw. Austrian troops I8S3^54. occupied the principalities, and the hospodars returned to their posts. One important consequence of the revolution had been the banishment of many rising politicians to western Europe, where they were brought into contact with a higher type of civilization. The practice initiated by the more liberal Phanariotes of sending Rumanian students to the French, German and Italian universities tended in the same direction. Statesmen such as I. C. Bratianu, D. A. Sturdza, S. I. Ghica, D. Ghica and Lascar Catargiu (whose biographies are given under separate headings) received their political training abroad, and returned to educate their countrymen. To this fact the surprisingly rapid progress of Rumania, as compared with the Balkan States, may very largely be attributed. By the treaty of Paris in 1856 the principalities with their existing privileges were placed under the collective guarantee Treaty ot of the contracting Powers, while remaining under the Paris, suzerainty of the Porte — the Porte on its part engag- 18S6. mg to respect the complete independence of their internal administration. A strip of southern Bessarabia was restored to Moldavia, so as to push back She Russian frontier from the Danube mouth. The existing laws and statutes of both principalities were to be revised by a European Com- mission, sitting at Bucharest, and their work was to be assisted by a Divan or national council which the Porte was to convoke for the purpose in each of the two provinces, and in which all classes of Walachian and Moldavian society were to be represented. The European commission, in arriv- ing at its conclusions, was to take into consideration the opinion expressed by the representative councils; the Powers were to come to terms with the Porte as to the recom- mendations of the commission; and the final result was to be embodied in a hattisherif of the sultan, which was to lay down the definitive organization of the two principalities. In 1857 the commission arrived, and the representative councils of the two peoples were convoked. On their meeting in September Union they at once proceeded to vote with unanimity the of the union of the two principalities into a single state under prinu- the name of Romania (Rumania), to be governed by pa it cs. a forejgn prmce elected from one of the reigning dynasties of Europe, and having a single representative assembly. The Powers decided to undo the work of national union. By the convention concluded by the European congress at Paris in 1858, it was decided that the principalities should continue as heretofore to be governed each by its own prince. Walachia and Moldavia were to have separate assemblies, but a central commission was to be established at Fokshani for the prepara- tion of laws of common interest, which were afterwards to be submitted to the respective assemblies. In accordance with this convention the deputies of Moldavia and Walachia met in separate assemblies at Bucharest and Jassy, but the choice of both fell unanimously on Prince Alexander John Cuza (January 1859). (A. J. E.; X.) (5) Rumania. — Thus the union of the Rumanian nation was accomplished. A new conference met in Paris to discuss the situation, and in 1861 the election of Prince Cuza Prince was ratified by the Powers and the Porte. The two Cuza, assemblies and the central commission were preserved '***-**• till 1862, when a single assembly met at Bucharest and a single ministry was formed for the two countries. The central com- mission was at the same time abolished, and a council of state charged with preparing bills substituted for it. In May 1864, owing to difficulties between the government and the general assembly, the assembly was dissolved, and a statute was sub- mitted to universal suffrage giving greater authority to the prince, and creating two chambers (of senators and of deputies). The franchise was now extended to all citizens, a cumulative voting power being reserved, however, for property, and the peasantry were emancipated from forced labour. Up to this point the prince had ruled wisely; he had founded the universities of Bucharest and Jassy; his reforms had swept away the last vestiges of feudalism and created a class of peasant freeholders. But the closing years of his reign were marked by an attempt to concentrate all power in his own hands. He strove to realize his democratic ideals by despotic methods. His very reforms alienated the goodwill of all classes; of the nobles, by the abolition of forced labour; of the clergy, by the confiscation of monastic estates; of the masses, by the introduction of a tobacco monopoly and the inevitable collapse of the inflated hopes to which his agrarian reforms had given rise. His own dissolute conduct increased his unpopularity, and at last the leading statesmen in both provinces, who had long believed that the national welfare demanded the election of a foreign prince, conspired to dethrone him. In February 1866 he was compelled to abdicate; and a council of regency was formed under the presidency of Prince Ion Ghica. The count of Flanders, brother to the king of the Belgians, was proclaimed hospodar of the united provinces, but declined the proffered honour. Meanwhile a conference of the Powers assembled at Paris and decided by a majority of four to three that the new hospodar should be a native of the country. The principalities, Election however, determined to elect Prince Charles, the ot Prince second son of Prince Charles Antony of Hohenzollern- Charles, Sigmaringen. On a referendum, 685,969 electors voted in his favour, against 224 dissentients. Prince Charles was an officer in the Prussian army, twenty-seven years of age, and was related to the French imperial family as well as to the royal house of Prussia: his nomination obtained not only the tacit consent and approval of his friend and kinsman King William of Prussia, but also the warm and more open support of Napoleon III. The king of Prussia, however, had agreed that the new hospodar should be a native of the principalities, and could not therefore openly approve of Prince Charles's election. Acting on the advice of Bismarck, the prince asked for a short leave of absence, resigned his commission in the Prussian army on crossing the frontier, and hastened down the Danube to Rumania, under a feigned name and with a false passport. On the 2oth of May he landed at Turnu . Severin, where he was enthusiastically welcomed. He reached Bucharest on the 22nd, and on the same day, in the presence of the provisional government, took the oaths to respect the laws of the country and to maintain its rights and the integrity of its territory. In October Prince Charles proceeded to Constantinople and was cordially received by his suzerain, the sultan, who bestowed on him the firman of investiture, admitted the principle of hereditary succession in his family, and allowed him the right of maintaining an army of 30.000 RUMANIA men. Rumania was to remain part of the Ottoman empire within the limits fixed by the capitulations and the treaty of Paris. The first Rumanian ministry formed under the new prince was composed of the leading statesmen of all political parties, Foreign care being taken that the two provinces should be and equally represented. A new constitution was unan- domcstic imously passed by the chamber on the nth of July. ^ provided for an Upper and Lower House of Re- presentatives, and conferred on the prince the right of an absolute and unconditional veto on all legislation. Other reforms were urgently needed. There was an empty treasury, and the floating debt amounted to £7,000,000; maladministra- tion was rampant in every department of the state; the national guard was mutinous, while the small army of regulars was badly organized and inefficient. The existence of famine and cholera added to the difficulties of the government, and in March 1867 the Lower House, by a majority of three, passed the laconic resolution, " The chamber inflicts a vote of blame on the government. " As the result of this vote M. Kretzulescu, a Moderate Conservative, was called to the head of affairs, and I. C. Bratianu entered the government as minister of the interior. The new ministry, of which Bratianu was the leading spirit, showed considerable energy: a concession was granted for the construction of the first Rumanian railway, from Bucharest to Giurgevo, and the reorganization of the army was undertaken. Among other less judicious measures, a decree was passed ostensibly directed against all vagabond foreigners, but really aimed at the Jews, large numbers of whom, including many respected landowners and men of business, were im- prisoned, or expelled, from Jassy, Bacau and other parts of Moldavia. This harsh treatment created intense indignation abroad, especially in France and Great Britain; and the emperor Napoleon wrote personally to Prince Charles, pro- testing against the persecution. The country could not afford to lose the goodwill of the emperor of the French, at that time one of the most powerful factors in Europe — in July 1869 Bratianu, although immensely popular, found it necessary to resign office, and with him fell the rest of the cabinet. On the 1 5th of September 1869, Prince Charles married Princess Elizabeth of Wied, afterwards celebrated under her literary name of Carmen Sylva.1 In the same year the army was reorganized, and a rural police created. Every able-bodied citizen was rendered liable to give three days' work yearly towards the construction of roads, or to pay a small tax as an equivalent. An important railway concession, which subse- quently caused grave political complications, was granted to the German contractors Strausberg and Offenheim. Much excitement was aroused in Rumania by the outbreak of the war between Prussia and France. The sympathies of The the Rumanians were entirely on the side of the French, rebellion whom they regarded as a kindred Latin race, while of 1870. those of the prince were naturally with his native country. The excitement culminated in a revolutionary outbreak at Ploesci, where a hot-headed deputy, Candianu Popescu, after the mob had stormed the militia barracks, issued a proclamation deposing Prince Charles and appointing General Golescu regent. Owing to the loyalty of the regular army the insurrection was speedily quelled. But the feeling in the country was strong against the German sovereign, who seriously thought of abdicating when a jury acquitted the accused rebels. On the 7th of December he wrote confidentially to the sovereigns whose representatives had signed the treaty of Paris, suggesting that the future of Rumania should be regulated by a European congress. A few days subsequently the prince learned that the German railway contractor Strausberg was unwilling or unable to pay The nil- the coupons of the railway bonds due on the ist of way crisis January 1871, which were mostly held by influential 0/1871. people in Germany. This threw the responsibility of payment on Rumania, and was a severe blow to the prince, 1 For biographical details, see CHARLES, king of Rumania; and ELIZABETH, queen of Rumania. through whose instrumentality the loan had been placed. Matters were brought to a crisis by the Prussian government threatening to force the Rumanian government to provide for the unpaid coupons. The country was financially in no condition to comply. Bitter indignation prevailed against everything German, and culminated in an attack on the German colony in Bucharest on the 22nd of March 1871. On the following morning the prince summoned the members of the council of regency of 1866, and informed them of his inten- tion to place the government in their hands. Lascar Catargiu and General Golescu, the only two members present, as well as Dimitrie Sturdza and other influential persons, declined to accept the responsibility. Catargiu offered to unite the different sections of the Conservative party in order to deal with the crisis. The prince accepted his offer. The elections took place early in May 1871, and the government, to which all the most respectable elements in the country had rallied, obtained a large majority. When parliament met in May the prince had a most enthusiastic reception. The anti-German feeling in the country had greatly subsided, in consequence of the crushing defeat of France; and in January 1872 the chambers passed a law by which Rumania undertook to pay the railway coupons. The German syndicate was satisfied, and the railway crisis ended. Catargiu's ministry was the tenth that had held office in the five years since the prince's arrival, but it was the first one that was stable. In March 1875 the budget for 1876, amounting to £4,000,000, nearly double in amount that of the year 1866, was passed without difficulty, miaiMtry, and on the 28th of the month the parliamentary I87t'75> session closed. It was the first occasion in Rumania that the same chamber had sat for the whole constitutional period of four years, and also the first time that the same ministry had opened and closed the same parliament. Only the fall of the Catargiu ministry saved the country from revolution. The leading Liberals had promoted a con- spiracy for the arrest and expulsion of the prince, and the formation of a provisional government under General Dabija. The prospect of a return to power put an end to these machina- tions. Catargiu's ministry was succeeded by an administration under General Florescu, known as the "cabinet of the generals," and, a month later, by the so-called " ministry of conciliation " under M. Jepureanu. A commission of the chambers drew up an indictment against Catargiu and his late colleagues, accusing them of violating the constitution and the public liberties, squandering the state revenues, and other abuse of power. Unable to stem the tide of popular passion, which was crying for the impeachment of Catargiu, Jepureanu resigned office, and Bratianu formed a new Liberal cabinet, destined to guide the country through many eventful years. But the re-opening of the Eastern Question was destined to bring to a climax the great struggle of Rumania for existence and independence, and temporarily to throw into the The shade all domestic questions. The insurrection hi RUSSO- Bulgaria, with its accompanying horrors, followed by Turkish the deposition of sultan Murad and the succession" of the sultan Abdul Hamid, contributed to indicate the near approach of a Russo-Turkish war. Russia had shown symptoms of anger against Rumania for not having taken up a decided attitude in the approaching struggle, and the Russian ambassador Ignatiev had some months previously threatened that his government would seize Rumania as a pledge as soon as the Turks occupied Servia and Montenegro. Prince Charles decided to send a mission, composed of Bratianu and Colonel Slaniceanu (the minister of war), to the imperial headquarters at Livadia. They were well received by the emperor (October 1876), but in spite of mixed threats and cajoleries on the part of Gorchakov, Ignatiev and others, Bratianu returned without having definitively committed his country to active measures. On the I4th of November six Russian army corps were mobilized to form the army of the south under the grand duke 84o RUMANIA [HISTORY Nicholas. A few days later two secret envoys arrived at Bucharest, the one M. de Nelidov, to negotiate on the part of the Russian government for the passage of their army through Rumania, the other Ali Bey, to arrange on behalf of the sultan a combination with Rumania against Russia. Prince Charles cleverly temporized with both powers. Negotiations with Russia were continued, and Bratianu was sent to Constantinople to put pressure upon Turkey to secure certain rights and privileges which would practically have made Rumania inde- pendent, except that it would still have paid a fixed tribute; but the conference of the powers assembled at that capital came to a definite end on the igth of January 1877, when the Turkish government declined every proposal of the conference. Mean- while the Porte, in issuing Midhat Pasha's famous scheme of reforms, had greatly irritated Rumanian politicians by includ- ing their country in the same category as the other privileged provinces, and designating its inhabitants as Ottoman subjects. A secret convention was signed between Russia and Rumania on the i6th of April, by which Rumania allowed free passage to the Russian armies, the tsar engaging in return to maintain its political rights and to protect its integrity, while all matters of detail connected with the passage of the Russian troops were to be regulated by a special treaty. On the 23rd of April Russia declared war against Turkey, and the grand duke Nicholas issued a proclamation to the Rumanian nation, announcing his intention of entering their territory in the hope of finding the same welcome as in former wars. The Rumanian govern- ment made a platonic protest against the crossing of the frontier, and the Rumanian troops fell back as the Russians advanced; provisions and stores of all kinds were supplied to the invading army against cash payments in gold, and the railways and telegraphs were freely placed at its disposal. The Rumanian chambers were assembled on the 26th of April, and the con- vention with Russia was sanctioned. The Ottoman govern- ment immediately broke off diplomatic relations with Rumania, and on the nth of May the chambers passed a resolution that a state of war existed with Turkey. (For a detailed account of the subsequent campaign, in which Prince Charles and the Rumanian army contributed greatly to the success of the Russian arms, see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS, and PLEVNA.) The fall of Plevna left the Russian army free to march on Constan- tinople, and on the 3ist of January 1878 the preliminaries of peace were signed at Adrianople. They stipulated that Rumania should be independent and receive an increase of territory. Peace between Russia and Turkey was signed at San Stefano on the 3rd of March. On the 2Qth of January the Rumanian The agent at St Petersburg was officially informed of the Berlin intention of the Russian government to regain posses- "meai' s'on °^ tne Rumaman portion of Bessarabia, i.e. that /. Cession portion which was ceded to Moldavia by Russia after of Bess- the Crimean War. Rumania was to be indemnified at arabia. tne expense of Turkey by the delta of the Danube and the Dobrudja as far as Constantza. The motive assigned was that this territory had not been ceded to Rumania, but to Moldavia, and had been separated from Russia by the almost obsolete treaty of Paris (1856). But the proposed exchange of territory aroused the most bitter indignation at Bucharest. Bratianu and Cogalniceanu were sent to Berlin to endeavour to prevail on the representatives of the Powers there assembled in June 1878 to veto the cession of Bessarabia to Russia; but the Rumanian delegates were not permitted to attend the sittings of the congress until the Powers had decided in favour of the Russian claim. The treaty of Berlin in dealing with Rumania decided to recognize its independence, subject to two conditions: First (Art. xlv.), that the principality should restore to the emperor of Russia that portion of the Bessarabian territory detached from Russia by the treaty of Paris in 1856, bounded on the west by the mid-channel of the Pruth, and on the south by the mid-channel of the Kilia branch and the Staryi Stambul mouth. Second (Art. xliv.), that absolute freedom of worship should be granted to all persons in Rumania; that no religious beliefs should be a bar to the enjoyment of any political rights; and, further, that the subjects of all the powers should be treated in Rumania on a footing of perfect equality. Article xlvi. declared that the islands forming the delta of the Danube, the Isle of Serpents, and the province of Dobrudja, as far as a line starting from the east of Silistria and terminating on the Black Sea south of Mangalia, should be added to Rumania. Other articles denned the international position of Rumania, while Article liii. decreed that it should have a repre- sentative on the European commission of the Danube. Bratianu wrote with some truth that the Great Powers by sacrificing Rumania were able to obtain more concessions for themselves from Russia, and Lord Beaconsfield was constrained to admit that " in politics ingratitude is often the reward of the greatest services. " The Rumanians submitted reluctantly to the retrocession of Bessarabia; and the Dobrudja was occupied by Rumanian troops on the 26th of November 1878. But Article xliv. of the treaty of Berlin caused tremendous agitation throughout the country, and almost provoked a revolution. Article vii. of the constitution of 1866 laid 2, The down that " only Christians can become citizens of Jewish Rumania " — in other words, all Jews were excluded «ue*"on- from the rights of citizenship; and as no foreigner could own land in Rumania outside the towns, no Jew could become a country proprietor. Public opinion in Rumania rendered it almost impossible for any government to carry out the wishes of the Berlin tribunal. To do so involved a change in the constitution, which could only be effected by a specially elected constituent assembly. This body met on the 3rd of June, and sat through the entire summer. The irritation of the powers at the unexpected delay was so great that Great Britain proposed a collective note on the subject, to be executed by the Austrian cabinet; while Prince Bismarck threatened, if the Berlin proposition were not carried out, to refer to the suzerain power at Constantinople. At last, however, on the 1 8th of October, Article vii. was repealed, and it thus became possible for Rumanian Jews to become naturalized and to hold land. It was further decided to admit to naturalization the 883 Jewish soldiers who had served in the war; but with all other Jews individual naturalization was required, and this was hedged about by so many difficulties, a special vote of the legis- lature being required, with a two-thirds majority in each individual case, that although the compromise thus effected was accepted by the powers, the actual result was that, from 1880 to 1884, out of 385 persons who were naturalized in Rumania, only 71 were Rumanian Jews. As the process of naturalization has never been accelerated, the 300,000 Jews said to inhabit Rumania are still regarded as foreigners; and although liable to military service and to the payment of taxes, are unable to own rural land or possess electoral or other civil rights. Italy was the first of the Powers to notify its recognition of Rumanian independence (December 1879); but Bismarck succeeded in prevailing on the Western Powers not 3 „ ,. to give official recognition until Rumania should have lishmeat purchased the railways from their German owners, at the This unpopular measure caused some delay; but f^folaa Great Britain, France and Germany formally recognized the independence of the country on the 2oth of February 1880. Early in 1881 it was generally felt that the time had arrived for Rumania to be created a kingdom. On the I3th of March the tsar Alexander II. was assassinated, and the Rumanian opposition chose this occasion to accuse the Liberal government of aiming at republican and anti-dynastic ideals. To refute this charge, the ministry proposed the elevation of the Rumanian principality into the kingdom of Rumania. The prince accepted the resolution; within ten days the new kingdom was recog- nized by all the Great Powers, and the coronation took place at Bucharest on the 22nd of May 1881. The royal crown was constructed of steel made from Turkish cannon captured at Plevna. HISTORY] RUMANIA 841 Rumania was now comparatively, but not entirely, free from fears of serious foreign complications. Austria and Relations Russia alike resented the decision to fortify Bucharest an<* l^e Seretn line, adopted by the Rumanian govern- ment in 1882. Relations with Russia had remained Austria- strained ever since the war. The delimitation of the Hungary. Dobrudja frontier was still unsettled, and owing to Russian opposition was not finally disposed of till 1884. Expenses incurred during the war led to much controversy, especially when the Russian government claimed the return of £120,000 advanced to enable the Rumanians to mobilize, and considered by them as a free gift. A compromise was made, both parties withdrawing their claims, in April 1882. Relations with Austria-Hungary were also on a very un- pleasant footing. There were two principal subjects of discord — the navigation of the Danube (q.v.) and the " national question," i.e. the status of the Vlach communities outside Rumania, and especially in Transylvania and Macedonia (see VLACHS and MACEDONIA). The Danube question became acute in 1881, 1883 and 1899; the national question is a more permanent source of trouble, affecting Austria-Hungary, Greece, Turkey and Bulgaria. King Charles, who naturally favoured the ally of Germany, and Bratianu, who regarded Russian policy with suspicion, endeavoured to promote a better understanding with Austria-Hungary. But there was a strong anti-German party in the country, especially among the old boiars and the peasantry. Community of creed, ancient traditional influence, the entire absence of Russian merchants, and | the consequent avoidance of many small commercial rivalries, contributed to bring about a sort of passive preference for Russia, while the bitter disputes that had occurred with . Germany on the question of railway finance had left a very hostile feeling. In March 1883 the government decided to introduce various important changes into the constitution. Three electoral colleges Revision were f°rme(i instead of four; a considerable addition of the was niade to the numbers of the senate and chamber; Const!- trial by jury was established for press offences, except tution, those committed against the royal family and the 1883-8-4. sovereigns of foreign states; these were to be tried by the ordinary tribunals without jury. A bill was passed endowing the crown with state lands, giving an annual rent of £24,000 in addition to the civil list fixed in 1866 at £49,000; another measure granted free passes on the railways and an allowance of £i daily during the sitting of parliament to all senators and deputies. The revision of the constitution had estranged the two heads of the Liberal party, I. C. Bratianu, who was mainly responsible for the new measures, and C. A. Rosetti, who unsuccessfully advocated reforms of a far more democratic character. These two had been united by a most intimate friendship. One had never acted without the other. Rosetti was said to be the soul whilst Bratianu was the voice of the same personality. Henceforward Bratianu had sole control of the Liberal government. The revising chambers having fulfilled their special mandate, were dissolved in Sep- tember 1884, and a new parliament assembled in November, the government, as usual, obtaining a large majority in both houses. Since 1876 Bratianu had exercised an almost dictatorial power, and anything like a powerful parliamentary opposition Coalition had ceased to exist. But he had been too long in oi parties pOwer; the numerous state departments were ex- clusively filled with his nominees; and some pecuniary Bratianu, scandals, in which the minister of war and other 1883-88. high officials were implicated, helped to augument his fast-growing unpopularity. New parties were formed in opposition, and the National Liberal and Liberal-Conservative parties combined to attack him. The first of these main- tained that the government should be essentially Rumanian, and, while maintaining friendly relations with foreign Powers, should in no wise allow them to interfere with interal affairs. They also advocated reduction of expenditure and the inde- pendence of the magistracy. The Liberal-Conservatives held generally the same views, but had as their ideal of foreign policy a guaranteed neutrality. Another party which now attracted considerable attention was that of the Junimists, or Young Conservatives. The name was taken from the Junimea, a literary society formed in Jassy in 1874 by P. Carp, T. Rosetti, and Maiorescu, and transformed into a political association in 1881. Their programme for home affairs in- volved the amelioration of the position of the peasantry and artisan classes, whose progress they considered had been overlooked, the irremovability of the magistracy, and a revision of the communal law in the sense of decentralization. In financial matters they advocated the introduction of a gold standard and the removal of the agio on gold, also the intro- duction of foreign capital to develop industries in the country; and as regards foreign policy, they were strong advocates of intimate and friendly relations with Austria-Hungary. Elec- tions for a new chamber took place in February 1888, and the whole of the leaders of the opposition were elected, including Dimitrie Bratianu, the premier's brother, and Lascar Catargiu. I. C. Bratianu definitely retired on the 4th of April, after having held the premiership for twelve eventful years. Had he con- tinued much longer in office it is probable that there would have been a revolutionary movement against the dynasty. During the previous parliament a Conservative manifesto, signed by Catargiu, D. Bratianu and other leaders of the opposition, openly threatened that if the ministers were not removed before the general election, the responsibility would be thrown, " not on those who served the crown, but on him who bore it "; and the name of Prince George Bibescu had been openly mentioned as a possible successor. In~the new chamber elected in October 1888 only five members of Bratianu's party retained their seats. The most prominent statesman in the new Conservative- Junimist ad- TneCottm ministration was P. Carp, who in the spring of 1889 gerrative- succeeded in passing a bill which authorized the Junimist distribution of state lands among the peasantry. co'Httoa. Despite this admirable measure, he was unable to retain office, and three changes of ministry followed. The Conservative-Junimist parliament nevertheless restored tranquillity to the country. On the 22nd of May 1891, the 2£th anniversary of the king's accession was celebrated with great enthusiasm. Meanwhile the gold standard had been introduced (1889), and the financial situation was regarded as satisfactory. In December 1891 a stable cabinet was at last formed by Lascar Catargiu. The new ministry during their four years' tenure of office passed several useful measures through parliament. The state credit was improved by the con- version of the public debt; the sale of the state lands to the peasantry was actively continued; a law was passed making irremovable the judges of the court of appeal and the presidents of tribunals, and other important judicial reforms were carried out; a mining law was passed with the object of introducing foreign capital; and the commercial marine was developed by the formation of a state ocean service of passsenger and cargo steamers. Great reforms, which had been unsuccessfully attempted by former governments, were made in the service of public instruction and in the organization of the clergy. In 1893 and 1894 commercial and extradition treaties and a trade-mark convention were made with Great Britain, Austria- Hungary and Germany. Meanwhile the Liberal opposition was being reorganized. On the death of I. C. Bratianu, in 1891, his brother Dimitrie was proclaimed chief of the united Liberal party, but he also died in June 1892, and the veteran statesman Dimitrie Sturdza was recognized as the head of the Liberals. In 1894 he started a very violent agitation in favour of the Rumanians in Hungary. Another popular opposition cry was " Rumania for the Rumanians. " The new mining law, among other concessions, gave foreigners the right to lease lands for long periods for the working of petroleum, and this was denounced by the opposition as being hostile to national interests, and also as being against the spirit of the constitution, RUMANIA [HISTORY which prohibited foreigners from holding lands. The bill was carried by the government in April 1895, as well as another important measure favouring the construction of local rail- ways by private contractors. The Liberal opposition pro- tested, retired from the chamber, and took no further part in legislative proceedings. The Liberal party had been • out of office for eight years, the Conservative -Junimist coalition had practically carried out its complete programme, and legis- lation was at a deadlock owing to the abstention of the Liberal opposition. As the electorate showed itself in favour of a change of ministry, Catargiu resigned, and a new Liberal government was formed by D. Sturdza. The advent to power of a statesman who had recently been making such violent attacks on the Hungarian government _. caused some anxiety in Austria-Hungary. When Liberal once office was obtained, it was to the interest of the admiais- new government that the agitation should subside. tration of >phe official opening by the emperor of Austria of the 1895-99. new cijannei through the Iron Gates of the Danube, on the ayth of September 1896, was the means of bringing about a great improvement in the relations between the two countries. It led to an exchange of visits between the emperor and King Charles, who also visited the tsar Nicholas II. in August 1898. The visit was the symbol of a reconciliation between the Rumanians and the Russians, the relations between whom had been the reverse of cordial since 1878. As regards home politics, the overwhelming majority of the Liberal party at the elections of 1895, instead of being a source of strength, proved the very reverse. It caused the party to split up into factions — Sturdzists, Aurelianists and Flevists, so called after the names of their respective chiefs. Sturdza himself soon had to retire. The head of the Orthodox Church, the metro- politan Gennadius, had for some years past, as head of the philanthropic establishments founded by the princess Bran- covan, desired to obtain the entire management of these wealthy foundations, and had made violent attacks on the two adminis- trators, Prince George Bibescu and Prince Stirbei, both members of the Brancovan family. In the quarrel that ensued the prelate was openly accused of simony, of heresy, and other matters more suitable for a criminal court. After a public trial before the Holy Synod, he was found guilty of certain canonical offences, and sentenced to be deposed. The same night, he was seized by the police, and removed by force to a neighbouring monastery. This harsh treatment of the head of the Church led to an attack on Sturdza. On the 3rd of December 1896, the president of the council, M. Aurelian, was called on to reconstitute a Liberal cabinet, with the principal object of calming public opinion by the settlement of this question. Aurelian then appealed to the patriotic sentiments of the Conservative party to help to solve the difficulty, and with the aid of Lascar Catargiu and Tache lonescu the fol- lowing decision was reached: the Holy Synod was to reverse its judgment, and the metropolitan was to be restored to his ecclesiastical rank; but, after holding it for a few days, he was voluntarily to resign and to receive as compensation a handsome pension. Calm was thus restored, but Aurelian and his col- leagues were not inclined to hand over their portfolios to Sturdza and his partisans. The struggle terminated in the success of Sturdza, who in April 1897 returned to power and remained president of the council until 1899. Few of the important measures promised in the Liberal programme were passed, one for the reform of public instruction being the most noteworthy. Sturdza's government, which had risen to power mainly on the national question, was also destined to fall on it. A popular agitation was raised on the subject of certain subsidies made by the Rumanians for the support of the Rumanian schools at Kron- stadt in Transylvania, and Sturdza was accused of too great subserviency to the Hungarian government. The agitation cul- minated in street riots at Bucharest. On the same evening that Sturdza tendered his resignation to the king (April 1899) the veteran Conservative statesman Lascar Catargiu suddenly died. The Conservatives, led by G. G. Cantacuzene, returned to office with an overwhelming majority. They were immediately confronted by an acute economic crisis. The financial Tbe position of the country had hitherto on the surface financial been very satisfactory. The public debt, mostly crisis of placed in Germany, amounted to about £51,000,000. '*?^~ The interest had been regularly paid. But the facility with which money had always been borrowed gave rise to great extravagance. Expenses which ought to have been defrayed out of the ordinary budget, such as the erection of magnificent public offices at Bucharest, were frequently defrayed out of the loans; and the custom had arisen when money was scarce of issuing treasury bonds. When the Conservatives came into office they found that the payment of 2§ millions of these bonds would shortly become due, and there were no resources in the treasury to meet them. Owing to the Transvaal War and other causes, the money market was most unfavourable, especially in Germany; and there was an almost entire failure of the harvest. The value of cereals exported in 1898 was about 9 millions sterling, in 1899 only 35 millions. The government managed to extricate itself from its immediate difficulties in the autumn of 1890, by raising a loan of £7,000,000 in Berlin, but on very stringent terms. Besides paying a much higher rate of interest than heretofore, it bound itself not to contract any further loans until this one was paid. The Conservatives were united in wishing to meet the financial crisis by a moderate reduction *of expenditure and a large increase of taxation, while the Liberal opposition advocated the permanent reduction of the annual expenditure of £800,000, which would necessitate the raising of £200,000 only by fresh taxation. The Con- servative programme was naturally unpopular; Carp and the .Junimists were unwilling to co-operate with the government, and, on the 26th of February 1901, D. Sturdza again became premier. His administration lasted until the 3ist of December 1904, and averted the impending bankruptcy of Rumania by a policy of strict retrenchment. In 1904 Sturdza was able to Financial exceed the proposed limit of annual expenditure, reform, £8,740,000, owing to a great increase in the value I90I^S- of the tobacco monopoly. Even a recurrence of agricultural depression during the same year left the national credit intact. Another financial reform was undertaken by the Conserva- tives, who returned to power on the 4th of January 1905, with G. G. Cantacuzene as prime minister, and in May floated the conversion loan, already described. The chief causes of the agrarian insurrection in March 1907 have been outlined above (under Land Tenure). But an additional cause was the harsh treatment of the Agrarian peasants on the state and communal lands leased to rising of Jewish middlemen. At first an attack on the Jews l907' alone, the rising soon became a jacquerie directed against all the large landowners. Numerous towns and villages were sacked and partly burned, and 140,000 soldiers were employed to suppress the revolt. On the 24th of March the Cantacuzene ministry resigned and was succeeded by a Liberal government under the leadership of D. Sturdza, who completed the restora- tion of order by strong military measures and afterwards initi- ated remedial legislation. He abolished the system by which public lands were leased to middlemen, reduced the land tax on small holdings, and granted new facilities for obtaining credit to the peasants. After a general election in June 1907, Sturdza remained in office with an overwhelming majority. To meet the cost, of agrarian reform, and of the reorganization of the army (1908), he introduced various fiscal changes, notably an alteration in the budget system, by which the total revenue and expenditure were shown for the first time (see Finance, above). Rumania was little affected by the political changes in the Balkan Peninsula (1908-10) coincident with the Turkish revolution, the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina uomanfa by the Dual Monarchy, the proclamation of Bulgarian aaa- u,e independence and the erection of Montenegro Mace- into a kingdom. South of the Danube its chief doala° political interest centred in the Kutzo-Vlach com- munities in Macedonia, which were the object of a Panhellenic LANGUAGE] RUMANIA 843 propaganda most offensive to Rumanian nationalism. An trade of the sultan Abdul Hamid had in 1906 recognized the existence of the Kutzo-Vlachs as a religious body (millet), forming an integral part of the Rumanian Church. This decision was regarded by the Greeks as a blow to their own interests, and Greek revolutionary bands were accused of persecuting the Kutzo-Vlachs. (See also MACEDONIA.) Even before 1906 there was keen rivalry between Greece and Rumania, and the " Macedonian question " was the under- lying cause of the disputes which, arising ostensibly from quite trivial causes, led temporarily to the rupture of diplomatic relations between Gieece and Rumania in 1905, 1906 and 1910. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— No scientific history of Rumania was published up to the 2Oth century, but the task of collecting and editing original documents was partially carried out by the Rumanian Academy and by private students, especially after 1880. The so-called Chronicle of Hurul is a modern forgery, and up to the I4th century the only valid authorities are Slavonic, Hungarian and Byzantine chroniclers. Thenceforward a great mass of material is available. It is partly incorporated in the yearly Annalele of the Academy, 2nd series, from 1880; and in the 30 volumes pi E. de Hurmuzaki's Documente privitore relative la istoria Romanilor (Bucharest, 1876, &c.). Other important original documents, or works containing such documents, are Verantius's 16th-century De situ Transylvaniae, Moldaviae, et Transalpinae, in Kovachich's Scriptores rerum Hungari- carum minores (Budapest, 1798); G. Urechia's late 16th-century Chronigue de Moldavie, ed. J. Picot (Paris, 1878) ; Rumanian text in Old Slavonic characters, with French translation and notes of great value; the 17th-century Opere Complete of Miron Costiu, ed. V. A. Urechia (Bucharest, 1886); A. M. del Chiaro, Istoria delle moderne rivoluzioni della Valachia con la descrizipne del paese (Venice, 1878); the early 18th-century Operele principelul D. Cantemiru, issued by the Academy (Bucharest, 1872, &c.) ; N. lorga, Acte jt fragmente cu privire la istoria Romanilor (Bucharest, 1895-97) J M. Kogalniceanu, Cronicele Rom&nii (Bucharest, 1872-74) ; J. L. Carra, Histoire de Moldavie et de Valachie, avec une dissertation sur I'etat actuel de ces deux Provinces (Jassy, 1777); A. M. Blanc de Lanautte, Memoire sur I'etat ancien et actuel de la Moldavie, presente a S.A.S. le prince A. Ypsilanti en 1787 (Bucharest, 1902); D. A. Sturdza, Acte jt documenle relative la istoria renascerei Romdnii (Bucharest, 1900, &c.) ; ibid., Scrierile si cuyintarile lu\ I. C. Bratianu (Bucharest, 1903, &c.). On the Phanariote period see P. Eliade, De I 'influence franchise sur I 'esprit public en Roumanie. Les origines. Etude sur I'etat de la societe roumaine d Vepoque des regnes phanariotes (Paris, 1898). For a general history of Rumania, see V. A. Urechia, Istoria Romanilor (Bucharest, 1891, &c., 8 vols.); A. D. Xenopol, Istoria Rominilor din Dacia Traiana (Jassy, 1888-93, 6 vols. — abridged French edition entitled Histoire des Roumains, 2 vols., Paris, 1896); and P. Negulescu, Histoire du droit et des institutions de la Roumanie (Paris, 1898, &c.). Sketches of Rumanian history are given in A. Sturdza, La terre et les races roumaines (Paris, 1905) ; and W. Miller, The Balkans (London, 1896). For a comprehensive bibliography of Rumanian history, see N. lorga's introduction to vol. x. of the Hurmuzaki collection; vol. xxii. of the Annalele; Bibliografia Romanesca veche 1508-1830, by C. Bianu and H. Hodos (Bucharest, 1903, &c.) ; and D. Onciul, Originile principatelor romane (Bucharest, 1898). (H. TR. ; X.) LANGUAGE ' Rumanian * is, geographically, an isolated eastern member of the group of Romance languages (q.v.), being severed from all the rest by countries in which the predominant speech is Slavonic or Magyar. It represents the original rustic Latin of the Roman provincials in Moesia and Dacia, as modified by centuries of alien rule. Structurally, its Latin characteristics have been well preserved; but its vocabulary has undergone great changes, becoming so far Slavonized that the ratio of words of Slavonic origin to words of Latin origin is approximately as three to two; large numbers of loan-words have also been added from Turkish, Greek, Magyar and other sources. It is noteworthy, however, that where Latin words have survived they are sometimes purer than in the Romance languages of the West 1 i.e. the so-called Daco-Rumanian, spoken by the vast majority of Rumans over the whole of Rumania, in Transylvania, Bukovina, the Banat, Bessarabia, and some districts of Servia and Bulgaria bordering on the Danube. The two most important dialects are the Istro-Rumanjan, spoken in part of Istria but rapidly becoming extinct, and the Macedo-Rumanian, spoken by the Kutzo-Vlachs (see VLACHS). The Istro-Rumanian forms, as it were, a link — now completely severed — between the Romance of the Balkans and the Romance of the West. In the Macedo-Rumanian there are no Magyar loan-words, but there is a large Albanian element, and Greek loan-words are more numerous than Slavonic. (e.g. Lat. domina is better represented by Rum. domna, " lady," than by Ital. donna, Span, dona, Port, dona, Fr. dame). Some words indeed2 — such as laudare, to praise, ducere, to lead — retain unaltered the forms under which they were used by Virgil and Cicero. A feature of the language which dis- tinguishes it from all other members of the group, and appears to be of even higher antiquity than the word-forms above mentioned, is the retention of a suffix article — e.g. frale, brother, fratele, the brother; zi, day, ziua, the day. This usage seems to have survived from the pre-Roman period. A similar suffix article is retained in Albanian, which almost certainly represents the original language of the Thraco-Illyrian tribes (see ALBANIA) ; and these tribes belonged to the same ethnical and linguistic group as the Daco-Moesians represented by the Vlachs. Rumanian orthography remained in a transitional state through- out the igth century. The Latin alphabet is used, with special signs to represent sounds borrowed from Slavonic, &c. All the unaccented vowels except e are pronounced as in Italian; e has the same phonetic value as in Old Slavonic ( = French e) and is often similarly preiotized (=ye in yet), notably at the beginning of all words except neologisms. The accented vowels e and 6 are pro- nounced as ea and oa (petra, rock, = peatra ; morte, death, = moarte) ; they are written in full, as diphthongs, at the end of a word and sometimes in other positions. The sound of the Slavonic JJ (a guttural y) is represented by a, e or 8, though these letters occur as frequently in words of Latin origin (e.g. ctnd = quando) as in those derived from Slavonic ; SC 's represented by a or f, having the nasal sound of un in French; t and u at the end of a word are mute or short. Of the consonants, c followed by e or i = ch (as in church), otherwise k ; 4 or 4 resembles the English j ' ; g is hard before e and i, otherwise soft; h is guttural, as ch in loch', j is pronounced as in French; r as in Russian; s or j (Slav. HI) as sh;-( or ( (Slav, n,) as ts or tz; w is wanting. The remaining consonants have the same phonetic values as in English. Rumanian is highly inflected. It possesses two regular sub- stantive declensions and six cases, the vocative being in common use. The large class of heterogeneous nouns which are masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural constitute what is some- times called the neuter declension. There are three regular con- jugations, distinguished (as in Latin) according to the termination of the present infinitive in a, e or i; e.g. (i) a ara or arare, to plough, (2) a crede or credere, to believe, (3) a dormi or dormire, to sleep. Verbs ending in i, however, are sometimes classed as a fourth con- jugation. The second form of the present infinitive (arare, credere, dormire) is used as a noun. The so-called " simple perfect " (perfectul simplu) has often the force of an aorist. Compound tenses are formed by the addition of certain particles and of the auxiliary verbs — a ave, to have, afi, to be, and a voi, to will. For the passive voice, afi is used, with the past participle of the required verb. All tenses of reflexive verbs except the imperative and present participle are formed by prefixing the pronoun which indicates the object to the verb, in the dative or genitive case (abbreviated) as the verb may require; but in the reflexive imperative and present participle the verb precedes the pronoun; e.g. a propune, to propose, a ${ propune, to propose to oneself, but propune ft, propose to yourself. The accentuation of Rumanian, though complex, is governed by certain broad principles, except in the case of neologisms, many of which have been borrowed from French and Italian without change of accent. Nouns retain the accent of the nominative singular in all cases and in both numbers (e.g. copila, girl, vocative plur. coptlelor), except when a diminutive or augmentative suffix is added ; the accent then shifts to the suffix. The language is very rich in diminutive and augmentative forms; e.g. the name Ion or loan (John), has the diminutives lonicd, lonifa, lonascu, lanache, lenachel, &c. In verbs — apart from a few exceptional tenses — the accent falls on the first syllable of the inflectional suffix, e.g. cu dorm, I sleep, but eu dormlssem, I had slept. For the sake of euphony, a vowel is frequently interpolated between two consonants; e.g. in masculine nouns terminating in a consonant, an interpolated u precedes / to form the suffix article (om, man, om-u-l, the man). BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (i) Dictionaries: A. de Cihac, Dictionnaire d'ety- mologie daco-roumaine (2 vols., Frankfort, 1870-79), valuable for non-Latin elements; B. P. Ha§deu, Etymologicum magnum Romaniae (Bucharest, Academia Rom^na, 1887, &c.); F. Dame, Dictionnaire roumain-franfflis (Paris, 1896); S. Pu^cariu, Etymologisches Worter- buch der rumdnischen Sprache (Heidelbeig, 1905, &c.); I. A. Candrfci-Hecht and O. Densusianu, Dic(ionar general al Umbel romane (Bucharest, 1909, &c.) ; I. Dalametra, Dicfionar Macedorom&n (Bucharest, Academia Romana, 1006). (2) Grammars, &c. : T. Cipariu, Gramatec'a Umbel romane (Bucharest, 1870-77); I. Nadejde, Gramateca Umbel romane (Bucharest, 1884), id., Istoria limbei jt literaturel romane (Jassy, 1886); B. P. HasdSu, Cuventt 1 Apart from certain instances in which the Latin form has been artificially restored in comparatively modern times. (See under Literature.) RUMANIA [LITERATURE din batr&nl (Bucharest, 1878-79); L. S,aineanu, Istoria filologtel romdne (Bucharest, 1895), id., Influenza orientald asupra limbet 31 culturei romdne (3 vols., Bucharest, 1900) ; S. C. Mandrescu, Elemente unguresfi in limba romdnd (Bucharest, 1802); S. Pugcariu, " Studii istroromane " inAnnalele of the Academia Roman;!, ser. 2, vol. xxviii. ; T. Gartner, Darstellune der rumdnischen Sprache (Halle, 1904); G. Weigand, Praktische Grammatik der rumdnischen Sprache (Leipzig, 1903). Important studies on the separate dialects of Moldavia, Walachi, the Dobrudja, Bessarabia, Bukovina, the Banat, Macedonia, Istria, &c., have been published by G. Weigand, cither in book form or jn the Leipzig Jahresbericht des Instituts fur rumdnische Sprache, which he edited from its foundation in 1894. (X.) LITERATURE The intellectual development of Rumania has never until modern times been affected by Latin culture, but it has been profoundly influenced first by Slavonic literature, then by the Greek or Byzantine literature, and last, by the Western, notably French and Italian novels. The history of Rumanian literature can be divided into three distinct periods: the Slavonic, from the beginnings of Rumanian literature in the middle of the i6th century down to 1710; the Greek, from 1710-1830, corresponding with the era of Phanariote rule; and the modern period, from 1830 to the present. The change from Slavonic to Rumanian was very gradual. Slavonic had been the language of the Church from the early middle ages, and was therefore hallowed in the eyes of the people and the clergy ; through the political connexion with the Slavonic kingdoms of the south, Bulgaria and Servia, it had also been the language of the chancelleries and of the court. Even when the Rumanian language at last supplanted the Slavonic, it did not emancipate itself from the original; the new was merely a translation from the old, and at the beginning it was as literal as possible. We have therefore in the first period a medieval literature transplanted to Rumania and consisting of translations from the Slavonic. The reason of the change from Slavonic into Rumanian is to be sought in the influence the Reformation had among the Rumanian inhabitants of Transylvania. The second period is marked by a complete waning of Slavonic influence, through the literary activity of the Greek hospodars. The Slavonic kingdoms of the south had lost their independence; they had ceased to produce anything worth having, whilst the Greeks brought with them the old literature from Byzantium and thus drove out the last remnants of Slavonic. They also treated Rumanian as an uncouth and barbarian language, and imposed upon the Church their own Greek language, Greek literature and Greek culture. This literature may be taken to represent the period of the Renaissance in the West; but when the yoke of the Phanariotes was shaken off, the link that connected Rumanian literature with Greek was also broken, and under modern influences began the romantic movement which has dominated Rumanian literature since 1830. Much of the Rumanian literature of the first two periods has been preserved only in MSS.; few of these have been investigated, and a still smaller number have been compared with their original. The Rumanian Academy keeps jealous watch over the treasures it has accumulated, and few have had access to the riches entombed in its archives; nor has any private or public collection been catalogued. An ex- haustive history of Rumanian literature is, for the time being, a pious wish. First Period: c. 1550-77/0. — Rumanian literature begins, like all modern European literature, with translations from the Bible. The oldest of these are direct translations from Slavonic texts, following the original word for word, even in its grammatical construction. The first impetus towards the printing of the Ru- manian translations came from the princes and judges in Tran- sylvania. It is under their orders and often at their expense that the first Slavonic printing-presses were established in places like Kronstadt (Brashoy) Orastia, Sasz-Shebesh and Belgrad (Alba Julia, in Transylyania)where Slavonic and Rumanian books appeared. The foremost printer and translator was a certain Diakonus Koresi, of Greek origin, who had emigrated to Walachia and thence to Transylvania. He was assisted in his work by the " popes " (parish priests) of those places where he worked. The very first book published in Rumanian is the Gospels printed in Kronstadt between 1560 and 1561. An absolutely identical Slavonic text of the Gospels appeared in the same year, or one year earlier, which no doubt was the original for the Rumanian translation. Following up the list of publications of the books of the Bible in chronological order, we find Diakonus Koresi immediately afterwards — the date has not yet been definitely ascertained — printing a Rumanian translation of the Acts of the Apostles; in 1577 he printed at Sasz-Shebesh a Psalter in both Slavonic and Rumanian; the Rumanian follows the Slavonic verse for verse. A MS. Psalter more recently discovered shows close affinity to this edition, and, in spite of the opinions held by some critics, must be considered as a copy of it made about 1585; it even reproduces the printer's errors of Koresi's edition. To the i6th century belong also the first attempts to translate the historical books of the Old Testament which appeared in Orastia in 1582, under the title Palia. The example thus set could not fail to react upon the Rumanians in Walachia, with whom the Transylvanians stood in close commercial and political connexion. The Slavonic language still reigned supreme in the Church ; yet once the example had been set in Transylvania, and the influence of the Slavonic nations had begun to slacken, it was inevitable that the Rumanian language should sooner or later come to its own. It was in Transylvania that the first complete Rumanian translation of the New Testament appeared (Belgrad, 1648). This translation was based upon the Slavonic original, but the text had been verified and corrected, by comparison with a Calvinistic translation, and had been collated with the Greek. The chief author of this translation, which may be termed classical, seems to have been a certain Hieromonach Sylvestre who lived in Walachia and who had undertaken, by order of the prince Betlen- gabor of Transylvania (1613-29), a translation of the whole Bible. Upon this version, no doubt, are based the editions of IordacheCantacuzene(Bucharest, 1682), and that of §erban Greceanu (1693), in which for the first time the Greek text is printed side by side with the Rumanian; and the edition of Anthim the Iberian (1703). In these may also be traced a few reminiscences of the older version by Koresi, of which a copy, made by Radu Gramatik (1574), and once the property of Peter Cercel, is now in the British Museum. Sylvestre also prepared a new edition of the Psalter as part of his Bible (Belgrad, 1651), verifying the text by reference to the Hebrew and Greek originals. The first edition of the complete Bible was published (1688) by order of Prince loan Serban Canta- cuzene, by Radu Greceanu, assisted by his brother yerban and by Metrofan the bishop of Buzeu. This may be considered as the supreme monument of Rumanian literature in Walachia in the 1 7th century. No other Rumanian translation approaches it in style and diction, although the authors, as they own, utilized the older translations, and for the New Testament and the Psalter they utilized Sylvestre's work. At least a hundred years had to pass ere a new edition of the whole Bible was undertaken, nor was the Bible used for private reading, except such passages as were included in the lessons read in church. These were translated independently by Dositheiu under the title of Pirimiar (Jassy, 1683), and were almost the last work that came from his prolific pen. As far back as 1600 Dositheiu had made a new translation of the Psalter from the Slavonic and printed it in both languages (Jassy, 1680). Upon this translation he based the rhymed Psalter at which he had worked from 1660-73, when it appeared in Uniev. This is the first example of rhymed psalms in Rumanian, the author following the Polish rhymed version of Ian Kohanowski. Albert Molnar had translated a French rhymed Psalter into Hungarian (1607) and this served as the basis for a literal translation made by lanes Viski (1697). About the same time Theodor Korbea attempted to versify the Psalter and dedicated his work to Peter the Great of Russia. A new translation of the Psalter from Slavonic, with a commentary, the first of its kind, was made in 1697 by Alexander Dascalul (Alexander Preceptor Polonus). All these last-mentioned Psalters are still in MS. Turning from the Bible to homilies and the liturgy, we find the ancient collections of homilies in Rumania to be due to the same Croselytizing movement. Almost the first book printed „ „ y Koresi (at the expense of the magistrate of Kronstadt, ' Foro Miklaus, c. 1570), seems to have been a translation from some Calvinistic compilation of homilies, one for every Sunday in the year. A Slavonic original sent by the metropolitan Serafim of Walachia served as the basis for a second collection of homilies known as Evangelie invdjatoare (1580^ It differs from the former in language and tendency and proves that Koresi was only a translator and printer. The first collection of homilies, henceforth known as Cazanii, appeared in Dlugopole, i.e. Campulung, in Walachia, in 1642. It was compiled by a certain Melchisedec and contained thir- teen homilies, yery voluminous is the next collection, Evangelie invdfdtoare tdlcuita, ^translated from the Russian by Sylvestre (Govora, 1643). One year later appeared the first book printed in Moldavia, the collection of homilies Carte romdneasca de invdfiturd (Jassy, 1643). It is a volume of loco folio pages, of which the first half is absolutely identical with Sylvestre's collection. A similar unacknowledged loan was made by Meletie the Macedonian, compiler of the homilies which appeared at Deal in 1644. Of special interest LITERATURE] RUMANIA 845 is the next publication of homilies Cheea infelesului, " the Key of understanding," by the Walachian metropolitan Varlaam, trans- lated from the Russian and printed at Bucharest in 1678. This, the first book printed in Bucharest, begins the long series of editions which have issued from the press of the " Mitropolie " in Bucharest. From this press originated also the no less important presses at Buzeu and Ramnicu Valcea, where in the following two centuries almost all the books for the Church service were printed. Two or three more collections may be mentioned herey-one called Sicriu de aur, " the Golden treasury," by loan of Vinji (Sasz-Shebesh. 1688), probably from some Hungarian Calvinistic collection of obituary sermons; and the " Pearls," Mdrgaritare, an anthology made from the Greek homilies of St Chrysostom, Epiphanius, Anastasius Sinaita, &c., and translated from the Greek by the brothers Radu and Serban Greceanu. The only collection of original sermons is the Didahii delivered by the metropolitan Anthim the Iberian (q.v.), the scholar, artist, translator, printer and great linguist, who was the first to issue books in Arabic and even in Georgian from his printing-presses in Bucharest. The Didahii were published at Bucharest in 1888. The Rumanian language was not yet introduced into the Church. All the service books were in Slavonic, but during this period most of j.fie them were translated, and some of them printed, although Lit rev not yet officially used. The burial service seems to have been the first to be translated. Two Evholoeia appeared during the second half of the I7th century, one by the bishop Dosi- theiu (Jassy, 1679-80), which remained almost unknown, and the other based upon the Slavonic, by loan of Vinri (Belgrad, 1689). This Molitdvnic (prayer-book) has been the basis of all subsequent editions of the Rumanian Prayer-book. The Liturgy proper was also translated by bishop Dositheiu in 1679, but a translation from the Greek, by Jeremia Kakavela (Jassy, 1697), was the one adopted in the churches. Passing over the numerous editions of the Akathist and Katavasiar, some partly in Rumanian, we may mention the Ceasoslov (Book of Hours), said to have been printed for the first time in Transylvania in 1696, but certainly printed or reprinted by the metropolitan Anthim (Tirgovishtea, 1715). In 1694 Alexander Dascalul translated, and the bishops Mitrofan of Buseu and Kesarie of Ramnicu Valcea printed (among other church books) the twelve volumes of the Mineu in Slavonic with Rumanian rubrics, and short lives of the saints, as well as the Triad and the Anthologion. In addition to the activity of the Reformers in Transylvania, there was also a Roman Catholic propaganda in Rumania, and the Orthodox Church found it necessary to convoke a synod in Jassy for the purpose of formulating anew its own dogmatic standpoint. It was held in 164.2 under the presidency of Peter of Mogila, and a formulary of the Orthodox creed was drawn up. An answer to the Lutheran Catechism of Heidelberg (translated into Rumanian and printed at Fogaras in 1648) was also prepared by Bishop Varlaam. R. Greceanu translated the formulary from Greek into Rumanian under the title Pravoslavnica martunsire (Bucharest, 1692). Of a more decided polemical character is the Lumina of Maxim of Peloponnesus, translated from the Greek (Bucharest, 1699). Of far greater interest is the literature of maxims, and lives of saints, real or apocryphal, intended to teach by example. Such are Ethical tne max'ms 'n the Flooerea darurilor, translated from the liters- Greek (Sneagov, 1700), and going back to the Italian Fiore tare. ^e ^tu< tne Invdt&luri creflmejti, " Christian teachings " of Filoteos (ibid., 1700); the short moral guide, Carare pre scurt, by loan of Vinji (Belgrad, 1685), translated from some Hungarian original; the Mdntmrea pdcdtosilor, or "Salvation of sinners," translated from the Greek by a certain Cozma in 1682, which is a storehouse of medieval exempla; and above all the Mirror of Kings, ascribed to Prince Neagoe Bassaraba, written originally in Slavonic (or Greek, if the prince be really the author), and translated (c. 1650) into Rumanian. This exceeds all the other publications of its class in purity of language and excellence of style. Of the lives of saints, the Prolog, translated from the Slavonic at the beginning of the 1 7th century (MS.), and the Viefile Sfin(ilor. by Dositheiu (2 vols., Jassy, 1682), are the most important. In the latter, which is his greatest work, Dositheiu uses not only Greek texts, but also Slavonic legends and other MS. material ; and he includes a goodly number of the apocryphal legends of saints. To this kind of literature belongs also the Lafsaikon, i.e. the Historia Lausiaca of Palladius, differing, however, in some points from the original. The legends of the saints of the Pecherskaya in Kiev were translated by Alexander Dascalul. All these are still in MS. The first law-books were also compiled during this period. The Slavonic Nomokanon, which rests on Greek legislation and embodies Law tne canonical and civil law, had previously been used in Rumania. In 1640 there appeared in Govora the first canonical law-book, which was at the same time the first Rumanian book printed in Walachia. This Pravild (code) was probably the work of the historian Moxa or Moxalie. In 1632 Evstratie the Logofet (logothete) also translated a Pravild from the Greek, which remains in MS. In 1646 appeared the Pravild aleasd, or " Selected Code," compiled, no doubt, by Evstratie and published with the authority of the then reigning Prince Vasile Lupul (Basil the Wolf), hence known as the Code of Vasile. In 1652 there appeared in Bucharest a complete code of laws, translated from the Greek and Slavonic and adapted to local needs under the direction of the prince of Walachia, Matthias Bassaraba. The Indreptarca legii, in which Pravild of Vasile _ was incorporated without acknowledgment, remained the recognized code almost down to 1866. It embraces the canonical as well as the civil law. The chief authors were Uriil Nasturel and Daniil M. Panoneanul. The earliest historical works are short annals, written originally in Slavonic by monks in the monasteries of Moldavia and Walachia. In 1620 Moxa translated from the Slavonic a short history „.. of the world down to 1498. Two other universal histories were translated from Greek and Slavonic chronographs. One by Pavel Danovici contains the history of the world told in the style of the Byzantine chroniclers; it includes the legend of Troy, the history of Pope Sylvester and the description of the various church councils; and it concludes at the year 1636. The second is the Hrongraf of Dorotheus of Monembasia, translated by a certain Ion Buburezau. Both are still in MS. The Old Slavonic annals were later on translated and new notes were added, each subsequent writer annexing the work of his predecessor, and prefixing his name to the entire compilation. Ancient Rumanian historiography is thus difficult to unravel. In Moldavia, where the influence of Poland had been great and Western writings were accessible, we find the best chroniclers. The writers are often actors in the dramas which they describe, and often also the victims. A history of Moldavia from the earliest times to 1594 is ascribed to Nestor or to his son, Gregorie Ureche, or to Simion Dascalul. It was continued by the Evstratie mentioned above, and probably also by Missail Calugarul. The most important author whose writings rank as classical is Mirpn Costin, who either took up the thread where it was left by Simion and Ureche and wrote the history of Moldavia from 1594- 1662, or continued the history from where (probably) Evstratie had left it (c. 1630-62). Nicolae Costin (d. 1715), son of Miron, completed the history at both ends. He starts from the creation and endeavours to fill up the lacuna from 1662 to his own time, 1714. It is doubtful, however, whether the portion from 1662-1701 is his work or whether another compiler had filled up that section. Acsintie Uricariul, 1715, brings to a close the corpus of Moldavian Chronicles. The same uncertainty holds good also for Walachia. The be- ginnings are the work of an anonymous author, whose chronicle, continued by a certain Constantly Capitanul, describes the history of Walachia from Radu Negru (i.e. Rudolph the Black), c. 1290- 1688. An addition to this Chronicle from the time of the Roman Conquest to Attila is ascribed to Tudosie Vestemianul, twice metropolitan of Walachia (1669-73, I077-I7°3)- The Chronicle of Capitanul was further continued by Radu Greceanu to 1707, and finally by Radu Popescu to 1720. Two works remain still to be mentioned — a comprehensive history of both principalities by an anonymous author, probably the Spatar Milescu, who finished his eventful life as ambassador of Russia to China (still in MS.), and the Hronicul Moldo-Vlahilor of Prince Demetrius Cantemir (see CANTEMIR), more an apology for the Roman origin of the Rumanians than a true history. Cantemir wrote the original in Latin and translated it into Rumanian in 1710. His style shows an immense superiority to that of the previous historians. Of poetry there is scarcely a trace during the whole period under review except some rhymed Psalters and a few rhymed dedications to patrons. Second Period: 1710-1830. — The Phanariote period has been described as one of total decay; the political degradation of Rumania was thought to be reflected in its spiritual life. But the facts do not warrant this opinion. The few who had taken the trouble to study Rumanian literature paid not the slightest attention to the vast MS. material accumulated during the years of the Phanariote dominion, and out of sheer ignorance and political bias condemned this period as sterile. Another influence was far more potent than the conduct of the Greek princes, though some of them were real benefactors of the people. In Transylvania one section of the innueacf Rumanian population had accepted the spiritual of Roman rule of the pope; they became now Greek-Catholic, Cathoii- instead of Greek Orthodox. Rome took good care e*"D' to educate the priesthood far above the status of the Orthodox priests, and continued an extensive proselytizing activity. So long as the Rumanians were spiritually united with the other Orthodox nations, and so long as they used the Slavonic or Cyrillic alphabet, they would practically be cut off from the Latin West. If, however, they could be induced to discard the old Slavonic alphabet and substitute for it the Latin, and could be brought to recognize their national and ethnical unity with ancient Rome, it was hoped that then they would be more easily induced to enter into the unity of faith. Thus a great change was wrought towards the end of the i8th and in the 846 RUMANIA [LITERATURE theo- logical and ethical litera- ture. first half of the igth century in the whole current of Rumanian literature. It suited the promoters of that movement to pretend that they started a new era. But the Latin or Transylvanian movement wrought great havoc in Rumanian literature and caused the greatest confusion in the language. Only now are some authors beginning to free themselves from the evil influence. By the end of the I7th century Rumanian had become the author- ized language of the Church, and the Rumanian translation of LU r- tlie Go8?6'3 (printed 1693) had become the Authorized Version. Most of the liturgical books officially adopted and revised in this period are still used for church ser- vices. Such are the Ceasoslov, revised by Bishop Kliment of Ramnicu Valcea (1745), the Evhologion (1764), the Katavasiar (1753), The monumental publication of the Mineiu, in 12 folio volumes, by Bishops Kesarie and Filaret of Ramnicu Valcea (1776-80), is equal in im- portance if it be not superior to the no less monumental publication of the Lives of Saints, also in 12 huge folio volumes, published under the direction and with the assistance of the metro- politan Veniamin of Moldavia. The latter was translated from the Russian, appeared in Neamtzu (1809-12), and was reprinted in Bucharest (1835-36). In beauty, richness and lucidity of language, and in dignity of style, these two books resemble the Bible of 1688. Slavonic having entirely disappeared from the sources of literature, writers and translators turned to Greek originals and for more than a century were busy translating into Rumanian the most important works of the older Fathers of the Church. Some of these transla- tions were printed much later; thus the Hexaemeron of Basil the Great (andofEpiphanius) translatedinthemiddleof the l8th century, was printed at Bucharest in 1827. The Scala Coeli of Jon. Klimakus, the Treasury of St Damascenus (MS. 1747 by a certain Mihalacea), the homilies of Cyril of Alexandria, and those of Ephraem the Syrian, were printed at Neamtzu in 1818. The Panoplia of Euthymius Zygabenus (1775) and the Commentary of Theophylact were printed by Veniamin (Jassy, 1805). The homilies of Theodor Studites (MS. of 1712) were edited by Bishop Filaret and published at Ramnicu Valcea in 1784; a translation of Gregory of Nazianzus appeared at Bucharest in 1727. The great polemical work of Simeon of Thessalonica, the Greek original of which was published by Dositheiu (Jassy, 1683), had been translated into Rumanian long before it was printed (Bucharest, 1756). The Lafsaikon, mentioned above, was printed at Bucharest in 1754. All these translations are written in good Rumanian. One can see how a language not originally suited for abstract problems and theological dialectics was slowly but surely improved and made capable of expressing profound and subtle ideas. In Transylvania, with the conversion to Greek-Catholicism of Bishop Athanasius in I7OI, the Greek Orthodox had to place them- selves down to 1850 under the protection of the Servian metropolitan of Karlovatz. No writer of any consequence arose among them. The " United " fared better, and many a gifted young Rumanian was sent to Rome and helped from Vienna to obtain a serious educa- tion and occasionally also temporal promotion. With a view prob- ably to counteract the literary activity in Rumania, the bishops P. P. Aaron and loan Bobb were indefatigable in the translation of Latin writers. First and foremost a new translation of the whole Bible was undertaken by Samuel Klain. It appeared in Blazh (!793-95)- It falls short of the older version of 1688; it was modernized in its language, and no doubt a careful examination would reveal differences in the translation of those passages in which the Catholic tradition differs from the Eastern. Bobb translated Thomas a Kempis's Imitatio Christi (Blazh, 1812); he wrote a Theologhie morala (ibid. 1801) and adapted the Rumanian service-books to the new order of things. Popular catechisms and various histories of the Church were then written. Mention may be made of a few more moral treatises such as the U$a pocainfei, "Gate of Penitence", (Kronstadt, 1812); Oglinda omului din auntru, "The Mirror of the Inner Man"; or Pilde filosofe^li, " Philosophical Saws and Maxims " (Tirgovishtea, 1715). Of greater importance was the collection of fables with their ' ' moral " translated and modified from the Servian of Obrenovich — Fabule moralice$ti, by Tzikindeal (Budapest, 1814). These are heavy and follow the original too literally. Tzikindeal (d. 1818) and his contemporaries in Hungary had lost contact with the Rumanian literature in Walachia and Moldavia, and the same was the case with the other writers of their school. Radovici or Dinu din Golesti, an enlightened Walachian boyar, who was one of the first Rumanians to describe a journey in Western Europe, is also the author of a collection of maxims and parables, Adunare de pilde bisericejti j*' filosofejti (Budapest, 1824); he left a larger collection in MS. part.ly edited by Zane in his Proverbele Romanilor, vols. xi.— xvi. After 1727 Rumanian was recognized as the language of the law-courts, and through the annexation of Bukovina by Austria Law. (.'774) and of Bessarabia by Russia (1812), codes for the civil and political administration of those provinces were drawn up in Rumanian, either in accordance with the established law of the land or in consonance with the laws of Austria and Russia. Such legal codes reflect the German or Russian original. They were> however, of importance as they served as models (to some extent) for the new legislative code compiled in Moldavia under Prince Calimach; this was originally published in Greek (1816), and after- wards translated into Rumanian with the assistance of G. Asaki (Jassy, 1833). The Walachian civil laws and local usages were collected and arranged under the direction of Prince Ypsilanti (1780) in Greek and Rumanian; and under Prince Caragea another code was published (1817), which remained in force until 1832, when the " Organic Law " changed the whole trend of legislation.' One more collection, an abstract from the Greek Basilica, published by Donici (Jassy, 1814), must be mentioned, for through it the legal terminology of the modern codes was more or less fixed. The last and probably the best writer of Rumanian history in the Phanaripte period is Neculcea. He wrote a history of Moldavia to his own time, but for the period before 1684 his work is ... . more or less an abstract from older writers. The original s*ory. part covers the period from 1684-1743, and is to some extent an autobiography of a very adventurous life. Neculcea adds to his chronicle a collection of historical legends, many of them still found in the ballads of Moldavia. Among other historians might be mentioned N. Roset, the continuator of Neculcea. Enaki (lanache) Cogalniceanu wrote a history of the period 1730-1774, and followed the example of Greek writers by introducing rhymes into it. He was also the author of some political satires and other poems on G. Ghica, M. Bogdan and loan Cuza. The historians of the time under pressure of political exigencies did not scruple to invent treaties between the Porte and the Rumanian principalities. A series of such spurious collections of treaties were submitted to the Powers for ratification ; in them imaginary rights and privileges alleged to have been granted by the Turks were described, and the Rumanian representatives asked that after the peace negotiations of 1774 they should be sanctioned afresh. In Walachia there was not a single historian of importance in the first half of the l8th century. In the second we have the chronicle of Dionisie Eclesiarh (1764-1815), a simple-minded and uncritical writer who describes contemporary events. The ancestor of a great family of poets and writers, I. Vacarescu described the history of the Ottoman empire from the beginning to 1791, interpolating doggerel verses. Alexander Beldiman describes in a rhymed epic, Eteria (1821), the first battles between the Greeks and the Turks in Moldavia. It is a bitter satire upon the Greeks. Similar in tendency is another rhymed chronicle known under the name of Zilot (c. 1825). Whilst a political and national revival was taking place in Moldavia and Walachia, towards the beginning of the igth century, the Latin movement went on in Transylvania. There ethical and religious tendencies got the upper hand. Three historians had been partly educated in Rome under the protection of Prince Borgia and the influence of the Jesuit Minotto and the College of the Propaganda ; they were Samuel Klain, Petru Maior and George Sincai. To Klain's initiative can be traced most of the work of the three. Unfortunately his writings, with a few exceptions, are still in MS. He is the author of the first history of the Rumanians in Dacia written according to the standards of Western science. It seems to have described the wars between the Romans and the Dacians, and to have been continued down to 1795; a history of the Rumanian Church also formed part of the book. P. Maior published an almost identical history (Budapest, 1812), and it is probable that he had made use of Klain's composition. In both the tendency is the same — to trace the modern Rumanians directly from the ancient Romans, and to prove their continuity in these countries from the time of Trajan to this day. Political and religious aims were combined in this new theory. A conflict was raging between the Hungarians and Rumanians, and history was required to furnish proofs of the greater antiquity of the Rumanians in Transylvania. George Sincai (1753-1816), who was an intimate friend of Klain and colla- borated in most of his works, succeeded him as revisor at the printing office in Budapest. Sincai worked for nearly forty years at his monumental History of Rumania, which the Hungarian censor did not allow to be printed on account of its nationalist and anti-Magyar tendencies. It remained until 1853-54, when it was printed at the expense of Prince Gr. Ghica. The edition of 1886 is only a reprint, though both the original MS. and a better copy had meanwhile been discovered. These books had no immediate influence in Walachia and Moldavia, where fiction and the drama had developed under the influence, first, of Greek and then to an increasing extent of French, Italian and German models. It was towards the end of thel 8th century that Rumanian literature began to emanci- " e pate itself, very slowly of course, and to start on a career of its own in poetry and belles lettres. Curiously enough, the first novel to be translated was the " Ethiopic History " of Bishop Heliodorus. The Odyfsey and Iliad were then translated into prose, and the Arabian Nights, after undergoing an extraordinary change in Italian and modern Greek, appear in Rumanian literature at the middle of the i8th century under the name of Halima. The Glykis, a Greek printing firm in Venice, published many popular books in Rumanian which found their way into the principalities. The epic of Vincenzo Cornaro was translated into prose alternating Litera- ture. LITERATURE] RUMANIA 847 with verse, first under the name of Erotocrit and then slightly changed as Filerot 31 Antusa. Anton Pann printed it as his own composition. Kritil $i Andronius (Jassy, 1794) is almost the last novel or story translated direct from the Greek. The young men of Walachia had come into contact with Western literature, which they were anxious to transplant to their own country. Some had been sent to Paris for their education, such as Poteca, Marcovici, the Voinescus, Moroiu and others, who developed an almost feverish activity in translation. Most of the writings of Florian, Marmontel, Le Sage, Montesquieu and others were rapidly translated into Rumanian. The picaresque novel Lazarillo de Tormes also found its translator, and appeared in 1839, Paul and Virginia in 1831. Campe's German Robinson Crusoe (1816) and his Discovery of America were translated by Draghici (1835). G. Asaki and Alexander Bcidiman in Moldavia developed a similar activity. Beldiman copied a number of ancient chronicles, wrote a satire on the Greeks, and translated and adapted a number of French tragedies and dramas, in verse and prose. Nowhere has the theatre played a more important r6le in the history of civilization than in Walachia and Moldavia, more in the Tllf former than in the latter. It formed the rallying-ground for the new generation which chafed under the tyranny of a urama. /^ i * **•• r*~>i • * i_ ; Greek court. A certain Anstia, of Greek origin, but soon acclimatized to his surroundings as teacher at the high school in Bucharest, was the first to adapt foreign dramas for the Rumanian stage. These were first performed in Greek and afterwards trans- lated into Rumanian. The plays produced on the Rumanian stage included most of the dramas of Moliere, some of Corneille, Kotzebue and Metastasio, whose Achille in Schiro was the first drama translated into Rumanian (by lordache Slatineau, printed at Sibiu in 1797). Schiller was also translated, and a few plays of Shakespeare (Hamlet, &c.) from a French version. Victor Hugo's A ngelo and Maria Tudor were translated by Constantin Negrutin. Those who kept in touch with the old literature — men such as Beldiman, Marcovici and Negrutin — were able even in their metrical translations to do justice to the originals and at the same time not to distort the character of the Rumanian language. Among such translators was Skavinschi, who came originally from Transylvania to Jassy, and translated Regnald's Democnt into verse. The lyrical and epic poetry of the time follows somewhat the same lines, but with certain notable differences. The individuality Poetry. of the authors is more marked, and they advance much sooner from translations to independent poetry. Tran- sylvania, which awoke to a new life towards the end of the i8th century, produced some of the most popular poets. Among them were Vasile Aaron .(1770-1822) and Ion Barak (1779-1848). Aaron wrote the Passion, in 10,000 verses (1802; often reprinted); the lyrical romances of Piram jt Tisbe (1808) and Sofronim $i Hariti (1821); and the humorous Leonat 31 Dorofala, a satire on bad women and on drunken husbands, now a chapbpok. Barak wrote Rasipirea lerusalimului (1821), " The Destruction of Jeru- salem," almost as long as Aaron's Passion ; and he versified a Magyar folktale, Argkir si Elena, which has also become a chapbook, and has been interpreted as a political poem with a hidden meaning. He also translated the Arabian Nights from the German. In Walachia a certain Ion Budai Deleanu, a man of great learning, author of a hitherto unpublished Rumanian dictionary of great value, wrote a satirical epos in which gipsies play the chief part. It is called Tiganiafa (1812) and consists of 12 songs and of many thousand verses. The author displays a profound knowledge of the life and the customs of the gipsies, and of Western literature from the Batrachomyomachia to the Pucelle of Voltaire. The love-songs of the time are primitive imitations of the Neo- Greek lyric dithyrambs and rhapsodies, which through the teaching of the princes of Walachia were considered as the fountainhead of poetical inspiration. But a closer acquaintance with the West led to greater independence in poetical composition. In the three generations of the Vacarescu one can follow this process of rapid evolution. lanache Vacarescu, author of the first native Rumanian grammar on independent lines, was also the first who tried his hand at poetry, following Greek examples. He then studied Italian, French and German poetry, and made translations from Voltaire and Goethe. His son Alecu (b. 1795) followed his example. Both were overshadowed by the grandson loan (b. 1818), who was more than any other man both the representative of an epoch fast vanish- ing and the harbinger of the new spirit that was stirring young Rumania. The collected poems of I. Vacarescu were published in 1848; but among them were some of the poems of lanache and Alecu, which were confused with his own work. In this volume, Colec[ie din poeziile domnului mare logofet I. Vacarescu, there are odes, hymns, patriotic poems, ballads, lyrical and didactic poems, some of them among the most beautiful in the language. A con- temporary of his earlier period, Paris Mumuleanu (1794-1837), wrote his Rost de poezie (1820) under Greek influence, but after- wards passed under the spell of Maior and Tzikindea, whose Latin propaganda he was one of the first to advocate in Rumania. In his Caractere (Bucharest, 1828) Latin forms are common. One more poet, and a real one, is Vasile Carlova (1809-1831), whose Ruins of Tirgovishtec sufficed to place him among the foremost Rumanian poets of the igth century. In Moldavia a similar development took place, translations leading up to independent production. The most prominent figure is that of the scholar and linguist Constantin Konaki (1777-1849), who might be termed the Rumanian Longfellow for the facility and felicity of his translations from Western poetry and for his short poems, easily set to music and very popular. His Alcatuiri jt appeared in 1858. Constantin Negrutin, who was at first influenced by the Russian poets, notably Pushkin, successfully translated poems of Victor Hugo, and rivalled Konaki in his dex- terity and fidelity to the original. Third Period: 1830- . — The agitation for the trans- literation of the alphabet, the elimination of all non-Latin words from the language and the ostracism of the old literature, completely crippled all literary activity, first in Transylvania and then in Rumania. The Latin movement was first brought into Walachia by a certain George Lazar from across the moun- tains. Lazar was appointed teacher at the St Sava school of Bucharest, where he spread the new doctrine of the Latin origin of the Rumanians; Latinizing tendencies were, however, not yet imported into the language. Of his pupils there was one whose influence became decisive: Ion Eliade (Heliade), afterwards also known as I. E. Radulescu (1802-1872), a man of immense activity, of great power of initiative and of still greater imagination. He it was who ushered in the new epoch, and for close upon forty years he stood at the head of almost every literary undertaking. There were two periods in his life — the latter the exact opposite and negation of the former. Up to 1848 he was closely connected with politics, the theatre and the school — he was the successor to Lazar; he wrote grammars, and the introductions to his grammars are models of lucidity, combined with a wide historical view. He was the founder of the first political and literary review, and he had a genius for discovering talent, and the merit of assisting it. Through his reviews he trained the middle-class to read and to take an active interest in literary problems. Through his Curier de ambt sexe (1837-41) he disseminated translations from political and other works, thus paving the way for the political change of 1848. About this time he turned to philology, and fell under the spell of the Transylvanian school. Slowly he developed his theories about language and writing, and he ended as a fanatic wedded to extra- ordinary views. He was a prolific writer and translator of dramas and novels from French and Italian, the latter appearing mostly in his periodical. The number of his publications is legion. All the prominent Rumanians of that period were politicians; they strove to obtain the emancipation of the country from Turkish dominion, and, later on, the union of Walachia and Mol- „ .... davia. Everything was placedat theserviceof this national aspiration, which is the keynote of the poems of Bolinti- neanu (1826-1873). He also was discovered by Radulescu, who published his first and best known poem, " The Dying Virgin." In 1848 he was exiled, together with the other leaders of the revolution, and he spent the next nine years in travels in the East. There he gathered the materials for his lyrical poems " Macedonele " and " Florile Bosforului ? " Returning in 1857 to Walachia, he occupied high administrative posts, and he wrote a number of historical novels (Traian, Mircea, §tefan, &c.), dramas (Lapu^neanu, Mihnea, Mihaiu, &c.), longer poems (Sorin, Conrad), and his politico-philo- sophical novel Elena. These mostly patriotic compositions were as a rule less felicitous than his political satires (Nemesis, Menade, &c.). His peculiar strength lay in the historical ballad, which he was the first to introduce into Rumanian poetry, and in the vivid portraiture of Oriental scenery and emotions. He died in a lunatic asylum forgotten by all, and even his writings have, save in one early edition, not been published without unwarranted alterations by the editor Sion. A contemporary of Bolintineanu was Grigorie Alexandrescu (1812-1885), also a pupil of Eliade. Imperfect in his rhyme and rhythm, his poetry is of a didactical nature, and his best _ ^fc poems are rhymed fables, many of which are thinly dis- a'nd " guised political satires. He also translated the Alzire (1834) and Merope (1847) of Voltaire. Among his contemporaries may be mentioned G. Crejeanu (1829-1887) and A. Sihleanu (1834- 1857), who left some weak poems of a sentimental and patriotic char- acter. A Depararianu (1835-1865), whose language shows traces of the new Latinizing school ; and Nicolae Nicoleanu (1833-1871), whose powerful poems, full of deep and often mystical reflections, lead on from Alexandrescu to Eminescu, all three being the poets of pessim- ism. InTeodor§erbanescu (b. 1839) we find the reflex of Bolintineanu of the earlier period, in the beauty and simplicity of his lyrical poems — not yet published in complete form. Like §erbinescu, Vasile Alecsandri (1821-1890), the greatest of Rumanian lyrical poets (see ALECSANDRI), was a Moldavian. In France, under the influence of Beranger and the romantic school, he was led to turn to popular 848 RUMANIA [LITERATURE Prate Writers. poetry for inspiration. He collected Rumanian popular songs and ballads (Doine, 1844) (Lacrdmioare, 1853). In Paslelun rfrf (1867) he introduced admirable pictures of popular life into Rumanian poetry. In Legends (1871) and Ostasii nojtrii (1877) he strikes the patriotic note. His fame rests on his lyrical poetry alone, which retains some of the charm of popular poetry. Alecsandri is less successful in his dramas, most of which are adapta- tions from French originals; the only merit of his novels is that amidst the phonetic and philological turmoil he kept to the purer language of the people. From Alecsandri there is a natural transition to his great rival, who was also his superior in depth of thought and in mastery of form and language, the great poet of pessimism, Mihail Emlaescu. gminescu (g.r.). Mention may also be made of Matilde Cugler Poni (b. 1853), who published some admirable short poems in the Rumanian reviews (Poesii, 1888). Veronica Micle (1853-1889) belongs to the same circle of gifted Moldavian women (Poesii, 1887). But all these men or women disappear with the appearance of Eminescu, who, like Bolintineanu, started a new school of poetry and left a deep and growing influence upon the new generation. His best follower, though possessing originality of his own, is A. Vlahuta (b. 1859). G. Cosbuc, who has risen more recently to fame, is the poet of the unfortunate Rumanian peasant, emancipated only in name and on paper, and a prey to greedy landowners and to a medieval administration. The poets of this school drew their inspiration from popular poetry, and all of them were sons of the lower middle class or of peasants, who by dint of heavy work and great hardship were able to rise above the narrow social conditions in which they were born. Somewhat different has been the development of the Rumanian prose writers. They suffered in consequence of the philological confusion brought about by Eliade and his assistants, mostly men who after 1848 immigrated from Transylvania and brought with them their own prejudices and narrow intolerance. Too great influence was accorded to them, and the result was that for a long time scarcely a single Rumanian novelist or historian can be mentioned. It was only after N. Balcescu had undertaken the edition of the ancient Walachian chronicles, and had found in them admirable prose writers, that he ventured on a con- tinuous history (1851-52) of the Rumanians under Michael the Brave, written not as a didactic treatise but as a poem in prose — full of colour and of energy. A. Odobescu, the friend and literary executor of Balcescu, was a consummate scholar of ancient and medieval anti- quities, and wrote a history of ancient art. His Pseudkynegetikos is an unsurpassed model of elegant writing and of fine irony. What Alecsandri was for verse, Odobescu was for prose. He also created the Rumanian historical novel, by his Mihnea Voda (1858) and Doamna Kiajna (1860). The first novel describing human nature in everyday life is the Ciocoii vechi s_i noi (1863) of Nioolae Filimon (1819-1865). In Moldavia where the knowledge of thepld chroniclers had not entirely died out and disturbing philological influences were not so acutely felt, we find the vigorous writings of Mihail Cogalniceanu — one of the leading spirits of the igth century, the greatest mind and the real founder of Rumania. Cogalniceanu published various reviews, some of a political, others of a more literary character, such as the Dacia literard (1840) and Archiva romdneasca (1845-46) ; he has also the great merit of having published for the first time a collection of the Moldavian chronicles. G. Asaki (1788-1871), a second Eliade, helped to inaugurate a literary reform in Moldavia; but the result was disappointing, until the literary society known as the Junimea was started, in the 'seventies, by Titu Maiorescu (b. 1839), who was then a professor at Jassy. Titu Maiorescu put a stop to the prevailing Latinism, and turned the current of Rumanian literature into a more healthy channel, by the publication of his Critice (1874). loan Ghica, a contemporary of the revolutionaries of 1848, gathered his recollections of those agitated times into two volumes, Amintiri (1890) and Scrisori cdtre V, Alecsandri (1887), which besides their historical value have become a model of Rumanian prose. Among writers of fiction three names stand out prominently: Ion Slavic! (b. 1848) describes the life of the people, notably of the Transylvanian peasants, in short stories, Nuvele din popor. Barbu Stefanescu de la Vrancea (b. 1858) also wrote short popular stories characterized by a wealth of imagery and richness of language; but the characters are all mostly unreal and exaggerated. The best known collections are Sultdnica (1885) and Trubadurul (1887). loan Caragiali (b. 1852), the most popular Rumanian dramatist of modern times, who has brought on the stage living types of the lower and middle classes, and has skilfully portrayed the effect of modern veneer on old customs, is also the author of the powerful short novel Faclia de paste. Dobrogeanu Gherea (b. 1853) has in his Studii critice (1890 sqq.) been a ruthless but none the less judicious critic. Curiously enough, there is not a single novel in the Rumanian literature with a sustained plot; none which presents a study of the development of human character amid the multifarious vicissitudes of life. The reason for this deficiency is perhaps the unsettled conditions of Rumanian life, and the lack of a profound and long- established civilization; or it may be found in the unstable and Popular litera- ture: Folklore, Ballads, Tales. fickle character of the people. Whatever the cause may be, while Rumanian poetry could well compare with that of any Western nation, in the domain of prose writing, and of novels in particular, one must look to the future to fill up the gap now existing. There existed in Rumania another set of literary monuments at least as old as any of the books hitherto enumerated, but which appealed to a wider circle. Rumanian folk-literature contains both popular written books and oral songs, ballads, &c. It is advisable to group the material in three sections: (i) the romantic and secular literature; (2) the religious literature; — both of these being written — and (3) the modern collections of ballads, songs, tales, &c. To the first belong the oldest books, such as the History of Alex- ander the Great, which was known in Rumania in the lyth century. It rests mostly upon a Sloyeno-Greek text and is of the utmost interest for the study of this cycle of legends. The first printed copy appeared in 1794, and has been reprinted in innumerable editions. Next comes the legend of Constantine, of his town and his exploits — a remarkable collection of purely Byzantine legends. In addition to these there is the history of St Sylvester and the conversion of Constantine, &c., all still in MS. The History of Barlaam and loasaf (see BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT) may also be mentioned here, for it appealed to the people not so much for its religious interest as for the romantic career of the hero. The parables and apologues contained in the legend were incorporated into the Teachings of Prince Neagoe, and were also circulated separ- ately; they are found in many old MSS. Udri§te (Uriil) Nasturel translated the History from the Slavonic in 1640. One of its episodes, the farewell song of the prince departing into the forest, has since become one of the most widespread popular songs. Of similar oriental origin is the Dream of Mamer, the interpretation of which goes back to the Panchatantra, and must have reached Rumania early in the i8th century, probably in Slavonic. The history of Syntippa and the Seven Masters has also become a popular book. It was translated from the Greek version. To the same cycle of oriental tales belongs the Halima, already described, which G. Gorjeanu printed (3 vols., 1835-37) as his own work. The History of Arkir and Anadam, printed by Anton Pann from older MSS., is the now famous Old Testament apocryphon of Akyrios the Wise, mentioned in Tobit and found in many languages. In Rumanian it rests on an older Greek-Slavonic text, and owes its great popularity to the wise and witty proverbs it contains. " Esop," whose wonderful biography (by Planudes) agrees in many points with Arkir, has also become one of the Rumanian popular books. The history of Bertoldo, which, though of Italian origin, reached Rumania through a Greek translation, belongs to the same cycle of rustic wisdom and cunning, and is the last representative of an old series of legends clustering round the figures of Solomon and Ashmodai, or Solomon and Markolph. These books are of course anonymous, most of them being trans- lations and adaptations. One man, however, stands put pro- minently in this section of romantic and secular folk-literature. This was Anton Pann, who was born in 1797 at Slivden, of Bul- garian parentage, and died at Bucharest in 1854. Carried away by the Russians in his early youth, he settled in Rumania, learned Church music, and became one of its best exponents, married four times, had an adventurous life, but lived among the people for whom he wrote and composed his tunes. In about twenty years he published no less than fifty books, all of them still popular. Besides his edition of the Rumanian Church service-books with musical notation, he published a series of tales, proverbs and songs either from older texts or from oral information; and he made the first collection of popular songs, Spitalul amorului, " The Hospital of Love " (1850-53), with tunes either composed by himself or obtained from the gipsy musicians who alone performed them. Of his numerous writings two or three are of the greatest interest to folklore. His Povestea vorbii (first ed. I vol., 1847; 2nd ed. 3 vols., 1851-53) is a large collection of proverbs ingeniously con- nected with one another and leading up to or starting from a popular tale exemplifying the proverb. The Fabule $i istorioare (2 vols., 1839-41) is a collection of short popular stories in rhyme; Sezs,toarea la tard (1852-53) is a description of the Rumanian Spinnstube, for which the peasants gather in one of their houses on a winter's night, the girls and women spinning and working, the young men telling tales, proverbs, riddles, singing songs, &c. Pann also collected the jokes of the Turkish jester, Nasreddin, under the title of Nasdrdvaniile lui Nastratin Hogea (1853), also in rhyme. He also published a collection of Christmas carols, set to music by himself; -these are still sung by boys on Christmas night. Far larger than the secular is the religious popular literature; it comprises many apocryphal tales from the Old and the New Testa- ments, and not a few of the heretical tales circulated by the various sects of Asia Minor and Thracia, which percolated into Rumania through the medium of Slavonic. A brief enumeration of the RUMELIA— RUMFORD 849 chief tales must suffice. Only a few of them have hitherto been published. They exist in numerous MSS. which testify to their great popularity; in the popular songs one finds many traces of their influence upon the people's imagination. They include the History of Adam and Eve, the Legend of the Cross, The Apocalypse of Abraham, the History of the Sibyl, the Legends of Solomon; numerous New Testament apocryphal tales, starting with legends of St John the Baptist; a very remarkable version of the Gospel of Nicodemus; and the Epistle of Pilate. Printed in tens of thousands of copies are certain apocalyptic legends dealing with eschatological problems. The ancient Apocalypse of Peter appears here under the name of Paul, then there is an Apocalypse of the Virgin Mary, who, like Peter, is carried by the Archangel through the torments of Hell and the bliss of Paradise, and through whose intervention sufferers are granted pardon on certain days of the year. Combined with these is the Sunday Epistle, sent from Heaven, enjoining strict observance, not only of Sunday, but also of Friday and Wednesday, as holy days. Most of these texts date in their Rumanian form from the i6th and i;th centuries; the Sunday Epistle is well known in connexion with the Flagellants. • In the same pamphlet as the Sunday Epistle was published the legend of St Sisoe and sometimes that of Avestitza, — the former saved the children of his sister from the attacks of the devil, who had devoured them and had to restore them alive; the latter is the female child-stealing demon, who is prevented by an angel from carrying out her evil design. In both cases the repetition of the legend and the recitation of a string of mystical names serve, like some other tales, apocryphal and otherwise, as amulets, sufficient to protect from the devil. Upon the recitation of some of these texts rest many popular charms and incantations. Therein lies the importance of this written literature, for it gives us the clue to much that now lives in the mouths of the people, and is by some considered to be of immemorial antiquity. A number of astrological calendars and prognostics are among the best known and most widely circulated popular books, and the lives of St Alexius, Xenophon, &c. have become chapbooks. The whole of this popular literature belongs to what may be called the cycle of the Balkan nations, in every one of which exact parallels are to be found. Not that there was any direct, deliberate borrowing by one nation from the other, but all of them seem to have stood for a long time under identical psychological in- fluences and to have developed on similar lines. The superstitions of one are often found to be those of the others, and in such a form that they could not have been taken over independently from a third source; they show too much family likeness. Thus also the popular songs of Rumania, the " doine," the " hora," the " cantece," " colinde," " legende," i.e. the love songs, the heroic ballads, legends, songs at the ring-dance, hymns and carols, though instinct with a charm of their own, find their counterparts in many a song, ballad, &c. of the Balkan nations. The heroes are often the same: Serbs, Bulgars and Rumanians sing the heroic deeds of Baba Novak and recite the legend of the Monastery of Argesh, or the ballad of lorgovan, found in the Malorussian Byliny. One of the first to collect these treasures of Rumanian poetry was V. Alecsandri (1852-1866), who, however, retained only their poetical beauty and did not reproduce them with that strict accuracy which modern study of folklore demands. A. M. Marienescu collected those of Transylvania (1859); S. F. Marian, those of the Bukovina (1873); T. T. Burada, those of the Dobrudja (1880); but the most complete collection is that of G. Dem. Teodprescu, Poesii populare romdne (Bucharest, 1885). The collection of fairy tales started later than that of the ballads. The first collec- tion is the German translation of tales heard by the Brothers Schott (1845). The most important collections, now deservedly considered as classical from every point of view, are the successive publications of P. Ispirescu. The collected tales of the Moldavian Ion Creanga (1837-89) appeared in his Opere complecte (1908). Ex- cellent collections are those of D, Stancescu, Basme (1885-1893), I. G. Sbiera, Basme (1886), Frdncu s.i Candrea (1888). Kutzo-Vlach tales and folklore will be found in G. Weigand, Die Aromunen, vol. ii. The only review devoted to the study of folklore is the Sazatoare, founded in 1892. In recent times a kind of stagnation seems to have overtaken Rumania, and although attempts have been made to place the intellectual life of the nation on a sounder basis, the work of transi- tion from the past to the present has hitherto absorbed more energy than appears necessary. Whatever the causes may have been, the fact remains, that now there is a great dearth of talent and great poverty in output. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — M. Gaster, Chrestomathie roumaine (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891); id., Literatura populara romana (Bucharest, 1883); id., " Geschichte der rumanischen Litteratur," in Grpber, Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, ii. pp. 264-428; L. Saineanu, Autorii romdni moderni (Bucharest, 1891). (M. G.) RUMELIA, or ROUMELIA (Turkish RumUi, " the land of the Romans," i.e. the East Roman or Byzantine empire), a name commonly used, from the i sth century onwards, to denote that part of the Balkan Peninsula which was subject to Turkey. More precisely it was the country bounded N. by Bulgaria, W. by Albania and S. by the Morea, or in other words the ancient provinces, including Constantinople and Salonica, of Thrace and Macedonia. The name was ultimately applied more especially to a province composed of central Albania and western Macedonia, having Monastir for its chief town. Owing to administrative changes effected between 1870 and 1875, the name ceased to correspond with any political division. Eastern Rumelia was constituted an autonomous province of the Turkish empire by the Berlin treaty of 1878; but on the i8th of September 1885, after a bloodless revolution, it was united with Bulgaria (q.v.). RUMFORD, BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT (1753-1814), British- American man of science, philanthropist and adminis- trator, was born at Woburn, in Massachusetts, on the 26th of March 1753. The Thompson family had been settled in New England since the middle of the previous century, and belonged to the class of moderately wealthy farmers. His father died while he was very young, and his mother speedily married a second time. But he seems to have been well cared for, and he was at the age of fourteen sufficiently advanced " in algebra, geometry, astronomy, and even the higher mathematics," to calculate a solar eclipse within four seconds of accuracy. In 1766 he was apprenticed to a storekeeper at Salem, in New England, and while in that employment occupied himself in chemical and mechanical experiments, as well as in engraving, in which he attained to some proficiency. The outbreak of the American War put a stop to the trade of his master, and he thereupon left Salem and went to Boston, where he engaged himself as assistant in another store. He was at that ' period between seventeen and eighteen years old, and at nineteen, he says, " I married, or rather I was married." His wife was the widow of Colonel Benjamin Rolfe, and the daughter of Timothy Walker, " a highly respectable minister, and one of the first settlers at Rumford," now called Concord, in New Hampshire. His wife was possessed of considerable property, and was his senior by fourteen years. This marriage was the foundation of his success. Soon after it he became acquainted with Governor Wentworth of New Hampshire, who conferred on him the majority of a local regiment of militia. He speedily became the object of distrust among the friends of the American cause, and it was considered prudent that he should seek an early opportunity of leaving the country. On the evacuation of Boston by the royal troops, therefore, in 1776, he was selected by Governor Wentworth to carry despatches to England. On his arrival in London Lord George Germain, secretary of state, appointed him to a clerkship in his office. Within a few months he was advanced to the post of secretary of the province of Georgia, and in about four years he was made under-secretary of state. His official duties, however, did not interfere with the prosecution of scientific pursuits, and in 1779 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. Among the subjects to which he especially directed his attention were the explosive force of gunpowder, the construction of firearms, and a system of signalling at sea. In connexion with the last, he made a cruise in the Channel fleet, on board the " Victory," as a volunteer under the command of Admiral Sir Charles Hardy. On the resignation of Lord North's administration, of which Lord George Germain was one of the least popular members, he left the civil service, and was nominated to a cavalry command in the revolted provinces of America. But the War of Independence was practically at an end , and in 1 783 he finally quitted active service, with the rank and half-pay of a lieutenant-colonel. He now formed the design of joining the Austrian army, for the purpose of campaigning against the Turks, and so crossed over from Dover to Calais with Gibbon, who, writing to his friend Lord Sheffield, calls his fellow-passenger " Mr Secretary- Colonel-Admiral-Philosopher Thompson." At Strassburg he was introduced to Prince Maximilian, afterwards elector of Bavaria, and was by him invited to enter the civil and military service of that state. Having obtained the leave of the British 850 RUMI government to accept the prince's offer, he received the honour of knighthood from George III., and during eleven years he remained at Munich as minister of war, minister of police, and grand chamberlain to the elector. His political and courtly employments, however, did not absorb all his time, and he contributed during his stay in Bavaria a number of papers to the Philosophical Transactions. But that he was sufficiently alert as the principal adviser of the elector the results of his labours in that capacity amply prove. He reorganized the Bavarian army; he immensely improved the condition of the industrial classes throughout the country by providing them with work and instructing them in the practice of domestic economy; and he did much to suppress mendicity. The multitude of beggars in Bavaria had long been a public nuisance and danger. In one day he caused no fewer than 2600 of these outcasts and depredators in Munich and its suburbs alone to be arrested by military patrols, and transferred by them to an industrial establishment which he had prepared for their reception. In this institution they were both housed and fed, and they not only supported themselves by their labours but earned a surplus for the benefit of the electoral revenues. The principle on which their treatment proceeded is stated by him in the following memorable words: " To make vicious and abandoned people happy," he says, " it has generally been supposed necessary first to make them virtuous. But why not reverse this order? Why not make them first happy, and then virtuous? " In 1791 he was created a count of the Holy Roman Empire, and chose his title of Rumford from the name as it then was of the American township to which his wife's family belonged. In 1795 he visited England, one incident of his journey being the loss of all his private papers, including the materials for an autobiography, which were contained in a box stolen from off his postchaise in St Paul's Churchyard. During his residence in London he applied himself to the discovery of methods for curing smoky chimneys and the contrivance of improvements in the construction of fireplaces. But he was quickly recalled to Bavaria, Munich being threatened at once by an Austrian and a French army. The elector fled from his capital, and it was entirely owing to Rumford that a hostile occupation of the city was prevented. It was now proposed that he should be accredited as Bavarian ambassador in London; but the circumstance that he was a British subject presented an insur- mountable obstacle. He, however, again came to England, and remained there in a private station for several years. In 1798 he presented to the Royal Society his "Enquiry concerning the Source of Heat which is excited by Friction," in which he combated the current view that heat was a material substance, and regarded it as a mode of motion. In 1799 he, in conjunction with Sir Joseph Banks, projected the establish- ment of the Royal Institution. It received its charter of incorporation from George III. in- 1800, and Rumford himself selected Sir Humphry Davy as scientific lecturer there. Until 1804 he lived at the Royal Institution in Albemarle Street, London, or at a house which he rented at Brompton, and he then established himself in Paris, marrying (his first wife having died in 1792) as his second wife the wealthy widow of Lavoisier, the celebrated chemist. With this lady he led an extremely uncomfortable life, till at last they agreed to separate. He took up his residence at Auteuil, where he died suddenly on the zist of August 1814, in the sixty-second year of his age. Rumford was the founder and the first recipient of the Rumford medal of the Royal Society. He was also the founder of the Rum- ford medal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and of the Rumford professorship in Harvard University. His complete works with a memoir by G. E. Ellis were published by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1870-75. RUMI, (1207-1273). Mahommed b. Mahommed b. Husain albalkhi, better known as Maulana Jalal-uddin Rumi (or simply Jalal-uddin, or Jelal-eddm), the greatest Sufic poet of Persia, was born on the 3oth of September 1 207 (604 A.H. 6th of Rabi' I.) at Balkh, in Khorasan, where his family had resided from time immemorial. He claimed descent from the caliph Abubekr, and from the Khwarizm-Shah Sultan 'Ala-uddin b. Tukush (1190-1220), whose 'only daughter, Malika-i-Jahan, had been married to JalSl-uddin's grandfather. Her son, Mahommed, commonly called Baha-uddin Walad, was famous for his learn- ing and piety, but being afraid of the sultan's jealousy, he emigrated to Asia Minor in 1212. After residing for some time at Malatia and afterwards at Erzingan in Armenia, Baha- uddin was called to Laranda in Asia Minor, as principal of the local college. Here young Jalal-uddin grew up, and in 1226 married Jauhar Khatun, the daughter of Lala Sharaf-uddin of Samarkand. Finally, Baha-uddin was invited to Iconium by 'Ala-uddin Kaikubad (1210-1236), the sultan of Asia Minor, or, as it is commonly called in the East, Rum — whence Jalal- uddln's surname (takhallus) Rumi. After Baha-uddin's death in 1231, Jalal-uddm went to Aleppo and Damascus for a short time to study, but, dissatisfied with the exact sciences, he returned to Iconium, where he became by and by professor of four separate colleges, and devoted himself to the study of mystic theosophy. His first spiritual instructor was Sayyid Burhan-uddln Husainl of Tirmidh, one of his father's disciples, and, later on, the wander- ing Sufi Shams-uddin of Tabriz, who soon acquired a most powerful influence over Jalal-uddin. Shams-uddln's aggressive character roused the people of Iconium against him, and during a riot in which Jalal-uddln's eldest son, * Ala-uddin, was killed, he was arrested and probably executed; at least he was no more seen. In remembrance of these victims of popular wrath Jalal-uddin founded the order of the Maulawl (in Turkish Mevlevi) dervishes, famous for their piety as well as for their peculiar garb of mourning, their music and their mystic dance (sama), which is the outward representation of the circling movement of the spheres, and the inward symbol of the circling movement of the soul caused by the vibrations of a Sufi's fervent love to God. The establishment of this order, which still possesses numerous cloisters throughout the Turkish empire, and the leadership of which has been kept in Jalal- uddln's family in Iconium uninterruptedly for the last six hundred years, gave a new stimulus to his zeal and poetical inspiration. Most of his matchless odes were composed in honour of the Maulawl dervishes, and even his opus magnum, the Mathnawi (Mesnevi), or, as it is usually called, The Spiritual Mathnawi (mathnawl-i-ma nawi) , in six books or daftars, with 30,000 to 40,000 double-rhymed verses, can be traced to the same source. The idea of this immense collection of ethical and moral precepts was first suggested to the poet by his favourite disciple Hasan, better known as Husam-uddln, who in 1258 became Jalal-uddln's chief assistant. Jalal-uddin dictated to him, with a short interruption, the whole work during the remaining years of his life. Soon after its comple- tion Jalal-uddin died, on the I7th of December 1273 (672 A.H. 5th of Jornada II.). His first successor in the rectorship of the Maulawi fraternity was Husam-uddln himself, after whose death in 1284 Jalal-uddln's younger and only surviving son, Shaikh Bahaudd-m Ahmed, commonly called Sultan Walad, and favourably known as author of the mystical mathnawi Rababnama, or the Book of the Guitar (died 1312), was duly installed as grand-master of the order. Afi the most important portions of which have been translated by . . ... Redhouse in the preface to his English metrical version of The Mesnevi, Book the First (London, 1881); there is also an abridged translation of the Mathnawi, with introduction on Sufism, by E. H. Whinfield (and ed., 1898). Complete editions have been printed in Bombay, Lucknow, Tabriz, Constantinople and in Bulaq (with a Turkish translation, 1268 A.H.), at the end of which a seventh daftar is added, the genuineness of which is refuted by a remark of Jalal- uddin himself in one "of the Bodleian copies of the poem, Ouseley, 294 (f. 3280 seq.). A revised edition was made by 'Abd-ullatif between 1024 and 1032 A.H., and the same author's commentary on the Mathnawi, Lata'if-ulma'nawi, and his glossary, Lata'if-allughal, have been lithographed in Cawnpore (1876) and Lucknow (1877) respectively, the latter under the title Farhang-i-malhnam. For the other numerous commentaries and for further biographical and literary particulars of Jalal-uddin, see Rieu's Cat. of the Persian MSS RUMINANTIA— RUNEBERG 851 of the Brit. Mus., vol. ii. p. 584 seq. ; A. Sprenger's Oudh Cat., p. 489 ; Sir Gore Ouseley, Notices of Persian Poets, p. 1 12 seq.; H. Ethd, in Morgenldndische Studien (Leipzig, 1870), p. 95 seq., and in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (Stuttgart, 1896- 1904), vol. ii. pp. 287-292. Selections from Jalal-uddln's diwan (often styled Diwan-i-Shams-i-Tabriz) are translated in German verse by V. von Rosenzweig (Vienna, 1838); into English by R. A. Nicholson (2nd ed., 1898) and W. Hastie (1903). (H. E.) RUMINANTIA, a term employed by Cuvier to include all the existing artiodactyle ruminating ungulate mammals now classed under the groups Pecora, Tylopoda and Tragulina. By Professor Max Weber it is employed as a collective designation for these groups, together with the extinct Anthracotheroidea and Dichobunoidea; but its use seems best restricted to a general term rather than a definite systematic group. (See ARTIODACTYLA, PECORA, TYLOPODA.) RUMKER, CARL LUDWIG CHRISTIAN (1788-1862), German astronomer, was born in Mecklenburg on the 28th of May 1788. He served in the British navy from 1807 until 1817, and was director of the school of navigation at Hamburg from 1819 till 1820. In 1821 he went to New South Wales as astronomer at the observatory built at Parramatta by Sir Thomas Brisbane. He returned to Europe in 1830 and took charge -of the obser- vatory at Hamburg. His chief work was concerned with the cataloguing of stars: a preliminary catalogue of the stars of the S. hemisphere was published in 1832 at Hamburg, and in 1846-52 he published his great catalogue of 12,000 stars. In 1857 he went to reside at Lisbon, where he died on the 2ist of December 1862. His son, GEORGE FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1832-1900), born on the 3ist of December 1832, at Hamburg, was astronomer at the observatory at Durham, England, from 1853 to 1856. He then became assistant at the Hamburg observatory, and in 1862 was appointed director of the same institution. From 1884 he was the Hamburg delegate for the International Earth Measurement. He died on the 3rd of March 1900. RUNCIMAN, ALEXANDER (1736-1785), Scottish historical painter, was born in Edinburgh in 1736. He studied at Foulis's Academy, Glasgow, and at the age of thirty proceeded to Rome, where he spent five years. It was at this time that he became acquainted with Fuseli. The painter's earliest efforts had been in landscape; he soon, however, turned to historical and imaginative subjects, exhibiting his " Nausicaa at Play with her Maidens" in 1767 at the Free Society of British Artists, Edinburgh. On his return from Italy, after a brief residence in London, where in 1772 he exhibited in the Royal Academy, he settled in Edinburgh, and was appointed master of the Trustees' Academy. He was patronized by Sir James% Clerk, whose hall at Penicuik House he decorated with a series of subjects from Ossian. He also executed various religious paintings and an altar-piece in the Cowgate Episcopal Church, Edinburgh, and easel pictures of " Cymon and Iphigenia," " Sigis- munda weeping over the Heart of Tancred," and " Agrippina landing with the Ashes of Germanicus." He died in Edinburgh on the 4th of October 1785. His works, while they show high intention and considerable imagination, are frequently defective in form and extravagant in gesture. His younger brother, JOHN RUNCIMAN (1744-1766), who accompanied him to Rome, and died at Naples in 1766, was an artist of great promise. His " Flight into Egypt," in the National Gallery of Scotland, is remarkable for the precision of its execution and the mellow richness of its colouring. RUNCORN, a market town and river-port in the Northwich parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, on the S. of the estuary of the Mersey 16 m. above Liverpool. Pop. of urban district (1901) 16,491. It is served by the London & North- Western railway, and has extensive communications by canal. The modern prosperity of the town dates from the completion in 1773 of the Bridgewater Canal, which here descends into the Mersey by a flight of locks. Runcorn is a sub-port of Manchester, with which it is connected by the Manchester Ship Canal, and has extensive wharfage and warehouse accom- modation. The chief exports are coal, salt and pitch; but there is also a large traffic in potters' materials. A trans- porter bridge between Runcorn and Widnes, with a suspended car worked by electricity to convey passengers and vehicles (the first bridge of the kind in England) was constructed in 1902. The town possesses shipbuilding yards, iron foundries, rope works, tanneries, and soap and alkali works. Owing to the Mersey being here fordable at low water, Runcorn was in early times of considerable military importance. On a rock which formerly jutted into the Mersey jEthelfleda erected a castle in 916, but of the building there are now no remains; while the rock was removed to further the cutting of the ship canal, ^thelfleda is also said to have founded a town, but it is not noticed in Domesday. The ferry is noticed in a charter in the I2th century. RUNDALE (apparently from "to run" and "dale," valley, originally something separated off, cf. " deal" ), the name of a form of occupation of land, somewhat resembling the English ' common field " system. The land is divided into discon- tinuous plots, and cultivated and occupied by a number of tenants to whom it is leased jointly. The system was common in Ireland, especially in the western counties. In Scotland, where the system also existed, it was termed " run-rig " (from " run," and " rig " or " ridge "). RUNEBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG (1804-1877), Swedish poet, son of a sea-captain, was born at Jakobstad, in Finland, on the 5th of February 1804. He was brought up by an uncle at Uleaborg, and entered the university of Abo in the autumn term of 1822. In 1823 he broke off his studies to act as tutor in two quiet Finnish villages, Saarijarvi and Ruovesi, where he gained a thorough knowledge of the popular life and poetry, and on his return to Abo he began to contribute verses to the local newspapers. In the spring of 1827 he received the degree of doctor of philosophy. The university had been removed after the great fire of 1827 to Helsingfors, where Runeberg became, in 1830, amanuensis to the council of the university. In the same year he published at Helsingfors his first volume of Dikter (Poems), and a collection of Serbiska folks&nger (Servian folksongs) translated into Swedish. In 1831 his verse romance of Finnish life, Grafven i Perrho (The Grave in Perrho), received the small gold medal of the Swedish Academy, and the poet married Fredrika Charlotta Tengstrom, daughter of the arch- bishop of Finland. In the same year he was appointed university lecturer on Roman literature. In 1832 he published his beautiful little idyll, Elgskyttarne (The Elk-Hunters); and in 1833 a second collection of lyrical poems. He founded in 1832 the Helsingfors Morgonblad, a paper which dealt chiefly with aesthetic and literary questions, and exercised great influence both in Sweden and Finland. In it appeared many of his own poems and tales. His comedy, Friaren frdn Landet (The Country Lover, 1834), was not a success, but in 1836 he published Hanna, a charming idyll of Finnish country life, written in hexameters. In 1837 Runeberg accepted the chair of Latin at Borga College, and resided in that little town for the rest of his life. He was now recognized in his remote Finland retirement as second only to Tegner among the poets of Sweden. In 1841 he published Nadeschda, a romance of modern Russian life, and Julqvallen (Christmas Eve), another idyll of Finnish life. The third volume of his Dikter bears the date 1843, and the noble cycle of unrhymed verse romances called Kung Fjalar, the setting of which is taken from old Scandinavian legend, was published in 1844. Finally, in 1848, he achieved a great popular success by his splendid series of poems on the war of independence in 1808, when Swedes and Finns fought side by side. The series bears the name of Fanrik St&ls Siigner (Ensign Steel's Stones); a second series appeared in 1860. From 1847 to 1850 the poet was rector of Borga College, a post which he resigned to take the only journey out of Finland which he ever accomplished, a visit to Sweden in 1851. In 1854 he collected his prose essays into a volume entitled Smdrre Beriillelser. In the same year he was made president of a committee for the preparation of a national Psalter, which 852 RUNES issued, in 1857, a psalm-book largely contributed by Runeberg for public use. He once more attempted comedy in his Kan ej (Can't) in 1862, and tragedy, with infinitely more success, in his stately Kungarne p& Salamis (The Kings at Salamis) in 1863. Runeberg died at Boiga on the 6th of May 1877. His writings were collected by C. R. Nyblom in six volumes in 1870, and his posthumous writings in three volumes (1878-79). The poems of Runeberg show the influence of the Greeks and of Goethe upon his mind; but he possesses a great originality. It is hardly possible to over-estimate the value of his patriotic poems as a link between the Swedish and Finnish nations. He has remained one of the most popular Swedish poets, although his whole life was spent in Finland. An account of his life and works by C. R. Nyblom is prefixed to the Samlade Skrifter of 1870. For a minute criticism of Runeberg's principal poems, with translations, see Gosse's Studies in the Literature of Northern Europe (1879). A selection of his lyrical pieces was published in an English translation by Messrs Magnusson & Palmer in 1878. There are also monographs on Runeberg by Dietrichson and Rancken (Stockholm, 1864), by Cygnaus (Helsing- fors, 1873), by Ljunggren (Lund, 1882-83), and Peschier (Stutt- gart, 1881). RUNES, RUNIC LANGUAGE AND INSCRIPTIONS. The art of writing with an alphabet appears to have been introduced into Germanic Europe in the Iron Age. Something hieratic and mysterious was involved in the idea of letters as used to convey thought, and from the earliest recorded times they were called runes, from the Gothic runa (run, in Icelandic), which originally means a secret thing, a mystery, and was later used to describe a letter of the ancient language (see ALPHABET and SCAN- DINAVIAN LANGUAGES). The Iron Age is supposed to have existed from circa 200 to circa 650, and it is to the close of this epoch that the beginning of the writing on Scandinavian memorials is attributed. There are runes which have been dis- covered in England, and some also on the Germanic mainland of Europe, but it is in the Scandinavian peninsula that the vast majority of inscribed monuments have been discovered. The custom of erecting runic monuments, i.e. stones engraved with more or less literary statements, over the bodies of the dead, was practised first, there can be no doubt, in Norway and Sweden, then spread to Denmark and over the whole North of Europe. It is remarkable, however, that two of the three runic alphabets from which our knowledge of the whole range of rune-literature is founded, were discovered outside Scandinavia. These three alphabets exist, the first on a thin gold bractea found in 17 74 at Vadstena, in Sweden; the second on a bracelet, dug up at Charnoy, in Burgundy; the third on a knife, found in the Thames in 1857, and now in the British Museum. There are two principal runic alphabets, the older consisting of 24 letters, and beginning with f; the later of 16 letters. During the last century before the introduction of Christianity, the larger alphabet was increased by 3 letters. The oldest runes which have been examined are those found on the Thorsbjerg Shield-buckle, which is at present in the Kiel Museum; here the writing, which runs from right to left in straight lines, is of the fourth or fifth century. Other invaluable sources of runic knowledge are the diadem of Straarur, the Vimose comb and the brooch of Himlingoje, which was found in the Vier Fen. Still greater importance has the Golden Horn, discovered at Gellehuus, near Tondern, in 1734; this monument was stolen by thieves and melted down, but for- tunately not until a careful copy of it had been made, which is now in the Museum at Copenhagen. It is not until the 6th century that the runic stones begin. The most ancient are believed to be those of Einang, of Tune, of Strand, of Varnum, of Tanum and of Berga. Perhaps a little later are the stones at Vaanga, Skarkind, Skaaang, Torvik, Bo and others, too numerous to mention, but all, as seems likely, erected between 550 and 600. On the famous Tune-stone, the name of the author of the inscription is preserved, "I Wiwar made these runes," and this is not an isolated instance. The original direction of the runic writing was from left to right, like Latin, but quite early the reverse method was introduced. A union of these forms produced more complicated systems, in which much was left to the individual taste. From the earliest times uninscribed memorial stones in Scandinavia, bautasteinar , were raised to preserve the memory of the dead, and these certainly partook of a more or less religious and sacrificial character. It is evident that, during the Iron Age, stones continued to be erected which had no inscriptions, after the runic alphabets had been invented, and that at first the runes were added only in cases of great importance or solemnity. These runic stones were as a rule posed on the top of the grave, or by the side of it, on mounds, of which only one example survives, that of the stone of Einang, in Norway. But runic stones were not infrequently placed in the grave itself. These were smaller than those erected outside the grave, and they did not lend themselves to lengthy or elaborate inscrip- tions. The majority of graves containing such small rune- stones, bearing merely the name of the deceased or a magical sentence, have been found in Norway. But the antiquity of most of these is questioned, that of Vatn, which is the oldest, being now placed no earlier than the 8th century. The very important stone of Valdby, which is the oldest Norwegian monument employing the shorter alphabet, is attributed by Wimmer to heathen times, indeed, but to a date no earlier than the second half of the gth century. It is supposed that the most ancient of the runic stones of Sweden, those respec- tively of Vanga, Skarkind and Kinnevad, must have come from the interior of graves, but there is no certain proof of this. The latest criticism tends to the belief that when runes were first inscribed on Scandinavian monuments, they were^placed both upon and inside graves, but that after the runic letters had been used for about a century, the latter custom tended to exclude the former. About the year 800 both customs began to invade Denmark, the practice of placing the rune-stones inside, however, soon getting the upper hand. It is a curious fact that in Iceland not a single rune-stone which can be re- ferred back to heathen times is known to exist; the Icelandic rune-stones all date from a period well advanced in the middle ages. It was the old theory that the ancient stones had mouldered away under stress of weather, but that is abandoned, and it is now supposed that the aristocratic exiles from Norway, who settled in Iceland, had not yet adopted in their old home the practice of inscribed monuments to their dead. There were bautasteinar in Iceland, as we know, but there is no evidence that these bore runes upon them. It is in Denmark that the runic inscriptions exist which pos- sess the highest literary interest. These are all attributed to the beginning of the Qth century. The Kallerup Stone was discovered in 1826 at the village of Hojetostrup, a Danish mile E. of Roskilde; it has been lifted and placed in its original position. This monument contains a statement in old Danish, to the effect that it marks the grave of Hornbora, son of Swidi. The Stone of Snoldelev was discovered in 1768, not far from the spot where the Kallerup Stone was found; it is now in the Archaeological Museum at Copenhagen; this has a long and important inscription in a form of old Scandinavian, allied to the classical Icelandic. The Stone of Helnaes was found on the islet of that name in 1860, and is now at Copenhagen. The other most famous runic monuments are those of Flemlose, Orja, Norrenaera, Glarendrup, Fryggevaelde and Ronninge, of all of which Wimmer has published full analytical de- scriptions. These inscriptions are of remarkable value as historical documents, from a period of which no other definite records remain in existence. From a literary point of view, they re- present what Germanic language was up to the point at which Ulfilas created a new alphabet for his version of the Bible, by adapting to the runic alphabets a number of Greek letters. It was an error, now exploded, to suppose that the notae im- pressae, which Tacitus describes in his Germania, were written runes; these were simply signs, or mystic marks, which had no linguistic significance. These are described in the staves of the Edda as having been revealed to mankind by the god Odin, RUNG— RUNNING 853 and they were of a hieratic character. The suggestion is that the written runes were introduced from the south of Europe by a Phoenician agency, and that they were copied from Greek or Roman coins which had found their way to Scandinavia. In several of the sagas it is recorded that runes were inscribed on round pieces of wood, called kefli, or runic sticks. It has been suggested that the Eddaic poems were preserved in this way, but the only authority for this is that the Sonatorrek is said to have been taken down on a kefli. In Christian times runes came to be regarded as an archaic curiosity, and were engraved on sticks, chairs and spoons; a loto stick with runes on it is preserved in the Bodleian library. In the Fornsogur runes are mentioned as carved on the blade of an oar. Even cases occur in which the normal Latin alphabet was called runamdl or a language of Runes. A runic letter was called a rtinaslafr in Icelandic. AUTHORITIES. — Ludwig F. A. Wimmer, Runeskriftens oprindelse og udvikling i Norden (Copenhagen, 1874) ; L. F. A. Wimmer, Die Runenschrift (Berlin, 1887); J. Taylor, Greeks and Goths: a Study on the Runes (London, 1879) ; G. Stephens, The Old- Northern Runic Monuments of Scandinavia and England (Copen- hagen, 1879); Bugge, Tolkning of runeindskriften pa Rokstenen i Ostergotland (Stockholm, 1878); Cleasby and Vigfussen, Icelandic- English Dictionary (Oxford, 1874); Wilhelm Grimm, Ueber deutsche Runen (Gottingen, 1821); Olsen, Runerne i den oldislandske Literatur (Christiania, 1891). (E. G.) RUNG, a short round bar or stick used as a cross-bar or rail in a chair, and particularly as one of the steps or rounds of a ladder. In Scottish the word retains the original meaning of a staff or stick, especially a short thick cudgel. The O.E. hrung is used only of a bar or rail in a wagon; the word also occurs in O.Du. range, beam of a plough, Ger. Runge, pin, bolt. RUNNIMEDE, or RUNNYMEDE, a meadow on the S. bank of the river Thames, England, in the county of Surrey and the parish of Egham. It is celebrated in connexion with the signa- ture of Magna Carta (f England in succession to Lord Coleridge, to whose memory he devoted in the following September a paper in the North American Review. To the discharge of his func- tions as a judge Russell brought with him all the qualities of intellect and character which had made him so eminent as an advocate, and their greatness was not less conspicuous in his RUSSELL OF THORNHAUGH, IST BARON— RUSSIA 869 new position. Brief as was his tenure of the office, he proved himself well worthy of it. He was dignified without pompous- ness, quick without being irritable, and masterful without tyranny. He was scrupulously punctual. Suitors and hearers could not but be impressed by the manifest determina- tion of the lord chief justice to get at the truth, and to do so without waste of time. If this was a fault, it was that of excessive zeal for despatch. When, occasionally, there were flashes of impatience, they were elicited by the exhibition, as he deemed it, of want of preparation, or slovenliness, or ver- bosity on the part of the advocate before him. Even the youngest and most obscure practitioner could always count upon the assiduous attention of the lord chief justice to a pertinent and thoughtful argument. In 1896 Lord Russell (Pollock B. and Hawkins J. being on this occasion his colleagues on the bench) presided at the trial at bar of the leaders of the Jameson Raid. It was a state trial of grave importance. Russell's conduct of it, in the midst of much popular excitement, was by itself sufficient to establish his reputation as a great judge. One other event at least in his career while lord chief justice deserves a record, namely, his share in the Venezuela Arbitration in 1899. Lord Herschell, who had been nominated to act with Lord Justice Collins (afterwards Master of the Rolls), as a British representative on the Commission of Arbitra- tion, of which the distinguished Russian jurist M. Martens was president, died somewhat suddenly in America before the beginning of the proceedings. The lord chief justice accepted the invitation to take the vacant place, and performed his very onerous duty with conspicuous ability. Nor was it only on the bench or as an international judge that Lord Russell of Killowen sought, during the last years of his busy life, to do service to his country. He signalized his zeal as a law reformer by the public advocacy of radical changes in the system of legal education in the Inns of Court, and by the promotion of measures to put down the vice of secret and illicit commissions in commercial and business life. On the former subject he delivered in 1895 an address in Lincoln's Inn Hall, under the auspices of the Council of Legal Education, which was afterwards printed and published. In 1899, dealing with the latter question, he introduced in the House of Lords a bill, which had its first reading. He again introduced a bill in the session of 1900, which was read a second time, but did not become law. On the loth of August 1900 the great advocate and great judge passed quietly away at his London residence, after a short illness due to an internal malady. In private as in public life Russell was always strenuous, and most attracted by things that called for the exercise of activity, whether bodily or intellectual. Inaction he disliked both for himself and in others. Though not an athlete, he took an interest in manly pastimes: he was fond of riding and of breeding horses; he liked being on the racecourse; and he enjoyed games, both of skill and of chance. A student of books he was not; he could lay no claim to wide learning or elegant scholarship; but he could appreciate a good book; he was versed in Shakespeare; and he knew and loved the poetry and the songs of his native land. When he wrote, his style, inornate, clear and forcible, reflected the character of his thought. He was a staunch and sympathetic friend, ever ready, in an unostentatious way, to help, where help was really needed. While he undoubtedly exhibited at times, chiefly during the earlier part of his career, a certain brusqueness and impetuousness of speech and demeanour, those who came into contact with him recognized that such occasional out- bursts never sprang from any desire to hurt, or from any unkindness of disposition. In his contests at the bar he never made an enemy. He was a strong man, and he liked to have his way; but he was also large-hearted and without a tinge of rancour in his disposition. He was never offended by opposition. Whilst he did not himself shine as a wit or a humorist in conversation or in after-dinner oratory, he heartily enjoyed fun and humour in others; and, wherever he was, the force and distinctness of his personality never failed to impress his company. Probably no English lawyer ever excited abroad the admiration which was accorded to Lord Russell of Killowen, alike on the continent of Europe and in America. To the United States he paid two visits, the first in 1883 and the second in 1896. On both occasions he won golden opinions, which were manifested in widespread and warm expressions of sympathy and regret when the news of the death of Lord Russell of Killowen passed across the Atlantic. Between 1894 and 1897 Lord Russell of Killowen received the degree of Doctor of Laws honoris causa from the universities of Dublin, Edinburgh and Cambridge, and from the Laval university, Quebec. In 1892 he was treasurer of Lincoln's Inn. He left surviving him, besides his widow, five sons and four daughters. His sister Katherine (in religion, Sister Mary Baptist Joseph), pioneer sister of mercy in California, had died two years before at San Francisco. (W. R. K.) RUSSELL OF THORNHAUGH, WILLIAM, ist BARON (c. 1558-1613), English soldier, was a younger son of Francis Russell, and earl of Bedford, and was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford. After spending a few years abroad, he went to Ireland in 1580, and having seen some service in that country he was knighted in September 1581. In 1585 he joined the English forces in the Netherlands, being made lieutenant-general of cavalry; in September 1586 he so distinguished himself at Zutphen that the Spaniards pronounced him " a devil and not a man"; and in 1587 he became governor of Flushing in succession to his late friend, Sir Philip Sidney. He differed with the estates of Holland and with his' superior, Lord Willoughby de Eresby; consequently, on his own initiative, he was recalled to England in July 1588. In May 1594 Russell was made lord deputy of Ireland in place of Sir William Fitz- william. He relieved Enniskillen, but his attempts to capture the insurgent leaders, Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, and Fiagh MacHugh O'Byrne, came to nothing. In May 1595 Sir John Norris landed in Ireland, his orders being to help the lord deputy in his difficult task. Russell was somewhat chagrined at the choice, as he and Norris were not very good friends, but for a short time they acted together against the rebels in the N. of Ireland. Russell then led an expedition into Connaught, but soon he and Norris were at variance. Having captured O'Byrne in May 1597, Russell laid down his office and left Ireland later in the month. In 1603 he was created Baron Russell of Thornhaugh, and he died on the 9th of August 1613. In 1627 his only son Francis succeeded his cousin Edward as 4th earl of Bedford. Russell's Journal of his doings in Ireland is in the Carew MSS., and many of his letters are in the British Museum. See J. H. Wiffen, Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell (1833), and R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, vol. iii. (1890). RUSSIA (Rossiya), the general name for the European and Asiatic dominions of the " Tsar of All the Russias." Although the name is thus correctly applied, both in English and Russian, to the whole area of the Russian empire, its application is often limited, no less correctly, to European Russia, or even to European Russia exclusive of Finland and Poland. The use of the name in its most comprehensive sense dates only from the expansion of the empire in the igth century; to the historian who writes of the earlier growth of the empire, Russia means, at most, Russia in Europe, or Muscovy, as it was usually called until the i8th century, from Moscow, its ancient capital. The origin of the term " Russia " has been much disputed. It is certainly derived, through Rossiya, from Slavonic Rus or Ros (Byzantine 'Puts or Toxroi), a name first given to the Scandinavians who founded a principality on the Dnieper in the 9th century; and afterwards extended to the collection of Russian states of which this principality formed the nucleus. The word Rus, in former times wrongly connected with the tribal name Rhoxolani, is more probably derived from Ruotsi, a Finnish name for the Swedes, which seems to be a corruption of the Swedish rothsmenn, " rowers " or " seafarers." 8yo RUSSIA [PHYSICAL FEATURES I. THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE The Russian empire stretches over a vast territory in E. Europe and N. Asia, with an area exceeding 8,660,000 sq. m., or one-sixth of the land surface of the globe (one twenty-third of its whole superficies). It is, however, but thinly peopled on the average, including only one-twelfth of the inhabitants of the earth. It is almost entirely confined to the cold and temperate zones. In Novaya Zemlya and the Taimyr peninsula, it projects within the Arctic Circle as far as 77° 6' and 77° 40' N. respectively; while its S. extremities reach 38° 5°' 'ln Armenia, 35° on the Afghan frontier, and 42° 30' on the coasts of the Pacific. To the W. it advances as far as 20° 40' E. in Lapland, 17° in Poland, and 29° 42' on the Black Sea; and its E. limit — East Cape on the Bering Strait — is in 191° E. The White, Barents and Kara Seas of the Arctic bound it on the N., and the northern Pacific — that is, the Seas of Bering, Okhotsk and Japan — bounds it on the E. arte". ' The Baltic, with theGulfsof BothniaandFinland, limits it on the N.W.; and two sinuous lines of land frontier separate it respectively from Sweden and Norway on the N.W. and from Prussia, Austria and Rumania on the W. On the S. and E. the frontier has changed frequently according to the expansion and contraction of the empire under the pressure of political exigency and expedience. The Black Sea is the principal demarcating feature on the S. of European Russia. On the W. side of that sea the S. frontier touches the Danube for some 120 m.; on the E. side of the same sea it zigzags from the Black Sea to the Caspian, utilizing the river Aras (Araxes) for part of the distance. As the Caspian is virtually a Russian sea, Persia may be said to form the next link in the S. boundary of the Russian empire, followed by Afghanistan. On the Pamirs Russia has since 1885 been conterminous with British India (Kashmir); but the boundary then swings away N. round Chinese Turkestan and the N. side of Mongolia, and, since 1904-5, it has skirted the N. of Manchuria, being separated from it by the river Amur. As thus traced, the boundary in Central Asia includes the two khanates of Bokhara and Khiva, which, though nominally protected states, are to all intents and purposes integral parts of the Russian empire. But it excludes Manchuria, with the Liao-tung peninsula and Port Arthur, upon which Russia only placed her grasp in 1898-99, a grasp which she was compelled by Japan to release after the war of 1904-5. The total length of the frontier line of the Russian empire by land is 2800 m. in Europe, and nearly 10,000 m. in Asia, and by sea over 11,000 m. in Europe and between 19,000 and 20,000 m. in Asia. Russia has no oceanic possessions; her islands are all appendages of the mainland to which they belong. Such islands are Karlo> East Kvarken, the Aland archipelago, Dago, and Osel or Oesel in the Baltic Sea; Novaya Zemlya, with Kolguyev and Vaigach, in the Barents Sea; the Solovetski Islands in the White Sea; the New Siberian archipelago, Wrangel Land and Bear Islands, off the Siberian coast; the Commander Islands off Kamchatka; the Shantar Islands and the N. of Sakhalin in the Sea of Okhotsk. The Aleutian archipelago was sold to the United States in 1867, together with Alaska, and in 1875 the Kurile Islands were ceded to Japan. If the border regions, that is, two narrow belts, on the N. and S., be left out of account, a striking uniformity of physical Leading feature prevails throughout the whole vast extent physical of the Russian empire. High plateaus like that of features. pamir (the „ Roo{ Q{ tfae World ..) and Armeniaj and lofty mountain chains like the snow-clad Caucasus, the Alai, the Tian-shan, the Sayan Mountains, exist only on the out- skirts of the empire. Viewed broadly, the Russian empire may be said to occupy the territories to the N.W. of the great plateau formation Plateau of the old continent — the backbone of Asia — which formation stretches with decreasing altitude and width from **'*' the high tableland of Tibet and Pamir to the lower plateaus of Mongolia, and thence N.E. through the Vitim region to the farthest extremity of Asia. Thus it consists of the immense plains and flat lands which extend between the plateau formation and the Arctic Ocean, including the series of parallel chains and hilly spurs which skirt the former region on the N.W. And it is only to the E. of Lake Baikal that it climbs up on to the plateau, from which it descends again before it reaches the Pacific. This plateau formation — the oldesv geological continent of Asia — being unfit for agriculture and for the most part unsuited for per- manent settlement, while its oceanic slopes have from the dawn of history been occupied by a relatively dense population, long pre- vented Slav colonization from reaching the Pacific. The Russians chanced to cross it in the I7th century at its narrowest and most N. part, and thus struck the Pacific on the foggy and frozen shores of the Sea of Okhotsk; but two centuries elapsed ere, after colonizing the depressions around Lake Baikal, they crossed over the plateau in a more genial zone and descended to the Pacific by the Amur. After that they spread rapidly S., up to the nearly uninhabited valley of the Usuri, to what is now the Gulf of Peter the Great. In the S.W. higher portions of the plateau formation the empire has only comparatively recently planted its foot on the Pamir, and it was only a few years earlier that it established itself firmly on the high- lands of Armenia. A broad belt of hilly tracts — in every respect alpine in character, and displaying the same variety of climate and organic life as alpine tracts usually do — skirts the plateau formation throughout its entire length on the N. and N.W., forming an inter- mediate region between the plateau and the plains. The ' f * Caucasus, the Elburz, the Kopet-dagh and Paropamisus, the intricate and imperfectly known network of mountains W. of the Pamir, the Tian-shan and the Ala-tau mountain regions, and farther N.E. the Altai, the still unnamed complex of the Minusinsk Mountains, the intricate mountain-chains of Sayan, with those of the Olekma, Vitim and Aldan all arranged en echelon — the former from N.W. to S.E., and the others from S.W. to N.E. — all these belong to the same alpine belt that borders the plateau from end to end of the series. The flat lands which extend from the base of the Alpine foothills to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, assume the character either of dry deserts, as in the Aral-Caspian depression, or of low tablelands, as in central Russia and E. Siberia, of , lacustrine regions in N.W. Russia and Finland, or of marshy «"»*• prairies in W. Siberia, and of tundras in the far N. Throughout the whole of this vast area, their monotonous surfaces are diversified by only a few, and, for the most part, low, hilly tracts. Recently emerged from the Post-Pliocene sea, or freed from their mantle of ice, they persistently maintain the self-same features over immense areas; and the few portions that rise above the general elevation have more the character of broad and gentle swellings than of mountain-chains. Of this class are the swampy plateaus of the Kola peninsula, sloping gently S. to the lacustrine region of Finland and N.W. Russia; the Valdai table- lands, where all the great rivers of Russia take their rise ; the broad and gently sloping meridional belt of the Ural Mountains; and lastly the Taimyr, Tunguzka and Verkhoyansk ranges in Siberia, which, notwithstanding their sub-Arctic position, do not reach the snow-line. The picturesque Bureya Mountains above the Amur, the forest-clad Sikhota-alm on the Pacific, and the volcanic chains of Kamchatka belong, however, to quite another orographical construction, being the border-ridges of the terraces by which the great plateau formation descends to the depths of the Pacific Ocean. It is owing to these leading orographical features — divined by Carl Ritter, but only recently ascertained and established as fact by geographical research — that so many of the great rivers of the old continent are comprised within the limits Klyen. of the Russian empire. Taking their rise on the plateau formation, or in its outskirts, they flow first along lofty longitudinal valleys formerly filled with great lakes, next they cleave their way through the rocky barriers, and finally they enter the lowlands, where they become navigable, and, describing wide curves to avoid here and there the minor plateaus and hilly tracts, they bring into water- communication with one another places thousands of miles apart. The double river-systems of the Volga and Kama, the Ob and Irtysh, the Angara and Yenisei, the Lena and Vitim on the Arctic slope, and the Amur and Sungari on the Pacific slope, are instances. These were the obvious channels of Russian colonization. A broad depression — the Aral-Caspian desert — has arisen where the plateau formation reaches its greatest altitude, and at the same time suddenly changes its direction from N.W. to N.E. This desert is now filled to only a small extent by the salt waters of the Caspian, Aral and Balkash inland seas; but it bears unmistakable traces of having been during Post-Pliocene times an immense inland basin. There the Volga, the Ural, the Syr-darya and the Amu-darya discharge their waters without reaching the ocean, but they bring life to the rapidly desiccating Transcaspian steppes, and link together the most remote parts of Russia. Geology. — The most striking feature in the geology of Russia is its PHYSICAL FEATURES] RUSSIA 871 remarkable freedom from disturbances, either in the form of moun- tain folding or of igneous intrusions. Over the greater part of the "ieology unknown or unexplored shown thus ? Cretaceous Volgian j Trias A Permo- Triat 3 Ptrmo- Carttoniferout 3 Carboniferous iJOei SHurlan A othtr Palatazoic Hocks of tht Cantatas Cambrian Mgtamorphtc 4 Plutonic RoCkt «V Volcanic Hocks of the country the strata are still nearly as flat as when they were first laid down, and the deposits, even of the Cambrian period, are as soft as those of the Mesozoic and Tertiary formations in England. Only in the Urals, the Caucasus, the Timan Mountains, the region of the Donets coalfield, and the Kielce Hills is there any sign of the great folding from which nearly the whole of the rest of Europe has suffered at one time or another. _In the early part of the Palaeozoic era only the gneissic region of Finland and Olonets and probably the Archean mass of S. Russia remained constantly above the sea; but there were several oscilla- tions. Gradually, however, the sea retreated from W. Russia and in the Upper Carboniferous and Permian periods it was confined to the E. At the beginning of the Mesozoic era the whole country became land, bearing upon its surface the salt lakes in which the Trias was laid down. During the Jurassic period the sea again invaded the region, both from the N. and from the S., but still the W. of Russia rose above the waves. In the Cretaceous period the waters with- drew from the N.E., but in the S. they spread W., covering the whole of Poland and finally uniting with the ocean in which the chalk of W. Europe was deposited. The Tertiary era was marked by a gradual extension S. of the N. land-mass. In the later stages arms of the sea were cut off and were converted at first into lagoons and then into brackish or fresh-water lakes which continued to occupy much of S. Russia until the beginning of the Quaternary period. During the first part of the Glacial period Russia seems to have been covered by an immense ice-sheet, which extended also over central Germany, and of which the E. limits cannot yet be determined. The Archean rocks have a broad extension in Finland, N. Russia, the Ural Mountains and the Caucasus. In S. Russia they form the floor upon which lies a thin covering of Tertiary beds, and they are exposed to view in the valleys of the Dnieper and_ the Bug. They consist for the most part of red and grey gneisses and granulites, with subordinate layers of granite and granitite. The Finland rappa-kivi, the Serdobol gneiss, and the Pargas and Rustiala marble (with the so-called Eozoon canadense) yield good building stone; while iron, copper and zinc-ore are common in Finland and in the Urals. Rocks regarded as repre- senting the Huronian system appear also in Finland, in N.W. Russia, as a narrow strip on the Urals, and in the Dnieper ridge. They consist of a series of unfossiliferous crystalline slates. The Cambrian is represented by blue clays, ungulite sandstones and bituminous slates in Esthonia and St Petersburg. The Ordo- vician and Silurian systems are widely developed, and it is most probable that, with the exception of the Archean continents of Finland and the S , the sea covered the whole of Russia. Being concealed, however, by more recent deposits, the deposits appear on the surface only in N.W. Russia (Esthonia, Livonia, St Peters- burg and on the Volkhov), 'where all the subdivisions of the system have been found; in the Timan ridge; on the W. slope of the Urals; in the Pai-kho ridge; and in the islands of tne Arctic Ocean. In Poland the rocks of these periods are met with in the Kielce Mountains, and in Podolia in the deeper ravines. The Devonian dolomites, limestones and red sandstones cover immense tracts and appear on the surface over a much wider area. From Esthonia these rocks extend N.E. to Lake Onega, and S.E. to Mogilev; they form .the central plateau, as also the slopes of the Urals and the Petchora region. In N.W. and middle Russia they contain a special fauna, and it appears that the Lower Devonian series of W. Europe, represented in Poland and in the Urals, is missing in N.W. and central Russia, where only the Middle and Upper Devonian divisions are found. Carboniferous deposits occur over nearly the whole of E. Russia, their W. boundary being a line drawn from Archangel to the upper Dnieper, thence to the upper Don, and S. to the mouth of the last-named river, with a long narrow gulf extending W. to encircle the plateau of the Donets. They are visible, however, only on the W. borders of this region, being covered towards the E. by thick Permian and Triassic strata. Russia has three large coal- bearing regions — the_ Moscow basin, the Donets region and the Urals. In the Valdai plateau there are only a few beds of mediocre coal. In the Moscow basin, which was a broad gulf of the Carbon- iferous sea, coal appears as isolated inconstant seams amidst littoral deposits, the formation of which was favoured by frequent minor subsidences of the seacoast. The coal is here confined to the lower division of the system; the Upper Carboniferous (corre- sponding with the English Coal-Measures) is exclusively marine, consisting chiefly of Fusulina limestone. The Donets Coal-Measures, containing abundant remains of a rich land-flora, cover nearly 16,000 sq. m., and comprise a valuable stock of excellent anthracite and coal, together with iron-mines. In this basin, as in W. Europe generally, the principal coal seams occur in the Upper Carbon- iferous, while the Lower Carboniferous is mainly composed of marine deposits, with, however, the first bed of coal near its summit. Several smaller coalfields on the slopes of the Urals and on the Timan ridge may be added to the above. The Polish coalfields belong to another Carboniferous area of deposit, which extended over Silesia. The Permian limestones and marls occupy a strip in E. Russia of much less extent than that assigned to them by Murchison. The variegated marls of E. Russia, rich in salt-springs, but very poor in fossils, are now held by most Russian geologists to be Triassic. The Permian deposits contain marine shells and also remains of plants similar to those of England and Germany. But in the government of Vologda, on the rivers Sukhona and N. Dvina, Glossopteris, Noeggerathiopsis and other ferns characteristic of the Indian Gondwana beds have been found; and with these are numerous remains of reptiles similar to those which occur in the Indian deposits. In the Urals the marine facies is more fully developed and the fauna shows affinities with that of the Pro- ductus limestone of the Central Asian mountain belt. During the Jurassic period the sea began again to invade Russia from S.E. and N.W. The limits of the Russian Jurassic system may be represented by a line drawn from the double valley of the Sukhona and Vytchegda to that of the upper Volga, and thence to Kieff, with a wide gulf penetrating towards the N.W. Within this space three depressions, all running S.W. to N.E., are filled up with Upper Jurassic deposits. They are much denuded in the higher parts of this region, and appear but as isolated islands in central Russia. In the S.E. all the older subdivisions are repre- sented, the deposits haying the characters of a deep-sea formation in the Aral-Caspian region and on the Caucasus. Cretaceous beds — sands, loose sandstones, marls and white chalk — occupy nearly the whole of the region S. of a line drawn from the Niemen to the upper Oka and Don, and thence N.E. to Simbirsk. Over a large part of this irea, however, they are con- cealed by the later Tertiary deposits, and they are absent over the Dnieper and Don ridge in the Yaiia Mountains and in the higher parts of the Caucasus. They are rich in grinding stone, and in phosphatic deposits. The Tertiary formations occupy large areas in S. Russia. The Eocene covers wide tracts from Lithuania to Tsaritsyn, and is represented in the Crimea and Caucasus by thick deposits belong- ing to the same ocean which left its deposits on the Alps and the Himalayas. Oligocene, quite similar to that of N. Germany, and containing brown coal and amber, has been met with only in Poland, Courland and Lithuania. The Miocer.e (Sarmatian stage) occupies extensive tracts in S. Russia, S. of a line drawn through Lublin to Ekaterinoslav and Saratov. Not only the higher chains of Caucasus and Yaila, but also the Donets ridge, rose above the 872 RUSSIA [POPULATION level of the Miocene sea, which was very shallow to the N. of this last ridge, while farther S. it was connected both with the Vienna basin and with the Aral-Caspian. The Pliocene appears only in the coast region of the Black and Azov Seas, but it is widely developed in the Aral-Caspian region, where, however, the Ust-Urt and the Obshchiy Syrt rose above the sea. The thick Quaternary, or Post-Pliocene, deposits which cover nearly all Russia were for a long time a puzzle to geologists. They consist of a boulder clay in the N. and of loess in the S. The former presents an intimate mixture of boulders brought from Finland and Olonets (with an addition of local boulders) with small gravel, coarse sand and the finest glacial mud, — the whole bearing no trace of ever having been washed up and sorted by water in motion, except in subordinate layers of glacial sand and gravel; the size of the boulders decreases on the whole from N. to S., and the boulder clay, especially in N. and central Russia, often takes the shape of ridges parallel to the direction of the motion of the boulders. Its S. limits, roughly corresponding with those estab- lished by Murchison, but not yet settled in the S.E. and E., are, according to M. Nikitin, the following: — from the S. frontier of Poland to Ovrutch, Uman, Kremenchug, Pohava and Razdornaya (50° i N. latitude), with a curve N. to Kozelsk (?); thence due N. to Vetluga (58° N. latitude), E. to Glazova in Vyatka, and from this place towards the N. and W. along the watershed of the Volga and Pechora (?). S. of the soth parallel appears the loess, with all its usual characters (land fossils, want of stratifica- tion, &c.), showing a remarkable uniformity of composition over very large surfaces; it covers both watersheds and valleys, but chiefly the former. Such being the characters of the Quaternary deposits in Russia, the majority of Russian geologists now adopt the opinion that Russia was covered, as far as the above limits, with an immense ice-sheet which crept over central Russia and central Germany from Scandinavia and N. Russia. Another ice- covering was probably advancing at the same time from the N.E., that is, from the N. of the Urals, but the question as to the glacia- tion of the Urals still remains open. As to the loess, the usual view is that it was a steppe-deposit due to the drifting of fine sand and dust during a dry episode in the Pleistocene period. The deposits of the Post-Glacial period are represented through- out Russia, Poland and Finland, as also throughout Siberia and Central Asia, by very thick lacustrine deposits, which show that, after the melting of the ice-sheet, the country was covered with immense lakes, connected by broad channels (the fjarden of the Swedes), which later on gave rise to the actual rivers. On the outskirts of the lacustrine region, traces of marine deposits, not higher than 200 or perhaps even 150 ft. above present sea-level, are found alike on the Arctic Sea and on the Baltic and Black Sea coasts. A deep gulf of the Arctic Sea advanced up the valley of the Dvina; and the Caspian, connected by the Manych with the Black Sea, and by the Uzboy valley with Lake Aral, penetrated N. up the Volga valley, as far as its Samara bend. Unmistakable traces show that, while during the Glacial period Russia had an arctic flora and fauna, the climate of the Lacustrine period was more genial than it is now, and a dense human population at that time peopled the shores of the numberless lakes. The Lacustrine period has not yet reached its close in Russia. Finland and the N.W. hilly plateaus are still in the same geological phase, and are dotted with numberless lakes and ponds, while the rivers continue to dig out their yet undetermined channels. But the great lakes which covered the country during the Lacustrine period have disappeared, leaving behind them immense marshes like those of the Pripet and in the N.E. The disappearance of what still remains of them is accelerated not only by the general decrease of moisture, but also perhaps by the gradual upheaval of N. Russia, which is going on from Esthonia and Finland to the Kola peninsula and Novaya Zemlya, at an average rate of about two feet per century. This upheaval — the consequences of which have been felt even within the historic period, by the drainage of the formerly impracticable marshes of Novgorod and at the head of the Gulf of Finland — together with the destruction of forests (which must be considered, however, as a quite subordinate cause), contributes towards a decrease of precipitation over Russia and towards increased shallowness of her rivers. At the same time, as the gradients are gradually increasing on account of the upheaval of the continent, the rivers dig their channels deeper and deeper. Consequently central and especially S. Russia witness the formation of numerous miniature canons, or ovraghi (deep ravines), the summits of which rapidly advance and ramify in the loose surface deposits. As for the S. steppes, their desiccation, the consequence of the above causes, is in rapid progress.1 1 Bibliography : Memoirs, Izvestia and Geological Maps of the Committee for the Geological Survey of Russia; Memoirs and Sborniks of the Mineralogical Society, of the Academy of Science and of the* Societies of Naturalists at the Universities; Mining Journal; Murchison's Geology of Russia; Helmersen's and Moller's Geological Maps of Russia and the Urals; Inostrantsev in Appendix to Russian translation of Reclus's Geogr. Univ., and Manual of Geology (Russian). Population. — The population of the empire, which was estimated at 74,000,000 in 1859, was found to be over 129,200,000 at the census of 1897, taken over all the empire except Finland. In 1904 it was estimated to be 143,000,000, and in 1906, accord- ing to a detailed estimate of the Central Statistical Committee, it was 149,299,300. Thus from 1860 to 1897 the population increased 74$%, and from 1897 to 1904 26-3, an average annual increase of about 35% as compared with an average annual increase of 2j% during the period 1860-97. The increase took place chiefly in the large cities, in Siberia, Poland, Lithuania, S. Russia and Caucasia. The official divisions of the empire are given here, and details are given in separate articles. PROVINCE OR GOVERNMENT European Russia — Archangel Astrakhan Bessarabia Chernigov Courland Livonia Saratov Minsk Simbirsk Mogilev Smolensk Moscow Tambov Nizhniy-Novgorod Taurida Don Cossacks' territory Novgorod Tula Ekaterinoslav Olonets Tver Esthonia Orel Ufa Grodno Orenburg Vilna Kaluga Penza Vitebsk Kazan Perm Vladimir Kiev Podolia Volhynia Kostroma Pohava Vologda Kovno Pskov Voronezh Kursk Ryazan Vyatka Kharkov St Petersburg Yaroslavl Kherson Samara Poland — Kalisz Piotrkow Siedlce Kielce Plock Suwalki Lomza Radom Warsaw Lublin Grand-Duchy of Finland — Abo-Bjorneborg St Michel Viborg Kuopio Tavastehus Vasa Nyland Uleaborg Caucasia — Kuban Stavropol Terek Baku Elizavetpol Kutais Black Sea territory Erivan Tiflis with Zaka- Daghestan Kars taly Russia in Asia — {Akmolinsk Semipalatinsk Turgai Uralsk ( Semiryechensk ( Samarkand Turkestan — ( Ferghana ( Syr-darya Transcaspia Western Siberia — j Tobolsk ( Tomsk Eastern Siberia — ( Irkutsk Yakutsk \ Transbaikalia Yeniseisk Amur Region — 5 Amur Maritime Province Sakhalin It has been found, from a comparison of the densities of population of the various provinces in 1859 with the distribution in 1897, that the centre of density has distinctly moved S., towards the shores of the Black Sea, and W., the greatest increase having taken place in the E. Polish and in the Lithuanian provinces, along the S.W. border, in the prairie belt beside the Black Sea, and in Orenburg. N. Caucasia and S.W. Siberia likewise show a considerable increase. The census of 1897 revealed in several provinces a remarkably low proportion of men to women. This was owing to the fact that large numbers of the men engaged in agricultural pursuits during the summer temporarily move every year into the large industrial centres for the winter. Consequently there were only 87-4 and 89-8 women to every 100 men in the governments of St Petersburg and Taurida respectively, but as many as 133-8 in Yaroslavl, 119 in Tver and 117 in Kostroma. The average number of women to every 100 men in the Russian governments proper was 102-9; in Poland, 98-6; in Finland, 102-2; in Caucasia, 88-9; in Siberia, 93-7; and in Turkestan and Transcaspia, 83-0. GOVERNMENT] RUSSIA 873 The effects of emigration and immigration cannot be estimated with accuracy, because only those who cross the frontier with pass- ports are taken account of. The statistics of these show that there was during the thirty-two years, 1856-88, an excess of emigration over immigration of 1,146,052 in the case of Russians, and a surplus of immigration of 2,304,717 foreigners. On the other hand, in the six years, 1892-97, the excess of Russian emigration over immigra- tion was 207,353, as compared with an excess of foreign immigration over emigration of only 136,740. During the years 1900-4 inclusive the total emigrants_ from Russia numbered 2,358,539, of whom 1,144,246 were Russians; while the immigrants numbered 2,333,053, of whom 1,432,057 were foreigners. It is also known that the number of Russian immigrants into the United States in 1891-1902 was 742,869, as compared with 313,469 »n 1873-9°. or a grand total since 1873 of 1,056,338. By far the greater part of these were Jews. The emigration to Siberia varies much from year to year. It was 26,129 in 1888, and 60,000 in 1898. During the two following years it amounted to an average of over 160,000, but in the years 1901-3 to an average of 84,638 per annum. Altogether some 800,000 peasants are estimated to have settled in Siberia during the period 1886-96, but during the years 1893-1905 no less than four millions in all. There is also some emigration from central Russia to the S. Urals, as well as to some of the steppe governments. Within the empire a very great diversity of nationalities is com- prised, due to the amalgamation or absorption by the Slav race of a variety of Ural-Altaic stocks, of Turko-Tatars, Turko-Mongols and various Caucasian races. In some cases their ethnical relations have not yet been completely determined. According to the results obtained by the census committee of 1897^, working on a linguistic basis, the distribution of races was as given in the table opposite : v^- Taken as a whole, only 13% of the population of Russia lived in towns in 1897, but in the years 1857-60 less than 10% was urban. ru. In Russia proper less than 2% emigrated from the villages to the towns during the forty years ending 1897. The following table shows the urban population in the various divisions of the empire in 1897 : — Urban Population. Percentage of Total. European Russia .... Poland Finland . . Caucasia ... Siberia ..... Central Asia Russian Empire . 12,027,038 2,055,892 281,216 1,010,615 473.796 936,655 12-8 21-7 II-O 10-9 9'3 I2-O 16,785,212 13-0 There were in European Russia and Poland only twelve cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in 1884; in 1900 there were sixteen, namely, St Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Odessa, Lodz, Riga, Kiev, Kharkov, Vilna, Saratov, Kazan, Ekaterinoslav, Rostov-on-the Don, Astrakhan, Tula and Kishinev. In other parts of the empire there were four cities each having over 100,000 inhabitants in that year, namely, Baku, Tiflis, Tashkent and Helsingfors. While only three of these are in middle Russia (Moscow, Tula and Kazan), eight are in S. Russia. There are thirty-four cities in European Russia and Poland, and forty in the entire empire, with from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants each. The rural population live for the most part in villages, not as a rule scattered about the country. In the inclement regions of the N. and in the N. parts of the forest zone the villages are very small. They are larger, but still small, in White Russia, Lithuania and the region of the lakes; but in the steppe governments they are very appreciably bigger, some of the Cossack stanitsas or settlements exceeding 20,000, and many of them numbering more than 10,000 inhabitants each. The houses are generally built of wood and wear a poverty-stricken aspect. Owing to the great risks from fire the villages usually coyer a large area of ground, and the houses are scattered and straggling. The mortality in most towns is so great that during the last ten years of the igth century, in a very great number of cities, the deaths exceeded the births by I to 4 in the thousand. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) Government and Administration. — Russia was described in the Almanack de Gotha for 1910 as " a constitutional monarchy under an autocratic tsar." This obvious contradiction in terms well illustrates the difficulty of denning in a single formula the system, essentially transitional and meanwhile sui generis, established in the Russian empire since October 1905. Before this date the fundamental laws of Russia described the power of the emperor as " autocratic and unlimited." The imperial style is still "Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias"; but in the fundamental laws as remodelled between the imperial manifesto of 17/30 October and the opening of the first Duma 1 See A. Aitoff, Peuples el langages de la Russie (Paris, 1906), based on the report of the Russian Census Committee of 1897. of the Empire. on the 27th of April 1906, while the name and principle of autocracy was jealously preserved, the word " unlimited " vanished. Not that the regime in Russia had become in any true sense constitutional, far less parliamentary; but the " unlimited autocracy " had given place to a " self-limited autocracy," whether permanently so limited, or only at the discretion of the autocrat, remaining a subject of heated con- troversy between conflicting parties in the state.2 Provisionally, then, the Russian governmental system may perhaps be best defined — as M. Chasles suggests3 — as " a limited monarchy under an autocratic emperor." At the head of the government is the emperor,4 whose power is limited only by the provisions of the fundamental laws of the empire. Of these some are ancient and undis- puted: the empire may not be partitioned, but emperor. descends entire in order of primogeniture, and by preference to the male heir; the emperor and his consort must belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church; the emperor can wear no crown that entails residence abroad. By the mani- festo of the i7/30th of October 1905 the emperor voluntarily limited his legislative power by decreeing that no measure was to become law without the consent of the Imperial Duma, a freely elected national assembly. By the law of the 2oth of February 1906 the Council of the Empire was associated with the Duma as a legislative Upper House; and from this time the legislative power has been exercised normally by the emperor only in concert with the two chambers. The Council of the Empire, or Imperial Council (Gosudar- slvenniy Sovyef) , as reconstituted for this purpose/consists of 196 members, of whom 98 are nominated by the emperor, 7-4, while 98 are elective. The ministers, also nominated, Council are ex officio members. Of the elected members 3 are returned by the " black " clergy (the monks), 3 by the " white " clergy (seculars),6 18 by the corporations of nobles, 6 by the academy of sciences and the universities, 6 by the chambers of commerce, 6 by the industrial councils, 34 by the governments having zemstvos, 16 by those having no zemstvos, and 6 by Poland. As a legislative body the powers of the Council are co-ordinate with those of the Duma; in practice, however, it has seldom if ever initiated legislation.6 The Duma of the Empire or Imperial Duma {Gosudarstvennaya Duma), which forms the Lower House of the Russian parlia- ment, consists (since the ukaz of the 2nd of June 1907) of 442 members, elected by an exceedingly complicated Duma. process, so manipulated as to secure an overwhelming preponderance for the wealthy, and especially the landed classes, and also for the representatives of the Russian as opposed to the subject peoples. Each province of the empire, except the now disfranchised steppes of Central Asia,7 returns a u ic. j • u Electoral certain proportion of members (fixed in each case by ,ystem. law in such a way as to give a preponderance to the Russian element), in addition to those returned by certain of 2 M. Stolypin defended the ukaz of the 2nd of June 1907, which in flat contradiction of the provisions of the fundamental laws altered the electoral law without the consent of the legislature, on the ground that what the autocrat had granted the autocrat could take away. The members of the Opposition, on the other hand, quoting Art. 84 of the fundamental laws ("The_ empire is governed on the immutable basis of laws issued according to the established order "), argued that the emperor himself could only act within the limits of the order established by those laws. It is noteworthy that even the third Duma in its address to the throne, if it avoided the tabooed word " Constitution," avoided also all mention of autocracy. * Le Parlement russe, p. 151. 4 Imperator is the official style. The Russian translation is Gosudar. Popularly, however, the emperor is known by his old Russian title of tsar (q.v.). 6 This is the first time since Peter the Great that the clergy have been given a voice in secular affairs in Russia. * The number of the council was formerly not fixed, and there are still honorary councillors who have no right to sit. Thus in 1910 the honorary president of the council was the grand-duke Michael Nicolaievich, the actual president M. G. Akimov. The judicial and administrative work of the old council was in 1906 assigned to separate committees. 7 These returned 23 members in the first and second Dumas. RUSSIA TABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF RACES [GOVERNMENT Russia in Europe. Poland. Caucasia. Siberia. Central Asia. Finland. Totals.1 f Great Russians . Little Russians . Slavs . . J white Russians . 48,558,721 20,414,866 5,823,383 267,160 335,337 29,347 1,829,793 1,305,463 19,642 4,423,803 ' 223,274 12,346 587,992 101,1,1 1 829 5,939 55,673,408 22,380,551 5,885,547 Poles L Other Slavs2. 1,109,934 213,268 6,755,503 7,365 25.H7 3,855 29,177 182 11,576 189 7,931,307 224,859 f Lithuanians' 1,345,160 305,322 5,121 1,877 1,042 1,658,532 Lithuanians^ ^^ ; 1,422,021 5,064 6,714 627 1,435,937 (Rumanians . Germans . . 1,121,669 1,312,188 5,223 407-274 7,232 56,729 5-424 8,874 V.925 1,134,124 1,790,489 Greeks . . . 86,626 100,299 186,925 ARYANS . . . Other Europeans4 Swedes . 29,841 14,199 1,435 349,733 34,276 363,932 Armenians . 76,635 1,096,461 4,862 1,173,096 Persians 1,630 29,278 8,015 38,923 Tajiks . 350,397 350,397 Iranians . • Talyshes and Tales 130,347 130,347 Kurds . 99,836 99,836 Ossetes 171,716 171,716 . Gypsies , . 16,004 1,056 3,041 6,253 771 27,125 SEMITES Jews 3,714,995 1,267,194 40,498 32,597 7,872 5,063,156 r Esthonians . 989,883 4,372 4,281 4,202 1,002,738 r Finns 143,068 2,352,990 2,496,058 Lapps . 1,812 1,300 3,1 12 Mordvinians 989,959 20,802 13,080 1,023,841 Finns . . Karelians 208,101 . . 208,101 Cheremisses . 375,439 375,439 Syryenians . 146,535 7,083 I53,6i8 Permiaks 103,339 103,339 Votyaks 420,970 . 420,970 L Other Finns6 43,393 24,453 67,846 Samoyedes . 3,940 11,929 15,869 Tatars . 1,953,155 4,336 1,509,785 210,154 60,197 3,737,627 URAL-ALTAIANS. Chuvashes . Bashkirs 837,872 1,488,297 929 83 411 953 4,232 978 3" 2,672 843,755 1,492,983 Turks (Osmanlis) 68,807 156 139,419 172 268 208,822 Turko- Tatars . Turkomans . Kirghiz Sarts 7,938 264,059 184 6 123 24,522 98 158 124 32,648 305 248,767 3,988,893 968,008 281,357 4,084,139 968,655 Uzbegs 43 77 726,414 726,534 Yakuts 227,384 227,384 Kara-kalpaks i 2 104,271 104,274 . Others . 466 204,561 63 518,949 724,039 Tunguses • 70,064 70,064 Mongols . /Kalmucks . . l_ Bunats 170,865 14,409 288,663 . . 185,274 288,663 f Georgian Races 6 . . . . 1,352,455 .. .. 1,352,455 CAUCASIANS J Circassians and [ oJ/ser Caucasians1 . 1,091,782 •• •• 1,091,782 KORYAKS, CHUKCHIS, &c. . ... 39,349 39.349 CHINESE, JAPANESE AND KOREANS 86,113 86,113 1 These totals include in some cases small linguistic groups not mentioned in the table. 2 About 77% Bulgarians, the rest mostly Bohemians (Czechs). 'Inclusive of 448,022 Zhmuds. 1 Principally Frenchmen, with Englishmen, Italians, Norwegians, Danes, Dutchmen and Spaniards. 6 Ethnologically the Bulgarians ought perhaps to come here; but, as a large admixture of Slav blood flows in their veins and they speak a distinctly Slav language, they have in this table been grouped with the Slavs. 6 Includes Georgians, Mingrelians, Imeretians, Lazes and Svanetians. 7 For details, see table under the heading CAUCASIA. Of the total given here, 20 % are Circassians. the great cities. The members of the Duma are elected by electoral colleges in each government, and these in their turn are elected, like the zemstvos (see below), by -electoral assemblies chosen by the three classes of landed proprietors, citizens and peasants. In these assemblies the large proprietors sit in person, being thus electors in the second degree; the lesser proprietors are represented by delegates, and therefore elect in the third degree. The urban population, divided into two categories according to their taxable wealth, elects delegates direct to the college of the government (Guberniya), and is thus represented in the second degree; but the system of division into categories, according not to the number of taxpayers but to the amount they pay, gives a great preponderance to the richer classes. The peasants are represented only in the fourth degree, since the delegates to the electoral college are elected by the volosts (see below). The workmen, finally, are specially treated. Every industrial concern employing fifty hands or over elects one or more delegates to the electoral SOU' IERN RUSSIA C A S P I * L A eft CAUCASIA Capitals of Governments & Provinces... Boundaries of Governments & Provinces Fortifications "W1 Railway 8 .... Ruins .. -•- Passes '"•'"- ',.. GOVERNMENT] RUSSIA 875 college of the government, in which, like the others, they form a separate curia. In the college itself the voting — secret and by ballot through- out— is by majority; and since this majority consists, under the actual system, of very conservative elements (the landowners and urban delegates having fths of the votes), the progres- sive elements — however much they might preponderate in the country — would have no chance of representation at all save for the curious provision that one member at least in each government must be chosen from each of the five classes represented in the college. For example, were there no re- actionary peasant among the delegates, a reactionary majority might be forced to return a Social Democrat to the Duma. As it is, though a fixed minimum of peasant delegates must be returned, they by no means probably represent the opinion of the peasantry. That in the Duma any Radical elements survive at all is mainly due to the peculiar franchise enjoyed by the seven largest towns — St Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Odessa, Riga and the Polish cities of Warsaw and Lodz. These elect their delegates to the Duma direct, and though their votes are divided into two curias (on the basis of taxable property) in such a;, way as to give the advantage to wealth, each returning the same number of delegates, the democratic colleges can at least return members of their own complexion.1 The competence of the Russian parliament2 thus constituted is strictly limited. It shares with the emperor the legislative Powers power, including the discussion and sanctioning of of the the budget. But, so far as the parliament is concerned, Duma. tjjjg pOwer ;s subject to numerous and important exceptions. All measures, e.g. dealing with the organization of the army .and navy are outside its competence; these are no longer called " laws " but " ordinary administrative rules." Moreover, the procedure of the Houses practically places the control of legislation in the hands of ministers. Any member may bring in a " project of law," but it has to be submitted to the minister of the department concerned, who is allowed a month to consider it, and himself prepares the final draft laid on the table of the House. Amendments, however, may be and have been carried against the government. Ministers are responsible, moreover, not to parliament but to the emperor. They may be interpellated, but only on the legality, not the policy, of their acts. In the words of M. Stolypin, there is no intention of converting the ministerial bench into a prisoners' dock. If by a two-thirds majority the action of a minister be arraigned, the president of the Imperial Council lays the case before the emperor, who decides. The powers of the parliament over the budget are even more limited, though not altogether illusory. No legislation by means of the budget is allowed, i.e. no alteration may be made in credits necessary for carrying out a law. This deprives parliament of control over the administrative departments, all the ministries being . thus " armour-plated " — to use the cant phrase current in Russia — except that of ways and communications (railways). The sum of 700,000,000 roubles per annum is thus excepted from the control of the chambers. Other exceptions are the " Institutions of the Empress Marie," which absorb, inter alia, the duties on playing-cards and the taxes on places of public entertainment; the imperial civil list, so far as this does not exceed the sum fixed in 1906 (16,359,595 roubles!); the ex- penses of the two imperial chanceries, 10,000,000 roubles per annum, which constitute in effect a secret service fund. Al- together, half the annual expenditure of the country is outside the control of parliament. Nor is this all. If the budget be not sanctioned by the emperor, that of the previous year remains in force, and the government has power, motu proprio, to impose the extra taxes necessary to carry out new laws. In certain circum- stances, too, the emperor reserves the right to raise fresh loans. 1 Thus M. Guchkov, leader of the Octobrists, and M. Miliukov, leader of the cadets, were both returned by the second curia of St Petersburg to the third Duma. 1 Strictly speaking, the title is inapplicable, there being no col- lective official name for the two chambers. The word parliament may, however, be used as a convenient term, failing a better. Further, the emperor has the power to issue ordinances having the force of law, i.e. under extraordinary circumstances when the Duma is not sitting. These ordinances must, how- ever, be of a temporary nature, must not infringe the funda- mental laws or statutes passed by the two chambers, or change the electoral system, and must be laid upon the table of the Duma at the first opportunity. Since, however, the emperor has the -power of proroguing or dissolving the Duma as often as he pleases, it is clear that these temporary ordinances might in effect be made permanent. Finally, the emperor has the right to proclaim anywhere and at any time a state of siege. In this way the fundamental laws were suspended not only in Poland but in St Petersburg and other parts of the empire during the greater part of the four years succeeding the grant of the constitution. It should be noted, none the less, that the third Duma suc- ceeded in establishing its position, and that in view of its useful activities even the extreme Right came to realize that there could be no return to the old undisguised absolutist regime (see History, below, ad fin.).. By the law of the i8th of October (November i) 1005, to assist the emperor in the supreme administration a Council of Ministers (Sovyet Ministrov) was created, under a minister president, the first appearance of a prime minister in Russia. This council consists of all the ministers and of the heads of the principal administrations. The ministries are as follows: (i) of the Imperial Court, to which the administration of the apanages, the chapter of the imperial orders, the imperial palaces and theatres, and the Academy of Fine Arts are subordinated; (2) Foreign Affairs; (3) War and Marine; (4) Finance; (5) Commerce and Industry (created in 1905); (6) Interior (including police, health, censorship and press, posts and telegraphs, foreign religions, statistics); (7) Agriculture; (8) Ways and Com- munications; (9) Justice; (10) Public Instruction. Dependent on the Council of Ministers are two other councils: the Holy Synod and the Senate. The Holy Synod (established in 1721) is the supreme organ of government of the Orthodox Church in Russia. It is presided over by a lay procurator, representing the emperor, and consists, for the rest, of the three s°aod metropolitans of Moscow, St Petersburg and Kiev, the archbishop of Georgia, and a number of bishops sitting in rotation. The Senate (PravUelstvuyushchi Senat, i.e. directing or governing senate), originally established by Peter the Great, consists of members nominated by the emperor. Its functions, which are exceedingly various, are carried out by the different departments into which it is divided. It is the supreme court of cassation (see Judicial System, below); an audit office, a high oourt of justice for all political offences; one of its departments fulfils the functions of a heralds' college. It also has supreme jurisdiction in all disputes arising out of the administration of the empire, notably differences between the representatives of "the central power and the elected organs of local self-government. Lastly, it examines into registers and promulgates new laws, a function which, in theory, gives it a power, akin to that of the Supreme Court of the United States, of rejecting measures not in accordance with the fundamental laws. For purposes of provincial administration Russia is divided into 78 governments (guberniya), 18 provinces (oblast) and i district (okrug). Of these n governments, 17 p^,. provinces and i district (Sakhalin) belong to Asiatic vincM Russia. Of the rest 8 governments are in Finland, »