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UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
LIBRARY

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The

Encyclopedia of Practical
Horticulture

-Maxted Photo

The

Encyclopedia of Practical
Horticulture

A Reference System of Commercial
Horticulture

Covering the Practical and Scientific
Phases of Horticulture with Special
Reference to Fruits and Vegetables

Editor-in-Chief
GRANVILLE LOWTHER

Associate Editor
WILLIAM WORTHINGTON

Assisted by the best known scientific and practical horticulturists
throughout the country, and particularly in the Northwest . . .

Illustrated

Volume II

PUBLISHED BY

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HORTICULTURE CORPORATION

W. M. FLEMING, President

NORTH YAKIMA. WASHINGTON, U. S. A

LIBRARY

UNiVERGiTY OF
MASSACHUSETTS

AMHERST, MASS..

Copyright 1914 by

Encyclopedia of Horticulture

Corporation

PRESS of
LowMAN & Hanford Co.

SEATTLE

BUREAUS OF U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE— BUSH FRUITS

665

Bureaus of U. S. Department of
Agriculture

Weather Bureau — C. F. Marvin, Chief.

Bureau of Animal Industry — A. D. Mel-
vin, Chief.

Bureau of Plant Industry — W. A. Tay-
lor, Chief.

Forest Service — H. S. Graves, Forester.

Bureau of Soils — Milton Whitney, Chief.

Bureato of Chemistry — C. L. Alsberg,
Chief.

Bureau of Statistics — L; M. Estabrook,
Statistician.

Bureau of Entomology — L. O. Howard,
Entomologist.

Bureau of Biological Survey — H. W.
Henshaw, Chief.

Office of Public Roads— L. W. Page, Di-
rector.

Office of Experiment Stations — A. C.
True, Director.

Bush Fruits

After the selection of a proper site for
the growing of bush fruits, the most im-
portant factor entering into it, is the
man. This has been demonstrated so of-
ten, and in so many parts of the coun-
try, one man succeeding where another
fails, that it needs no extended proofs
here. We will refer to our article on ap-
ples as an illustration showing how by the
choice of good varieties, and by the proper
care in packing and marketing, one man
will make a good profit, while another will
barely live. Card in his book on "Bush
Fruits," says: "The yield of black rasp-
berries for a given year, as reported by
58 growers ranged from 567 quarts per
acre to 9,600 quarts per acre." Just how
much of this difference was due to un-
avoidable conditions, and how much to
preventable circumstances, is not known;
but our observation leads to the conclu-
sion, that much, very much, depends on
the man. "The yield of blackberries per
acre as reported by 50 growers, ranged
from 1,280 quarts, to 10,000 quarts. The
average was 3,158 quarts per acre." The
highest yield shows the possibilities of
high productions under favorable condi-
tions, the low yield shows what to ex-

pect under poor conditions with poor
management.

It is conceded that all the bush fruits,
except perhaps cranberries, do better in a
deep rich soil, well drained, than under
other conditions. Perhaps in no section
of the United States do berries produce
larger returns than in the Pacific coast
region. Here, nature seems to have fur-
nished the conditions of soil and climate
best adapted to this kind of fruit.

In the Rocky mountain and Alleghany
mountain regions it is conceded that a
rich loam, with a clay subsoil, is better
for most varieties, while for some, a
sandy loam is best. Generally, a good
corn and potato soil, is good for small
fruits. However, for certain kinds of
fruits, especially raspberries, a north
slope is better than a south slope because
they reach a higher development, where
the sun is not too hot. A considerable de-
gree of humidity in the atmosphere is
also favorable.

The roots of small fruits do not extend
so deeply into the ground as the roots
of the larger trees like apples and pears,
therefore require more moisture near the
surface of the soil, and are more quickly
affected by drouth.

Fertilizers

It is impossible to tell, without know-
ing the character of the soil, what fer-
tilizers should be used. Some soils are
full of humus, and to add fertilizers of
that character would be superfiuous. Gen-
erally, where there is an abundance of
humus, there is a lack of some of the
mineral elements necessary to a good
crop. Other soils lack humus, because
they are located in the arid or semi-arid
regions, where vegetation has grown but
little. These soils are generally rich
in mineral elements, because the soils
have not been leached by rains and fioods.
Some soils are disintegrated lime stone,
and to add lime might injure them, while
others are disintegrated sand stone or
basalt. A soil analysis is necessary in
order to know intelligently what to add
and what fruits are best adapted to cer-
tain conditions.

2—1

666

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Selection of Varieties

There are several considerations which
should determine the varieties of any
particular species of fruit that should be
grown.

First. Selection in reference to soil
adaptations. Certain varieties of fruits
have become adapted to certain condi-
tions. These conditions must be ob-
served if the best results are to be
reached. There are varieties better suited
to sandy soils, others to clay, others to
black loam, and a study of the nature
and habits of the species, or variety of
the species, before planting, may obviate
much disappointment.

Second. Selection of varieties in refer-
ence to climate. The U. S. Pomological
Society divides the United States and
Canada into districts and gives a table
of fruits recommended for each district.
These recommendations have been made
with a good deal of care, and while they
might be amended by the State Experi-
ment Station, or by the experience of
growers in any particular locality, they
nevertheless have much merit, and it
would hardly be considered prudent for
the amateur fruit grower, to select his
varieties, without consulting their tables.

Third. Selection of varieties with ref-
erence to altitude. There are places in
the United States where 100 feet in al-
titude will make as much difference in
the temperature as 100 miles further
north.

Fourth. Selection with reference to
frost.

There are three conditions that tend
to protect from frost. The first is al-
titude, or elevation above the surround-
ing country. This does not mean, neces-
sarily a high altitude; but it means that
in relation to the lands around it, there
are lower lands, toward which the cold
air will gravitate.

The second influence affecting frost
conditions is evaporation from large
bodies of water. A body of water radiates
heat less rapidly than the earth's surface.
Therefore, in the autumn, the earth cools
faster than the water. When the prevail-

ing winds come from a large body of
water as a sea, or lake, the atmosphere in
the autumn is warmer from the water
surface, thus preventing early autumn
frosts. In the spring time, the earth ab-
sorbs heat faster than the water surface,
thus the breezes coming from the body of
water are cooler, and the budding of fruit
is delayed beyond the frost period. Ex-
amples of this are seen on the Pacific
coast, Michigan bordering on the lake,
and other portions of country similarly
situated.

The third influence affecting frost is
air drainage.

To have good air drainage a tract
should be so situated that there are no
obstructions to the free passage of the
cold air downward. A pocket will be
frosty. Wherever the air tends to stag-
nate there will be a tendency to frost.
Locations in gaps, gorges or canyons
opening out into valleys or broader spaces
afford good drainage as there is usually
a movement of air forced by the pres-
sure from the higher lands and the broad
opening permits a free escape. This cir-
culation of air tends to prevent the frost
from forming.

Fifth. Location with reference to mar-
kets.

It makes a great deal of difference, in
handling tender and perishable fruits,
whether they are hauled or shipped long
or short distances. A long haul, over the
ordinary country roads, often bruises and
injures the fruits, so that when they
reach the local market, they are unsale-
able. A long distance shipment takes
time, and in that time, the fruits are
more or less damaged. Besides the extra
expense of a long shipment there are
dangers of delays, wrecks and other
losses, that often cause trouble. Other
things being equal, it is much better to
have an orchard near the markets.

For the different varieties of bush
fruits treated, see under their respective
names:

Blackberry, currant, gooseberry, huckle-
berry, raspberry.

Gbanville Lowther

BY-PRODUCTS OF THE APPLE

667

By-Products of the Apple

The utilization of cull and possible sur-
plus apples is a matter of economic im-
portance, and may, in many instances,
mean a difference between profit and loss
in the apple business. Just as the great
packing concerns utilize every particle
of their raw material and allow nothing
to waste, so can the grower utilize his
cull apples in many ways and check or
prevent waste. There is a special use
for every part of the apple. Seeds are
used by large nurserymen for growing ap-
ple seedlings. The skin and core are
preferred by the jelly makers on account
of high sugar content and the coloring
matter of the skin. The pulp or flesh is
used for canning, evaporating, apple but-
ter, apple paste and other products But
the greatest value is in the juice.

The maker of juice products strives
first of all to get the greatest possible
amount of juice from his apples. The
amount of juice that the apples contain
depends upon the condition of ripeness,
as well as upon the variety. An over ripe
apple is mealy and contains less juice
than one in prime condition. Also cer-
tain varieties such as Jonathan and Wine-
sap contain more juice than certain other
varieties, such as Maiden Blush and
Rome Beauty. A bushel of good cider
apples in prime condition should contain
from four to five gallons of juice. The
amount of juice that is actually taken out
depends largely upon the efficiency of the
machinery. The large hydraulic presses
with a pressure of from three to five hun-
dred tons seldom get more than four gal-
lons to the bushel, while the small
hand presses seldom get more than two
and one half gallons to the bushel. Just
as the last strippings of a cow's milk
is the richest part of her milk, so the
juice that is left in the pomace after the
first pressing is the richest of the juice.
In fact after the first pressing by the
best presses it is figured that from 25
to 40 per cent of the sugar content still
remains in the pomace. We shall see
as we proceed that the sugar content
largely determines the quality of the
juice, for most of the products made

therefrom. The pomace therefore, is very
often soaked up and repressed.

The products of apple juice may be
discussed under three main divisions as
follows: Plain apple juice or sweet
cider, reduced apple juice, and products
of fermentation.

Sweet Cider

It would seem that the simplest mar-
ketable product of apple juice is sweet
cider, which is the juice just as it comes
from the press. It is a simple matter
to make sweet cider, and it is a market-
able product for which there is a good
demand. But it is not such a simple mat-
ter to keep cider sweet, without in some
way impairing its quality. In fact this
difficulty of properly preserving sweet cid-
er has undoubtedly been the greatest bar-
rier to the proper development of the
sweet cider business, and likewise the
greatest barrier to satisfying the demands
of a sweet cider loving public.

Difficulty of Keeping Cider Sweet

In order to understand something of
the cause of the difficulty of keeping
cider sweet, it is necessary for us to
know something of the composition of
apple juice, the processes of fermenta-
tion and the organisms which cause
fermentation. This will be explained
more fully in discussing the products of
fermentation. It is only necessary here
to explain that certain minute organisms
enter the juice Immediately upon its be-
ing exposed to the atmosphere. Un-
der ordinary conditions these organisms
develop and multiply rapidly and in doing
so transform the sugar of the juice into
alcohol. When the formation of alcohol
has begun still other organisms enter
and change the alcohol into acetic acid.
It can be readily seen then that the prob-
lem which the sweet cider man has to
solve is the controlling or stopping of
the work of these organisms.

The general practice for many years
has been the use of such chemical pre-
servatives as benzoate of soda, boric acid
and salicilic acid. Benzoate of soda is
undoubtedly the preservative that is in
most general use, and probably the one
that gives best results, so far as chemicals

668

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

are concerned. But even benzoate of
soda comes far from giving entire satis-
faction. Its use impairs the quality of
the juice and does not completely prevent
fermentation. Its use is limited by the
pure food laws to 1/10 of 1 per cent.

Recent investigations by the United
States Department of Agriculture have
proven the feasibility of other and better
methods of preserving sweet cider. The
first of these is the cold storage method.
It is well known that these ferment or-
ganisms do not thrive at a low tempera-
ture. Under this method the cider is
taken immediately from the press and
cooled rapidly to 32 degrees Fahrenheit,
and is then held in storage at that
temperature. In the Government tests*
the juice was held in this way for from
36 to 70 days without noticeable fermen-
tation and was held for from 90 days to
125 days before being considered "hard"
or "sour."

Another method tried out by the Gov-
ernment and which bids fair to come into
general use is that of sterilization or
pasteurization. By pasteurization we
mean heating the juice to a temperature
that will kill any of the ferment organ-
isms which may be present. * It was
found that to slowly heat the juice to
the required temperature gave it a de-
cidedly cooked taste. But a Pasteurizer
was devised by which the desired temp-
erature was obtained very quickly, under
which condition the cooked flavor is
scarcely noticeable.

The Pasteurizer used for this purpose
consists of a steam box in which is a
coil of pipe. The juice is passed through
this coil and can be taken out at any
desired temperature, depending upon the
rate of flow. It is heated up to 170 de-
grees Fahrenheit and put at once into
sterilized containers, care being taken to
avoid any possibility of contamination.
It must be remembered that hot juice
put into a barrel or other container will
shrink upon cooling and thus leave a
space at the top of the container. For

*Ref. Clr. No. 48, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.

♦Note, Bui. No. 118, Bureau of Chemistry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

this reason the containers are not bung-
ed tightly until the juice has cooled. A
small hole is bored in the bung. This
hole is stuffed with cotton which has
been previously soaked in alcohol, so that
the air that passes through the cotton
is sterilized. When the juice has cool-
ed a wooden skewer which has first been
sterilized is driven into the hole and
sawed off on top.

Cider preserved in this way should re-
main sound and sweet indefinitely. In
the experiments carried on by the Gov-
ernment the cider was perfectly sound
and sweet at the end of six months.

Apple juice may be put upon the mar-
ket in reduced forms. Cider boiled down
to one-fifth of its original bulk has almost
the density of syrup. This product is
used in making pies, sauces, apple but-
ter and in other cooking. It finds ready
sale at good prices in the Eastern mar-
kets.

Apple juice reduced to one-seventh or
one-eighth its original bulk becomes jel-
ly. Special apparatus for reducing apple
juice rapidly is to be had on the open
market.

We are now ready to discuss some of
the ferments and the products of fer-
mentation. It has been said above that
when apple juice is exposed to the air
in a moderate temperature fermentation
begins almost immediately. Fermenta-
tion starts in because certain minute
yeast cells which are nearly everywhere
have entered the juice and have found
an ideal place for their development and
multiplication. On this development and
multiplication they are doing certain
work. They are changing the sugar of
the juice into carbon dioxide and alcohol
remains in the juice. After fermentation
has started but is not yet complete we
have what we call "hard cider." By the
term "dry cider," or "apple wine," we
mean cider that has completed the alco-
holic ferment, or, in other words, cider
in which all the sugar has been turned
into alcohol.

But cider or wine making is not such
a simple matter as it might appear. As
soon as the alcoholic ferment has begun.

BY-PRODUCTS OF THE APPLE

669

if the juice is still exposed to the atmo-
sphere, other ferments which are injuri-
ous or destructive to the making of good
wine are bound to enter. The thing of
primary importance to the cider or wine
maker then is avoiding contamination of
his liquor.

The juice as it comes from the press
is put at once into barrels which have
been thoroughly steamed or scalded. The
barrel is filled only about three-quarters
full to avoid overflowing during the
period of tumultuous fermentation.

When the juice has been put into the
barrel a fermentation funnel is imme-
diately put into the bung and tightly
sealed around the edge of the bunghole
with parafiine or vaseline. A fermentation
funnel is so arranged that the gases from
within the barrel escape, but the air from
without cannot enter.

In recent j^ears some of the ferment
yeasts have been separated into many
varieties and pure cultures made of these
varieties. It has been found that fermen-
tation may be hastened by the use of cer-
tain pure culture yeasts, and also that
the flavor of the wine depends largely
upon the variety of yeast used.

After fermentation has been completed
the cider is drawn off from the top into
freshly sterilized containers, leaving the
lees and sediment in the bottom of the
old containers. The new containers are
tightly bunged and sealed and stored in
the cellar ready for use.

Perhaps the product of apple juice
which is most extensively made in this
country at the present time is vinegar.
In the manufacture of vinegar, as in the
apple industry itself, quality is of first
importance. The element of quality in
vinegar is largely determined by the per
cent of acetic acid. The law in most
states requires vinegar to test from four
to four and one-half per cent acetic acid.
Much of the vinegar made on the farms,
in a haphazard way, not only will not
stand this test but, on account of decom-
position or other cause, is unfit for use,
and does not find a ready market. On
the other hand a recent writer on the
subject says:

"Apple cider vinegar is demanded by
the trade. There is not one-tenth enough
pure cider vinegar made in this country
today to supply the ever-increasing de-
mand."

To make a good product the vinegar
maker must first have pure apple juice
which must test not less than nine per
cent sugar; 10 per cent to 12 per cent is
much better. It is upon this sugar con-
tent of the juice and its subsequent chem-
ical changes from sugar to alcohol and
from alcohol to acetic acid that the man-
ufacture of vinegar depends.

(1) Sugar ^Alcohol+Carbon Dioxide
C^H'=0«=2C=H^O=+2CO-

[ Water

(2) Alcohol -fOxygen=Acetic Acid+
C^H-'O -fO =C='H*0^+H=0

Theoretically, to get a four per cent
acid vinegar requires a cider containing
four per cent alcohol. And to get a
cider containing four per cent alcohol we
must have a juice containing eight per
cent sugar. In practice it is best to leave
a little margin above these figures to
allow for incomplete chemical change or
waste.

The vinegar maker therefore strives to
get a juice as rich as possible in sugar
content. The sugar content of the juice
depends upon the conditions of ripeness
of the apples as well as upon the variety.
While an apple that is underripe has not
yet changed its starch to sugar, an apple
that is overripe has in some peculiar man-
ner lost some of its saccharine substance.
An apple must therefore be in prime con-
dition of ripeness to show highest sugar
content of juice.

Many tests of varieties have been made,
and published lists of the sugar content
of different varieties are to be had. It
is a simple matter for anyone to make
this test with a saccharometer. In prac-
tice, however, the vinegar maker seldom
has the chance to select his varieties,
but must take a mixture of the varieties
as they run. It is enough here to say
that the average mixture of varieties, if
in good condition, will test sufficiently
high, and that our favored winesaps and
Jonathans are both high-testing varieties.

670

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

The minute organisms that are respons-
ible for changing the sugar content of
apple juice to the acetic acid of vinegar
require special conditions in order to
thrive and do their work. The practice
of modern vinegar making has been
greatly facilitated by a knowledge of the
habits and requirements of these organ-
isms, and a proper manipulation of the
juice to fill these requirements. The yeast
plant, which, as has been stated above, is
responsible for the alcoholic ferment,
thrives best in a temperature of 75 de-
grees to 85 degrees Fahrenheit. If the
storage room be kept at this temperature
the alcoholic ferment should be com-
pleted in about four weeks. Special yeast
cultures are sometimes used to hasten the
process.

The acetic ferment, or the bacteria, that
are responsible for the chemical change of
alcohol to acetic acid require oxygen in
order to thrive and to do their work, and
the cider must therefore come in contact
with the atmosphere. Since only the sur-
face of the cider in a barrel comes in
contact with the air it is only upon the
surface that the acetic ferment works.
For this reason the old system of allow-
ing the cider to stand in barrels until it
becomes vinegar requires a period of
many months, usually about two years.

The modern vinegar maker hastens
matters by passing his cider through a
"generator." A "generator" is a tall tank
having a perforated false bottom some
eight to ten inches from the real bottom,
and a false head a few inches from the
top of the staves. The space between
the false bottom and the false head is
filled with rattan or beachwood shavings,
or some other suitable material. Just
above the false head the cider is fed into
a little trough, which automatically
dumps and spreads the cider over the
perforated head. This allows it to trickle
down through the shavings, thus exposing
every drop to the air. In this way the
same process which requires two years
in the barrels is accomplished in a single
day. However, for the average orchard
man the old barrel process is still prob-
ably the most practical. Even this pro-

cess may be very much shortened by a
proper manipulation of the cider in the
barrels. It may be racked off into new
barrels frequently and in that way thor-
oughly stirred and exposed to the oxygen
of the atmosphere.

The ideal temperature for the acetic
ferment is about 86 degrees Fahrenheit.
That is the bacteria is most active at this
temperature and becomes less active as
it varies either way from this. At 104
degrees Fahrenheit their action ceases
entirely.

Upon completion of the vinegar process
the vinegar maker takes every precaution
to check further chemical change or de-
composition. He puts the finished product
in pure, clean, barrels carefully guarding
against the presence of vinegar eels or
other foreign matter. The barrels are
then tightly bunged and his product is
ready for the market.

P. S. Darlington,
District Horticultnral Inspector.

Cabbages

The parent from which the variety of
cabbages in common use has sprung is
supposed to be the wild sea cabbage
(Brassica oleracea), a plant found near
the seacoast of various parts of England
and continental Europe. The cultivated
varieties vary greatly from the original
type, but present striking similarities
amongst themselves. There are some
points however, in which the wild and
the cultivated are nearly alike and these
are in the flower seed pod and seed.

Cabbages contain a very small per cent
of nitrogenous compounds as compared
with most articles of food. An analysis
when cooked will show that they gener-
ally contain chemical constituents as fol-
lows: Water, 97.4 per cent; fat, 0.1 per
cent; carbohydrate, 0.4 per cent; mineral
matter, 0.1 per cent; nitrogenous matter,
0.6 per cent; cellulose, 1.3 per cent. They
are said to possess anti-scorbutic proper-
ties. Apart from that, the analysis shows
that they have very little food value.

The Soil

Cabbages require a deep rich soil,
where they can be made to grow rapidly

CABBAGES

671

and be crisp and tender. Almost any
good soil that will grow corn, vegetables
and other crops successfully will grow
cabbages; but with some vegetables it is
possible to get the soil too rich while
with cabbages there is little danger. The
Pacific Northwest is well adapted to the
growing of cabbages, and in the low lands
of the eastern side of the Cascade moun-
tains, where irrigation is practiced and
the alkali is strong, excellent cabbages
can be grown on land too strong in alkali
for fruit trees. However, it must not be
supposed that all alkali soils would be
good for cabbages; for we have seen the
alkali so strong that nothing would grow.
We only wish to suggest that land some-
times considered waste, because it will
not successfully grow fruit trees or hay,
may be utilized for cabbages.

For an early crop the seed should be
sown in hotbeds, early in the spring, and
the plants set in rows in the field or
garden as soon as the danger of frost is
over. The plants are not tender, and will
stand considerable cold, so that it is not
necessary to exercise the same care as in
case of beans, tomatoes, or some other
garden plants. For a late crop the seed
may be planted in the open, and the
plants set almost any time during the
summer. It is not uncommon, in the
milder climates, to set the plants as late
as September, and allow them to stand
in the field as late as December. This
method is practiced by many growers, in
order to avoid the pests that are much
more destructive during the summer than
in the autumn.

Setting the Plants

The plants should be set in rows, about
three feet apart, so that it is easy to cul-

Pig. 1. The Plant on the Left Is Set Too
Shallow. The stem is exposed to the sun
and freezes. The plant on the right is set
the proper depth in the soil.

tivate between them. Some practice the
method of cross cultivation, in which
case the plants have to be set in squares
about three feet each way, and the rows
both longitudinal and transverse. Plants
should be set in the evening, and the
ground about them well watered, so as to
keep the roots wet and the plant sappy
during the next day, until the little ten-
der root hairs begin their work of supply.
If plants are not set during the evening,
then they should be covered with a leaf,
or paper, or something to protect them
from the sun. The stem of the plant
should be set deeply enough so that the
leaves are within an inch or so from the
surface of the ground. It is better to
set the stem in the earth up to the leaves
than to leave too much of it exposed, as
is often done.

Varieties

Recommended for the Inland Empire
section of Oregon, Washington and Idaho.

Extra Early Express (Burpee), Early
Jersey Wakefield (Burpee), Early Winig-
stadt (Burpee), Surehead (Burpee),
American Drumhead Savoy (Henderson).

On the question of varieties for the
South we quote from C. C. Newman,
South Carolina Agricultural College.

"Contrary to the general opinion, the
early maturing varieties are better suited
for winter use in the South than the late
varieties. If the late varieties are plant-
ed at the usual time in the spring, they
will mature before fall, and if planted in
late summer, they will not mature until
midwinter, and are liable to be seriously
injured before they are ready to be har-
vested. In the mountain section where
the summers are not too severe, the late
varieties, set out in May and June, mature
during the months of October and No-
vember.

"We have tested practically all the
varieties of cabbages in our trial grounds
for the last five years, and the Charleston
Wakefield, Early Summer Succession, and
Late Flat Dutch, have given best results
for fall and winter use, when planted to
the field the first week in August. There
are, of course, a large number of varieties
that will produce fine fall cabbages, but

672

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the three mentioned seem to be about
the best for this section of the country.
The two first named varieties will mature
during October and November, and the
Succession will form large solid heads by
the middle of December. The late Drum-
head Savoy will probably endure more
cold after heading than any of the smooth
leafed varieties, and is, therefore, very
desirable for a very late winter cabbage.
It is highly recommended for home use
and for local markets. Late Flat Dutch
is an excellent variety to follow Succes-
sion. Cabbage here will endure a temp-
erature of 26 degrees without injury.

"Cabbage seed sown in an unprotected
bed about October 1st will produce nice,
stocky plants for transplanting to the field
in early spring. Seed sown at this time
will make short, stocky plants, which
will head from May to July, according
to the earliness of the variety. Seed
sown in the open ground about the first
of September will usually make too much
growth before cold weather, and are
liable to run to seed when transplanted

in the spring, without forming heads.
Seed sown in protected frames early in
January will be ready for transplanting
to the field early in March. Before trans-
planting, these plants should be gradually
hardened off by exposing them to the cool
weather and allowing the bed to become
moderately dry. Cabbage plants set to
the field in October will not be injured to
any great extent, even during the coldest
weather. The plants will make consid-
erable growth during October and Novem-
ber, but from the last of December to the
last of February little growth will take
place. After the first of March the plants
begin to grow more rapidly, and by the
first of April they will begin to form
heads. When the plants are set out too
early in the fall, they will form small
heads by the middle of December, and a
large per cent of the plants will run to
seed in the spring, without forming mar-
ketable heads.

"The following table gives some idea as
to what might be expected from an acre
of fall cabbages:

Tear 1908

^

Per cent.

Variety

Seed
Planted

Plants
set to
field

Per cent.

of plants

died

When
matured

Average
Weight

of plants

that
headed

Yield
per acre

Charleston Wakefield

June 3d

Aug. 15

5%

Nov. 1
to Dec. 5

3 lbs.

95%

12,630
lbs.

Henderson's Success'n

June 3d

Aug. 15

6%

Nov. 10
to Jan. 1

6M lbs.

92%

23,490
lbs.

Late Flat Dutch

June 3d

Aug. 15

8%

Nov. 25
to Jan. 15

6 lbs.

85%

18,480
lbs.

"The soil on which these cabbages were
grown would produce about 40 bushels
corn per acre.

"Ten two-horse loads of stable manure
was applied broadcast per acre, and the
soil was then plowed eight inches deep
with a two-horse turn plow. One thou-
sand pounds of fertilizer, analyzing eight
per cent phosphorous acid, four per cent
nitrogen, and seven per cent potash, was
then applied broadcast, and mixed with
the soil with an Acme harrow."

Harvesting the Crop

When mature, if cabbages are grown for
the markets, they are generally pulled,
some of the outer leaves taken off, the
stems cut off, and they are then crated
for shipment. If they are grown for
home use, they are treated in like man-
ner and stored in a cool place, the nearer
to the freezing point the better. Some-
times the farmer pulls his cabbage late
in the autumn or early in the winter, and
places them in trenches with the stems

CABBAGES— CABBAGE DISEASES

673

Fig.

Two Heads of Succession Cabbage Cut From the Field After Havinj
Temperature of 20 Degrees.

Withstood a

upward, throwing a little dirt over them
and taking them out as they are needed
for use. When the winters are mild, we
have known cabbages left in the field all
winter to be in fairly good condition the
following spring. Granville Lowther

Wide Variation in Price of Cabbage

Of the 40 different agricultural prod-
ucts, the prices of which are obtained
monthly by the department of agriculture,
cabbage varies most widely in price. For
the entire United States the average price
paid to producers on January 15 was
about $1.26 per 100 pounds. This aver-
age is based upon reports of correspond-
ents from 778 towns, representing every
state of the Union. The lowest average
for any state is 24 cents per 100 pounds
for New York. The highest average is
$3.33 per 100 pounds for Alabama. The
average of 24 cents per 100 pounds in
New York is based upon reports from 23
towns, eight of which returned 15 cents
per 100 as the average; no quotation was
above 50 cents per 100 pounds. In the
adjoining state, Pennsylvania, the aver-
age price was about $1.60 per 100 pounds,
not one of the 23 reports received being
under $1 per 100 pounds. Here is an
average difference of $1.36 per 100 pounds
in the average price paid to producers of
cabbage in two adjoining states.

Crop Reporter, January 1, 1913.

Cabbage Methods of Propagation in
Alaska. See Alaska.

For Propagation in the Gulf States
see Alabama.

CABBAGE DISEASES

Black Leg or Plioma Wilt

Phoma oleracea
F. D. Bailey
This is a serious disease of cabbage
and cauliflower. Though it has only re-
cently been reported in the United States,
it has already become widely distributed.
In Ohio many fields have been seriously
damaged, in some, indeed, the disease was
so severe that no marketable cabbage
were cut. It is supposed that this dis-
ease was introduced from Europe where
it has caused severe losses, especially in
France, Germany and Holland. It has
been known in Australia for a number of
years and is thought to be the most seri-
ous disease affecting cauliflower and cab-
bage in that country. This disease has
been found in Oregon, during the season
of 1912, in Jackson and Wallowa counties.
In the latter, where it probably appeared
the previous year, it is already causing
alarm. It is very probable that the fun-
gus may be introduced on seed, and it is
interesting and possibly significant to
note that the Wallowa grower purchased
his seed from Illinois the year he first
observed the disease.

2—2

674

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Symptoms

The most characteristic symptom of this
disease is the blackening and decay of
the stem close to the surface of the
ground. (Fig. 1.) Cankered areas are
produced which sometimes completely
girdle the stem and the plant is often
broken over by the wind. The outer
leaves of affected plants are bluish red
in color, a characteristic which remains
until the plant dies. Plants may be at-
tacked at any time in their growth, more
often, however, when they are about one-
half grown.

Other symptoms are spots on stem and

leaves, in which numerous very small

black specks can be seen. A wilting, in

which the leaves droop instead of falling

off, is frequently observed in diseased

plants.

Cause

The fungus which causes black leg of

cabbage and cauliflower is known techni-

Fig. 1. Black Leg of Cabbage. The stem is
often girdled near the surface of the ground.

cally as Phoma oleracea. It enters the
plant at some place near the surface of
the ground, probably in wounds made by
insects. Leaf infection may also take
place. From these infected spots the
fungus spreads, killing the plant tissues
and shutting off the food supply from
other parts. It comes to the surface to
form the pycnidia or small black specks
in which great numbers of minute spores
are produced. These spores are forced to
the surface and are carried by wind,
water, insects or other agencies, to start
new infection. Many seedlings are in-
fected at planting time. If an occasional
diseased seedling is handled, spores will
be transmitted to the hands and later to
healthy plants. The disease is frequently
found closely associated with the wounds
and injuries of insects, though infection
may take place without aid from this
source.

Treatment

The black leg organism is doubtless car-
ried over in the stems and leaves of old
decaying plants. It is a fungus capable
of living in the soil, but one that can be
controlled if the proper measures are con-
stantly employed. The greatest care
should be taken to keep the seed bed free
from it, thus making certain that it does
not become distributed over the fields.
The recommendation is made in Ohio
that the seed beds be sprinkled with 4-4-50
Bordeaux at the time of planting, using
one gallon of the mixture to each 10
square feet. This operation should be re-
peated two weeks before transplanting
and again just before transplanting. This
method has proven effective in holding
the disease in check. It is better to select
clean ground for the seed bed each year
and disinfect the seed to be used. A safe
treatment for cabbage and cauliflower
seed is to use a solution of formalin, one-
fourth pint in seven gallons of water,
allow them to soak for 15 minutes, rinse
in clean water and spread out to dry.

When the disease appears in the field
the affected plants should be removed and
burned.

The truck growers of the Northwest
maj^ well be on the lookout for this dis-

CABBAGE DISEASES

675

ease. It must be dealt with intelligently
from the first, for, once established, the
disease is a difficult one to control.

Brown or Black Rot

Bacterium campestre (Pam) Erw. Sm.
Is a serious disease of these two cruci-
fers, and attacks others of the family,
including turnips. It is a veritable
scourge to the cabbage growers of Ohio
and other states. Smith (Farmers' Bui.
68, U. S. D. A.) has published concerning
it and has attributed the disease to a
specific germ. The diseased heads may
be dwarfed, in portions rotted, and brown
colors will appear in the woody layers of
the plant, including the stem. Badly dis-
eased heads emit a penetrating and offens-
ive odor. The losses from the brown rot
have been very large and specific reme-
dies cannot be stated. The author quoted
sums up the subject of treatment in one
word — prevention. The measures recom-
mended are — plant on new land and only
from healthy seed beds; avoid succession
of the same crops; avoid stable manure
and give preference to artificial fertilizers
to escape possible infection through the
manure. Prevent animals from cropping
in diseased fields. Clean tools by scour-
ing bright after use in infected soil. Fight
the cabbage insects, since these inoculate
healthy plants with the disease. Removal
of badly affected plants, or newly infected
leaves, at intervals, and subsequent burn-
ing or deep pitting of this refuse may
aid in checking brown rot. Destroy all
mustard weeds.

The water pores of the cabbage are
large, as is evidenced by the great amount
of water which collects on the outside of
the leaves under certain conditions,
which makes the cabbage quite suscept-
ible to this form of disease.

A. D. Selby,
Wooster, Ohio.

Club Root

Plasmodiophora brassicae
F. D. Bailey
This is a destructive root disease of
crucifers attacking, among the cultivated
crops, the cabbage, cauliflower, turnip,
etc. It is caused by a very minute or-
ganism belonging to the group Myxo-

mycetes, commonly referred to as the
slime moulds. The technical name of the
organism causing this disease is Plasmo-
diophora brassicae. This disease occurs
in various sections of the Northwest, but
cannot be considered to be a very common
trouble. The knotty swellings or club-
shaped enlargements (Pig. 1) resulting

Ortftxi? ittt.

Fis. 1. Cabbase Plant Affected With
Club Root.

from the invasion of roots by this fungus
prevent the normal growth * of head or
root and gradually kill the plant.

When once established in the soil, the
fungus will live for several years. Cer-
tain weeds, shepherd's purse and hedge
mustard, are good hosts and doubtless
furnish opportunity for the disease to
perpetuate itself and to spread.

Control

Care must be taken to keep the seed
beds clean. Destroy all refuse from dis-
eased plants. Do not allow such material
to get into the compost heap. Practice
rotation with crops not included in this
group of plants, and keep the weeds down.

676

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 2. Club Root on Turnip.

Experiments have shown that an appli-
cation of lime at the rate of about 100
bushels per acre when the land is plowed
in the spring is a reliable method of con-
trol.

Damping Off
Caused by soil fungi of several varie-
ties. The young plants slough off at the
ground. The trouble occurs when they
are crowded or conditions are too moist.
Surface soil should be given a chance to
dry. Mainly a seed bed trouble.

Downy Mildew, Leaf Blight and
White Rust

Occur upon plants of the mustard
family, including the cabbage.

If treatment seems necessary use Bor-
deaux mixture.

Fnsarinm Wilt

This trouble has become very destruc-
tive in the cabbage growing sections of
the Eastern states and bids fair to rank
with black rot in importance. It causes
a yellowing and wilting of the plants.

The only remedy suggested is the breed-
ing of resistant stocks.

Boot Bot, Stem Bot, Bhizoctonia

Due to the same fungus which attacks
the potato. It would seem that general
sanitary measures and rotation is the
only practicable remedy.

Bibliography for Cabbage Diseases and
Diseases of Cmcifers Generally

1898. "Vermont Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 66.

1911. Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Bulletin No. 191.

1911. Ohio Experiment Station Bulle-
tin No. 228.

1912. United States Department of
Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 488.

Literature on Diseases of Cole Crops
Bulletins and Beports

The following literature was complied
by the Cornell station in Bulletin No.
292.— Ed.

Soft Bot, or Stump Bot
Bacillus carotovorus Jones

1901 — A soft rot of carrot and other
vegetables. — L. R. Jones (Vt. Rpt. 13
[1900], pp. 299-332, figs. 10).

1904 — A bacterial disease of the cauli-
flower and allied plants. — F. C. Harrison
(Ont. Agr. Sta. Bui. 137, pp. 1-28, figs. 18).

1909 — The bacterial soft rots of certain
vegetables. I. — H. A. Harding, W. J. Morse
and L. R. Jones (N. Y. State Tech. Bui.
11, pp. 251-368, figs. 10).

Black Bot

Pseudomonas campestris, Pammel,
Erw. Smith

1890 — A bacterial disease of cabbage. —
H. Garman (Ky. Rpt. 3, pp. 43-46).

1898 — A bacterial rot of cabbage and
allied plants. — H. L. Russell (Wis. Bui.
65, p. 39, figs. 12).

1898 — A bacterial disease of cabbage
and allied plants. — H. L. Russell (U. S.
D. A. Office Exp. Stas., Bui. 49, pp. 86-89).

1898 — Black rot of the cabbage. — E. F.
Smith (U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bui. 68, p.
22).

1904 — Combating the black rot of cab-
bage by the removal of affected leaves. —
F. C. Stewart and H. A. Harding (N. Y.
State Bui. 232, pp. 43-65, pis. 2).

1904 — Vitality of the cabbage black rot
germ on cabbage seed. — H. A. Harding,
P. C. Stewart and M. J. Prucha (N. Y.
State Bui. 251, pp. 177-194).

CABBAGE DISEASES— CABBAGE PESTS

677

1905 — Some bacterial diseases of plants
prevalent in Michigan. — W. G. Sackett
(Mich. Bui. 230, pp. 213-216, figs. 2).

1909 — Some bacterial diseases of plants.
— W. G. Sackett (Colo. Bui. 138, pp. IS-
IS).

Club Root
Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor.

1893 — Club root of cabbage and its al-
lies.—B. D. Halsted (N. J. Bui. 98, p. 16,
figs. 13).

1893 — Injurious insects and diseases of
plants, with remedial measures. — W. B.
Alwood (Va. Bui. 24, p. 12).

1896 — Prevention of cabbage club root.
— F. C. Stewart (N. Y. State Rpt. 1895,
pp. 525-529).

1898 — Susceptibility of varieties of tur-
nips to club root; experiments with cab-
bages, etc.— B. D. Halsted (N. J. Rpt.
1897, pp. 270-276, fig. 1).

1898 — Club root and black rot. — L. R.
Jones (Vt. Bui. 66, pp. 3-12, figs. 5).

1907 — Some important plant diseases of
Washington. — W. H. Lawrence (Wash.
Bui. 83, pp. 6-9, fig. 1).

Root Rot or Stem Rot

Corticium vagiim B. & C. var. Solani Burt.
{Rhizocto7iia)

1899 — Three important fungous dis-
eases of the sugar beet. — B. M. Duggar
(N. Y. Cornell Bui. 163, pp. 339-352, 361,
pis. 3. figs. 5).

1900 — The rotting of greenhouse let-
tuce.— G. E. Stone and R. E. Smith (Mass.
Bui. 69, pp. 16, 17, 39, figs. 3).

1901 — The sterile fungus Rhizoctonia. —
B. M. Duggar and F. C. Stewart (N. Y.
Cornell Bui. 186, pp. 27, figs. 9). [Ibid.,
N. Y. State Bui. 186.]

1904— Potato failures.— F. M. Rolfs
(Colo. Bui. 91, pp. 33).

1905— Rhizoctonia (Rosette). — G. P.
Clinton (Conn. Rpt. 1904, pp. 325-326, pi.
1, figs. 3).

Downy Mildew of Cnicifers

Peronospora parasitica (Pers.) DeBary
1891— Cabbage.— B. D. Halsted (N. J.
Rpt. 1890, p. 349).

White "Rnsf of Cmcifers

Cystopus Candidas (Pers.) Lev.

1901 — The white mould of radish. — B.
D. Halsted (N. J. Rpt. 1900, pp. 462, 463,
pl. 1).

Bulletins covering generally the treat-
ment of cabbage diseases:

1904 — Cabbage diseases and insects. — J.
B. S. Norton and T. B. Symons (Md. Circ.
Bui. 58, pp. 10, figs. 6).

1909 — The control of malnutrition dis-
eases of truck crops. — L. L. Harter (Va.
Truck Sta. Bui. 1, pp. 4-16, figs. 4).

1910 — Diseases of garden crops and
their control. — N. J. Giddings (W. Va.
Bui. 123, pp. 18, pis. 5).

1910 — A brief handbook of the diseases
of cultivated plants in Ohio. — A. D. Selby
(Ohio Bui. 214, pp. 307-456-f vii, figs. 106).

1911 — California plant diseases. — R. E.
Smith and E. H. Smith (Cal. Exp. Sta.
Bui. 218).

CABBAGE PESTS

Cabbage Aphis. See Aphids; also Cab-
bage Louse, this section.

Cabbage Curcnlio

Ceutorhynchus rapae. Gyle.

Feeds upon the edge of the leaf. Not
serious as yet and not in the Northwest
so far as known.

Cabbage Hair Worm

Mermis albicans Deising

Looks like a piece of basting thread.
White in color, coiled or coiling and un-
coiling or crawling on cabbage heads.
From two to nine inches long.

Exaggerated reports of poisonings from
the presence of this worm came from the
South some years ago.

The worm is entirely harmless.

Reference

Bu. Ento. Circ. No. 62, Revised.

Cabbage Louse

Aphis brassicae Linn.

General Appearance

Dark greenish yellow to brownish, with
dark transverse bands across the abdo-
mens of some individuals. All covered
with a fine white powder, which gives
them a silvery or frosted appearance.

Life History

The lice appear with the first plants in
the spring and increase with such rapid-
ity as to soon almost entirely cover the
host. This condition prevails throughout
the early summer, after which the para-
sites begin to reduce their numbers. It
is a disgusting pest on cabbage, cauli-
flower and brussels sprouts.

Food Plants

All members of the Cruciferae includ-
ing cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts,
mustard, radish, etc.

678

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Natural Enemies

The ladybird beetles, Hippodamia con-
vergens, Megilla maculata and Coccinella
californica, prey to some extent upon this
pest. The real check, however, Is the in-
ternal parasite, Diaeretus californieus
Baker.

E. O. EssiG

Cabbage and Radish Maggot

PhorMa brassicae Bauche

A. L. LOVETT

This insect is considered a very serious
pest throughout the Pacific Northwest, or
wherever cabbages and radishes are
grown. In the truck crop regions, where
these crops are grown over considerable
areas and for a period of years on the
same soil, the pest is especially serious.

Plants Attacked

Besides attacking the cabbage and rad-
ish, this maggot feeds on the turnip, caul-
iflower, celery, rape, kale, and a variety
of the closely allied Cruciferiae. It is
also found about the roots of some of the
wild plants of this group, including mus-
tard and radish.

Description

The Larva. — It is as a larva that the
cabbage maggot is injurious and hence
best known to the grower. At this stage
it is a footless grub or maggot (see Fig.
1), waxy white or yellowish in color. The

Fig. 1. The Cabbage Maggot {PhorMa iras-
sicae), a, adult fly; b, got; c, puparium ; d,
the egg (much enlarged). (Original.)

body is cylindrical, ending bluntly be-
hind and tapering to a point at the ce-
phalic end. When mature, it measures
about .32 of an inch in length.

The Pupa. — The pupal or resting stage
of the cabbage maggot is passed in the
soil about the roots of the infested plant.
Exceptions to this rule occur in the forms
which assume the aerial habit and in the

few which pupate in their burrows in
the root. The pupa consists of a small
brown case or puparium some two-tenths
of an inch in length, elliptical-ovate in
form and without the ability to move.

The Adult. — The adult insect varies
considerably from the maggot that de-
stroys the plant. It is a fly which ap-
pears to the ordinary observer not
unlike the common house fly. It is con-
siderably smaller in size, however, and
when at rest the wings extend a greater
distance back of the abdomen and overlap
tnore.

The Egg is really very small, measur-
ing only .04 of an inch in length. It
is white, however, and by the keen
observer may be readily seen lying on
the soil close to the stem of the host
plant.

Life History

This insect passes the winter as larvae
and pupae in and about the roots of their
hosts. Possibly some of them pass the

Fig. 2. The Cabbage Ma

Root of wild

mustard showing larvae, pupae and injury.

CABBAGE PESTS

679

Fig. 3. The Cabbage Maggot.
Radish showing egg.

winter also as adult flies, hibernating in
sheltered nooks about the field and in
outbuildings. As the warm days of spring
advance, the flies emerge from their
hibernating quarters and also from the
pupal cases in the soil, and seek their
host plants for the purpose of egg deposi-
tion. The eggs are deposited close about
the plant, the female fly working herself
down below the surface, if the soil will
permit, and placing the egg right against
the plant root (see Fig. 3), The eggs are
often placed above ground on leaves or
developing buds. The eggs hatch in from
four to ten days, depending on the tem-
perature, and the young larvae commence
at once to burrow into the tender plant
(see Fig. 2). The maggots reach matur-
ity in a month to six weeks, pupate and
emerge soon after as adult flies. From

this time on until late fall one may usu-
ally find both larvae and pupae in the
soil. As the season advances, a portion
of the maggots assume an aerial habit.
This is especially true in the fields when
early cabbage has been harvested and
where the stumps left standing have put
out adventitious buds. The flies deposit
eggs in these tender buds and the mag-
gots burrow into the midribs of the leaves
and into the core of the shoots.

Control Measures

Possibly for no other group of insects
will one find such a variety of remedial
measures suggested as for the root mag-
gots, nor more diverse results following
their application. No single remedial
measure will ordinarily afford satisfac-
tory relief. Combinations of preventive
and remedial measures are best. A single
application of any solution will seldom
suffice; hence the crop should be treated
again when the effect of the previous
treatment is diminished.

Preventives

Plowing of the infested fields as soon
as the crop is removed will materially
lessen next year's brood. The soil should
be turned to a depth of four inches or
more.

Destruction of Stumps. — The old stumps
in the field or the refuse root crop in the
soil should be destroyed. Such materials
furnish ideal conditions for the develop-
ment of this pest.

Rotation of Crops. — Where conditions
will permit, rotate the crops so that
plants of the family Cruciferae occupy
the same soil but a single season. The
flies are weak fliers and do not as a usual
thing travel far to their hosts.

Screening Seed Beds. — Cabbage plants
yet in the seed beds are often infested
with this pest, and the maggots are car-
ried with the plants when they are trans-
ferred to the field. Mr. Schoene* has
studied the value of screening cabbage
seed beds and the following discussion
is based on his bulletin on this subject.
For early settings of cabbage, where the
product usually brings a fancy price on

Fig. 4.

Cabbage Maggot Adult.

— Photo by Essig.

* Schoene, W. .T., New Yoric Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, 1911, Bulletin 334.

680

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the market, screening the seed beds pays
very well and appears practical, in fact,
whenever the crop is valuable. From the
fragmentary data at hand, it appears that
the period of the seedling growth checks
up very closely with the time when the
early emerging adults of the cabbage
maggot commence their egg deposition.

The usual method is to construct about
the bed a frame of six to ten-inch boards
placed on edge, well supported and
braced, and with cross wires extending
over the top to hold up the cloth. Over
this frame is stretched cheesecloth, pref-
erably a grade of about 20 threads to the
inch. These frames may be used for sev-
eral years. The following facts are es-
tablished concerning their use for cab-
bage seed beds.

1. If the cheesecloth is carefully at-
tached and the frame is tight, injuries by
the maggot may be entirely prevented.

2. The work of the flea beetles can be
prevented partially or wholly, depending
on the grade of cheesecloth employed.

3. The screen conserves the moisture
and prevents baking of the soil between
seeding time and that period when plants
may be cultivated.

4. Plants raised under cloth grow
faster during moist seasons and attain
the size desirable for transplanting about
ten days or two weeks sooner than plants
grown in the open.

5. The extra cost of screening plants
ranges from six to 20 cents per 1,000. In
the opinion of many this cost is met in
the first saving of seed.

6. The screened plants are more ten-
der than those not screened, but if the
cover is removed a week before trans-
planting the seedlings will become suffi-
ciently hardened.

The seed bed should, by all means be
located on a fertile, well drained soil
where there can be no accumulation of
water or washing under the frames by
rain. As it is considerable work to re-
move the frame to cultivate, see to it
that the soil is in good condition and free
from weed seed.

Hand Picking. — While a laborious un-
dertaking, is often employed on small

fields of cabbage. The plants are simply
pulled up, the roots examined carefully
for eggs or maggots, and the plant reset.
This practice may often be employed to
advantage when seedlings are transferred
to the field. This method is not practical
for radishes or turnips.

The Tarred Felt Discs. — The tarred felt
discs are used for the protection of cab-
bage and caulifiower only, the idea here
being to prevent the adult female fiy from
depositing eggs. No better description of
the discs or their use can be given than
is found in the original description by
W. H. Goff, who perfected this treatment
in 1898. The description is transcribed
from Circular 63 of the Bureau of En-
tomology.

The cards are cut in a hexagonal form
in order to better economize the material
and a thinner grade of tarred paper than
the ordinary roofing felt is used, as it is
not only cheaper, but being more flexible,
the cards made from it are more readily
placed about the plant without being
torn.

The blade of the tool, which should be
made by an expert blacksmith, is formed
from a band of steel, bent in the form of
a half hexagon, and then taking an acute
angle, reaches nearly to the center. The
part making the star-shaped cut is formed
from a separate piece of steel, so attached
to the handle as to make a close joint
with the blade. The latter is beveled from
the outside all around, so that by remov-
ing the part making the star-shaped cut,
the edge may be ground on a grindstone.
It is important that the angles in the
blade be made perfect, and that its out-
line represents an exact half hexagon.

To use the tool, place the tarred paper
on the end of a section of a log or piece
of timber and first cut the lower edge
into notches, using only one angle of the
tool. Then commence at the left side, and
place the blade as indicated by the dotted
lines, and strike at the end of the handle
with a light mallet and a complete card
is made. Continue in this manner across
the paper. The first cut of every alternate
course will make an imperfect card, and
the last cut in any course may be imper-
fect, but the other cuts will make perfect
cards if the tool is correctly made and
properly used.

The cards should be placed about the
plants at the time of transplanting. To
place the card bend it slightly to open
the slit, then slip it on the center, the
stem entering the slit, after which spread
the card out flat and press the points

CABBAGE PESTS

681

-til

Fig. 5. Tarred Paper Disc

formed by the star-shaped cut snugly
around the stem.

A Wisconsin grower protected 7,000
plants and secured a splendid crop, while
unprotected plants nearby would have
been a complete failure if the maggots
had not been picked off by hand. Others
have reported similar success. One re-
ported having lost only 25 plants out of
10,000 to 15,000 that he protected with the
cards, where ordinarily he should have
lost from 75 to 90 per cent of the crop.

This method in actual practice has
proved to be cheap, practical and efficient.
Its success depends on the timely and
proper application of the cards. They
should be applied as soon after trans-
planting as convenient and must be
pressed down firmly about the plant, leav-
ing no open spaces. Soil should not be
allowed to collect on top of the disc.

Remedial

In reviewing the current economic
literature as well as in local practice, as
revealed by our correspondence, I find the
results attending the use of the materials
for the control of this pest are as varied
as the materials themselves. That many

and Tool for Cutting.

of the treatments recommended are im-
practical is certain. Of those remaining
none now in current use seem to give
uniform satisfaction under all conditions.
The Carholic Acid Emulsion. — While
giving negative results in our trials, had
earlier in the season been suggested to
growers, who in several cases commented
upon its use most favorably. It is possi-
ble the solution was too strong; certainly
more trials are necessary to prove the
status of this remedy for our conditions.
It is prepared as follows:

Crude carbolic acid 1 pint

Hard soap 1 pound

Water 1 gallon

Dissolve the soap in the boiling water;
remove from the fire and add the carbolic
acid. Agitate briskly for some time to
form a perfect emulsion. For applica-
tion use one part of the emulsion to 30
parts of water.

In using this solution draw back the
soil from about the plant, exposing as
much root surface as practical. Apply
about half pint of the material to each

682

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

plant. If a pump is used and the solu-
tion applied with considerable force, it
will require less material and do more
good than when simply poured about the
plant. This solution should be applied
to the plants as soon as they are well
established in the field and the applica-
tion repeated about every eight or ten
days.

Kerosene and Sand. — This mixture is
made by adding one pint of kerosene to
a bucketful of sand, mixing thoroughly.
A handful of this substance is placed
about each plant as soon as it is well
established.

Powdered Tobacco. — This material
should be placed about the plant as soon
as it is set and the application renewed
every week.

Bran and Olue. — This mixture consists
of two pounds of glue dissolved in a gal-
lon of water and the addition of suffi-
cient bran to make a thin slop. A hand-
ful of this is then placed about each
plant. This material, in certain cases,
has given very satisfactory results.

Hellebore Decoction. — This solution is
prepared by steeping two ounces of pow-
dered hellebore in a quart of water for
one-half hour. Dilute to make one gallon
of solution. Apply in the same manner
as the carbolic acid emulsion solution.

Literature

1894— Slingerland, M. V. (Cornell Uni.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 78.)

1906— Chittenden, F. H. (U. S. Dept.
Agri., Bur. Ent. Cir. 63.)

1906 — Washburn, P. L. (Minn. Agri.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 100.)

1907 — Smith, J. B., and Dickerson, E.
L. (N. J. Exp. Agri. Sta. Bull. 200.)

1908— Schoene, W. J. (N. Y. Agri. Exp.
Sta. Bull. 301.)

1909— Smith, J. B. (N. J. Agri. Exp.
Sta. Ann. Rept, 1909.)

1911— Schoene, W. J. (N. Y. Agri. Exp.
Sta. Bull. 334.)

1911— Schoene, W. J. (Jour. Eco. Ent.
IV, 2, p. 210.)

Common Cabbage Looper

AutograpTia brassicae
The larva is a green worm, lined with
white about one and a quarter inch long
when grown. Has the looping habit like
the span worm. Eats the leaves full of
holes.

Spraying with salt water is useful.
Treat same as for imported cabbage
worm.

Cross-Striped Cabbage Worm

Pionea rimosalis Guen

The moth is pale yellow in color and
lays its eggs in masses of 20-40 on the
under side of leaves, the eggs overlapping
each other like fish scales. The young
larva is gray in color with a large head.
When full grown it is bluish gray with
conspicuous black stripes crosswise of the
body.

Distributed from the South Atlantic
states westward to Nebraska.

The worms do considerable damage
at times. Poison bran mash is a stand-
ard remedy. Mix bran with water and
sugar before adding the Paris green.
Three ounces of sugar to enough bran
to make a mixture that will run through
the fingers when mixed in a gallon of
water.

Cooperation in clean farming is a good
preventive. Gather and destroy all re-
fuse from the cabbage fields.

Cutworms

Noctuidae

A. L. LOVETT

Cutworms are a very serious pest of
nearly all our crops. Ornamental shrubs,
garden and truck crops, field crops and
even small fruits and orchards suffer
from the attack of these pests. The sleek,
well fed, greasy caterpillars, varying in
size, when mature, from one to two
inches, are too well known to require a
description. The adult moths are noc-
turnal in habit, flying mostly at night.

Pig. 1. Glassv Cutworm Adult and Larva.
(Exp.' Farms Repts. 1910.)

CABBAGE PESTS

683

The majority of the medium sized, smoky
grey and brownish moths, which are at-
tracted to the lights, are adults of the
cutworm caterpillars.

Kemedies

The poison bran mash, consisting of
bran 16 pounds, Paris green one pound,
salt one-half pound, cheap syrup one gal-
lon, and warm water to make a coarse
mash, is the standard remedy for cut-
worms. This may be placed on a field
prepared for a crop or may be placed
about the base of the plants when they
appear. Poultry should not be allowed
free range over a treated field. Green
succulent forage of any kind may be
sprayed with an arsenical, mowed and
placed in small heaps about the field, pre-
ferably in the evening. Where these meth-
ods are impracticable, arsenical sprays
applied to the host are of some assist-
ance. For young plants just set in the
field, as cabbage and tomato, a mechani-
cal barrier consisting of a cylinder of
tin or cardboard may be shoved down
about the plant.

For the climbing cutworms, which at-
tack the developing buds of our fruit
trees in early spring, the poison baits are
very good; but better still, is a belt of
some sticky material about the trunk of
the tree, or some mechanical device such
as a piece of cardboard attached funnel
shaped, tight at the top and flared be-
low. Cotton batten may be used in a
similar manner. Wrap a strip eight
inches wide about the tree overlapping
it at the edges where it meets. Tie this
band at the lower edge, then, taking
hold of the upper edge, roll it down over
the bottom edge. This makes a very ef-
fective funnel.

Diamond-Back Moth

Plutella maculipennis
The larva is a very small green
worm. The moth is about one-third inch
long and folds its wings roof-like over
its body. A white line borders the
inside of each fore wing and these coa-
lesce to form a single white stripe down
the back with diamond-shaped expan-
sions at intervals when the wings are
folded.

Larvae usually feed on lower surface
of leaves and not until quite numerous
do they eat holes clear through.

Treat the same as for imported cabbage
worm.

A. D. Selby

Dipterous Leaf Miners

There are several species, notably the
imported turnip leaf miner, native cab-
bage leaf miner, imported cabbage leaf
miner, native clover leaf miner.

They are minute flies which lay their
eggs in the cabbage and other plant
leaves, the young larvae ruining the
leaf. Not very injurious and no practical
remedy is known.

Flea Beetles
Several Species

Minute beetles that jump like fleas
when disturbed.

They eat small holes in the leaves of
the plant, or if numerous, destroy whole
sections of the leaf.

Spray with Bordeaux mixture.

Harlequin Cabbage Bug

Murgantia histrionica Hahn
Family Pentatomidae

General Appearance

The adult bugs are black with bright
red markings. They are one half inch
long and two-thirds as wide. The eggs
are almost imitations of miniature white
barrels with black hoops and black spots
in the proper places for bungholes. They
are arranged in clusters side by side.
The young greatly resemble the adults,
but lack wings and yellow predominates.
This color gradually changes to orange
and red as the nymphs reach maturity.

Life History

The adults hibernate in various shelter-
ed places over winter and appear with
the first warm weather in the spring to
feed. The first plants to furnish food
are wild mustard, radish and other mem-
bers of the cruciferous weeds. Upon
these also the eggs are laid and the young
soon appear in great numbers in time
to migrate to the cabbage plants and
work upon them throughout the summer.
Successive broods may appear in the

684

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 1.

The Cabbage Bug, Murpantia histrionica (Hahn.).
c, d and e, eggs ; adults at right.

a and b, young ;

— After Rileu

cabbage fields and the numbers so in-
crease as to cause much, damage. In
the southern part of the state the adults
continue active throughout the winter.

Food Plants

This bug is especially fond of all
cruciferous plants, including mustard,
radish, cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, rape,
horseradish, etc. Other food plants are
potatoes, eggplant, okra, beans, beets,
roses, sunflowers, chrysanthemums,
squash, ragweed, pigweed, wild lettuce,
lambsquarters and most of the plants be-
longing to the caper family. Occasion-
ally nursery trees, citrus, locust, cherry,
and plum are injured, and the fruit of
the grape and corn ears also suffer.

Control

Methods recommended for the squash
bug are also applicable to the control of
the cabbage bug. Planting an early crop
of cabbage, rape, mustard or radish is
especially recommended. The eggs are
laid in great numbers upon these plants
and together with the adults may be de-
stroyed. This practice greatly lessens
subsequent attacks.

See under Squash.

Natural Enemies

Great numbers of the eggs are destroy-
ed by two small internal parasites, Tri-
ssolcns murgantiae Ashm. and Ooencyrtus
johnsoni How. The wheel bug, Arilus
cristatus Linn., feeds upon the young
nymphs in the Eastern states.

E. O. EssiG

Hop Flea Beetle

Psylliodes punctulata Melsh
Family Chrysomelidae

General Appearance

A very small, black metallic beetle
with greenish tinge; oval in form; one
tenth of an inch long and half as wide.
The eggs are very small, oval in shape

and yellow. The larvae are small white
grubs about 5 mm. long. The white
pupae as well as the larvae are found in
the soil.

Life History

The adults appear early in the spring
and are ready to attack the first hop
plants as soon as they come through the
ground. They feed upon the upper sur-
faces of the leaves, completely skeletoniz-
ing them. The vines are attacked when
young and are often completely destroy-
ed before they have reached a height of
three or four feet. When disturbed the
beetles hop or fall to the ground. They
are able to make their way through the
soil without much difficulty and lay their
eggs upon the roots of the food plants.

The larvae are very small and white
in color with dusky markings. They
live in the ground feeding upon the roots
of various plants. When full grown they
pupate in the soil from which the adults
emerge throughout nearly the entire
year, the largest number appearing from
early spring to August. There are prob-
ably two generations a year.

Food Plants

This species feeds upon hops, cabbage,
potatoes, beets, turnips, dock, lambsquar-
ters, pigweed, clover, rhubarb, cucumbei',
radish, mustard and nettle.

Control

There have been numerous methods
of control recommended for this pest. The
measures directed against the hibernat-
ing beetles consist in killing all on the
poles or burning up the rubbish. In the
spring the first step consists in capturing
the adult beetles on the young vines. A
tarred board or hand hopper dozer is used
on or into which the beetles are shaken.
Tanglefoot bands around the bases of the
tresseled vines, as well as around the
poles, not only keep the beetles from the

CABBAGE PESTS

685

foliage but capture great quantities of
them. Various contract sprays, such as
tobacco extract, emulsions, soaps, resin
wash, and arsenic also have been used
with good effect, but the cost due to great
numbers of applications necessary, makes
them almost prohibitive.

E. O. EssiG

Imported Cabbage Web Worm

Hellwla undalis. Fab

The moth is gray in color with mot-
tled fore wings which have an expanse of
about five-eighths of an inch. The full-
grown larvae are about half an inch long,
grayish-yellow with five longitudinal
bands.

Distributed pretty well over the South
and Southeast. Does considerable dam-
age to cabbages, turnips, beets and the
cruciferae generally.

Several species of flies are parasites.

Bordeaux mixture sprayed on the plants
when first set out acts as a repellent.
Clean culture and destruction of refuse
material is also suggested.

Literature

Bureau Entomology Bulletin 109, Pt. III.
Division Entomology Bulletin 33, New
Series.

Imported Cabbage Worm

Pontia rapae Sch.

Family Pieridae

Pieris rapae Linn.

General Appearance

Though this is an imported insect it
has become as common as if it had al-
ways been here. The adult butterflies are
about one and one-fourth inches long with
a wing expanse of two inches. The color
is white with two small black spots near
the middle and a large black spot at the
tip of each fore wing. The caterpillars
are light velvety green in color and very
finely dotted with minute dark spots. The
length when full grown varies from one
to one and one half inches. The chrysalis
is about one inch long and varies in color
from yellow to green, light or dark gray.

Life History

In the northern part of the state the
species winters over in the chrysalis stage.

while in the south adult butterflies may
be seen almost any time of the year.
They become very much in evidence early
in March and are active throughout the
entire summer and fall. Egg laying be-
gins soon after the adults leave the
chrysalis stage. The eggs hatch in about
a week and the young caterpillars begin
feeding at once. They first feed upon
the outer leaves, making them ragged
and holey, but gradually work through
towards the heart of the cabbage, leaving
the dark-green excrement to mark their
paths of destruction. The growth is very

Fig. 1. Adults, Imported Cabbage Worm.
(Tennessee Experiment Station)

rapid so that in from one to two weeks
they are ready to select some secluded
spot beneath an old cabbage leaf or some
nearby object and prepare for the chry-
salis stage, which, during the first two
generations in the summer months, lasts
little longer than the larval stage, but
which in the fall continues throughout the
winter. There are several generations a
year. In fact in the southern part of the
state it seems as if the breeding is only
slightly checked during the winter
months.

686

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Food Plants

The principal economic food plants are
cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts,
turnip, radish, mustard, and horseradish.
Other plants attacked are wild mustard,
wild radish, nasturtium, mignonette and
sweet alyssum.

Control

The larvae, working as they do into the
heads of the cabbages, make control
methods practically impossible after they
have once begun. Young plants may well
be protected by arsenical sprays which are
applied with safety until the heads are
half grown. Prof. L. Bruner claims that
cornmeal dusted on the cabbages causes
the worms to leave. Clean culture should
be practiced and no cabbage or host plants
allowed to grow during the interval be-
tween crops unless they are freely sprayed
with strong solutions of arsenical sprays.

Ifatnral Enemies

Internal parasites, working upon the
chrysalids, are important factors in the
control of the pest. In this state the
small parasite (Pteromalus puparum) is
quite widely distributed and is bred and
sent to all parts of the state by the State
Insectary. In the Eastern states a chal-
cid (Apanteles glomeratus) does excellent
work in killing off the caterpillars, but
this has not been established in this
state. A bug (Phymata wolffii) preys
upon the butterflies, which they capture
on flowers while the wasp (PoUstes pal-
lipesj destroys large numbers of the
worms.

E. O. EssiG

(Further remedies suggested by A. L. Lovett,
of Oregon Experiment Station. — Ed.)

For very small plants use Paris green
one pound, and air slaked lime, road dust
or cheap flour 20 pounds. Mix thorough-
ly and dust over plants by sifting through
a coarse sack. This material will adhere
better if applied in the early morning
while the dew is on.

For older plants the regular arsenical
sprays may be used, adding a little soap
to aid them in sticking, or better still, use
the resin lime mixture prepared as fol-
lows:

Stock solution:

Pulverized resin 5 pounds

Concentrated lye 1 pound

Fish oil soap or any cheap ani-
mal oil, except tallow 1 pint

Water 5 gallons

Place the oil, resin and one gallon of
hot water in vessel for cooking. Heat
until the resin is softened, add the lye
solution made as for hard soap, stir
thoroughly and add four gallons more of
hot water. Boil for two hours or until
the mixture will unite readily with water,
making a clear amber liquid. Add water
to make up for that lost by evaporation.
This constitutes the stock solution and
may be kept indefinitely. In applying
it, for every gallon of the stock solution
add first 16 gallons of water, then three
gallons of thin whitewash and one-quarter
pound of Paris green.

Hot water at a temperature of 130 Fahr-
enheit will kill the worms and will not
injure the cabbage plants.

Native Cabbage Worm

Pontia protodice. Pieris protodice
Butterfly, looks much like the last, but
has about four angular black marks at
and behind tips. Female very different
from male, with wings all checkered with
black.

Worm, obscure, purple color, with four
longitudinal pale yellow stripes, two on
each side. Head and body minutely dot-
ted with black. Pupa, in the main, like
the last, but dotted with black. The
worm, though not nearly so troublesome
as the imported, can be overcome by the
same sprays.

L. F. Henderson

Seed- stalk Weevil

CeutorJiyncJius guadridens Panz

A somewhat serious pest in sections
where seed cabbages are grown, as in
Long Island. No remedy suggested.

Western Twelve-Spotted Cucumber
Beetles. See under Cucuml)er.

Literature

Bulletins of the State Experiment Sta-
tions and the United States Department
of Agriculture, mostly of the last two de-
cades:

CABBAGE PESTS

687

Common Cabbage Looper

Autographa (Phisia) brassicae Riley

1884. The cabbage plusia.— C. V. Riley
(U. S. D. A. Rpt., 1883, pp. 119-122, pis. 2).
1893. A few common insect pests. — C. P.
Gillette (Colo. Bui. 24, pp. 8, 9, fig. 1).

1898. A spraying mixture for cauli-
flower and cabbage worms. — F. A. Sirrine
(N. Y. State Bui. 144, pp. 38-46, pi. 1).

1902. Some insects injurious to vege-
table crops.— P. H. Chittenden (U. S. D.
A., Bur. Ent. Bui. 33, pp. 60-69, figs. 2).

1909. Some cabbage worms and sugges-
tions for destroying them. — W. E. Rum-
sey and Fred E. Brooks (W. Va. Bui. 120,
pp. 345-352, pis. 2).

Diamond-back Moth

Plutella maculipennis (cruciferarum)
Curtis

1892. Insects injurious to the cabbage.
— H. E. Weed (Miss. Bui. 21, pp. 8, 9, fig.
1).

1893. Injurious insects of Maryland. —
C. V. Riley (Md. Bui. 23, pp. 83, 84, fig. 1).

1895. The pests of the orchard and
garden.— L. R. Taft and G. C. Davis
(Mich. Bui. 121, p. 62, fig. 1).

Imported Cabbage Worms

Pontia (Pieris) rapae Linn

1889. Important injurious insects. — C.
P. Gillette (la. Bui. 5, pp. 171-174, fig. 5).

1894. Insects affecting late cabbage. —
F. A. Sirrine (N. Y. State Bui. 83, pp.
658-666, pi. 1).

1895. Treatment of common diseases
and insects injurious to fruits and vege-
tables.— S. A. Beach and W. Paddock (N.
Y. State Bui. 86, pp. 98, 99).

1895. Insects injurious to fruits and
vegetables.— J. T. Stinson (Ark. Bui. 33,
pp. 81, 82, figs. 2).

1905. The imported cabbage worm. — F.
H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A. Bur. Ent.
Circ. 60, pp. 8, fig. 6).

1907. Imported cabbage butterfly (N.
Y. State [Geneva] Rept. 25, Pt. 3, pp.
243-245, pi. 1).

Southern Cabbage Butterfly

Pontia (Pieris) protodice Boisd.

Potherb Butterfly

Pontia (Pieris) napi Linn

Cross-striped Cabbage Worm

Evergestis (Pionea) rimosalis Guen

Cutworms

Various species of Noctuids

1895. Cabbage cut worms. — C. V. Riley
(U. S. D. A. Rpt. 1884, pp. 289-300, figs.
10) Describes the following:

Dark-sided cutworm, Agrotis messoria
Harr.

Granulated cutworm, Agrotis annexa
Treitschke.

Shagreened cutworm, Agrotis malefida
Guen.

W-marked cutworm, Agrotis clandes-
tina Harr.

Greasy cutworm, Agrotis ypsilon Rott.

Speckled cutworm, Mamestra suhjuncta
G. & R.

Glassy cutworm, Hadena devastatrix.
Brace.

Variegated cutworm, Agrotis samcia
Treitschke.

1895. Cutworms, etc.— J. B. Smith (N.
J. Bui. 109, pp. 3-13, figs. 3).

1895. Cutworms in Kentucky. — H.
Garman (Ky. Bui. 58, pp. 89-107, pi. 1).

1895. Climbing cutworms in Western
New York. — M. V. Slingerland (N. Y.
Cornell Bui. 104, pp. 553-600, pis. 5, figs.
2).

1895. Insects injurious in 1895. — O.
Lugger (Minn. Bui. 43, pp. 232-243, fig.
1).

1896. Some injurious insects. — G. C.
Davis (Mich. Bui. 132, pp. 3-14, figs. 8).

1907. Cutworms. — H. T. Fernald
(Mass. Circ. 2, pp. 2).

Imported Cabbage Webworm

Hellula undalis Fab.

1899. Some insects injurious to gar-
den and orchard crops. — F. H. Chitten-
den (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent. Bui. 19, pp.
51-57, fig. 1).

1900. Some insects injurious to garden
crops. — F. H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A.,
Bur. Ent. Bui. 23, pp. 53-61, fig. 1).

Cabbage Aphis

Aphis brassicae Linn
1890. Plant lice and how to deal with
them.— J. B. Smith (N. J. Bui. 72, pp. 16-
20, figs. 2).

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

1892. Horticulture and entomology. —
E. S. Richman (Utah Bui. 14, pp. 7-10,
figs. 7).

1893. Miscellaneous entomological pa-
pers.— F. M. Webster (Ohio Bui. 51, pp.
109-111).

1897. Some common injurious plant
lice, with suggestions for their destruc-
tion.—W. G. Johnson (Md. Bui. 48, pp.
97, 98, fig. 1).

1909. Some insects injurious to cab-
bage, cucumbers and related crops. — F. H.
Chittenden (Va. Truck Sta. Bui. 2, pp.
22-30, figs. 4).

Cabbage Root Maggot

Pegomya (Phorhia) brassicae Bouche

1894. The cabbage root maggot, with
notes on the onion maggot and allied in-
sects.— M. V. Slingerland (N. Y. Cornell
Bui. 78, pp. 481-577, figs. 18).

1905. Root maggots and how to con-
trol them.— F. H. Chittenden (U. S. D.
A., Bur. Bnt. Circ. 63, pp. 7, figs. 5).

1905. Cabbage root maggot. Poisoned
bran for cutworms. — W. S. Blair (Canada
Exp. Farms Rpt. 1904, pp. 362-364).

1906. The cabbage maggot and other
injurious insects of 1906. — F. L. Wash-
burn (Minn. Bui. 100, pp. 1-19, eld. pi. 1,
figs. 11).

1907. The cabbage and onion maggots.
— John B. Smith and E. L. Dickerson
(N. J. Exp. Sta. Bui. 200, pp. 27, figs. 13).

1907. The cabbage maggot and other
injurious insects of 1906. — F. L. Wash-
burn (Minn. Bui. 100, pp. 87, pis. 7, figs.
57).

1907. Root maggots. — H. T. Fernald
(Mass. Circ. 5, pp. 2).

1908. The apple leaf hopper and other
injurious insects of 1907 and 1908. — F. L.
Washburn (Minn. Bui. 112, pp. 196-213,
figs. 3).

1908. Screening for the protection of
cabbage seedbeds. — W. J. Schoene (N. Y.
State Bui. 301, pp. 165-174, pi. 1).

Cabbage Flea Beetle, or Striped Turnip
Flea Beetle

Phyllotreta vittata Fab.
1885. The wavy-striped flea beetle. —
C. V. Riley (U. S. D. A. Rpt. 1884, pp.
301-304, fig. 1).

1890. The cabbage flea beetle. — H. Gar-
man (Ky.) Rpt. 1889, pp. 23-25).

1891. The striped flea beetle or cab-
bage flea.— A. D. Hopkins (W. Va. Rpt.
1890, pp. 147-150).

1895. Remedies for flea beetles. — C. M.
Weed (N. H. Bui. 29, pp. 3-7, figs. 5).

Harlequin Cabbage Bug

Murgantia histioniea Hahn
1908. The harlequin cabbage bug. — F.
H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent.
Circ. 103, pp. 10, fig. 1).

False Chinch Bug

Nysius angustatus Uhl
1894. Chinch bugs. — L. Brunner and H.
G. Barber (Neb. Bui. 34, pp. 153, 154, fig.
1).

Cabbage Curculio
Coutorhyncfius rapae Gyll

1900. Some insects injurious to garden
crops.— F. H. Chittenden (U. S. D. A.,
Bur. Ent. Bui. 23, pp. 39-53, figs. 2).

Cabbage Hair Worm

Mermis spp et al.

1905. Cabbage snakes. — H. Garman
(Ky. Bui. 120, pp. 78-81, pi. 1).

1908. The cabbage hair worm. — F. H.
Chittenden (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent. Circ.
62, pp. 6, fig. 1).

Lists of Books and Pamphlets

1901. Bibliography of the more impor-
tant contributions to American economic
entomology. Part VII. — Nathan Banks
(U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent, pp. 113). Price,
cloth, 20 cents. Postage, 3 cents. (Cov-
ers the period between December 31, 1896,
and January 1, 1909).

1905. Bibliography, etc. (as above). —
Nathan Banks (U. S. D. A., Bur. Ent, pp.
132). Price, 10 cents. Postage, 3 cents.
(Covers the period between December 31,
1899, and January 1, 1905).

1910. A list of works on North Ameri-
can entomology — Nathan Banks, (U. S.
D. A., Bur. Ent Bui. 81, pp. 120). Price,
15 cents. Postage, 4 cents.

(Application and money for these bibli-
ographies should be sent to Superintend-
ent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C.)

Useful works on economic entomology,
containing information on the pests of
cole crops.

CABBAGE PESTS— CALIFORNIA

689

1902. Insects injurious to staple crops.
— E. D. Sanderson (New York; John
Wiley & Sons, pp. 205, figs. 162). Price,
$1.50.

1906. Economic entomology. — J. B.
Smith (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott
Co., pp. 475, figs. 475). Price, $2.50.

1907. Insects injurious to vegetables.
— F. H. Chittenden (New York: Orange
Judd Co., pp. 262, figs. 163). Price, $1.50.

Bulletins covering in a general manner
the treatment of cabbage insects.

1904. Cabbage diseases and insects. —
J. B. S. Norton and T. B. Symons (Md.
Circ. Bui. 58, pp. 10, figs. 6).

1904. Insects injurious to cabbage. — H.
Garman (Ky. Bui. 114, pp. 15-47, figs. 17).

1906. Cabbages for stock feeding. — S.
Fraser (N. Y. Cornell Bui. 242, pp. 69, 70).

1906. Farm practice in the control of
field-crop insects. — F. M. Webster (U. S.
D. A. Yearbook 1905, pp. 465-476, pis. 2,
figs. 2). (Published separately as Year-
book Separate 396.)

California

California grows more fruit than any
other state in the Union. It is not as
large as Texas but its coast line on the
west, its high mountain ranges on the
east and west extending from north to
south through the whole length of the
state, and its great central plain, the cli-
mate of which is modified by the ocean
breezes cooling the temperature in sum-
mer and modifying its severity in the
winter, make it better adapted to all kinds
of fruits, from the semi-tropical to the
hardier fruits grown generally in the
northern climates, than any other portion
of the United States. It has a great
variety of soils, as well as of climate.
Sometimes within a few miles of each
other, two different points, on account of
altitude, wind currents, ocean breezes, or
difference in soils, may be adapted to the
growing of fruits that are generally found
at great distances from each other, in

other parts of the United States. Cali-
fornia grows fewer apples than New York,
Pennsylvania or Missouri, and a number
of other states, but not far from the ap-
ple-growing region may be found oranges,
lemons, and other semi-tropical fruits.
These fruits have produced immense
wealth and have enabled the inhabitants
to make beautiful homes, while at the
same time there are regions that partake
largely of the nature of the arid districts
of other states. It has a coast line of 900
miles.

Granville Lowther

Haryest Time for Various Crops in
California

The following table shows the time at
which some of the various fruits, vege-
tables, and garden products are harvest-
ed:

Almonds August to September

Apples July to November

Apricots June to August

Blackberries June to September

Cantaloupes May to July

Cherries May to July

Currants May to June

Dewberries May to July

Figs July to November

Grapes July to January

Grape Fruit All the year

Guavas All the year (two crops)

Lemons All the year

Limes All the year

Loganberries June to September

Loquats May and June

Mulberries July to September

Nectarines June to August

Olives October to January

Oranges October to January

Pears .Tuly to November

Peaches July to Christmas

Persimmons, Japanese. .November and December

Plums June to September

Prunes June to September

Pomegranates September to December

Quinces October to December

Raspberries June to October

Strawberries All the year

Watermelons July to October

Vegetables

Asparagus March to July

Beans May to October

Cabbage All the year

Cauliflower October to June

Celery October to June

Corn May to October

Cucumbers April to November

Lettuce All the year

Melons May to October

Onions All the year

Peas All the year

Potatoes. two crops plant August and February
Radishes All the year-

E. J. WiCKSON

690 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Frost and Precipitation in California

No.

Frost

Precipitation

Station

Average Date of

Date of

Annual

First

killing

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

Earliest

in
Autumn

Latest

in
Spring

inches

Sission

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

Sept. 26
Sept. 27
Nov. 15
Dec. 3
Oct. 3
Nov. 25
Dec. 14
Sept. 15
Nov. 26

May 26
May 11
Apr. 9
Mar. 23
May 10
Mar. 15
Mar. 24
May 31
Mar. 27

Sept. 13
Sept. 14
Nov. 7
Nov. 20
Sept. 8
Nov. 7
Dec. 12
Sept. 6
Oct. 16

July 6
June 2
May 1
May 1
May 22
Apr. 19
Apr. 10
July 6
May 2

37.8

Cedarville

Flureka .

13.7
45.8

Redding

36.2

Susan ville

Red Bluff

22.9
25.7

Chico

22.4

La Porte

77.9

Ukiah

35.0

46.9

Auburn

33.4

Davisville

Sacramento

Napa.

Dec. 7
Nov. 15
Dec. 24

Feb. 26
Feb. 16
Feb. 27
Jan. 25
Feb. 23
Feb. 8
Mar. 5
Mar. 12
Mar. 16
Mar. 4
Mar. 17

Nov. 26
Oct. 28
Nov. 27
Dec. 13
Nov. 9
Nov. 28
Nov. 28
Nov. 26
Nov. 8
Nov. 18
Sept. 21

Apr. 4
Apr. 26
Mar. 30
Apr. 20
Apr. 12
Feb. 18
Mar. 28
Mar. 30
Apr. 27
Apr. 14
May 28

16.6
19.9
23.7

San Francisco

22.5

Livermore

San Jose

Dec. 2
Dec. 6
Dec. 11
Dec. 7
Nov. 23
Dec. 15
Oct. 25

15.3
14.8

Merced

10.3

Santa Cruz

HoUister

27.0
12.3

Fresno

9.2

Independence

King City

Visalia

3.7
10.8

Nov. 21
Dec. 17

Apr. 11
Mar. 17

Nov. 16
Nov. 15

Apr. 11
Apr. 8

9.8

San Luis Obispo. . .
Bakersfield

19.2

4.8

Santa Barbara. .

16.6

Los Angeles

Redlands

Apr. 8
Feb. 19

Dec. 12

Nov. 24

Apr. 8
Apr. 29

15.6

Dec. 12

14.8

Needles

2.7

Sal ton

2.5

San Diego

9.4

Table of Productiveness

A table of productiveness of various

articles that can be raised on one acre
of ground in California:

Alfalfa $ 35 to $ 60

Almonds 75 to 200

Apples 100 to 200

Apricots 75 to 150

Asparagus 100 to 250

Berries 150 to 500

Blackberries 250 to 500

Beans 30 to 100

Cherries 100 to 225

Chestnuts 150 to 400

Fijjs 100 to 250

Loganberries 250 to 300

Lemons 100 to 400

Melons

Nectarines

Olives

Oranges

Peaches

Potatoes (Sweet)
Potatoes (Irish)

Prunes

Pears

Pomelos

Plums

Pecans

Quinces

Raisin Grapes . .
Strawberries . . .
Table Grapes . . .

Tomatoes

Walnuts

E. J.

5 25 to

$125

100 to

200

75 to

1.50

150 to

soo

100 to

250

50 to

150

50 to

150

75 to

200

100 to

400

100 to

400

100 to

200

150 to

000

100 to

200

75 to

1.50

150 to

300

100 to

500

50 to

1.50

200 to

800

WiCKSON

CALIFORNIA

691

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692

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

THE CALIFORNIA CITRUS INDUSTRY

Growing of citrus fruits in California
is rapidly advancing in acreage and in
product, each year receiving greater in-
vestment and effort, and each year reach-
ing a greater aggregate gross return for
the product marketed. There has also
been gratifying progress made in meet-
ing the problems and difficulties which
are bound to arise in the development
of an industry involving so many novel
situations and affecting so many inter-
ests— individual, corporate, and political.
In the following brief statement I shall
endeavor to indicate what seem to me
the most salient features of the Cali-
fornia citrus industry, chiefly from the
commercial point of view.

California Citrus Census

The report of the California State
Board of Equalization, which presents
the figures gathered by the assessors in
all the counties of the state, shows that
there were growing in the spring of 1912
the following totals of citrus trees in
California, viz.:

No. of trees No. of trees

Bearing: Non-Bearing:

Lemon 952,290 743,352

Lime 1,371 450

Orange 6,013,272 633,366

Pomelo 11,321 6,280

Totals 6,978,254 1,383,448

These figures show the leadership of
the orange, the rather remote second of
the lemon, and the fact that the two
show about the same rate of increase
through recent plantings. They also in-
dicate a greater rate of increase in the
pomelo, though the total is still insig-
nificant, and that the lime is only a
curiosity. Other citrus fruits are too
small in number for enumeration.

Taking the orange and lemon as a
measure of the citrus geography of Cali-
fornia, and choosing counties having
more than 100,000 trees, bearing and
non-bearing, according to the 1912 re-
port of the California State Horticul-
tural Commissioner, the following state-
ment results:

Number Number

Counties of Orange of Lemon

San Bernardino 3,720,320 385,490

Los Angeles 2,431,000 852,500

Riverside 1,934,790 392,676

Tulare 3,412,000*

Orange 929,480 237,405

Ventura 204,961 298,176

Butte 192,168 3.032

Fresno 170,000 5,200

San Diego 101,017 295,957

Santa Barbara 509 297.386

These counties are distributed
through a north and south distance of
about 550 miles, and the interest is con-
centrated toward the south and widely
scattered toward the north, with much
intervening land as good for citrus
fruits as that already planted. Citrus
fruits are equally safe throughout the
whole distance, and it is clear that Cali-
fornia has a capacity for citrus produc-
tion far beyond present attainment, if
greater amounts of fruit can be pro-
fitably sold, as it certainly promises to
be, if current protection is maintained.

Mr. G. Harold Powell, Secretary of the
Citrus Protective League of California,
estimates that California citrus plant-
ings now occupy about 150,000 acres of
land and represent in lands, trees, build-
ings and operating property of all kinds
a value of $200,000,000. He also esti-
mates the fruit produced at almost $40,-
000,000, valued at selling points. The
annual shipments for several years have
been as follows: 1908-9, 40,516 carloads;
1909-10, 33,099 carloads; 1910-11, 46,394
carloads and 1911-12, 40,290 carloads.

California Citrus Problems

Cultural problems connected with
growing citrus fruits are many. Some
of them have evidently reached a basis
of settlement. For instance, nearly all
insects are controlled by fumigation,
and the remaining requirements are to
do the work more effectively and eco-
nomically. The problems of the develop-
ment of irrigation water from streams
or from underground sources and the
distribution thereof have been well work-
ed out, but the ministration of water to
the tree so that its greatest vigor and
producing efficiency shall be maintained
is not yet satisfactorily mastered. The

* Orange and lemon trees together.

CALIFORNIA

693

desirability of soil improvement, chem-
ically and physically, by the growing
and covering-in of legumes in the or-
chard has been fully demonstrated, but
choice of particular plants and cultural
policies are still to be determined. The
use of fertilizers is constantly increasing
and their indispensability recognized,
but their relations to tillage, moisture
distribution, and to the vegetative func-
tions of the trees are still matters of
conflicting opinions.

The Citrus Protective League

And yet the problems which California
citrus growers wrestle with most suc-
cessfully are commercial problems, and
they have created unique organizations
to labor for their solution. Mr. G.
Harold Powell, then secretary and man-
ager of the Citrus Protective League, in
January, 1911, issued a general state-
ment of the character and work of the
organization from which the following
generally significant paragraphs are
taken :

The Citrus Protective League of Cali-
fornia is a voluntary organization formed
in March, 1906, by representatives of
growers, shippers and shipping organiza-
tions in nearly all of the citrus growing
localities in the state, to handle the public
policy questions that affect the industry
as a whole. Its purpose is to represent
the grower and shipper in handling such
questions as railroad rates and transporta-
tion problems; customs tariffs and other
governmental relations, state and federal
legislation that applies directly to the
business; and all other questions of a
general nature that affect the upbuilding
of the industry, except the marketing of
fruit.

The league is directed by an executive
committee of nine and by a secretary and
manager, the executive committee having
been appointed by an administrative
committee of 30 of the principal growers
and shippers, who act as a governing
committee, and who were selected from
the representative delegates who organ-
ized the league in 1906.

The league is supported by funds
raised by general assessment, based on

the number of cars of fruit shipped by
each member during the preceding year.
Fourteen assessments were levied to De-
cember 31, 1910, and $68,654.88 has been
paid in by the members in the five years
since the league was organized, of which
approximately $65,000 was expended in
the management of its business to De-
cember 31, 1910.

The league has played an important
part in the progress of the citrus indus-
try in the past five years.

In 1907 it induced the railroads to re-
duce freight rates on oranges 10 cents
per 100 pounds, from $1.25 to $1.15. This
rate became effective February 26, 1907,
since when it has saved the shippers
from $28 to $30 per car. The gain to
the industry from February 26, 1907, to
December 31, 1910, from this reduction
has been about $3,175,000, or about 45
times the entire cost of the league, from
the date of organization to the present
time.

Following the reduction in the freight
rate and as a result of the succeeding
agitation accompanying the refrigeration
rate question, the railroads changed the
refrigeration tariffs, allowing 32,000
pounds of fruit to be shipped in a 40-foot
car at the same rate per car for refriger-
ation as applied before on 27,650 pounds.
This change became effective July 5,
1909. It is estimated that the value of
this change to the shipper is approxi-
mately $35,000 to date, or more than half
of the entire cost of the league since its
organization.

In 1908 the league began a movement
to prevent the duty of one cent per pound
on oranges being reduced by congress and
to secure an increase of one-half cent per
pound on lemons for the purpose of cov-
ering the extra cost in labor expended
on the lemon above the labor cost ex-
pended on the orange. The league was
successful in both of these efforts, the
duty standing now at one cent per pound
on the orange and one and one-half cents
per pound on the lemon.

The league made an investigation of
the methods used by the government in
determining the amount of decay in im-

694

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ports of lemons, and in refunding the
duty to the importers on the same. The
league determined that the federal sys-
tem gave an advantage to the importer
that was detrimental to the California
citrus interests. It presented the matter
to the secretary of the treasury, before
whom it laid the data accumulated. A
great deal of consideration has been given
the question, and it is expected that the
honorable secretary of the treasury will
promulgate new regulations in the near
future which will safeguard the interests
of the government and protect the Cali-
fornia industry from further unfair com-
petition.

Two months after congress advanced
the duty on imports of lemons from one
cent to one and one-half cents a pound,
the railroads, through the Transconti-
nental Freight Bureau, attempted to ab-
sorb part of the duty granted by congress
by advancing the rate 15 cents per 100
pounds. The league secured a temporary
injunction through the Circuit Court of
the United States for the Southern Dis-
trict in California, restraining the rail-
road from collecting the proposed in-
crease in rates. The commission subse-
quently found that the rate of $1.15 per
100 pounds on lemons was unreasonable
and that the rate ought not to exceed $1
per 100 pounds.

At the same time the league questioned
the reasonableness of the increased rate
on lemons, and at the same time the rea-
sonableness of the rate $1.15 per 100
pounds on oranges; and the reasonable-
ness of the charges for refrigeration and
pre-cooling charges, and the contentions
of the growers were, in the main, sus-
tained.

The league is actively engaged in an
effort to sustain the import duties on
citrus fruits to meet the determined ef-
forts of importers to reduce these duties.

The league will use every effort to
bring to the help of the grower special
investigators from the state and federal
governments to study the diseases, the
insects, the soil problems, and other cul-
tural, fruit handling and fruit transporta-
tion problems that affect the industry. It

will maintain an agricultural reference
library without expense to the grower,
and will develop a bureau of information
showing the international movement of
citrus fruit and other fruits that have a
relation to the industry.

The league is the only organization that
has been formed by an agricultural in-
dustry in America, and probably in the
world, to look after the general public
policy questions that alfect it. It repre-
sents 90 per cent of the growers and
shippers of the state. The organization
is a vital part of the industry, formed to
protect and advance its interests.

The California Fruit Growers' Exchange

The greatest co-operative undertaking
in fruit marketing in California is the
California Fruit Growers' Exchange, or-
ganized in 1895 by the citrus fruit pro-
ducers and systematically developed since
that time until in scope, methods, mastery
of the shipment and distribution, in de-
velopment of markets and in reduced cost
of placing the product therein, there is
nothing comparable with it in the broad
field of commercial agriculture. In March,
1911, B. A. Woodford, general manager
of the exchange, prepared a careful state-
ment of the standing and accomplish-
ments of the organization from which the
following facts, significant to producers
of all kinds of fruits, are compiled:

Large and widely distributed citrus
plantings began in Southern California
about 1885, upon the basis of successful
results attained in special localities dur-
ing the previous decade. When these
plantations came into bearing in consid-
erable quantity, the ready market for cash
at home that had existed for the fruit
when the crop was small was found to be
inadequate, and nearly 20 years ago, with
an output of only 4,000 cars annually,
the growers were unable to dispose of the
entire crop under old methods at fair
prices. Through the experience gained
in their co-operative water companies,
they found it comparatively easy to unite
in establishing common packing houses in
the various producing sections, which
they themselves owned and controlled.
These houses were conducted at actual

CALIFORNIA

695

cost of operation, the expenses being
usually apportioned on a box basis. The
purpose of the association was, primar-
ily, to bring about uniformity in grading
and packing, and to reduce the cost of
preparing the fruit for sale. These econ-
omies were shared by the grower alone.

In packing their fruits on a mutual
basis the growers have, however, only
solved in a small degi'ee the real problem
that confronted them and, to get the full
benefit of co-operation, it became neces-
sary to extend these joint operations to
the distribution and sale of the fruit.
The result was the formation of the Cali-
fornia Fruit Growers' Exchange, to which
the grower entrusted the marketing of
his fruit after it had been packed and
placed in the car. More than 110 of these
packing associations have joined together
in this manner, and their business has
increased from 20 per cent of the entire
crop 12 years ago, to 40 per cent six years
ago, and 60 per cent today.

The problem of distribution is fully as
important as the problem of sale. Our
crops are now so large, and the necessity
of keeping our oranges and lemons before
the entire consuming public is so great,
that not only must the fruit be put into
every possible available market, but the
distribution must be even and continu-
ous. Any other practice invites disaster.
With the 110 packing houses operating
through the exchange, each conducting
its own business independently of the
other, or with the 16 district exchanges
of which the general exchange is com-
posed, each operating independently of
the other, bare markets at one point and
overstocked markets at the same time in
another would be the inevitable result.
As it is now, with 60 per cent of the busi-
ness in harmonious action, and knowing
by experience about what the policy of
the non-exchange shippers is, the distribu-
tion of its fruit by the exchange is con-
ducted on a basis that assures far greater
consumption at better prices than for-
merly when its percentage of shipments
was smaller.

The organized selling force of the ex-
change throughout the country is one of

its strongest features. This force is com-
posed almost wholly of salaried agents,
each giving his undivided attention to
selling exchange oranges and lemons. This
is in line with the policy of all up-to-date
business enterprises, it being universally
recognized that specialized service brings
best results. Salaried salesmen in all im-
portant market centers is a distinctively
exchange feature in citrus fruit market-
ing, and the exchange has 75 principal
offices of its own in the United States,
Canada and Europe, with over 200 sal-
aried salesmen operating out of them, re-
porting sales and market conditions daily
by wire.

The savings to the growers who sell
their fruit through the exchange at the
actual cost of operation with no profit to
any individuals except the salaries that
they get, run into astonishing figures
when based upon the entire output of the
state. Twenty million boxes of oranges
and lemons have been produced in Cali-
fornia the present season. One cent per
box on this output amounts to $200,000.
A few cents per box saved out of packers'
profits, added to a few cents per box
saved out of sellers' profits, amounts to
several millions of dollars annually.

Newspaper advertising has been the
greatest single factor in bringing about
increased consumption of our oranges
and lemons. From the experience gained
through an initial expenditure of $10,000
in the first year of advertising in Iowa,
and materially increased expenditures
each succeeding year, with an appropria-
tion of $100,000 for an advertising cam-
paign that covers nearly the entire
United States and Canada the present
season, the exchange is now in a position
to testify as to the complete success of
its advertising methods. Three thousand
newspapers scattered broadcast through-
out the land are advertising regularly
the superior merit of California citrus
fruits and of California Fruit Growers'
Exchange citrus fruits in particular. Such
extensive publicity can only be obtained
by the expenditure of a very large sum,
but $100,000 means only four-fifths of a
cent per box to exchange growers on this

696

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

year's shipments. As our crops increase,
it will be necessary to extend this ad-
vertising in various other ways at greater
cost, but with increasing shipments in the
exchange this is entirely practicable at
only slight expense to any grower. We
feel confident in predicting that there is
no danger of overproduction of good fruit
if the growers unite in the advertising,
distribution, and sale of their oranges
and lemons after they have grown them.

In obtaining packing supplies, the sav-
ings that have been made through the
operations of the Fruit Growers' Supply
Company, which is owned by exchange
growers, are something over a half mil-
lion dollars per year, as compared with
conditions that formerly prevailed. The
supply company is now giving its atten-
tion to the purchase of fertilizers and
other orchard supplies, with a probable
ultimate saving in sight which will equal
or exceed what has already been done
with reference to packing house supplies.

It might be of interest to know that in
six seasons the exchange sold for its
growers 38,962,008 boxes of oranges and
lemons, for which it received $69,873,137.45
net cash f. o. b. California, or an average
of $1.79 per box for every box handled,
with a loss of less than $6,000 for failure
to collect during the entire period.

The contrast is clearly drawn between
conditions in 1892 when disaster resulted
from individual action in marketing a
crop of only 4,000 cars, and fair prices
this season, through co-operative market-
ing of 60 per cent of a crop of 50,000 cars
of citrus fruits.

A summary of the benefits realized to
the citrus fruit industry through organ-
ized co-operation is about as follows:

1. The cost of packing, as compared
with 1892, has been reduced to all grow-
ers more than 10 cents per box; a saving
of $2,000,000 annually on the present out-
put.

2. The cost of selling has been reduced
more than five cents per box in the same
period; a saving annually of more than
$1,000,000.

3. The orange freight rate has been re-
duced seven cents per box; a saving on

the present output of more than $1,200,000
annually.

4. The lemon freight rate has been re-
duced 21 cents per box; a saving on the
present output of more than $500,000 an-
nually.

5. Through reduction of refrigeration
cost, the growers will finally save $500,000
annually by the recent decision of the
Interstate Commerce Commission.

6. The cost of orchard supplies, par-
ticularly fertilizers, is being materially re-
duced through the operations of the Grow-
ers' Supply Company, with ultimate sav-
ings of $500,000 in sight.

7. Through extended advertising, the
consumption of citrus fruits has been in-
creased to keep pace with production,
thus avoiding disastrous results in years
of large crops, insuring to the grower a
fair price for his product, while the con-
sumer is obtaining his oranges and lemons
cheaper than ever before.

The conclusions to be drawn as to fu-
ture action are self-evident. The growers
must be alive to their own interests at all
times. They must absolutely control their
own business and stand unitedly together
in these great problems, such as adver-
tising, distribution, and marketing, as
well as in many other ways. Various in-
terests are opposed to their success, and
are present with plausible arguments, all
based on the perfectly natural desire for
private gain on the part of those who
make them. With a falling oflE of mem-
bership in the exchange, disaster to the
industry would be invited, while, on the
other hand, with a constantly increasing
percentage of the crop to handle, it will
be possible for the exchange to confident-
ly plan for successful future operations
with the maximum of benefit to the in-
dustry and to the state, as well as show-
ing to the world what can be done by a
united body of intelligent producers
through persistent organized co-operative
effort.

Pomological Points — While the chief
activities in the California citrus indus-
try are commercial, as indicated, pomo-
logical points are receiving systematic
attention. The types of orange and

CALIFORNIA— CANADA

697

lemon varieties which best suit our
growing conditions and trade require-
ments are quite definitely agreed upon.
All the varieties which are being largely
planted can be counted upon the fingers
of one hand, including the Navel and
Valencia for oranges, and the Eureka for
a lemon — leaving two more fingers to be
occupied by half a dozen minor varieties
to be individually or locally contended
for. It is, however, quite clear that there
is a great chance for advantage in select-
ing variations superior in form, quality,
productivity, etc., within the types, thus
securing varieties which may be in many
ways better than those now generally
grown. The relative desirability of dif-
ferent stocks is also being observed in
plantations made for the purpose, and the
choice of buds is included. The Cali-
fornia Experiment Station at its branches
in Riverside and Whittier and in general
citrus orchard studies has several experts
constantly at work. The Bureau of Plant
Industry of the Department of Agricul-
ture also has men continually employed
in California. It will naturally require
several years to reach trustworthy con-
clusions in these lines.

E. J. WiCKSON

California Fruit Growers Exchange.
See Marketing.

Canada

With the exception of Alaska, Green-
land, Newfoundland and the two islands
of St. Pierre and Miquelon, all of the
northern half of the American continent
is comprised in the Dominion of Canada.
The area in square miles is 3,729,656.

The four principal surface divisions
are:

1. The Appalachian region, forming
the extreme southeastern corner.

2. The Laurentian Plateau or pene-
plain with its fringe and outliers of low-
lands around the lakes and the Hudson
bay, comprising the remainder of the
eastern half of Canada.

3. The great Central Plain.

4. The mountain regions of the West.
Each of these divisions represents, on

the whole, a different geological forma-

tion, and has its own peculiar physical
features.

The Appalachian region is the north-
eastern extremity of a system of moun-
tains that were pushed up from the
southeast against the Archaean or Lau-
rentian area. Nova Scotia is a part of
this system, and is one of the fruit grow-
ing regions of Canada. The Laurentian
Plateau or peneplain is a slight eleva-
tion of tableland resting on hard crysta-
line rocks everywhere scored by glaciers
that created basins in which the water
settled, forming lakes. The land surface
is sparsely covered with soil on which
grow pine, spruce and other northern
trees, except in the higher altitudes,
where mosses and lichens grow.

South of the Laurentian Plateau is a
valley of lowlands along the St. Lawrence
river. This is the great fruit growing
region of Quebec, while the strips of land
that skirt the Great Lakes system are.
the main fruit growing regions of On-
tario.

The most important fruit regions of
Canada are thus surrounded in whole or
in part by bodies of water that modify
the temperature and protect from freez-
ing, making it possible to grow fruit at
a greater distance north than it would
be possible without the lakes, the ocean
or other bodies of water. The Atlantic
ocean and the Bay of Fundy protect parts
of Nova Scotia. The Great Lakes protect
part of Ontario and the Pacific ocean
protects the western portion of Canada.

The Central Plain is of vast extent,
reaching from the Arctic ocean south to
the Gulf of Mexico, so that only a por-
tion of this formation lies in Canada.
There is very little fruit grown in this
region north of the line which divides
the United States and Canada, and prac-
tically none is grown for commercial
purposes.

The fourth great division or mountain
belt lies west of the mountains which
extend from Tierre del Puego at the ex-
tremity of South America up through the
United States and Canada and to the
farthest western point of Alaska.

Granville Lowther

698

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

The Fruit Divisions of Canada

To assist in estimating the marketable
crop the fruit districts of the Dominion
are divided as follows:

District No. 1 — Counties north of Lake
Erie and Niagara district.

District No. 2— Counties on Lake Huron
and inland to York county.

District No. 3 — Counties bordering on
Lake Ontario north to Sharbot lake and
Georgian bay.

District No. 4 — Ottawa and St. Lawr-
ence valleys to Lake St. Peter and South-
western Quebec.

District No. 5 — New Brunswick with
Northeastern Quebec.

District No. 6 — Hants, Kings, Annapolis
and Digby counties, Nova Scotia.

District No. 7 — Nova Scotia not in-
cluded in District 6.

District No. 8 — Prince Edward island.

District No. 9 — Lower mainland and
islands, British Columbia.

District No. 10 — Inland valleys, British
Columbia.

Districts Nos. 1, 9 and 10 ship the com-
mercial crop of peaches and other tender
fruits.

Districts Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 10 grow
plums, pears and winter varieties of
apples for long distance markets and ex-
port.

District No. 4 ships Wealthy, Fameuse,
Alexander and Mcintosh Red apples.

Districts Nos. 5 and 7 will not produce
sufficient winter fruit for home consump-
tion.

"F.," "L.," "M.," and "F.-C," which ap-
pear below, are abbreviations of "Fail-
ure," "Light," "Medium" and "Full
Crop," respectively, as used by our cor-
respondents in their monthly crop re-
ports. A combination such as "M.-F.-C."
means that about an equal number of
correspondents reported "Medium" and
"Full Crop."

Those who would get full value from
the fruit crop reports, would do well to
study closely the nature of the crop in
each of these districts.

District No. 1 — Grows a large quantity
of apples of good size, fine color and ex-
cellent quality. Their one defect is that
frequently even the winter varieties ripen
so early in the fall that they deteriorate
very materially before the cold weather
of the early winter sets in and, therefore,
unless they are placed in cold storage as
soon as they are matured they are apt to
show a large amount of waste if any
attempt is made to keep them during the
winter months. The apples, therefore, in
this district must, for the most part be
regarded as fall and early winter vari-
eties, unless cold stoi-age facilities are
provided to enable the holding of them
for winter shipping stock. Consequently,
if it should appear that there was a
large crop in District No. 1, It would not
materially affect the quantity of winter
shipping apples, but would be counted in
with the fall and early winter apples of
the other districts. To this we might
make the possible exception of such vari-
eties as the Ben Davis, Stark and similar
varieties that are very little grown in
this district.

District No. 2 — Grows excellent winter
apples. It is far enough north, or the
elevation above the sea level is such, that
the winter varieties like the Greening,
Baldwin, Spy and Russet, ripen just as
the early winter sets in; consequently,
these varieties may be picked and stored
with advantage, as winter shipping apples
in ordinary storage.

A very marked peculiarity of the dis-
trict is that orchards, though numerous,
are small. The district is a very large
one and apples can be grown to perfec-
tion in any part of it; but the farmers
are engaged, for the most part, in mixed
farming.

At three or four points selling associa-
tions have been formed, and wherever
these have been organized apple growing
is exceedingly profitable.

District No. 3 — Grows an equally good
quality of winter apples; but the orchards
are larger and the fruit growers are tak-
ing better care of them. Pruning, spray-
ing and cultivating are common. The
varieties planted are fewer in number and

CANADA

699

confined almost exclusively to winter
apples.

Another significant feature that must
be taken into account in future apple re-
ports is that planting is being done quite
freely in District No. 3. The number of
young trees under 10 years old probably
equals the present plantings. Conse-
quently, each succeeding year there will
be a large addition to the aggregate of
the crop coming from District No. 3 as
the result of new orchards coming into
bearing. There will be a tendency, there-
fore, to underestimate the crop from this
district on this account.

District No. 4 — This district has a large
quantity of apples of the Fameuse and
Wealthy type. The climate is too severe
for the standard winter varieties grown
in Ontario. The varieties, such as the
Mcintosh Red, Wealthy, Wolfe River and
a number of other hardy varieties, are
all fall and early winter apples. In esti-
mating the apple crop, therefore, consid-
eration must be given to this fact, that
a large crop of apples in District No. 4
will materially affect the market only
during the fall and early winter months,
and even in such cases the apples grown
in this district are more desirable for
dessert purposes than for cooking pur-
poses. They, therefore, occupy a special
position in the market.

District No. 5 has comparatively few
trees. The quantity of fruit raised here
is not enough for home consumption, so
that it need scarcely be taken into con-
sideration in an estimate of the crop for
commercial purposes. This district in-
cludes New Brunswick. The possibilities
of orcharding in the St. John valley are
so great that there is a probability in the
future of having to make a separate divi-
sion of this part of District No. 5 to se-
cure greater accuracy in the estimate.

District No. 6 is an exceedingly impor-
tant one in apple production. It includes
the four counties of Hants, Kings, Anna-
polis and Digby in Nova Scotia. It would
be quite possible, considering the high
state of cultivation in which a large
number of the orchards are kept, to have

a surplus of 500,000 or 600,000 barrels for
export.

It will be readily seen that this is a
very important fruit district in estimat-
ing the marketable crop for any particular
year. The Gravenstein forms the largest
bulk of their earliest shipments. This
variety, however, is being less planted,
and the district is becoming more and
more confined to the winter shipping va-
rieties. The Blenheim Orange type ap-
pears to flourish here better than the
varieties so successful in Districts Nos. 1,
2 and 3. These are extremely popular in
the English market, and, therefore, are
always likely to be in good demand.

District No. 7 embraces the rest of Nova
Scotia not included in District No. 6. A
few isolated and protected valleys, par-
ticularly in the counties of Lunenburg
and Digby, are demonstrating their capa-
city for growing fruit in commercial quan-
tities; but as a whole it may be said that
there is not enough winter fruit grown
for home consumption, nor is there suffi-
cient quantity to affect appreciably any
results obtained from the other divisions.

District No. 8 includes Prince Edward
island. There is a small quantity of
early fruit grown here for export, which
may increase somewhat in the near fu-
ture, but is not enough at present to
appreciably affect the market. This dis-
trict still imports winter fruit for home
consumption.

District No. 9 includes the valley of
the Eraser from Lytton southward, the
lower coast line and the Island of Van-
couver in British Columbia. This is a
mild and moist climate, favorable to fruit
growing, which is carried on under very
different conditions from those prevailing
in District No. 10.

District No. 10 includes the interior
valleys of British Columbia, which have
a comparatively dry, warm climate. Irri-
gation is required in many of these val-
leys, and it is, therefore, desirable that
they should be grouped together, inas-
much as, though they differ among them-
selves slightly, yet, for commercial pur-
poses, the fruit is similar.

700

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Districts Nos. 9 and 10 will become in
the near future much more important
factors in estimating the total crop of the
Dominion.

A. C. McNeill,

Chief, Fruit Division.

J. A. RUDDICK,

Commissioner.

Department of Agriculture, Fruit Division,
Canada.

Fruit Growing in British Columbia

■ Fruit growing in British Columbia is
subject to most of the conditions that
prevail in the northwestern part of the
United States. It is farther north and,
where there is no protection from the
coast breezes, the temperature is colder,
and, therefore, in the unprotected regions,
fruits cannot be successfully grown for
commercial purposes. However, there are
sections where the very finest qualities
of winter apples may be grown commer-
cially, and the lands in these districts are
destined to be of great value. We quote
the following from W. E. Scott, of the
Department of Agriculture, Victoria, B. C:
The Province may be roughly divided
for horticultural purposes into four types
or sets of conditions, which are briefly
described.

District No. 1 — Southern half of Van-
couver island and adjacent islands, with
a rainfall of approximately 30 inches.
This district is very well adapted for all
small fruits, and is par excellence a pear
country. The earlier varieties of apples
and a few winter kinds do very well, also
the preserving varieties of cherries.
Plums, prunes and sweet cherries also
yield enormous crops.

District No. 2 — Lower mainland, with a
rainfall of approximately 60 inches. This
is essentially a district suited for small
fruits and dairying. In some parts, apples
and pears do well, but only those which
are least susceptible to scab should be
planted.

District No. 3 — The interior valleys of
the Province, where irrigation is neces-
sary. These valleys are noted for the ex-
cellent quality of apples which they grow.
Peaches are also grown commercially, and
are successful in some parts. Pears and
other fruits do well, but I would empha-
size these districts particularly for apple
growing.

District No. 4 — Interior valleys where
irrigation is not necessary. Some of the
valleys in the interior of British Columbia
grow an excellent quality of fruit without
irrigation, though, as a rule, better results
can be obtained, if water is available
when required. In the Kootenay valley
the quality of the fruit is excellent, and
it is also noted for its long-keeping
quality.

Leading Commercial Varieties Grown in
British Columbia

Apples — Yellow Transparent, Duchess of
Oldenburg, Wealthy, Gravenstein, Mcin-
tosh Red, Jonathan, Spitzenburg, Yellow
Newtown Pippin, Northern Spy, Wagener,
Rome Beauty, Golden, King of Tompkins
County.

Pears — Bartlett, Louise Bonne de Jer-
sey, Dr. Jules Guyot, Beurre Clairgeau,
Beurre d'Anjou, Flemish Beauty, Beurre
Hardy, Winter Nelis.

Crab Apples — Transcendent, Hyslop.

Cherries — (Sweet) Royal Ann, Bing,
Lambert, Winsdor; (Preserving) Olivette
and English Morello.

Plums — Peach Plum, Bradshaw, Quack-
enboss. Grand Duke, Black Diamond,
Pond's Seedling, Yellow Egg, Italian
Prune.

Peaches — Triumph, Alexandra, Yellow
St. John, Early Crawford, Elberta, Belle
of Georgia.

Strawberries — Magoon, Sharpless, Pax-
ton, British Queen, Royal Sovereign.

Rasp b erries — C uthbert.

CANADA

701

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CANADA

703

Export Fruit Packages, Etc., in British Columbia

Inside Measurements.

Size of Box, etc., Inches

Average
Weight

(Net)

Remarks

Apples

Crab Apples . .

10 X 11 X 20

411b.
501b.

40 1b.

46-48 lb.
17-21 lb.

10 X 11 X 20 (apple)

Xhe half aoole box i.s nl^n usArl r>n

18M X 11 X 83/^ (pear)

the Lower Mainland.
As used in Upper Country; half
pear box and peach box (20 lb.)
also sometimes used.

Pears

Peaches. .

18J4xllx8M

18j|x 11^x4

18J^ X 11% x4i^

18M X 11% x4J^

Plums ....

15% X 15% x4%

20-22 lb.
20-25 lb.
19-20 lb.
8M-9 lb.

14 1b.

24 1b.
161b.

4-basket crate

Prunes

Shipped largely in peach boxes.

4 basket crate.

Sour cherries (4-basket crate),
equals 16-18 lb. Sour cherries
(special pack), equals 24 lb.

Size of crate, 16% x 23% x 5%.

Size of crate, 16% x 23% x 6%.

As for strawberries

Apricots

Cherries

15%xl5%x4K

18ji x 9 x 2%

Raspberries . .

Strawberries .

Loganberries.
Currants

2-5 quart carton (24 to 1 crate) ;

size of carton, 5% x 5% x 1 . .
4-5 quart carton (24 to 1 crate) ;

size of carton, 5% x 5% x 8. .
2-5 quart carton (24 to 1 crate)

Grapes

Rhubarb

Cantaloupes. .

6-quart basket (approximately

20xl5%x7%

12 x 11^x20%

)

401b.

Six 6-quart baskets reckoned as
100 lb. by the Express Co.

Tomatoes. . .

18% X 11% x5. . .

23 1b.

Cabbage

25x23x18

Lettuce

28% X 16x12

Horticulture in Nova Scotia

The horticultural industry of Nova
Scotia is generally supposed to be carried
on chiefly in a small section of the west-
ern part of the Province. While it is true
that the present production of orchard
fruits is largely confined to the Annapolis,
Cornwallis and adjacent valleys, there are
many other parts of the Province where
these fruits can be grown, and where
small fruits and market garden crops can
be as successfully grown as in the so-
called orchard district. The nearness of
many of these places to mining towns and
manufacturing centers gives them the
advantage of a local market where fresh
garden products find a ready sale at good
prices. In such localities intensive meth-
ods on small areas often bring surpris-
ingly large profits. Strawberries and bush
fruits, asparagus, beans, celery, lettuce,

rhubarb, peas, tomatoes, roots and early
potatoes are some of the crops which
have been found profitable in this kind
of farming. It is probable that a history
of horticulture written for the Province
a quarter of a century or more hence will
have to include a large reference to this
industry in these other counties. But, in
the meantime, fruit growing is developed
to such a greater extent in the Annapolis
valley that these articles, more especially
insofar as they are historical, apply
largely to this part of the Province. If,
however, the same principles which have
made fruit growing in Kings and ad-
joining counties successful were applied
in the other counties of the Province, the
industry would become much more ex-
tensive than at present. The following
articles are accordingly commended to all
citizens of Nova Scotia, whether living

704

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

within or without the Annapolis and
nearby valleys.

For the last 30 years the production of
fruit from the orchards of Nova Scotia
has been steadily increasing. The yearly
income from the sale of fruit exported
now amounts to about $1,500,000. Con-
sidering the number and extent of the
young orchards just coming into bearing,
there seems every reason to believe that
the future rate of increase will be still
more rapid, and that the annual returns
for the years immediately succeeding
1910 will probably exceed $2,000,000. The
business of fruit growing in Nova Scotia
offers an opportunity for the investment
of capital as safe as that afforded by any
business in the Province.

The best fruit growers are constantly
trying to understand and to reduce to
practice the principles of horticultural
science. With these men annual cultiva-
tion of orchard lands is the rule. Cover
crops are grown. Stable manure, com-
mercial fertilizers, or both, are yearly
applied. Fruit trees are so pruned as to
admit the air and sunlight to the growing
fruit, to remove weak and dying or in-
terfering branches and to encourage and
maintain a healthy, continuous growth of
the tree. Three or more sprayings with
a poisoned fungicide are given each year
to control insect pests and fungous dis-
eases. Formerly Bordeaux mixture was
the only fungicide used, but lately the
lime-sulphur wash has been tried by some
of the best orchardists with apparently
good results. This mixture was first
brought into use in orchards to combat
the San Jose scale. It was soon found,
however, that, besides being an insecti-
cide, it had an important fungicidal
value and, though the dreaded scale has
not yet made its appearance in Nova
Scotia, the lime-sulphur wash is being
used both as a dormant and a summer
spray.

It is important to notice that in start-
ing an orchard the returns are far more
remote than in other lines of farming.
Under the ordinary method of treatment,
an apple orchard gives little, if any, in-
come during the first 10 years. There is.

however, an annually accruing value in
the growth of the trees, which more than
offsets the expenses incurred in their
care. Almost all the bearing orchards
in the fruit district today were grown
while the owners were engaged in other
kinds of farming. But when the profits
of orcharding became apparent, this
branch of agricultural industry took first
place. While other lines of farming are
now secondary to orcharding in the fruit
district, they are nevertheless of consid-
erable importance in providing a source
of income until the young orchard comes
into bearing, paying expenses during
years of poor crops or low prices, or pro-
viding a means for using the product of
natural hay lands, and thus supplying
manure for the orchard. The raising of
small fruits, market gardening, dairying,
beef or poultry raising, or other branches
of agriculture to which the farm may be
best suited, provides an excellent side
line to orcharding.

In years of ordinarily good crops of
fruit, about seven-eighths of the mar-
ketable apples produced in Nova Scotia
find a sale in foreign countries. The chief
market is in Great Britain, although
there is now a growing trade with New-
foundland, the West Indies, and South
Africa. Our proximity to the British
market and the comparative cheapness of
water transportation give Nova Scotian
growers an advantage over their compet-
itors. The varieties of apples generally
grown in England are found to succeed
well here, and our growers aim to secure
such varieties as are popular with the
British consumer.

The fruit industry, however, has now
reached a stage in which the proper vari-
eties of trees to plant, the proper care of
the growing trees, and the handling of
the fruit are fairly well understood. The
next step in the natural development of
the industry is now being taken in the
formation of co-operative associations of
fruit growers for the marketing of fruit.
The proper marketing is as important as
the growing of fruit. Without organiza-
tion the producers are at the mercy of
the transportation companies and of deal-

CANADA

705

ers at home and abroad, who are gener-
ally understood to be combined and well
organized. The result is that the amount
received by the producer of the fruit is
often less than half the amount paid by
the consumer. To secure their share of
the return from the industry, the pro-
ducers must be as well organized as are
the men with whom they deal. Ten co-
operative associations have already been
formed in the fruit-producing district of
Nova Scotia, and the organization of
these into one central association has
now been effected.

The following articles from successful
horticulturists give some idea of the
profit derived from orcharding and gar-
dening in Nova Scotia. They also, to an
extent, describe the methods by which
these results have been obtained. While
not by any means exhaustive in their
treatment of the subject, they touch upon
all the operations of importance in con-
nection with fruit growing, and will be
found instructive, suggestive and most
encouraging.

P. J. Shaw,

(Annual Report Secretary of Agriculture, N.
S.. 1910.)

Export Figures from 1880 to 1910

1880-188.5 23,920

1885-1890 83,249

1890-189.5 118,552

1895-1900 259,200

1900-1905 330,406

1903-1910 482,298

The prices have ranged at from $2 to
$2.25 per barrel.

Fifty Per Cent Increase

From the above figures we observe that
the average export of the last five years
has been over 20 times that of the same
period 25 years ago. Also that, though
the increase for the first 10 years of our
export business was greater than the last
10 years, yet the increase for the last
three five-year periods has been approxi-
mately even, and shows the export of
each period to be about 50 per cent more
than the previous one. Four periods out
of the six show approximately this in-
crease.

It is estimated by the railway authori-
ties that during the last few years quite
150,000 barrels per year have been con-

2—4

sumed in the Province, which should be
added to the above 482,298 to show our
actual production during the last five
years. There is little doubt that the
quantity used in our Province during the
last 15 years has increased in equal pro-
portion to our export.

Ralph S. Eaton,

Kentville, N. S.

(In Annual Report of Secretary of Agriculture,
N. S., for 1910.)

FRUITS OF ONTARIO

When the first fruit trees were planted
in Ontario, probably about 150 years ago,
the settlers had no reliable information
to guide them in selecting varieties or
in caring for the trees after they were
planted. But the experience of these
early settlers was taken advantage of by
their descendants who, with the addi-
tional knowledge possessed, were able to
make some progress, although scattered
as they were in those early times with-
out good means of intercourse. The dis-
semination of information from one to
another and to the new settlers who were
coming in was slow until the railways
were built. Then fruit growing became
much more general, as trees could be
easily transported from one part of the
Province to another. In 1859 a few en-
thusiastic horticulturists organized the
Ontario Fruit Growers' Association. Meet-
ings were held in different parts of the
Province, and the people were urged to
plant more fruit. This organization has,
for the past 47 years, by its meetings,
annual reports, the Canadian Horticul-
turist, and in many other ways, done very
much to bring about the present develop-
ment in the fruit industry of Ontario.
Realizing that more definite information
was needed to guide fruit growers in the
planting of varieties and the culture of
fruits, the association in 1893 urged upon
the government the importance of estab-
lishing fruit experiment stations through-
out the Province. The idea received the
approval of the government, and in 1894
four stations were established, this num-
ber being increased to 13 in the course of
a few years. To these were sent many
varieties of fruits, which were tested and

706

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

reported upon each year by those in
charge of the stations. As these experi-
menters were all practical fruit growers,
and in most cases had made a specialty
of some kind of fruit, much valuable in-
formation regarding varieties and their
culture was accumulated by the depart-
ment of agriculture.

Tree Fruits

Among what are commonly classed as
the tree fruits are the apple, cherry,
peach, pear, plum and quince.

The Importance of the fruit interests
may be fairly judged by the following fig-
ures for Ontario from the Dominion cen-
sus of 1901:

Not Bearing

Bearing

Total Trees

Bushels

Value

Acres

Capital Value

Apple Trees .

Peach Trees

Pear Trees

1,989,983
470,772
280,175
686,628
237,792

7,551,636
811,725
564,798
999,091
446,556

9,541,619
1,282,497

844,973
1,685,719

684,348

13,631,264
539,482
487,759
337,108
132,177

$3,407,815
539,482j
365,8191
252,831
297,398

228,013
38,002

$34,201,950

Plum Trees

Cherry Trees

11,400,600

Total

3,665,350

10,373,806

14,039,156

15,127,790

4,863,345

266,015

45,602,550

There has been a marked increase in
the number of acres planted since the
1901 census was taken, the total number
of apple trees, according to the last re-
port of the Ontario Bureau of Industries,
being 10,201,766.

THE APPLE

From the Ottawa river, which bounds
the Province on the east, to the Great
Lakes on the west, a distance of about
500 miles, and from the St. Lawrence
river and Great Lakes on the south to
latitude 45 degrees, and even 46 degrees,
on the north, a distance of about 280
miles, there are many flourishing com-
mercial apple orchards. These produce
annually an average ci'Op of about 35,000,-
000 bushels of fruit. But apple growing
is not confined even to this area, for
scattered here and there over the newer
parts of Ontario almost up to the Mani-
toba boundary are trees which are bear-
ing good apples and supplying the settler
with fruit for home consumption.

Owing to the material difference in cli-
matic conditions between the extreme
southern and the northern parts of the
Province, some varieties of apples are
more adapted to certain sections than
others, not only on account of their vary-

ing degrees of hardiness, but because
some kinds produce better fruit in cer-
tain sections than in others. Further-
more, as apples grown in the southern
parts of the Province do not keep as well
as those grown in the northern sections,
the fruit matures earlier, and hence does
not come into keen competition with,
perhaps, the same varieties from other
sources. Each part of the Province,
therefore, where apples are grown can
produce fruit which has a fair chance of
commanding the highest price on the
market. As these climatic conditions
cannot be changed, it behooves fruit
growers in the southwestern peninsula to
make a specialty of growing fruit for the
early markets, for there is no other sec-
tion which can compete so favorably in
the production and sale of early apples,
especially for the rapidly growing market
in the Northwest.

Varieties Recommended

General Lists — After testing a large
number of varieties of fruit at the vari-
ous fruit stations, the board of control
has decided upon the following as the
most desirable for general planting.

District Lists — The district lists given
by the various experimenters show vari-

CANADA

707

eties especially adapted to the sections
represented by their stations.

The term Commercial is intended to in-
clude the varieties most desirable for
market purposes, and the term Domestic
those most desirable for home uses, either
cooking or dessert.

These lists are given, as far as possible,
in the order of ripening.

It is realized that there are many vari-
eties not included in these lists which
may do well under special conditions, yet
which are generally not considered as
desirable as those mentioned.

General List of the Most Valuable Vari-

eties for Market Approved by the

Board of Control

Summer

AsTRACHAN — Adapted to all sections ex-
cept the extreme north.

Duchess — Adapted to all sections.

Fall

Gravenstein — Adapted to all sections
except the St. Lawrence river and other
northerly portions of the Province.
V Wealthy — Particularly valuable for
northern sections.

' Alexaxder — Especially for northern
districts.

•- McIntosh — Adapted especially to the
St. Lawrence river district, but can be
grown over a much wider area.
^ Fameuse — Adapted especially to the St.
Lawrence river district, but succeeds well
over a much wider area.

Blenheim — Adapted to all sections ex-
cept the St. Lawrence river district and
northerly portions of the Province.

Winter

King — Adapted only to the best apple
sections, and succeeds best when top
grafted on hardy stocks.

HuBBARDSTON — Adapted to the best
apple sections.

Greening — Adapted to the best apple
sections.

Baldwin — Succeeds best on clay land,
and is adapted to the best apple districts.

Spy — Adapted to the best apple dis-
tricts, but can be grown with success
farther north by top-grafting on hardy

stocks. This is also a good method of
bringing it into early bearing.

Ontario — An early and abundant bear-
er, but short-lived. Recommended as a
filler among long-lived trees. Adapted to
same districts as Northern Spy, which it
somewhat resembles.

Stark — Adapted to best apple districts.

Varieties Especially Adapted to Home Use
Summer

Transparent — Adapted to all sections.

Primate — Adapted to best apple sec-
tions.

Sweet Bough — Adapted to best apple
sections.

Duchess — Adapted to all sections.

Fall

Chenango — Adapted to best apple sec-
tions.

Gravenstein — Adapted to best apple
sections.

Wealthy — Especially adapted to north-
ern sections.

McIntosh — Especially adapted to north-
ern sections.

Fameuse — Especially adapted to north-
ern sections.

Blenheim — Adapted to best apple sec-
tions.

Winter

King — Adapted to best apple sections.
Should be top-grafted.

Wagener — Adapted to best apple sec-
tions.

SwAYziE — Adapted to all sections ex-
cept most northerly.

Greening — Adapted to best apple dis-
tricts.

Tolman — Adapted to best apple dis-
tricts.

Spy — Adapted to best apple districts,
but will succeed farther north if top-
grafted.

Mann — Adapted to best apple districts,
but will succeed farther north if top-
grafted.

Hardy Varieties Recommended for Sec-
tions North of Latitude 46 Degrees
Summer

Yellow Transparent, Charlamoff.

708

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fall and Winter

Duchess, Wealthy, Hibernal, Longfield,
Patten, Whitney, Hyslop, Scott Winter.

Crabs Suitable for the Whole of the
ProTince

Whitney — A large crab of high qual-
ity, suitable for planting in the extreme
north where other apples will not suc-
ceed. May be used for dessert or cooking.

Mabtha — An early crab of fair quality.

Transcendent — Yellowish crab, season
early autumn.

Hyslop — Dark, rich red crab, of late
season, quality only fair.

District Lists Recommended by the

Experimenters

Niagara District

Linus Woolveeton

Grimsby, Ont.

Commercial — Astrachan, Gravenstein,

Duchess, Alexander, Blenheim, Cranberry

Pippin, Hubbardston, King, Greening,

Baldwin, Spy.

Domestic — Early Harvest, Gravenstein,
Sweet Bough, Chenango, Duchess, Shia-
wassee, Fall Pippin, Fameuse, Swayzie,
Wagener, Yellow Bellflower, Spitzenburg,
Tolman.

Bay of Quinte District
W. H. Dempsey
Trenton, Ont.
Commercial — Duchess, Gravenstein,
Trenton, Alexander, Wealthy, Fameuse,
Mcintosh, King, Greening, Baldwin, On-
tario, Seek-no-Further, Spy, Tolman, Ben
Davis, Stark.

Domestic — Benoni, Primate, Graven-
stein, Fameuse, Mcintosh, Grimes, Green-
ing, Ontario, Spy, Tolman, Swayzie.

Bnrlington District

A. W. Peart
Burlington, Ont.
Commercial — Astrachan, Duchess,
Wealthy, Ribston, Blenheim, King, Green-
ing, Baldwin Spy.

Domestic — Astrachan, Sweet Bough,
Gravenstein, Wagener, Seek-no-Further,
Golden Russet.

Laie Simcoe District

G. C. Caston
Craighurst, Ont.
Commercial — Duchess, Peerless, Alex-
ander, Wolf River, Blenheim, Pewaukee,

Stark, and the following if top-worked
on hardy stocks: Greening, King, On-
tario, Baldwin, Spy.

Domestic — Astrachan, Primate, St. Law-
rence, Fameuse, Mcintosh, King, Spy.

Lake Hnron District

A. E. Sherrington

Walkerton, Ont.

Commercial — Astrachan, Duchess,

Wealthy, Fameuse, Mcintosh, Blenheim,

Greening, Baldwin, Spy, Golden Russet,

Ben Davis.

Domestic — Transparent, Astrachan,
Duchess, Mcintosh, Grimes, Blenheim,
King, Spy, Golden Russet.

St. Lawrence District

Harold Jones
Maitland, Ont.
Commercial — Duchess, Alexander, Wolf
River, Scarlet Pippin, Fameuse, Mcintosh,
Baxter, Milwaukee, Golden Russet.

Domestic — Transparent, Brockville,
Beauty, Scarlet Pippin, Fameuse, Mcin-
tosh, Blue Pearmain, Golden Russet, Yel-
low Bellflower.

Algona District

Charles Young
Richard's Landing, Ont.
Commercial and Domestic — Astrachan,
Transparent, Duchess, Charlamoff, Gideon,
Longfield, Wealthy, Scott Winter.

THE PEAR

The pear succeeds all over the best ap-
ple districts of Ontario, but few good
hardy varieties have yet been found,
hence the commercial culture of the pear
does not extend as far north as the apple.
The principal pear orchards are found in
Southern Ontario. There are many good
orchards, however, along Lake Ontario
as far east as the Bay of Quinte and north
to the Georgian Bay.

In Eastern Ontario, only a few kinds
succeed, and these are not planted on a
commercial scale. These hardy varieties
are grown to a limited extent for home
use as far north as latitude 45 degrees
and some of the Russian pears, though
inferior in quality and very subject to
blight, may be grown still further north.

The pear stands distant shipment well
if picked at the right time, and properly

CANADA

709

packed and handled in transit, and hence
larger quantities are being sent to distant
markets every year, and as a rule good
prices are obtained for the fruit.

Yarieties Becommended

General List Approyed by the Board of

Control

Commercial — Giffard, Clapp, Bartlett,
Boussock, Flemish (hardy, subject to
spot), Howell, Louise, Duchess, Bosc,
Clairgeau, Anjou, KiefEer.

Domestic — Summer Doyenne, Giffard,
Bartlett, Flemish (for the north), Sheld-
on, Seckel, Bosc, Anjou, Lawrence, Jose-
phine, "Winter Nelis.

District lists Becommended by the

Experimenters

Niagara District

Linus Woolverton
Grimsby, Out.

Commercial — Chambers, Wilder, Gif-
fard, Clapp, Bartlett, Hardy, Bosc, How-
ell, Louise, Duchess, Pitmaston, Clair-
geau, Anjou, Easter Beurre.

Domestic — Doyenne, Manning, Gif-
fard, Boussock, Rostiezer, Marguerite,
Sheldon, Seckel, Triumph, Ritson, Louise,
Hardy, Diel, Anjou, Lawrence.

Burlington District

A. W. Peart
Burlington, Ont.
Commercial — Wilder, Clapp, Bartlett,
Boussock, Louise, Duchess (dwarf), An-
jou, Kieffer, Winter Nelis, Easter Beurre.
Domestic — Wilder, Bartlett, Louise,
Anjou, Winter Nelis.

Bay of Quinte District

W. H. Dempsey

Trenton, Ont.

Commercial and Domestic — Giffard,

Tyson, Clapp, Boussock, Hardy, White

Doyenne, Dempsey, Bosc, Clairgeau,

Goodale, Lawrence, Josephine.

St. Lawrence District

Harold Jones
Maitland, Ont.
Domestic — Clapp, Flemish, Ritson.

THE PLUM

The plum has a wider range over the
Province of Ontario than the pear or
peach, this fruit being a native of the

Province and found as far north as Mani-
toba.

There are three large groups into
which the plums may be divided here,
namely, the European, Japanese, and
American. In the European or domestica
group are included most of the varieties
which are grown in Ontario commercial-
ly. These plums are not as hardy as the
natives, hence their profitable culture is
limited to almost exactly the same dis-
tricts as the pear, the commercial or-
chards being mostly found in Southern
Ontario, the Georgian Bay District, and
along Lake Ontario west of the Bay of
Quinte. A few of the hardiest produce
crops occasionally in Eastern Ontario and
up to about latitude 45 degrees in Cen-
tral Ontario, but they are too uncertain
to be grown for profit.

The Japanese plums are grown over
practically the same area as the Euro-
pean, but the fruit buds average a little
more tender.

In the American group are included
the Americana and Nigra plums, the
former being derived from a hardy
United States species and the latter
from the native Canadian plum. The
varieties of this group are quite hardy
and can be grown commercially where
the European and Japanese plums will
not succeed, and while not so good in
quality as the others, good prices are at
present obtained for what are produced.

Plums are not being so extensively
planted at present as other large fruits,
since during recent years the markets
have several times been glutted, result-
ing in low prices. The demand for plums
is, however, always large, and the excel-
lent market which is opening up in the
Northwest will probably in the future pre-
vent, in a great measure, this over-sup-
ply.

The cultural directions for the apple
will apply in most particulars to the
plum, which will succeed on almost all
kinds of well drained soils, although it
does best on the heavier clay loams.
Trees one or two years of age should be
planted about eighteen feet apart each
way, the soil having been thoroughly

710

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

prepared beforehand. The trees should
be severely headed back when planted,
and future pruning will consist in form-
ing a well shaped open head. As some
varieties make exceptionally strong
growth it is a good practice when the
trees are young to prune the young
growth back about one-half each spring
to avoid splitting. When the trees begin
to bear little pruning is necessary, as
they usually bear so heavily that the
trees do not make much growth annual-
ly.

Orchards should be kept thoroughly
cultivated, and cover crops are recom-
mended as for the apple, cherry, peach
and pear. The fruit should be picked
when it is well colored but still firm.

Varieties Recommended

General list Approved by the Board of

Control

COMMEKCIAL AND DOMESTIC

American — These are extremely hardy
and are desirable where the European
and Japanese varieties cannot be grown:
Aitken, Cheney, Bixby, Mankato, Wolf,
Hawkeye, Stoddard.

Etjropean — Bradshaw, Imperial Gage,
Gueii, Shipper Pride, Lombard (liable to
overbear, requires thinning), Quacken-
boss, Yellow Egg, Grand Duke, Coe, Reine
Claude (one of the best for canning).

Japanese — These are apparently quite
as hardy as the European varieties: Red
June, Abundance, Burbank, Chabot, Sat-
suma (red fleshed, desirable for canning).

District Lists Recommended by the

Experimenters

Lake Huron District

A. E. Sherrington
Walkerton, Out.
Commercial and Domestic — Red June,
Ogon, Burbank, Bradshaw, Imperial Gage,
Gueii, Shipper Pride, Victoria, Quacken-
boss. Yellow Egg, Monarch, Grand Duke,
Satsuma.

Georgian Bay District
John Mitchell
Clarksburg
Commercial and Domestic — Red June,
Burbank, Washington, Bradshaw, Imper-
ial Gage, Quackenboss, Arch Duke, Dia-

mond, Monarch, Yellow Egg, Coe, Sat-
suma, Reine Claude.

Burlington District

A. W. Peart
Burlington, Ont.
Commercial —

European — Bradshaw, Imperial Gage,
Lombard, Yellow Egg, Glass, Reine
Claude.

Japanese — Red June, Abundance, Bur-
bank, Chabot, Satsuma.

Domestic — Abundance, Saunders, Brad-
shaw, Imperial Gage, Smith Orleans, Lom-
bard, Yellow Egg, Satsuma, Reine Claude.

]Niagara District

Linus Woolverton
Grimsby, Ont.
Commercial — Red June, Burbank, Brad-
shaw, Chabot, Gueii, Coe, Quackenboss,
Satsuma, Reine Claude.

Domestic — Abundance, Washington,
Yellow Egg, Shropshire, Quackenboss,
Satsuma, Reine Claude.

St. Lawrence District

Harold Jones
Maitland, Ont.
Domestic —

Note — The European and Japanese
varieties are only recommended for the
home garden in the St. Lawrence Dis-
trict, as they have not proved entirely
hardy nor very productive.

American — Milton, Whitaker, Hammer.

European — Gueii, Lombard, Shipper
Pride, Glass.

Japanese — Red June, Burbank.

THE GRAPE

There is no more popular fruit than
the grape, and, owing to the rapid in-
crease in population during recent years,
the demand for grapes is constantly grow-
ing. For this reason the planting of
grapes, which was in a large measure
suspended for a few years, is steadily in-
creasing, many vineyards now being es-
tablished annually.

The grape requires a comparatively
dry hot season for the development of
good flavor and the perfect ripening of
the fruit, and as most of the cultivated
varieties will not stand very low temper-
atures unless protected, the grape sue-

CANADA

711

ceeds best in the most southern parts of
the Province, the commercial vineyards
being confined almost entirely to the
Niagara peninsula, and to the district
bordering Lake Erie. The grape can,
however, be grown successfully over a
much wider area than this, and where
the summer temperature is fairly high
and spring and early autumn frosts are
rare, large quantities of grapes are grown
for home consumption. Hence the early
varieties of this fruit may be ripened
pretty generally over the Province as
far north as latitude 45 degrees and prob-
ably further.

Varieties Eecommended

General List Approved by the Board of

Control

Commercial and Domestic —

Black — Moore, Campbell, Worden, Con-
cord, Wilder.

Red — Delaware, Lindley, Agawam, Ver-
gennes.

White — Niagara, Diamond.
For Northern Sections —

Black — Champion, Moore, Campbell,
Worden, Wilder.

Red — Moyer, Brighton, Delaware, Lind-
ley.

White — Winchell, Diamond.

District Lists Recommended by the

Experimenters

Wentworth District

M. Pettit
Winona, Out.
Commercial —

Black — Champion, Campbell, Worden,
Concord.

Red — Delaware, Lindley, Agawam, Ver-
gennes, Catawaba.
White — Niagara, Diamond.

Niagara District

Linus Woolverton
Grimshy, Ont.
Domestic — Moyer, Campbell, Worden,
Delaware, Lindley, Brighton, Wilder, Aga-
wam, Requa.

BUSH FRUITS

In Bush Fruits are included the Black-
berry, Currant, Gooseberry, and Rasp-

berry. These fruits, while not being of
quite so much importance from a com-
mercial standpoint as the tree fruits, are
grown and consumed in very large quan-
tities in Ontario, and as they are used
in many ways by housekeepers there will
always be a demand for them. They can
be grown between the tree fruits to ad-
vantage while the latter are young and
hence often augment the revenue of the
fruit grower materially before the tree
fruits come into full bearing.

Some idea of the large quantities of
bush fruits which are grown will be ob-
tained from the Dominion census statis-
tics for 1901, where it is stated that there
were at that time 8,116 acres devoted to
small fruits in Ontario, on which were
produced about 16,000,000 quarts valued
at $811,000.00. The strawberry is includ-
ed in the above estimate. The present
area devoted to small fruits is estimated
at 10,000 acres.

THE BLACKBERRY

The blackberry is not grown so large-
ly in Ontario as it might be. It is one of
the most profitable fruits to grow where
it succeeds well, but as the crop is rather
uncertain except in Southern Ontario and
in localities farther north where it is
protected by a deep snow fall, its range
of successful culture is somewhat limit-
ed. Where there is not danger of winter
killing, a well drained clay loam is prob-
ably the best for the blackberry, as it is
cooler and more retentive of moisture
than lighter soils. The blackberry must
have plenty of soil moisture when the
fruit is ripening, otherwise but little of
the crop will develop. Further north,
where hardiness is of greater considera-
tion than conservation of moisture, the
poorer and warmer soils are preferred,
as the blackberry on these soils does not
make as rampant a growth and hence
ripens its wood better.

Varieties Recommended

General List Approved by the Board of
Control

Agawam, Snyder, Eldorado, and for
southern sections, Kittatinny.

712

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

District Lists Recommended by the

Experimenters

Burlington District

A. W. Peabt
Burlington, Ont.
Commercial and Domestic — Snyder,
Briton, Triumph, Agawam, Taylor.

Lake Simcoe District

G. C. Caston
Craighurst, Ont.

Commercial and Domestic — Agawam,
Eldorado.

THE CURRANT

The currant is a very hardy fruit and
for this reason can be grown with suc-
cess all over the Province of Ontario, and
as fair results are obtained without high
culture, almost everyone who has a gard-
en grows currants. Like all other fruits,
however, the currant becomes most profit-
able when it is given good care.

The currant is a moisture loving fruit,
hence for profit it should be planted in
a cool, moist, but well drained soil. It
also requires rich soil, hence as a rule
the best is a good clay loam which is re-
tentive of moisture and cooler than sandy
loam. The soil should be thoroughly pre-
pared for currants before planting. One
year old plants from cuttings if strong
will give good satisfaction, although two
year old plants are not too old. They
should be planted in rows about six feet
apart, and from four to five feet apart in
the rows, the wide distance being more
satisfactory for the strong growing vari-
eties and especially black currants. Fall
planting is best for currants, as the buds
start very early in the spring and should
these develop before they can be planted,
their future growth will be checked.
They can, however, be planted in the
spring with success. The plants should
be set a little deeper than they were in
the nursery, and the soil well pressed
against the roots. Thorough cultivation
should follow to promote as much growth
as possible, but it should be shallow, as
the currant roots are near the surface.
The following spring the currants will
need some pruning to give them a shape-
ly open head, the bush when well shaped
"having from five to seven main branches

well distributed to avoid crowding. The
fruit of red currants is formed from
spurs on wood two years old, while the
fruit of black currants is borne on wood
of the previous year. Currants should be
pruned annually to get the best results.

Varieties Recommended

General List Approved by the Board of

Control

Black — Black Victoria, Champion, Lee,
Naples, Saunders.

Red — Cherry, Fay, Pomona, Red Cross,
Victoria, Wilder.

White — White Grape.

District Lists Recommended by the

Experimenters

Burlington District

A. W. Peart
Burlington, Ont.
Commercial —

Black — Lee, Naples, Saunders.
Red — Cherry, Fay, North Star, Prince
Albert, Victoria, Wilder.
White — White Grape.

Lake Huron District

A. E. Sherrington
Walkerton, Ont.
Black — Champion, Naples, Saunders.
Red — Pomona, Red Cross.

THE GOOSEBERRY

The gooseberry and the currant are the
two hardiest bush fruits which are cul-
tivated, and the gooseberry, like the cur-
rant, succeeds in all parts of the Province,
although the hardy gooseberries are con-
fined to the varieties derived from the
native species and to crosses between
the native and the European. The Euro-
pean varieties are only grown success-
fully in favored locations as in most
places they are very subject to mildew.

The gooseberry, like the currant, re-
quires a cool, moist, though well drained
soil to give the best results, and suffers
more than almost any other fruit in a
dry time. These cool, moist conditions
are best obtained as a rule by planting in
a well drained friable clay loam. The
soil should be thoroughly prepared, as
although the gooseberry will give a fine
crop of fruit, even if not well cared for.

CANADA

713

the size will be small. Gooseberries may
be planted with success either in spring
or fall, but fall planting is preferable, as
growth begins early and plants usually
receive a severe check if planted in the
spring.

Varieties Recommended
General List Approxed by the Board of
Control
Pearl, Downing, Red Jacket. White-
smith is one of the best English varieties,
but is almost valueless on some soils and
in some localities owing to mildew.

THE EASPBERKT

Next to the strawberry, the raspberry
is the most popular bush fruit grown in
Ontario, and as it follows the former
in season the consumer is well supplied
with these two fruits most of the sum-
mer. The raspberry being a native of
Ontario, is hardy in almost all parts of
the Province, hence it is cultivated over
a very wide area.

Like the other bush fruits, the rasp-
berry does best when grown in a cool,
moist, but well drained soil. "While this
soil should be of good quality, if it is
very rich in nitrogen the growth may be
too rank and in some localities the canes
on this account are more liable to winter
injury. The best success is usually ob-
tained with a good clay loam, although
the raspberry will do fairly well in most
kinds of soil. The preparation of the land
should be the same as for other bush
fruits.

Varieties Recommended

General List Approved by the Board of

Control

Black — Hilborn, Older, Gregg, Smith
Giant.

PuKPLE — Columbian, Shaffer.

Red — Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthbert.

White — Golden Queen.

District Lists Recommended by the

Experimenters

Lake Huron District

A. E. Sherrington
Walkerton, Ont.
Commercial and Domestic —
Black — Hilborn, Conrath, Older.

Purple — Columbian, Shaffer.

Red — Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthbert.

THE STRAWBERRY

The strawberry is the most popular
fruit cultivated in Ontario. This is doubt-
less due in part to the intrinsic value of
the strawberry itself, which is one of the
most delicious of fruits, but it is believed
that the popularity of the strawberry
comes largely from the fact that it can be
grown by almost every one, as, unlike
most fruits, very little land is required
to produce sufficient for home consump-
tion.

Strawberries can be grown in all parts
of Ontario where the soil is suitable,
hence large quantities are produced and
consumed annually, and owing to the dif-
ference in the time of ripening between
the southern and northern parts of the
Province, the season is lengthened very
much, and furthermore, the strawberries
of one district do not come in such close
competition with those from another as
they would do if all ripened at the same
time.

Strawberries will succeed on almost
any rich well drained soil, but the larg-
est crops are, it is believed, produced on
a friable clay loam which is retentive of
moisture. It is important, however, to
avoid planting strawberries where water
is likely to lie at any time, as surface
water is very injurious to strawberries,
and if water freezes over strawberries in
winter they are almost sure to be killed.

Varieties Recommended

Commercial — Splendid (Perfect), Bed-
erwood (P.), Warfield (Imperfect), not
suited to light, sandy soil, Greenville
(Imp.), Williams (P.), Saunders (P.),
Sample (Imp.), Irene (Imp.), Buster
(Imp.).

Domestic — Van Deman (P.), Splendid
(P.), Excelsior (P.), Dunlap (P.), Ruby
(P.), Bubach (Imp.), Irene (Imp.), Belt
(P.), Lovett (P.).

Note — In selecting varieties for plant-
ing, perfect-flowered varieties should be
included to fertilize those having imper-
fect flowers.

Nelson Monteith,
Minister of Agriculture.

ri4

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Canada Field Pea as a Cover Crop in
THE Rogue River Valley. See Cover
Crops under Apple.

Canadian Fruit Marks Act. See
Laws.

Candleberry

The candleberry is called also bayberry,
candleberry myrtle, tallow tree and wax
myrtle (Myrica cerifera) . The nuts are
called candle nuts and, when put into hot
water, furnish a greenish colored sub-
stance waxy and oily, which, being refined,
is made into candles. It grows in the
wet soils of North America, near the sea-
shore. The berries intended for making
candles are gathered late in autumn. An-
other plant belonging to the same genus,
grows in Scotland, a small shrub growing
a little like the myrtle or willow, of a
fragrant odor and a bitter taste, and yield-
ing an essential oil by distillation. It
was formerly used in the north of Europe
instead of hops and in some places is
still so used. In Sweden and Wales it
is used in dyeing and produces a yellow-
ish color.

Granville Lowther

Canning and Preserving Fruit
in the Home

The common fruits, because of their
low nutritive value, are not, as a rule,
estimated at their real worth as food.
Fruit has great dietetic value and should
be used generously and wisely, both fresh
and cooked. Fruits supply a variety of
flavors, sugar, acids, and a necessary
waste or bulky material for aiding in in-
testinal movement. They are generally
rich in potash and soda salts and other
minerals. Most fresh fruits are cooling
and refreshing. The vegetable acids have
a solvent power on the nutrients and are
an aid to digestion when not taken in
excess.

Fruit and fruit juices keep the blood
in a healthy condition when the supply
of fresh meat, fish, and vegetables is lim-
ited and salt or smoked meats constitute
the chief elements of diet. Fresh fruit is
generally more appetizing and refreshing
than cooked. For this reason it is often

eaten in too large quantities, and fre-
quently when underripe or overripe; but
when of good quality and eaten in moder-
ate quantities it promotes healthy intes-
tinal action and rarely hurts anyone.

If eaten immoderately, uncooked fruit
is apt to induce intestinal disturbances.
If eaten unripe, it often causes stomach
and intestinal irritation; overripe, it has
a tendency to ferment in the alimentary
canal. Cooking changes the character and
flavor of fruit, and while the product is
not so cooling and refreshing as in the
raw state, it can, as a rule, be eaten with
less danger of causing stomach or intes-
tinal trouble. If sugar be added to the
cooked fruit, the nutritive value will be
increased. A large quantity of sugar
spoils the flavor of the fruit and is likely
to make it less easily digested.

Nowhere is there greater need of a gen-
erous supply of fruit than on the farm,
where the diet is apt to be restricted in
variety because of the distance from mar-
kets. Every farmer should raise a gen-
erous supply of the kinds of fruit that
can be grown in his locality. Wives and
daughters on the farms should find pleas-
ure in serving these fruits in the most
healthful and tempting form. There are
a large number of simple, dainty desserts
that can be prepared with fruit and with-
out much labor. Such desserts should
leave the pie as an occasional luxury in-
stead of allowing it to be considered a
daily necessity.

In the season when each kind of fruit
is plentiful and at its best a generous
supply should be canned for the season
when both fruit and fresh vegetables are
scarce. A great deal of the fruit should
be canned with little or no sugar, that
it may be as nearly as possible in the
condition of fresh fruit. This is the best
condition for cooking purposes. A sup-
ply of glass jars does cost something, but
that item of expense should be charged
to future years as, with proper care, the
breaking of a jar need be a rare occur-
rence. If there be an abundance of
grapes and small, juicy fruits, plenty of
juice should be canned or bottled for re-
freshing drinks throughout the year. Re-

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME

715

member that the fruit and juice are not
luxuries, but an addition to the dietary
that will mean better health for the
members of the family and greater econ-
omy in the cost of the table.

Fresh and Preseryed Fruit for the
Market

If the supply of fruit is greater than
the family needs, it may be made a
source of income by sending the fresh
fruit to the market, if there is one near
enough, or by preserving, canning, and
making jelly for sale. To make such an
enterprise a success the fruit and work
must be first class. There is magic in
the word "Home-made," when the pro-
duct appeals to the eye and the palate;
but many careless and incompetent peo-
ple have found to their sorrow that this
word has not magic enough to float in-
ferior goods on the market. As a rule
large canning and preserving establish-
ments are clean and have the best appli-
ances, and they employ chemists and
skilled labor. The home product must be
very good to compete with the attractive
goods that are sent out from such estab-
lishments. Yet for first class home made
products there is a market in all large
cities. All first class grocers have cus-
tomers who purchase such goods.

To secure a market, get the names of
several first class grocers in some of the
large towns. Write to them asking if
they would be willing to try a sample of
your goods. If the answer is favorable,
send samples of the articles you wish to
sell. In the box with the fruit inclose a
list of the articles sent and the price.
Write your name and address clearly.
Mail a note and a duplicate list at the
time you send the box. Fixing the price
of the goods is important. Make it high
enough to cover all expenses and give you
a fair return for your labor. The expenses
will be the fruit, sugar, fuel, jars, glasses,
boxes, packing material, wear and tear of
utensils, etc., transportation and commis-
sion. The commission will probably be
20 per cent of the selling price. It may
be that a merchant will find your prices
are too high or too low for his trade, or
he may wish to purchase the goods out-

right. In any case it is essential that
you estimate the full cost of the product
and the value that you place on your
labor. You will then be in a position to
decide if the prices offered will compen-
sate you for the labor and expense. Do
not be tempted for the sake of a little
money to deprive your family of the fruit
necessary to health and pleasure.

Packing and Shipping

Each jar or jelly glass must be wrapped
in several thicknesses of soft paper
(newspapers will answer). Make pads of
excelsior or hay by spreading a thick
layer between the folds of newspapers.
Line the bottom and sides of the box with
these pads. Pack the fruit in the padded
box. Fill all the spaces between the jars
with the packing material. If the box is
deep and a second layer of fruit is to go
in, put thick pasteboard or thin boards
over the first layer and set the wrapped
jars on this. Fill all the spaces and cover
the top with the packing material. Nail
on the cover and mark clearly: GLASS.
THIS SIDE UP.

The great secret in packing is to fill
every particle of space so that nothing
can move.

Principles of Canning and Preserving

In the preservation of foods by canning,
preserving, etc., the most essential things
in the processes are the sterilization of
the food and all the utensils and the seal-
ing of the sterilized food to exclude all
germs.

Bacteria, Yeasts and Fermentation

Over 100 years ago Francois Appert
was the first to make practical applica-
tion of the method of preserving food by
putting it in cans or bottles, which he
hermetically sealed. He then put the full
bottles or cans in water and boiled them
for more or less time, depending upon
the kinds of food.

In Appert's time and, indeed, until re-
cent years, it was generally thought that
the oxygen of the air caused the decom-
position of food. Appert's theory was that
the things essential to the preservation
of food in this manner were the exclusion
of air and the application of gentle heat,

716

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

as in the water bath, which caused a
fusion of the principal constituents and
ferments in such a manner that the
power of the ferments was destroyed.

The investigations of scientists, partic-
ularly of Pasteur, have shown that it is
not the oxygen of the air which causes
fermentation and putrefaction, but bac-
teria and other microscopic organisms.

Appert's theory as to the cause of the
spoiling of food was incorrect, but his
method of preserving it by sealing and
cooking was correct, and the world owes
him a debt of gratitude.

In their investigations scientists have
found that if food is perfectly sterilized
and the opening of the jar or bottle
plugged with sterilized cotton, food will
not ferment, for the bacteria and yeasts
to which such changes are due cannot
pass through the cotton. This method
cannot be conveniently followed with
large jars.

Bacteria and yeasts exist in the air, in
the soil, and on all vegetable and animal
substances, and even in the living body,
but although of such universal occur-
rence, the true knowledge of their nature
and economic importance has only been
gained during the last 40 years.

There are a great many kinds of these
micro-organisms. Some do great harm,
but it is thought that the greater part of
them are beneficial rather than injurious.

Bacteria are one-celled and so small
they can only be seen by aid of a micro-
scope. The process of reproduction is
simple and rapid. The bacterium becomes
constricted, divides, and finally there are
two cells instead of one. Under favorable
conditions each cell divides, and so rapid
is the work that it has been estimated
that one bacterium may give rise, within
24 hours to 17,000,000 of similar organ-
isms. The favorable conditions for growth
are moisture, warmth and proper food.
Yeasts, which are also one-celled organ-
isms, grow less rapidly. A bud develops,
breaks off, and forms a new yeast plant.
Some yeasts and some kinds of bacteria
produces spores. Spores, like the dried
seeds of plants, may retain their vitality

for a long time, even when exposed to
conditions which kill the parent organ-
ism.

Yeasts and nearly all bacteria require
oxygen, but there are species of the latter
that seem to grow equally well without
it, so that the exclusion of air, which, of
course, contains oxygen, is not always a
protection, if one of the anaerobic bac-
teria, as the kinds are called which do
not require oxygen, is sealed in the can.

Spoiling of food is caused by the de-
velopment of bacteria or yeasts.

Certain chemical changes are produced
as shown by gases, odors and flavors.

Bacteria grow luxuriantly in foods con-
taining a good deal of nitrogenous mate-
rial, if warmth and moisture are present.
Among foods rich in nitrogenous sub-
stances are all kinds of meat, fish, eggs,
peas, beans, lentils, milk, etc. These
foods are difficult to preserve on account
of the omnipresent bacteria. This is seen
in warm, muggy weather, when fresh
meat, fish, soups, milk, etc., spoil quickly.
Bacteria do not develop in substances
containing a large percentage of sugar,
but they grow rapidly in a suitable wet
substance which contains a small per-
centage of sugar. Yeasts grow very read-
ily in dilute solutions containing sugars
in addition to some nitrogenous and min-
eral matters. Fruits are usually slightly
acid and in general do not support bac-
terial growth, and so it comes about that
canned fruits are more commonly fer-
mented by yeasts than by bacteria.

Some vegetable foods have so much
acid and so little nitrogenous substance
that very few bacteria or yeasts attack
them. Lemons, cranberries and rhubarb
belong to this class.

Temperature is an important factor in
the growth of bacteria and yeasts. There
are many kinds of these organisms, and
each kind grows best at a certain temper-
ature, some at a very low one and others
at one as high as 125 degrees Fahren-
heit, or more. However, most kinds of
bacteria are destroyed if exposed for 10
or 15 minutes to the temperature of boil-
ing water (212 degrees Fahrenheit); but,
if the bacteria are spore producers, cook-

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME

717

ing must be continued for an hour or
more to insure their complete destruc-
tion. Generally speaking, in order to kill
the spores the temperature must be high-
er than that of boiling water, or the
article to be preserved must be cooked
for about two hours at a temperature of
212 degrees Fahrenheit, or a shorter time
at a higher temperature under pressure.
Yeasts and their spores are, however,
more easily destroyed by heat than bac-
teria spores. Hence, fruits containing
little nitrogenous material are more
easily protected from fermentation than
nitrogenous foods in which in general
fermentation is caused by bacteria. Of
course it is not possible to know what
kinds of organisms are in the food one
is about to can or bottle; but we do know
that most fruits are not favorable to the
growth of bacteria, and, as a rule, the
yeasts which grow in fruits and fruit
juices can be destroyed by cooking 10 or
15 minutes at a temperature of 212 de-
grees Fahrenheit. If no living organisms
are left, and the sterilization of all appli-
ances has been thorough, there is no rea-
son why the fruit, if properly sealed,
should not keep, with but slight change
of texture or flavor, for a year or longer,
although canned fruits undergo gradual
change and deterioration even under the
most favorable conditions.

When fruit is preserved with a large
amount of sugar (a pound of sugar to a
pound of fruit) it does not need to be
hermetically sealed to protect it from
bacteria and yeasts, because the thick,
sugary syrup formed is not favorable to
their growth. However, the self-sealing
jars are much better than keeping such
fruit in large receptacles, from which it
is taken as needed, because molds grow
freely on moist, sugary substances ex-
posed to the air.

Molds and Molding

Every housekeeper is familiar with
molds which, under favorable conditions
of warmth and moisture, grow upon al-
most any kind of organic material. This
is seen in damp, warm weather, when
molds form in a short time on all sorts
of starchy foods, such as boiled potatoes,

bread, mush, etc., as well as fresh,
canned, and preserved fruits.

Molds develop from spores which are
always floating about in the air. When a
spore falls upon a substance containing
moisture and suitable food it sends out a
fine thread, which branches and works its
way over and into the attacked substance.
In a short time spores are produced and
the work of reproduction goes on.

In the first stages molds are white or
light gray and hardly noticeable; but
when spores develop the growth gradu-
ally becomes colored. In fact, the condi-
tions of advanced growth might be
likened to those of a flower garden. The
threads — mycelium — might be likened to
the roots of plants and the spores to the
flower and seeds.

Mold spores are very light and are
blown about by the wind. They are a
little heavier than air, and drop on
shelves, tables and floor, and are easily
set in motion again by the movement of
a brush, duster, etc. If one of these
spores drops on a jar of preserves or a
tumbler of jelly, it will germinate if
there be warmth and moisture enough in
the storeroom. Molds do not ordinarily
cause fermentation of canned foods, al-
though they are the common cause of the
decay of raw fruits. They are not as
injurious to canned goods as are bac-
teria and yeasts. They do not penetrate
deeply into preserves or jellies, or into
liquids or semi-liquids, but if given time
they will, at ordinary room temperature,
work all through suitable solid sub-
stances which contain moisture. Nearly
every housekeeper has seen this in the
molding of a loaf of bread or cake.

In the work of canning, preserving and
jelly making it is important that the food
shall be protected from the growth of
molds as well as the growth of yeasts
and bacteria.

To kill mold spores food must be ex-
posed to a temperature of from 150 de-
grees Fahrenheit to 212 degrees Fahren-
heit. After this it should be kept in a
cool, dry place and covered carefully that
no floating spore can find lodgment on its
surface.

718

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Sterilization

To sterilize a substance or thing is to
destroy all life and sources of life in and
about it. In following the brief outline
of the structure and work of bacteria,
yeasts and molds, it has been seen that
damage to foods comes through the
growth of these organisms on or in the
food; also that if such organisms are ex-
posed to a temperature of 212 degrees
Fahrenheit, life will be destroyed, but
that spores and a few resisting bacteria
are not destroyed at a temperature of
212 degrees Fahrenheit unless exposed to
it for two or more hours.

Bacteria and yeasts, which are inti-
mately mixed with food, are not as easily
destroyed as are those on smooth sur-
faces, such as the utensils and jars em-
ployed in the preparation of the food.

Since air and water, as well as the
foods, contain bacteria and yeasts, and
may contain mold spores, all utensils
used in the process of preserving foods
are liable to be contaminated with these
organisms. For this reason all appliances,
as well as the food, must be sterilized.

Stewpans, spoons, strainers, etc., may
be put on the fire in cold or boiling
water and boiled 10 or 15 minutes.
Tumblers, bottles, glass jars, and covers
should be put in cold water and heated
gradually to the boiling point, and then
boiled for 10 or 15 minutes. The jars
must be taken one at a time from the
boiling water at the moment they are to
be filled with the boiling food. The work
should be done in a well-swept and dusted
room, and the clothing of the workers aad
the towels used should be clean.

In canning fruits it is well to remember
that the product is more satisfactory if
heated gradually to the boiling point and
then cooked the given time.

Utensils Needed for Canning and
Preserring

In preserving, canning, and jelly-mak-
ing, iron or tin utensils should never be
used. The fruit acids attack these metals
and so give a bad color and metallic
taste to the products. The preserving
kettles should be porcelain lined, enam-
eled, or of a metal that will not form

troublesome chemical combinations with
fruit juices. The kettles should be broad
rather than deep, as the fruit should not
be cooked in deep layers. Nearly all the
necessary utensils may be found in some
ware not subject to chemical action. A
list of the most essential articles follows:

Two preserving kettles, one colander,
one fine strainer, one skimmer, one ladle,
one large-mouthed funnel, one wire frying
basket, one wire sieve, four long-handled
wooden spoons, one wooden masher, a few
large pans, knives for paring fruit
(plated if possible), flat-bottomed clothes
boiler, wooden or willow rack to put in
the bottom of the boiler, iron tripod or
ring, squares of cheese cloth. In addi-
tion, it would be well to have a flannel
straining bag, a frame on which to hang
the bag, a syrup gauge and a glass cylin-
der, a fruit pricker, and plenty of clean
towels. The regular kitchen pans will
answer for holding and washing the fruit.
Mixing bowls and stone crocks can be
used for holding the fruit juice and pared
fruit. When fruit is to be plunged into
boiling water for a few minutes before
paring, the ordinary stewpans may be
employed for this purpose.

Scales are a desirable article in every
kitchen, as weighing is much more accu-
rate than the ordinary measuring. But,
knowing that a large percentage of the
housekeepers do not possess scales, it has
seemed wise to give all the rules in
measure rather than weight.

If canning is done by the oven process,
a large sheet of asbestos, for the bottom
of the oven, will prevent the cracking of
jars.

The wooden rack, on which the bottles
rest in the washboiler, is made in this
manner: Have two strips of wood meas-
uring one inch high, one inch wide, and
two inches shorter than the length of the
boiler. On these pieces of wood tack thin
strips of wood that are one and one-half
inches shorter than the width of the
boiler. These cross-strips should be about
one inch wide, and there should be an
inch between two strips. This rack will
support the jars and will admit the free
circulation of boiling water about them.

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME

719

Young willow branches, woven into a
mat, also make a good bed for bottles and
jars.

The wire basket is a saver of time and
strength. The fruit to be peeled is put
into the basket, which is lowered into a
deep kettle partially filled with boiling
water. After a few minutes the basket
is lifted from the boiling water, plunged
for a moment into cold water, and the
fruit is ready to have the skin drawn off.

A strong wire sieve is a necessity when
purees of fruit are to be made. These
sieves are known as puree sieves. They
are made of strong wire and in addition
have supports of still stronger wire.

A fruit pricker is easily made and saves
time. Cut a piece half an inch deep from
a broad cork; press through this a dozen
or more coarse darning needles; tack the
cork on a piece of board. Strike the
fruit on the bed of needles, and you have
a dozen holes at once. When the work
is finished, remove the cork from the
board, wash and dry thoroughly. A little
oil on the needles will prevent rusting.
With needles of the size suggested there
is little danger of the points breaking,
but it is worth remembering that the use
of pricking machines was abandoned in
curing prunes on a commercial scale in
California because the steel needles broke
and remained in the fruit.

A wooden vegetable masher is indis-
pensable when making jellies and purees.

A syrup gauge and glass cylinder are
not essential to preserving, canning and
jelly making, but they are valuable aids
in getting the right proportion of sugar
for fruit or jelly. The syrup gauge costs
about 50 cents and the cylinder about 25
cents. A lipped cylinder that holds a
little over a gill is the best size.

Small iron rings, such as sometimes
come off the hub of cart wheels, may be
used instead of a tripod for sligntly rais-
ing the preserving kettels from the hot
stove or range.

To make a flannel straining bag, take
a square piece of flannel (27 by 27 inches
is a good size), fold it to make a three-
cornered bag, stitch one of the sides, cut
the top square across, bind the opening

with strong, broad tape, stitch on this
binding four tapes with which to tie the
bag to a frame.

To use this bag, tie it to a strong frame
or to the backs of two kitchen chairs. If
the chairs are used, place some heavy
articles in them; or the bag may hang
on a pole (a broom handle) which rests
on the backs of the chairs. A high stool
turned upside down makes a good sup-
port for the bag. Put a bowl on the floor
under the bag, then pour in the fruit
juice, which will pass through compara-
tively clear. Before it is used the bag
should be washed and boiled in clear
water.

Selection and Preparation of tlie Fruit

The selection of fruit is one of the flrst
steps in obtaining successful results. The
flavor of fruit is not developed until it is
fully ripe, but the time at which the
fruit is at its best for canning, jelly
making, etc., is just before it is perfectly
ripe. In all soft fruits the fermentative
stage follows closely upon the perfectly
ripe stage; therefore it is better to use
underripe rather than overripe fruit. This
is especially important in jelly making
for another reason also: In overripe fruit
the pectin begins to lose its jelly-making
quality.

All fruits should, if possible, be freshly
picked for preserving, canning, and jelly
making. No imperfect fruit should be
canned or preserved. Gnarly fruit may
be used for jellies or marmalades by cut-
ting out defective portions. Bruised
spots should be cut out of peaches and
pears. In selecting small-seeded fruits,
like berries, for canning, those having a
small proportion of seed to pulp should
be chosen. In dry seasons berries have a
larger proportion of seeds to pulp than
in wet or normal seasons, and it is not
wise to can or preserve such fruit unless
the seeds are removed. The fruit should
be rubbed through a sieve that is fine
enough to keep back the seeds. The
strained pulp can be preserved as a puree
or marmalade. When fruit is brought
into the house put it where it will keep
cool and crisp until you are ready to
use it.

720

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

The preparation of fruit for the various
processes of preserving is the second im-
portant step. System will do much to
lighten the work. Begin by having the
kitchen swept and dusted thoroughly,
that there need not be a large number of
mold spores floating about. Dust with a
damp cloth. Have plenty of hot water
and pans in which jars and utensils may
be sterilized. Have at hand all necessary
utensils, towels, sugar, etc. Prepare only
as much fruit as can be cooked while it
still retains its color and crispness. Be-
fore beginning to pare fruit have some
syrup ready, if that is to be used, or if
sugar is to be added to the fruit have it
weighed and measured.

Decide upon the amount of fruit you
will cook at one time, then have two
bowls — one for sugar and one for the
fruit — that will hold just the quantity of
each. As the fruit is pared or hulled, as
the case may be, drop it into its measur-
ing bowl. When the measure is full put
the fruit and sugar in the preserving
kettle. While this is cooking another
measure may be prepared and put in the
second preserving kettle. In this way the
fruit is cooked quickly and put in the
jars and sealed at once, leaving the pans
ready to sterilize another set of jars.

If the fruit is to be preserved or canned
with syrup, it may be put into the jars as
fast as it is prepared. As soon as a jar
is full, pour in enough syrup to cover it.

If several people are helping and large
kettles are being used for the preserving,
or where fruit (like quinces and hard
pears) must be first boiled in clear water,
the pared fruit should be dropped into a
bowl of cold water made slightly acid
with lemon juice (one tablespponful of
lemon juice to a quart of water). This
will keep the fruit white.

All large, hard fruit must be washed
before paring. Quinces should be rubbed
with a coarse towel before they are
washed. If berries must be washed, do
the work before stemming or hulling
them. The best way to wash berries is
to put a small quantity into a colander
and pour cold water over them; then turn
them on a sieve to drain. All this work

must be done quickly that the fruit may
not absorb much water. Do not use the
fingers for hulling strawberries. A sim-
ple huller can be bought for five cents.

If practicable pare fruit with a silver
knife, so as not to stain or darken the
product. The quickest and easiest way
to peel peaches is to drop them into boil-
ing water for a few minutes. Have a
deep kettle a little more than half-full
of boiling water; fill a wire basket with
peaches; put a long-handled spoon under
the handle of the basket and lower into
the boiling water. Let the peaches drain
a minute, then peel. Plums and tomatoes
may be peeled in the same manner.

If the peaches are to be canned in
syrup, put them at once into the steril-
ized jars. They may be canned whole or
in halves. If in halves, remove nearly
all the stones or pits. For the sake of
the flavor, a few stones should be put
in each jar.

When preparing cherries, plums, or
crabapples for canning or preserving, the
stem or a part of it may be left on the
fruit.

When preparing to make jelly have
ready the cheesecloth strainer, enameled
colander, wooden spoons, vegetable mash-
er, measures, tumblers, preserving ket-
tles, and sugar.

If currant jelly is to be made, free the
fruit from leaves and large stems. If the
jelly is to be made from any of the other
small fruits, the stems and hulls must be
removed.

When the jelly is to be made from any
of the larger fruits the important part of
the preparation is to have the fruit
washed clean, then to remove the stem
and blossom end. Nearly all the large
fruits are better for having the skin left
on. Apples and pears need not be cored.
There is so much gummy substance in
the cores of quinces that it is best not to
use this portion in making fine jelly.

Making: Syrup for Use in Canning and
Preserving

Such syrups as are used in canning and
preserving are made with varying pro-
portions of water and sugar. When the
proportion of sugar is large and that of

Plate V
The San Jose Scale on Pears.

(See parje 537.)

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME

721

the water small the syrup is said to be
heavy. When the water predominates the
syrup is light.

There are several methods of measus-
ing the proportion of sugar in a syrup.
The most scientific and accurate is with
the syrup gauge. Careful measurement or
weighing is, however, quite satisfactory
for all ordinary work if the syrup need
not be boiled a long time. In boiling the
water evaporates and the syrup grows
thicker and richer. The amount of evapo-
ration depends upon the surface exposed
and the pressure of the atmosphere. For
example, if a large quantity of syrup is
boiled in a deep kettle the evaporation
will not be rapid. If the same quantity
of syrup were boiled the same length of
time in a high altitude, Colorado for ex-
ample, and at the sea level, it would be
found that the syrup boiled at the sea
level would be thicker and less in volume
than that boiled in Colorado. From this
it will be seen that it is difficult to say
what proportion of sugar a syrup will
contain after it has been boiling 10 or
more minutes. Of course by the use of
the syrup gauge the proportion of sugar
in a syrup may be ascertained at any
stage of the boiling. After all, however,
it is possible to measure sugar and water
so that you can know the percentage of
sugar when the syrup begins to boil. The
following statement gives the percentage
of sugar at the time when the syrup has
been boiling one minute and also what
kind of syrup is suitable for the various
kinds of fruit:

One pint sugar and one gill of water
gives syrup of 40 degrees density: Use for
preserved strawberries and cherries.

One pint sugar and one-half pint water
gives syrup of 32 degrees density.

One pint sugar and three gills water
gives syrup of 28 degrees density: Use
either this or the preceding for preserved
peaches, plums, quinces, currants, etc.

One pint sugar and one pint water
gives syrup of 24 degrees density: Use
for canned acid fruits.

One pint sugar and one and one-half
pints water gives syrup of 17 degrees
density.

One pint sugar and two pints water
gives syrup of 14 degrees density: Use
either of these two light syrups for
canned pears, peaches, sweet plums, and
cherries, raspberries, blueberries, and
blackberries.

The lightest syrups may be used for
filling up the jars after they are taken
from the oven or boiler. The process of
making syrup is very simple, but there
are a few points that must be observed if
syrup and fruit are to be perfect. Put
the sugar and water in the saucepan and
stir on the stove until all the sugar is
dissolved. Heat slowly to the boiling
point and boil gently without stirring.
The length of time that the syrup should
boil will depend upon how rich it is to
be. All syrups are better for boiling from
10 to 30 minutes. If rich syrups are
boiled hard, jarred, or stirred, they are
apt to crystallize. The syrup may be
made a day or two in advance of canning
time. The light syrups will not keep
long unless sealed, the heavy syrups
keep well if covered well.

Use of Syrup Gauge

The syrup gauge is a graduated glass
tube, with a weighted bulb, that registers
from no degrees to 50 degrees, and that
is employed to determine the quantity of
sugar contained in a syrup.

If this gauge is placed in pure water
the bulb will rest on the bottom of the
cylinder or other container. If sugar be
dissolved in the water the gauge will be-
gin to float. The more sugar there is
dissolved in the water the higher the
gauge will rise. In making tests it is
essential that the syrup should be deep
enough to reach the zero point of the
gauge. If a glass cylinder holding about
half a gill is filled to about two-thirds its
height, and the gauge is then placed in
the cylinder, the quantity of sugar in the
syrup will be registered on the gauge.

Experiments have demonstrated that
when sugar is dissolved and heated in
fruit juice, if the syrup gauge registers
25 degrees, the proportion of sugar is
exactly right for combining with the-
pectin bodies to make jelly. The syrup

722

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

gauge and the glass cylinder must both
be heated gradually that the hot syrup
may not break them. If the gauge regis-
ters more than 25 degrees, add more fruit
juice. If, on the other hand, it registers
less than 25 degrees, add more sugar. In
making syrups for canning and preserving
fruits, the exact amount of sugar in a
syrup may be ascertained at any stage of
boiling, and the syrup be made heavier
by adding sugar, or lighter by adding
water, as the case demands.

Canning Fruit

This method of preserving fruit for
home use is, from all points, the most
desirable. It is the easiest and commonly
considered the most economical and the
best, because the fruit is kept in a soft
and juicy condition in which it is be-
lieved to be easily digested. The wise
housekeeper will can her principal fruit
supply, making only enough rich pre-
serves to serve for variety and for special
occasions.

The success of canning depends upon
absolute sterilization. If the proper care
is exercised there need be no failure, ex-
cept in rare cases, when a spore has de-
veloped in the can. There are several
methods of canning; and while the prin-
ciple is the same in all methods, the con-
ditions under which the housekeeper
must do her work may, in her case, make
one method more convenient than an-
other. For this reason three will be given
which are considered the best and easiest.
These are: Cooking the fruit in the jars
in an oven; cooking the fruit in the jars
in boiling water; and stewing the fruit
before it is put in the jars. The quantity
of sugar may be increased if the fruit is
liked sweet.

It is most important that the jars,
covers, and rubber rings be in perfect
condition. Examine each jar and cover
to see that there is no defect in it. Use
only fresh rubber rings, for if the rubber
is not soft and elastic the sealing will
not be perfect. Each year numbers of
jars of fruit are lost because of the false
economy in using an old ring that has
lost its softness and elasticity. Having
the jars, covers, and rings in perfect con-

dition, the next thing is to wash and
sterilize them.

Have two pans partially filled with
cold water. Put some jars in one, laying
them on their sides, and some covers in
the other. Place the pans on the stove
where the water will heat to the boiling
point. The water should boil at least 10
or 15 minutes. Have on the stove a shal-
low milkpan in which there is about two
inches of boiling water. Sterilize the
cups, spoons and funnel, if you use one,
by immersing in boiling water for a few
minutes. When ready to put the pre-
pared fruit in the jars slip a broad skim-
mer under a jar and lift it and drain
free of water. Set the jar in the shallow
milk pan and fill to overflowing with the
boiling fruit. Slip a silver-plated knife
or the handle of a spoon around the in-
side of the jar, that the fruit and juice
may be packed solidly. Wipe the rim of
the jar, dip the rubber ring in boiling
water and put it smoothly on the jar,
then put on the cover and fasten. Place
the jar on a board and out of a draft of
cold air. The work of filling and sealing
must be done rapidly, and the fruit must
be boiling hot when it is put into the
jars. If screw covers are used, it will be
necessary to tighten them after the glass
has cooled and contracted. When the
fruit is cold wipe the jars with a wet
cloth. Paste on the labels, if any, and
put the jars on shelves in a cool, dark
closet.

In canning, any proportion of sugar
may be used, or fruit may be canned with-
out the addition of any sugar. However,
that which is designed to be served as a
sauce should have the sugar cooked with
it. Fruit intended for cooking purposes
need not have the sugar added to it.

Juicy fruits, such as berries and cher-
ries, require little or no water. Straw-
berries are better not to have water added
to them. The only exception to this is
when they are cooked in a heavy syrup.

Raspberries

12 quarts of raspberries.
2 quarts of sugar.
Put two quarts of the fruit in the pre-
serving kettle; heat slowly on the stove;

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME

723

crush with a wooden vegetable masher;
spread a square of cheesecloth over a
bowl, and turn the crushed berries and
juice into it. Press out the juice, which
turn into the preserving kettle. Add the
sugar and put on the stove; stir until
the sugar is dissolved. When the syrup
begins to boil, add the remaining 10
quarts of berries. Let them heat slowly.
Boil 10 minutes, counting from the time
they begin to bubble. Skim well while
boiling. Put in cans and seal as directed.

Raspberries and Currants

10 quarts of raspberries.
3 quarts of currants.
21^ quarts of sugar.
Heat, crush, and press the juice from
the currants and proceed as directed for
raspberries.

Blackberries
The same as for raspberries.

Currants

12 quarts of currants.
4 quarts of sugar.
Treat the same as for raspberries.

Gooseberries

6 quarts of berries.

1^4 quarts of sugar.

1 pint of water.
For green gooseberries dissolve the
sugar in the water, then add the fruit
and cook 15 minutes. Ripe gooseberries
are to be treated the same as the green
fruit, but use only half as much water.
Green gooseberries may also be canned
the same as rhubarb. (See Rhubarb.)

Blueberries

12 quarts of berries.
1 quart of sugar.
1 pint of water.
Put water, berries and sugar in the
preserving kettle; heat slowly. Boil 15
minutes, counting from the time the con-
tents of the kettle begin to bubble.

Cherries

6 quarts of cherries.
1% quarts of sugar.
Yo pint of water.
Measure the cherries after the stems
have been removed. Stone them or not,

as you please. If you stone them, be
careful to save all the juice. Put the
sugar and water in the preserving kettle
and stir over the fire until the sugar is
dissolved. Put in the cherries and heat
slowly to the boiling point. Boil 10 min-
utes, skimming carefully.

Grapes

6 quarts of grapes.
1 quart of sugar.
1 gill of water.
Squeeze the pulp of the grapes out of
the skins. Cook the pulp five minutes
and then rub through a sieve that is fine
enough to hold back the seeds. Put the
water, skins and pulp into the preserving
kettle and heat slowly to the boiling
point. Skim the fruit and then add the
sugar. Boil 15 minutes.

Sweet grapes may be canned with less
sugar; very sour ones may have more.

Rhubarb

Cut the rhubarb when it is young and
tender. Wash it thoroughly and then
pare; cut into pieces about two inches
long. Pack in sterilized jars. Fill the
jars to overflowing with cold water and
let them stand 10 minutes. Drain off the
water and fill again to overflowing with
fresh cold water. Seal with sterilized
rings and covers. When required for use,
treat the same as fresh rhubarb. Green
gooseberries may be canned in the same
manner. Rhubarb may be cooked and
canned with sugar in the same manner
as gooseberries.

Peaches
8 quarts of peaches.
1 quart of sugar.
3 quarts of water.

Put the sugar and water together and
stir over the fire until the sugar is dis-
solved. When the syrup boils, skim it.
Draw the kettle back where the syrup
will keep hot but not boil.

Pare the peaches, cut in halves, and
remove the stones, unless you prefer to
can the fruit whole.

Put a layer of the prepared fruit into
the preserving kettle and cover with
some of the hot syrup. When the fruit
begins to boil, skim carefully. Boil

724

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

gently for 10 minutes, then put in the
jars and seal. If the fruit is not entirely-
ripe, it may require a little longer time
to cook. It should be so tender that it
may be pierced easily with a silver fork.
It is best to put only one layer of fruit
in the preserving kettle. "While this is
cooking the fruit for the next batch may
be pared.

Pears
If the fruit is ripe it may be treated
exactly the same as peaches. If, on the
other hand, it is rather hard it must be
cooked until so tender that a silver fork
will pierce it readily.

Quinces

4 quarts of pared, cored and quartered
quinces.

1% quarts of sugar.

2 quarts of water.
Rub the fruit hard with a coarse,
crash towel, then wash and drain. Pare,
quarter, and core; drop the pieces into
cold water (See Selection and Prepara-
tion of the Fruit — paragraph re Quinces
and Pears). Put the fruit in the preserv-
ing kettle with cold water to cover it
generously. Heat slowly and simmer
gently until tender. The pieces will not
all require the same time to cook. Take
each piece up as soon as it is so tender
that a silver fork will pierce it readily.
Drain on a platter. Strain the water in
which the fruit was cooked throu h
cheesecloth. Put two quarts of the
strained liquid and the sugar into the
preserving kettle; stir over the fire until
the sugar is dissolved. When it boils
skim well and put in the cooked fruit.
Boil gently for about 20 minutes.

Crab Apples

6 quarts of apples.
IV2 quarts of sugar.
2 quarts of water.
Put the sugar and water into the pre-
serving kettle. Stir over the fire until
the sugar is dissolved. When syrup boils
skim it.

Wash the fruit, rubbing the blossom
end well. Put it in the boiling syrup, and
cook gently until tender. It will take
from 20 to 50 minutes, depending upon
the kind of crab apples.

Plums

8 quarts of plums.
2 quarts of sugar.
1 pint of water.

Nearly all kinds of plums can be cooked
with the skins on. If it is desired to
remove the skin of any variety, plunge
them in boiling water for a few minutes.
When the skins are left on, prick them
thoroughly to prevent bursting.

Put the sugar and water into the pre-
serving kettle and stir over the fire until
the sugar is dissolved. Wash and drain
the plums. Put some of the fruit in the
boiling syrup. Do not crowd it. Cook
five minutes; fill and seal the jars. Put
more fruit in the syrup. Continue in this
manner until all the fruit is done. It
may be that there will not be sufficient
syrup toward the latter part of the work ;
for this reason it is well to have a little
extra syrup on the back of the stove.

Stewed Tomatoes

Wash the tomatoes and plunge into
boiling water for five minutes. Pare and
slice, and then put into the preserving
kettle; set the kettle on an iron ring.
Heat the tomatoes slowly, stirring fre-
quently from the bottom. Boil for 30
minutes, counting from the time the
vegetable begins actually to boil. Put in
sterilized jars and seal.

Whole Tomatoes

6 quarts of medium-sized tomatoes.

4 quarts of sliced tomatoes.
Put the pared and sliced tomatoes into
a stewpan and cook as directed for
stewed tomatoes. When they have been
boiling 20 minutes take from the fire and
rub through a strainer. Return to the
fire.

While the sliced tomatoes are cooking,
pare the whole tomatoes and put them in
sterilized jars. Pour into the jars
enough of the stewed and strained to-
mato to fill all the interstices. Put the
uncovered jars in a moderate oven, plac-
ing them on a pad of asbestos or in shal-
low pans of hot water. Let the vegetable
cook in the oven for half an hour. Take
from the oven and fill to overflowing with

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME

725

boiling hot, strained tomato, then seal.
If there is any of the strained tomato
left, can it for sauces.

Canned Fruit Cooked in the Oyen

This method of canning fruit, in the
opinion of the writer, is the one to be
preferred. The work is easily and quick-
ly done, and the fruit retains its shape,
color, and flavor better than when cook-
ed in the preserving kettle. Cover the
bottom of the oven with a sheet of as-
bestos, the kind plumbers employ cov-
ering pipes. It is very cheap and may
usually be found at plumbers' shops. If
the asbestos is not available, put into
the oven shallow pans in which there
are about two inches of boiling water.
Sterilize the jars and utensils. Make the
syrup; prepare the fruit the same as for
cooking in the preserving kettle. Fill the
hot jars with it, and pour in enough
syrup to fill the jar solidly. Run the
blade of a silver-plated knife around the
inside of the jar. Place the jars in the
oven, either on the asbestos or in the
pan of water. The oven should be mod-
erately hot. Cook the fruit ten minutes;
remove from the oven and fill the jar
with boiling syrup. Wipe and seal. Place
the jars on a board and out of a draft
of air. If the screw covers are used
tighten them after the glass has cooled.

Large fruits, such as peaches, pears,
quinces, crab apples, etc., will require
about a pint of syrup to each quart jar
of fruit. The small fruit will require a
little over half a pint of syrup.

The amount of sugar in each quart of
syrup should be regulated to suit the
fruit with which it is to be used.

Canned Fruit Cooked in a Water Bath

Prepare the fruit and syrup as for cook-
ing in the oven.

Fill the sterilized jars and put the cov-
ers on loosely. Have a wooden rack in
the bottom of a wash boiler. Put in
enough warm water to come to about
4 inches above the rack. Place the filled
jars in the boiler, but do not let them
touch one another. Pack clean white
cotton rags, or perhaps better, cotton
rope, between and around the jars to pre-

vent them from striking one another
when the water begins to boil. Cover
the boiler and let the fruit cook ten
minutes from the time the water sur-
rounding it begins to boil.

Draw the boiler back and take off
the cover. When the steam passes off
take out one jar at a time and place in
a pan of boiling water beside the boil-
er, fill up with boiling syrup and seal.
Put the jars on a board and do not let
cold air blow upon them. If screw cov-
ers are used tighten them when the glass
has cooled and contracted.

Preserving Fruit

In the case of most fruits, canning
with a little sugar is to be preferred to
preserving with a large quantity of sugar.
There are, however, some fruits that are
only good when preserved with a good
deal of sugar. Of course, such prepara-
tions of fruit are only desirable for oc-
casional use. The fruits best adapted for
preserving are strawberries, sour cher-
ries, sour plums, and quinces. Such
rich preparations should be put up in
small jars or tumblers.

Strawberries

Use equal weights of sugar and straw-
berries. Put the strawberries in the pre-
serving kettle in layers, sprinkling sugar
over each layer. The fruit and sugar
should not be more than 4 inches deep.
Place the kettle on the stove and heat
the fruit and sugar slowly to the boil-
ing point. When it begins to boil skim
carefully. Boil ten minutes, counting
from the time the fruit begins to bubble.
Pour the cooked fruit into platters, hav-
ing it about 2 or 3 inches deep. Place
the platters in a sunny window, in an
unused room, for three or four days.
In that time the fruit will grow plump
and firm, and the syrup will thicken al-
most to a jelly. Put this preserve, cold,
into jars or tumblers.

White Currants

Select large, firm fruit, remove the
stems, and proceed as for strawberries.

Cherries

The sour cherries, such as Early Rich-
mond and Montmorency, are best for

726

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

this preserve. Remove the stems and
stones from the cherries and proceed
as for strawberry preserve.

Cherries Preserved with Currant Juice

12 quarts of cherries
3 quarts of currants
2 quarts of sugar
Put the currants in the preserving
kettle and on the fire. "When they boil
up crush them and strain through cheese-
cloth, pressing out all the juice. Stem
and stone the cherries, being careful to
save all the juice. Put the cherries,
fruit juice, and sugar in the preserving
kettle. Heat to the boiling point and
skim carefully. Boil for twenty minutes.
Put in sterilized jars or tumblers. This
gives an acid preserve. The sugar may
be doubled if richer preserves are de-
sired.

Plum Preserve
4 quarts of green gages.
2 quarts of sugar.
1 pint of water.
Prick the fruit and put it in a preserv-
ing kettle. Cover generously with cold
water. Heat to the boiling point and
boil gently for five minutes. Drain well.
Put the sugar and water in a preserv-
ing kettle and stir over the fire until the
sugar is dissolved. Boil five minutes,
skimming well. Put the drained green
gages in this syrup and cook gently for
twenty minutes. Put in sterilized jars.

Other plums may be preserved in the
same manner. The skins should be re-
moved from white plums.

Quinces

4 quarts of pared, quartered, and cored
quinces.

2 quarts of sugar.

1 quart of water.

Boil the fruit in clear water until it
is tender, then skim out and drain. Put
the 2 quarts of sugar and 1 quart of
water in the preserving kettle; stir un-
til the sugar is dissolved. Let it heat
slowly to the boiling point. Skim well
and boil for twenty minutes. Pour one-
half of the syrup into a second kettle.
Put one-half of the cooked and drained
fruit into each kettle. Simmer gently

for half an hour, then put in sterilized
jars. The water in which the fruit was
boiled can be used with parings, cores,
and gnarly fruit to make jelly.

Fruit Purees

Purees of fruit are in the nature of
marmalades, but they are not cooked so
long, and so retain more of the natural
flavor of the fruit. This is a particular-
ly nice way to preserve the small, seedy
fruits, which are to be used in puddings,
cake, and frozen desserts.

Free the fruit from leaves, stems, and
decayed portions. Peaches and plums
should have the skins and stones re-
moved. Rub the fruit through a puree
sieve. To each quart of the strained
fruit add a pint of sugar. Pack in steril-
ized jars. Put the covers loosely on the
jars. Place the jars on the rack in the
boiler. Pour in enough cold water to
come half way up the sides of the jars.
Heat gradually to the boiling point and
boil thirty minutes, counting from the
time when the water begins to bubble.
Have some boiling syrup ready. As each
jar is taken from the boiler put it in
a pan of hot water and fill up with the
hot syrup. Seal at once.

Marmalades

Marmalades require great care while
cooking because no moisture is added to
the fruit and sugar. If the marmalade
is made from berries the fruit should be
rubbed through a sieve to remove the
seeds. If large fruit is used have it
washed, pared, cored, and quartered.

Measure the fruit and sugar, allow-
ing one pint of sugar to each quart of
fruit.

Rinse the preserving kettle with cold
water that there may be a slight coat of
moisture on the sides and bottom. Put
alternate layers of fruit and sugar in the
kettle, having the first layer fruit. Heat
slowly, stirring frequently. While stir-
ring, break up the fruit as much as pos-
sible. Cook about two hours, then put in
small sterilized jars.

Fruit Preserved in Grape Juice

Any kind of fruit can be preserved by
this method, but it is particularly good

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME

727

for apples, pears, and sweet plums. No
sugar need be used in this process.

Boil 6 quarts of grape juice in an open
preserving kettle, until it is reduced to
4 quarts. Have the fruit washed and
pared, and, if apples or pears, quartered
and cored. Put the prepared fruit in a
preserving kettle and cover generously
with the boiled grape juice. Boil gently
until the fruit is clear and tender, then
put in sterilized jars.

Boiled Cider

When the apple crop is abundant and
a large quantity of cider is made, the
housekeeper will find it to her advan-
tage to put up a generous supply of boil-
ed cider. Such cider greatly improves
mince-meat, and can be used at any time
of the year to make cider apple sauce.
It is also a good selling article.

The cider for boiling must be perfect-
ly fresh and sweet. Put it in a large,
open preserving kettle and boil until it
is reduced one-half. Skim frequently
while boiling. Do not have the kettle
more than two-thirds full.

Put in bottles or stone jugs.

Cider Apple Sauce

5 quarts of boiled cider.

8 quarts of pared, quartered, and cored
sweet apples.

Put the fruit in a large preserving ket-
tle and cover with the boiled cider. Cook
slowly until the apples are clear and
tender. To prevent burning, place the
kettle on an iron tripod or ring. It will
require from two to three hours to cook
the apples. If you find it necessary to
stir the sauce be careful to break the
apples as little as possible. When the
sauce is cooked, put in sterilized jars.

In the late spring, when cooking ap-
ples have lost much of their flavor and
acidity, an appetizing sauce maj^ be made
by stewing them with diluted boiled cid-
er, using 1 cupful of cider to 3 of water.

Cider Pear Sauce

Cooking pears may be preserved in boil-
ed cider the same as sweet apples. If one
prefers the sauce less sour, 1 pint of
sugar may be added to each quart of
boiled cider.

Metliods of Making Jelly

In no department of preserving does
the housekeeper feel less sure of the
result than in jelly making. The rule
that works perfectly one time fails an-
other time. Why this is so the average
housekeeper does not know; so there is
nearly always an element of uncertainty
as to the result of the work. These two
questions are being constantly asked:
"Why does not my jelly harden?" "What
causes my jelly to candy?"

It is an easy matter to say that there
is something in the condition of the fruit,
or that the fruit juice and sugar were
cooked too short or too long a time.
These explanations are often true; but
they do not help the inquirer, since at
other times just that proportion of sugar
and time of cooking have given perfect
jelly. In the following pages an attempt
is made to give a clear explanation of the
principles underlying the process of jel-
ly making. It is believed that the women
who study this carefully will find the
key to unvarying success in this branch
of preserving.

Pectin, Pectose, Pectase

In all fruits, when ripe or nearly so,
there is found pectin, a carbohydrate
somewhat similar in its properties to
starch. It is because of this substance
in the fruit juice that we are able to
make jelly. When equal quantities of
sugar and fruit juice are combined and
the mixture is heated to the boiling
point for a short time, the pectin in the
fruit gelatinizes the mass.

It is important that the jelly maker
should understand when this gelatiniz-
ing agent is at its best. Pectose and
pectase always exist in the unripe fruit.
As the fruit ripens the pectase acts upon
the pectose, which is insoluble in water,
converting it into pectin, which is soluble.
Pectin is at its best when the fruit is
just ripe or a little before. If the juice
ferments, or the cooking of the jelly is
continued too long, the pectin undergoes
a change and loses its power of gelatin-
izing. It is, therefore, of the greatest im-
portance that the fruit should be fresh,
just ripe or a little underripe, and that

728

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the boiling of the sugar and juice should
not be continued too long.

Fruits vary as to the quantities of
sugar, acid, pectin, and gums in their
composition. Some of the sour fruits con-
tain more sugar than do some of the
milder-flavored fruits. Currants, for ex-
ample, often contain four or five times
as much sugar as the peach. The peach
does not contain so much free acid and
it does contain a great deal of pectin
bodies, which mask the acid; hence, the
comparative sweetness of the ripe fruit.

Selection and Handling of Fniit for Jelly
Making

An acid fruit is the most suitable for
jelly making, though in some of the acid
fruits, the strawberry, for example, the
quantity of the jelly-making pectin is
so small that it is difficult to make
jelly with this fruit. If, however, some
currant juice be added to the strawberry
juice, a pleasant jelly will be the result;
yet, of course, the flavor of the straw-
berry will be modified. Here is a list
of the most desirable fruits for jelly
making. The very best are given first:
Currant, crab apple, apple, quince, grape,
blackberry, raspberry, peach.

Apples make a very mild jelly, and it
may be flavored with fruits, flowers, or
spices. If the apples are acid it is not
advisable to use any flavor. Juicy fruits,
such as currants, raspberries, etc., should
not be gathered after a rain, for they
will have absorbed so much water as to
make it difficult, without excessive boil-
ing, to get the juice to jelly. If ber-
ries are sandy or dusty it will be neces-
sary to wash them, but the work should
be done very quickly so that the fruit
may not absorb much water.

Large fruits, such as apples, peaches,
and pears, must be boiled in water un-
til soft. The strained liquid will con-
tain the flavoring matter and pectin.

It requires more work and skill to
make jellies from the fruits to which
water must be added than from the juicy
fruits. If the juicy fruits are gathered
at the proper time one may be nearly
sure that they contain the right pro-
portion of water. If gathered after a

rain the fruit must be boiled a little
longer than the superfluous water may
pass off in steam. In the case of the
large fruits a fair estimate is 3 quarts
of strained juice from 8 quarts of fruit
and about 4 quarts of water. If the
quantity of juice is greater than this it
should be boiled down to 3 quarts. Ap-
ples will always require 4 quarts of
water to 8 quarts of fruit, but juicy
peaches and plums require only 3 or
314 quarts.

The jelly will be clearer and finer if
the fruit is simmered gently and not
stirred during cooking.

It is always best to strain the juice
first through cheesecloth and without
pressure. If the cloth is double the juice
will be quite clear. When a very clear
jelly is desired the strained juice should
pass through a flannel or felt bag. The
juice may be pressed from the fruit left
in the strainer and used in marmalade
or for second-quality jelly.

To make jelly that will not crystallize
(candy) the right proportion of sugar
must be added to the fruit juice. If
the fruit contains a high percentage of
sugar, the quantity of added sugar should
be a little less than the quantity of fruit
juice. That is to say, in a season when
there has been a great deal of heat and
sunshine there will be more sugar in
the fruit than in a cold, wet season; con-
sequently, 1 pint of currant juice will
require but three-quarters of a pint of
sugar. But in a cold, wet season the
pint of sugar for the pint of juice must
be measured generously.

Another cause of the jelly crystalliz-
ing is hard boiling. When the syrup
boils so rapidly that particles of it are
thrown on the upper part of the sides
of the preserving kettle they often form
crystals. If these crystals are stirred
into the syrup they are apt to cause the
mass to crystallize in time.

The use of the syrup gauge and care
not to boil the syrup too violently would
do away with all uncertainty in jelly
making. The syrup gauge should reg-
ister 25 degrees, no matter what kind of
fruit is used. Jellies should be covered

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME

729

closely and kept in a cool, dry, dark
place.

Currant Jelly

The simplest method of making cur-
rant jelly is perhaps the following: Free
the currants from leaves and large stems.
Put them in the preserving kettle; crush
a few with a wooden vegetable masher
or spoon; heat slowly, stirring frequent-
ly.

When the currants are hot, crush them
with the vegetable masher. Put a hair
sieve or strainer over a large bowl; over
this spread a double square of cheese-
cloth. Turn the crushed fruit and juice
into the cheesecloth, and let it drain as
long as it drips, but do not use pressure.
To hasten the process take the corners
of the straining cloth firmly in the hands
and lift from the sieve; move the con-
tents by raising one side of the cloth and
then the other. After this put the cloth
over another bowl. Twist the ends to-
gether and press out as much juice as
possible. This juice may be used to
make a second quality of jelly.

The clear juice may be made into jel-
ly at once, or it may be strained through
a flannel bag. In any case, the method
of making the jelly is the same.

Measure the juice, and put it in a clean
preserving kettle. For every pint of juice
add a pint of granulated sugar.

Stir until the sugar is dissolved, then
place over the fire; watch closely, and
when it boils up draw it back and skim;
put over the fire again, and boil and skim
once more; boil and skim a third time;
then pour into hot glasses taken from
the pan of water on the stove and set on
a board. Place the board near a sunny
window in a room where there is no dust.
It is a great protection and advantage to
have sheets of glass to lay on top of the
tumblers. As soon as the jelly is set
cover by one of the three methods given
under "Covering Jellies."

To make very transparent currant jelly,
heat, crush, and strain the currants as
directed in the simplest process. Put
the strained juice in the flannel bag and
let it drain through. Measure the juice

and sugar, pint for pint, and finish as
directed above.

To make currant jelly by the cold pro-
cess follow the first rule for jelly as far
as dissolving the sugar in the strained
juice. Fill warm, sterilized glasses with
this. Place the glasses on a board and
put the board by a sunny window. Cover
with sheets of glass and keep by the
window until the jelly is set. The jelly
will be more transparent if the juice is
strained through the flannel bag. Jelly
made by the cold process is more delicate
than that made by boiling, but it does
not keep quite so well.

Raspberry and Currant Jelly

Make the same as currant jelly, using
half currants and half raspberries.

Raspberry Jelly

Make the same as currant jelly.

Blackberry Jelly

Make the same as currant jelly.

Strawberry Jelly

To 10 quarts of strawberries add 2
quai'ts of currants and proceed as for
currant jelly, but boil fifteen minutes.

Ripe Grape Jelly

An acid grape is best for this jelly.
The sweet, ripe grapes contain too much
sugar. Half-ripe fruit, or equal portions
of nearly ripe and green grapes, will al-
so be found satisfactory. Wild grapes
make delicious jelly. Make the same
as currant jelly.

Green Grape Jelly

Make the same as apple jelly.

Plum Jelly

Use an underripe acid plum. Wash
the fruit and remove the stems. Put into
the preserving kettle with 1 quart of
water for each peck of fruit. Cook
gently until the plums ai'e boiled to
pieces. Strain the juice and proceed the
same as for currant jelly.

Apple Jelly

Wash, stem, and wipe the apples, being
careful to clean the blossom end thoro-
ughly. Cut into quarters and put into
the preserving kettle. Barely cover with

730

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

cold water (about 4 quarts to 8 of ap-
ples) and cook gently until the apples
are soft and clear. Strain the juice and
proceed as for currant jelly. There
should be but 3 quarts of juice from 8
quarts of apples and 4 of water.

Apples vary in the percentage of sugar
and acid they contain. A fine-flavored
acid apple should be employed when pos-
sible. Apple jelly may be made at any
time of the year, but winter apples are
best and should be used when in their
prime, i. e., from the fall to December
or January. When it is found necessary
to make apple jelly in the spring, add the
juice of one lemon to every pint of apple
juice.

Cider Apple Jelly

Make the same as plain apple jelly,
but covering the apples with cider in-
stead of water. The cider must be fresh
from the press.

Crab Apple Jelly

Make the same as plain apple jelly.

Quince Jelly

Rub the quinces with a coarse crash
towel; cut out the blossom end. Wash
the fruit and pare it and cut in quarters.
Cut out the cores, putting them in a dish
by themselves. Have a large bowl half
full of water; drop the perfect pieces of
fruit into this bowl. Put the parings
and imperfect parts, cut very fine, into
the preserving kettle. Add a quart of
water to every 2 quarts of fruit and par-
ings. Put on the fire and cook gently
for two hours. Strain and finish the
same as apple jelly. The perfect fruit
may be preserved or canned.

To make quince jelly of a second qual-
ity, when the parings and fruit are put
on to cook put the cores into another
kettle and cover them generously with
water and cook two hours. After all the
juice has been drained from the parings
and fruit, put what remains into the pre-
serving kettle with the cores. Mix well
and turn into the straining cloth. Press
all the juice possible from this mixture.
Put the juice in the preserving kettle
with a pint of sugar to a pint of juice;
boil ten minutes.

Wild Fruits for Jellies

Wild raspberries, blackberries, barber-
ries, grapes, and beach plums all make
delicious jellies. The frequent failures
in making barberry jelly come from the
fruit not being fresh or from being over-
ripe.

Preparation of the Glasses for Jelly

Sterilize the glasses; take from the
boiling water and set them in a shallow
baking pan in which there is about 2
inches of boiling water.

Covering Jellies

Jellies are so rich in sugar that they
are protected from bacteria and yeasts,
but they must be covered carefully to
protect them from mold spores and
evaporation. The following methods of
covering jellies are good:

Have disks of thick white paper the
size of the top of the glass. When the
jelly is set, brush the top over with
brandy or alcohol. Dip the disk of paper
in the spirits and put it on the jelly.
If the glasses have covers, put them on.
If there are no covers, cut disks of pa-
per about half an inch in diameter larger
than the top of the glass. Beat together
the white of one egg and a tablespoonful
of cold water. Wet the paper covers
with this mixture and put over the glass,
pressing down the sides well to make
them stick to the glass; or the covers
may be dipped in olive oil and tied on
the glasses, but they must be cut a little
larger than when the white of egg is
used.

A thiclv coating of paraffin makes a
good cover, but not quite so safe as the
paper dipped in brandy or alcohol, be-
cause the spirits destroy any mold or
spores that may happen to rest on the
jelly. If such spores are covered with
the paraffin they may develop under it.
However, the paper wet with spirits
could be put on first and the paraffin
poured over it.

If paraffin is used, break it into pieces
and put in a cup. Set the cup in a pan
of warm water on the back of the stove.
In a few moments it will be melted enough
to cover the jelly. Have the coating

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUIT IN THE HOME

731

about a fourth of an inch thick. In cool-
ing the paraffin contracts, and if the lay-
er is very thin it will crack and leave
a portion of the jelly exposed.

Canned or Bottled Fruit Juices

Fruit juice is most desirable for drink-
ing oir for culinary purposes. Grape
juice is particularly good as a drink. It
may be canned with or without sugar,
but, except where the grapes have a
large percentage of sugar, as is the case
in California, some sugar should be added
to the juice in canning. Currant juice
may be sterilized and canned without
sugar. This juice may be made into jel-
ly at any season of the year.

Fruit juices that are designed for use
in frozen creams and water ices should
be canned with a generous amount of
sugar.

For grape juice good bottles are to be
preferred to fruit cans. If you can get
the self-sealing bottles, such as pop or
beer comes in, the work of putting up
grape juice will be light. If bottles are
employed, be very careful to sterilize
both bottles and corks.

Grape Juice

Wash the grapes and pick from the
stems. Put the fruit in the preserving
kettle and crush slightly. Heat slowly
and boil gently for half an hour. Crush
the fruit with a wooden spoon.

Put a sieve or colander over a large
bowl and spread a square of cheesecloth
over the sieve. Turn the fruit and juice
into the cheesecloth; drain well, then
draw the edges of the cheesecloth to-
gether and twist hard to press out all the
juice possible.

Put the strained juice in a clean pre-
serving kettle and on the fire. When it
boils up, draw back and skim. Let it
boil up again and skim; then add the
sugar and stir until dissolved. Boil five
minutes, skimming carefully. Fill hot
sterilized jars or bottles. Put the jars
or bottles in a moderate oven for ten
minutes, in pans of boiling water. Have
some boiling juice and pour a little of it
into the jars as they are taken from the

oven; then seal. Place on boards and
set aside out of a cold draft. A good
proportion of sugar and juice is 1 gill
of sugar to a quart of juice.

Raspberry, Blackberry, Strawberry and
Currant Juices

With all these fruits except currants,
proceed the same as for grape juice, but
adding half a pint of sugar to each quart
of juice. Currants will require 1 pint of
sugar to a quart of juice.

Cherry, Plum and Peach Juices

To preserve the juice of cherries, plums,
peaches, and similar fruits, proceed as
for jelly, but adding to each quart of
juice half a pint of sugar instead of a
quai't as for jelly. If it is not desired to
have the fruit juice transparent, the pulp
of the fruit may be pressed to extract
all the liquid.

Fruit Syrups

The only difference between syrups and
juice is that in the syrup there must be
at least half as much sugar as fruit juice.

These syrups are used for flavoring ice
creams and water ices. They also make
a delicious drink, when two or three
spoonfuls are added to a glass of ice
water.

Raspberry Yinegar

Put 4 quarts of raspberries in a bowl
and pour over them 2 quarts of vinegar.
Cover and set in a cool place for two
days. On the second day strain the vine-
gar through cheesecloth. Put 4 quarts
of fresh raspberries in the bowl and pour
over them the vinegar strained from the
first raspberries. Put in a cool place for
two days, then strain. Put the strained
juice in a preserving kettle with 3 quarts
of sugar. Heat slowly, and when the
vinegar boils skim carefully. Boil twen-
ty minutes, then put in sterilized bottles.

About 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar to a
glass of water makes a refreshing drink.

Similar vinegars may be made from
blackberries and strawberries.

Maria Parloa,

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmer's
Bulletin No. 203.

732

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Canning Vegetables in the
Home

One of the many problems that con-
front the American housewife is the sup-
ply of vegetables for her table during
the winter months. "What can I have for
dinner today?" is a question often heard.
Since the advent of the modern green-
house and the forcing of vegetables under
glass, fresh vegetables can usually be
found at any time in the markets of the
large cities. But the cost of forcing
vegetables or growing them out of sea-
son is and will continue to be very great.
This makes the price so high as almost
to prohibit their use by people of moder-
ate means, except as a luxury. A health-
ful diet, however, must include vege-
tables, and therefore the housewife turns
to canned goods as the only alternative.
These are sometimes poor substitutes for
the fresh article, especially the cheaper
commercial grades, which necessarily lack
the delicate flavor of the fresh vege-
table. There is practically no danger,
however, from contamination with tin or
other metals providing the containers are
made of proper materials and handled
carefully. In some cases the proper care
is not taken in packing vegetables for
market. The decayed and refuse portions
are not so carefully removed as they
should be and the requisite degree of
cleanliness is not observed in their pack-
ing. Happily, however, such carelessness
is not general.

Every housewife may run a miniature
canning factory in her own kitchen, and
on the farm this is especially economical
and desirable, the economy being less pro-
nounced in the case of city dwellers, who
must buy their fruits and vegetables.
Enough vegetables annually go to waste
from the average farm garden to supply
the table during the entire winter. But
usually the farmer's wife cans her to-
matoes, preserves her fruits, and leaves
her most wholesome and nutritious vege-
tables to decay in the field, under the im-
pression that it is impossible to keep
them. This is a great mistake. It is
just as easy to keep corn or string beans

as it is to keep tomatoes, if you know
how.

The same general methods for steriliza-
tion and canning operations should be
followed in the canning of vegetables as
in the canning of fruits.

So-Called "Preserving Powders"

There are a great many brands of so-
called "preserving powders" on the mar-
ket. These are sold not only under ad-
vertised trade names, but by druggists
and peddlers everywhere. In the direc-
tions for use the housewife is told to fill
the jar with the fruit or vegetable to be
canned, to cover with water, and to add
a teaspoonful of the powder. It is true
that these powders may prevent the de-
cay of the fruit or vegetable, but they
also encourage uncleanly, careless work,
and in the hands of inexperienced persons
may be dangerous. While with small
doses the influence may not be apparent
in an adult in normal health, with a
child or an invalid the effect may be of
a serious nature. The proper way to
sterilize is by means of heat, and as this
can be done very easily and cheaply the
use of chemical preservatives in canning
is not to be recommended.

Kinds of Jars

The flrst requisite for successful can-
ning is a good jar. Glass is the most
satisfactory. Tin is more or less soluble
in the juices of fruits and vegetables.
Even the most improved styles of tin
cans which are lacquered on the inside
to prevent the juice from coming in con-
tact with the tin are open to this objec-
tion. While the small amount of tin
may not be injurious, it gives an unde-
sirable color to many canned articles. Tin
cans can not readily be used a second
time, while glass with proper care will
last indefinitely.

There are a great many kinds of glass
jars on the market, many of them pos-
sessing certain distinct points of advan-
tage. The ordinary screw-top jar is the
one in most common use. Although cheap
in price, these jars are the most expen-
sive in the long run. The tops last only
a few years and, being cheaply made, the
breakage Is usually greater than that of

CANNING VEGETABLES IN THE HOME

733

a better grade of jar. The tops also fur-
nish an excellent hiding place for germs,
which makes sterilization very diflScult.
An improved type of screw-top jar is
now in use. These are fitted with a glass
top held in place by a metal cover which
screws down over the neck of the jar.
If the canning or sterilization is con-
ducted properly, practically all of the
air will be driven out of the jar by the
steam. Upon cooling, this is condensed,
a vacuum is formed on the inside which
clamps down the glass top against the
rubber ring and seals the jar automatic-
ally. The metal cover can then be re-
moved, as the pressure of the outside air
will hold the glass top securely in place.

Another type of jar in common use re-
quires no rubber rings, but is fitted with
a metal top, lacquered on both sides and
having a groove around the lower edge.
This groove contains a composition of the
consistency of rubber which is melted
during canning by the heat of the jar and
forms a seal that takes the place of the
rubber ring. These metal tops must be
renewed each year, as it is necessary to
puncture them in order to open the jar.

The most satisfactory jar that the writ-
er has had any experience with has a rub-
ber ring and glass top which is held in
place by a simple wire spring. There are
several brands of these jars on the mar-
ket, so no difficulty should be experienced
in obtaining them. Vegetables often spoil
after being sterilized because of defective
rubbers. It is poor economy to buy cheap
rubbers or to use them a second time.
As a general rule black rubbers are more
durable than white ones.

Buy a good grade of jar. The best qual-
ity usually retails at from a $1 to a
$1.25 a dozen. The initial expense may
be, therefore, somewhat high, but with
proper care they should last many years.
The annual breakage should be less than
3 per cent on the average. In selecting a
jar always give preference to those having
wide mouths. In canning whole fruit or
vegetables and in cleaning the jars the
wide mouth will be found to be decidedly
preferable.

Containers for Sterilizing

The writer uses a tin clothes boiler
with a false bottom made of wire netting
cut to fit it. The netting is made of
medium-sized galvanized wire (No. 16)
with one-half inch mesh. A false bot-
tom is absolutely necessary, as the jars
will break if set flat upon the bottom of
the boiler. Narrow strips of wood, straw,
or almost anything of this nature may be
used for the purpose, but the wire gauze
is clean and convenient.

There are several varieties of patent
steamers or steam cookers in common
use. These have either one or two doors
and hold a dozen or more quart jars.
They are ideal for canning, but they are
somewhat expensive and can be easily
dispensed with. A common ham boiler or
clothes boiler with a tight-fitting cover
will answer every purpose.

Selection and Preparation of Vegetables

The first step in successful canning is
the selection and preparation of the
vegetables. Never attempt to can any
vegetable that has matured and com-
menced to harden or one that has begun
to decay. As a general rule, young
vegetables are superior in flavor and tex-
ture to the more mature ones. This is
especially true of string beans, okra,
and asparagus. Vegetables are better if
gathered in the early morning while the
dew is still on them. If it is impossible
to can them immediately, do not allow
them to wither, but put them in cold
water or in a cold, damp place and keep
them crisp until you are ready for them.
Do your canning in a well-swept and
well-dusted room. This will tend to re-
duce the number of spores floating about
and lessen the chances of inoculation.

In the following pages are given in-
structions for canning some of the more
common vegetables, but the housewife
can add to these at will. The principle
of sterilization is the same for all meats,
fruits, vegetables.

Corn

Contrary to the general opinion, corn
is one of the easiest vegetables to can.
The United States Department of Agri-
culture has shown that the amount of

734

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

sugar in the sweet varieties diminishes
very rapidly after the ear is pulled from
the stalk; therefore in order to retain the
original sweetness and flavor it is neces-
sary to can corn very soon after it is
pulled — within an hour if possible. Se-
lect the ears with full grains before
they have begun to harden, as this is
the period of greatest sugar content.
Husk them and brush the silks off with
a stiff brush. Shear off the grains with
a sharp knife and pack the jar full. Add
salt to taste, usually about a teaspoon-
ful to the quart is sufficient, and fill up
the jar to the top with cold water. Put
the rubber ring around the neck of
the jar and place the top on loosely. Be
careful not to press down the spring at
the side of the jar.

Place the false bottom in the boiler and
put in as many jars as the boiler will
conveniently hold. Don't try to crowd
them in. Leave space between them.
Pour in about 3 inches of cold water, or
just enough to form steam and to pre-
vent the boiler from going dry during the
boiling. It is not necessary to have the
water up to the neck of the jars, as the
steam will do the cooking. Put the cover
on the boiler and set it on the stove.
Bring the water to a boil and keep it
boiling for one hour. At the end of that
time remove the cover of the boiler and
allow the steam to escape. Press down
the spring at the side of the jar. This
clamps on the top and will prevent any
outside air from entering. The jars can
now be removed and cooled or allowed
to stand in the boiler until the next day.

On the second day raise the spring at
the side of the jar. This will relieve any
pressure from steam that might accumu-
late inside the jar during the second cook-
ing. Place the jars again in the boiler
and boil for one hour. Clamp on the
top as on the preceding day and allow
them to cool. Repeat this operation on
the third day. In removing the jars
from the boiler be careful not to expose
them to a draft of cold air while they
are hot, as a sudden change in tempera-
ture is likely to crack them.

After the sterilization is complete the
jars may be set aside for a day or two

and then tested. This is done by releas-
ing the spring at the side and picking
up the jar by the top. If there has been
the least bit of decomposition, or if
sterilization has not been complete, the
top will come off. This is because the
pressure on the top has been relieved
by the gas formed by the bacteria. In
this case it is always best to empty out
the corn and fill up the jar with a fresh
supply. If canning fruits or some ex-
pensive vegetable, however, examine the
contents of the jar and, if the decomposi-
tion has not gone far enough to injure
the flavor, place it once more in the
boiler and sterilize over again. If the
top does not come off, you may feel sure
that the vegetable is keeping.
String Beans

Select young and tender beans, string
them, and break them into short lengths.
Pack firmly in the jar, cover with cold
water, and add a teaspoon of salt to each
quart. Put on the rubber and top and
boil for one hour on each of three suc-
cessive days, as directed under "Corn."
A small pod of red pepper placed in the
bottom of the jar will give a delightful
flavor to this vegetable.

Egg Plant

Pare the egg plant, cut in thin slices,
and drop in boiling water for fifteen or
twenty minutes. Drain off the water and
pack the slices in the jar. Cover with
water and sterilize as directed under
"Corn." The slices of egg plant are pli-
able and may be taken from the jar
without being broken and either fried in
bread crumbs or made into pudding and
baked.

Beets

Although beets will keep in the cellar
over winter, it is very desirable to can
them while they are young and tender,
as the mature beet is apt to be stringy
and lacking in flavor. Wash the young
beets, cut off the tops, and put them in
boiling water for about an hour and a
half, or until they are thoroughly cook-
ed. Take off the skins, cut in thin slices,
and pack into the jars. Cover with
water and sterilize in the manner previ-
ously described. If a mild pickle is
desired, make a mixture of equal parts

CANNING VEGETABLES IN THE HOME

735

of water and good vinegar, sweeten to
taste, and cover the beets with this mix-
ture instead of water.

Okra or Gumbo
This is a vegetable worthy of more ex-
tended culture. Although extensively
grown in the South, it is comparatively
unknown in the North. It is easily kept
and makes a delicious vegetable for the
winter. Wash the young and tender
pods, cut them in short lengths, pack
in the jars, cover with water and steril-
ize. Okra is used for soups or stews.

Summer Squash

Cut the vegetables into small blocks,
pack in the jars, and cover with water.
Add a teaspoon of salt to each quart and
sterilize. It is sometimes preferable with
this vegetable, however, to pare off the
skin, boil or steam until thoroughly done,
mash them, and then pack in the jars
and sterilize. If canned in the latter way,
it is advisable to steam them for an hour
and a half, instead of for an hour, on
each of three days, as the heat pene-
trates the jar very slowly. It is absolute-
ly necessary that the interior of the jar
should reach the temperature of boiling
water. A jar will usually hold about
twice as much of the cooked vegetable as
it will of the uncooked.

English Peas

When prepared and canned in the prop-
er way, peas are easily kept and never
lose the delicate flavor that they possess
when fresh. Shell the young peas, pack
in jars, and sterilize as directed under
"Corn."

Asparagus

Can the young tips only, in the same
way as you would corn.

Cauliflower

This vegetable usually keeps very well,
but if the supply for the winter should
begin to spoil it may be necessary to can
it during the summer. Prepare it as you
would for the table, pack it into jars,
and sterilize.

Carrots and Parsnips

These, if gathered during the early sum-
mer and canned, make most excellent
vegetables for the winter. The young
plants at that season are not stringy and

have not yet developed the strong taste
that is so objectionable to some people.
Prepare as you would for the table, and
sterilize.

Tomatoes

Every housewife knows how to can
tomatoes. They are very easily kept,
even in the common screw-top jar. If one
already has on hand a number of jars of
this pattern, it is best to use them for
preserves or for canning tomatoes and to
purchase the more modern styles for can-
ning other vegetables. In using the
screw-top jars be careful to sterilize them
first by placing in cold water, bringing
to a boil, and boiling for about ten min-
utes. The rubber and top should also be
immersed in boiling water for the same
length of time. Remove them from the
boiling water when needed, handling as
little as possible. Be careful not to put
the fingers on the inside of the top or the
inner edge of the rubber. Fill the jar
with the cooked tomatoes while steaming
hot, put on the rubber, screw on the top
firmly, invert it, and let it stand in that
position until cool.

Kohl-Rabi

This vegetable resembles the turnip in
its habits of growth, although in flavor it
more nearly approaches the cauliflower.
It is grown in many sections of the North,
but in the South it is almost unknown.
Prepare it as you would turnips, pack in
the jar, and sterilize.

Lima Beans

Lima beans lose their flavor very quick-
ly after being shelled; therefore it is
necessary to can them as soon as possible
after gathering. Discard all pods that
have begun to harden, and proceed as you
would with corn.

Pumpkin or Winter Squash

If provided with a warm, dry cellar, one
may keep certain varieties of these vege-
tables all winter. Some of the best varie-
ties, however, do not keep well, and even
the best keepers when not properly
housed begin to decay in December or
January. It is then necessary to can
them in order to save them. If one has
a limited number of jars, it is a good plan
to fill them all with other vegetables dur-

736

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ing the summer and upon the approach of
frost to gather the pumpkins and bring
them indoors. By the time the pumplvins
begin to spoil, enough jars will be emptied
to hold them. They can now be steam-
ed and canned in the same way as sum-
mer squash. In this way a supply of jars
may be made to do double service.

Succotash

The writer has found that a mixture of
corn and lima beans, or succotash, is one
of the most difficult things to keep. This
furnishes one of the very best mediums
for bacterial growth; so extreme care
must be taken in the process of canning.
It is advisable to gather the corn and
beans early in the morning and prepare
and sterilize them in the manner ah-eady
described. As with summer squash, it is
best to boil for an hour and a half, in-
stead of for an hour.

Vegetable Roast

A rather unusual dish for the winter
may be made by canning a mixture of
vegetables. Prepare corn, lima beans, to-
matoes, string beans, okra, squash, and
egg plant as you would for canning sepa-
rately. Mix these in varying proportions,
letting the corn and lima beans predom-
inate. Add two or three midium-sized
onions to each quart of this mixture and
run all through a food chopper in order
to mix it thoroughly. Pack into jars
and sterilize. In preparing for the table
mix with an equal volume of bread
crumbs, a piece of butter the size of a
walnut, and one egg; season to taste with
pepper and salt, and bake in a round bak-
ing dish until brown. Cut into slices as
you would a cake and serve hot with a
drawn butter sauce.

Corn, okra, and tomatoes, mixed in
equal proportions, may be canned in this
way as a soup stock.

Freshness of Flavor and Color

Vegetables when canned properly
should retain their attractive color and
lose very little of their flavor. It will
be found almost impossible to detect any
difference either in taste or in appear-
ance between the canned and the fresh
article if these directions are carefully
followed. The volatile oils which give

flavor to most vegetables are not lost dur-
ing this process of sterilization. Cook-
ing for three short periods in a closed
container at a comparatively low temper-
ature instead of cooking for one short
period at a high temperature or for one
long period in an open vessel makes the
vital difference and insures freshness of
flavor and color. After the jars have
been sterilized and tested, they should be
kept in the dark, as the sunlight will soon
destroy the color of the vegetable.

How to Open a Jar

Jars of vegetables are sometimes hard
to open, unless it is done in just the right
way. Run a thin knife blade under the
rubber, next to the jar, and press against
it firmly. This will usually let in
enough air to release the pressure on the
top. In case it does not, place the jar
in a deep saucepan of cold water, bring
to a boil, and keep it boiling for a few
minutes. The jar will then open easily.

Cautions

These directions for canning apply only
to pint and quart jars. If half-gallon jars
are used, always increase the time of boil-
ing, making it an hour and a half in-
stead of one hour.

Do not go into canning too deeply at
first. Experiment with a few jars in the
early part of the season and see if they
keep well. It is not a difficult matter to
can vegetables properly. The writer has
never lost a can of string beans, okra,
egg plant, carrots, parsnips, lima beans,
beets, asparagus, or pumpkin in several
years' experience and, has had only one
can of peas spoil, a few cans of corn
during the earlier trials, and a few cans
of succotash. Any housewife can do
equally well. If you follow the direc-
tions here given carefully, you will have
no difficulty whatever. If you should hap-
pen to fail in the first trial, rest assur-
ed that you have done something wrong
or left something undone. No housewife
who has on hand during the winter a
supply of home-canned vegetables ready
to serve on ten minutes' notice will ever
regret the trouble or difficulties exper-
ienced in learning. j. p. Beazeale.

Bureau of Chemistry. U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

CANNING VEGETABLES IN THE HOME

737

Amount aiid Value of Cauued and Dried Fruit

* PRODUCT 1909

Total value $157,101,201

Fruits and Verjetahles.
Value $86,422,383

Canned Vegetables :

Cases 32,8.34.820

Value $51,568,914

Tomatoes —

Cases 12,980,818

Value $18,747,941

Corn —

Cases 7,451,265

Value $10,332,136

Peas —

Cases 5,001,703

Value $10,247,363

Beans —

Cases 3,393,200

Value $6,013,098

Asparagus —

Cases 229,742

Value $1,975,775

Pumpkins —

Cases 438,426

Value $576,043

Sweet Potatoes —

Cases 347,186

Value $531,651

All Other —

Cases 2,092.470

Value $3,144,907

Canned Fruits :

Cases 5,461,233

• Value $12,938,474

Peaches —

Cases 1,484,808

Value $3,753,698

Apples —

Cases 1.205.774

Value $1,898,720

Apricots —

Cases 562,811

Value $1,825,311

Peas —

Cases 641,291

Value $1.833!214

Berries —

Cases 830,324

Value $1,783,026

Cherries —

Cases 382.116

Value $990,914

All Other-
Cases 354.109

Value $853,591

Dried Fruits —

Pounds 484.328.767

Value .$21,914,995

Raisins —

Pounds 195.774.767

Value $0.91 2.533

Prunes —

Pounds 1 38.498.400

Value $5.130.41 2

Apples —

Pounds 44,568 244

Value . .$3,098,005

Peaches —

Pounds 46,843,301

Value $2,423,083

Apricots —

Pounds 29,205 560

Value $2,277,177

All Other-
Pounds 29.4^8.306

Value $2,073,605

Of factory dried fruit California produced $18,212,316. or
ot this class of products. '

♦Census Bulletin of Manufactures, 1913.

2—6

in the United States

1904

$130,465,976

$72,998,756

29,579,616
$45,610,993

9,411,084
$14,020,846

11.209.507
$15,952,386

4,694,402
$7,928,791

2.588,015
$4,133,810

1899
$99,335,464
$44,802,665

19,323,730

$28,734,598

8,700,538
$13,666,560

6,336,984
$8,191,383

2,543,722
$4,465,673

1,493,517
$2,025,123

246,557
$346,497

138,078
$202,404

192.997
$284,385

83,526
$124,245

1.236.874
$2,944,278

27,365
$59,210

4,628,241
$11,722,979

4.467,817
$11,311,062

1,304,867
$3,902,441

1,449.350
$4,283,165

400 341
$738,013

645,762
$1,125,119

530.815
$1,641,919

531 ,648
$1,583,252

780,120
$2,192,910

672.485
$2,188,201

480,637
$1,058,650

600.419
$1,002,075

310,350

$825,522

114.367

$307,788

605.111
$1,363,515

453.780
$730,502

343,570.623
$15,664,784

85.439,406
$4,757,005

121.400.881
$6,340,381

14,984. r21
$1,062,268

117.808.181
$3,200,628

25.413.763
$970,027

40.7'!7.0S0
$1,758,610

33.212.300
$1,906,642

25.861 .074
$1,702,205

5.662.390
$312,495

19. .'-,.-0.573
$1,410,838

5.465,217
$455,394

18. 20?. 825
$1,144,122

701.500
$40.1'76

83.1 per cent of the total value

738

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Cantaloup Culture

Introduction

The cantaloup in its season is prob-
ably the most popular fruit on the Amer-
ican table, appearing prominently on
every first-class menu.

The total consumption in the United
States, amounting to ten thousands of
carloads, besides the local home-grown
product which can hardly be estimated,
indicates an industry of great impor-
tance.

From the growers' standpoint, however,
the story of the melon industry is filled
with disappointment and failures, diffi-
culties and disheartening returns, which
are all but discouraging at times, yet
each season some growers are making
a decided success of the crop, either
through a better experience, more fa-
voi'able conditions, or exceptional oppor-
tunities. Although the grower himself
may not always realize the determining
elements of his success yet to a careful
observer it is evident that many of the
factors that cause failures in cantaloupes
could be overcome by a better grasp of
essential points; for instance, a better
knowledge of the experience of other
growers, a fuller understanding of the
needs of the markets, the best methods
of harvesting and handling the crop,
and the most favorable system of mar-
keting for the highest returns.

The various cantaloup districts of the
United States have been canvassed for
any new Information on cantaloupes, and
this information has been embodied in
this article covering the most essential
points in regard to good seed, cultural

care, harvesting and marketing, also ex-
perience and suggestions on insects and
plant diseases.

Points for Commercial Growers to
Consider

In order that preparation may be made
for a better appreciation and understand-
ing of some of the determining factors
that may result in success or failure in
cantaloup growing consideration is asked
of the following questions:

First, Are your seasons long enough,
and the climatic conditions favorable
for cantaloup growing?

Second, Are you accessible to markets,
or good railroad facilities?

Third, Will your cantaloupes come in
competition with those from other dis-
tricts and cause a glutted market?

Fourth, Have you some peculiar advan-
tages which will enable you to meet com-
petition?

Fifth, Have you had experience in han-
dling cantaloupes, and do you realize
that it requires under favorable condi-
tions 100 to 150 acres to profitably ship
in carload lots?

Sixth, Have you any marketing agencies
to assist in disposing of your crop, or
will you depend upon open consignments?

Seventh, Have you considered your
market demands as to varieties, and do
you know what strains of seed would be
best adapted to your conditions?

Eighth, What importance do you place
on good seed breeding? Do you know
that common, ordinary seed may produce
as fine specimens as the best seed, but
that the well bred seed tvill produce a
greater per cent of uniform, marketable
cantaloupes?

Ninth, Are you aware that the highest
grade of seed can not insure you a crop
under adverse conditions, of weather, poor
soil or careless management?

Tenth, Do you realize that one failure,
or even several, does not prove that suc-
cess is not possible?

It is not our purpose to call attention
to all the possibilities of failures nor sug-
gest all the points of encouragement, but
if a grower can realize the essential

CANTALOUP CULTURE

739

points, we feel that the cantaloup in-
dustry will be on a more stable footing.

In the first place the large acreage for
an individual grower should be
discouraged, except in the special canta-
loupe growing districts where growers
have had experience in handling large
acreages. If a large acreage is required
to make carload shipments, it would be
best to have an aggregation of a large
number of small acreages handled by in-
dividuals working in co-operation.

Specialized cantaloup growing has been
made a success in a few localities by a
large number of growers, but has been
attended with ups and downs, of over-
production and glutted markets. But thei'e
is a great opportunity for a few growers
in a great many localities to specialize
in cantaloupes, to work up a fancy trade,
and to study to cater to that trade and
supply them with only the best, that will
result in success where now only indif-
ferent results are secured. The grower
who considers only the producing side
of the industry has not measured one-
half of the question, for marketing to a
profit is the biggest side.

The Importance of Good Seed

It is often argued that seed saved from
over-ripe cantaloupes are just as good
for seed, which on first thought might
seem true, but why is a cantaloup over-
ripe, when the fields have been picked
over twice each day as they should be?
It is true it may have been overlooked,
but more probably the majority of "over-
ripes" are so because there is an inherent
weakness toward rapid ripening, in real-
ity a poor keeping quality; hence if we
plant seed saved from over-ripe canta-
loupes that are culled from where the
bulk of the cantaloupes are marketed,
we are propagating just the traits that
we do not want in our cantaloupes for
market.

Seed breeding means more than the
selection of seed from an average crop:
that would tend only to produce average
results.

The same laws that govern the breed-
ing of animals also control the improve-

ment of plants. Any fair-minded man
will acknowledge that thoroughbred ani-
mals are more profitable than scrubs, or
even average stock, and the same is true
of plants. But we must get the true con-
ception of seed selection — not the idea of
the uninformed farmer who, with his
wife spent their evenings for many days
selecting seed corn from a lot of shelled
corn that he had purchased for feed.
The man who selects his cantaloupe
seed at the packing shed is almost as
far wrong, for the plant that produced
the seed has not been considered.

Nature makes selections that the grower
may often overlook; for instance, cool
nights and a short season will act as a
natural selection to develop the early ma-
turing types, hence the seed from the
arid region in high altitudes has proven
to be superior to seed growing in the
humid sections, both for vigor and early
maturity. The big cantaloup growers
from California and the Southern states
realize this, for they look to Rocky Ford
each year for their cantaloup seed, and
all testify that they get earlier and more
uniform cantaloupes from the Rocky Ford
grown seed.

Yet because cantaloupes from Colorado
are the last to appear on the markets,
some might suppose that the seed from
there would be late in maturing, when
in fact the very opposite is true.

Some Points That Seeds Will Kot
Orercome

Poor results are often attributed to
poor seed, which is doubtless often the
case, but there is evidence to show that
complaints about seed may sometimes be
made when the trouble is due to other
causes; for instance, two fields may be
planted with the same stock of seed, but
having different soil fertility, or cultural
care, may show widely different results
in yield, size and uniformity of the crop.

As for example, a grower in Texas
who complained that certain seed pro-
duced too many "jumbo" sizes, while from
Southwest Arkansas another complaint
from the same strain of seed was to the
effect that the cantaloupes were running
too small, yet this grower admitted that

740

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

dry weather checked his vines some-
what.

Some people seem to think that the
crop should show absolute uniformity;
this is next to impossible, although a
study of the ideal representations and
the elaborate descriptions in some of the
seed catalogues might convey this im-
pression. The fact is, cantaloupes do vary
even in the best strains of seed; one can
frequently find on one vine, one canta-
loup that is very long, while another
may be short and round: this is especially
true if the vine has made an unusual
growth on account of rich soil or other
favorable conditions.

The size of the cavity, the development
of the netting, and the appearance of
the cantaloupes will vary on different
types of soil to some extent, and differ-
ent seasons will lead the grower to think
that the seed was not up to standard of
the year before when the seed was
equally good, but the season was not as
favorable in some respects that this grower
overlooks. The same seed out of the same
sack has been planted on different days,
one just before a rain that was cold and
the other after it had warmed up; one
came up slowly, small and puny, while
the other made a fine growth.

Any influence that tends to retard or
stimulate the groivth of the vines will
also, in some way or another, affect the
results of the crop: such influence may
not be serious, possibly only a few over-
sized melons, making packing a little
more difficult, but one must expect some
variations due to environment. These
may be favorable or unfavorable, and
they may or may not be tinder the con-
trol of the grower. There is a long list
of these factors — character of the soil,
fertility, moisture supply, climate, insect
pests, plant diseases, and cultural care;
all of these must be considered and con-
trolled, if possible, if we would secure the
greatest uniformity in results.

Heredity of the seed is another great
factor influencing results and one that is
often difficult to determine since there
are always the two forces, environynent
and heredity, at work, and which of these

causes has produced a given effect will
often be the question.

The only fair way to pass judgment up-
on the merits of a certain stock of seed is
to compare its results with those of other
seed under exactly the same conditions.
It is the only m,eans of reading heredity
in any system of plant breeding. The
methods of plant breeding for the differ-
ent crops are essentially the same, name-
ly, a nursery test of the seed from in-
dividual plants, selected for given traits,
and which are then grown under uni-
form conditions to determine their rela-
tive merit.

Method of Developing High Grade Seeds

The method is to select a large
number of individuals, save the seed sep-
arately and plant in adjacent plats at
the same time, under as uniform condi-
tions as possible, to test out their breed-
ing tendencies — this is called a nursery
test.

The individual plant is the unit of
variation, and hence should always be
made the unit of selection. The results
of systematic seed selection have clearly
shown that there is a wide variation in
different plants from even fairly pure
seed, and that the more nearly a strain
of seed can be the progeny from a single
plant, the more uniform and strong its
hereditary tendencies will be, provided
that the individual plant is not a hybrid,
in which case it may break up into a
variety of types; but even in long es-
tablished strains of pure bred seed there
is still the continual "reverting" or "breed-
ing back," so that it is not uncommon
to find a cantaloup that is a little "off,"
so if the general average of the crop is
l)retty imiformly true, one need not sus-
pect a mixture by the appearance of a
little variation.

Sometimes a variation is along very
desirable lines, for there are numerous
instances where the selection of the seed
from a single plant that seemed differ-
ent, has been the beginning of a new
strain much superior to the original;
such was the history of the disease-re-
sistant Pollock cantaloui), while the

CANTALOUP CULTURE

741

Ryan's Early Watters was started from
a single early maturing plant.

There is plenty of seed saving, but
comparatively little seed selection along
systematic lines, and there is still less
seed breeding for improved hereditary
traits. Usually twenty-five hills are
planted in each plat, and all are given
uniform conditions that the differences
that may develop may reasonably be as-
cribed to heredity, and the new selec-
tions made accordingly.

A number of the choicest individual
fruits from the most desirable plats are
again saved for the next year's nursery
test, and the plats that run most uni-
formly alike along desirable lines, are
then cut for stock seed. In this way
the weak traits and undesirable tend-
encies of anj" individual plant may be
eliminated more and more each year,
while the strong desirable traits are re-
tained and thus the average uniformity
gradually increased as far as possible.

It will readily be seen that it requires
the same care to maintain a grade of
quality that it did to build it up in the
first place, the tendency to deteriorate
being always present.

The first nursery grown, before the
seed had been bred up much, would have
the appearance of a large checker board,
because of the many variations. Some
would be disease-resistant and some not;
some would be early and some late; some
prolific and others not, while in netting,
color of the flesh, and the size and form
of the fruit, the contrasts would be also
very marked.

Aside from improving and combining
desirable traits, the nursery test for can-
taloupes has another strong point of
merit, namely, keeping the stock seed
pure. It is evident that if seed from
individual cantaloupes are planted sep-
arately in different plats, it would be
easy for a keen observer to detect the
presence of a hybrid and thus eliminate
that plant from being saved for stock
seed.

So marked have been the results and
advantages of the breeding from individ-
ual plants to secure uniformity and de-

sirable traits, that no one who has fol-
lowed it up intelligently can doubt the
efficiency of the method; but at the same
time it is very evident that it takes care
and a good deal of time to accomplish
results which at first may seem easy.

Seed breeding is practical; it is not a
theory or a fancy, but a reasonable, re-
sult-producing process. The most success-
ful farmers are giving it careful consid-
eration, nor does the improvement of seed
add a burden of labor and expense, but
comes as an added asset to the grower's
wealth, and increases his pride in his
crop.

Comparatively few men are capable of
producing their seed for if they are grow-
ing cantaloupes for market, their time
and attention must be occupied with the
crop, and to select, cut and cure high-
grade cantaloup seed requires no little
training and experience, and some little
equipment.

The grower who buys his seed
should deal directly with a reliable
breeder who is qualified, and is making
a specialty of growing the crop for seed;
a grower should not submit his seed order
for "loivest bid" if he expects to get the
best seed.

Conditions and Cultural Care
Climate

The cantaloup seems to thrive in
rather a wide range of soil and climatic
conditions, being grown to some extent
in almost all of the states, although from
the standpoint of money returns, the area
of very successful cantaloup culture is
somewhat limited; yet it appears that it
is more the question of cultural care,
disease and insect pests, or favorable
marketing facilities, which determine the
success of the industry in a given local-
ity, rather than the specific soil or cli-
matic conditions.

Climatic conditions within certain lim-
its are essential to successful cantaloup
culture, and the consideration of this
topic may answer many questions as to
the adaptability of some sections for
melon growing. First, there should be
a long, hot summer, with about five
months free from killing frosts, with a

742

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

daily maximum temperature between 80
and 95 degrees during June, July and
August, with a night temperature seldom
falling below 60 degrees; four months
may mature good cantaloupes, but with
so short a season frost would probably
cut short the profits of the crop, unless,
as is done in some of the Northern
states having too short season, the plants
are started under frames in sods or paper
bands; second, there should be plenty of
bright sunshine, without excessive rain-
falls; this will secure good quality and
lessen liability to attacks of fungus trou-
bles that are so often fatal to the melon
crop in rainy sections or regions of heavy
dews; without doubt the clear bright sun-
shine and the arid conditions of South-
eastern Colorado account for the high
flavor and the fine qualities found in the
Rocky Ford cantaloupes as compared
with the poor quality in the cantaloupes
with an abnormal rain fall, which some-
times occurs.

Sunlight is very essential to the full
development of cantaloupes, for the qual-
ity is perceptibly inferior in shaded spots;
the dry atmospheric conditions cause
rapid transpiration of the moisture from
the leaves, thus inducing a quick move-
ment of sap or plant juices which in-
creases the power to carry and deposit
plant foods, thus developing and concen-
trating the spice of flavor and producing
the very highest qualities.

We do not recommend cantaloupes to
be planted in an orchard where there is
any shade to speak of, as they will not
do well.

I'lato N<i. U. ('(iiiiiasi in Ci-nwih <if Vines:
on the Left Alfalfa Sdd ; mi the Right Old
Land.

Soil and Fertility

It is conceded by all experienced canta-
loup growers that the cantaloup thrives
best in a warm, sandy loam; clay loam
and other types of soil may produce a
good crop if the tilth and fertility are
good, but heavy soils are apt to be cold
and backward, causing lateness in ma-
turing, and it is also generally believed
that the nature of some types of soils
seriously influences the form, size and
other qualities of the cantaloup. It is
true, however, that the average size will
vary in different seasons; in seasons of
very favorable growth the cantaloupes
will run to a large proportion of "jumbo
melons" (larger than standard); in sea-
sons less favorable there will be more
small or pony sizes. An actual test of
a crop on a piece of land is the best
proof of the fitness of the soil for that
crop, for while a chemical analysis may
theoretically seem favorable, in practice
it may prove otherwise.

There are many factors that may in-
fluence the results, but in general the
land that will grow other vine crops,
such as cucumbers, pumpkins and squash,
will probably grow good cantaloupes.

Soil for cantaloupes should have good
drainage, both surface and subsoil, and
in irrigated regions the land must have
a imiform slope or grade so that the
water will run even, without soaking or
flooding the hills; if there is one point
above another in cantaloup culture that
needs special emphasis, it is the caution
against oversoaking or flooding of the
surface of the field; this will be further
discussed imder the topic "Irrigation,"
but the point must be held in mind in
many of the operations, and in selecting
the field, to have it well drained on the
surface as well as the subsoil.

If no detrimental soil conditions like
seepage, or alkali, exist, the question of
fertility is usually the most important
one in relation to the soil ; barnyard
manure is an old standby, and canta-
loupes, of all crops, will respond as well
to well - rotted compost as to any
form of commercial fertilizer, but ex-
perience of the most convincing sort has

CANTALOUP CULTURE

743

Plate No. 3. The Contrast Between an
Imperfect and a Perfect Cantaloup.

shown that soil cannot be made to pro-
duce good cantaloupes indefinitely, year
after year, by applying manure and arti-
ficial fertilizers.

Aside from fertility there are also the
questions of plant diseases, soil bacteria,
and unbalanced food supply. Crop-rota-
tion has proven to be the most practical
and adequate means of preserving not
only the proper fertility, but the near-
est approach to securing uninfested soil
conditions, hence crop rotation becomes
an important phase of cantaloup culture

Alfalfa to the western ranches occu-
pies the same place that clover does to
the eastern farmer, or the cow pea to
the southern planter; these crops for their
respective sections provide ideal soil fer-
tility and tilth for the cantaloup. In
Colorado alfalfa sod is the ideal soil prep-
aration for cantaloupes, and a comparison
of the results on alfalfa sod with even
well manured old land will convince the
most skeptical. (Plate No. 2.) Experience
has demonstrated that early matured can-
taloupes can hardly be expected on soil
following a heavy fertility consuming
crop, like sugar beets or corn, a good late
crop being the usual result. Nearly all
the fine records of early yields and high
prices have been made on soil that was
in a perfect state of tilth and fertility.

Soil can be made too rich in applying
manures, and the principal point in the
application of fertilizers is to have a rea-
sonable amount, and well incorporated in
the soil, and in the case of barnyard
manure to have it well rotted. In Col-
orado manuring in the hill has been
found to have no advantage over the
broadcast method, owing probably to the
wide spreading root system of the plant;
commercial fertilizers have not been
profitably used in Colorado.

Preparing' Laud for Cantaloupes

The secret of getting soil in that ashy,
mellow condition so desirable for canta-
loupes, is one largely of experience, for
handling soil in the same manner on dif-
ferent farms will seldom get the same re-
sults; one may be a clay, the other a
sandy loam. The texture and the pre-
vious cropping has much to do with the
way the soil can be handled. In general
there must be moisture in the soil dur-
ing the winter to secure the mellowing
effect of the frost, and the soil must not
be handled too wet. If clay or adobe
"packs" it will dry hard and lumpy; real
sandy soil can be handled wet with less
risks than other soils. The soil should
be friable so that the harrow will pul-
verize it without clogging as it does in
mud, and yet not so dry as to leave the
field full of clods.

Before plowing the soil should be well
disked for two reasons. First, to thor-
oughly mix the soil with any fertilizer
previously applied, and, second, to pul-
verize the soil on the surface, so that
after the work of preparation is com-
plete, the bottom of the furrow will be
as finely prepared as the top. Plowing
for cantaloupes is usually made to the
depth of five to six inches; in the arid
region the plowed land must be closely
harrowed behind the plow, to prevent too
rapid drying of the surface, and should
be closed up by fining the soil on top;
this is usually accomplished with the steel
harrow with the teeth turned nearly flat,
or with a float or land-leveler. A fine
dust mulch will check evaporation, and

Plate No. 4.

Leveling Land, and Finina
Soil.

the

744

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

thus conserve the soil moisture, to enable
a more thorough harrowing to complete
the preparation. Preparing the land some
time before planting is advisable, as the
soil becomes settled and the seed will
germinate more readily and a more uni-
form stand will be secured. The soil
should also be harrowed after cold spring
rains to check evaporation, which will
tend to aid in warming up the soil. Be-
fore laying out the rows to plant, while
the surface of the soil is dry, the field
should be carefully leveled with a land
leveler (see Plate No. 4), removing all the
high points and filling the hollows and
dead furrows so that in irrigating the
water will run uniformly without flood-
ing the rows, or oversoaking any of the
hills.

About planting time the field is laid off
with a marker in rows five to six feet
apart, in the opposite direction to the
rows to be planted, which are laid off
with the irrigation furrows in the best
direction for water to run. The irrigation
rows are usually made about the same dis-
tance apart, usually six feet; these fur-
rows can be made with a single shovel
plow or a two-row marker or furrower.
In the non-irrigated regions these fur-
rows could serve for surface drainage
after heavy rains.

Plantiiii? and Securing a Stand

The first requisite in planting canta-
loupes is to have the weather warm, for
warmth and moisture are the two essen-
tials in seed germination. Many growers
make the mistake of planting while the
ground is yet cold with freezing temper-
ature occurring every few nights. If
perchance the days are warm enough to
germinate the seed, the plants are stunted
and make a slow, tantalizing growth,
should they be so fortunate as to escape
these late frosts of spring.

As a general rule, a few days before
the latest freeze may be expected, is as
early as is safe to plant. It is common-
for cantaloupes planted as early as the
tenth of May to begin to ripen as soon
as the earlier planted seed, so as a rule
it is not to much advantage to plant

very early; the grower must be the judge
in regard to his soil and climate.

There are two systems of planting can-
taloupes— the drill-roiv and in hills. In
the hill system the field is check-rowed
like corn, to permit cultivating in each
direction, the rows usually being laid off
five to six feet apart, and the hills about
the same distance in the rows. By drop-
ping eight to ten seed to the hill, it will
require about a pound of seed to plant
an acre. It is advisable to plant plenty
of seed in order to secure a good stand,
allowing for the attacks of the cutworms
and other destructive agencies.

There are two methods of planting
cantaloupes in hills — with a hoe, and with
a hand planter, commonly called a "snap-
per." The rotary type of this form of
planter is usually the most satisfactory,
but some modifications are usually neces-
sary to fit it for dropping cantaloup
seed.

By filling the holes of one of the reg-
ular corn-dropping plates with lead, then
by boring out with a three-eighths drill

Plate No. .J. I'laiitius Cantaloupes with
Garden Drill.

bit and by testing and enlarging the
holes it can be regulated to drop quite
well; the seed box will also need close
fitting, to prevent the thin flat seed from
leaking out. A block or stop should be
attached to the blades at about the depth
to plant, about one and a half inches;
this will insure uniform depth, which is
essential. Great care should be exercised
to have the depression or hole formed in
the soil by the thrust of the planter filled
or leveled with the foot; otherwise the
seed will dry out, field mice will more

CANTALOUP CULTURE

745

readily find the hills, and a hard dash of
rain will form a hard chunk, or crust,
right over the seed. The surface of the
soil should be dry to insure good work
with the planter. A man with some ex-
perience can plant from three to five
acres per day with a planter, while one
acre per day is about all that can be ac-
complished with a hoe.

The principal argument for the hill sys-
tem of growing cantaloupes is the econ-
omy of labor, for more of the weeding
and hoeing can be done with a horse.

In the drill system the rows are usu-
ally put about the same distance apart,
but the seed are sown in drill rows, the
seed being dropped every two or three
inches; this method requires about two
to three pounds of seed per acre. The
seed is sown either with a hand drill,
shown in Plate No. 5, the horse planter,
or the sugar beet drill is used. The im-
portant point is to get the seed dropped
uniformly, and the drill set to plant at
a uniform depth — not over one and a
half inches; as soon as the plants are
nicely up they should be thinned to sin-
gle plants, far enough apart to permit
hoeing between. After the danger from
insect injuries is over, and about the
time the first blossoms appear, the plants
should be thinned again to one plant
every two feet, on the average; the tend-
ency at this point is to leave the plants
too thick, especially if the plants are
extra fine. The most advanced plants
are selected, which is the cause of the
drilled fields usually maturing earlier
than the hill planted, and the earlier de-
velopment usually compensates for the
extra cost of the increased amount of
seed, and the added labor of thinning.

The essential points in planting are to
get the seed planted at a uniform depth,
and at a uniform distance from the irri-
gation furrow; to have the soil fine and
firmed just right, to skillfully conserve
and apply moisture, and to keep a crust
from interfering with the young seed-
lings.

In the arid regions the seed is usu-
ally planted about one-half inch deeper
than it is expected the plants will come

through, in order to hold the moisture
line to the seed. When the seed is well
sprouted the hills are raked off with a
garden rake, removing the crust and any
clods that might interfere. Sometimes
the field is harrowed across the rows
with good results, especially where the
rows are drilled in. This matter of "rak-
ing off" and keeping the surface fine over
the hills is a very important point to be
observed in securing a good stand.

Irrigatiou

The moisture problem in cantaloup
growing is a very important one. Some
times in the humid sections, there is too
much water, and it becomes the question
of how to save the crop; but little can be
said here, except to select well drained
fields for the cantaloupes and provide the
field with furrows, like the irrigation
furrow, to carry off the excess rain wa-
ter, and to plant on somewhat raised
hills or ridges.

In the arid sections the moisture for
the crop as a rule depends on the irriga-
tion furrow, and the skill of the grower
to so manipulate the soil and water. Too
many look upon irrigation as a simple
process of running water through the
rows, or over the ground, paying little or
no attention to the needs or demands or
the dangers of flooding or oversoaking
the land. When soil is completely sat-
urated with water the air is practically
all driven out and the soil settles, which
defeats the very object and purpose of
plowing and the other work of soil prep-
aration, which will dry hard and noth-
ing but frost can ever mellow it as be-
fore.

The application of water to all such
crops as cantaloupes should be by sub-
irrigation, that is, the moisture should
soak through the soil to the plant or seed,
from the irrigation furrow, without the
surface of the soil, except in the furrows
coming in contact with the water; this
is essential not only for the needs of
the plant but also the same amount of
water will serve a longer time the needs
of the plants, the water rights in some
ditches making it necessary to conserve
the moisture as long as possible.

746

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

In order to supply the moisture uni-
formly to the seed along the row, the
seed must have been planted at a uni-
form distance from the water line, about
four to six inches; to insure uniformity
in the soaking of the rows, the rows
should be "logged" out, or smoothed out
with a short piece of log about the size
of the furrow; this will cause the water
to run through quickly, and by regulating
the amount in each row, the rows will
become uniformly wet without flooding or
soaking the ground. Plate No. 6 shows

Plate No. 6. Irrisatins for Germination of
Seed.

a field being properly irrigated, to germi-
nate the seed. When the water can be
gotten through the rows quickly and the
amount regulated to supply the rows
about as fast as it soaks in the soil, the
upper and lower parts of the row will be-
come wet at about the same time and
amount, with practically little water
wasted.

The idea is to soak the rows until the
water has fully reached the seed, while
the surface over the hill remains nearly
dry; this is ideal condition for germina-
tion and is sufficient for the needs of the
plants in all the early irrigations. Later
the rows can be soaked till moisture
shows on the surface back to the plants.

Under arid conditions one irrigation
after planting, and one again about the
time the plants are coming up, is ordina-
rily all that is required until after the
first cultivation; after that irrigation and
cultivation alternate each other every
week or ten days, the exact number of
times depending on the weather and soil
conditions.

The amount of irrigation necessary to
secure the best results in cantaloup cul-
ture, is sub.iect to so many varying fac-
tors, that it is impossible to lay down an

exact rule. In the first place, the canta-
loup does not thrive in a wet soil, as
evidenced by the injury and poor quality
of the crop in seasons of excessive rain.
The needs of the crop in the first stages
are very small, and as light watering as
possible to secure the needed moisture is
best; then as the plant develops the
amount of irrigation should be increased;
light, frequent irrigations rather than
heavy soakings at long intervals has
proven to be the best plan.

When the vines are nearly grown and
set full of developing fruit a heavier irri-
gation is then needed by the plant, but
as soon as the fruits have reached their
growth, light waterings should again be
the rule; to insure the best quality, little
if any irrigation should be applied dur-
ing the picking season, just enough to
prevent severe wilting; it is at this time
that the cantaloup "rust" fungus makes
its appearance, and moisture and dews
are favorable to its development.

The dryer the season, the better the
quality in cantaloupes, is an axiom that
should induce more careful irrigation
among cantaloup growers in the irrigated
sections.

The relation of irrigation to early set-
ting of cantaloupes is a somewhat mooted
question; there are growers who argue
the use of frequent irrigations during the
setting period in order to secure a good
set, but others prefer to keep their vines
dry, even allowing them to show the need
of moisture before they will permit irri-
gation during this stage.

It is evident that the season and cli-
matic conditions have more to do with
the setting of fruit than the watering;
there are experiences that might seem to
support both theories; yet continued ob-
servations would indicate that a grower
is not warranted in following either
course to the extreme, but rather the
medium plan of providing just enough
moisture to secure an even, healthy
growth all the way through, would seem
to be most favorable condition.

An excess of water in hot weather is
apt to induce a heavy growth of vine at
the expense of early "sets" due to the

CANTALOUP CULTURE

747

rank growth, and such succulent growth
is also much more liable to succumb to
the attack of diseases and insect pests.

Hoeing

Hoeing the hills is of great importance,
but it should be done with skill both as
to the time and in the manner it is done,
for careless hoeing is a common error;
if the seed has been properly planted in
m.ellow soil and the irrigation properly
applied, there is no reason for deep hoe-
ing in and close to the hill, as it only
disturbs the plant and dries out the soil;
weeds can be destroyed by rather shallow
hoeing.

The dry, cloddy soil on the surface of
the hill should be removed and replaced
with fine mellow soil drawn up from
away from the hill, hilling up the plants
as much as possible; even to almost cov-
ering the two seed leaves. This will pro-
tect the plants from wind and insects
to a large measure; but the most impor-
tant feature of this process is the hold-
ing of the moisture well upon the stems,
affording the best condition for a long
base for the development of the roots, as
well as supplying the plant with moisture.
If, on the other hand, the soil in the
hill is loosened up with the hoe and not
hilled up by drawing the loosened soil
to the plant with the hoe, the hill will
usually dry out, and only a short portion
of the stem be in moist soil to induce
root development.

Cultivation

A thorough preparation of the soil be-
fore it is planted to cantaloupes will
very much lessen the necessity for so
much cultivation afterwards, but a good
deal depends on frequent and thorough
tillage during the early stages of the
growth of cantaloupes; at first it should
be deep and thorough, but not close
enough to disturb the plants; the culti-
vations should be more shallow and fur-
ther from the hills as the plants develop.
The grower who cultivates deep and close
to the hill because the vines do not pre-
vent this, is cutting off roots, setting
back his crop more than he is doing good.
He should understand the growth of the
roots, for they form the counterpart of

the vines on the surface, only they ramify
the soil more thoroughly and to a greater
distance than the length of the vines,
so it is easily possible to damage the
crop by careless cultivation. Examina-
tions in the soil between the rows will
reveal the tiny rootlets very thick, four
to five inches deep, hence surface tillage
after the vines start should be the rule;
in irrigated regions root pruning seems
to be detrimental to the crop.

In the humid areas of the South under
heavy rain falls, experienced growers
recommend deeper planting and deep,
thorough cultivations. They argue that
deep cultivation will induce a deep root
system, so if the season is excessively
wet, the deep stirring will dry out the
ground faster, and the root pruning will
have the effect of checking the too rapid
growth of vines that usually accompanies
wet conditions and hot weather, and when,
on the other hand, the season proves to
be a dry one, the heavy soil mulch will
conserve moisture in the subsoil, and the
deep root system will permit the plants
to develop a good crop, while on the shal-
low stirred soil the crop will burn up.

Tools Used in Cantaloup Culture

The fourteen-toothed cultivator, with a
steel weeding knife bolted across between
the two back teeth, so as to run just below
the surface an inch or two, has become
the most popular tool for cultivating on
land clean of alfalfa roots or trash. This
gives ideal tillage, and practically kills
all the weeds except in the hills.

On alfalfa sod where the crowns would
gather on the knife it is not so pleasant
to use, yet it will do very satisfactory
work, but here the five-toothed cultivator
is usually used; this tool is also used to
furrow out rows by closing it up and
placing a large shovel on the rear shank.
When the cantaloupes are "laid by" (cul-
tivated and furrowed out the last time),
the irrigating furrows are made some-
what larger than before and they should
be "logged out," so that water can make
its way through the rows after the vines
have covered the ditches; it is also a good
plan to lay the vines around out of the
furrows once, to train them as much as

748

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Plate No. 7. The ('ommf;n Tools Used in
Cantaloup Culture.

possible away from the furrows; this will
keep many of the cantaloupes out of the
ditch, though the vines will eventually
nearly cover the ground.

A two-horse ten-toothed riding corn
cultivator makes a splendid tool for large
acreage.

General Care of the Crop

If there is a secret in getting early
cantaloupes, it is in growing them from
start to finish in such a way that the
growth is not checked at any tim.e. The
cantaloup does not seem to have the
power to rally from a check in growth
or an injury of any kind; the setback
not only hinders the production of early
fruits, but seriously affects the size and
yield of the cantaloupes. There are nu-
merous instances where unfavorable con-
ditions of some kind have checked the
growth in some part of a field that was
planted and otherwise handled the same;
invariably that portion of the field will
show marked difference in size, netting
or other qualities. The best promise of
a good crop is a prompt and steady
growth from germination to maturity.

The seedling period is the critical time
in the development of a crop of canta-
loupes, for it is at this stage that the
check in growth usually occurs from
cold weather, high winds, lack of mois-
ture or the attacks of insects.

A knowledge of the manner of growth
of the root system and development of
the seedling, will in a measure explain
the reasons for the steps taken and the
precautions that are necessary at this
time in handling the crop through this
important period.

The root system that first develops
when the seed germinates, penetrates al-

most directly down from the seed while
the stem or radical is pushing its way
to the surface. These little roots seem
to form a temporary support for the
plant during the first two or three weeks,
for up to this time the stem from the
seed point to the top of the ground is
smooth and white, with no evidence of
the lateral roots.

The second root system develo])s from
the stem about the time the fifth leaf ap-
pears, or four to five weeks after germina-
tion; these roots seem to form the main
feeders of the plant, for the growth of
the plant is almost insignificant until it
feels the impulse of this larger and bet-
ter root system. The question of good
early growth and maturity almost hinges
on the success of the farmer in supply-
ing the conditions that will favor the
early and proper development of this lat-
eral, or main root system. It seems evi-
dent that the depth of planting and the
manner of managing the soil in the hill
has an important relation to the early
development of these lateral roots. Ex-
perience teaches that seeds planted much
over two inches in depth are slow and dif-
ficult to germinate, being weakened by
the long stem that is necessary to reach
the surface; and, on the other hand, if
planting is too shallow, the seeds are apt
to dry out, or if rain follows a crust will
form, which must be removed, and that
often exposes the seeds that are not
planted at a sufficient depth, with fatal
results, or leaves the plant with too shal-
low a stem support; it is then whipped
and wrung by the high, drying winds or
exposed to the attacks of the cucumber
beetle.

Seed will germinate readily when
weather conditions are favorable, if plant-
ed at about the depth of one and one-
half inches.

When the seed leaves are nearly to the
surface the hills should be raked off, re-
moving any crust or dry lumps which
may obstruct the little melon plant.
Plenty of seed should be used to provide
against a loss in handling the hills, or
from the attacks of insects. It also af-
fords a chance to select the thriftiest in-

CANTALOUP CULTURE

(49

dividual plants when the thinning is done.
Owing to the injuries from the striped cu-
cumber beetle, the thinning should be de-
layed until the plants have about the
fifth leaf, when the beetle will not do
much more injury; the extra plants in
the hill should be destroyed by pinching
or cutting off the stems, as pulling them
out may disturb the plants to be left.

Insect Enemies

No sooner has the seed germinated
than the struggle for existence begins;
an eifectual precaution is to plant plenty
of seed scattering it well in the hill, and
even replanting before it is evidently nec-
essary— usually some replanting is re-
quired anyway. Crop rotation, also, is
often a good way of avoiding infested
fields, in fact, "prevention is better than
cure," in fighting insects and plant dis-
eases.

The destruction of insect harbors, such
as weeds, old vines and plants, should
be given more consideration, and the cul-
tivation of the fields in the late fall, win-
ter and early spring, will destroy many
eggs and insects that pass the winter in
the soil — grasshoppers and cutworms, for
instance.

The Striped Cucumber Beetle

This little black and yellow striped bee-
tle, about a quarter of an inch long, is
doubtless one of the most common melon
pests, especially when the plants are
young and in the two-leaf stage; long lists
of remedies have been tried, but the best
that experienced entomologists have to
suggest is to spray the little plants as
soon as possible with arsenate of lead, at
about the usual three pounds to the fifty-
gallon formula.

The beetles are not killed by this rem-
edy, but it acts as an efficient repellent.
Spraying with the Bordeaux mixture is
also recommended, but the Bordeaux is
better for the little black fiea-beetles when
they bother, as they do at times, but they
usually work more on the cabbage, radish
and turnip. The best means of apply-
ing sprays to small plants is the small
type of sprayer that can be easily carried
over the field, the type that has an air
chamber in which pressure is pumped in.

and that has a cut-off on the nozzle that
works like a trigger, thus allowing the
hills to be sprayed with little waste of
the material. A very good spray pump
of this type is The Brown Auto Spray
No. 1, manufactured by The E. C. Brown
Co., Rochester, N. Y.

Dusting the hills with air-slacked lime,
through a common cheese cloth sack, is
an old means of fighting the beetles but
is not as effective as the aresenate of
lead spray.

Tlie Melon Aphis

The melon aphis is doubtless the most
serious pest that the cantaloup has to
contend with in many places, and one
against which resistance is least effectual
where conditions are favorable to the
aphis.

Fortunately for the growers the nat-
ural enemies of the aphis usually hold
them in check quite effectually; the lady-
beetle, the Syrphus flies and the lace-
winged fly are the principal enemies to
the aphis; some seasons a little parasitic
fly destroys many aphis.

The only effective measure seems to
be a careful watch of the fields to de-
stroy the first plants found to be infected
with aphis, as it seems that only a few
Insects are able to pass the winter, and
they seem to spread from a few isolated
points, and if these can be destroyed by
finding them and burying them, early, this
has seemed to be the only plan to adopt,
as spraying and fumigation has been
tried by the most competent experts with
very unsatisfactory results.

Spraying with "Blackleaf 40," one
ounce to ten gallons of water, with a little
soap, say seven ounces, is the most ef-
fective spray where a few hills become
infested, but where the whole field be-
comes infested spraying has proven use-
less.

The introduction of the natural ene-
mies, like the lady-beetles, has been tried
in California with some promise, but this
plan is in an experimental stage as yet.
The necessity of supplying the enemy as
soon as the aphis appears, makes this
plan rather impractical for the grower.

Destroying the winter harbor or host

750

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

plant of the melon-aphis would seem to
be the best measure to adopt, if possible;
this winter harbor has not fully been
determined for some points.
The Pickle Worm

There have been many complaints from
growers in the southern part of the
United States of injuries from this worm.
Careful inquiry has been made to find the
best information on this pest, but there
is no known remedy as yet, other than
the general precautions of clean farm-
ing, rotation of crops and fall plowing;
in the more northern melon districts
the attacks of this insect are apt to be
only periodical, which is true with nearly
all insects; they appear in waves; one
year they may be very destructive and the
next season will hardly be seen, so there
is no need of giving up because there
have been insect pests one year. The
eggs of the larvae of the pickle worm
are deposited on the buds and tender
shoots of the plants, and as the young
worm hatches it feeds in the angles of
the stems and leaves, and if the plants
were well sprayed with arsenate of lead
the first broods would be largely held in
check, and subsequent sprays might be
profitable.

Plant Diseases

Crop rotation, seed selection, or breed-
ing for disease resistance offer the best
means of controlling plant diseases; the
spraying of the crop with Bordeaux mix-
ture or other fungicides is about the
only other means at hand. In Colorado,
spraying has not proven as successful as
it is reported to be in other states, doubt-
less due to different climatic conditions.

Careful control of irrigation seems to
offer one means of lessening the attacks
of some of the fungus troubles in the
arid sections under irrigation.

Harvestingr

After all injuries to the crop have been
explained and remedial measures suggest-
ed, there still remains one great cause
of poor returns from the cantaloup croi),
viz., careless and twiscrupulous methofls
of marketing. When cantaloupes are
scarce and sales are quick, there seems
to be no power on earth that will stay

the hand of the average grower as he
pushes his crop onto the market, with
the encouragment of advices from his
progressive (?) commission merchant;
together they have produced a glutted
market with inferior products; instead of
protecting the markets with a quality that
would increase consumption, they simply
let it fill up with everything and any-
thing, and neither the grower nor the
consumer is benefited. It is common for
growers to admit that they are shipping
cantaloupes that are not fit to be eaten,
and it is not strange that a similar com-
plaint comes from the consumer. Not till
the grower is honest with himself, should
he expect good returns.

Picking'

When green or over-ripe melons are al-
lowed to go onto the markets, the trou-
ble usually is in the picking; careless or
mistaken ideas often prevailing. There
is a very narrow limit in the stage of
ripeness that a cantaloup can be picked
and have it in the right condition for
distant markets. On one hand, it cannot
be picked as green as a tomato or lemon,
and still ripen during shipment to fair
quality, nor, on the other hand, can it be
allowed to show any distinct color of
ripeness, like an apple, without it be-
comes too soft on long shipments.

It should be ripe enough so the flesh
will be sweet when cut open, yet too
hard to be eaten for a day or two; it re-
quires skill and experience to determine
the proper stage.

Jocularly it has been said: "The canta-
loup has three stages in three days —
green, ripe and rotten." This expresses
the fact that there is a very short period
for marketing the crop in good condi-
tion, yet if picked at the proper stage,
and handled right under refrigeration it
can be shipped to distant market in quite
normal condition.

It is hard to describe to a novice just
how to detect the right stage to pick a
cantaloup; there is, first, a very slight
change of color in the interstices of the
netting, hardly enough, however, to at-
tract the attention of the inexperienced;
second, it is tried with a pressure of the

CANTALOUP CULTURE

751

thumb and forefinger on the stem, when
it should "slip," that is, separate in the
same manner as when real ripe, but re-
quiring some little force but not enough
to break the stem or flesh out; condi-
tions of the vines and climate will at
times vary the picker's judgment to some
extent; but by occasionally cutting a
melon the point can be decided. It is
very essential that pickers be carefully
instructed, and closely watched, for the
good returns should not be expected from
green, or over-ripe cantaloupes.

Packing and Crating'

The fruit should be carefully handled,
not bruised or roughly shaken to loosen
the seed cavity; it should be hurried to
the shade and crated as soon as possible;
the cantaloupes should be carefully grad-
ed before crating, not only as to size,
but for condition of ripeness, for there
will always be some a little too ripe
which must not be crated with the green-
ripes, or the markets will suffer. In grad-
ing, the ripe melons can often be mar-
keted in local or nearby markets, and the
ones just right reserved for the long dis-
tance shipments.

In crating the layers must be uniform
and tight, but not so crowded as to crush
or bruise the flesh, yet there should not
be a loose melon in the crate if it is
expected to carry well.

In crating, the ends of the crates should
be supported on the crating table, so that
the slats can spring down in the center
of the crate, then when the crate is fin-
ished and nailed up there will be no
spring of the slats to loosen the pack
when the crate is picked up.

Plate No. 8. Three Styles of Packing.

Plate No. 9. Pony and .Tumbo Crates. The
basket is used in some sections for local
trade.

The crate has been the standard pack-
age for a long distance haul, but there
is a needed reform in the matter of grad-
ing and packing cantaloupes, as the old
style grading of "pony," "standard" and
"jumbo" sizes has proven unsatisfactory.
The standard 45-melon crate is good, but
the "pony" has included too many imma-
ture cantaloupes, and has not been
profitable in general and should be dis-
carded. The "jumbo" crate is too heavy
to handle well, and often difficult to
crate well, when there are only a few
cantaloupes that run to the jumbo sizes.

Three styles of crating cantaloupes are
illustrated (Plate No. 8) which will prove
adequate to handle the marketable canta-
loupes in the simplest way; with only two
styles of crates required.

The standard sized cantaloupes would
be first crated in a regular standard
crate 12x12x24, 45 cantaloupes to the
crate, then a size larger packed in the
same sized crate with 36 cantaloupes to
the crate, packed with what is known
as the "diamond" pack — as shown in the
halftone (Plate No. 8).

The larger jumbo sizes are then to be
crated in a flat, one-layer crate with 12
cantaloupes to the crate. This crate would
probably need to be about 5x14x24; this
would be easy to handle, and popular for
private home trade. With this style of
grading and packing, there could be just
three classifications, "Standard 45s,"
"Standard 36s" and "flats" and there
would be less bruising, trying to crowd
large cantaloupes into crates, and han-
dling large unwieldy jumbo crates, be-
sides simplifying the number of different
crates.

752

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Plate No. 10. A Convenient Arransement
for Packing.

Marketing

Marketing a crop of cantaloupes to
good advantage Is probabl.v the most per-
plexing phase of the Industry; we might
classify the different methods of market-
ing in order to consider them:

First. Selling to the Local Trade —
There is little to be said on this, other
than the grower already knows, good
goods, and fair treatment. Second. Sell-
ing on Consignment — This seems to be
like "stepping out into the unknown,"
there are so many uncertainties. There
are several factors to consider here; the
growers should be organized, in order to
buy crates and load to advantage, they
must take pains to find responsible com-
mission men, they must plan to keep in
touch with the markets, to know what
the market needs and demands, and live
up to their end of the deal in shipping
only first-class cantaloupes; they should
have some plan of co-operation so that in
times of limited markets they could pro-
rate the sales or limit the growers to a
certain number of crates to be shipped
per acre when the market was glutted,
and only a certain amount should be sent
to the market, as it is better to leave the
cantaloupes in the field than to ship and
lose the work and still injure the glutted
markets.

Probably the greatest encouragement in
recent years for the cantaloup growers
is the plan of the cantaloup distributors
forming an exchange, and co-operating in
holding the markets free from glutted
conditions. The plan is to have the dis-

tributors in a district get together each
day and divide or prorate the shipments
to certain markets, and not send to any
one market more than it is possible for
that market to dispose of; this plan was
worked to perfection in the Imperial
valley in California, and in the Rocky
Ford district the season of 1911, and
growers everywhere should refuse to deal
with a commission firm who would re-
fuse to co-operate in this way — growers'
melons have been used to fight their
neighbors too long. Third, Marketing in
Transit — There are several commission
firms who make this a specialty
in handling the large shipments
from the big melon districts; in reality
it does not differ from the commission
form of selling, only the organization of
a marketing system to keep in touch with
the different markets and their needs;
this could be handled by a competent
manager of a large association if it were
not for the short season that the canta-
loupes are handled from any one dis-
trict, the large commission firms having
the same organization that they can util-
ize for other products; hence it is doubt-
ful if there is any better plan than to
market through some of the well es-
tablished agencies. Fourth. Marketing
for Cash — This is the Utopian idea of
the growers everywhere, and as long as
cantaloupes are selling well it is all
right, but when the price goes down the
cash buyer is gone.

Strains and Varieties of Cantaloupes
Rocky Ford

There is a prevalent idea that there is
a variety of cantaloup known as "Rocky
Fords;" strictly, this is erroneous; unless
it is a name to embrace the miscellaneous
seed that is purchased from Rocky Ford.

The fact is, the Netted Gem was the
original variety used to develop the Rocky
Ford cantaloup industry, but thirty years
of selecting and crossing have developed
greatly improved types that are distinct
and very different in many respects; but
there are really only two or three types;
one, — the "Pollock," has been renamed
"Eden Gem," "Netted Rock," "Rust Re-
sistant" and so on, and the selection ideals

CANTALOUP CULTURE

753

followed by the men exploiting the new
names have established slightly different
strains of the Pollock. Hence there is a
good deal of confusion in regard to Rocky
Ford seed.

The markets have a demand for both
the green and salmon-tinted flesh in the
Rocky Ford strains of cantaloupes; this
is entirely distinct from the orange-col-
ored meat of the Osage types; and the
growers also demand an extra early strain
beside the main crop sort.
Rust-Resistant Pollock, Salmon-Tinted

The original "Pollock" was the result of
a hybrid, as running through nearly all
the Pollock strains there are the two
colors in flesh and various combinations
of them — green and salmon-tinted, vine
disease-resistant.

Rust-Resistant Pollock, Green-Fleslied

The Green-Fleshed Pollock is very sim-
ilar to the other Pollock, except in the
color of the flesh, which runs more green,
shading to yellow at the cavity; we would
recommend this strain for markets that
demand a green-fleshed cantaloup. The
general character and appearance of the
two strains of Pollock are the same.
These two Pollocks are classed as the
best late or main crop varieties of Rocky
Ford Netted Gems.

The Ryan's Early Watters Strain

There are localities where the early
cantaloup is very profitable and there
is a demand for an early maturing canta-
loup. Ryan's Early Watters meets
that demand; this strain holds the best
records of high returns on account of its
very prolific yields of extra early canta-
loupes. In appearance it is almost iden-
tical with the Pollock type; it has the
green colored flesh, and the same general
flavor. The special point in the selection
has been prolific early maturity. This
strain germinates very strong, vigorous
plants, the fruit sets early, and the crop
matures in a very short time, yet is ex-
tremely prolific, often making yields of
two hundred and fifty crates per acre.
It is fully a week earlier than the Pol-
lock strains. Recommended where the
tendency to fungus troubles is not too
marked, and for a small portion of a

grower's plantings it will doubtless pay in
many locations.

Early Rust-Resistant, Hybrid

This strain has a remarkable vigor of
growth until it has set and developed a
large set of fruit and then the growth
seems to stop — that is, the new shoots;
the vines seeming to throw all the force
into the development of the fruit. This
trait seems to make it desirable in one
point, as it has not been so seriously at-
tacked by the melon aphis as the strains
that have plenty of young succulent
shoots.

This hybrid is the best early strain by
all odds. It is early as the Watters, and
almost as disease-enduring as the Pollock
strains; it is very prolific, and especially
so in producing a heavy yield of the first
early sets.

The flesh of this strain is green, the
netting exceptionally good; the canta-
loupes are rather inclined to be longer
in form than our other strains, and is
not quite as regular in size, yet its many
good qualities make it the most desirable
cantaloup to plant for early.

New Strains of Promise

Triple Hybrid No. 3. This melon has
an exceedingly heavy close netting, and
thick flesh, of a salmon tint at the cen-
ter, with a deep zone of emerald near the
rind. This cantaloup runs rather large,
but on account of its exceptionally attrac-
tive appearance, we believe it would be
valuable to market growers, especially
for local trade.

The Osage type of cantaloup that has
been grown for several years around Ord-
way, Colo., adjacent to the Rocky Ford
district, is becoming very popular on the
market on account of its exceptionally
good keeping quality, and its thick, or-
ange-colored flesh that has an exception-
ally spicy flavor which many are fond of.
But this variety has the weakness of hav-
ing a very unattractive form and appear-
ance, and a very undesirable tendency to
crack open when nearly ripe, thus result-
ing in a great loss to growers, and in
fact on this account this variety has not
been a success except in a few localities.

2—7

754

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

The following table gives the usual time of planting and the period of harvest
for the different districts.

District and State. Dates of Planting. Period of Ripening.

Brownsville, Texas Feb. 10 to 20 May 10 to June 10.

Gainesville, Fla Feb. 10 to 20 May 10 to June.

Imperial Valley, Calif Feb. 20 to March May 20 to July 1.

Lake Charles, La March 1 to 15 June 1 to July 1.

Northern Louisiana March 20 to April 20 June 20 to July 20.

Blackville, S. C April 1 to 15 June 15 to July 10.

1 to 20 July 1 to August 1.

1 to 10 July 1 to August 1.

1 to 20 July 5 to August 5.

1 to May July 10 to September.

April 1, in hot beds July 10 to August 20.

1 to 15 July 1 to August 1.

1 to 15 July 20 to August 10.

5 to 20 August 1 to 15.

5 to 15 August 1 to 20.

Knox Co., Tenn April 20 to May 20 July 20 to September.

Greenriver, Utah ^pril 20 to May July 25 to August 25.

Eastern Washington \pril 20 to May August 1 to September.

Medford, Oregon April 10 to May August 1 to September.

Parsonsburg, Md May 1 to 18 July 20 to August 15.

Northwest Arkansas May 1 to 15 July 20 to August 15.

Rocky Ford, Colo May 1 to June 1 August 5 to October 1.

St. Thomas, Pa May 10 to 20 August 25 to September 10.

Fredericksburg, Va May 10 August 10 to September 1.

King Hill, Idaho May 10 August 10 to September.

Michigan May 20 August 20 to September 20.

Belton, Ark April

Southern Mississippi April

Glendale, Ariz April

Atkoa, Okla Vpril

Decker, Ind.

Southwest Arkansas \pril

Moapa, Nev Vpril

Dover, Del April

Anna, 111 April

The above table is tentative.

It will be noted that there is a wide
range of differences in the time of ripen-
ing when cantaloupes are planted at
about the same time, due to the different
seasons, the climatic conditions, and the
soil, and these same differences make dif-
ferent results in the appearance and qual-
ity of the cantaloupes to quite an extent.
Philo K. Blinn

Canteloupes. Graue Riles. See under
Apple Packing.

CANTALOUP DISEASES

Anthracnose

The common anthracnose fungus of the
muskmelon (ColletotricUum lagenarium
Pass.) is the same as that of the cucum-
ber. It attacks the stems of plants of
all sizes as well as the leaves, resulting
in the lesions of the stem and dead spots
in the leaves. In these the fungus pro-
duces the fruiting bodies. After the
seedling stage is passed it is usually pos-
sible td keep the anthracnose in check
by the spraying as recommended for cu-
cumbers.

The fruit anthracnose of the musk-

melon (Colletotrichum oligochaetum
Cav.) is widely distributed. It forms
yellowish, diseased spots on the fruits
and may disfigure them considerable.
Thorough spraying with Bordeaux mix-
ture should hold it in check if begun on
the young fruits and repeated once or
twice at intervals.

Cladosporium

A fungus occasionally parasitic on
melons. It produces sunken spots on the
fruit and stems, usually during moist
weather. Under such circumstances the
fruiting stage of the fungus appears over
the fruits in an olive green color.

Downy Mildew

Plasmopara sp.

Downy mildew of muskmelon is caused
by the same plasmopara fungus as the
downy mildew of cucumbers. It does not
appear until toward the middle of Au-
gust, but is then very destructive, sweep-
ing rapidly over the melon fields and
leaving only devastation behind. In its
attacks the spots of the muskmelon leaves
are somewhat different in shape and usu-
ally of a darker color than in the case

CANTALOUP DISEASES— CANTALOUP PESTS

755

of the cucumber. One with experience
can readily distinguish by the use of an
ordinary liand glass. He will then see on
the underside of the leaf the violet spores
and spore-bearing threads of the mildew
fungus. The melons which are unripened
upon the vines when attacked by mildew
are practically worthless and for this rea-
son large losses are usually incurred. The
treatment is by Bordeaux mixture.

Muskmelon Leaf Blight

Alternaria sp.
Is a disease more or less peculiar to
the muskmelon, although the fungus
which causes it has also been found upon
cucumber leaves. The leaf blight causes
rather large dead areas in the leaves
which are usually distinguished from
those of downy mildew by their larger
size and the tendency of the central por-
tion to break out. The prevention of
muskmelon leaf blight is by no means
an easy matter, requiring of itself great
thoroughness and carefulness in the ap-
plication of the Bordeaux mixture and
also requiring that the downy mildew
shall be watched during the same period.
For this reason earlier sprayings, if made
before August 1st, should be repeated at
fortnightly intervals, while those after
August 1st should be at weekly or 10-day
intervals. Melon growei's have succeeded
by following these lines, while others
who were less thorough were less success-
ful, or failed entirely. The treatment is
recommended with confidence.

Wilt

Muskmelon wilts are the same in gen-
eral character as those described for the
cucumber. Not only the bacterial wilt
disease but the wilt due to fusarium has
developed upon muskmelons in some
parts. The symptoms are the same as
for cucumbers, namely: sudden wilting as
from lack of water, followed by dying.

Gather and burn infected vines and
practice rotation.

Root Rot

Rhizoctonia
The root diseases accompanied by rot-
ting of the rootlets and induced by the
sterile fungus of lettuce rosette is also
found on greenhouse muskmelons. This

is liable to be the case where these fol-
low diseased crops of lettuce. The pre-
vention is thorough soil treatment.
A. D. Selby,
Wooster. Ohio.

For other diseases affecting cucurbi-
tous crops, see Cucumber.

CA?fTALOUP PESTS

Canttaloiip Fly

Euxesta notata Wield., Family Ortalidae

General Appearance

The adult flies are slightly over one-
eighth of an inch long, beautiful metallic
green in color with eyes dark brown. The
wings are transparent with a distinct
black spot near the middle of the front
margin and a similar spot near the tip
of each. The maggots vary from white
to dusky brown, the blunt end being
often darker than the rest of the body.
They are about one-fourth of an inch
long when fully matured.

Life History

The eggs are laid in the tissues of in-
jured or damaged fruits and vegetables
and while the maggots work principally
upon such tissue they are often found
in sound and living portions and occa-
sionally in apparently uninjured fruits.
The pupae are found in the decayed hosts
or in the soil, the adults emerging in a
very short time. Due to the peculiar
habits of the larvae, they have often been
mistaken for the maggots of the true
fruit flies of the family Trypetidae and
have been the occasion of great alarm.

E. O. EssiG

White-Lined Sphinx

Celerio lineata Fab., Family Sphingidae
Deilephila lineata Fab.

General Appearance

This is a very common insect. The
adult moths are quite large, having a
wing expanse of nearly three and one-
half inches. The fore wings are green
with broad brown bands on the front and
apical margins and in the middle of each.
The veins are white. The hind wings
are very small, dark brown with a wide
lighter band across the middle of each.
The thorax is grayish with distinct white

756

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

lines, while the abdomen is dark green
marked with black and white spots. The
larvae are quite large, often more than
three inches long. The color varies con-
siderably, but is usually light green with
a row of spots along each side of the
back. The spiracles, just above the feet,
are margined with black and yellow. A
pale yellow line extends down the middle
of the back. The chrysalis is dark brown.

.Food Plants

The larvae of this species are so com-
mon as to be often mistaken for other
members of the family. They are usu-
ally found feeding upon the foliage of
the apple, grape, pear, melon and tomato
vines.

E. O. EssiG

Melon Aphis. See under Aphids.

For other pests of cantaloup and other
cucurbitous crops, see Cucumber.

Capillarity in Different Types of
Soil. See Soils.

Carlots, Cities in Which Fruits are
Sold in. See Reduction of Waste in
Marketing, market section.

Cars, How Diverted. See Reduction of
Waste in Marketing, in market section.

Carlot Markets. See Reduction of
Waste in Marketing, in market section.

Carob

The carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.)
is a native of the Eastern Mediterranean
countries and is widely grown in Italy,
especially in the southern part of the
peninsula and in Sicily, because of the
value of its pods as food for domestic
animals. The tree attains a large size,
sometimes reaching a height of 50 feet,
and in shape is much like a live oak. The
heavy dark green foliage, composed of
thick, leathery, rounded leaves arranged
on each side of a stem, as in the common
locust, affords an abundance of excellent
shade in hot weather. The tree resists
drouth and grows readily on rocky hill-
sides where it is impossible to irrigate
and where the soil is poor and scarce. At
the same time, it is appreciative of good
rich soil, and grows larger and more sym-
metrical under favorable conditions. The

bark of the carob is rather smooth on the
larger limbs, and light gray in color,
but on the smaller branches, that is,
those which are from three to five years
old, there are numbers of roughened
knots, giving these branches a diseased
appearance. But on examination it will
be found that all the pods are borne on
these branches, and that the knots are
the places where the fruiting stems of
the previous year or two were attached.
These stems fall off with the pods, and
the knots disappear in the course of two
or three years.

The fruit of the carob, as I have said,
is in the form of pods, very similar in
appearance to bean pods, and called by
the Germans St. John's bread. In the
spring the young pods, hanging in clus-
ters from the branches, look exactly like
string beans, being of the same shape
and color. Later they become broad like
the pods of lima beans and when ripe
they are broad and flattened and are two
or three inches long and nearly an inch
wide. By this time they have become a
dark chocolate color and consist of a
rather soft shell, nearly filled with a
reddish, saccarine flesh, imbedded in
which are a number of dark red, flattened
seeds. The ripe pods are heavy, and con-
tain about 65 per cent of gum and sugar,
making excellent food for sheep and hogs,
particularly when it is desired to fatten
these animals. They are also fed to cat-
tle and horses at the rate of about six
pounds a day, the pods being crushed and
fed either raw or boiled. The seeds
germinate readily if fertile, but there
must be a number of trees growing near
each other and bees must be plentiful to
insure fertility. In Southern Italy and
particularly in Sicily, the pods are used
as food by the people, and the children
among the lower classes eat them as they
would candy. The ripe pods are either
boiled or roasted, and are sold on the
streets everywhere, where one may buy
a dozen or more for a cent. They have
a sweetish, slightly bitter taste, and ai'e
somewhat astringent. In the cooked state
they are undoubtedly healthful and very
nourishing.

CAROB— CARROTS— CARROT DISEASES

757

The carob tree is one of the necessi-
ties, almost, of tlie average Italian farm-
er. It gives him and his stock ample pro-
tection against the hot summer sun; its
pods are food for the animals, and for
himself as well, if necessary; and it does
not demand rich soil. It is most fre-
quently planted where little else will
grow, in rocky land or about the edges
of gardens or olive groves, and with its
sturdy form and thick, heavy leaves it
withstands perfectly the hot dry Sicilian
summers.

E. J. Newcombek,
In the Califoi-uia Cultivator.

Carrots

The carrot grows wild in the fields and
on the roadsides of Great Britain and
the seashores of the North Temperate
zone of the Old World. It resembles the
cultivated carrot, except in the root,
which is thin and woody. However this
wild carrot is the parent of the cultivated
varieties.

Carrots vary considerably in the
length, shape and color of their roots,
and in the proportion of rind to core. The
White Belgian, which gives the largest
crops, has a very thick root which is
white, becoming pale green above, where
it projects above the ground. For nutrit-
ive purposes, it is inferior to the red
varieties. The carrot succeeds best on a
light sandy soil, which should be well
drained and deeply trenched. If not
naturally fertile the ground should be
well prepared and heavily manured, in
the autumn or winter. For the long-
rooted sorts, the soil should be at least
three feet deep; but for the shorter
rooted varieties a soil of less depth is
sufficient.

Growing Carrots

For the early crop sow the seed as
early in spring as the ground can be
worked in rows 10 to 12 inches apart if
hand cultivated, and 18 to 24 inches if
cultivated with a horse. About two
pounds of seed are required per acre.
Cover the seed about one inch deep. It
is advisable to mix in a few radish seed
to help locate the rows, since the carrot

seed germinates slowly, and cultivation
to keep down weeds is frequently neces-
sary before the young carrots make their
appearance. When the plants are well up
they should be thinned to stand two to
three inches apart in the row. Frequent
shallow cultivation should be given with
some light implement throughout the sea-
son. Late varieties for stock may be
sown the latter part of May or as late
as the middle of June in the Northern
states. The plant makes its best growth
in the cool weather of fall.

The crop is harvested usually by hand
pulling and topping. The work of pulling
is often facilitated by running a plow
alongside the rows to loosen them. Where
the half-long varieties are grown they
can frequently be plowed out. From 200
to 300 bushels per acre is a good yield.
The roots may be stored in pits or in the
cellar like potatoes. There is a consid-
erable amount of hand labor in the cul-
ture of carrots, which makes their growth
relatively expensive.

Besides the use of carrots as a table
vegetable they form a favorite succulent
food for horses and dairy cows. Foreign
experiments show that for stock feeding
purposes carrots are about equal to other
roots. The agricultural experiment sta-
tions in this country have reported but
few experiments with this crop as a stock
food. Except for the purpose of variety
in the diet it will probably be economy to
grow other larger yielding root crops,
like mangels and rutabagas.

Granville Lowtheb

Carrots ix Alaska. See Alaska.

CARROT DISEASES

Leaf Spot

(Cercospora Apii Fres.)
Same fungus as causes celery leaf spot.
See under Celery Diseases.

Root Rot or Rbizoctoria

Corticium vagum B. & C. Var.

Solani Burt.

Same as potato root rot, which see.

Soft Rot

Bacillus carotovorous Jones
One of the commonest bacilli parasitic
upon plants. It produces a soft rot on

758

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

many vegetables. Avoid planting infected
seed and planting in infected soil.

CARROT PESTS

Carrot Beetle

Ligyrus gibbosus, Dej.

Common along the Atlantic coast and
occurs as far west as Illinois. Called
also the sunflower beetle on account of
its attack on this plant. It is injurious
to parsnip, celery and sweet potato.

The beetle is one-half to five-eighths of
an inch long and robust.

Rotate the crops, permit the chickens
to follow after the plow in the fall and
in case of severe infestations, turn the
hogs into the field.

Literature

Division Entomological Bulletin No. 33,
New Series.

Carrot Rust Fly

Psila rosae Fab.

Imported into Canada, whence it has
spread into New York. A very minute
fly measuring about one-sixteenth of an
Inch. Produces a reddish appearance on
the leaves of the young plants and rusty
blotches on the roots. The stored roots
are sometimes infested with the larvae.

Rotation of crops is advised, but the
same fly attacks celery, hence this plant
should be excluded from the rotation.

Spray with kerosene emulsion one part
to 10 of water, or sprinkle sand, ashes or
land plaster mixed in the kerosene along
the rows. Make these applications once
a week through June.

Literature

Division Entomological Bulletin No. 33,
New Series.

Celery Caterpillar. See under Celery.

Parsnip Louse. See under Parsnip.

Catch Crops. See Apple Orchard Cover
Crops.

Cauliflower

The cauliflower belongs to the cabbage
family and was introduced into Europe
from Cyprus and the Mediterranean coast.
It is one of the most delicately flavored
of vegetables and is much more delicate
in its growth than the cabbage. It is
less resistant to heat and cold, and re-

quires more care than the cabbage; but
under proper conditions, is one of the
most valuable of vegetables, bringing a
good price in the markets. It forms a
dense cluster of incipient flower buds
which are the edible portion of the plant.
It succeeds best in a rich soil and shel-
tered position. It is propagated like the
cabbage and given similar care; except
that when the head begins to form, the
large outside leaves should be pulled over
it and fastened together at the top in
order to prevent injury from the hot sun-
shine.

As a crop, they ripen somewhat irreg-
ularly and, as the period of frost ap-
proaches the immature heads should be
pulled with roots and leaves and be
planted in a cold cellar or cold frame
where many of them will form salable
heads.

There are many varieties; but perhaps
the most desirable are the Snowball and
Early Dwarf Erfurt.

The insect enemies are the same as
those of the cabbage.

Being of the same nature as the cab-
bage, and requiring similar treatment, we
refer our readers to the article under
that heading.

Granville Lowtheb

CAULIFLOWER DISEASES

For the most part cauliflower is affect-
ed by the same characteristic diseases as
cabbage. They will be found treated un-
der cabbage.

Riciug

This is not a disease but is a trouble
caused by the starting into growth of the
flower heads, usually after a rain follow-
ing a dry spell. It injures the appear-
ance but not the quality of the head.

The trouble is corrected by cultivation
so as to preserve a good dust mulch dur-
ing dry periods.

Soft Rot or Stump Rot

Bacillus carotovorous Jones
A common soft rot of vegetables and a
most serious one to cauliflower, appear-
ing at its worst in seasons of hot, damp
weather. The bacillus is a wound para-
site but the manner of its spread is un-

CAULIFLOWER— CELERY

759

known. It spreads very rapidly at times.
The center of the stem and head usually
rot first so that the plant may be beyond
recovery before the presence of the dis-
ease is detected. The odor arising from
the decaying heads is very repulsive.
Rotation seems to be the only remedy.

Literature

Cornell Bulletin No. 292.

CAULIFLOWER PESTS

The pests of cauliflower are common to
the cabbage and will be found treated
under cabbage.

Cauliflower, How Grown ix Al.^ska.
See Alaska.

Celery .

More and more celery is growing into
favor as a garden vegetable. It grew
wild in England, beside the ditches, in
marshy places, in swamps, especially near
the sea, producing a furrowed stalk, with
compound leaves and wedge-shaped leaf-
lets. In its native state, the plant has a
coarse, rank taste and peculiar smell.

By cultivation and blanching the stalks
lose their acrid qualities and assume a
mild, sweet, aromatic taste peculiar to
celery as a salad plant.

Propagation

Celery is grown from seed, sown either
in a hotbed or in the open garden, accord-
ing to the season of the year, and after
one or two thinnings out and transplant-
ings they are, on attaining the height of
six or eight inches, planted out in deep
trenches convenient for blanching. The
blanching process is one of the most im-
portant in the production of celery, and
consists in "earthing up," or drawing the
earth around the plant to exclude the
light.

Soils Best Adapted

Celery is a native of the swamps, gen-
erally adjacent to the sea. Since the
draining of the swamp lands near the
Great Lakes, large areas of those sections
are adapted to the growing of celery. In
this industry perhaps Michigan takes the
lead. However, in the arid regions, where
irrigation is practiced, celery can be
grown anywhere and the soils too wet

for most other crops, and too strong in

alkali, may be used for the growing of

celery, and in this manner the "seepage

lands" utilized for a very profitable crop.

Celery has been successfully grown on

lands that in the winter were white with

alkali.

Granville Lowther

For Culture in Alaska, see Alaska.

Growing Celery in an Irrigated Section

*J. L. Reid, Colorado Experiment Sta-
tion, writes as follows:

Varieties

In commercial growing only two vari-
eties are being used at the present time
to any great extent. These are the Golden
Self-blanching for the early market, and
Giant Pascal for the late market. These
supply all that the present market re-
quires, for by proper methods, Golden
Self-blanching can be put on the market
from early August until the Giant Pascal
is ready and this latter can be held as
long as it is profitable to keep it in stor-
age. The Golden Self-blanching is not as
crisp and tender nor of as good quality
as the Giant Pascal, but owing to its
earliness, the ease with which it is
blanched and the fact that so much more
can be grown to an acre, it is far the
more important in respect to the amount
grown. Pascal celery does not come onto
the market until about the first of No-
vember and we are entirely dependent on
the self-blanching up to that time.

Seed

Most of the seed is procured from
American dealers, but the growers nearly
always ask for French grown seed, be-
cause in that country the seed is usually
more carefuliy selected. A few growers
have sometimes grown their own seed
and obtained excellent results by its use.
Sometimes a grower will raise enough
seed one year to last him several seasons,
preferring to do this rather than use
seed bought from unknown sources.
Owing to failures as the result of poor
seed, the use of home grown seed would
be more than justified, even though it
cost more.

* Bulletin 144. Coloi-ado Experiment Station.

760

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Vitality of seed is quite variable, so it
is impossible to figure the number of
plants which may be procured from a
given amount. It is estimated in buying
seed that one can count on 2,500 plants
per ounce of seed, but this is very con-
servative, for some growers get as high
as 25,000 stocky plants per ounce when
they have good seed. The number of
plants suitable for planting depends upon
the vitality of the seed and the care of
the grower. It is the practice to sow
enough seed to secure more plants than
will be needed and then select the best
of these. Very often a surplus stock can
be sold at a good profit, and it is also
advisable to have extra plants for re-
setting in case of damage to young plants
by drought or hailstorm.

Baisiiig the Plants

Celery seed is very slow in gei^minat-
ing and sometimes great difficulty is ex-
perienced in getting a good stand of
plants. Here is where the gardener must
ever be on the alert. The seed bed and
young plants must never be allowed to
become dried out, and yet water must
not be allowed to stand on the surface.
The young plants are very tender, and a
fine spray should be used in watering
them. The seed is sown broadcast in
the beds or sometimes in very shallow
drills four or six inches apart. The seed
should be covered very lightly, if at all.
Germination will take place in about
three weeks.

The Golden Self-blanching celery is
usually sown between March 1st and 15th
in mild hotbeds from which have been
taken one or two crops of radishes or
lettuce. These beds are made with about
one foot of manure, over which is spread
between six and 12 inches of soil, and
the whole is covered with glass sash. By
the time one or two crops of lettuce have
been taken from a bed, the manure does
not give a strong heat, but just enough
to protect on frosty nights. If one de-
sires this celery for the August market,
it is quite necessary that some artificial
heat of this sort be given the seed bed,
but fresh beds should be used only with
great care or the plants will not be

strong. For later sowing of the seeds,
frames simply covered with sash may be
used.

The Pascal celery is mostly sown be-
tween April 1st and 15th in frames under
cloth, although a great deal is sown in
the open ground. The advantages of
growing under cloth are that the soil is
kept from dying out and the young plants
are protected from extremes of tempera-
ture. It is not considered profitable to
transplant celery, so it is left in the orig-
inal beds until ready for setting in the
field, although much more stocky plants
may be secured by giving an extra shift.
When the plants are grown in hotbeds,
as many as 8,000 are sometimes raised
under a three by six foot sash. However,
when less expensive beds are used, it is
better to use more room, as one thus
gets far stockier plants. Many growers
sow one-fourth ounce of seed to one sash
three by six feet, but this crowds the
plants somewhat. It is very important
that the plants be carefully "hardened
off." This is done by gradually getting
them accustomed to the wind and sun.
The sash is raised more and more each
pleasant day until the plants can stand
to be entirely uncovered. It is very im-
portant that they should never be al-
lowed to become cold enough to be frosted
as this no doubt is one of the principal
causes of going to seed.

Several methods are in use for making
the plants stocky. Transplanting has al-
ready been mentioned, but this is an ex-
pensive process. Clipping the tops off
lightly once or twice while in the beds
is practiced to quite an extent. A few
growers have a knife so mounted on
wheels that it can be run under the
plants, so as to cut off the tap root, thus
causing more side roots to develop.

Setting of Plants in the Field

When the ground has been thoroughly
prepared and danger of frost is over, the
plants may be set in the field. If an
early crop is desired it is, of course,
necessary that the plants be set early, so
as to give them as much time as possible
to get their full growth. If the plants
are crowded in the seed bed, it is a good

CELERY

761

practice to thin them and use the plants
removed for the first setting. This gives
the remaining plants a better chance.

A small furrow is made and the irri-
gating water is turned into it. This set-
tles the soil and puts it in good condition
for setting the plants. After the water
has seeped out of the ditch it is the plan
of most growers to run a small stream
into the furrow again. The surface of
the water this second time leaves a line
along the edge of the furrow and the
plants are set along this line, thus mak-
ing them all at the same level. In this
way none of the young plants are covered
when irrigated, and yet all are close to
the water. Where self-blanching is grown,
a row is set on each side of the furrow,
making two rows about 12 inches apart.
"Where Giant Pascal is raised, plants are
set only on one side of the furrow, and
that on the south side if the furrows run
east and west, so that the plants may
escape the reflection of the sun's rays
from the water. The furrows are made
about four feet apart. The plants are
set from six to eight inches apart in the
row. With single rows four feet apart,
plants eight inches apart in the row,
16,710 plants would be required per acre;
with plants six inches apart in the row,
21,780 plants would be used per acre.
When self-blanching is grown in double
rows, just double this number of plants
would be used. It is well to have an
abundance of plants so that later on any
vacant places may be filled.

The beds are watered very thoroughly
before removing the plants for setting,
and then the plants may be pulled out
singly by the roots if it is desired to thin
the beds somewhat. The plants are ar-
ranged in bunches which can be held
conveniently in the left hand. They are
put in a box over which is thrown a wet
sack to protect from the sun while being
carried to the field. In setting, some
simply lay a plant on the first finger of
the right hand and stick it into the mud
on the side of the furrow; others, where
the soil is heavier, make a hole in the
soil with a pointed dibble held in the
right hand and place a plant in the hole

with the left, the dibble then being stuck
into the soil beside the plant to close the
hole. It is a good plan to wet the roots
with puddled mud just before starting to
set a handful. There is quite a knack
and a whole lot of hard work in setting,
but it can be learned much more quickly
by watching a good workman and by do-
ing it oneself than by reading how to
do it.

Ciiltiyation
Since celery is transplanted to fields
which are clean of weeds, the plants have
the start of the weeds. However, it is
generally necessary to give one or two
hand weedings. A wheel hoe is used
once or twice, and four or more cultiva-
tions are given with the horse and a
harrow-tooth cultivator in the wide
spaces. Some make a practice of culti-
vating once a week during the growing
season. Those who blanch with dirt often
use a five-tooth cultivator the last time
or two, so setting the teeth as to throw
some dirt toward the rows.

Irrigation

Concerning irrigation, each grower has
his own ideas as the result of his expe-
rience under his particular conditions.
Some do not irrigate more than two or
three times during the season. Others
irrigate nearly every week, commencing
at the time of setting. On sandy, well-
drained soils it is necessary to irrigate
very often. One must use liis own judg-
ment, always remembering that celery
grows in swamps in its natural condition
and, therefore, cannot stand drought.

During the growing season the water
is run in the furrows which were made
at the time of setting the plants. If
double rows are used, as soon as the crop
has a good start this furrow will be com-
pletely hid by the tops of the plants, but
the water will still follow the ditches in
good shape if they have been kept clean
of weeds. Since the ditch at this time
is shaded by the plants, the soil dries
out less rapidly and does not bake so
badly.

Blanching

Blanching consists in so excluding the
light that tender stalks free from color-

762

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ing matter may be obtained. Self-blanch-
ing varieties for the early market are
blanched entirely with boards. The bank-
ing of celery high with earth during the
hot summer days sometimes hurts the
crop. Blanching with boards keeps the
celery cleaner, but is quite expensive,
owing to the great cost of lumber, so it
is generally practiced only for a part of
the early crop. Boards 12 to 14 inches
wide by any convenient length, usually
16 feet, are used. It takes about 20,000
feet of lumber to blanch an acre at one
time, but since during the warm part of
the year the blanching will be completed
in about three weeks, the boards may be
used to blanch a second lot. If the
boards are carefully piled each year so
they will not warp and are protected
from the weather in some way, they will
last many years. Some use wire hooks
to hold the boards together instead of
using stakes.

By far the largest part of the croi) eac!)
year is blanched by means of earth. One
horse is used on a celery hiller, which
runs between the rows and throws the
dirt against the plants. It is generally
necessary to run this machine through
twice in order to do a good job, and
sometimes two horses must be used tan-
dem to pull the hiller. Some growers
like to finish the earthing with shovels
or hand tools, but this adds to the ex-
pense. The celery hiller has iron rods
so fixed as to lift the leaves out of the
way so they will not become covered
with earth. About four weeks are neces-
sary for blanching with earth in the
field.

For later use a great deal of celery is
left to grow in the field as long as there
is no danger of frost, and then removed
to trenches for blanching. Giant Pascal
is either blanched in this way or is partly
blanched in the field by means of "paper-
ing," and then removed to the trenches.
A great deal of self-blanching is also
blanched in trenches. The celery is re-
moved from the row, without trimming
the roots too closely, and put into long,
narrow trenches, so that about two-thirds
of the plant will be below the level of

the ground. From 12 to 18 inches is as
wide as the trenches should be made, for.
if too large quantities are stored to-
gether, there is danger of loss from heat-
ing. The tops of the plants are covered
with light material only as there is dan-
ger of freezing. When extreme cold
weather comes, earth must be used for
protection. Careful watch must be kept
to see that the celery does not spoil from
being covered too deeply, and yet, if it is
allowed to become frozen to any great
extent, it will be unsalable. As soon as
the plants are set in the trench, water
is turned in and a thorough irrigation is
given. This will usually furnish enough
moisture for the crop until it is reaay
for the market. If, as is often the case
with Giant Pascal, the celery is not dug
until late and is to be kept far into the
winter, a second or a third irrigation may
be necessary in dry seasons.

There is a limited market for "papered"
Giant Pascal celery. By this is meant
the wrapping of each plant in paper dur-
ing the latter part of the growing season.
This work is commenced in August, and
boys are usually hired to do it at two
and one-half cents per dozen plants
wrapped. Old daily papers are used, and
one string holds the paper in place. It
is important that this work be postponed
until the celery is high enough so that
the tops of the leaves will be above the
paper after wrapping. Old papers can be
bought for $8 or $10 per ton. As soon as
there is danger of frost the celery is dug,
put in trenches, and handled in the same
way as the other; but has however the
advantage of being cleaner and is already
partly blanched.

Storing
Since the California and Florida crops
get onto the market during the winter
and spring, it has not been found profit-
able in northern sections to store celery
for any great length of time.

Harvesting and Marketing

Where only a small area is devoted to
celery, the plants are usually loosened
from the ground by means of a spade.
The roots are cut off and the plant is
laid to one side. Where the acreage is

CELERY

763

larger, especially where soil is used en-
tirely for blanching, a celery digger is
used. Different styles of home-made ma-
chines are being used for this purpose,
but the principle of them all is to run an
edged tool just under the plant, thus cut-
ting off the root so it can be taken up by
hand.

Golden Self-blanching celery is usually
"shipped in the rough." A few of the
outside leaves are removed and the celery
is packed directly into crates. The num-
ber of dozen plants in the crate is marked
on the outside, the side of the crate is
nailed, and the crate is ready for the car.
These crates are usually 20x22 inches by
24 inches deep. The top is entirely open,
except for a strip along each edge. When
celery is to be packed for "shipment in
the rough," one of the other sides is left
open so that the plants may be packed
in from the side. The remaining side is
then nailed on and the celery is thus held
securely in place. A crate will hold from
four to seven dozen of celery, according
to its size at the time of marketing.

Celery Growing in a Humid Section

*C. P. Halligan, of the Michigan Ex-
periment Station, makes the following
suggestions on celery culture for that
section:

The distance to plant celery depends
much upon the variety, season, methods
of blanching and intensiveness practiced.
Where celery is to be blanched by boards,
the rows may be set from 18 inches to
three feet apart while celery which is to
be blanched with soil is commonly set
from four to six feet apart. At Kala-
mazoo and Muskegon, where early celery
is grown, the first planting is set in rows
about three feet apart and the second
crop is planted later between these rows.
Sometimes only every alternate row is
thus interplanted at first but a late crop
is afterward set in the vacant places.
This will leave a space of six feet for
blanching the last crop with soil. When
a summer crop is grown alone and the
celery is to be blanched with boards, the
rows are set from 18 inches to two feet

Distance
between

rows
18 inches

2 feet

3 feet

4 feet

5 feet

5 feet

6 feet
6 feet

Distance
between
plants
4 inciies
4 inches
4 inches
4 Inches

4 inclies
ti inches
t) inches

5 inches

Number

of
plants
87,000
65,240
4.3,560
32.670
26,136
17.424
14,510
10,881

* Bulletin 60, Michigan Experiment Station.

apart. In other sections, where land is
less valuable and the culture less inten-
sive, the rows are planted from three to
four feet apart thus permitting horse
cultivation. In outlying sections, where
larger areas are handled, the cost of pro-
duction will be less if planted at about
this distance.

The distance the plants are set in the
row is also more or less variable but
three plants to a foot is the general rule
in this state. Giant Pascal and other
large growing varieties are usually sef
six inches apart while some growers even
prefer a space of eight inches for this
variety.

Table of Plants Required per Acre

Lumber
required for
blanching
58,000 sq. ft.
43,500 sq. ft.
29,000 sp. ft.
21,750 sq. ft.
Earth
Earth
Earth
Earth

One ounce of seed should produce at least
10,000 plants.

Cultivation

Celery must be kept continuously grow-
ing if stalks of high quality are desired.
Although an excessive feeder, demanding
plenty of plant food and moisture, the
plant has a very shallow root system.
Therefore, constant but shallow cultiva-
tion is absolutely required to produce
good crops. As soon as the plants are
set in the fields, the rows should be cul-
tivated, being especially careful not to
throw any soil over the hearts of the
plants. Hand hoeing may be necessary
between the plants. Cultivation must be
then given after every rain and as often
otherwise as it is necessary to maintain
a fine dust mulch over the soil. This
will prevent the moisture of the soil from
passing off into the air and in addition
to keeping the roots well supplied with
water, it will prevent the roots from
working deeper into the soil where the
supply of air is not so plentiful and the
production of plant food not so rapid.
Constant cultivation induces a larger and
better quality of growth by preserving

764

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the soil moisture and keeping the roots
near the surface where the plant food is
liberated more I'apidly.

As the surface of the soil in cultivating
should not be thrown up in ridges but
kept as smooth and fine as possible, a
small-toothed cultivator should be used in
preference to the larger shovel tooth
types.

About the Kalamazoo section, the crop
is planted in rows too close to permit
horse cultivation and the fields are
worked with hand cultivators. These are
especially desirable for cultivating the
crop as they permit stirring the soil very
close to the plant without danger of in-
jury by deep cultivation.

Marketing

The marketing of the celery crop starts
in this state about the first of July and
continues more or less steadily until mid-
winter. The harvesting season of the
various celery districts in Michigan come
at such times that one district does not
enter into serious competition with an-
other in the general markets. The Kal-
amazoo, Muskegon and Grand Haven dis-
tricts, for example, grow early celeiT,
starting their marketing about the first of
July and continue until some time in
October. Even these sections hardly com-
pete with each other, as the Grand Haven
and Muskegon crops are shipped across
the lake to Chicago, or Milwaukee, while
the Kalamazoo crop is sold largely in
other cities, being expressed to points all
over the United States. During the fall,
the other districts, at Decatur, Vriesland,
Hudsonville and other smaller sections
where the crop is grown more extensively,
begin shipping and aim to dispose of most
of their crop before severe freezing
weather. A small portion of this crop in
these districts is trenched in the field, but
is generally disposed of before mid-winter
when the California product enters the
market.

Harvesting

Celery may be harvested as soon as it
attains the proper size and is well
blanched. With the earliest crop, to gain
the advantages of a high market, it is
frequently cut slightly before this time

and it often pays better under these cir-
cumstances than to wait for the crop to
fully blanch and mature. If the plants
are left too long after they have matured,
they lose their crispness and flavor and
are apt to become diseased.

When the crop is harvested during the
summer months and is to be shipped long
distances, the plants should be cut and
carried to the packing shed early in the
morning. In the Kalamazoo district, this
work is all performed before 7 o'clock in
the morning. The boards used for blanch-
ing are removed only as fast as necessary
and laid between the rows to serve as a
walk. If the plants are left exposed to
the sun and wind, they lose their firm-
ness and are apt to wilt, hence the boards
are removed only as fast as the celery is
cut. Using a stiff knife or spading
shovel, the roots are cut a short distance
below the surface of the soil and the
plants laid in small piles along the
boards. As the packing shed is generally
nearby, wheelbarrows are used to gather
the plants as fast as they are cut, and
they are carried at once to the packing
house. Where this building is more dis-
tant or the operations more extensive,
wagons are used and the plants covered
with canvas on the way to the packing
house.

After reaching the packing house, the
plants are trimmed by removing the
outer leaves and cutting the roots to a
more or less conical shape with a flat
point near the base of the plant. They
are then thoroughly washed in clean cold
water which helps to keep them in a firm,
fresh condition. After being allowed to
thoroughly drain for some time, they are
tied into round bunches containing 12
good sized plants. In early July, when
the plants are rather small, 13 or 14 of
them are sometimes necessary to make a
good sized bunch.

Generally the only grading practiced by
the growers consists in discarding the
smallest plants or "culls" and bunching
all the marketable sized plants together.
Some growers practice more rigid grad-
ing, selecting the largest and best plants,
bunching separately and shipping these

CELERY

765

to a special market. The smallest plants
are sold locally and seldom pay to pack
and ship.

In bunching celery, a board about a
foot long and eight to 10 inches wide is
nailed along the upper edge of the pack-
ing bench, with a semi-circular piece cut
out along the upper side of it large
enough to hold the bases of 12 good sized
plants which, when placed in it can be
quickly tied into a round bunch. Extra
stout white string is used, making one
tie around the base of the plants and one
near the tops.

Many of the more careful packers of
summer shipments are now wrapping
each bunch separately, with heavy brown
paper, using open crates. This tends to
prevent the heating of the celery in long
shipments during hot weather and will
undoubtedly be used more as its ad-
vantages become appreciated. However,
most of shipments are made in tight
crates which are lined with heavy wrap-
ping paper. The size of the several crates
used varies considerably throughout the
state but the following is a list of the
common sizes used at Kalamazoo:

Sizes of Kalamazoo Celery Crates

Inches Inches

fix Nx24 6x24x24

6x10x24 6x26x24

6x12x24 6x28x24

6x16x14 10x10x24

6x^1 Sx24 10x18x24

6x20x24 10x20x24

6x22x24 10x24x24
10x26x24

In the other celery districts of the state
the crates are quite different in form and
the celery frequently packed loose in the
crates. The following are the sizes gen-
rally used :

Inches

Inches

6x12x20

10x10x18

6x12x22

10x10x20

6x18x22

10x10x22

At Decatur much of the crop is shipped
in the rough. When shipped in this man-
ner some of the roots are left on the
plants and only a few of the outside
leaves removed. The celery is then
packed in large open crates, being
trimmed and bunched in the storage
houses of the cities by the commission
dealers before being delivered to the re-
tailers. Shipping in this manner enables
the growers to handle and ship their crop

while the weather is favorable and the
crop is placed in a fresh, crisp condition
upon the market.

Storing

Although most of the celery in Michi-
gan is sold before freezing weather,
about Hudsonville, Vriesland and some
other sections, large quantities of it are
stored for early winter. Many market
gardeners about the cities of the state
dealing with a special or local market
also store this crop.

When the crop is to be sold in late fall
it may be simply banked as high as pos-
sible with soil and the tops covered with
straw, to protect the plants from light
freezes. Celery that is to be stored for
early winter is usually trenched. This
consists of digging a trench about a foot
deep in the field between the celery rows,
into which the plants are closely set, so
that the tops are not more than two
inches above the ground. The trench
may be dug by hand or by plowing out
a double furrow, and the plants should
be lifted from the rows while the foliage
is dry, with some soil clinging to the
roots. A protection of some sort must
then be provided. When blanching
boards are at hand they may be nailed
together in a V form and placed over
the trenches. If the weather then turns
warm after trenching, they may be slight-
ly raised with blocks or stones, for venti-
lation. As it gets colder a light furrow
of soil may be turned against the base
of the boards, and later, the boards cov-
ered with manure to protect the plants.
If boards are not available the plants
may be covered with hay or straw, until
danger of severe freezing, when they may
be further protected with manure.

The storing of celery in this state for
late winter is generally unprofitable, and
hence it will seldom pay to erect a celery
storehouse for this purpose. Storage pits,
vacant hot beds or cellars are often satis-
factory for storing this crop. In fact, it
may be stored in any place where the
plants may be kept cool and moist, with-
out danger of freezing and where
thorough ventilation may be given, espe-
cially during warm weather.

766

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Diseases

Celery as grown in Michigan is not as
susceptible to injury of fungus diseases
as in many other sections of the country.
The comparatively cool, moist days of the
growing season are especially favorable
for the production of healthy, vigorous
plants, but in seasons that are unusually
warm, these diseases often become very
injurious and sometimes ruin entire
crops.

Danipiug-Off
RMzoctonia

This is the most serious disease of the
celery plants while in the seed bed. Dur-
ing the first two weeks after the seedlings
appear, it is especially apt to attack the
plants. This disease causes a decay on
the main stem or root just at the surface
of the soil, which quickly kills the young
seedling. During warm moist weather it
is apt to be very injurious, spreading
rapidly throughout the bed. In the green-
house, too much heat, lack of ventila-
tion, and watering the plants on dark
cloudy days, or late in the afternoon, all
tend to promote this disease. Thorough
ventilation, plenty of light, judicious care
in watering, in general, keeping the plants
on the "dry side," tend to prevent this
disease.

Early Celery Blight
Cercospora apii

A common disease of celery infecting
the foliage early in the season. It first
appears as well defined spots on the leaves
that soon become so numerous as to cause
the leaves to turn yellow and finally die.
On the dead leaves the disease multi-
plies very rapidly and soon spreads to the
other plants. It does not generally ap-
pear late in the season, but plants weak-
ened by this disease are often afterwards
attacked by the late blight. Spraying
the plants with Bordeaux mixture, as
recommended for the late blight will con-
trol this disease, the early spraying be-
ing especially important.

Late Celery Blight

Septoria jietroselini
Of the diseases affecting celery this is
generally the most common and serious
one. It first appears in late summer or

early fall as irregular rusty brown spots
on the outside leaves, spreading under
favorable conditions over the entire leaf
surface and to other leaves of the plants,
causing a burned appearance to the foli-
age in a very short while. During un-
usually warm, moist weather in the grow-
ing season, or after the crop is stored,
this disease proves very destructive.
Plants set upon poorly drained land or
plants stunted or weakened by any other
means are especially susceptible to it. If
the plants are kept growing vigorously
and well cultivated they are not as sus-
ceptible to it, and are generally able to
withstand its effects. However, when the
blight has become well established upon
the plants it is then too late to apply ef-
fective remedial measures. The disease
may be prevented also by spraying the
plants with Bordeaux mixture,* using the
5-5-50 formula, or the ammoniacal car-
bonate of copper spray, beginning when
the plants are small, spraying once be-
fore lifting them from the seed beds, and
continuing the spraying every ten days
or two weeks until the plants are ready
to blanch by boards. The success of this
work will depend largely upon the
thoroughness with which the foliage of
the plants is covered, as it is important
that all portions of the plant be reached
by this spray. All diseased plants and
refuse left in the field after harvesting
should be carried from the land, rather
than to turn it under with its spores of
this disease to cause another infection the
following season. When conditions will
permit, rotation of crops will prove very
desirable, devoting the land to cabbages,
onions, peppermint or some other suit-
able crop for two or more years until
the land is free of these spores.

Insects Affecting the Celery Plant*

The celery plant is by no means im-
mune to insect attack. It is preyed on
by many of the garden pests, army worms,
cut worms, the zebra caterpillar, the cel-
ery looper and by a number of other cater-
pillars. Besides these are several suck-
ing insects, plant lice, leaf hoppers, a

* For details of spraying send to Michigan
Experiment Station for bulletin on spraying-

CELERY— CELERY DISEASES

767

negro-bug and a thrips. Most conspicu-
ous of all is the parsley caterpillar,
which worlds also on carrots, caroway,
fennel and other plants of the same
family — a naked caterpillar nearly two
inches long, green or yellow in color,
with transverse black bands, and spotted
with yellow. When disturbed, the larva
protrudes a Y-shaped yellow horn, from
which emanates a sickening odor, pre-
sumably distasteful to birds and other
enemies. The adult is the common black,
parsley swallow-tail butterfly, a beautiful
velvet black butterfly having long swal-
low-tails, and marked by rows of yellow
spots.

Control of these insects will depend
on their feeding habits. Grasshoppers
should be killed by Griddle mixture,
which is poisoned and slightly salted
horse manure. Flea beetles may be driv-
en away or killed by arsenate of lead,
while the plants are small, that being the
time when most injury is done. Cut
worms like poisoned bran, made by mix-
ing thoroughly, one pound of Paris green
with fifty pounds of dry bran and then
moistening it with a little molasses and
water. The zebra caterpillar can be
usually hand-picked profitably, as well as
the parsley caterpillar: The plant lice
and negro bugs should respond to a spray-
ing with strong tobacco tea or with one
of the nicotine extracts. This is true
also of the thrips.

The leaf hoppers will be driven away
by such a spray, but they will return
after it evaporates. For the latter, a reg-
ular practice of clean culture, and the
burning of all rubbish, after cold weather
has set in, will gradually get rid of them,
especially if this treatment be extended
over a wide area. Many noxious insects
winter in rubbish, fallen leaves, along
hedges, etc.

R. H. Pettit,
Entomologist of Mich. Exp. Sta.

CELERY DISEASES

Bad Seed
There is scarcely a more vital question
in celery growing than that of the qual-
ity of seed used. Seed that is of a bad
strain though true to varietal name, may

inflict losses of hundreds or thousands of
dollars on large growers. Hollow celery,
or that otherwise useless, according to
present knowledge is very often due to
the bad seed.

Black Root
Found on plants in seed beds.

Damping' Off

This trouble is caused by a fungus
which follows careless watering while
the plants are very small, attacks the
seedlings at the point where they emerge
from the soil, causing them to decay at
this point. This disease may be avoid-
ed by starting the plants in trays, and
subwatering them by setting the trays
in a shallow trough containing about 1
inch of water, allowing the water to en-
ter through the drainage holes in the
bottom of the tray. In this way the sur-
face of the soil will remain slightly dry,
while the roots of the plants receive
plenty of moisture. Where it is imprac-
ticable to apply subwatering methods it
v/ill be necessary to water very carefully
and to avoid extremes of drought and
moisture. It is best to prevent too rapid
evaporation by partial shading with lath
screens.

Earlj Leaf Blight

Cercospora apii

Plants may develop this disease in the
seed bed, and it is most prevalent in early
summer.

Control

Keep young plants coated with 4-4-50
Bordeaux mixture, later using the non-
staining ammoniacal copper carbonate
solution. Well-drained, half-shaded fields
seem to suffer less than others.

Heart Rot

Heart rot is a very destructive decay
of the inner, or heart, portions of the cel-
ery plant after blanching has begun. The
inner parts rot very suddenly, emit a
penetrating odor and the market value
of the affected celery is destroyed.

The decayed parts are teeming with
motile bacteria to which this form of
decay has been attributed. The heart rot
prevails too in very hot, steamy weather,
but preventive measures are about all

768

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

that can be recommended. It is sug-
gested that when the boards are first put
up to the celery, imder such conditions
as accompany the heart rot, they should
be left apart at the top and only closed
up to the usual point after an interval
of several days. This secures better
ventilation and often prevents the disease.

A. D. Selby,
Wooster, Ohio

Hollow Celery. See Bad Seed, this
section.

Late Blight

Septoria petroselini var. apii

F. D. Bailey

The disease commonly known as late
blight of celery seems to be the most
serious disease of that crop in Oregon. It
is commonly found in most parts of this
country where celery is grown. It also
occurs in Europe, and by many is believed
to have been introduced into this coun-
try, probably through seed. There is a
possibility, however, that a similar
disease is present on some native weed
of the celery family and has spread to
the cultivated varieties of celery.

This disease occurs in the plants in the
form of spots on the blade of the leaf,
though the disease may attack the leaf
bases. The spots are small, irregular in
outline, and tawny in color (Fig. 1).
These spots are caused by a fungus
known as Septoria petroselini, var apii.
If examined with a hand lens, numerous
small black specks which are slightly
raised may be seen scattered irregularly
in the spots. These spots contain the re-
productive bodies or spores of the fungus.
These spores escape through a minute
opening and, being scattered by wind
and rain, cause the growth of new spots.
The spots may appear on the first leaves
of the seedlings in the seed bed, a fact
which suggests the possibility that the
disease may be carried through the seed.

When the fungus is abundant on the
leaves, and especially on the leaf bases,
there is a tendency to make the stalks
brittle, so that minute transverse cracks
are formed which reduce the market
value.

Usually the spots are clearly defined,
but under favorable conditions for the
development of the fungus, the entire
leaflet may be affected, resulting in a
complete wilting of the leaves.

The disease may also develop serious-
ly in storage, particularly if the storage
houses are too warm or are poorly venti-
lated.

It is probable that the disease lives
over winter in the dead leaves that are
left in the fields at digging time.

'% ,^'

,:^

\

Fig. 3. Leaf Spot or Late Blight of Celer.v.

Remedy

It is advisable, so far as practical, not
to trim the plants in the field. Diseased
plants and leaves should not be thrown
in the compost heap if the compost is to
be used as fertilizer for celery beds or
fields. It is also advisable, where pos-
sible, to practice a three or four year rota-
tion of crops.

Spraying must be practiced as a pre-
ventive. The seedlings should be spray-
ed frequently (at least once a week), be-
ginning when they show the first leaves.
The plants should be sprayed in the field
often enough to cover new foliage, and
especially after every heavy rain. Bor-
deaux mixture should be used in the
4-4-50 formula. Ammoniacal copper car-
bonate may be used for the later sprays

CELERY DISEASES— CELERY PESTS

769

in the field, as this mixture does not
leave a deposit on the plants.

The practice of overhead sprinkling, as
followed by many growers, is especially
undesirable as this has the same effect
as frequent rains and offers ideal condi-
tions for the development and spread of
the fungus. "Where irrigation is neces-
sary, arrangements should be made to
apply the water in rills.

Bibliography

1897 — N. Y. Cornell Experiment Station
Bulletin 132.

California Experiment Station Bulletin
208.

Root Rot
Rhizoctonia
Attacks plants during damp seasons.
The roots rot off in some cases.

Rnst, True and False

In Europe the celery plant is attack-
ed by one or two rust fungi (Puccinia bul-
lata [Pers.] and P. Castagnei Thum) of
the same class of parasitic fungi as those
producing rust in wheat. These two rusts
have not as yet been discovered in Ameri-
ca, though they will doubtless in time
become introduced. Celery which is bank-
ed in the earth often has the blanched
stems marked by rusty spots of various
sizes. These spots appear to arise from
the contact of the stems with the earth,
and on microscopic examination seem to
be due to the fungi or bacteria, or both,
that may be present in the soil. The
difficulty is prevented by avoiding this
method of blanching and substituting
boards or close culture planting.

A. D. Selby,
Wooster. Ohio.

CELERY PESTS

Apple Leaf Hopper. See under Apple
Pests.

Cabbage Root Maggot. Sometimes at-
tacks celery. See under Cabbage Pests.

Celery Leaf Tyer

Phlyctaenia rubigalis
This insect often becomes very trouble-
some, not only because it destroys the
leaves by eating them, but by spinning
a web and tying the leaves together. The
insect is thoroughly distributed and may

at any time become a troublesome pest
in any celery field. As a means of con-
trolling this insect, hand picking will be
effectual on a small scale. Spray with
Paris green in cases where the larvae
have become very numerous. Applied
so as to reach the underside of the leaves,
where the insects feed. It would not be
advisable to spray with a poisonous solu-
tion late in the season after the edible
portion of the celery has begun to form.

Celery Looper

Plusia simplex Guen.

* In some portions of our country, as,
for example, in Illinois, this species to
a certain extent takes the place of the
cabbage looper (Plusia brassicae Riley).
It is stated to be the commonest species
of its genus in Illinois, and is rather gen-
erally distributed in the United States
east of the Rocky mountains, from Can-
ada to New Mexico.

Descriptive

The moth is decidedly dissimilar to
that of the cabbage looper, having a
greater wing expanse, nearly two inches,
entirely different coloration, and differ-
ently shaped upper wings. The lower
edges of the fore wings have a well-de-
fined conical projection. The border is
not scalloped, the color is somewhat
purplish brown, the darker shades being
velvety brown. The silver marks are
very distinct. The hind wings are ochre-
ous or yellowish brown, strongly banded
with dark fuscous, particularly toward
the white border. The ground color of
the thorax, fore wings, and abdomen is
duller than that of the hind wings. The
lower surface is pale ochreous, with a
rather distinct darker band running
through both wings near the middle.

The egg is milky white, flattened,
globular, or turnip-shaped, sometimes
with an impressed spot in the center of
the upper surface. The upper half of the
egg Is grooved vertically.

The larva is similar to the cabbage
looper. The color is very pale yellow-
ish green. The length is about 1% inches
when fully extended.

* Chittenden. Division Entomological Bulle-
tin 33, New Series.

770

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Remedy

Paris green applied to the under side
of the leaves.

Celery or Parsley Caterpillar

Papilio polyxenes Fab.

Family Papilionidae

Papilio asterias Fab.

General Appearance
The most evident forms of this insect
are the feeding caterpillars, which are
indeed very striking. The youngest of
these are noticeably darker with yellow
spots. When full grown they are yellow-
ish green with distinct black bands and
dots on the bodies. If disturbed they
throw out a forked, orange-colored scent
organ behind the head, which exhales a
very pungent and characteristic odor. The
eggs are about 1 mm. in length, at first
yellow and later reddish brown in color,
and flattened at the attached end. The
adult butterflies are commonly known

Fig. 1. Caterpillar and Ohrysalis of the Pars-
ley Butterfly (Papilio polyxenes Fab.)
(Original.)

as the black swallowtails, being black
with yellow markings. The chrysalids
vary from green to dull gray and are
more or less mottled. The zebra cater-
pillar is equally striking in appearance
but smaller.

Life History

The eggs are laid upon the food plants
from spring to early summer and hatch in
about ten days. The caterpillars are
voracious feeders and develop very rapid-
ly, being ready to form chrysalids in
about one month after hatching. Chry-
salids hatch in about two weeks. The
adults being strong fliers are able to
scatter their broods over large areas.
There are several generations a year.

Food Plants

In many localities this caterpillar is a
serious pest of celery and parsley, but
feeds also upon carrots, caraway, par-
snips, dill, fennel and related wild plants.

Control

Though the caterpillars may be con-
trolled by poison sprays on some crops,
these are not safe for celery and parsley.
The larvae are so conspicuous as to make
hand picking one of the best methods of
control. If care is exercised to collect
and destroy the first larvae the second
and more damaging brood will be greatly
reduced. Concerted action on the part of
all growers is necessary to bring satisfac-
tory results.

Natural Enemies

The ichneumon parasites, Tragus vul-
pinus Grav. and T. exidianator Brulle,
destroy great numbers of the chrysalids.

E. O. EssiG
Grasshoppers

Some species of grasshoppers often
prove destructive pests during the early
part of the season, especially where the
celery is planted near meadows or other
habitat of these insects. Where no fowls
are allowed to run, it is practicable to
poison the grasshoppers by means of
wheat bran to which there has been add-
ed molasses and water and enough Paris
green to give the mixture a slightly green
color.

Parsnip Louse. See under Parsnip.

Tarnished Plant Bug

This insect while not considered a
dangerous celery insect, has been known
to injure the crop in several instances.
While young this bug is very small, be-
ing only about one-twentieth of an inch
in length, of a yellowish or yellowish-
green color, which changes to a faded
yellow or dull brown when it is fully
grown. It works especially where weeds
abound and on crops that are somewhat
neglected. As a preventive, keep the
celery well cultivated and free from
weeds, and do not allow any trash to
lie over the ground beneath which the
insects can pass the winter. Kerosene
emulsion is moderately effective when

CELERY DISEASES— THE CHERRY

771

thoroughly applied. The insects are slug-
gish during the early morning and many
of them can be caught by means of a
large butterfly net; but in all cases it
will be as necessary to destroy insects
found upon surrounding crops and weeds.

Zebra Caterpillar. See Celery Cater-
piUar, this section.

Celeriac, Culture of. See Alaska.

Checking Growth, Cover Crops for.
See Apple Orchard, Cover Crops.

Chemical Composition of Apples. See
Fertilization of Apple Orchard.

Chemicals Removed by Various Crops.
See Apple Orchard, Cover Crops.

The Cherry

The origin of the cherry, like that of
many of our domestic fruits, is lost in
the unwritten history of the evolution
of plant life. If we could see the cherry
from which all varieties of cherries have
come, and then if we could see that from
which this original cherry sprung, and
so on back step by step until we reached
a point beyond which we cannot go, there
would at least be educational interest
in it, and having traced one species back
to its original, we might, with strong pre-
sumption of truth, say that this is the
path all other fruits have trodden. Being
denied this privilege, we classify the cher-
ry under its genus, Prunus, and the seed-
ling cherry under its species. Avium.

There is no doubt that certain varieties
were introduced into this country from
the older countries, but when they came
there were cherries growing wild in this
country that came from some source,
no one knows where, and in all prob-
ability travelled the same path as the
cherries of Europe or of the Orient, which
under cultivation were improved and
brought to this country in the improved
state.

The wild cherry grew in the Atlantic
states and in the Middle states as late
as 186.5, or even later. The writer came
to Illinois about that time and settled
on the prairies near a point of timber
that skirted the stream called Bruiletts
Creek. A little village called Cherry
Point had sprung up at the point of tim-

ber, extending out into the prairie. In
that skirt of timber there were cherry
trees large enough to be manufactured
into lumber, and they were used for the
various purposes of fencing, building,
etc.

At the time it did not occur to us to
measure the trees, for we did not think
their size was of much consequence, ex-
cept as they could be utilized for the time
being, but as we remember them now,
they must have been 18 inches to 3 feet
in diameter. Then, in the little groves
on the prairies were cherry trees of
smaller size that nearly always bore
fruit. The fruit of the large and the
small varieties was not the same in size
or color, one being black and the other
reddish, but they were cherries and there
was no greater difference between them,
than exists now between the light and
dark colored fruits of the same name,
but of improved varieties. In the hill
lands of Oregon, near the coast are large
wild cherry trees, highly prized for lum-
ber.

From Prunus Avium the following var-
ieties have sprung:

First. The Mazzards, or inferior seed-
ling fruit of various shapes and colors,
the trees often attaining great size.

Second. The Hearts, or heart shaped
sweet cherries, light or dark, represent-
ed by the black Tartarian and Governor
Wood.

Third. The Bigarreaus, or heart
shaped, firm fleshed, sweet cherry, like
the Napolean and Windsor.

Fourth. The Dukes, light colored, some-
what acid in flesh, such as the May Duke
and the Reine Hortense.

From Primus Cerasus, the following
varieties have sprung:

First. The Armarelles, or light color-
ed, sour cherry with colorless juice, repre-
sented by the Early Richmond and Mont-
morency.

Second. The Morellos, or dark color-
ed, sour cherry with dark colored juice
like the English Morello and Louis Phil-
ippe.

The Mahaleb is a type brought from
the Old World, and is hardier and smaller

772

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

THE CHERRY

773

than most other types, therefore is of-
ten used as a stock on which to bud, and
on which to grow better varieties.

Soil Best Adapted

In its wild state, the cherry is gener-
ally found growing on a porous, sandy,
moist soil. It will grow on a variety of
soils, but it does best where the soil is
not too wet, where there is not too much
clay and where there is not a hardpan
subsoil. For the best fruiting, there
should not be too much humus in the
soil, as this leads to a heavy wood
growth; but it should be rich in mineral
elements. The soil should always be
well drained, and if the cherry orchard
has not natural drainage, it should be
tiled or drained with surface ditches; for
the cherry tree will not do its best in
a damp soggy soil. Further, during the
early part of the year, when the tree
is developing or ripening its fruit, there
should be more water than in the latter
part of the season, when it is passing
into a dormant state.

Planting the Trees

As in the planting of other orchard
crops, the soil should be well prepared,
graded, pulverized and all roots, trash
and other obstructions to subsequent cul-
tivation, removed. This is especially im-
portant if the ground is to be irrigated;
but is subject to some modifications in
the humid climates, where irrigation is
not practiced.

As to whether the square, hexagonal or
some other method of planting is adopt-
ed, is a matter of choice, depending
somewhat on conditions. See our article
on planting under Apple.

The distances apart will depend on
soil, climate, and the purposes of the
grower; but most of all upon the varieties
planted. For instance, the sour cherry,
is not a large tree when it has reached
maturity, and may be planted 20 to 25
feet apart, with reasonable assurance that
the trees will not crowd each other
when full grown. The sweet cherry will
grow twice as large as the sour cherry.

Fig. 1.

A Well Arranged and Well Cared for Cherry Orchard, Three Yeans Old.

— Courtesy N. P. Ry.

774

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

and will require nearly twice the space.
Where there is plenty of moisture, the
trees may be planted at less distance, as
where there is barely enough; because
where the water is scarce, the roots have
to draw moisture from a larger area
than where it is abundantly supplied.

Where there is plenty of water, and a
rich soil, the tendency will be toward
a heavy wood growth at the expense of
heavy fruitage; while in regions where
the soil is thin and the water scarce,
the tendency will be toward heavy fruit-
age at the expense of wood growth. Un-
der these latter conditions, the tree would
probably lack vital force and be short
lived.

Cherries as Fillers

It is common in some sections to plant
an apple orchard, selecting other fruits
as fillers to be planted between the rows
of apples and to be cut out when the
trees begin to crowd and the apples need
the space. For this purpose, peaches,
pears, and other fruits have been se-
lected. The cherry is not adapted to
this form of planting since it requires a
different method of cultivation from any
of the fruits named. It matures its
crop early and requires the remainder of
the season for the development of its
fruit spurs for the coming year; also re-
quires less water during this period, and
less humus than the other crops.

The rules for the planting of the cher-
ry, are but little different from those of
any orchard fruits. It is important to
have the holes large enough to receive
the roots without crowding, and deep
enough so that the tree is set a little deep-
er than when in the nursery. Tramp the
soil well about the surface, to hold the
tree from shaking in the wind.

The age of the tree at the time of
planting is a subject of controversy and
opinions differ, generally, with differing
conditions. In the Northeastern states,
and in Canada, the preference seems to
be generally in favor of two-year-old
trees. In the Western states, especially
the Pacific coast states, the preference
is in favor of one-year-old trees. This
difference grows partly out of the fact

that in the West, where the climate is
milder, the seasons longer, and the lands
are irrigated, the trees make a much
more rapid growth than in the Northeast,
and are approximately as large in one
year as in the East in two years. Even
where irrigation is not the rule in the
Pacific coast regions, as in the Wil-
lamette valley in Oregon, or west of the
Cascades in Washington, the climate is
mild, the rainfall abundant and most
abundant at the time the cherry most
needs it; therefore, this region is pecu-
liarly adapted to the growing of cherries.
Under these conditions, we think the
choice of one-year-old stock is decidedly
preferable, to two-year-old stock. Furth-
er, the earlier in the life of the tree the
head is shaped, the less it is damaged by
cutting, and the better top it will form.

Cultivating a Cherry Orchard

For the first three or four years at
least the cherry orchard should have
clean culture. This does not mean that
vegetables which require cultivation may
not be grown among the trees. In fact,
we think this is ordinarily an advantage
rather than a disadvantage, because it
does not injure the trees, insures cultiva-
tion, and utilizes much land that is oth-
erwise wasted. It does mean that the
growing of grass, especially blue grass,
or timothy, is not favorable for the best
growth of the trees. Much depends on
the nature of the soil. West of the Cas-
cades where the soil is rich in humus
and where the tendency would likely be
toward a heavy wood growth, a fall crop
of oats, fall wheat or winter rye, might
be grown. On the east side of the Cas-
cades, where the soil is rich in mineral
substances, but lacks nitrogen and humus,
a cover crop of clover, peas, alfalfa, or
vetch, might be grown. There are no
rules that apply equally well under all
conditions, and the orchardist must al-
ways decide for himself what are the
soil and climatic conditions, and how
they should be utilized in reference to
the crop he is growing. The cherry, like
all other trees, must be adapted to its
environment in order to produce the best
results. There is perhaps no part of the

THE CHERRY

775

United States where the natural condi-
tions are more favorable for the growth
of the best varieties of cherries, than the
Pacific coast region, west of the Cascade
mountains.

From the Oregon Experiment Station
we learn that as high as 500 to 800 pounds
of cherries have been grown from a single
tree, and that from $100 to $200 per acre
net profit is not unusual; but that the
money realized often runs as high as
$600 to $700 per acre. I think that for
Washington, these figures might be easi-
ly duplicated, although in exceptional
cases, I have seen larger yields.

Granville Lowther

Cost of Harvesting Cherries

The following statement was reported
from Ohio to Green's Fruit Grower (Feb.,
1912).

No. crates per acre 530

Average price per crate $2.00

$1,060.00

Picking, per crate $0.48

Crate (new) .25

Express .20

Commission .20

Total $1.13

Total cost of harvesting $598.90

Net returns per acre 461.10

This covers harvesting costs only and
the crop was an unusually large one.

Propagation of Cherries

W. L. Howard
The cherry is propagated almost en-
tirely by budding. While seedlings from
our common varieties may be used for
growing stock, nurserymen always use
special kinds of stock which are usually
imported from France. The kinds of
stock in most general use are the Maz-
zard and Mahaleb. The Mazzard is the
best stock for both sweet and sour cher-
ries in the East. The Mahaleb is more
widely used for the sour kinds, however,
for it is easier to bud, and is free from
leaf blight in the nursery. The Mazzard,
however, appears to form a better root
system, stronger union, makes a long-
er lived tree and is sufficiently hardy.
For the plains states the hardier Mahaleb
stock should be used. Both of these may

Fig. 2. Ro.val Anns Properly Packed. For
Rules for Packing Cherries see Packing under
Apple.

be secured from most any nurseryman in
early winter or spring. In a small way,
it is quite feasible to grow one's own
cherry stock from the seeds of the fruit
raised at home.

Cherry seeds should not be permitted
to become thoroughly dried out at any
time. On this account it is advisable to
store the seeds through the remainder
of the summer, after ripening, in boxes
of sand and bury them from eight to
twelve inches deep in the ground in a
cool place. This will keep them moist,
and at the same time they will be suf-
ficiently cool and away from the free
circulation of air that they will not be-
gin to grow.

At the approach of cold weather the
seeds should be taken up and the open
boxes of sand kept on the surface of the
ground in the shade of a building
throughout the winter. Very early in the

776

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

spring the seeds should be planted in
nursery rows four feet apart and an inch
or two apart in the rows. Cover with
an inch or two of fine soil, if the ground
is not too wet. If the seeds are about
to sprout and the soil is yet too wet to
work well, the seeds should be partially
covered with the wet earth and then a
dressing an inch thick of well-rotted
manure spread over the rows.

The young seedlings should have
thorough cultivation during the sum-
mer. About the last week in August or
the first week in September, or earlier,
if the bark peels readily, the budding
should be done. In the South where the
spring opens much earlier, the seedlings
may be large enough for budding in June.
In that event, one year's time is saved,
as the tops are cut off immediately, and
the young trees often grow to transplant-
ing size the same season. Full details
for the budding is given under the dis-
cussion of peaches. When the trees have
had one year's growth from the buds,
they are of the proper age to be trans-
planted to the orchard. Cherry seedlings
are sometimes cleft-grafted in spring,
where the buds the previous fall failed
to take.

Pruning the Cherry

The cherry has the annoying habit of
occasionally producing strong shoots from
adventitious buds along the trunk of the
tree or from near the surface of the
ground. A close watch should be kept for
such interlopers in order that they may
be promptly removed.

Framework

During the early years of the growth
of the cherry care should be exercised to
secure a proper distribution of the
limbs which are to form the frame-
work branches of the tree, particularly
with the sweet cherries, as this species
"has the unfortunate habit of dividing
Into two shoots of nearly equal size with
a close angle between, which always forms
a weak joint. Trees not carefully pruned
to overcome this bad habit are liable to
severe injury from splitting when heavily
loaded with fruit.

Cutting Back

In the early period of the growth of the
sweet cherry, the annual growth will
need more or less severe cutting back,
depending upon soil and climatic condi-
tions, in order to maintain them within
bounds. On general principles this head-
ing should be done just before growth
starts in the spring.

Fruiting Habits

The fruiting habits of the cherry are
more closely allied to those of the apple
and the pear than to the peach, and for
that reason the shortening of the annual
growth is of less moment than with the
peach.

Pruning First Four Years
W. S. Thornber

During the first four years of a young
cherry tree's life in the orchard it should
be carefully, systematically and regularly
pruned. By this time it should be large
enough and its frame work so well de-
veloped that the future pruning would
consist largely of the removal of dead,
diseased, broken or crossed limbs and an
occasional heading back or thinning out
of the fruiting wood. Pruning for the
production of wood after a tree starts to
bear should not be necessary as there is a
relationship existing between the amount
of wood produced and the size of the crop
borne, in the case of most varieties of
cherries.

How to Prune

The first and most essential pruning of
a cherry tree should take place just previ-
ous to the beginning of its second year's
growth. When one-year-old trees are
planted in the orchard, immediately af-
ter transplanting, is a good time to give
it this pruning. All lateral branches
should be cut off close and the top headed
back to from 24 to 36 inches from the
ground. The purpose of this pruning is
to establish a low headed spreading tree
rather than a high upright tree. The
young tree will require no further prun-
ing until the beginning of the third
year's growth unless a very strong sprout
springs from the root or on the main
stem six inches or less from the ground,
necessitating immediate removal.

THE CHERRY

777

At the beginning of the third year's
growth from three to five of the best
branches should be selected to form the
frame work of the tree. The remainder
should be cut off and those headed back
to from one-third to one-half of their
original length, cutting to outer buds al-
ways and maintaining the most central
one as a leader, which should be from
four to six inches longer than the rest.
These branches should be selected with
special reference to their position on the
main stem and to one another. They
should have wide angles, no two should
be opposite and be as far apart as possible
on the main stem.

The pruning for the fourth and fifth
year's growth should be very much the
same as for the third, using special care
to thin the tops and cut back in such
a manner as to spread the top as much
as possible. After this only the necessary
pruning should be done, as heavy pruning
tends to produce wood growth which is
not at all desirable in bearing trees.

When to Prune

The pruning of young growing trees
should be done late in the winter or early
in the spring, but never early in the
winter.

Cherries in^ Alaska. See Alaska.

Cherries — Trees, Production and Value
U. S. Census 1910

Trees
of bearing

Division or State — • age

United States 11,822,044

Geographic Divisions :

New England 68,236

Middle Atlantic 1,851,144

East North Central 3,853,974

West North Central 2,768,659

South Atlantic 1,063,825

East South Central 453,262

West South Central 385,502

Mountain 390,644

Pacific 986,798

New England :

Maine 14,288

New Hampshire 9,463

Vermont 18,006

Massachusetts 13,396

Rhode Island 964

Connecticut 12,119

Middle Atlantic:

New York 673,989

New Jersey 102,124

Pennsylvania 1,075,031

East North Central :

Ohio 1,144,271

Indiana 815,742

Illinois 843,283

Michigan 760,183

Wisconsin 290,495

West North Central :

Minnesota 25,139

Iowa 908,764

Missouri 622,332

North Dakota 5,076

South Dakota 51,613

Nebraska 494,468

Kansas 661,267

South Atlantic :

Delaware 16,145

Maryland 82,305

District of Columbia .... 435

Virginia .352,783

West Virginia 332,429

North Carolina 168,065

South Carolina 60,274

Georgia 50,723

Florida 666

East South Central :

Kentucky 212,118

Tennessee 201,830

Alabama 25,566

Mississippi 13.748

-1910

1 ■

190£

»

1899

Trees not

Pro-

of bearing

Production

duction

age

(bushels)

Value

(bushels)

5,621,660

4,126,099

$7,231,160

2,873.499

32,587

14,904

38,424

23,445

659,953

791,326

1,541,708

775,587

1,523,247

1,410,298

2,362,344

851,326

1,117,533

515,690

935,537

297,873

364,118

327,706

394,990

391,799

2.57,112

94,873

143,166

49,457

242,569

9,954

14,401

13,635

581,641

147,854

300,485

33,956

842,900

813,494

1,500,105

436,421

6,653

2,403

7,164

1,550

6,326

1,403

4,133

1,183

6,659

2,506

7,651

1.069

6,776

4,761

10,848

6,043

453

214

464

1,329

5,720

3,617

8,164

12,271

342,959

271,597

544,508

218,642

36,743

44,636

87,225

82,005

280,251

475,093

909,975

474,940

342,328

338,644

657,406

192,954

251.959

363,993

508,516

228,485

239,605

287.376

453,474

204.279

540,580

338,945

590,829

194,541

148,775

81,340

152,119

31,067

38,399

1,526

2,973

960

229,352

260,432

455,022

118,743

247,425

123,314

222,510

62,708

21,484

209

445

4

76,293

5,924

12,981

900

267,529

89,876

164,872

54,047

237,051

34,409

76,734

60,511

4,.598

2,634

4,850

8,066

27,774

42,315

60,121

60,452

4

235

568

248

83,323

1.32,671

134,428

188,693

124,567

79,723

111,043

87,828

74,111

53,788

60,453

33,899

25.764

10,987

15,880

6,551

23,479

4,979

7,199

5,950

498

374

448

112

102,766

52,163

74.340

.34,258

128,406

36,303

60,294

11,688

16.673

3,588

4,783

1,1.59

9,267

2,819

3,749

2,352

778

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Cherries — Trees, Production and Value-
U. S. Census 1910

-Continued

Trees
of bearing

Division or State — age

West Soutii Central :

Arkansas 60,046

Louisiana 975

Oklalioma 295,042

Texas £9,439

Mountain :

Montana 19,938

Idaho 61,S81

Wyoming 919

Colorado 203,806

New Mexico 21,925

Arizona S12

Utah 70,775

Nevada 1,588

Wasliington 241,038

Oregon 223,456

California 522,304

* Includes Indian Territory.

-1910-

Trees not
of bearing

47,556

760

150,541

43,712

24,237

95,423

4,025

319,624

26,818

1,608

109,119

787

229,067
313,770
300,063

-1909-

Production
(bushels)

5,993

527

2,372

1,062

7,497

22,609

68

88,937

6,384

476

21,402

481

131,392
181,089
501,013

Value

8,424
921

4,393
663

17,985
41,766

251

173,895

10,684

840
54,170

894

278,547
269,934
951,624

1899

Pro-
duction
(bushels)

7.889

336

*3.221

2,189

807

12,294

1

5,387

5,228

220

9,905

114

52,114

65,347

318,960

Varieties of cherries recommended for
cultivation in the various districts of the
United States. See map on page 19 'i.

District No. 1

Highly recommended — Dessert and
market: Tartarian, Black. Kitchen: Bes-
sarabian; Brusseler Braune; Lutovka.

Recommended — Dessert, kitchen and
m.arket: Ostheim. Kitchen and market:
Large Montmorency; Montmorency Or-
dinaire; Morello, English (Wragg) ; Rich-
mond, Early. Dessert and kitchen: May
Duke. Market: Amarelle Hative; Shad-
ow Amarelle. Kitchen: Dyehouse; Phil-
ippe, Louis.

District No. 2

Highly recommended — Kitchen and
market: Large Montmorency; Montmor-
ency Ordinaire; Morello, English
(Wragg) ; Richmond, Early. Dessert and
market: Black Heart; Eagle, Black;
Elkhorn; Elton; Hortense, Reine; Rock-
port; Tartarian, Black; Windsor; Wood,
Governor. Dessert and kitchen: May
Duke; Olivet. Market: Napoleon (Royal
Ann). Dessert: Eugenie, Empress; Span-
ish, Yellow. Kitchen: Bessarabian; Dye-
house; Late Duke; Late Kentish.

Recommended — Dessert, kitchen and
market: Ostheim. Dessert and market:
Downer; Lewelling. Dessert and kitchen:
Archduke. Dessert: Choisy. Belle de; Coe
Transparent: Early Purple Guigne;
Knight Early: Mezel. Kitchen: Carna-

tion; Lutovka; Magnifique, Belle; Phil-
ippe, Louis; Royal Duke.

District No. 3

Highly recommended — Kitchen and
market: Large Montmorency; Montmor-
ency Ordinaire; Richmond, Early. Des-
sert and market: Black Heart; Tartarian,
Black. Dessert and kitchen: May Duke;
Olivet. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann).
Dessert: Coe Transparent; Spanish, Yel-
low. Kitchen: Late Kentish.

Recommended — Kitchen and market:
Morello, English (Wragg). Dessert and
market: Downer; Eagle, Black; Elton;
Hortense, Reine; Rockport; Windsor;
Wood, Governor. Dessert: Choisy, Belle
de; Mezel. Kitchen: Late Duke; Mag-
nifique, Belle; Philippe, Loui; Royal Duke.

District No. 4

Highly recommended — Kitchen and
market: Large Montmorency; Montmor-
ency Ordinaire; Morello, English
(Wragg); Richmond, Early. Dessert and
market: Black Heart; Hortense, Reine;
Windsor. Dessert and kitchen: May
Duke. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann).
Kitchen: Dyehouse; Late Duke.

Recommended — Dessert, kitchen and
market: Ostheim. Dessert and market:
Downer; Eagle, Black; Elton; Tartarian,
Black; Wood, Governor. Dessert and
kitchen: Olivet. Dessert: Choisy, Belle
de; Coe Transparent; Early Purple

THE CHERRY

779

Guigne; Eugenie, Empress; Spanish, Yel-
low.

Recommended for trial — Dessert, kitch-
en and market: Suda Hardy.

District No. 5

Recommended — Kitchen and market:
Large Montmorency; Morello, English
(Wragg); Richmond, Early. Dessert and
market: Eagle, Black; Elton; Rockport;
Tartarian, Black; Windsor; Wood, Gov-
ernor. Dessert and kitchen: May Duke.
Market: Napoleon {Royal Ann). Dessert:
Coe Transparent ; Choisy, Belle de; Early
Purple Guigne; Knight Early; Mezel;
Spanish, Yellotc. Kitchen: Dyehouse;
Late Duke; Magnifique, Belle.

District No. 7
Recommended — Kitchen and m,arket:
Montmorency Ordinaire. Dessert and
market: Black Heart. Kitchen: Mag-
nifique, Belle; Plumstone Morello.

District No. 8

Highly recommended — Kitchen and
Market: Large Montmorency; Montmor-
ency Ordinaire; Richmond, Early; Morel-
lo, English (Wragg). Kitchen: Late
Kentish.

Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen, and
market: Ostheim. Dessert and market:
Eagle, Black; Tartarian, Black; Wood,
Governor. Dessert and kitchen: Olivet.
Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann). Dessert:
Spanish, Yellow. Kitchen: Carnation;
Dyehouse; Lutovka; Philippe, Louis;
Plumstone Morello.

Recommended for trial — Dessert,
kitchen, and market: Suda Hardy.
Kitchen: Bessarabian; Brusseler Braune;
Northwest.

District No. 9

Highly recommended — Kitchen and
market: Large Montmorency.

Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen, and
market: Ostheim; Morello, English
(Wragg). Market: Amarelle Hative.
Kitchen: Bessarabian; Brusseler Braune;
Lutovka.

Recommended for trial — Market:
Shadow Amarelle. Kitchen: Dyehouse.

District No. 10

Highly recommended — Dessert and
kitchen: Olivet.

Recommended — Kitchen and market:
Large Montmorency; Morello, English
(Wragg) ; Richmond, Early. Dessert and
market: Wood, Governor. Dessert and
kitchen: Archduke; May Duke. Market:
Napoleon (Royal Ann). Kitchen: Dye-
house; Late Duke; Lutovka.

District No. 12

Highly recommended — Kitchen and
market: Large Montmorency; Montmor-
ency Ordinaire; Richmond, Early; Morel-
lo, English (Wragg). Dessert and Market:
Hortense, Reine; Republican, Black;
Windsor. Dessert and kitchen: May Duke.
Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann) . Dessert:
Choisy, Belle de; Eugenie, Empress;
Knight Early. Kitchen: Late Duke;
Royal Duke.

Recommended — Dessert and market :
Black Heart; Eagle, Black; Tartarian,
Black: Wood, Governor. Dessert and
kitchen: Archduke; Olivet. Dessert: Coe
Transparent; Spanish, Yellow. Kitchen:
Dyehouse; Philippe, Louis; Plumstone
Morello.

District No. 13

Highly recommended — Kitchen and
market: Morello, English (Wragg).

District No. 14

Highly recommended — Kitchen and
market: Morello, English (Wragg). Des-
sert and market: Lewelling; Tartarian,
Black; Windsor. Dessert and kitchen:
May Duke. Market: Napoleon (Royal
Ann). Kitchen: Late Duke.

Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen, and
market: Ostheim. Kitchen and market:
Late Montmorency. Dessert and market:
Elton; Republican, Black; Wood, Gover-
nor. Dessert: Spanish, Yellow. Kitchen:
Late Kentish; Philippe, Louis.

Recommended for trial — Dessert and
kitchen: Olivet. Kitchen: Dyehouse.

District No. 15

Highly recommended — Kitchen and
market: Richmond, Early. Dessert and
market: Bing; Hoskins; Lambert; Lewel-
ling. Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann).
Kitchen: Late Kentish.

Recommended — Kitchen and market:
Morello, English (Wragg). Dessert and

780

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

market: Oxheart; Tartarian, Black;
Wood, Governor. Dessert and kitchen-.
May Duke. Dessert: Early Purple Guigne;
Spanish, Yellow. Kitchen: Late Duke.

District No. 16

Highly recommended — Dessert and mar-
ket: Bing; Tartarian, Black. Market:
Napoleon (Royal Ann).

Recommended — Kitchen and market:
Richmond, Early. Dessert and market:
Lewelling; Rockport.

District No. 17

Highly eecommended — Dessert and mar-
ket: Tartarian, Black. Market: Napoleon
(Royal Ann).

Recommended — Dessert and market:
Centennial.

Recommended for trial — Dessert and
market: Lewelling.

District No. 18

Recommended — Kitchen and market:
Morello, English (Wragg). Dessert and
market: Tartarian, Black; Centennial.
Market: Napoleon (Royal Ann).

CHERKT DISEASES
Black Knot

Plowrightia morbosa Schw.
This is a conspicuous disease attacking
the branches of cherry and plum trees but
is more frequent upon the cherry varieties
of the Morello type. It is due to a para-
sitic fungus. Insects, however, make har-
bors of the interior of the knots. The
spores of the black knot fungus are rip-
ened during the winter and scattered in
early spring, finding lodgment on the new
branches or in fractures on old ones,
where their growth causes the formation
of a new knot. Black knot may be pre-
vented by spraying with Bordeaux mix-
ture, but is more profitably controlled by
carefully cutting off affected parts and
burning them, making a clean sweep at
least once each year and that previous to
March 1st. This is a practicable measure
and we have confidence in its efficiency.

(The disease occurs on wild cherries in the
Northwest. — Ed. )

A. D. Selby,
Wooster, Ohio.

Brown Rot

Sclerotinia fructigena
H. S. Jackson

The rot caused by Sclerotinia fructi-
gena on many stone fruits, is sometimes
serious also on cherries. Moist weather
conditions near the ripening time are
favorable for the rapid development and
spread of the disease. The fruit is more
susceptible as it becomes mature. The
disease makes its appearance on the
cherry as a small brown spot, which
gradually enlarges until the whole fruit
is affected.

A general discussion of this disease to-
gether with recommendations for its con-
trol, will be found under Peach diseases.

Black Cherry Twig Blight

Sclerotinia seaveri Rehm
Has been found on wild cherry in New
York.

Cherry Gummosis
H. P. Baess

The term "gummosis" by itself denotes
simply the abnormal development of
gummy or mucilaginous substances, re-
sulting in the formation of gum pockets
or exudations from various parts of the
plant. The tendency to gum formation
is characteristic of plums, apricots,
peaches, cherries and other stone fruits
wherever grown, usually as a response
to injury, disease or unsuitable condi-
tions of soil, climate, etc. Citrus and
other trees are often subject to similar
gumming. We are concerned here, how-
ever, with this phenomenon as it appears
on the cherry, especially on the sweet
varieties in the Northwest.

Of the two groups of cherries, the sour
cherries or Prunus cerasus group, and
the sweet cherries or Prunus avium
group, we find that the former are not
nearly so susceptible to gum flow, while
the latter seem particularly subject to
serious attacks whenever they are culti-
vated, if we can judge by the reports
that come from such widely separated
points as Australia, Europe and the Pa-
cific coast.

In the state of Oregon serious attacks
of gumming in the cherry orchards were
noticed at least as early as 1853, very

CHERRY DISEASES

781

early in the history of fruit raising in
the Northwest.

It is not known to what extent the
cherry industry in other parts of the
United States suffers from the presence
of gummosis. Little is heard from it in
the drier, eastern portion of the North-
west; but in the moist valleys of Wash-
ington and Oregon, west of the Cascades,
at least, the trouble now reaches such
proportions as to dishearten many cherry
growers and discourage other orchardists
from planting cherries. The conditions
demand a thorough investigation as to
the causes, means of prevention and pos-
sible remedies.

Various Causes of Cherry Gummosis

As has been intimated, the formation
and exudation of gum is to be considered
as the result of an injured, diseased or
otherwise abnormal condition of the tree.
It is a symptom only and not the disease
itself. The published literature on cherry
gummosis brings to light many explana-
tions for the appearance of this phenom-
enon, some well proved and others more
or less theoretical.

Injuries

Mechanical injuries, such as bruises,
may induce the formation of gum, but
the wound usually heals quickly and the
gumming ceases. The injection of certain
chemicals into cherry trees has repeated-
ly caused gum flow, and such insects as
borers may produce it; but these causes
need not engage our attention.

Unfavorable Soil and CUmatic Conditions

A disturbed or disordered physiological
condition of the tree, produced by un-
suitable soil, moisture, climate or other
relations not perfectly understood, is un-
doubtedly an important factor and pos-
sibly even a primary cause in many cases
of gummosis. It is often noticeable that
trees set in low places, where excessive
moisture is likely to be present, are more
apt to be subject to the disease than those
on better drained ground. But this can-
not explain all, since some trees under
the best of soil and moisture conditions
are severely attacked. Gumming seems to
be worse where soils or subsoils are poor

or unfit. But may not a weakened con-
dition of the trees due to such causes
render them less resistant to definite dis-
eases? Many good authorities in this
country and Europe attribute to late
frosts following warm spells many at-
tacks of this trouble. Some methods of
pruning and cultivation have also been
held responsible for a certain amount of
gummosis. While all these factors have,
no doubt, some influence on gum-produc-
tion, yet investigation reveals so many
cases inconsistent with these explanations
that we must look for other possible
causes.

The Attacks of Fun^

Since the outbreak of a serious cherry
disease in Germany in 1899 various bark-
destroying fungi have been found asso-
ciated with the disease. From observa-
tions up to the present it does not seem
very probable that any of these are re-
sponsible for more than a small amount
of injury to living trees in the Northwest.
It is possible, however, that they play a
more important role than has been sus-
pected.

There also appear frequently on the
trunks and limbs of dead or diseased
cherry trees certain fungi of the wood-
rotting types. Being found not infre-
quently on trees that are not totally dead,
they have been suspected by some of hav-
ing a hand in extending the diseased con-
dition. It is not known, however, that
these fungi have anything directly to do
with the disease in question.

Description of the Disease

Numerous distinctly different troubles
of the cherry may be accompanied by
gum-production, hence, the term "cherry
gummosis" should not be applied to any
specific disease. It is my present opinion,
however, that the greater part of the
cherry trouble in the Northwest is due
to a single disease appearing in a variety
of forms between which there are hardly
distinguishable gradations.

The More Serious Phases of the Disease

The condition most dreaded is where
trunk and limbs are quite generally at-
tacked. This may appear at its worst

782

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

during the third and fourth year after
setting out. Little indication of the dis-
ease may be present until tree or
branches fail to leaf out or suddenly wilt
during the growing season. In these
cases girdling has previously taken place.
There may or may not be gumming and
little relation appears between the amount
of gumming and the extent of injury.
In the later stages there is usually no
difficulty in detecting the disease on ac-
count of the fact that no further growth
takes place at the affected region, while
the adjacent and still healthy parts add
a new layer of wood during the growing
season. The dead area then appears
flattened, and, the dead bark, since it
does not expand, frequently, though not
always, splits open. In other words, we
have the formation of a canker.

More Restricted and Localized Cankers

In this disease we find certain condi-
tions in which a large part of the tree
may be rapidly and often fatally involved
in a general attack, or in which large
dead areas are formed that may girdle
trunk or limbs, but the disease does not
always appear in such severe forms, and

we commonly find small cankers and
affected spots that are more restricted
and localized appearing on various parts
of the tree. Near the center of such spots
one frequently discovers the remains of a
dead bud or spur. This association of
small cankers with dead buds is not uni-
versal, but it is so common that it sug-
gests the possibility that the diseased
spot had its beginning in the death of
the bud or spur. In connection with the
dying of the tissue there is sometimes an
abundance of gum production and some-
times very little where only a very small
amount of tissue is found to be affected.
Again, a canker may entirely girdle a
branch with very little exudation occur-
ring or none at all.

The Blighting of Buds and Spurs

There is a very common phase of our
cherry trouble which has generally es-
caped the notice of the growers or has
been passed by as unworthy of much at-
tention. This is the blighting of buds and
fruit spurs, generally accompanied by
gumming, which is present in practically
all cherry orchards to a greater or less
extent, but is much worse in orchards

A Species of Polyphorus. A Species of Polystictus An Imperfect Pudrus.

Fig. 1. Sapropliytic Fungi Wliicli Are Often Present in Half Dead Cherry Trees.

CHERRY DISEASES

783

Fig. 2. Tree Showing the Serious Effects of
the Disease on the Trunin, Crotch and Limb
Bases, a Dangerous Condition. This is
avoided by limb-grafting upon mazzard seed-
lings.

where trunks and limbs are badly dis-
eased. Old trees and younger trees seem
to be equally affected. This trouble is
first noticeable early in the spring when
some of the buds, which formed normally
in the fall, fail to swell and open when
the others unfold. (See Fig. 3.) A drop

of gum often appears exuding from the
bud or from the affected spurs. (See
Fig. 4.) Sometimes affected buds unfold,
but before the blossoms open, wilt down
and dry up. Often, however, spurs come
into full leaf and set fruit, only to die a
week or two later. As far as our observa-
tion goes, blighting of this sort does not
usually take place during the summer or
fall.

The amount of damage directly pro-
duced by this form of disease is not very
serious in most cases, but the after effects
are probably much more important than
has been supposed. Investigation shows
that after a spur or bud has been blight-
ed, a small area of discoloration usually
spreads out from its base onto the branch.
This is almost always confined at first to
the outer layers of the bark. As in the
case of larger cankers, a layer of wound
cork eventually separates the diseased
tissue from the healthy substance of the
branch. The following season, however,
the diseased area may spread farther

Fig. 3.

Spurs
Time.

Cherry
Failing

Branches Showing Blighted
to Develop at Blossoming

784

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Or<2-1£»iC'p

Fig. 4. Examples of Spur Blight Ehie to Bacteria. Drops and masses of gum ooze out

from the dead spurs.

from the base of the spur, up and down
the branch and also, more slowly, around
it. The inner parts of the bark and the
cambium become affected and a typical
canker of small size results. Very often
girdling follows and the whole end of a
branch may be killed by a canker at its
base. Practically all of the dead shoots
which so often appear in the top of a
tree during the year, seem to be caused
by cankers spreading out from spurs or
buds that died in some previous season
or at the beginning of the same season.

Pseudomonas cerasns, Griffin, the Cause
of Spur BUght

In March, 1909, Mr. F. L. Griffin found
bacteria associated with blight of cherry
buds. Inoculations with cultures pro-
duced the characteristic blight. Repeated
tests were made during the next two sea-
sons with buds from various districts,
with the same results. Careful morpho-
logical and physiological studies led him
to believe that a new species had been
discovered and he accordingly described
it under the name Pseudomonas cerasus.

This organism, then, seems to be the
cause of one form of cherry gummosis.
How much it has to do with other phases
of the disease only further investigation
can show.*

Recent Experiments and Observations

In February, 1912, the writer began
his investigation of cherry gummosis and

* See Science. N. S. 34, No. 879, p. 615, No-
vember 3, 1911.

since that time has confirmed many of
Mr. Griffin's previous observations and
conclusions. Furthermore, the repeated
discovery of bacteria similar to Ps. cer-
asus in the diseased areas on trunks,
limbs or twigs, and the production of
gumming by subsequent inoculation with
these organisms, gives strong support to
the idea that bacteria cause the character-
istic injuries found on the bodies of trees
affected with this disease.

Summary of Experiments and
Observations

To sum up the result briefly: 1. The
experiments of Mr. Griffin and the writer
seem to indicate that a species of bac-
terium (Ps. cerasus) is responsible for
the blighting and gumming of buds and
spurs on common varieties of the sweet
cherry. 2. This bacterium is also able
to induce gumming when inoculated
into the body and branches of these vari-
eties. 3. Bacteria similar to Ps. cerasus
have been found during the spring in
nearly all spreading cankers on the
trunks and limbs as well as in diseased
spurs, and these, by inoculation into
healthy trees, are able to induce gum-
ming. 4. From observations made through
one season only, it appears that the dis-
ease progresses rapidly in the spring and
only slowly or not at all during the sum-
mer and autumn. 5. It is impossible to
state positively from our present knowl-
edge that bacteria are responsible for all
the more serious phases of the disease on

CHERRY DISEASES

785

*i:^

•^':i^y^^'

"OS

Of M

CI -a

n 0)

-H ^ M

Gpqo

!ii

fes

&i5

2— n

786

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the body of the tree, or to indicate just
what part they play in its spread. The
possibility of their being causative agents
seems, however, to receive considerable
support from the recent investigations.

Experiments must be carried on over a
number of years before the nature of the
disease can be demonstrated beyond a
doubt, or recommendations for its control
can be made with assurance. The rela-
tion which climatic and soil conditions,
the attacks of insects or fungi, and the
methods of cultivation have to the dis-
ease, must be studied thoroughly. This
will take time and the cherry grower
must not be impatient.

PreTcntion and Control

More important in the eyes of the prac-
tical orchardist than the cause, is the
remedy for the disease.

Resistant Stocks and Varieties
The Mazzard CLerrj as a Stock

Attention has been called to the fact
that winter injury and unfavorable soil
conditions may have a great deal to do
with the appearance of gummosis in the
cherry. It may be that the more serious
phases of the disease cannot occur with-
out a previous injury or weakened vital-
ity due to some such factors. It is well
known, both in this country and abroad,
that the so-called Black Mazzard cherry
is generally much hardier and less liable
to suffer from adverse conditions than
are the cultivated varieties. Hence, seed-
ling Mazzards have come to be much used
In Europe as stocks upon which to graft
the commercial sweet varieties. In this
country also the Mazzard is coming to
be recognized as a sturdy stock which
unites with the sweet cherries better than
the Mahaleb. A point in favor of the
Mazzard as a stock is that it seldom
"gums." To make use of Mazzard stock
and to graft or bud on the limbs the vari-
ety desired, gives trunk, crotch and limb
bases that are practically free from
trouble. If the disease then appears in
the top, it cannot involve the entire tree
and experience seems to show that the
branches are much less liable to suffer
from gumming when the body of the tree
is clean.

Fig. 6. The Results of Artificial Inoculation
with Ps. Cerasu.t. (O) Indicates an inocu-
lation. (X) A check puncture with sterile
needle. A. Blighting of inoculated spurs.
Checks opening normally. B. Gum exuding
at points of inoculation on the bod.v of two-
year-old tree. The check punctures healed.

Examination of orchards aggregating
some thousand trees supposed or known
to be top-grafted upon Mazzard stocks
showed 80 to 91 per cent free from any
indication of disease on the trunks where
orchards not upon this stock were found,
to have, in some case, over 60 per cent
and in one case over 80 per cent of the
trunks badly cankered or killed by the
disease. The writer is convinced that
the use of the Mazzard as a stock on
which to limb-graft or bud the other
varieties, is a thoroughly practical way

CHERRY DISEASES

787

of protecting the cherry from this disease
in its most damaging form. Figs. 8 and
9 are illustrations of this method.

Other Resistant Stocks

Various other stocks, including the
Morello, the Dukes and a native cherry
(Prunus demissa) have been recommend-

-

''!"'!

h •*"

V

' -t

\

.■■-(

h

/V

^ %

t

1

/

, ChffU^

it*.

Fig. 7. Bacteria Wliich Induces Gumminf
the Cherry. Masniifled 500 Diam.

of

ed as hardy and resistant stocks on
which to work the sweet cherry, but until
these have been tried out further, the
writer strongly advises the use of the
Mazzard on account of the present evi-
dence in its favor. A word of warning
should be given here against unscrupu-
lous dealers who sometimes palm off seed-
lings of doubtful lineage as Mazzards.
There are, however, reliable nurseries
from which satisfactory stock may be
obtained.

The Lambert Cherry
The three varieties of sweet cherries
most extensively grown for commercial
purposes in Oregon are the Royal Ann,

Fig. 8. A Year's Growth on a Tree Top-
Grafted on the Limbs of Mazzard Seedling
Cherry. Tronic and limb bases are free
from ffummosis. where this method is
adopted. This form of crotch is undesirable.

Bing and Lambert. These are all sub-
ject to gummosis, but the Lambert has
had the reputation of being less seriously
affected than the other two. Observa-
tions in orchards in different sections
seem to substantiate the general opinion.

Table Showing the Relative Effects of the Disease Upon Royal Ann, Bing and Lambert
Trees in an Orchard near Salem, Oregon

Variety

Total

number

trees

Totally
destroyed

Half 1 Badly Moder-
destroyed diseased ately
diseased

Slightly
diseased

Unaf-
fected

Royal Ann

Bing

Lambert

259
222
259

37%
36%
13%

13% 1 22%

15% 1 24%

8% 9%

27%

24%.

36%

1%

1%

31%

0%
0%
3%

The argument in favor of the Lambert gummosis. In nearly every badly in-

in this orchard is striking.

In budding or grafting the susceptible
varieties, it is a matter of good sense to
select scions or buds from trees which
seem particularly healthy and free from

tested orchard there are trees of the
Royal Ann or Bing varieties which seem
to be healthier and freer from disease
than the rest. Such may, perhaps, be
more resistant than their neighbors, and

788

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 9. Top-Budded on Mazzaid Seedling and
Headed Back to Produce Stocky Growth.
The mazzard body is gummosis resistant.
This form of crotch is undesirable.

that resistance may possibly be trans-
mitted by the scion.

CultiTatioii

Thorough cultivation in the early part
of the season is beneficial to the cherry,
but spasmodic or irregular cultivation is
considered harmful. As far as cherry
gummosis is concerned, a tree assisted by
proper cultivation and making a vigorous
and rapid growth as a result, has a better
chance to recover from and outgrow the
trouble than a weak tree.

Cuttiug Out the Disease

The most successful method of treat-
ment in practice among careful cherry
raisers consists in the thorough cutting-
out early in the season of all diseased,
discolored and gum-soaked bark. Per-
sistent watch is kept by frequent inspec-
tions and as soon as new diseased spots
are discovered, they are cut out. Where
this has been conscientiously done, and
the injuries have been cut out before get-
ting very large, the recoveries have often
been rapid and the damage from the dis-

ease rather small. In cutting out, it is
important that all the tissues which are
in any degree affected should be removed.
The wound thus made should be steril-
ized, pi-eferably by the application of a
solution of corrosive sublimate (1-1000);
when dry, large wounds should be coated
with walnut grafting wax* as a protec-
tion against the entrance of destructive
wood-rotting fungi. It is often impos-
sible to discover at once all the affected
tissue around a gum exudation or canker,
and a second or third cutting-out may
have to be made during a season, but per-
sistence will be rewarded in most cases
by a rapid healing of the wound through
the growth of new callus tissue over it.
Care should be taken not to remove any
more of the living and healthy tissues
than is necessary in cutting out the dis-
ease.

Where a small branch is affected, it is
often better to remove it entirely and
allow a healthy one to take its place. In
young trees it is strongly recommended
to remove all blighted spurs and cut
away discolored tissues that spread out
from their base; since our investigations
lead us to suspect that many of the seri-
ous cankers originate in this way.

Spraying seems to be practically use-
less as a means of control for cherry
gummosis. Slitting of the bark has been
recommended by many growers, but we
cannot see that much benefit results ex-
cept where a gum pocket is opened and
the gum is prevented by release of pres-
sure from spreading under the bark. On
the contrary, where trunks or limbs have
been slit deeply, bad wounds are some-
times produced, and instances of apparent
spreading of the disease along the slit
argue against the practice.

Other recommendations with regard to
treating the diseased trees have been
made by various growers. The cutting out
of the cankers, however, has resulted in
local benefit in so many well-authenti-
cated instances under the writer's obser-
vation, that he does not hesitate to urge

* The formula for making: Walnut Grafting
Wax is given in the Oregon Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. Ill, p. 96.

See under Walnut.

CHERRY DISEASES

789

growers to adopt this practice. Although
it takes time and patience, it pays in
the end. The time to begin is when the
trees are very young. Small cankers can
be easily cut out, but an old tree full of
disease is an almost hopeless case to
work on.

Summary of Recommendations

1. Use a resistant stock like the so-
called Mazzard cherry, and graft or bud
into the branches to secure a trunk and
crotch practically free from gummosis.

2. The Lambert cherry is recommend-
ed as being somewhat more resistant to
the disease than the Royal Ann and Bing
varieties.

3. Good cultivation in the spring is
urged as promoting a vigorous and
healthy growth and rendering the trees
more likely to resist the spread of the
malady.

4. The cutting out of diseased tissue
and sterilizing of the wound will check
the development of cankers in many
cases, especially if taken in the earliest
stages. New orchards should be carefully
inspected for several years and all affect-
ed spots treated as soon as discovered.

A Partial List of Important Works
Relating to Cherry Gummosis

Aderhold, R. Ueber das Eirschbaum-
sterben am Rhein, seine Urschen unci
seine Behandlung. Arb. K. Gsndhtsamt.,
Biol. Abt. 3, No. 4, 1903.

Aderhold, R., and Ruhland, W. Der
Bacterienbrand der Eirschbaume. Arb.
K. Gsndhsamt. Biol. Abt. 5, p. 293, 1907.

Beijerinck, M. W., and Rant, A. Siir
Texcitation par traumatisme, le para-
sitisme et Vecoulement gommeux chez les
amygdalees. Arch. Neerland. Sci. Exact,
et Nat, Ser. 2, 11, p. 184, 1906.

Brzezinski, P. J. Etiologie du chancre
et de la gomme des arbres fruitie'rs.
Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 134, No. 20, p.
1170, 1902.

Butler, O. R. A Study on Gummosis of
PrvMus and Citrus. Ann. Bot. 27, No. 97,
p. 107, 1911.

Frank, A. B., and Kruger, F. Das
Eirschbaumsterben am Rhein. Dent.
Landw. Presse. 1899, p. 249.

Griffin, F. L. A Bacterial Gummosis of
Cherries. Science N. S. 34, No. 879, p.
615, Nov. 3, 1911.

McAlpine, D. FungoxLS Diseases of
Stone Fruit Trees in Australia. Bui. Dept.
Agr. (Victoria), 1902, p. 67.

Mikosch, K. Untersuchungen uber die
Entstehung des Eirschgummi. Sitzber.
K. Akad. Wiss. (Vienna), Math. Naturw.
Kl. 115, No. 6, p. 911, 1906.

Prillieux, E. Etude sur la formation de
la gomme dans les arbres fruitiers. Compt.
Rend Acad. Sci. 78, p. 135, 1874.

Sorauer, P. Untersuchungen uber Gum-
mifluss und Frostwirkungen bei Eirsch-
baumen. Part 1, Landw. Jahrb, 39, p.
259, 1910. Part 2, Landw. Jahrb. 41, p.
131, 1911.

Die Back

Cherry trees are subject to injury from
unfavorable conditions of soil, moisture,
etc. As a result of such injuries the trees
frequently die back from the top and
suffer severely in this way.

This trouble can be controlled only by
planting on soil which is particularly
suited to the cherry and by determining
the best root stock for any given type of
soil or locality.

Trees in which die back and gummosis
are produced by unusual climatic condi-
tions should be cut back in the top to
sound wood, and have the trunks pro-
tected from sunburn by whitewash or
wrapping.

Fruit Drop

Fruit falls to the ground while small
and undeveloped. The trouble is common
to many fruits and is due to conditions
of climate which lie outside of ordinary
control, or to lack of proper pollination,
which may be controlled by planting suit-
able varieties for cross-pollination. Rains
occurring at blossoming time or frost at a
critical time may have this effect.

R. E. Smith,
California Experiment Station, Bulletin 218.

Leaf Curl or Witches' Broom

Exoascus cerasi

H. S. Jackson

This disease is quite common in the

Northwest, but is not yet very serious. It

is caused by a fungus, Exoascus cerasi,

which attacks the branches. The affected

790

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

branch is not killed, but the presence of
the fungus stimulates it to an unnatural
and prolific formation of twigs, resulting
in the peculiar "witches' broom" effect.
These witches' brooms may be large or
small, and are especially conspicuous at
blossoming time, since they produce few
flowers or none at all, while the leaves
appear sooner than those on the normal
parts of the tree. These leaves, which
are penetrated by the fungus, are reddish
in color and somewhat wrinkled or wavy.
Not long after they become fully expand-
ed the spores of the fungus are produced
all over the surface and the affected leaves
fall prematurely.

Control
Since the witches' broom produces no
fruit, and is a drain on the rest of the
tree, and a source of new infections, we
recommend that the affected branches be
cut off, a few inches below the diseased
portion, and destroyed.

Leaf Spot or Shot Hole

Cylindrosporium padi
H. S. Jacksox
There are several leaf spot and shot
hole diseases which are more or less com-
mon on various stone fruits; but the
greater part of this sort of injury on the
cherry and plum is due to the fungus
called Cylindrosporium padi. The trouble
caused by this organism on the Pacific
coast is not usually severe enough to
alarm growers, but there is reason to
think that the extent of damage is under-
estimated. While the amount of leaf area
which is destroyed by the fungus is gen-
erally not very extensive,, the presence of
the shot hole spots on the leaves often re-
sults in partial defoliation, and in bad
cases, even in total defoliation of the tree.
This is naturally a severe check on its
development. At the points where the
infections take place, a small brownish
spot appears. This enlarges, and may be
surrounded by a reddish border. After a
time, the dried center of the spot becomes
detached from the margin and falls out,
leaving the shot hole effect. On some va-
rieties of cherries the center does not
drop out, however, as it does in our com-
mon sweet varieties. The disease is

spread by means of spores produced in
the affected spots and the fungus prob-
ably survives the winter in the fallen
leaves from which, in the spring, spores
are carried to the new foliage by the
wind.

Control

The disease can be largely controlled by
spraying. According to W. M. Scott, of
the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, who experimented in Illinois, self-
boiled lime-sulphur 10-10-50, commercial
lime-sulphur 1-40, and a weak Bordeaux
mixture 2-4-50, are equally effective. Re-
cent experiments by Butler in Wisconsin
indicate, however, that Bordeaux is more
effective than commercial lime-sulphur.
It is recommended that the spray be
applied three times: First, half way be-
tween blossoming time and the ripening
of the fruit; second, just after picking;
third, about one month after the second.

Mushroom Root Rot. See under Apple.

Powdery Mildew. See under Peach.

Shot Hole. See Leaf Spot, this sec-
tion.

Witches' Broom. See Leaf Curl.

CHEERY PESTS

Bud Moth, Eye Spotted Bud Moth. See
under Apple Pests.

Cherry Aphis. See ApMds.

Cherry Fruit Fly

Rhagoletis cingulata Loew
H. F. Wilson

Unfortunately, due to the habits of this
insect, the grower does not know of its
presence until the cherries are mature. If
left to hang on the tree or uneaten for
several days after picking, the presence
of a full grown maggot is shown by the
rotting and shrinking of one side of the
fruit, and about that time the maggots
leave the fruit for the purpose of going to
the ground, where they pupate and remain
over winter. The adult fly resembles the
common apple maggot very closely and
may prove to be the same insect. Some-
what smaller than the common housefly,
the general color is black with lateral
borders of thorax light yellow, and head
and legs yellowish-brown. Wings with
flve, more or less distinct black bands.

CHERRY PESTS

791

three of which lie angled to each other
and join at the front edge of the wing
near the tip. These flies deposit the eggs
from which the yellowish-white maggots
or "worms" issue and work in the fruit
around the pits. This causes a kind of
rotting and softening of the fruit on one
side.

Just when the fruit is entered is not
known, but the life of the maggot is prob-
ably about three weeks, and as the ma-
ture stage is reached about the time the
fruit is ripe, some idea of the time they
enter the cherry may be gained. Since
the larvae remain in the fruit for a short
time after it is picked they may be dis-
tributed quite a distance in fruit. The
adults are not strong fliers and can hard-
ly do more than to spread from tree to
tree or at the most from orchard to
orchard.

Remedies

No very satisfactory remedy is at
present known, although a great many
have been tried.

Cherry Fruit Sawfly

Hoplocampa cookei Clarke

The cherry fruit sawfly is a native of
California and other Pacific coast states
and has been known since 1883 in the
Suisun valley, California.

Considerable damage to young cherries
has been done in various sections by the
larvae of this insect and occasionally, at
least, control measures may be necessary.

The presence of the insect may be told
by the small round holes bored in the
young green cherries, many of which
soon drop to the ground.

The larvae are small, white and aver-
age about one-fourth of an inch in length.
The adults are four-winged insects, black
with brownish or reddish appendages,
about one-eighth of an inch long.

Control measures have not been thor-
oughly perfected but two applications of
arsenate of lead at the rate of four to
five pounds to 100 gallons of water, the
first application to be made shortly be-
fore the blossoms open and the second
about 10 days later, have proven effective.
Fall plowing is also recommended to kill
the larvae and pupae in the soil while a

distillate-oil emulsion and nicotine spray
is recommended to kill adults at time of
egg laying.

The insect has been reported as occur-
ring in the Suisun valley. El Dorado and
Nevada counties, California, and at Med-
ford, Oregon, where it is confined to a
very small area.

The orchard fruits attacked are cherry
(sweet and sour), prune, plum, peach and
apricot (the peach and apricot only occa-
sionally).

The females appear about the time the
Black Tartarian cherries are in bloom.
The eggs hatch about the time the petals
fall.

E. O. Essio

Clierry Leaf Beetle

Galerucella cavicollis
In September a small, dark red beetle,
less than one-fourth inch long, may be
found feeding on the leaves of cherries.
The antennae and parts of the legs are
black. It is partial to the wild cherries,
and also feeds on peach and plum. This
is the cherry leaf beetle. It may be de-
stroyed in the fall by spraying with
arsenate of lead, three to five pounds in
50 gallons of water.

H. A. GOSSARD

Cherry Scale

Ettlecaniuvi cerasorum Ckl.

General Appearance

The full-grown scales are exceedingly
large, often obtaining a height of three-
eighths of an inch, though the average
is slightly over a quarter of an inch. The
general shape is hemispherical, and the
bodies are very irregular and lobed. The
general color is rich brown, mottled with
creamy white. The markings are more
or less regular and constant. The entire
surface is highly polished and shiny.

Food Plants

This scale works upon the branches of
cherry and pear trees, collecting in such
great numbers as to do considerable dam-
age.

Control
Same as for black scale on deciduous
fruit trees or for the European fruit
scale.

E. 0. EssiG

792

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fis'. 1. The ("berry Scale. Lnlf (■(inium CPia-sn-
riini (ckll) en I'ear. Slightly rediued.
(Original.)

Cherry and Pear Slugr

Caliroa cerasi Linn

H. F. Wilson

This insect is a common pest of pear,

cherry, plum and other fruit trees, and

although not hai-d to control often causes

considerable damage. The name "slug"

Fig. 1. Clien-y Lea yes Injured by 81uj;s.

Fig. 2. Adult of Cherry and Pear Slue

is applied on account of the slimy black
exudation with which the larva sur-
rounds itself.

It appears to be a native of Europe and
was known as a pest as far back as 1740.
In America the distribution seems to
occur with the areas where its principal
host plants are found. A large number
of trees, including forest and orchard
trees, have been reported as attacked by
this insect, but cherry, pear and plum are
said to be the favorite plants.

When present in any locality the larvae
soon make themselves familiar to the
fruit grower both by their appearance and
by the injury which they do.

In the Northwest we have found but
two complete broods with some indication
that there may be a partial third. The
first adults appear in early spring, but
for some reason the eggs do not develop
or are not laid until May or June; as
soo.n as they hatch the young larvae be-
gin feeding on the leaves and from that
time until the leaves drop the slugs are
present in varying numbers. Most of
them, however, are found In two distinct
periods: the larvae of the first genera-
tion appear more abundant during June
and July; the laiwae of the second gen-
eration are most numerous during Au-
gust and September.

W^ebster has worked out the following
schedule for Iowa;

CHERRY PESTS

793

Mil.

M

May.

0 ip Jo 9

uLts .

%5

Larv&

(Tunt.

0 iS Jo J

Cocodfts-

July.

0/0 10 3

duLts^

Co

A US u si.

Siptembei

0 Jo JO 3

coons.

October.

5 i5 I^~3

Fi£

Diagram of Life Cycle.

When present in large numbers, they
soon cause the leaves to become brown
and the trees to look as if they had been
badly scorched by fire. The adult insect
is a small shining black fly with four
smoky transparent wings, the smoky ap-
pearance being caused by a dusky band
across the middle of the wings. On ac-
count of the saw-like ovipositor with
which the insect makes incisions into the
leaves, this insect and a number of closely
allied species are known as saw flies.

Life History and Habits

Searching out a suitable place, the adult
fly luishes the ovipositor rather slowly
into the under surface of the leaf and

Fig. 4.

•1 IV and Pear Slui;.
— After EiciiKi.

(Iowa Bulletin 130.)

makes a small oval-shaped pocket into
which the egg is placed by means of the
ovipositor. When the pocket is being
made the tissues are so cut as to prevent
their growing around the egg and de-
stroying it or preventing the escape of
the larva.

The egg is almost colorless and is flat-
tened on the lower side. As soon as the
eggs hatch the young larvae make their
way to the upper surface of the leaf and
begin feeding. At first they are yellowish
white in color and without slime. In a
very short time, however, as the slime
spreads over the body, they change to a
dirty green and have more the appear-
ance of a slug than of an insect. Imme-
diately upon hatching they begin feeding
on the upper tissue of the leaf, eating
out numerous small patches, so that a
number of slugs working on the same
leaf will leave nothing but the dead
brown skeleton of veins.

After completing their moults the lar-
vae do not feed any more, but crawl or
drop to the ground, woi'k their way into
the soil from one to three inches and
pupate. After moulting the last time,
they do not again assume the slimy pro-
tection, and instead of being green they
;ire of a yellowish orange color with two
minute black eyes. After the larvae
crawl into the ground an oval cell about
five-tenths inch long by three-sixteenths
inch wide is made.

794

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 5. Pupa Cases of Cherry and Pear Slug.

When disturbed these cells are very
easily broken apart, a fact which might
indicate that fall plowing can be used as
a method of destroying the pupae, accord-
ing to Marlatt.

"During the heated season of July and
August the transformation from the lar-
val to the adult insect is quite rapid, the
pupal stage being assumed in from six to
eight days, and the adult flies transform-
ing and digging out through the soil some
12 or 15 days after the larva entered it."*

According to the studies of Peck and
Marlatt some of the larvae of this spring
brood remain over in the soil until the
following spring. This seems to be a pro-
vision of nature to carry the species over,
should anything happen to exterminate
the regular line of succession, such as

Fig. 6. Egg of Cherry and Pear Slug.
• — After EiciiKi.

* C. C. Marlatt, U. S. Department Agricul
ture. Bureau of Entomology Circular 26, Second
Series 1897.

lack of food, unfavorable climatic con-
ditions, etc.

Natural Enemies
Although furnished with a sticky cov-
ering which acts as a repellant against
all enemies, the insect is not entirely
free from insect enemies, and in Europe
some half dozen insect parasites have
been reared from it. In this country a
minute fly is said to sting the egg through
the upper leaf tissue.

Remedies

White hellebore, one pound to 50 gal-
lons of water. No foliage is injured and
the slugs are nearly all dead on the day
following the application of spray.

"Black Ieaf-40" gives practically the
same results as white hellebore and does
not injure the foliage. "Black Ieaf-40" is
more expensive to use than the hellebore.

Hellebore is the best remedy to use for
cheapness, efficiency and lack of injury
to the foliage. To get best results it
must be fresh and free from adultera-
tion.

Arsenate of lead is cheaper but does
not kill as quickly and may injure the
foliage.

CuRCULio. See under Plum Pests.

Divaricated Buprestis

Dicerca divaricata
A flatheaded borer found beneath the
bark. May be treated the same as the
flat headed apple tree borer, which see
under Apple Pests.

Dogday Cicada or Dogday Harvest Fly

Cicada linnei
Deposits its eggs in the twigs of cher-
ry and other trees. The musical notes
or drumming of the male cicada during
the middle of the day is a familiar sound
during August and September. Injury
by this insect is generally slight and it
is scarcely necessary to trim out and
burn the twigs containing eggs.

Emperor Moth

Vallosamia promethea
Until late in September, full-grown
caterpillars of the Promethea Emperor
moth may be found feeding on the leaves
of cherry, especially of the wild species.
This is a large, bluish white, or bluish

CHERRY PESTS

795

green caterpillar, about 214 inches long,
with 4 yellow or red tubercles or horns
on the thoracic segments, i. e., on the
two posterior rings bearing feet; there
is also a large horn of similar color on
the back of the 12th segment, count-
ing from the head. When full fed, the
caterpillar draws the opposite edges of
a good sized leaf together, thus making a
kind of cylinder, except that the ends
are closed, and within this it spins a very
tough, light-colored cocoon. The stem of
the leaf, enclosing the cocoon, is attach-
ed by a strong band of silken threads to
the twig which produced it. So strong
is this connecting band that it cannot
be broken except by a very strong pull.
The cocoons may be clipped from the
trees and burned after the leaves have
fallen. No other remedy than hand-gath-
ering is needed when the worms are feed-
ing.

H. A. GOSSABD,

Wooster, Ohio.
Bbmixe Moth. See under Apple Pests.

Fall Canker Worm

AlsophiJa pometaria Harris

Family Geometridae

General Appearance
In all of its stages this insect greatly
resembles the spring canker worm (Pale-
acrita vernata Peck), but differs in that
the larvae have three pairs of legs on the
posterior half of the body instead of two
and the bodies are more distinctly striped.
The primary wings of the males also have
an extra light band near the middle. The
eggs are shaped like small flower pots, be-
ing smaller at the bottoms than at the
tops, with distinct darker circles at the
tops. They are deposited in regular
clusters of from fifty to two hundred,
standing side by side in exposed places.

Life History

The life history is practically the same
as that of the spring canker worm, but
the eggs are deposited in a compact mass
and glued to the twigs and covered with
hairs from the female's body in the late
fall or during the milder portions of
winter, as late as March. The young
hatch about the same time as those of
the spring forms and work about the

same. The adults issue from October to
December, or as late as spring, and im-
mediately crawl up the trunks to de-
posit their eggs.

Food Plants

The foliage of the apple, prune, cherry,
apricot and other fruit trees are attack-
ed.

Control

Control measures as adopted for the
spring canker worm may be used for this
(See under Apple Pests.) Bands around
the tree trunks will not prove as effect-
ual, because of heavy winter rains, un-
less they are occasionally renewed. These
barriers must be put in place during
September and October and continued un-
til spring.

E. O. EssiG

Fall Web Worm. See under Apple
Pests.

Fro.sted Scale. See under Apricot
Pests.

Fruit Bark Beetle. See under Apple
Pests.

Ivy or Oleander Scale. See Apple
Pests.

Leaf Crumpler. See under Apple Pests.

Peach Borer. See under Peach Pests.

Pear Blight Beetle. See Shot Hole
Borer, this section.

Pear Thrips. See under Pear Pests.

San Jose Scale. See under Apple
Pests.

Scurfy Scale. See under Apple Pests.

Smaller Shot Hole Borer

Xyleborus saxeseni Ratz
H. F. Wilson

This little cylindrical beetle is quite
similar to the shot hole borer in appear-
ance, but is only about one-half as large.
The burrows are also quite dissimiliar in
nature, and on comparison can readily be
distinguished.

The above species apparently works
upon the same trees and under the same
conditions as the larger species, and so
far as we know, never enters perfectly
healthy trees. The life history is not
definitely known for the Northwest, but
in general is about as follows:

The adults reach maturity in the spring

796

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

or summer, and making their burrows in
some diseased tree deposit eggs which
later hatch out into small white grubs.
These are the larvae and remain in that
stage through the summer and winter
transforming to pupae and adults in the
spring. The burrow, instead of being a
series of short tunnels, is one large cavity
with sides parallel and about the width
of the full grown beetle. The sides ex-
tend straight up and down and the eggs
are indiscriminately deposited in a single
mass. It is believed that this insect at-
tacks only unhealthy trees.

Shot Hole Borer or the Pear Blight
Beetle

Xyleborus dispar Fabricus
H. F. Wilson
There is no evidence that shot hole
borers attack healthy trees in the North-
west under ordinary conditions.

Contrary to all i-eports from Europe
and other parts of the United States there
appears to be but one brood in this sec-
tion.

Classification
The Scolytidae or engraver beetles, con-
stitute a large and important group of

Fig. 1. Heart Rot Fungus {SchtzophyUum sp.)
in Cherry, Issuing Tlirough Burrows of
(Xpleborus dispar).

beetles, many of which are very destruc-
tive to forest trees. From an economic
standpoint the members of this family
may be divided into two general groups,
those attacking healthy living plants and
those attacking plants in a more or less
sickly or dying condition. Observations
made in the Northwest by the writer in-
dicate that Xyleborus dispar is distinct-
ly a member of the second group.

History

The widespread distribution of this in-
sect in Europe would indicate its being
native to fpat country. We can only
theorize on the time and means of im-
portation into the United States, but the
time must have been several years prior
to 1816. About this time the insect was
attracting some attention in Europe and
has continued to receive more or less at-
tention by different writers up to the pres-
ent date.

Distribution

This insect is found in nearly all parts
of Europe and England and Is gradually
spreading into certain sections of Canada
and the United States.

Occurrence in the Northwest

The first reported injury in the North-
west which was in Clarke county, Wash-
ington, came in 1901, where a grower
thought that a great many prune trees
were being killed by the beetles. At the
same time the beetles were working in
Oregon near the city of Portland. In
looking over the many inquiries which
have been received during the past ten
years it is interesting to note the gradual
spread of the insect up the Willamette
valley until now it is at Junction city, a
distance of 125 miles south of Portland.

At the present time the distribution ex-
tends through the lower part of the val-
ley on both sides of the river as far as
the foot hills. The infested territory is
increasing quite rapidly and the borers
will in time undoubtedly spread over the
entire western part of Washington and
Oregon. From Portland to Salem, Ore., a
distance of 53 miles, they are very abun-
dant across the entire valley, and few dy-
ing trees escape their attack.

CHERRY PESTS

797

Nature and Extent of Injury

The real injury caused by these beetles
seems to be almost, if not entirely, second-
ary. Many of our orchardists upon find-
ing sick and dying trees with the shot
hole borer working in them have attribut-
ed the cause to the beetles.

By visiting many of these places and
explaining to the orchardist the true con-
ditions, we have convinced them that the
trees were suffering from some fungus
disease or improper soil condition.

The beetles may help to kill the trees
and in some cases might cause the death
of trees which would have recovered from
the disease had the beetles not been pres-
ent. In the case of young trees, only one
or two years old, this could readily hap-
pen, as the burrows extend almost en-
tirely around the trees and close to the
inner bark. (For example see Fig. 2.)

Fig. 2. The Shot Hole Borer. Burrow in
young cherry tree and adults in hibernation.

In the summer, after the beetles have
completed the burrows, such trees can
easily be broken off at the point of in-
jury.

Life History

The winter is spent in the adult stage.
Both males and females hibernate in the
burrows from July and August until the
following spring. They emerge during
the last of March and first of April and
migrate to sick and dying trees, where
the burrows of that season are to be
made. The entrance hole is usually made
about a bud scar or in some roughened
place. The beetles have no trouble in
picking out the sick trees.

The Adult

The adult bores directly through the
bark and into the wood tissue for a quar-
ter of an inch or more and then begins
the construction of branch burrows ex-
tending at right angles to the main bur-
row and with the grain of the wood.
These channels are all about one-twelfth
inch in diameter and from three-quarters
to two and a quarter inches in length.

The Egg

The eggs may be found from the second
week in April until the middle of June.
When first deposited they are oblong in
shape and pearly white in color. They
measure 1 mm. in length by 0.06 mm. in
diameter and will stand considerable
rough handling. There seems to be no
regularity in the egg deposition, as there
may be from one to seven in each cham-
ber of the burrow, placed without discrim-
ination.

The burrows are not all made at once
but are completed in sections, the female
spending her time meanwhile between de-
positing eggs and resting near the en-
trance to the burrow. When the first
branch chamber is finished the mother
beetle deposits in it from one to seven
eggs, and the fungus food of the larvae
having been arranged for, she closes the
entrance with frass and pays no more
attention to it. The entire burrow is
usually completed by the middle of May
and then the mother beetle returns to the
entrance where she stands guard until
the following winter.

798

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

In the fall, when the beetles have ma-
tured, if some of the burrows are opened,
both males and females can be found,
the females usually outnumbering the
males four or five to one.

During the hibernation period the
adults apparently do not feed, as the
fungus upon which the larvae feed is al-
most entirely absent in burrows opened at
various times during the winter and
there is no evidence of wood burrowing.

Fig. .3. The Shot Hole Borer (Xyleborus dis-
par). A, Larva; B, Pupa; C, Adult Female;
D, Adult Male ; E, Eggs.

Host Plants

This insect will apparently work and
develop in all kinds of deciduous fruit
and forest trees and has been reported
as working in conifers. The following
fruit trees are reported: apple, pear,
quince, cherry, prune, plum, hawthorn,
apricot, white hawthorn, grape and pome-
granate. Nearly all writers on this sub-
ject agree that the beetles favor dying
trees to healthy ones and several of them
state that freshly cut logs and stumps are
excellent breeding places. In the North-
west we have found them working in
cherry, prune, apple, pear and chestnut.
Cherry and prune are attacked more be-
cause those two trees appear to be more
subject to diseased conditions than any
of the others. Many cherry trees, espec-
ially young ones, die each year from the
disease known as cherry gummosis.
Prune trees are found growing in all man-
ner of places and a great many in unsuit-
able surroundings. Naturally many of
them succumb, and in addition there
seems to be a disease similar to that of
the cherry which destroys a great many.
Both of these fruits develop what is com-

monly known as sour sap, a condition
known to be favorable for the develop-
ment of the fungus food upon which the
larvae feed.

An occasional apple orchard is found
infested, and I have observed a few pear
trees showing attacks of this insect.

The Food of Xjieborns Dispar

The fungus upon which the larvae
feed is evidently carried to the burrows
by the females, since it appears in each
burrow almost as soon as started.

The earlier entomologists seem to have
been in doubt as to the nature of the
food found in the brood chambers. Hub-
bard, 1897, gives a discussion on this
fungus. He writes as follows:

"The ambrosia does not make its ap-
pearance by accident or at random in the
galleries of the beetles. Its origin is en-
tirely under the control of the insect. It
is started by the mother beetle upon a
carefully packed bed or layer of chips,
sometimes near the entrance, in the bark,
but generally at the end of a branch gal-
lery in the wood. In some species the
ambrosia is grown only in certain brood
chambers of peculiar construction. In
others it is propagated in beds, near the
cradles of the larvae. The excrement of
the larvae is used in some and probably
in all the species to form new beds or
layers for the propagation of the fungus.

"There must be present a certain
amount of moisture or sap, and the sap
in most species must be in a condition of
fermentation."

As the fungus develops the growth
forms into little globules containing the
spores.

"The young larvae nip off these tender
tips as calves crop the heads of clover,
but the older larvae and the adult beetles
eat the whole structure down to the base,
from which it soon springs up afresh, ap-
pearing in little white tessellations upon
the walls."

Natural Enemies

Eichhoff, 1881, reports Calydium fill-
forme, Oxylaunus caesus and Hypophlosus
bicolor as found in the chambers of Xyle-
borus dispar and probably feeding upon
the brood and eggs of the latter.

CHERRY PESTS— CHESTNUT CULTURE

799

Schwarz, 1891, reports finding Bactri-
dium cavicolle in breeding cages of Xyle-
borus dispar, and supposes that they are
predacious on the larvae and eggs of this
insect. We have as yet found no natural
enemies of this insect in Oregon, probably
owing to its recent importation.

(See also Lesser Shot Hole Borer, this sec-
tion.— Ed.)

Bibliography of More Recent Literature

1872 — Hartig, Th. Ambrosia des Bostri-
chus dispar. (Allgem Forst u. Jagd.
Zeit Neu, Folg. 13. Jahrg. S. 73-74.
Frankfort a. m., 1872.)

1873 — Schiodte, J. C. Fortegnelse overde
i Danmark levende curculiones Na-
turhistorisk Tidsskrift ved J. C.
Schiodte 5 Raekke. 8 Bind s. 47-110.
Kjobenhavn. 1872-1873, p. 103.

1879— Eichhoff, W. Rates, Descriptio, Em-
endatio eorum Tomicinorum, p. 320.

1895 — Judeich, Dr. J. F. und Nitsche, Dr.
H. "Lehrbuch der Mitteleuropais-
chen Forstinsektenkunde," Vol. I,
pp. 549-551.

1896— Smith, E. F. Ambrosia (Amer.
Nat. Vol. 30 [1896], No. 352, pp. 318,
319). Some notes on the fungus
food of Xyleborus.

1896 — Hubbard, Henry G. Ambrosia once
more. (American Naturalist, Vol.
30, p. 493, June [general]).

1897 — Hubbard, Henry G. Ambrosia Bee-
tles of the U. S. (Some miscellan-
eous results of the work of the Di-
vision of Entomology, U. S. Dept.
of Agri., p. 22 [Bui. 7, Bureau of
Entomology] ).

1898— Omerod, E. A. "A Handbook of In-
sects Injurious to Orchard and Bush
Fruits," p. 185.

1899— Harvey, F. L. and Munson, W. M.
Apple Insects of Maine. (Bui. 56,
Maine Agri. Exp. Sta., p. 112.)

1899 — Lugger, Otto. Beetles Injurious to
Fruit-Producing Plants. (Bui. 66,
Division of Entomology, Minn. Agri.
Exp. Sta., pp. 310-312.)

1902— Cordley, A. B. 14th Ann. Rept. Ore-
gon Agricultural College, pp. 60-61.

1902 — Fletcher, James. Report of the En-
tomologist and Botanist for 1901.

(Ann. Rept. Canada Experimental

Farms for 1901, p. 249.)
1905 — Fletcher, James. Report of the En-
tomologist and Botanist for 1904.

(Ann. Rept. Canada Experimental

Farms for 1904, p. 240.)
1905 — Beauverie, J. Le Bois. Ganthier-

Villars, edit, Paris.
1909 — Beauverie, J. Sur une maladie des

pechers dans la vallie du Rhone.

(L' Horticulture Nouvelle, Lyon,

1909.)
1910 — Beauverie, J. Les Bois Industriels,

0. Doin, edit, Paris.

1910 — Beauverie, J. Les Champignons dit
Ambrosia. (Ann. Des Sciences Na-
turalles Botanique. Tome XI, No.

1, pp. 31-75.)

Spring Canker Worm. See under Apple
Pests.

Tent Caterpillar. See under Apple
Pests.

Tussock Moth. See under Apple Pests.

Walnut Scale. See under Walnut
Pests.

White Peach Scale. See under Peach
Pests.

Chinese Apple. See Apple, Botany of.

Choke Berry. See Apple, Botany of.

Chestnut Culture

Commercial chestnut culture is begin-
ning to take a place among the perma-
nent horticultural industries of the United
States. The enormous annual crops of
small, sweet chestnuts, and the lack of
appreciation of the value of the chestnut
in the dietary of Americans have held
back the systematic improvement of the
American type into large, desirable kinds,
and discouraged, for many years, the in-
troduction of improved varieties from
Europe or Asia. A few European seed-
lings have been growing for nearly a cen-
tury within fifty miles of Wilmington,
Delaware, and Philadelphia, Pennsyl-
vania, where the history of the European
chestnut in America largely centers. In
all this time, but few orchards or groves
have been developed, and only within a
few years have any of the seedlings been
selected for commercial propagation.

800

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

History of the European Chestnut

The European chestnut, which is popu-
larly called the "Spanish Chestnut," was
introduced into the United States, not for
economic purposes, but by individuals
who wished to determine its adaptability
to their private estates. Nearly all of the
varieties now in propagation are descend-
ants from the French "Marrons," and
the appellation "Spanish" is an anomaly.
New varieties are not being extensively
introduced from Europe at present, but
many persons have planted the nuts of
the best naturalized kinds, like the Para-
gon, hoping to discover among the vari-
able progeny, seedlings that are super-
ior to their parents.

The earliest history of the European
chestnut, in America, is hidden in ob-
scure book notices, or in the note books
of those who were interested in early
American agriculture.

The introductions that mark the be-
ginning of the general dissemination
around Wilmington and Philadelphia
were those of Eleuthere Irenee du Pont
de Nemours, who, with his family, emi-
grated from France to America in 1799,
and after a residence at Bergen Point, N.
J., where he took much pleasure in pi'op-
agating a number of European seeds and
plants received from France. It can be
inferred from Mr. du Pont's journals and
correspondence, that he planted a num-
ber of French chestnuts in his garden at
Eleutherean Mills, Christiana Hundred,
near Wilmington, Delaware, in the spring
of 1803, and it is certain that a consid-
erable number of trees became estab-
lished and flourished there, some of which
are still in existence.

To many of his friends he sent nuts or
scions from his famous French Marrons,
and from these chestnuts a multitude of
seedlings sprang up and are still stand-
ing along the fence rows or in the gar-
dens.

A few of these surviving seedlings, by
attracting the attention of enterprising
nurserymen, have thereby entered the
variety ranks, but there are numbers that
have long lain in obscurity, which, if
introduced, might justly claim varietal

distinction. The history of the named
varieties is much confused, for it is based,
in many cases, on the uncertain memory
of those who have been longest acquaint-
ed with the trees.

History of the Japanese Chestnut

The development of the Japanese chest-
nut in America is the outcome of the sys-
tematic efforts of a number of nursery-
men to introduce varieties from Japan, or
to produce valuable seedlings from those
already naturalized.

In 1876, the S. B. Parsons Co., Flush-
ing, N. Y., imported a few trees from
Japan through the late Thomas Hogg.
(Fuller). The trees, Mr. S. B. Parsons
writes, were cultivated with no special
care, but the large nuts soon attracted at-
tention. The Parsons' Japan was well
known a few years ago, but at present
no important varieties are cultivated
from this importation.

In 1882, the late William Parry, Parry,
N. J., imported one thousand grafted
trees from Japan, and from them a
single tree, the Parry, was finally select-
ed, and has since become the progenitor
of more valuable kinds than any other
Japanese chestnut. The Parry Bros.,
who succeeded William Parry, have se-
lected a large number of seedlings of the
Parry for commercial propagation.

Luther Burbank, Santa Rosa, Cali-
fornia, planted a box of the largest Jap-
anese chestnuts sent him from his col-
lector in Japan in 1886, and from over
ten thousand bearing seedlings, after
years of critical study and elimination,
recently selected three as worthy of per-
petuation— the Hale, the Coe, and the
McFarland, now owned and propagated
by J. H. Hale, South Glastonbury, Conn.

The Lovett Company, Little Silver, N.
J., were active, at about the same time,
in introducing the type through import-
ed trees and nuts, and from the trees
sent out by them, several meritorious
kinds have been named by J. W. Kerr,
Denton, Maryland, and J. W. Killen, Fel-
ton, Delaware.

A number of other firms have been in-
troducing and distributing the nuts, but
nearly all of the named varieties can be

CHESTNUT CULTURE

801

traced to the introductions of the firms
mentioned.

The varieties of Japanese chestnuts
have been considerably confused through
the unfortunate practice of some who
have sent out seedlings under such
names as "Japan Mammoth," "Japan
Giant," and "Japan Sweet." These
names, as generally used, have no
varietal significance, for chestnut seed-
lings vary as widely as apple seedlings.

Geographical Adaptability

We can give no definite data that will
establish the geographical limits of the
cultivated chestnuts. Experimental ef-
fort is needed to establish their range of
adaptability. It is not improbable that
their distribution will follow the areas
of the American chestnut, falling short
of its extension in certain localities, and
extending beyond it in others. As a
guide to the possible geographical adapt-
ability, the range of the American chest-
nut, adapted from Sudworth's "Check
List of the Forest Trees of the United
States," is given.

"From Southern Maine to Northwest-
ern Vermont (Winooski river). South-
ern Ontario, and southern shores of
Lake Ontario to Southeastern Michigan;
southward to Delaware and Southeastern
Indiana, and on the Allegheny mountains
to Central Kentucky and Tennessee, Cen-
tral Alabama, and Mississippi."

(Hardy varieties of chestnuts will do well
along the Pacific coast as far northward as
Washington, according to Mr. A. A. Quarnberg,
nut specialist, of Clarke county, Washington.
The Japanese and French chestnuts shown in
this article were grown by Mr. Quarnberg.
Figs. 2 and 3. — Editor.)

Uses of the Chestnut
Before chestnut culture can become a
prominent industry, there will need to be
a larger appreciation of the uses to
which the chestnut can be put. Popu-
lar sentiment will also need revising, so
that the chestnut harvest will not be
looked upon as public property, purpose-
ly grown for the benefit of the communi-
ty at large. The chestnut industry, as
a means of enlarging the food supply
of the United States, is a horticultural
phase that is worthy of serious considera-
tion. In many European countries the

chestnut is looked upon as a staple ar-
ticle of diet.

In France

Griffin says, that in France, "from the
Bay of Biscay to Switzerland, there are
large plantations, and almost forests, of
chestnut trees." The nuts "are broad,
large, and resemble the American horse-
chestnut or buckeye (EscuJus hippo-
castanum), and are extensively eaten by
human beings and animals." * * * "The
poor people during the fall and winter,
often make two meals daily from chest-
nuts. The ordinary way of cooking them
is to remove the outside shell, blanch
them, then a wet cloth is placed in an
earthen pot, which is almost filled with
raw chestnuts; they are covered with a
second wet cloth and put on the fire to
steam; they are eaten with salt or milk.
Hot steamed chestnuts are carried around
the city streets in baskets or pails; the
majority of the working people, who
usually have no fire in the morning, eat
them for their first breakfast, with or
without milk." * * * "These nuts are
often used as a vegetable, and are ex-
ceedingly popular, being found on the
table of the well-to-do and wealthy. They
are served not only boiled, but roasted,
steamed, pureed, and as dressings for
poultry and meats."

"Chestnuts are made into bread by the
mountain peasantry. After the nuts have
been blanched, they are dried and ground.
From this flour, a sweet, heavy, flat cake
is made. It resembles the oaten cakes
so popular among the peasants."

In Italy

In Italy, Bruhl says that the chestnut
forms a considerable part of the diet of
the people during the fall and winter,
where they are generally eaten roasted.
"They are also much eaten in a cooked
state; often prepared like a stew, with
gravy." He says, also, "the chestnuts
are dried until they are as hard as dried
peas, then shelled, after horses have
been driven over them to crack the
shells." The dried nuts can be shipped
anywhere "and are said to be as good
for cooking purposes as the fresh ones.
These are also sold on the streets and
eaten like peanuts."

2—10

802

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

In Korea

In Korea, Allen says, "By far the most
common food nut is the chestnut, which
almost takes the place with the Korean
which the potato occupies with us. The
chestnut is used raw, boiled, roasted,
cooked with meat, made into confections,
powdered and mixed with candy, and
dried whole, in which latter condition it
becomes quite sweet, but is apt to be af-
fected by worms."

In Japan

According to Rein great quantities of
chestnuts are raised in Japan, but there
they are used less for human food than
they are elsewhere. They are fed large-
ly to swine. The latter practice may ac-
count for the poorer quality of the Jap-
anese chestnut; quantity, rather than
quality, being the desideratum among the
Japanese. Sargent, on the other hand, in
referring to the human use of the chest-
nut in Japan, disagrees with Rein, and
says, "I have never seen chestnuts of-

fered in such quantities in any American
or European city as in those of Tokyo,
and other Japanese towns."

The composition of the European chest-
nuts has been shown by Frear to be
similar to that of wheat. By the same
writer and by others it is stated that
the chestnut is easily digested after the
starch grains have been burst open and
made less resistant to the attacks of the
digestive fluids, by cooking.

Botanical Considerations

The botanical rank of the chestnut
groups is much perplexed. Botanists
are unanimous in according the Euro-
pean chestnut specific rank, but the
Japanese and the American types are
considered both as varieties and as
species by various authors. Personal-
ly, I prefer to consider the three groups
as distinct species, for as they are grow-
ing in America, each has broadly dif-
ferentiated characters on which to base
specific rank.

Fig. 1. Types of Chestnut Foliage. (1) Euro-
pean at Left; (2) Japanese in Center; (3)
American at Right. Note relative form, ser-
rations, freedom of the Japanese only from
leaf blight.

CHESTNUT CULTURE

803

European Group

The European chestnut is a large, close-
headed, but broadly spreading tree, with
thick branches and large buds; oblong-
lanceolate and generally abruptly-point-
ed, thick, leathery leaves, bearing small,
sometimes incurved teeth, and generally
pubescent beneath when young, and
smooth and green on both sides when
mature. The burs are enormously large,
with a thick, felt-like, hairy lining; the
nuts are thickly pubescent at the tip,
and sometimes over considerable of the
sides; variable in quality from bitter to
sweet; with a long point. The trees re-
tain the foliage late in the fall, and it
is susceptible to the attacks of leaf
fungi. (See Fig. 1.)

Fig. 2. Alpha Japanese. Chestnut Grown in
Clarke county, Washington.

— Mawted Photo.

Americau Group

The American chestnut differs in a
larger, freer, more upright form; more
slender branches; larger, thinner, more
pointed leaves, with larger, more spread-
ing teeth, in a greater pubescence when
young; smaller burs, and sweeter, small-
er, more pubescent nuts. The foliage is
also susceptible to leaf fungi, and is shed
earlier in the fall. (See Fig. 1, 2.)

Japanese Group

The Japanese chestnut is a semi-dwarf,
close-headed tree, with very slender,
slow-growing wood, bearing small buds
close together, and apparently, though

not actually, opposite, on the smaller
growth. The leaves are smaller than the
American or European, quite like the
peach-leaf in appearance, long, narrow,
generally pointed, with narrow, truncate
or cordate base, white tomentose beneath
and pale or bright green above, teeth,
small and sharply awn-pointed. The
burs are comparatively small, with a
thin, often parchment-like, hairy lining.
The nuts large, comparatively free from
pubescence, earlier to ripen, and poorer
in quality, though excellent when cook-
ed. The foliage of the Japanese is ap-
parently free from the attacks of the
common leaf fungi. The tree is a beau-
tiful specimen for ornamental purposes.
(See Fig. 1.)

The Blossoms

The chestnut is monecious, that is, the
male and female flowers are separate on
the same tree. Young, vigorous-growing
trees frequently produce male flowers
only, and after their excessive vegetative
vigor ceases and the trees become older,
the female flowers develop. The stami-
nate flowers are borne in long, slender
catkins, and are much more numerous
than the pistillate flowers. The pistillate
flowers are clustered at the base of a long
catkin, on the distal end of which the
staminate flowers open later in the sea-
son, the catkin aborting down to the lit-
tle female blossoms.

The pistillate flowers are probably fer-
tilized by both sets of staminate blos-
soms, the early ones fertilizing the early
opening blossoms, and the later ones fur-
nishing the pollen for those that are re-
tarded. Thomas Meehan tells me that
he thinks the pollen from the late stam-
inate blossoms performs the function of
fertilization, and that the great show of
staminate catkins is a waste of energy,
in the American chestnut. In both Euro-
pean and Japanese varieties, I have
noticed that most of the pistils are re-
ceptive while the early staminate flowers
are in bloom.

Suggestire Hints on Chestnut Culture
The Production of Varieties

Seedlings. The large varieties of cul-
tivated, foreign chestnuts have been

804

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

evolved from the wild types through cen-
turies of selecting slightly better seed-
lings in each successive generation.
Chestnut seedlings exhibit variations
from the smallest American nuts to the
largest Japanese, from enormous pro-
ductiveness to approximate sterility,
from an acorn-like flavor to a sweet, de-
sirable quality, from ripening in August
to maturity in October. Some of the
seedlings hold their dead leaves all win-
ter, others have nuts enclosed in a bur
from which it is difficult to extract them.
Certain varieties, like the Parry, are ex-
tremely prepotent, and their progeny ex-
hibit striking similarities. From the de-
sirable variations new kinds can be pro-
duced.

Crosses
New kinds may be produced by cross-
ing the varieties within the species, or
the Japanese, European, and American
varieties may be intercrossed. Mr. Luth-
er Burbank informs me that he has a
few hundred hybrid chestnuts just be-
ginning to bear — crosses of Japanese,
European, Chinese, chinquapin, and oth-
ers, among which are a number of ex-
tremely valuable varieties. Mr. Burbank
thinks that all the chestnuts intercross
as readily as the various varieties of ap-
ples.

Bud Yarieties
New varieties may possibly be develop-
ed from bud variations, as tree under ap-
parently similar conditions, show the
widest differences in bearing tendencies.
The variations might be perpetuated in
newly grafted trees, though it is quite
possible that the violent differences with-
in the cultivated varieties are due to the
reciprocal action of stock and scion, when
the union is imperfect. At any rate, in
the perpetuation of a variety, too much
care cannot be used in selecting scions
for propagation only from trees with de-
sirable bearing tendencies.

Propagation

Grafting. Chestnuts are propagated
usually by grafting, though budding, with
buds that have been held dormant, is
frequently practiced in the spring in the
South. The scions are inserted upon the

stocks by different propagators in four
positions, i. e., in the root, in the crown,
in the body or stem, and in the top or
branches of the tree. Two methods of
grafting are generally employed, the
cleft graft for stocks of large size, and
the whip-graft for smaller stocks. A
third system, the bark graft, is occasion-
ally used for very large stocks. The
grafting technique must be performed
most skillfully to insure a successful out-
come. The scions should be cut with
precission, and the young, fine wood, espe-
cially in the Japanese varieties, should
be discarded. Immediately after insert-
ing the scions, the stubs must be careful-
ly covered with wax, or with waxed cloth,
the latter method being preferable for
young trees, as the stubs often do not
close tightly. If the stub can be cut
two or three inches above a fork, the
openings close more firmly.

Britton, of the Connecticut station, in
1898, found from grafting over two hun-
dred scions of the Japanese and Euro-
pean varieties on American stocks, that
more scions live when inserted after the
leaves had begun to expand.

He says that the early grafts that sur-
vived made a much larger growth than
the later ones. He states also that the
scions take more readily in young shoots.

Stocks for Grafting in the Jfursery

The cultivated varieties of the Euro-
pean chestnut are generally propagated,
either upon their own American-grown
seedlings, or upon native, American seed-
lings. Japanese varieties are often prop-
agated upon seedlings grown from im-
ported Japanese seed. Occasionally, seed-
ling trees of the European chestnut are
imported, but they are worthless for prop-
agating purposes as the bodies become af
flicted with sun scald.

Each species seems to work best upon
stocks of the same type, but there is a
close affinity between the Japanese and
the American stocks, and between some
varieties of the Europeans and the Ameri-
can seedlings.

The European varieties are propagated
largely upon American stocks, and suc-
cessfully with many varieties, but nur-

CHESTNUT CULTURE

805

serj-men are coming to use seedlings of
the European varieties in preference.
The European scions sometimes out-
grow the American stubs, making an en-
larged, or a poorly united union, the
scion frequently blowing out during the
first season of growth.

The Chestnut Orchard

The chestnut orchard should be locat-
ed on a well drained, porous soil, with a
deep, porous subsoil, through which the
roots can descend and supply the tree
with moisture in drying weather. It is
more important to have thoroughly drain-
ed soil than soil of a pai-ticular character,
and the trees will then flourish on light
sands or heavy clays. Limestone lands
are generally uncongenial to the chest-
nut, due probably to the close proximity
of the underlying rocks to the surface,
for in limestone soils with well-drained,
deep, porous subsoils, the chestnut thrives
heartily.

The European chestnut should be set
not less than forty feet, and the Jap-
anese not less than thirty feet apart
each way. The trees can be planted
much closer at first and cut out to those
permanent distances ten or fifteen years
later after several profitable crops have
been removed. The care of the young
orchard should be the same as that given
a young apple plantation.

Subsequent Care of the Trees

Grafted chestnut trees are precocious.
The grafts of the Japanese sorts on
sprout land frequently set fruit the same
year of insertion, and their early bear-
ing tendencies often prevent a satisfac-
tory development of the tree. Two-year-
old grafts are commonly loaded with burs
in both Japanese and European kinds,
though the Japanese varieties as a class
bear earlier, both when grafted and from
seed. It would probably be a profitable
undertaking to keep the burs picked from
the young trees for three or four years,
in order that they might become strong
and thoroughly established before the
strain of reproduction is upon them. The
young trees should also be pruned to an
open spreading form, with three to five

main branches on which the top will
eventually form, after which the trees
themselves will need little care other than
good culture. If the trees are allowed to
over-bear, the nuts run down in size.

Do Varieties Need Cross Fertilizing

The question cannot be answered satis-
factorily with our present knowledge.
Nearly all of the European varieties
abort a large proportion of their burs
when the latter are partly grown, the
Paragon and Comfort being freer from it
than any of the other kinds. I have
seen instances of Eui'opean trees that are
non-productive at ten years old when
standing alone, but whether they would
be more productive in proximity to other
varieties is an open question. The Jap-
anese varieties do not abort their burs,
and seem to be completely self-fertile. In
the absence of definite information, we
would advise mixed planting as a safe-
guard.

Prices of Nuts

During the years 1896 to 1898 prices
of various varieties of chestnuts sold all
the way from $4.00 to $14.00 per bushel.

The earliest and the biggest chestnut
commands the highest price. Earliness
is the more important factor. Quality,
at present, is not considered by the pur-
chaser, the crop selling largely from the
street stands to boys and girls. The
nuts should be carefully graded into two
or three sizes before shipping and the
wormy ones destroyed, as the price of a
mixed lot is regulated by the smallest
nuts. The chestnuts are shipped in bags,
or in crates holding a number of small
baskets. The burs and nuts are gathered
every few days, and the burs that do not
cast their nuts are torn open by an oper-
ator wearing leather mittens.

European or Japanese Varieties

One of the first considerations to con-
front the prospective commercial chest-
nut grower is, "Shall the European or
the Japanese varieties be planted, or
both?" The question is a difficult one
to discuss without awakening enmity,
for both species have equally earnest ad-
vocates. The writer, however, will at-

806

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

i / . - J

Fig. 3. French (1), and Japanese (2), Chestnuts Grown by Mr. A. A. Quarnberg at Van-
couver, Washington.

tempt to place their merits side by side
as impartially as possible, basing the
estimate not on a limited observation of
a few trees, but on an acquaintance with
both species growing together on a large
commercial scale.

Japanese Group
Adyantages

1. Early maturity of tree.

2. Ease of caring for trees.

3. Early ripening of nuts.

4. Large size of nuts.

5. Enormous productiveness.

6. Small size of bur.

>7. Freedom from leaf blight.

8. Freer from worms than Europeans.

9. The money makers in the large
groves.

10. Affinity for American stocks.

11. Ornamental value.

Disadvantages

1. Overbearing, if not thinned.

2. Poorer quality of many.

3. Delicate growth of some.

European Group
Advantages

1. Great productiveness of some.

2. Timber value of tree.

3. Finer quality.

4. Beautiful appearance of nuts of
some.

5. Prolific bearing of a few.

Disadvantages

1. Late maturity of many.

2. Late ripening of nuts.

3. Shy bearing of many when young.

4. Largeness of bur, which may be-
come watersoaked and break the trees.

5. Great susceptibility to leaf blight.

6. Greater susceptibiltiy to weevil.

7. Do not compare with Japanese in
the commercial groves as money makers.

It can be stated as a general principle,
that the Japanese flora is better fitted to
the climatic conditions of the Eastern
United States than the flora of Western
Europe, the latter succeeding best on
the Pacific coast. Hence it is thought
that if the Japanese species is used as
a basis for further improvement, hap-
pier results will eventually follow its
amelioration in the Eastern United
States. The Japanese or European var-
ieties, as they exist, should be looked
upon only as stepping-stones to better
kinds. By the continued judicious selec-
tion of seedlings from varieties of the
best flavor, the quality of the Japanese
chestnut can be greatly improved in a
few generations. Some of the finer
quality of the chinquapin or of the na-
tive chestnut might be infused into the
Japanese with happy results, and a more
vigorous tree would follow the incorpora-
tion of a little European blood. One
type should supplement the other where-
ever the adaptability of both is proven.

CHESTNUT CULTURE— CHESTNUT DISEASES

807

Estimate of Varieties

The varieties of the cultivated chest-
nuts are not well enough established, nor
have they been grown on a sufficiently
comprehensive scale to determine their
horticultural value. Some of the most
promising kinds are confined to a few
trees only. It is therefore impossible,
to compare the various kinds, justly, but
the reader would probably not be satis-
fied unless some expression of prefer-
ence was recorded. Nothing more than
a personal preference can be expressed,
and the following varieties include those
that the writer would plant on his own
place for commercial purposes. The first
list is based upon the behavior of the
varieties that are growing on an exten-
sive scale, the second list includes those
kinds which are promising, but which
have not been grown extensively.

Tarieties Grown Extensively

Javanese — Alpha, Reliance, Parry.
First choice.

European — Paragon.
Numbo. Second choice.

First choice.

Varieties Not in Large Blocks, but
Promising

Japanese — Kerr, Kent, Killen. First
choice. Biddle, Felton, Martin. Second
choice.

European — Ridgely, Scott, Styer. First
choice. Dager, Darlington. Second
choice.

The Hale, McFarland, and Coe are high-
ly spoken of, but the writer has never
seen specimens and is therefore unable
to give them a fair estimate.

G. Harold Powell,

Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Newark, Delaware.

CHESTNUT DISEASES

Anthracnose

Marsonia ochroleuca B. & C.
Is a disfiguring spotting of chestnut
leaves. Small, dead areas with char-
acteristic borders are produced by this
fungus. Such applications of fungicides
as are made for shot hole fungus of the
plum and leaf spot of the horse chestnut,

will be found useful when treatment be-
comes necessary on the chestnut.

are immune to this

A. D. Selby,
Wooster. Obio.

(Japanese varieties
trouble. — Ed.)

Body Blight

The trunks of the chestnut trees in the
nursery frequently blight upon the south
and west sides. The bark splits or sinks
in and the affected tree finally dies.
Larger Japanese seedling trees, eight to
ten years old, are sometimes affected in
the same manner, but I have not ob-
served the difficulty on the larger Euro-
peans. Imported European seedling
trees seem to be more susceptible than
any others, and American seedling stocks
are affected to a lesser extent. Fig. 1
shows sections of the trunk affected with
the body blight. The sections were tak-
en from trees in a lot of one thousand
imported European seedlings, nine hun-
dred and fifty of which died soon after
setting out. As the malady nearly al-
ways appears on the south and west sides

Fig. 1. Sun Scald or Body Blight.

808

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

of the tree, it is thought that the trouble
is not unlike the Sun Scald of cherry
and other young fruit trees.

G. Harold Powell

Delaware Bulletin 42.

Cankee. See Bark Disease, this sec-
tion.

Chestnut Bark Disease

Diaporthe parasitica Murrill
This disease occurs in the northeastern
part of the United States and threatens
great damage to chestnut trees of all
species except certain Japanese varieties
which seem to be immune. The flavor
of these seems to be inferior to that of
the improved European sorts but is be-
lieved that varieties can be developed by
crossing which will combine the flavor
of the European and the resistant quali-
ties of the Japanese varieties.

The disease girdles the twigs and af-
fected limbs and otherwise reduces the
vitality of the tree. The fungus confines
itself to the bark and cambium and seems
to gain entrance almost wholly through
wounds.

No satisfactory method of control has
been discovered except that of severe
cutting when the disease first appears on
branches and twigs.

References

1908. Metcalf, Haven. Immunity of
the Japanese Chestnut to Bark Disease.
Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 121.

1909. Duggar, B. M. Fungus Diseases
of Plants, Ginn & Co., N. Y.

Chestnut Blight. See Chestnut Bark
Disease, this section.

Crown Gall. See under Apple Dis-
eases.

CHESTNUT PESTS
Chestnut Weevils

According to Chittenden* there are two
species of chestnut weevil, the "larger"
and the "lesser."

They have extremely long, slender
beaks or snouts, nearly as fine as a horse-
hair, and considerably longer than the
body in the female. By means of this
long beak the female is able to pene-
trate the thickest bur of the chestnut

* Bureau of Entomology Circular No.

with its long spines and to cut out, with
the minute and sharp mandibles at the
tip of her beak, a little hole for the
deposition of her eggs. These are insert-
ed through the husk into the growing
nut.

The two species resemble each other
greatly in color and in markings, the gen-
eral color of both being golden yellow,
ochraceous, or clay yellow, frequently
tinged with olive, and a little paler on
the lower surface. The disk of the thor-
ax is a little darker with a wide bright
band on each side, and the elytra, or wing
covers, are mottled with rich light brown
or dark brown markings of variable size
and extent.

Larger Chestnut Weevil

Balaninus proboscideus Fab.

The larger chestnut weevil is consid-
erably the larger and more robust species.
The female rostrum or beak, although
proportionately of about the same length
as in the lesser weevil, is perceptibly
more prominent because less curved, the
curvature being toward the tip. It is
also more widened at the base. The
body measures from one-third to nearly
one-half of an inch in length, and the
beak of the female is often five-eighths
of an inch long.

The larvae is milk-white, robust, fully
three times as long as wide. The fully
developed larva in ordinary resting posi-
tion measures nearly half an inch. Al-
though the larvae has no true legs, it
is able to crawl, slowly and clumsily, it
is true, by means of the flattened lower
surface, locomotion being aided by trans-
verse wrinkles.

The pupa is of a clearer whitish color
than the larva, and shows the principal
external organs of the body of the future
beetle, all, except the beak, folded tight-
ly to the body.

This species, like the other weevils
under consideration, is native to Ameri-
ca and is known from Rhode Island to
"Virginia, the District of Columbia, south-
ern Ohio, and Tennessee, and westward
to Kansas. The geographical distribu-
tion of this and the other nut weevils
has as yet not been carefully studied, but

CHESTNUT PESTS

809

in all probability it is considerably more
extensive than above stated.

Lesser Chestnut Weevil

Balaninus rectus Say.

The lesser chestnut weevil has the
scape of the antenna longer than in the
preceding species and the first joint long-
er than the second. The average length
of the body is about one-fourth of an
inch, but the size varies, as in all of
these insects.

The distribution of this species extends
from Canada and Massachusetts to North
Carolina, Tennessee, and Ohio, and prob-
ably farther westward.

The larvae is only a third of an inch
long and its length is about three times
its width. The body is milk-white and
the head light brownish yellow.

Life History of Both Species

The life history is similar for both
species. These, as well as related nut
and acorn weevils, hibernate in the lar-
val condition and in the soil. Both make
their appearance with the first blooming
of chestnuts. The beetles increase in
number as the nuts approach maturity,
or until about the middle of September
or a little time before the nuts are first
marketed. Then they may be seen in
greater abundance, several pairs, fre-
quently of both species, often occurring
on a single bunch of burs. From exam-
ination of many burs it is deduced that
the first eggs deposited are laid (seldom
and very sparingly) in the soft, woolly
material surrounding the forming nut;
but later they are inserted in the kernel
just under the inner skin, and occasion-
ally they are deposited somewhat more
deeply. In no case has the egg been
found in the outer husk.

Eggs are laid singly, but many are
placed in a single nut, as high as 40 or
more (of the smaller weevil) in import-
ed nuts, and as many as 9 in native nuts.

By the end of September or the first
week of October the beetles disappear.
At about the same time, when the nuts
first fall, the larvae begin to mature and
issue from round orifices which they
gnaw through the shell.

On leaving the nuts they burrow into

the earth to depths varying from 2 to
about 8 inches, according to the hard-
ness of the soil. The larval period prob-
ably lasts from three to five weeks in the
nuts, and about ten months in the earth.
The beetles do not fly readily, but cling
tightly to their resting place or drop
when disturbed; yet, as their bodies are
not heavy and their wings strong, they
are obviously able to cover considerable
distances especialy with the wind. Or-
dinarily, however, they are sluggish, like
most other weevils, and probably do not
go far from the vicinity of the trees
which have sheltered them as larvae, al-
though they undoubtedly migrate when
food is scarce.

Xatural Enemies

A natural enemy of the nut weevils is
known, a small four-winged wasplike fly,
the braconid parasite Urosigalphus ar-
viatus Ashm., which develops in the body
of the larva.

Methods of Control

The most practical remedy for nut
weevils that can be suggested is the
early destruction of the "worms" in the
nuts by means of bisulphid of carbon and
the observance of clean orchard manage-
ment and other cultural methods.

The Water Test of Infestation

Having doubts of the efficacy of this
old-fashioned test of the difference be-
tween "wormy" and healthy nuts, an ex-
periment was made by the writer with
native chestnuts obtained from a street
vender. To begin, 40 per cent were ob-
viously "wormy," and only 60 per cent
apparently sound.

Results of Water Tests with IVative
Chestnuts

NUTS WHICH ROSE TO SURFACE

Per Cent

Uninfe.sted 10

Showing minute marks only ; good

flavor : salable '. 20

Containing full-grown srubs 10

Containing immature grubs 60

NUTS WHICH REMAINED ON BOTTOM

Per Cent

In perfect condition 40

Slightly injured 30

Badly infested 20

Completely filled with grubs 10

As will be seen from this experiment,

noticeably wormy nuts, as evidenced by

810

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

loss of weight, and the exit holes of the
"worms," naturally rise when placed in
water, but the remaining nuts may or
may not be infested, and hence require
further test than whether they will sink
or float.

Direct Remedies
Bisulpliid of Carbon

The value of bisulphid of carbon as a
fumigant for chestnuts infested by weevils
is now fully established. The dead
weevil larvae are at this time so small
that the average person would never de-
tect their presence, while if they were
permitted to develop they would soon de-
stroy the nut for food.

The following treatment is recommend-
ed: Vi; ounce of bisulphid of carbon
to one bushel of nuts placed in a kerosene
barrel of 50 gallons capacity, tightly cov-
ered and left for two days.

Scalding and Drying

Some growers make a practice of plung-
ing the nuts as gathered into boiling
water just long enough to kill the con-
tained insects and yet not injure the nuts
for sale, after which they are dried be-
fore being marketed. This may be pro-
fitably accomplished by using a large
sieve, which is filled with nuts, dipped in
the water, and removed in about five
minutes. Salt water, it is claimed, is
preferable for scalding, the brine serving
to keep the shell soft and pliable and
rendering the kernels more palatable than
when not thus treated.

Nuts for planting should not be scald-
ed, and care should be taken not to cook
the kernels of nuts intended for sale.

Heat

Infested nuts can be subjected to a
temperature of between 125 degrees Fah-
renheit and 150 degrees Fahrenheit with-
out injuring them for food or for seed,
and this will effect the destruction of
the larvae within. Some growers of
chestnuts destroy the weevils by kiln-dry-
ing.

Cold storage has been employed and
this is successful in arresting the de-
velopment of the larvae, but nuts thus
treated were deficient in flavor.

Preventives
Choice of Location for the Orchard

It is most undesirable to plant in the
immediate vicinity of woodland abound-
ing in wild chestnut and chinquapin, since
these trees furnish natural breeding places
for the insects, and are, therefore, a
constant menace to successful chestnut
culture.

Wild chestnuts or chinquapins in the
immediate vicinity of cultivated groves
should be gathered. To secure good re-
sults, it is imperative to plant or graft
trees on smooth ground, first for the sake
of economy, and second to permit the
collection of all of the nuts, leaving none
for the propagation of weevils.

Two-Lined Chestnut Borer

Agriliis Mlineatus Weber

Occasional outbreaks of this insect have
been reported when they have done con-
siderable damage.

The beetle is elongate, black with a
more or less greenish tinge, about three-
eighths of an inch long.

The larva works just under the bark
of the tree making galleries which re-
sults in a practical girdling.

The most important requisite in con-
trolling the borer is clean culture. All
dead wood should be cut out and burned.
Cut and sawed timber should have the
bark removed.

For shade trees some mechanical pro-
tection during the egg-laying season is
practicable.

Sprays of lime and Paris green are de-
terrents, also fish oil and petroleum pre-
parations.

Reference

Bureau of Entomology Circular No. 24,
Revised.

Cider Products Made on the
Farm

There are but few orchardists whose
apples are of so uniformly good quality
that there is not quite a percentage that
will have to be disposed of in some way
other than shipping to market. One of
the best ways of disposing of this fruit
is the making of it into vinegar. The

CIDER PRODUCTS MADE ON THE FARM

811

New York Experiment Station recom-
mends the following as one of the most
satisfactory methods of making vinegar:

When cider is pressed from the apples
the barrels should be filled about two-
thirds full and the bung replaced by a
loose plug of cotton, which will lessen
evaporation and keep out bugs and dirt.
When the quantity of vinegar to be made
is considerable the barrels should be
placed in a room where the temperature
can be kept at from 70 degrees to 80
degrees during the fall and early winter
months. If the batch is small the bar-
rels may be left out of doors while the
weather is warm and then placed in the
warmest room convenient and later in a
dry cellar. If the temperature of the
storeroom does not fall below 45 degrees
the conversion of the sugar into alcohol
will require about six months, but the
process of fermentation may be hastened
by the addition of fresh commercial yeast.
When the cider quits working the clear
portion should be drawn off, the barrel
rinsed out and the liquid replaced, with
the addition of from two to four quarts
of good vinegar containing some mother.

The next process, the change of the al-
cohol into acetic acid, may be effected
in three months, and may require two
years. In any event, it will take place
most rapidly in a temperature ranging
from 65 degrees to 75 degrees.

When the vinegar has reached the per
cent of acetic acid, the barrels should be
filled full and tightly corked. This will
prevent other changes and will cause the
vinegar to keep its strength.

Cider Apple Batter

Takes about one gallon of apples, peel-
ed, cored and quartered, for three gallons
of cider. But apples differ. When using
sweet russets for thickening, it only takes
about eight gallons of apples to thirty of
cider. In hot weather, cider should be
boiled down to one-third, the same day it
is made, then left in stone jars until morn-
ing. In cool weather it may be left in
barrel in shade until next day. Run
cider out of barrel and strain through a
poke made of towel. Boil in copper kettle,

freshly scoured with salt and vinegar.
Kettle must not stand after being scour-
ed, but fire and cider must be all ready
for it. Cider must not stand in kettle
without boiling, or it will have a bitter
taste and be poisonous. Put apples all
in cider at once, after it is boiled down,
but save out some cider to fill in with
and to keep it from boiling over. Apples
will rise in kettle as they boil to cook,
but will soon go down again. It will take
about four hours' constant cooking and
stirring to make it so it will keep through-
out the next summer. When done dip
out into stone jars. Next day heat jars
in oven of cook stove, tie up and put away.
Skim cider while boiling.

Never allow a chunk or stick to touch
kettle, or your butter will scorch. Turn
kettles upside down on grass. Clean next
morning while grass is wet. If you do
not make your butter so thick, put it in
jars with stone lids and seal same as
fruit. If cider stands all night after it
is boiled, let it get hot before putting in
apples, and scour kettle before beginning
again.

Apple Butter

Take eight gallons of cider, boil two
hours, add ten gallons of ground apples,
cook until done in a brass kettle, and
add 16 pounds of sugar, either soft
white or granulated. When done the
apple butter may be flavored by adding
cinnamon. This amount makes eight gal-
lons of apple butter.

Tomato Butter

To two gallons of cooked apples and two
gallons of tomatoes, cooked and pressed
through colander, four sliced lemons, add
sugar until as sweet as desired, flavor
with cinnamon, cook until it thickens and
then can.

Peach Butter

Pare, stone and cook peaches until
tender, then press through colander.
Measure out as much sugar as peaches,
after they are cooked. Add one-half of
the sugar and cook one-half hour, then
add the rest of the sugar and cook from
one hour to one and one-half hours, or
until thick; then can.

812

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Pear Butter

Pare, core and quarter pears, cook un-
til tender, then press them through a
colander, add three-fourths of a pound of
sugar to every pound of pears, cook until
thick; then can.

Grape Butter

Pare, core and quarter as many apples
as you have grapes, cook until tender,
press through colander, cook grapes a
few minutes, run through sieve. To four
quarts of grapes add three quarts of ap-
ples and four pounds of sugar. Cook un-
til thick; then seal.

Plum Butter

Cook plums until tender, press through
colander, make the butter same as peach
butter.

In making pear, peach and plum butter
and in preparing apples for grape butter,
enough water should be added in cooking
them to cover.

Lemon Butter

Two cupfuls of sugar, juice of two
lemons, two eggs, one lump butter size
of an egg; mix all together and cook in
double boiler, stirring all the time until
it thickens. This is excellent for break-
fast with hot biscuits and butter.

Use Ripe Fruit

The first requirement for good vine-
gar is to have the ripe fruit. Good ap-
ples under hydraulic pressure will give
about four and one-half gallons of cider to
the bushel. Pears under the same pres-
sure will give more. Every utensil used
in the work should be strictly free from
must or mold. Hence they should be
scalded in very hot water to destroy all
germs. After having secured the cider
it must be exposed at all times to the air,
and the depth of the liquid should be
no greater than the surface measure of
the vessel holding it. A barrel should
not be more than half full during fer-
mentation.

The temperature should be even and
rather warm. Temperature determines
the time in which the fermentation is
accomplished. Eighty degrees gives
quickest results; with this heat good

vinegar can be had for use in four
months, in which time it should show
6 per cent acetic acid. The ordinary time
is six months, with only ordinary temper-
ature. By close attention to these par-
ticulars a good healthful vinegar can be
cheaply made, which will command from
14 to 20 cents per gallon in the market.

Well ripened fruit should be used, as it
contains the greatest amount of sugar,
which aids in yielding the highest per
cent of acetic acid. Under no circum-
stances use decayed fruit for healthful
vinegar. A small yeast cake dissolved
in some of the cider and then poured in
the barrel will set fermentation going
at once. Do not stop the fermentation,
but let it complete its work. "When fer-
mentation ceases, procure some mother of
vinegar and put in barrel. If this can-
not be had, get some pure sharp vinegar
and pour this in the barrel. When com-
pleted fill barrel full and cork securely to
prevent any undesirable ferments after-
wards.

Pear Vinegar

Pear vinegar requires some longer time
than apple cider, and will show 8 per
cent acetic acid, making it sufficiently
strong to be afterward diluted one-half.
Vinegar can be made from the small
fruits, especially the blackberry, but it
is more expensive and the color is not
favorable.

Fruit Butter

For fruit butter the cider or juices and
the filling should be boiled in separate
vessels, to hasten the work and give bet-
ter appearance to the product. Any
sweetening used should not be added un-
til the butters are about ready for re-
moval from the fire. Fruit for the fill-
ing should be quite ripe, and it then
has all its flavors and is more readily
cooked. After the juices are sufficiently
boiled down the filling may be added and
the boiling continued till it presents ap-
pearances of being sufficiently thick, when
the sugar may be added such as the na-
ture of the fruit requires. By withhold-
ing the sugars till at this state, you pre-
vent danger of scorching, have a bet-
ter color to the butters and a better re-

CIDER PRODUCTS MADE ON THE FARM— CI TRANCE

813

tention of the fruit flavors than can be
had by adding the sugar at once.

Care must be used to prevent any set-
tling of the filling while boiling, for this
will result in scorched butters. Never
use spices of any kind for flavoring, as
these destroy the natural flavors of the
fruits used and cause the butters to be-
come strong in time; also, ttey give the
butter a dark, uninviting appearance.

Juices of one kind of fruit used with
filling of another make a very inviting
butter. As for instance, pear cider with
apples for thickening, or any combina-
tion one may like. After butters are
cold, if one adds to the surface a few
spoonfuls of brandy it will prevent any
mold from forming at all. Kept in a
cool, dry room, butters thus made will
grow better with age.

Other Recipes

To make apple butter, take a half bar-
rel of good, fresh cider and boil down
one-half, then add three bushels of good
cooking apples that have been pared and
quartered. We have made small quanti-
ties at a time in a porcelain kettle on the
kitchen stove, but if one can procure a
large copper kettle, it is best to make it
out of doors, using the long handled stir-
rer. When the apples begin to cook up,
the mixture should be constantly stirred
until done, when it should be smooth and
thick. Just before taking off add ten
pounds of sugar. If sweet apples are
used for both cider and filling, the sugar
may be omitted. If the apples are not of
good cooking kind, they can be ground
up in a meat grinder, which will hasten
the cooking process. If this apple but-
ter is cooked quite thick, it will keep
without sealing.

Very nice peach butter can be made by
boiling down the cider the same as for
apple butter and filling in with peaches.
Pear butter is made the same way, using
ripe pears for filling.

To make grape butter, put grapes on
to cook, with water enough to cover, boil
an hour or more, pour while hot over a
sieve. Measure the juice that drains
through and put on stove to boil again.

Press the remainder of grapes through
sieve to remove skins and seeds. After
the juice has boiled down one-half, add
half as much sugar as the measured juice,
and add the pulp that has been pressed
through the sieve or colander. It will
need to be stirred only a short time. This
is to be sealed in either glass cans or
stone jars.

Tomato butter is made in the same way
as grape butter, except that the juice
should be boiled until nearly thick before
adding the tomato pulp.

A butter made of equal parts of plums
and pears is superior to that made of
either fruit alone.

Cook each fruit in water separately,
then put plums through a sieve and add
the pears. Use sugar to make sweet
enough after the mixture has boiled thick
and smooth.

Citrange

The citrange, which is a cross between
the worthless Trifoliate orange of Japan
and our ordinary sweet orange, is not
an orange, but a hardy substitute for the
lemon. The fruits are very juicy, con-
taining a larger amount of juice propor-
tionately than the best lemons. They
make a refreshing "citrangeade," simi-
lar to lemonade, which people who have
made a comparison pronounce equal to
or even better than the latter: The fruits
also make excellent pies and marmalade,
and for these purposes are probably equal
to the orange and the lemon. The cit-
range will undoubtedly prove valuable
for general culinary purposes in the mak-
ing and flavoring of cakes, making jel-
lies and preserves, and in many other
ways in which the lemon is now employ-
ed. When it is considered that these
citranges can be grown throughout a
large part of New Mexico, Utah, Nevada,
Oregon, and Washington, where there is
now a dearth of acid fruits their great
value becomes evident.

There is at present, however, no mar-
ket for the citrange, and it will probably
prove of value mainly as a home fruit for
cultivation throughout the regions men-
tioned, where the sweet orange, the lemon,

814

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

and the lime can not be grown. The
trees are attractive in shape and semi-
evergreen, so that they will make desir-
able lawn trees. Wherever a home can
be supplied with them it will be possible
on the warm days between the 1st of
September and the 1st of December to
pick a few fruits and make a desirable
and refreshing beverage.

Through the senators of the Pacific
coast states, arrangements have been
made with a few leading fruit gi'owers
to give trees of this variety a trial test.
A number of young trees have been dis-
tributed by the Plant Bureau, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture for the purpose.

Citrons

There are two species of citron. One
is the species Citrus Medica of the same
genus as the orange, lime and shaddock
or pomelo. The tree is an evergreen
shrub growing to a height of about 10
feet; has irregular straggling spiny
branches, large pale green broadly oblong,
protuberant at the tips and from five to
six inches long, with a rough adherent
rind, the inner portion of which is thick,
white and fleshy, the outer, thin, greenish
yellow and very fragrant. The pulp is
sub-acid, edible, much less acid than the
lemon and the seeds bitter. There are
many varieties of the fruit, some of them
of great weight and size. The Madras
citron has the form of an oblate sphere;
and in the "fingered citron," of China the
lobes are separated into finger-like divi-
sions formed by separation of the con-
stituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in
the orange.

The citron ti-ee thrives in the open air
in China, Persia, West Indies, Madeira,
Sicily, Corsica, in the warmer parts of
Spain and Italy and the American con-
tinent.

The rind of this species of citron yields
two perfumes, the oil of cedra, and the
oil of citron, with the ultimate composi-
tion of an isomeric with the oil of tur-
pentine. When candied, it is much
esteemed in dessert and in confectionery.

The other species of citron is a variety
of watermelon, nearly solid, almost fiav-
orless, growing on a vine that resembles
the watermelon vine, the fruit of which
is made into preserves, resembling the
real citron.

For Culture. See Watermelon.

The first species named is not grown
largely in the United States, but is grown
with some degree of success and recom-
mended by American Pomological Socie-
ty as follows, for kitchen purposes:

Lemon, Lyman and Orange in Florida
and the southern portions of the Gulf
States.

For Diseases and Pests of Citron of
THE Tree Variety, see under Lemon and
Orange.

For the Vine Citron, see under Water-
melon and other cucurbitous crops, as;
Cucumber, Cantaloup, Squash, etc.

Citrus Fruits

This subject is treated under the re-
spective fruits, as follows:

Citrons, Kumquats, Lemons, Limes,
Oranges, Pomelos or Grape Fruit, Tang-
erines.

CITRUS FRUITS— CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AS AFFECTING CERTAIN CROPS 815

State^

All citrus fruits *. .
Oranges, total

Arizona

California

Florida

Louisiana

Mississippi

Texas

Lemons, total

California

Florida

Pomeloes (grapefruit), total

California

Florida

Limes, total

Florida

Tangerines, total

California

Florida

Mandarins, total

Louisiana

Kumquats, total

Florida

Citrus Fruits — Trees, Production and Value
1910 Census

1910 1909

Trees Trees not

of bearing of bearing Production

age age (boxes) Value

11,486,768 5,400,402 t23,502,122 $22,711,448

9,737,927 4,327,271 19,487,481 17,566,464

33,373 56,982 32.247 52,341

6,615,805 2,093,410 14,436,180 12,951,505

2,766,618 1,097,896 4,852,967 4,304,987

266,116 155,016 149,979 222,339

10,452 38,637 3,779 8,648

42,384 867,407 10.694 22,090

956,920 396,111 2,770,313 2.993,738

941,293 379,676 2,756,221 2,976,571

11,740 7,329 12,367 13,753

710,040 640,597 1,189,250 2,060.610

43,424 25,589 122,515 143,180

656,213 600,049 1,061,537 1,907.816

45,387 30,239 11,318 12,478

45,369 30,088 11.302 12,457

27,271 3,873 38.752 68,770

3,637 34 3,581 4,188

23,234 3,839 84,871 64,082

7,227 1,923 3,896 6,553

6,875 1,900 3,340 5,945

1,988 358 1,112 2,826

1,955 222 1,091 2,768

1899
Pro-
duction
(boxes)
7,098,486
6,167,891
11,116
5,882,193
273,295
1,285

876,876
874,305
2,359
30,790
17,851
12,306
22,839
22,714
(t)

(t)
(t)

* Includes a small number of citron trees in
also a small amount of product in 1899.

t Exclusive of a small quantity of citrons.
} No report.

Clean Tillage. See Apple Orchard, Cul-
tivation of.

Climate. See Selecting Site for Apple
Orchard.

Climatic Conditions as AfiFect-
ing Certain Crops

It seems to be a provision of nature that
everything cannot he successfully grown
everywhere. The wisdom with which we
decide upon the adaptability of crops to
climatic conditions will determine in a
large measure the degree of success result-
ing from our labor. It would be folly to
try to grow oranges for commercial pur-
poses in Colorado, Montana and Washing-
ton. It would be equally unwise to try
to grow winter apples in the regions best
adapted to the orange. In like manner,
but not so marked, there are adaptations
of fruits to interior and coast climates.
For instance, the climate of Puget Sound
in the state of Washington, as contrasted
with the interior and eastern portions of
the same state. On the west side of the
Cascade range, irrigation is seldom prac-
ticed, while on the east side, there are
sections where nothing could be grown
without irrigation. On the west side, the
rainy season is in autumn, winter and
spring, followed by a dry season in which

1910 and the value of their product in 1909,

certain kinds of crops suffer for lack of
moisture. On the east side, by the pro-
cess of irrigation, moisture is present
wherever the farmer chooses to apply it.
The result is that on the west side all
kinds of fruits of the early maturing vari-
eties may be produced. Strawberries,
blackberries, raspberries, prunes, early
pears, cherries and such like fruits are
grown as well on the west side as on the
east side, with less labor and cheaper
land. Granting, therefore, that on the
east side as good berries, prunes and
pears, could be grown, it would not seem
wise to do so in competition with the
west side where they can be produced
with less labor. In the irrigated dis-
trict, it might be found profitable to sup-
ply the local markets, but not to ship
to the general markets. An exception
might be the case of crops which ma-
ture earlier in the dry section and so
secure the higher prices obtained for the
early fruits, as for example, the Kenne-
wick strawberries, which arrive in the
market ten days to two weeks before the
berries from the coast section. On the
other hand, the east side can produce
apples and peaches and perhaps other
varieties of pears, better than they can be
produced on the west side. They have

816

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

their dry season at a time wlaen the ap-
ple needs moisture to make its fullest de-
velopment.

Second, it needs the bright sunshine to
give it color at a period when, on the
west side, there is the beginning of the
rainy season.

Third, in the humid climate, fruits are
more subject to fungus diseases, than in
the arid climates. It is not contended by
fruit growers on the west side, that they
can successfully compete with the east
side in the growing of apples, but they
do contend that they can compete suc-
cessfully in strawberries, other small
fruits, prunes and pears. Our observa-
tion leads us to conclude that their claim
is just, except as noted in the case of the
earlier markets. I have not seen straw-
berries as have been grown in the Vashon
Island and other Sound districts nor
better cherries than those grown in the
Willamette valley, Oregon, nor better
raspberries and blackberries than grow
in the Puyallup valley. As for the grow-
ing of pears, I have seen them as well
developed, and to all general appearances,
as good as those grown on the east side
It would seem, therefore, that the grow
ing of certain fruits, should be localizec
into those sections where they will pro
duce the most money with the least ex
penditure of labor.

Granville Lowther

Clovers. See Apple Orchard Cover
Crop.

Clover Aphis ox Apple. See Aphids.

DISEASES AND PESTS OF CLOVER
A?fD ALFALFA

Clovers, alfalfa and other similar field
crops are treated in this work only in
connection with the orchard. A brief sec-
tion covering some of the principal dis-
eases and insect pests of these crops is
here given. — Ed.

DISEASES
Aiithraciiose

Three anthracnoses occur upon clover;
the more common of which is due to the
same fungus (Colletocrichum trifolii B.
& E.) as the anthracnose of alfalfa. These
show lesions of the stems and leaf stalks
and may be detected in the new seedlings

in late summer through the dying of the
leaves of these plants. It is not known
how serious this may prove upon clover.

The second anthracnose fungus (Gloeos-
porium trifolii Peck.) has been known
longer than the first and occasionally
shows by killing the tops of large clover
stems in meadows. It is apparently not a
serious disease, although a very interest-
ing one to study in connection with the
anthracnoses due to CoJletotrichum.

The third anthracnose upon clover
(Colletotrichuvi cereale Manns.) is the
anthracnose of wheat, rye and oats.

Two new anthracnoses have been dis-
covered attacking alfalfa; the first of
these, Colletotrichum trifolii B. & E., so
far as we know occurring exclusively on
plants of this family, the other, Colleto-
trichum sp., occurring only on alfalfa in
northern Ohio. The first one, which we
may call clover anthracnose, was discov-
ered in Tennessee and has appeared upon
alfalfa as well as red clover in the south-
ern portion of Ohio and in Arkansas. It
is less prevalent on alfalfa than upon the
red clover. Both of these diseases show
as a specific lesion or diseased spot on
the stem or leaf stalk in the advanced
stages of attack. Following this the
plants wilt or die and are discovered in
this way.

Bacterial Blight (Yellowing)

A bacterial blight of alfalfa, of which
the causal organism has not been definite-
ly determined, has been reported from
Colorado where it appears to be spread-
ing. In 1907 and to a still greater extent
in 1908, there was much complaint of gen-
eral yellowing of leaves of second crop
alfalfa in Ohio and adjoining states, even
extending to North Carolina. The symp-
toms are general yellowing of this crop.

Black Spot

Phyllachora trilfolii (Pers.) Fckl.
• Is due to a fungus which attacks the
leaves of clover causing dead spots and
dark discolorations on the under side of
the leaves. As a rule these attacks come
so late in the working life of the leaves
that the injury is slight.

A. D. Selby.
Wooster. Ohio.

CLOVER AND ALFALFA DISEASES

817

Crown Gall

Urophlyctis Alfalfae

H. S. Jackson

This is a comparatively new disease iu
North America. It was first observed in
this country in California in 1909, and
has since been found elsewliere only in
Arizona and Oregon. This disease was
first called to the attention of the writer
in May, 1911, when specimens of alfalfa
crowns affected with this disease were
sent in from Josephine county. Since
that time it has been reported from a
number of sections in Jackson and Jo-
sephine counties. It is probable that the
disease occurs also in other localities, but
our attention has not, as yet, been called
to it.

The disease was first described from
Ecuador in 1892 and has since been re-
ported from a number of sections in
Europe, notably Germany, Bulgaria and
England.

So far as is known, the disease affects
only the alfalfa. Experiments carried on
in an attempt to grow it on clover and
other plants have failed.

Symptoms

The disease is characterized by the
formation of galls at the crown of the
plant. The galls are more abundantly
produced at the base of the stem, but may
occur on the upper part of the root. The
galls in some cases occur several inches
above the ground on the stems. They
present a very much roughened exterior
and vary in size from that of a pea or
smaller up to four or five inches in dia-
meter. In form they are often confluent.

Seriously affected plants are killed.
Usually the disease will be found in the
field in patches in which many of the
plants are dead or in various stages of
decline. The diseased plants are of a
weak growth; the foliage is yellow and
the leaves are reduced in size.

Cause

Crown gall of alfalfa must not be con-
fused with the familiar crown gall of
trees, small fruits, etc. It is not the
same, and it is unfortunate that there is
similarity in the common names. Crown

gall on trees and small fruits, as noted
in another part of this report, is a bac-
terial disease.

Crown gall of alfalfa, on the other
hand, is caused by a fungus of low order,
known technically as Urophlyctis alfalfae.
This is one of the Chytridiales, one of the
lowest orders of Phycomycetes. In this
group the mycelium is sparingly de-
veloped. The presence of the fungus in
the tissues, however, causes a stimu-
lation which results in an abnormal de-
velopment of the cells of the alfalfa at
the point of attack. On the mycelium,
resting sporangia are produced by a sim-
ple sexual process. These are found in
groups in small cavities in the tissue of
the gall. These groups may be observed
with the aid of a good hand lens, by mak-
ing a cut through a fresh gall. The spor-
angia are liberated by the rotting of the
galled tissue and serve to spread the
disease. When they gei-minate they pro-
duce a number of small motile spores
which cause the infection of new plants.

It is probable that the disease has
been introduced into the state through
seed. It might be disseminated through
alfalfa hay. It is possible that it might
be carried some distance by the wind and
might be spread locally from one part of
a field to another or into new fields by
accidental transfer of soil in which rest-
ing sporangia are present or in which
there are bits of decayed galls. This
might occur from driving across a field
in which the disease is present and car-
rying the infectious material in soil on
the wagon wheels or hoofs of the horses.

Kemedy

No remedy is known. "When the dis-
ease becomes so serious as to render
the field unprofitable, a rotation of at
least three years' duration to other than
leguminous crops should be practiced.
The disease might be prevented from
spreading in a field, if the spots are ob-
served soon enough, by a complete de-
struction of the diseased plants. It
might be advisable also to hoe the top
soil toward the center and thoroughly
spray the ground with copper sulphate
or Bordeaux mixture. As a general pre-

818

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

caution, it might be well to avoid pur-
chasing seed from localities in which the
disease is known to exist. Seed disinfec-
tion might perhaps be practical, but this
has not been demonstrated. Crown gall
is a serious disease, and if it becomes gen-
eral in the state, is likely to cause great
loss. It is hoped that all growers will
be on the lookout for the trouble and
will use every effort to prevent it from
spreading. Little is known of the disease
as it occurs under American conditions.
A thorough investigation of the trouble
would be desirable.

Dodder of Alfalfa and ClOYcr

H. S. Jackson
Cuscuta sp.
A trouble of alfalfa and clover common
in the Northwest and somewhat different
in nature from any of the diseases pre-
viously discussed, is caused by a parasitic
flowering plant known as dodder. The
•dodders are weeds which, as causing a
disease of clover and alfalfa, are known
to be common throughout the world, in-
cluding nearly all sections of the United
States where these crops are grown.

Kinds of Dodder

Contrary to the usual idea, dodder in
clover and alfalfa is not caused by a
single kind or species, but by several
different species of dodder which may
exist upon these hosts. *Hillman gives
five species of dodder which are known
to affect alfalfa and clover in the United
States. Concerning these he offers the
following information:

"Clover dodder (Cuscuta epithymumi,
often referred to as Cuscuta trifoUi) in-
fests both the true clovers and alfalfa
indiscriminately. It is widely distribut-
ed in foreign countries and in the United
States east of the Mississippi river and
in the Northern Pacific states.

"Small-seeded alfalfa dodder (Cuscuta
planiflora) as it occurs in this country
appears to confine its attacks to alfalfa
in preference to the true clovers. Thus
far there is no evidence of any damage
from this dodder to red, alsike, or white

* Hillman. Dodder in Relation to Farm
Seeds. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farm-
ers Bulletin 306, 1907.

clovers. This is by far the most abund-
ant and destructive of the dodders in
the Western states.

"Field dodder (Cuscuta arvensis, as
recognized in the botanies) is widely dis-
tributed throughout the United States.
It infests both the clovers and alfalfa and
also many wild herbaceous plants. It has
proved injurious to sugar beets in Utah.

"Large-seeded alfalfa dodder (Cuscuta
inclecora) is common in the West, espe-
cially in Utah. It infests alfalfa as well
as various wild plants, but it does not ap-
pear to damage the true clovers.

"Chilean dodder (Cuscuta racemosa
cMleana) is not generally known in this
country. It is common in South Ameri-
ca and has been reported from Europe.
It is said to have flourished for a time
in California many years ago, but sub-
sequently disappeared. It is of interest
because of its prevalence in alfalfa and
red clover seed-producing regions of South
America, from which seed is being sent
to the United States, for this dodder in-
fests both alfalfa and red clover. Little
is known of this dodder in its relation
to forage crops in this country, but since
it is being brought here in considerable
quantity from South America it is very
likely that it will become one of the sev-
eral injurious species established in the
United States."

The three most common ones found in
alfalfa seed in the Northwest are Cus-
cuta planiflora, Cuscuta arvenis and
Cuscuta indecora. Cuscuta arvenis is
common upon clover as well and Cus-
cuta epithymum is also common in this
state.

Appearance in Field

Dodder may be recognized at a dis-
tance by the yellow appearance of spots
in the field. At close range this appear-
ance will be found to be due to the abund-
ance of the yellow thread-like dodder
plants which twine about the stems of
the alfalfa or clover. At first the dodder
will be seen only in a small area, infect-
ing one or two plants. It rapidly spreads
in all directions by branching of the
threads from these to other plants till
large areas are covered. During this

CLOVER AND ALFALFA DISEASES

819

spreading, the plant first infested will
gradually be killed by the parasite. The
dodder dies with it, but continues to grow
along the edges of the spot, so that, in
the late season, dead spots surrounded by
a circle of dodder infested plants may be
observed in alfalfa or clover fields. The
dodder in the meantime has blossomed
profusely and ripened its seed.

Dodder in General

The dodders, or love-vines, are para-
sitic flowering plants closely related to
the morning glories, or bind weeds.
There are several species occurring in
this state besides those species which at-
tack alfalfa and clover. Most of these
grow on weeds, particularly in moist bot-
tom lands, and do no damage to the
farmers' crops.

These plants are peculiar in that they
are parasitic in habit, depending on the
plants upon which they grow for their
food, instead of elaborating it for them-
selves from the soil moisture and air as
plants possessing green color are able
to do. Dodders are destitute of this
green color called chlorophyll and so have
not the power of elaborating food for
themselves. The plant consists of a yel-
low stem which is practically leafless.
The leaves have been reduced to very
small scales. The flowers are minute and
are usually produced in clusters on the
stem.

Life History

During the first stages of growth the
young dodder plant is self supporting, but
Is wholly dependent on the food stored in
the seed. The seed, when it first ger-
minates, consists solely of a yellow
thread-like stem. The plantlet may or
may not attach itself to the ground. It
grows independently until the food in the
seed is used up. During this time the
thread-like stem has grown sufficiently to
grasp and twine about some green plant
growing near by. If this green plant is
not one upon which the particular species
of dodder naturally grows, it dies. If
the plant is one for which the dodder has
a natural affinity, it twines about the
stem and sends suckers or haustoria into
the tissue, thus linking the two plants

together. The haustoria serve both as
holdfasts for the dodder's support and as
feeding organs through which the dodder
takes the juices of the host, depriving it
of needful food which it has manufac-
tured for its own use.

Propagation and Dissemination

Dodder is most commonly distributed
by the seed being mixed with the seed of
the host plant. The various species of
dodder are common in the districts where
alfalfa and clover seed are grown and
the seed of both host and parasite are
matured about the same time, consequent-
ly when an infested crop of clover or
alfalfa is harvested, the seed is usually
found contaminated with a certain per-
centage of the dodder seed. In this way
the disease is disseminated far and wide.
The mixed seeds germinate when plant-
ed, whereupon the dodder soon attaches
itself to the clover and alfalfa, and after
becoming permanently established on one
plant may be spread from plant to plant
in the field, slowly infesting considerable
areas.

When dodder is established in the field
it may be disseminated by seed to other
parts of the field during mowing and rak-
ing. The dodder plant may remain alive
for several days on the host plant after
it has been cut, and if such diseased
plants or parts of plants are scattered to
other parts of the field the dodder may
obtain a foothold on new plants and thus
start other spots. It is shown that in
New York dodder (Cuscuta epithymum)
may live over winter on the crowns of
infested plants. The seed of the small-
seeded dodder which is so common in the
West, may be spread by irrigation water.

Preventive Measures

Since dodder is disseminated almost ex-
clusively through the seed, the most ob-
vious method of preventing the introduc-
tion of this trouble is by planting clean
seed, that is, seed which has no dodder
mixed with it. Certain species of dodder
infesting alfalfa may be entirely removed
by proper screening. The large-seeded
species of dodder cannot be entirely re-
moved by any process of screening known

820

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

at the present time. White and alsike
clover, on account of their small size, can-
not be entirely freed from dodder. Red
clover, by thorough re-cleaning, can be
entirely freed of clover and small-seeded
alfalfa dodder. The size of the screen is
important, but sufficient space is not avail-
able here for thorough discussion of the
processes of separation.

The most logical precaution to take is
never to plant seed infested with dodder.
This can be accomplished by buying only
the best of re-cleaned seed and having it
previously tested by an expert for the
presence of dodder.

When dodder becomes introduced into
a field, the method of eradication is fre-
quently difficult, depending upon the lo-
cation of the field and the species of dod-
der. Space will not permit a detailed dis-
cussion here of the methods of eradication,
and interested growers should apply for
information to the Experiment Station,
giving a full statement of conditions, or
should procure a copy of the farmers' bul-
letin above mentioned, in which the meth-
ods of eradication are fully discussed.

Downy Mildew

Peronospora trifoliorum D'By.
The downy mildew fungus has occurred
in Colorado, and is very liable to occur
in other states. No suggestions can yet
be made as to its prevention.

A. D. S.

Leaf Spot

Pseudopeziza meclicaginis

H. S. Jackson

The common disease of the alfalfa
known as leaf spot is prevalent in most
sections of the country where alfalfa is
grown. It is also the most common fun-
gous disease on this crop in Oregon, but
under the ordinary conditions is not re-
sponsible for large losses.
Symptoms

The disease is characterized by the for-
mation of brown or black irregular spots
on either side of the leaf. The spots are
most conspicuous, however, on the upper
surfaces. They are small, seldom over
one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and
are scattered irregularly but frequently

very thickly over the surfaces of the
leaves.

Cause

In many of the spots the presence of
little shining amber-colored structures
with black margins may be observed by
the aid of a good pocket lens. These are
the fruiting bodies of the fungus causing
the disease which is known technically as
Pseudopeziza medicaginis. These struc-
tures are the apothecia or fruiting bodies
of the fungus and contain, in a layer on
the upper surface, many cylindrical sacs,
called asci. Eight spores are formed in
each of these asci.

The general effect of these spots on the
leaves is to cause them gradually to turn
yellow and fall, so that the plants, where
severely affected, may be almost entirely
-stripped of foliage. This brings about re-
duction in forage, and, on account of hin-
dering the normal development of foliage,
results in interference with root growth
which may cause reduction in subsequent
crops.

In Western Oregon the fungus is most
abundant in the fruiting condition in the
fall, when mature spores are produced in
large numbers from September to Decem-
ber. It is possible that the fungus, under
Oregon conditions, spreads all winter. It
is probable that the fungus is dissemin-
ated locally most frequently by the wind,
but there is evidence to show that it may
be carried to new localities through the
seed.

A similar disease, which is considered
by some authorities as identical with the
alfalfa leaf spot, but which is usually
referred to by scientists as Pseudopeziza
trifoliorum, occurs in Oregon on red
clover.

Remedy

On account of the nature of the host
crop, no very satisfactory remedy for this
trouble suggests itself. When the disease
appears to be serious in the spring so that
the leaves drop abundantly and the forage
value is likely to be much reduced in the
first crop, it might be advisable to mow
the plants early, as this would cause a
tendency to throw out new sprouts which
would grow vigorously and might escape

CLOVER AND ALFALFA DISEASES

821

the disease. It is also recommended ttiat
where it becomes abundant prior to cut-
ting any crop, the plants be mowed a little
earlier than usual in order to save loss of
foliage.

This disease is seldom serious enough
to warrant plowing up a field. Should it
ever become so, rotation to other than
leguminous crops should be resorted to.

Eoot Nodules and Root Tubercles Upon
leguminosae

Upon removal of the roots of the clover
plant from the soil one finds minute en-
largements which are the subject of fre-
quent inquiry. These are nodules or
tubercles as they were formerly called,
caused by the messmate-living of certain
nitrifying organisms, or microbes, with
the clover plant. To these microbes in
this communal life is due the power of
withdrawing nitrogen from the atmos-
phere and fixing it in the tissues of the
clover plants. The same applies in gen-
eral to the nodules upon plants of this
order, the Papilionaceae. It thus follows
that these nodules are the normal condi-
tion of properly nourished leguminous
plants of the order Papilionaceae. and it
likewise follows that the full value of this
work of nitrogen fixing is only realized
for manurial purposes when the tissues of
the clover plants decay in the soil.

Root Rot

Fiisarium roseum Lk. — Gibberella
SauMneti (Mont.) Sacc.
The same parasitic fungus which at-
tacks wheat in the form of scab and also
red clover, has been found killing out al-
falfa. This fungus may survive in stubble
fields where wheat and oats have been
grown. It readily kills off the young
seedlings of alfalfa and if the soil is not
fully prepared for alfalfa seedings, the
root-rot may extend its work and further
destroy the stand. At present nothing
better is known than adequate dressings
of lime, preferably raw limestone, for
areas to be seeded, together with their
proper enrichment. While not specifically
noted in America, another root rot fungus
somewhat known on other crops (Rhizoc-
tonia) has also been reported upon alfalfa
from France. Another root rot fungus

(Ozonium ovinivorum Shear) well known
upon cotton, also attacks alfalfa in the
Southwest.

Rust
XJromyces Trifolii (A. & S.) Wirt
The various sorts of the cultivated
clover, red, alsike, mammoth, etc., are at-
tacked by a clover rust. If one will ex-
amine the small, dark spots in the clover
leaves, he will find a cluster of this red-
dish fungus beneath. This rust does not
spread to other plants than clovers and
is commonly regarded as more disfiguring
than destructive. It is not nearly so in-
jurious as the leaf spot of alfalfa which
is similar in appearance.

Stem Blight

Fusarium roseum Lk.

Stem blight of clover has been found
to be due to the same fungus as that of
wheat scab. This fungus has been found
to cause the death of seedling wheat plants
and to follow harvest by attacks on clover
stems. It appears at this time to be one
of the serious forms of clover sickness.
The writer looks upon it as liable to be
much more serious even than anthrac-
nose. The only present suggestion for
control will apply to control of the wheat
scab fungus through recleaning of seed
and separation of all scab infected kernels.
It is quite likely that clover seedings made
in a dry year with little grain scab will
not be exposed to the same danger from
this blight as those made in wet seasons
when the disease is very bad in the grain.
A, D. Selby

Stem Rot. See Wilt, this section.

Wilt or Stem Rot

Sclerotinia trifoliorum
H. S. Jackson
The disease known as the alfalfa wilt
is common. It was first described in Eu-
rope but is also recorded in many widely
separated sections of this country. It has
been reported as serious in New York and
California and has recently been found by
the writer to be common in Oregon. It
was first observed in certain fields in the
Willamette valley. It is found to be most
abundant and to spread most rapidly dur-
ing the fall, when the surface of the

822

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ground is more or less constantly moist.
It seems to be more serious also where
there is a heavy stand of alfalfa.

The disease is known to attack clover
almost as seriously as alfalfa. It is prob-
able that this disease is one of the causes
for the difficulty frequently experienced
in obtaining and holding a stand of alfalfa
or clover in Western Oregon.

Symptoms

The disease is characterized by a wilt
brought about by rot developed on the
stems at the surface of the ground or
some distance above. The disease fre-
quently kills the plants and on this ac-
count large areas may be found in the
field where the plants have been entirely
killed out. The roots, however, may not
always be destroyed, and may later throw
out new sprouts. The rotting is invari-
ably accompanied by a white cottony
growth of mold over the surface of the
stems and leaves and on the ground
around the bases of the diseased plants.
In this cottony mold are developed, quite
abundantly, black irregular shaped bodies
of fungus tissue known as sclerotia. In
exceptional cases these are as large as a
pea. They may also be found inside the
stems of plants which have been killed by
the disease.

Cause

This fungus is similar to the one which
causes lettuce drop and by some author-
ities is considered identical, though this
has not been proved by careful investiga-
tion. It seems best for the present to
consider it distinct and to use the name
Sclerotinia trifoliorum. This fungus de-
velops no summer spores. The cottony
growth is the mycelium which is also de-
veloped inside the tissues. The sclerotia
are resting bodies from which there devel-
ops stalked fruiting bodies known as apo-
thecia. These are usually described as de-
veloping only after a period of rest, com-
monly in the spring of the year in nature.
In Oregon, however, they are found devel-
oping in fall, almost immediately after
being formed, without any period of rest.
Under our conditions the disease seems to
spread most abundantly during the fall
and winter, though this has not been as

thoroughly investigated as would be
desirable.

Remedy

No remedy for diseased plants is known.
On account of the nature of the host
plants, it is probable that no practical
remedy will be developed. Where the
disease has become serious, rotation
should be practiced. The disease seems
to be more abundant on heavy soils, es-
pecially where the drainage is not rapid,
and such soils, if possible, should be
avoided.

Yellowing. See Bacterial Blight.

CLOVER AND ALFALFA PESTS

Alfalfa Crane Fly

Tipula simplex Doane (Family Tipulidae)
General Appearance

The adults are long-legged, slender-
bodied insects of a light brown color. The
females are wingless while the males are
winged and somewhat smaller, lighter in
color and with longer, frailer legs. The
average length of the adult female is about
one-half of an inch.

Life History

The small, oval, dark gray eggs are de-
posited as deeply into the soil as the
length of the female's abdomen will al-
low. They are laid throughout the early
spring and summer. These soon hatch
into light colored maggots, which begin
to feed upon the roots of plants. When
full grown they are from three-fourths
to nearly an inch in length — the color
being a very dark brown. The maggots
remain in moist or wet places, breathing
water through spiracles at the posterior
end. The pupae greatly resemble the lar-
vae in shape and color until nearly time
to develop into the adults, when the
wings and legs begin to appear. The
body segments are provided with sharp
spines which project backwards and by
which they are able to wriggle to the sur-
face when ready to emerge. The broods
overlap so that all stages may be found.
The insect probably hibernates in the lar-
val forms and pupate early in the spring,
giving rise to the adults. These bring
forth young larvae, which become de-
structive early in the summer.

CLOVER AND ALFALFA PESTS

823

Food Plants

The larvae feed entirely upon the roots
of plants. Undoubtedly a great variety
are attacked. Serious damage has been
reported, due to its ravages in alfalfa and
clover fields.

Control

The greatest amount of damage is us-
ually done in fields which have long been
seeded to alfalfa or clover, where the
breeding has not been disturbed. Plow-
ing and thorough cultivation will destroy
most of the larvae, which are either
crushed or die for lack of sufficient mois-
ture. The females being wingless are
unable to migrate sufficiently to cause
serious damage in one year. A cultivated
crop once in two or three years as a ro-
tation with clover or alfalfa is recom-
mended when the destructiveness of the
pest warrants strict remedial measures.

Natural Enemies

Carnes and Newcomer report a tachinid
fly as parasitic upon the larvae.

E. O. EssiG

Alfalfa Looper

Autographa gamma californica Speyer
(Family Noctuidae)
General Appearance

The adult moths have a wing expanse
of about one and one-fourth inches with
the body a little over one-half an inch
long. The fore wings are light bluish-
gray with rose or rust-colored and light
markings, a very distinctive feature of
which is one shaped like the Greek letter
gamma near the middle. The hind wings
and body are dull gray. The eggs are
hemispherical and pale yellow.

The young caterpillars are light green
while the fully developed forms are dark
olive-green; head light green: three dark
longitudinal lines on the body; a dark
spot back of the eye. There are three
pairs of well-developed front legs, two
pairs of abdominal legs just back of the
middle, and one pair at the extreme pos-
terior end. When full grown the larvae
attain a length of about one inch. The
cocoon is loosely spun of white silk; the
chrysalis being brownish black in color,
or paler.

Life History

According to J. A. Hyslop, of the United
States Department of Agriculture, this in-
sect passes the winter in the pupal and
adult stages, the moths appearing early
in the spring and are especially active,
laying eggs in May and June in the alfal-
fa fields. The young larvae or loopers
are plentiful in June, feeding upon the
leaves of the plants. In about two weeks
they are full-grown and spin a loose white
cocoon among the leaves, in which to pu-
pate. After twelve days the adult moths
emerge. The entire life cycle requires
about a month. There are two generations
a year — the second broods coming on in
July.

Food Plants

The larvae are very destructive to al-
falfa, working upon the leaves and blos-
soms. They also feed upon clover, garden
peas, cabbage, barley, elder, dock and
wild malva.

Jfatural Enemies

As very well shown by Mr. Hyslop, this
insect is so held in check by natural
enemies that artificial remedies are yet
unnecessary. Internal hymenopterous
parasites and tachinid flies are respon-
sible for the good work. In the state of
Washington five of the former and two of
the latter have been recorded.

Alfalfa Weevil

Phytonomus posticus
This threatening pest belongs to the
snout beetle family. Its native home
seems to have been the shores of the
Mediterranean sea. It appeared first in
this country in Utah, about 1904. It had
spread by 1914 to the greater part of the
alfalfa district of Utah, to several
counties in the southwestern part of Ida-
ho and several points in Wyoming.

It feeds upon other legumes besides al-
falfa but does its greatest damage there.

life History

The eggs are laid in April, May and
June, two to thirty in number in one
place in the stems of the alfalfa in feed-
ing punctures. Females, under favorable
conditions, lay several hundred eggs dur-
ing the egg laying period. The eggs hatch

824

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

in 10 to 12 days and the larvae begin
feeding in the tender stems. After a few
days they emerge and find a leaf bud
which they enter and feed in conceal-
ment. The larva passes through its three
moults in three to seven weeks, pupates
and emerges in about nine days there-
after.

The adult is less than one-quarter of an
inch long and covered with short, dark
brown hairs mixed with gray and black.
They do great damage to the stems and
leaves of the alfalfa. With a few ex-
ceptions they do not reproduce until the
following spring, overwintering in the
crowns of the alfalfa and in trash about
the fields. They spread mainly by flight,
soon after emerging as adults, assisted by
the winds. Also in freight cars, wagons,
irrigating ditches, hay, etc. The state of
California maintains a quarantine against
both Idaho and Utah.

Control

Numerous methods have been tried for
the control of the alfalfa weevil. The one
that seems to be the most promising on a
large scale is that of going over the field
after each cutting with a spring-tooth
harrow with a wire brush attached. This
crushes a good many of the weevils and
larvae and raises a dust which is dis-
tasteful to them. It also forms a dust
mulch helping to conserve moisture and
stimulates the alfalfa to vigorous growth.
The cost of this method is $2 to $5 per
acre, according to Merrill.

References

Utah Experiment Station Bulletin 110.
Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 112.
California Commission of Horticulture,
I, Nos. 1 and 10.

Bean Thrips. See under Bean.

Clover or Almond Mite

BryoMa pratensis Garman
General Appearance

The young mites are red, becoming
brown when fully developed. Though very
much smaller than a pinhead this species
is much larger than any of the common
destructive mites in this state. The eggs
are very minute, so small as to be scarce-
ly visible to the naked eye; globular and
red.

Life History

The eggs deposited in the fall hatch
with the first warm spring weather and
the mites at once begin to work. Their
development is very rapid and reproduc-
tion exceedingly great, so by summer
there are often sufficient numbers to do
great damage. Breeding and work con-
tinue until fall, when the eggs are laid
and operations suspended until these
hatch in the spring.

Food Plants

This mite is an omnivorous feeder and
may be found upon a great variety of
plants. Peas, clover and alfalfa are se-
verely attacked, while they also feed up-
on grass, grains and buckwheat. Peach,
apple, plum, apricot, prune, cherry, al-
mond and quince trees are also among the
food plants.

Control

For this pest Mr. W. H. Volck especi-
ally recommends the following formula:
Water, 100 gallons; flour paste, 4 gallons;
lime-sulphur solution, 5 quarts; iron sul-
phate, 2 pounds. The flour paste and lime
sulphur are thoroughly mixed in the
spray tank after which the iron sulphate
is added and all thoroughly agitated.

Natural Enemies

The larvae of the minute black lady-
bird beetles (Stethorus vagans Blackb.
and Stethorus picipes Casey) and the
green lacewing {Ghrysopa calif ornica
Coq.) prey upon the clover mite but they
do not appear to be important factors in
keeping it down.

E. O. EssiG

GRASSHOPPERS

Valley Grasshopper

CEdaleonotus enigma Scudd
General Appearance

One of the smaller species, the adults
being about one-fourth of an inch long.
The general color is rich amber with red-
dish hue around the eyes. The dorsum
and carinae of the thorax are dark. The
tegmina are mottled with black and
dusky spots. The antennae and first two
pairs of legs are concolorous with the
body, while the femora of the hind legs
are richly marked with black and the

CLOVER AND ALFALFA PESTS

825

tibiae are pale blue. The young are near-
ly of the same general color, with the
dark markings less pronounced.

Life History

The holes in which the eggs are laid
are usually drilled in hard or compact
soil. The eggs are laid regularly and hori-
zontally and cemented together, as well
as being surrounded with a liquid cement
which renders the mass waterproof. The
young hatch the following spring, as soon
as it becomes warm and they begin to
reach maturity early in June. Pairing
begins soon after and eggs are deposited
from August to October. There are two
forms of the adults, characterized by long
and short wings. The species is very pro-
lific and does much damage. It is only
occasionally migratory.

ESSIG

Fig. 1. The Valley Grasshopper (Oedaleonotus
enifima Scudd). (Orisinal.)

Food Plants

All forms of vegetation, including the
foliage of orchards and vineyards, uncul-
tivated field crops, such as alfalfa, clover,
grain, etc., and cultivated crops, such as
vegetables, corn, potatoes, etc., are at-
tacked.

Differential Grasshopper

Melanoplus differentialis Thomas

General Appearance

This is one of the larger hoppers, aver-
aging one and five-eighths inches from
front to the tip of the tegmina or wing
covers. A very beautifully colored insect
when fully matured. The head, thorax,
abdomen and first two pairs of legs are
amber or rich brown, the sutures being
dark. The wing covers are brownish
gray — the true wings being transparent.
The hind femora are yellow with black
cross lines, while the tibiae and tarsi are
bright red, the former with black spots
near the outer base. The spines and
claws are black. The antennae are red-

dish with dusky tips. The nymphs are
green.

Life History

Egg-laying begins about the middle of
the summer. The holes for the eggs are
drilled into the soil in bare and vacant
places, especially in alfalfa fields. From
60 to 80 eggs are laid by each fe-
male. They are protected from winter
rains and freezes by an excretion of the
female which makes the capsule contain-
ing them waterproof. Thjey begin to
hatch in the warmer spring months, ap-
pearing early in June and keep up their
destructive work until August. The young
green hoppers, as they mature, acquire
wings and assume a yellowish tint, thus
causing the belief that there are two dis-
tinct species. The largest brood appears
early in the summer, and the greatest
amount of damage is done by the first of
August.

Fig. 1. The Differential Grasshopper (Melano-
plus differentialis Thomas. (Original.)

Food Plants

Practically all kinds of green vegeta-
tion, including most of the forage and
truck crops. Especially destructive to al-
falfa. Orchard trees and vineyards are
also attacked, some trees and vines being
completely defoliated and many killed.

Hopper Dozer

The use of the hopper dozer has be-
come an important factor in the control
of grasshoppers, especially in grain and
hay fields, in pastures and even in culti-
vated crops. The hopper dozer is con-
structed as shown in Fig. 1. The back
and sides are made of thin sheet iron or
cloth and the pan at the bottom con-
structed to hold about two inches of kero-
sene. These dozers may be made any
length but a two-horse size is the most

826

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

practicable. They are simply drawn across
the fields and capture the hoppers as the
latter endeavor to escape their approach.
Though the hoppers may escape from the
kerosene bath they are doomed.

H.

rf"

Z>.«:,

Fig. 1.

Plan of a Very Good Hopper Dozer.
— After L'rhahnx.

The best time of operation is on warm
days if possible, early in the season be-
fore the hoppers have acquired wings.

A brief description of some of the most
common and destructive California spe-
cies follows.

E. O. EssiG

Grape Leaf Hopper. See under Grape.

Zebra Caterpillar

Mamestra picta Harris

The zebra caterpillar often attracts at-
tention by appearing in considerable num-
bers in the early fall on alfalfa.

Comstock * describes the caterpillar as
of a light yellow color with three broad
longitudinal black stripes, one on each
side and the third on the top of the back.
These stripes on the sides are broken by
numerous pure white lines. The pupa is
of a brownish color. The adult moth has
dark chestnut brown forewings and pale
yellow hindwings.

The eggs of this caterpillar are depos-
ited on the alfalfa leaves and hatch in a
few days. The young larvae eat the epi-
dermis of the leaves, which soon appear
whitish from their attack. They web the
tops of the stalks of alfalfa together.

One may go through an alfalfa field and
notice here and there plants of which the
tops are webbed together and the leaves
present a whitish and dead appearance.
In the young stages the larvae work in
colonies, and only on the upper and con-
sequently more tender portions of the
alfalfa plant. I have seen as many as
50 small larvae on one leaf and several
hundred on the entire plant. As they be-
come larger they will scatter to adjoining

Manual for Study (if Insects, page 30.5.

plants, eating the leaves as they go. Often
at a radius of several feet from the orig-
inally infested plant the larvae may be
found working on the leaves.

From September to October the cater-
pillars on becoming full grown enter the
soil to pupate. The winter is passed in
this stage, the moths appearing in the
spring. There are probably several gen-
erations, but the last generation in the
fall is the one in which the larvae are
numerous enough to attract attention.

At present the best method for the con-
trol of this pest on alfalfa is to go
through a field picking and destroying
infested tops, which are conspicuous be-
cause of their whitish color, when the
larvae are in the young stages and con-
sequently massed on one or two stalks.
If the fields are pastured at this time of
the year very little damage will result
from this insect's attack.

This insect occurs in the Atlantic states,
Colorado, Utah and California.

Besides alfalfa, it attacks cabbage, cel-
ery, beets and other garden vegetables.

E. J. VOSLER,

Cal. Com. Hort. II, 11.

Cocoanut Palm

The cocoanut palm grows in the
tropics along the seashore in rich sandy
soil. It is native to the islands of the
Indian ocean and is now widely distrib-
uted throughout the tropical countries of
the world. The only part of the United
States where it grows in any considerable
quantities is in the southern part of
Florida, but even here it does not suc-
ceed so well as farther south, showing
that it must live in a climate practically
free from frost.

Geological specimens have been discov-
ered in Central and South America, show-
ing that it once had a much wider dis-
tribution than at present. In the tropical
islands it has been discovered to be one
of the first trees to find a foothold upon
the newly formed soil. It is a luxurious
grower, often reaching a height of more
than 100 feet with leaves from 10 to 20
feet in length. At the bases of the
leaves appear large yellow or white flow-

COCOANUT PALM— COLA NUT— COLORADO

827

ers followed by large, hard-shelled nuts.
The tree usually begins to bear at the age,
or about the age of ten years, and con-
tinues fruitful for more than half a cen-
tury. It flourishes best in lands near
the coast that are so sandy and shelly
that little else will grow.

The cocoanut is propagated wholly
from seeds, which when planted in the
nursery, and grown for commercial pur-
poses, are planted in rows, and when the
plants are large enough, are transplanted
into the orchard and set about 20 to 30
feet apart. For a few years, they are
given clean cultivation, and then allowed
to shift for themselves because they grow
in soil not adapted to other vegetable
growths.

The cocoanut palm is one of the most
important nut trees of the world. Its
fruits are used in many ways in the
tropical countries, either cooked, raw,
ripe or unripe. Large quantities are ex-
ported to temperate climates, where it is
used by confectioners for the making of
candies, cakes and bread. The oil is used
in making candles, soap and for cooking.
The central parts of the stems of the
young plant and the terminal buds of the
old plant are often used as vegetable food
or salad. The dried leaves are used for
thatching and there is a sap drawn from
the young spathes, out of which a pleas-
ant drink is made. The lower wood of
the old trunk is used in cabinet making,
the fiber is sometimes used for cordage,
while the shell is used for drinking cups,
bowls, bottles and sometimes polished for
ornamental purposes. Perhaps there is
no fruit more profitable, in proportion to
the amount of labor expended in its pro-
duction, than the cocoanut.

Granville Lowthee

Cola Nut

A small tree, growing to the height of
20 or 40 feet, native to the west coast of
Africa and about 500 miles into the in-
terior between Sierra Leone and Lower
Guinea. The tree has become naturalized
in the West Indies and Brazil. There are
about 14 species of trees, and the fruit,
or nut, is supposed to possess a stimulat-

ing power as well as nutritive value that
sustains the natives in great feats of
endurance.

It bears a profusion of purplish flowers,
from which grow a brownish yellow fruit,
which encloses a nut of red and white
seeds. In its tenth year, the tree reaches
its maturity, so that it bears more pro-
fusely than at any other period. The
seeds ripen in October or November and
will yield as much as 125 pounds per
tree.

The extract of the nut is believed to
possess medicinal qualities and has re-
cently come into use in many parts of
the world as a beverage.

Granville Lowtheb

Colorado

Colorado gets its name from the Colo-
rado river, a name meaning "red or red-
dish." It is 380 miles from east to west,
and 275 miles from north to south, mak-
ing a land area of 103,645 square miles
or 66,332,800 acres.

Colorado includes an important part of
the Rocky mountain range, which is the
natural divide between the drainage sys-
tems of the Middle states, and the Pacific
coast states. Much of it is rough and
fit only for mining and grazing, which
industries yield its principal wealth. It
contains more land at higher altitude
than any other state in the Union. About
three-sevenths of the state is an elevated
plateau, rising gradually from east to
west, until it reaches the vicinity of Den-
ver. East of this its water drains through
the South Platte and Arkansas Rivers into
the Missouri and Mississippi and into
the Gulf of Mexico. Westward its waters
drain through the Colorado river into the
Gulf of California. The eastern one-third
of the state is part of that great plain
called the Mississippi valley, the western
portion of which a generation or two ago,
was considered a part of the "Great Amer-
ican Desert," but which is now being
rapidly brought under profitable cultiva-
tion.

In the mountainous portions are nar-
row valleys of alluvial soil, washed from
the mountain sides, some of them rich

828

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

and well adapted to farming and grazing.
The orchards are almost always in the
valleys, for several reasons. First, the
elevation is too great, and the climate
too severe, in the higher lands, for the
growing of fruits. Second, generally irri-
gation is required for the growing of
fruits, and irrigation is not possible on
the high plateaus. Third, orchards need
to be sheltered from the winds and for
that reason need a cove, valley or pro-
tected place. From her many peaks and
high mountain ranges, the highest por-
tions of which are always covered with
snow, hundreds of streams are fed, from
which water can be diverted for irriga-
tion, and thus some of the valleys are
becoming sources of plenty.

Fruit growing is the leading industry,
in the counties of Delta, Mesa and Mont-
rose, along the Grand river. It is here
that the famous Grand Junction district
is situated. On the Arkansas river, the
principal fruit section is around Canyon
City, although considerable fruit is grown
farther down the river near Pueblo and
farther east. Canyon City is famous for
its cantaloupes, as also is the Rocky Ford
district which has given its name to the
netted gem variety of cantaloup.

Prof. E. R. Bennett, of the Colorado
Agricultural college, thinks that fruit
growing in mountain districts is in a
class by itself. He thinks that the Rocky
mountain district differs from any of the
other four great districts of North Amer-
ica. The districts here referred to are
doubtless the Pacific coast states, the
Alleghany mountain region, the Ozark
mountain region and the region of the
Great Lakes. He has the following in
substance to say in regard to the differ-
ences. "The difference is primarily due
to altitude. Plant tissue in the high
altitudes is characterized by a delicacy of
cell structure which, noticably in forest
trees, makes them brittle. Such trees for
instance as the elm, ash and maple
which easily withstand the heavy ice
storms of the East, are frequently broken
in Colorado by storms less severe. This
is manifest in fruit in a finer texture so
that apples, naturally tough in character.

are better when grown in the Rocky
mountain district than when grown in
lower altitudes. Another fact, that may
be either good or bad, is that high alti-
tudes tend to make flavor less prominent.
For this reason, the Baldwin and Green-
ing are desirable varieties when grown
in New England, but are too insipid when
grown in Colorado. On the other hand,
the Jonathan grown in the high altitudes
is just sufficiently toned down to give it
a desirable fiavor, without that acrid
taste which characterizes it when grown
in the East. Another feature of the
orchard industry in Colorado (and in all
the Pacific coast states as well) is the
early bearing habit of the trees. In the
East it is not expected that an orchard
will bear to any considerable extent until
it is from 8 to 15 years old, while the
Colorado orchards will make a much more
rapid growth and bear at half that age.

"The apple is the most important fruit
of the Rocky mountain district. The
number of bearing trees in Colorado is
over 2,750,000. In 1910 there were of all
kinds of fruit trees set 1,873,870. In 1911
it is estimated there were about two mil-
lions. It is difficult to estimate the value
of orchards in the Rocky mountain dis-
trict as these vary considerably with the
different places in which they are grown.
Some are located in small valleys more
or less distant fi'om raili'oads, and where
the lands are not well advertised. In
such places bearing orchards would sell
for $200 to $500 per acre. In other places,
where the orchard areas are larger, the
transportation facilities better, and where
more advertising has been done, orchards
will sell from $700 to $2,000 per acre. The
yield per acre for bearing trees is from
150 to 500 boxes; perhaps an average of
250 boxes per acre would be a fair esti-
mate. The net income per acre will prob-
ably be all the way from $100 to $200.

"The apple-growing industry in Colo-
rado is rapidly increasing because of the
average high market price received for
Colorado apples. Apples sell in the mar-
kets of the East at a higher price than
from any other district except those of
the Northwest, so that the proposition

COLORADO

829

from the standpoint of the grower is one
of high-class fruit. Colorado orchardists
do not claim that fruit can be grown
cheaper in the Rocky mountain district
than in the East, or that cheap grades of
fruit are profitable in this district. The
aim of the orchardist is to grow fruit
that will sell in the best markets rather
than fruit for the low class trade of the
country.

"From the standpoint of soils it would
be hard to say what would be considered
a typical Colorado soil. Orchards are
successfully grown on soils all the way
from heavy, adobe bottom lands to the
lightest sand and gravel soils of tlie
higher mesas. The essential thing is suf-
ficient fertility and water enough to en-
able the trees to develop the fruit in the
best manner.

"The most important fruit for the Rocky
mountain district aside from the apple
is the peach. Peach growing in the state
is largely limited to the protected valleys
where the air drainage is such as to give
a minimum of losses from late spring
frosts and extremes of cold in winter.
Palisades in the valley of the Grand,
Paonia in the North Fork valley, and a
few other districts comprise the larger
part of the peach territory of the state.
These lands that are particularly well
adapted to peach growing have become
world famous for their great returns from
peaches. A thousand dollars per acre was
once not an uncommon return from
peaches, and peach orchards have been
sold as high as $4,500 per acre.

"The pear is still more localized in its
production owing largely to the ravages
of the pear blight which has made pear
growing a precarious business in some
districts. Districts that are well adapted
to pear growing and are not seriously
troubled from this disease, have made
big returns from the industry. The pear,
however, is not increasing in production
in this state to any such extent as are
many of the other fruits.

"Not the least important of the fruit
products of Colorado is the cherry. The
cherry is adapted to a greater variety of
soils and conditions in Colorado than anv

of the other fruits except possibly the
apple, and in fact the cherry will grow
without irrigation in many districts
where the apple is not particularly success-
ful. In the west slope districts as in the
valleys of the Grand, Uncompahgre, North
Fork, Animas and in Montezuma county,
the sweet cherry is grown possibly more
extensively than the sour. On the east
side of the mountains the sour cherry pre-
dominates. Of the sweet cherries, the
Royal Ann (Napoleon), May Duke, Royal
Duke and Bing are more largely grown.
Of the sour cherries the Montmorency,
Morello or Wragg are the leading vari-
eties. The sweet cherry is largely mar-
keted fresh in boxes. Some of the sour
cherries are utilized in the same way, al-
though there is a growing tendency to-
wards canning the product at canneries
near the orchards. The cherry will make
a gross return of from $200 to $400 per
acre, and is one of our most dependable
fruits as fewer failures come in cherry
growing than with most other fruits."

Grand Valley

The Grand valley is situated on the
western slope of the Rocky mountains, in
Mesa county, and extends westward to
the Utah line. It has an altitude of about
4,600 feet, is about 40 miles long, and 6
to 10 miles wide. It contains approxi-
mately 150,000 acres of land, capable of
irrigation, some of which is already un-
der water and planted to orchards, while
about 60,000 acres will come under the
Government irrigation project now in the
process of construction. The principal
crops are apples and peaches. Of the va-
rieties of apples best adapted, the Jona-
than is the favorite. Here the soil and
climatic conditions seem favorable for its
growth and a high state of perfection is
reached.

Granville Lowther

Grand Junction Weather for tbe Past
Sixteen Years
Temperature

The mean annual temperature is 52.6
degrees. The highest annual mean was
54.5 degrees in 1900, the lowest 50.1 de-
grees in 1903. The highest temperature
ever recorded was 104 degrees on June

830

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

23, 1900, the lowest — 16 degrees on Jan-
uary 26, 1898; other low temperatures were
— 15 degrees, February 7, 1903; — 14 de-
grees, February 14, 1905, and — 12 de-
grees, February 6, 1899. The coldest
month was February, 1903, with a mean
temperature of 15.2 degrees, the warmest
was July, 1901, with a mean of 82.0 de-
grees. In February, 1903, there were 14
days on which the temperature was below
zero. In July, 1901, there were 12 days
with temperature 100 degrees or more,
and the temperature exceeded 90 degrees
on every day of that month.

Precipitation

The mean annual precipitation is 8.22
Inches. The greatest annual fall was
11.61 inches in 1906, the least, 3.64 inches,
in 1900; other heavy falls were, 11.25
inches in 1897, 10.87 inches in 1899, 10.85
inches in 1895, and 10.25 inches in 1905.
The greatest monthly fall was 3.76 inches
in September, 1896, and the least, none, in
September, 1892, and November, 1904.
The greatest fall ever recorded in any 24
consecutive hours was 2.16 inches on Sep-

tember 22-23, 1896. The average annual
snowfall is 19.0 inches. The greatest an-
nual amount was 35.9 inches in 1905, the
least, 1.2 Inches in 1900.

Wind

The average hourly wind velocity is 5.1
miles per hour. The prevailing directions
are S.E. and N.W. The highest velocities
recorded were 41 miles per hour from the
N.W. on February 22, 1900, and 41 miles
from the S.W. on April 1, 1903. The
winds are generally E. to S.E., from mid-
night to noon, and W. to N.W. from noon
to midnight.

Sunshine and Cloudiness

The sunshine has averaged 70 per cent
of the possible amount. The month of
greatest sunshine is July; of least, Jan-
uary. The average of clear days is 193;
partly cloudy days, 102; cloudy days, 70.
The average number of days with fog is
1; with hail, 2; with thunderstorms, 35;
with .01 inch or more precipitation, 57;
with .04 or more precipitation, 40.

Compiled from U. S. Weather Bureau
Records.

Frost and Precipitation for Colorado

Station

Fort Collins

Leroy

Meeker

Pagoda

Silt

Breckenridge. . . .

Denver

Cope

Grand Junction . .
Colorado Springs.

Hamps

Montrose

Gunnison

Salida

Pueblo

Las Animas

Saganche

Durango

San Luis

Hoehue

Blaine

Frost

Average Date of

First Kill-
ing in
Autumn

Sept. 21

Sept. 26

Sept. 12

Sept. 8

Sept. 25

Oct. 4
Oct. 3
Oct. 29
Sept. 28
Sept. 21
Sept. 29

Sept. 7

Oct. 15

Oct. 6

Sept. 17

Sept. 22

Sept. 11

Oct. 2

Oct. 6

Last in
Spring

Date of

Earliest

Killing in

Autumn

May 13

May 5

June 7

June 10

May 18

May 7

Apr. 27

Apr. 11

May 1

May 16

May 10

May 30

Apr. 28

May 2

May 24

May 13

June 9

May 10

May 13

Sept. 7
Sept. 12
Aug. 23
Aug. 20
Aug. 27

Sept. 12

Sept. 11

Sept. 14

Sept. 12

Sept. 6

Sept. 8

Aug. 25
Sept. 12
Sept. 7
Sept. 10
Aug. 24
Aug. 25
Sept. 13
Sept. 7

Last in
Spring

June 5

May 26

July 4

July 19

June 6

June 6

May 22

Apr. 30

May 23

June 8

May 28

July 7

May 23

May 19

July 6

June 12

July 5

July 4

May 22

Precipitati'n

Annual
inches

14.6

15.0

15.0

19.7

11.8

26.8

13.7

18.4

7.7

14.3

13.1

9.3

8.9

9.7

11.6

11.4

7.1

15.9

11.9

13.0

15.3

COMPOSITION IRRIGATED AND NON-IRRIGATED FRUITS

831

Composition of Irrigated and
Non-Irrigated Fruits

J. S. Jones and C. W. Colver in Idaho
State Bulletin No. 75 report an analytical
study of orchard and small fruits, with
special reference to the effect of irri-
gation on those compounds which ma-
terially influence quality in fruit. Al-
though the attempt has been made to com-
pare similar varieties of fruits growing
both under irrigation and non-irrigation,
data were secured with regard to as many
varieties as possible whether grown under
both conditions or not. The principal de-
terminations made include total solids,
acidity, invert and cane sugar, nitrogen,
ash and waste. The leading commercial
districts of Idaho were represented and all
samples were grown at elevations less
than 3,000 feet. The analyses are here
grouped and discussed under the three di-
visions of drupaceous, pomaceous and
small fruits.

Summarizing the results it appears that
there is a fairly well-defined tendency for
apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches,
plums and prunes to elaborate greater per-
centages of solid matter when grown in
the non-irrigated sections. With the ex-
ception of Italian and Petite prunes, how-
ever, such differences in sugar and acid
are too small to seriously affect taste.
There was a remarkable uniformity of
composition within each of the several
varieties of apples analyzed. The non-
irrigated varieties contain slightly greater
percentages of acid and sugar, but the dif-
ferences practically disappear when these
constituents are calculated to the dry or
solid matter. Apples grown with irriga-
tion contain the smaller percentage of
solids insoluble in water, and the non-
irrigated apples containing appreciably
higher percentages of crude protein, and
consequently may have a slightly higher
actual food value. In intensity and uni-
formity of color, also in percentage of
waste, irrigated apples are somewhat su-
perior to the non-irrigated.

With the exception of strawberries there
were but slight differences in percentage
of solid matter and in the total sugar con-

tent between the irrigated and non-irri-
gated small fruits. The non-irrigated
small fruits, however, contain appreciably
greater percentages of acid and of crude
protein.

From a survey of the analytical results
as a whole the authors are led to conclude
that fruits in general manifest a well-de-
fined tendency to elaborate greater per-
centages of total solids or dry matter, con-
sequently of sugar, acid and crude protein
when grown in non-irrigated sections, but
that with comparatively few exceptions no
marked difference between irrigated and
non-irrigated fruits in actual food or mar-
ket value should be charged to differences
in composition.

Cost of Hauling Fruits to Market.
See under Marketing.

Connecticut

Connecticut has an area of 4,850 square
miles. It may be divided into coast land,
central low land, and eastern upland. The
central lowland is in the valley of the
Connecticut river and is a sandy loam
well adapted to diversified agriculture.
That which is true of the Connecticut
river is also true of the bottoms along the
other streams, except that the valley of
the Connecticut is larger than any of the
others. The soil in the upland is, for the
most part, a heavy clay. There is a con-
siderable difference in the periods of the
ripening of fruits. In the bottoms the
climate is warmer on account of the ra-
diation of the heat and sunshine from
the hillsides, and the soils are sandy and
warm, and therefore, produce crops that
mature and come into the markets before
the fruits of the same varieties on the
uplands are ready to pick.

Apples grow anywhere in the state, but
the hills and the uplands produce the
best winter varieties because they have
the best keeping qualities, and therefore
bring the highest price in the market.
The soil of the hills seems well adapted
to the growing of the best varieties.

Peach growing in Connecticut is proving
to be an important industry. The only
trouble seems to be on account of the
danger of frosts that kill the buds in the

832

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

early spring. It is estimated tliat on the
lowlands there will probably be a loss of
two crops out of five, while on the hills
there is less danger, and there will be
a loss of one crop out of five, or one out
of four, and there are a few favored spots
where there is scarcely any danger from
frosts. The peaches of Connecticut are
of a very fine quality, well developed,
finelj^ colored, and bring good prices in
the city markets.

Grapes and pears are successfully
grown in all parts of the state, and the
small fruits do well. The only crop that
seems not to succeed well is the cherry,
of which it is estimated that there are
scarcely enough grown to supply the
home demand.

Granville Lowther

Co-operation, Fundamentals of. See
Marketing.

Corn

This cereal is so common in the United
States that it is scarcely necessary to de-
vote space here to a description of its cul-
tivation. For garden purposes there are-
three kinds in general use.

The first is the common field corn,
cooked when the ears are not yet mature
but after the grain has formed and called
"roasting ears."

The second is "sweet corn," cooked in
much the same way and used largely for
canning.

The third is "pop corn," which after ma-
turity and being thoroughly dried, is
heated to a temperature which will cause
it to explode into white crisp grains.

The field corn requires earlier planting
than the other varieties because it is
larger and it takes longer to bring it to
maturity.

Sweet corn may be planted as soon in
the spring as the danger of frost is past,
and then if there are successive plantings
every two weeks, it may be gathered for
use fi'om July until late in the autumn.

Pop corn is small and matures early.

Plant the seed in hills about three feet

apart each way. While corn will grow on

almost any kind of soil, a deep rich soil

is preferable.

Granville Lowtiieu

Cover Crops. See Apple Orchard, Cul-
tivation of.

Cow Peas. See Apple Orchard Cover
Crops.

Crab Apples

In speaking of crab apples, most old
settlers think of the "Native Wild Ap-
ples" which grew in the forests of the
Eastern states, or in strips of timber and
clumps or groves in the prairie states and
the Oregon crab apple native to the Pa-
cific coast.

The native wild apples, Pyrus coronaria,
were found by the early settlers in Can-
ada and all the eastern and middle por-
tions of the United States. The flowers
are large showy, white or rose colored
and delightfully fragrant. The fruit rip-
ens late, is sour, almost bitter, and was
used by the frontiersmen mostly for mak-
ing preserves. In the prairie states, this
species varied so that some have regarded
it a separate species and have named it
Pyrus ioivensis. The fruit is small, meas-
uring from less than an inch in diameter
to two inches.

Pyrus augustifolia is the native crab of
the Southern states; is much like Pyrus
coronaria, and need not be further de-
scribed.

Pyrus rivularis, the Oregon crab apple,
has rather small white flowers and the
calyx lobes become deciduous from the
mature fruits. The fruit is about three-
fourths of an inch long, oblong, yellowish
or blushed, and ripens in autumn. It is
used by the Indians but is not cultivated.

rHltiv.ated Hybrids

There are four varieties of cultivated
hybrids, generally called crabs. These are
the Soulard, Howard, Mercer and Ken-
tucky Mammoth.

Common Crab Apple

The crab apples which we cultivate for
their fruit are for the most part hybrids
between the apple, Pyrus mains, and the
primitive Siberian crab, Pyrus baccata.

The principal list of Siberian crab ap-
ples and their hybrids are as follows:

Bailey Crimson; fruit medium or large,
skin yellow and shaded with a deep rich
crimson.

CRAB APPLES

833

Brier; tree vigorous and hardy, comes
into bearing young, skin pale yellow,
washed with a lively red.

Cherry; fruit medium to large, skin
pale yellow, nearly covered with bright
red.

Coral; fruit of good size, brilliant color,
sprightly subacid in flavor, season October
to February. The tree is a good bearer,
and comes into bearing early.

Currant; fruit small, borne in clusters,
of no commercial value.

Dartmouth; fruit large, brilliantly col-
ored, good in flavor and quality. The tree
is not a vigorous grower but comes into
bearing early and yields full crops in al-
ternate years.

Excelsior; fruit very large, nearly as
large as the medium sized apple; very at-
tractive in appearance and excellent in
quality for either dessert or culinary uses.
Tree a good strong grower, hardy, healthy
and comes into bearing early, yields crops
on alternate years. Skin smooth, yellow,
shaded and splashed with red.

Florence; tree bears young, is a reliable
cropper, prolific, fruit of good size, very
attractive in appearance, of good quality,
mostly overspread with a brilliant pinkish
red.

Gibb; fruit large, yellow blushed with
dull red, highly esteemed for canning,
season last half of September. Tree well
adapted to northern sections, slow grower
but very productive.

Hyslop; fruit large, very brilliantly col-
ored, dark red or purplish, overspread
with thick blue bloom; borne in clusters.
The tree is a good grower, very hardy,
and a reliable cropper, heavy crops every
second year, sometimes annually.

Large Red Siberian; fruit of medium
size for the Siberian, being larger than
the Red Siberian, but smaller than the
Transcendent or Hyslop. Tree is a vig-
orous grower, hardy, healthy, and a heavy
cropper, bears biennially, sometimes an-
nually.

Large Yellow Siberian; fruit large,
clear pale yellow with a shade of red.
Tree medium in size, moderately vigorous,
very hardy, healthy, comes into bearing
young, is very productive. Is generally

superseded in the markets by the larger
varieties.

Marengo; very good variety for home
use, where late keeping is required, but
larger and more attractive varieties are
generally preferred.

Martha; fruit large, very handsome
clear yellow, more or less overspread with
a bright red; excellent in flavor and qual-
ity. Tree medium size, very hardy, comes
into bearing young, yields good crops an-
nually. Season from September to late
fall.

Minnesota; fruit very large for its
class, skin pale yellow blushed or mottled
on the sunny side, flesh white, firm, crisp,
season from September to October.

Montreal Beauty; a very beautiful
fruit, tree less hardy than the Transcend-
ent, does not come into bearing early, but
bears heavily. Fruit large, for its class,
yellowish green mostly covered with red.

Oblong; fruit medium size, medium all
around and not generally recommended.

Orange; regarded by some as a desir-
able variety for both home use and mar-
ket, but no distinctive characteristics that
make it particularly desirable.

Paul Imperial; fruit small to medium,
somewhat irregular in shape, of very good
appearance but less attractive in size and
color than the Hyslop, and inferior to the
Martha in quality. Tree below medium in
size, comes into bearing young and is an
annual cropper.

Picta Striata; fruit handsome, rather
mild in flavor, but is hardly large enough
for a good commercial variety.

Quaker; a late ripening variety only
fair in quality, size medium to large;
color yellow with red cheek, tree hand-
some but not very productive.

Queen Choice; fruit medium or above in
size, of a beautiful crimson color, showy
and attractive, tree vigorous, very prolific.

Red Siberian; fruit small, decidedly or-
namental, borne in clusters. Skin smooth,
pale yellow, striped and blushed with a
lively red overspread with a bluish bloom.

September; a very handsome fruit of
good quality; ripens a few days later than
the Transcendent, in September. Tree a

2—12

834

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

good grower, comes into bearing young
and yields good crops biennially.

Soulard; is regarded as a hybrid be-
tween the common wild prairie crab and
the common apple. It originated on a
farm near St. Louis, Mo. It is large, of
good quality, and one of the most desir-
able of all varieties produced in the
United States. It is good when baked,
makes excellent jams, jellies and pre-
serves, hangs on the tree until late frost
and will keep in common storage for a
year. Tree perfectly hardy. It seems not
adapted to the Northeastern states, and in
some other portions of the United States
has not been sufficiently tested.

Transcendent; a beautiful fruit and one
of the most popular. Tree a good grower,
hardy, very prolific, fruit medium to large,
clear bright yellow with red cheeks; sea-
son late in August to middle of Septem-
ber.

Van Wyck; a sweet crab apple, fruit
large for a Siberian crab, whitish, shaded
with bright red covered with bloom; in-
clines to watercore; season from August
to September.

Whitney; one of the most popular of
the large crab apples, especially in the
West and North. Tree is thrifty, upright
grower, comes into bearing young and is
very productive. Season, August and Sep-
tember.

Yellow Siberian; is sometimes called
the Golden Beauty. It is similar to
the Red Siberian, except for size it
is larger, and in color it is a clear
golden yellow. Under certain circum-
stances it suffers from blight. It comes
into bearing young, is a vigorous grower
and a heavy annual cropper.

For further information as to the cul-
ture and the adaptation of crab apples to
special locations, see Apple.

Granville Lowther

Crabs, American. See Apple, History of.

Crab Apples, Grade Rules for. See
under Apple Packing.

Crabs, European. See Apple, History
of.

Crabs, Native, Future of. See Apple,
History of.

Crab, Soulard. See Apple, History of.

Crabs, Wild. See Apple, History of.

Crabs, Smooth, Wild. See Apple, Bat'
any of.

Crabs, Hairy, Wild. See Apple, Bot-
any of.

Cranberry

There are two species of cranberry; one
is known as the Little Cranberry, Vacci-
nium oxycoccus, and the other as the
Large American Cranberry, Vacinium ma-
crocarpon.

The American cranberry grows wild
along the Atlantic coast from Maine to
New Jersey, and in small areas along the
Allegheny mountain range from Southern
Pennsylvania to North Carolina. It grows
also in some of the Middle states like
Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota.

The number of acres planted to cran-
berries according to the census reports of
1910 are as follows: Connecticut, 275;
Illinois, 1; Indiana, 70; Iowa, 1; Kansas,
1; Maine, 90; Massachusetts, 5,128; Mich-
igan, 150; Minnesota, 22; Nebraska, 1;
New Hampshire, 23; New Jersey, 8,356;
New York, 113; Oregon, 6; Rhode Island,
300; South Dakota, 1; Washington, 5;
Wisconsin, 5,821.

One of the most surprising things in
the study of cranberry culture is the av-
erage number of bushels per acre in the
sections where the fruit is grown for com-
mercial purposes. The lowest average per
acre is in Maine, where it is 17 bushels.
The highest average per acre is Oregon
where it is 119 bushels per acre. Next to
Oregon is Massachusetts giving an aver-
age yield of 117 bushels per acre and next
to Massachusetts, New York with 96 bush-
els per acre. The average for the cran-
berry producing states is within a frac-
tion of 47 bushels per acre. It would ap-
pear therefore that the states producing
above this average would make the in-
dustry profitable, and that Oregon and
Massachusetts should make it very profit-
able.

Structurally the cranberry is allied to
the blueberry or huckleberry; but botan-
ically it is classed as a distinct species.

Soils Best Adapted

It is necessary to success in cranberry
culture that the soil should be very rich

CRANBERRY

835

in humus, boggy and mixed with sand.
The water should be within a few inches
of the surface, and during the growing
season, the whole area should be flooded
as in the growing of rice in the South.
The cranberry is not, however, a Southern
plant but grows either in the northern lat-
itudes or the high altitudes which make
the climate equivalent to a northern lati-
tude. On account of the necessity of
maintaining a water level, land should be
chosen that has a substratum of hard
pan, impervious clay, or something that
holds the water, so that while the plants
are growing the water may be held from
six to ten inches below the surface, and
when they are fruiting the water should
be held at from one to two feet deep
below the surface.

On this account, the land should be
level, or it cannot be uniformly covered to
a sufficient depth. In order to do this, it
is better to make a small embankment
around the tract to be irrigated. These
embankments need not be more than
about three feet in height, and if the land
is sufficiently leveled, they will hold the
water to any depth needed in the growing
of the fruits.

Grading

The work of grading the land should
be done with a good deal of care, destroy-
ing all roots of plants, shrubs, and what-
ever may obstruct the growth of the
fruit. The land should be then carefully
smoothed down to a level and sanded.
The sanding is a process that may require
much labor, depending on the distance
sand must be hauled. The sand should
be scattered over the land to a depth of
about four inches.

Propagation

The propagation of the cranberry for
commercial purposes is by means of cut-
tings, but for the production of new va-
rieties seeds are planted as in most other
kinds of fruit. The cuttings are planted
as early in the spring as possible and
the land kept sufficiently flooded to pro-
tect the plants from frost.

Methods of cranberry culture differ in
different localities. L. C. Corbett, Horti-

culturist for the Department of Agricul-
ture, conducted an investigation some
years ago into this subject and the results
are in part embodied in what follows.

Cuttings

* New cranberry meadows are almost
always established by planting cuttings.
The sanded surface of the area to be
planted serves as the propagating bed for
the cuttings as well as the home for the
established plants. The cuttings consist
usually of portions of shoots of the vari-
ety to be grown, 10 to 15 inches long. The
common practice is to secure the cuttings
from vigorous plants by mowing a portion
of the meadow with a mowing scythe. The
portions of the vines thus secured are
then transported to the area to be planted
and separated into wisps containing from
8 to 15 separate stems. The wisps are
placed at the intersection of marks made
to indicate the interval between the plants,
usually 18 by 18 or 9 by 18 inches. The
cuttings are then forced into the sand
with a broad, thin, wedge-shaped dibble.
The blade of the dibble is placed midway
of the wisp of cuttings, so that the pres-
sure exerted upon the cuttings doubles
them upon themselves and at the same
time presses them firmly in the soil.

While the above statement explains the
usual method of propagating the cran-
berry, new meadows have been established
by running the cuttings through an or-
dinary hay or straw cutter, thus reducing
them to fragments about one inch long.
By sowing these fragments in rows or
broadcasting them upon the surface, a
stand of plants may be secured. Cuttings
of the cranberry intended for shipment
should be loosely packed in well venti-
lated barrels, baskets, or crates. More in-
jury results from the heatiUo of the plants
in closely packed, unventilated recep-
tacles than from drying in well ventilated
ones.

Harvesting

In early days of cranberry culture har-
vesting was necessarily done by hand. As
the industry expanded, the increased de-
mand for pickers rendered it necessary

* Farmers' Bulletin Xo. 170.

836

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

that in order to hold the cost of produc-
tion within reasonable bounds some me-
chanical device be found which would
lessen the cost of harvesting by increasing
the quantity an individual is able to pick.
This demand has been met by cranberry
rakes, which effect a decided saving of
time and expense, as one person can gath-
er 75 to 80 measures of six quarts each
in a day, while a hand picker can not
gather more than one-half of that quan-
tity. There is considerable prejudice
among growers against the use of these
harvesting devices because of some real
or imagined injury to the bogs. This
prejudice, however, seems to be disap-
pearing; at least the use of the harvesters
is each year becoming more general.

Harvesting is paid for, as a rule, by
the measure. Each person is furnished
with a rake and with pails or boxes in
which to place the berries as picked. The
meadow is then laid off in sections or
strips by stretching lines across it. Each
picker is assigned to a division. By this
arrangement each one gets his share both
of heavily and sparsely fruited plants, and
the grower is certain of getting the prod-
uct from all parts of the meadow. This
has not been as satisfactorily accom-
plished in any other way. After being
picked the fruit is carried to storehouses,
where it is allowed to remain, until as-
sorted, in the trays in which it was placed
at picking time. The trays are of various
dimensions to suit the fancy of the grow-
er, but most of them hold about three
measures (18 quarts) of fruit each.

Assorting

As the berries come from the field there
are many broken branches, leaves and de-
fective fruits among them. To remove
the leaves and branches, various cleaning
devices similar to the fanning mills used
for cleaning grain have been invented.
After having been winnowed in this fash-
ion the fruit is . spread upon assorting
racks. Operators sitting upon either side
of this device look over the berries in
much the same manner as beans are
looked over in hand picking. From the
assorting table the berries go into barrels,
a few only being crated.

Storing

Cranberries as they come from the field
are immediately placed in storage build-
ings upon the plantation. It is the pre-
vailing practice to hold the fruit in the
storage houses at the bogs until the mar-
ket is ready, which is from six weeks to
three months after harvest. No artificial
cold is needed in the storage houses. The
only precaution necessary is to prevent
the fruit from freezing, which frequently
requires the use of a little heat in the
storage house.

In early times it was thought necessary
to pack the berries in casks and cover
them with water in order to preserve
them for any length of time, but this idea
has been abandoned, and the fruit is for
the most part stored in small open boxes.

Marketing

The fruit, as cleaned, assorted, and bar-
reled, usually in ventilated barrels, is put
on the market. The barrels are similar
to those used for packing apples for the
domestic market, and are practically of
the same size. In the retail stores cran-
berries are more often found in bushel
crates than in barrels. The crating of the
fruit is done by the middlemen, who act
as distributing agents, rather than by the
producers. The dealers prefer that the
growers pack the product in barrels.

Prices

By an examination of the price lists of
the New York market from 1870 to 1902,
it is found that the prices of cranberries
have varied widely in that time. The low-
est ranges of prices quoted were in April,
1879, when the berries sold at $3.50 to
$4 a barrel; November, 1899, $4 to $7.50;
April, 1889, $3.50 to $5.50; November,

1896, and January, 1897, $5 to $5.50; April,

1897, $3.50 to $5: and November, 1901, $6
to $7. The highest prices noted were $15
to $16 a barrel in April, 1874; $14 to $15
in April, 1876; $13 to $13.50 in January,
1884; $13 to $14 in March, 1895; and $10
to $12 in January, 1903. No prices are ac-
cessible for 1880, 1881, 1882, 1884, 1885,
1887, and 1888. The usual price has been
from $7 to $10 a barrel.

CRANBERRY

837

Varieties
Selection for Planting

The kinds of cranberries vary as greatly
in productiveness and liabits of growth as
do apples or peaches. As a result of this
variation, many of the early planted bogs
were not profitable, and had to be torn out
and planted with a variety of greater com-
mercial value. As with apples, those sorts
which are largest and command highest
prices upon the market are frequently
shy bearers, and are only grown in lim-
ited areas to satisfy the fads of special
markets. The question of the varieties
best suited to any given section is one
of a local nature, and must be determined
by trial. In sections yet to be developed
it may be found that the climate and soil
conditions are particularly well suited to
sorts that are shy bearers in the Cape
Cod region, or the opposite may be true.
For that reason those contemplating tak-
ing up this industry in a new section will
do well to secure a number of different
varieties of good repute from the various
cranberry districts, rather than to place
entire dependence either upon native stock
or even the best sort from any other
region. The history of the development of
regions growing other standard fruits in-
dicates that varieties are local.

CRANBERRY CULTURE IN THE
PACIFIC NORTHWEST

C. N. Bennett

Clatsop Cranberry Bogs.

July, 1913.

General Description

Cranberry culture was established in
Massachusetts about 1810; in New Jersey
about 1850 and in Wisconsin about 1880,
although the berries were gathered for
commercial purposes from the wild vines
many years before these dates. While
these three states produce practically all
the cultivated cranberries, they are grown
in about one-third of the states. The
United States is the only country where
they are grown commercially.

In the Pacific Northwest the industry
is comparatively new, but is by no means
an experiment as bogs were established
both in Pacific county, Washington, and
Coos county, Oregon, about 1890, and at

present they are grown commercially
from Coos bay, Oregon, to Puget Sound,
Washington.

There are pi'obably not over 100 acres
of bearing bogs along the Pacific coast,
and the greater part of these have been
neglected and are in poor condition, but
there are a few bogs, where the owners
understand and care for the bogs prop-
erly, that are producing good crops.

Within recent years interest has revived
and bogs are now being scientifically con-
structed and superintended by practical
and experienced men and within the next
few j^ears the cranberry industry on the
Pacific coast promises to be of consider-
able importance. There are probably in
the neighborhood of 200 acres of new bogs
which have been planted within the last
two years, the greater part of which is in
Pacific county, Washington, and Clatsop
county, Oregon, although there are small
bogs being planted all along the coast.

From the best information obtainable
it is probable that there is not over 2,500
acres of good cranberry land available in
the Pacific Northwest, where all the es-
sential conditions can be found and the
bogs constructed at a reasonable expense.

Requirements

Cranberry culture has always proven
very profitable when properly managed
and where the essential natural conditions
are suitable. Most all economic plants
show a preference for certain soils and
other natural conditions and the cran-
berry is very exacting in this respect, but
when once these conditions are assured
there are few fruits that can be more
easily and profitably grown. These con-
ditions are well known and easily recog-
nized by any one who will take sufficient
interest to secure the literature of the
subject and exercise moderately good judg-
ment. Following are the principal re-
quirements:

Soil

The soil should be an acid peat, free
from silt or clay and also free from salt.
This soil is found in fresh water marshes
and is composed entirely of partly decayed
vegetation. It should be at least two feet
deep and is probably better if deeper. An

838

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

indication that the soil is suitable is the
occurrence of wild cranberries.

Topography Drainage and Climate

The topography of the land should be
such that the water can be thoroughly
and easily controlled for irrigation, flood-
ing and drainage. The land should be
almost but not perfectly level in order
that the bogs can be flooded and the water
quickly drained off after flooding. It
should have a drainage outlet with suf-
ficient fall to thoroughly drain the land
to a depth of at least four feet.

The land should be protected from high
winds and storms and should have good
air drainage, which will greatly aid in
protecting the crops from frost.

There are only certain climates in
which cranberries will produce profitable
returns. The occurrence of wild cran-
berries is an indication that the climatic
conditions are favorable.

Sand

Experience has shown that to secure
the highest success and a clean lasting
bog and particularly so on the Pacific
coast, it is essential that there be an avail-
able supply of coarse, clean sand free
from silt clay, humus or vegetation or
seeds. This sand retains the heat and

moisture, prevents excessive weed growth,
aids in frost prevention and in combina-
tion with the peat forms an ideal soil for
the plants.

Water

Without doubt the most important re-
quirement for a profitable cranberry bog
is the water supply. It is the means of
insuring a profitable crop each year. It
must be fresh water and there must be
an abundant supply available at all times.
It is used for the purpose of irrigating,
fiooding for frost protection, fiooding for
protection from insects and plant diseases
and in some localities as protection from
winter killing. The water supply may be
secured either by gravity or by pumping.
Where pumping is resorted to it is some-
times possible to drain the bogs into the
source of supply and thus use the same
water over several times.

Other requirements to be considered are
accessibility and convenience to cities;
transportation facilities, both railroad and
highway; available labor supply; comfort-
able and healthy living conditions; stor-
age facilities and markets.

Construction

The success of a cranberry bog will de-
pend largely on the manner in which it
is constructed, for after a bog is once

Fig 1 Part of a Thirty-Acre Tract of U. 13. Estes of Astoria, Oregon. lu the foreground
is the sand pit from which the bog was sanded and also the track and cars used in
sanding. A large lake of about 300 acres is at the far end of the bog and is about
six feet below the bog. It is intended to water from this lake for irrigation and
flooding and to drain all the water back into the lake.

CRANBERRY

839

planted, with proper care, it will last for
a long time. Bogs are known to be 40
years old. In the last few years there
have been many improvements in the
methods of building the bogs. It has
been proven that by using the best meth-
ods the profits have been greatly in-
creased. In Wisconsin on three classes
of bogs, semi-wild, semi-clean and clean or
of modern construction the average an-
nual yields in barrels per acre were re-
spectively 23, 46 and 94. The methods of
construction will vary with the conditions.

Clearing and Preparing the Surface

A raw cranberry marsh is most al-
ways covered with a growth of trees,
brush, or wild grass, which will have to
be cleared and removed either by hand or
machinery, depending on the character
and amount of clearing.

After the land is cleared it is neces-
sary to bring it to a uniform surface and
to kill or destroy the surface vegetation.
This is frequently done by scalping or re-
moving from three to six or eight inches
from the surface of the bog depending
on the character of the vegetation. Scalp-
ing is done by hand or by cutters or plows
drawn by horses or engines. In some
cases instead of removing the scalpings
they are turned over and left on the bog.
Another method is to plow and cultivate
the land sufficiently to kill the undesir-
able vegetation. The scalpings are re-
moved from the bog by wheelbarrows or
small cars. In some cases they can be

piled and burned. After the bog is scalped
it should be graded to a uniform surface.

Sanding

Care should be exercised in sanding the
bog. The sand should be put on to a
uniform depth of not less than three
inches; some growers advise putting it on
thicker in deep peat than in shallow peat.
There are several methods used in sand-
ing a bog. In some localities where the
winters are severe the sand is hauled on
to the bog with sleds and spread over the
ice and when the ice melts the sand set-
tles uniformly over the bog. Where the
sand is located close to the bog it is fre-
quently put on with wheelbarrows and
often small cars are used with a portable
track. Another method used and probably
the cheapest where the conditions are
favorable, is to pump the sand on with
water and distribute it over the bog
through wooden pipe. There is some ques-
tion if the sand can be put on as clean by
pumping as by putting it on dry.

Ditches, Dams, Dikes, Gates, Etc.

Ditches are required to drain the land
in order that it can be worked, and later
for the purpose of handling the water for
irrigating, flooding and drainage. The
same ditches can be used for all purposes
to a great extent. The size and location
of the ditches will depend on the amount
of water to be handled. They should be
of sufficient size to flood and drain the
bogs within a few hours. The ditches
should be at least three feet deep and in

Fig. 2.

Planting of Prolifics from Wisconsin on Newly Constructed Bogs,
also method of ditching.

Indicates

840

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTUPtE

Fig 3 This Ticture Shows a Year-Old Bog. On the near side of the ditch and on the
other side is a newly planted bog in which all the ditches have not been dug. This
bog belongs to Mr. SchimpfE of Astoria and contains ten acres.

some cases deeper. It is sometimes nec-
essary to dig large ditches several miles
in length in order to secure drainage.
The small ditches are usually dug by
hand and some of the larger ditches by
small dredges.

Dams and dikes will be necessary along
the ditches in order to control the water
when flooding. These can be constructed
when the ditches are being dug and they
are sometimes built with the scalpings
from the bog.

In order to control the water for irri-
gating and drainage it will be necessary
to construct gates and flumes in the
ditches. The number and location of
these will depend on the arrangement of
the bogs. They are mostly built of wood,
"but in some cases the more important
may be of concrete or steel pipe.

Water Supply

The water supply may be secured from
living streams, storage reservoirs, lakes,
or it may be pumped from wells into a
reservoir. In some places it is necessary
to control large areas of land in order
to secure sufficient water. It is some-
times necessary to carry water long dis-
tances in canals or ditches. The distrib-
uting system should be so arranged that
the bogs can be flooded in five or six

hours and drained off in two hours. The
design of the water system will also de-
pend on whether the water is to be used
for flooding or just for irrigating or for
both. Where there is sufficient water of
the proper character a gravity system will
be the best. As there are few places
where sufficient water can be secured by
gravity it is probable that most bogs will
have to depend on pumping plants. The
pumps can generally be operated at a
very low cost and in most cases will be
more economical than a gravity system.

Buildings and Equipment

The buildings required will consist of
some dwellings or living quarters for the
superintendent, laborers and harvesters;
some tool sheds and a packing and store-
house. The storehouse should be so ar-
ranged that it can be kept at a uniform
temperature and dry and should also be
arranged so that it will have good ven-
tilation and that the sunlight will not
strike the stored berries. The packing
and storehouses should be built and op-
erated by an association of the growers.
These buildings are mostly built of wood,
but recently the larger companies are
building them of concrete or brick.

The machinery and equipment required
will consist of some machinery for clear-

CRANBERRY

841

ing, scalping and sanding tlie bogs during
the construction period. For the opera-
tion, of the bogs after they are in bearing
about the only equipment required will
be spraying outfits; cleaning, grading,
packing and sorting machinery; instru-
ments for weather observations, equip-
ment for conveying the berries from the
bog to the storehouse and unless the
water is secured by gravity, a pumping
plant will be required. The greater part
of this equipment should be owned and
controlled by an association of the
growers.

Plants and Planting

Cranberry bogs are established by plant-
ing cuttings from old vines. These cut-
tings should be from eight to ten inches
long and are generally planted by forcing
the middle of the vine down through the
sand into the peat leaving the tow ends
of the cuttings sticking up above the
surface of the sand. Prom each of these
cuttings runners grow along the surface of
the sand and gradually form a thick mat
of vines over the entire bog. The vines
are generally planted in the spring, but
in the Northwest they can be planted
during the fall and winter.

There are a great many varieties of
vines, but the grower need not consider

over a dozen varieties. In selecting the
varieties care should be exercised as to
whether they are early or late, their
keeping qualities, color, size and yield.
The principal varieties now grown on
this coast are the McFarlan and Early
Blacks. The vines now being planted
are practically all imported from the East,
mostly from Massachusetts. Some of the
Massachusetts varieties are Early Black,
Howe, Centennial, Bugle, McFarlan, Math-
ews and Batchelder. Some of the Wis-
consin varieties are Prolific, Searles Jum-
bo, McFarlan, Bennett Jumbo, Metallic
Bell, Palmeter and Howe. The only va-
rieties planted from Wisconsin on this
coast are the Searles Jumbo, Bennet Jum-
bo, and Prolific. The vines are planted
about ten inches apart and it takes about
700 pounds to the acre.

Developing the Bog

After the bog has been planted it will
be at least three years before there is a
paying crop and during this time the bog
will require considerable attention. The
principal work during this time will be
to keep the bog free from weeds and to
control the irrigation and drainage in or-
der to get the proper growth of vines.
It will also be necessary to guard against
insects and plant diseases.

Fig. 4. Children Planting Cranberry Vines.

842

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

m

'^■- . ^^

mm

**^«f™^i*

Pig. 5. Vines Planted May, 1912 ; Picture Taken September, 1912.

Prodnction and Disposal

There will be no cultivation as in many
other plants while producing a crop, but
there will be some weeding and the
ditches and dams will have to be kept
clean and there will probably be some
spraying required to prevent insects and
diseases.

The water and drainage will have to be
carefully looked after as the quality and
yield of the crop will depend greatly on
the control of the water. At times it may
be necessary to flood the bogs in order to
protect them from frost, insect and plant
diseases. It may be found advisable to re-
sand the bogs to a depth of from one-
quarter to one-half inch every three or
four years. After the crop has been har-
vasted the vines should be pruned. This
keeps the bog in better shape for scoop-
ing and also benefits the quality and
yield of the berries. Harvesting gener-
ally lasts three or four weeks during the
later part of August and September. The
berries are generally picked before they
are fully ripe and allowed to ripen in the
storehouse. They are harvested either by
hand picking on the younger vines or by
scooping on the older bogs.

After the berries are harvested they
are taken to the packing houses where

they are cleaned, sorted, graded and
packed in barrels or boxes and then stored
until time for shipment to the dealers.

At present practically all the berries
are sold as fresh fruit, but there is an
unlimited opportunity to increase the con-
sumption by canning and evaporating
them which is done at present to a very
limited extent.

The total production of cranberries in
the United States is about 500,000 barrels
annually which is only about one pint per
capita for the United States. It is con-
sidered that the cranberry industry is
only in its infancy.

Enemies and Hinderances

Like all other organisms the cranberry
has its enemies and diseases as well as
other hinderances, but by proper care and
management these enemies and hinder-
ances can be controlled or prevented. By
flooding or spraying the grower can pro-
tect his crops from insects and diseases
and by flooding can prevent loss from
frost. He can also control weed growth.
Wind, rain, hail, and extreme heat and
cold are elements over which he has no
control, but can be avoided to a great
extent by choosing a location where the
damage from these sources will be very
light.

CRANBERRY— CRANBERRY DISEASES

843

References to Literature

On account of lack of space it has been
impossible to go into much detail regard-
ing the various parts of cranberry culture,
but by reference to the publications here-
after listed more detailed information
can be secured.

Books Published

"Cranberry Culture," by J. J. "White.

"Cranberry Culture on a Western Plan,"
by Augustus G. Gray.

U. S. Department of Agriculture
Publications

Farmers Bulletin No. 176, "Cranberry
Culture," by L. C. Corbett.

Farmers Bulletin No. 178, "Insects In-
jurious in Cranberry Culture," by John B.
Smith.

Farmers Bulletin No. 221, "Fungus Dis-
eases of the Cranberry," by L. C. Shear.

Farmers Bulletin No. 227, "Experiment
Station Work."

Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletins

No. 119, "Reports on Cranberry Investi-
gation."

No. 159, "The Cranberry Insects of Wis-
consin," by C. B. Hardenberg.

"Cranberry Bog Construction," by O. G.
Malde.

"Cranberry Bog Management," by O. G.
Malde.

Also the annual reports of the Wiscon-
sin Experiment Station.

Bulletin No. 86, West Virginia Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, "Cranberries in
West Virginia," by L. C. Corbett.

Special Bulletin K of New Jersey Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, "Insects In-
juriously Affecting Cranberries," by John
B. Smith.

The Annual Reports of the Cape Cod
Cranberry Growers Association.

The Annual Reports of the Wisconsin
State Cranberry Growers Association.

The Annual Reports of the New Jersey
Cranberry Growers Association.

The only periodical devoting space reg-
ularly to the cranberry industry is the
Wareham Courier, Wareham, Massachu-
setts. It is published each week.

Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No.
193, "Experiments in Blueberry Culture,"
by Frederick V. Coville, would also be of
interest as the blueberry and cranberry are
in many ways similar as to natural re-
quirements.

CRANBERRY DISEASES

The fungus and other troubles of cran-
berries are not so numerous as in the
case of some other fruits. The Depart-

Fig. 6. Part of a Bog Planted May, 1912. Planted with Searles Jumbo vines from
Wisconsin. Vines one year old at the time the photo was taken.

844

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ment of Agriculture has conducted some
investigation as well as the Wisconsin
Experiment Station. The results are em-
bodied in what follows.

Cranberry Autliracnose

Gloeosporium Sp.

Cranberry anthracnose seems to be most
common in Massachusetts and New Eng-
land cranberry bogs. It closely resembles
the species so injurious to the apple and
other fruits. The appearance of the dis-
ease upon the fruits is similar to that of
scald and rot, and can only be distin-
guished certainly by microscopic exam-
ination.

Cranberry Blast
Gmnardia Sp.

Cranberry blast is a name given to that
form of the disease which attacks the very
young fruits as soon as the blossoms fall.
It causes the fruit to shrivel up, become
black, and finally become covei'ed with
one of the spore-producing forms of the
fungus, which is a species of Guignardia,
very closely related to the species which
produces the black rot of the grape. The
spores produced upon these young berries
are the probable source of infection of
most of the other fruit. This fungus pro-
duces two kinds of fruit, or, in other
words, passes through two stages of devel-
opment. The earliest stage produces its
spores in small black spherical recepta-
cles. This fruiting form of the fungus is
the most abundant, and it is probably
from this source that most of the leaves
and fruits are infected. The second stage
in the development of the fungus is that
in which the spores are produced in sacs.
These are inclosed in receptacles as in
the other stage mentioned.

Blight

This trouble has appeared on Wisconsin
bogs as a dying of blossoms and very
small fruit just at the time of setting.
It is sometimes attributed to hot weather.
Investigations at the Wisconsin station,
however, seem to disprove this theory.
As yet no specific cause has been worked
out. If the vines are kept in a vigorous
and thrifty condition the trouble seems
to be largely avoided.

Cranberry Rot

Cranberry rot has until recently been
confused with and attributed to the same
cause as the scald. Its effect upon the
berry is very similar to that of the scald
fungus. It is produced, however, by a
quite different species of parasite, though
belonging to the same large group known
as the "black fungi." In some cases
where the fruit is in an advanced stage
of the disease, the presence of the fungus
is indicated by irregular black blotches
just beneath the skin of the diseased por-
tion.

Cranberry Scald

The name "scald" originated as a re-
sult of the belief formerly prevalent among
cranberry growers that the injury was due
to the effect of the hot sun upon the ber-
ries when they were wet, thus producing
what was regarded as a real scalding of
the tissues of the fruit. Fruit which has
been overflowed for a half day or more
during hot weather may be injured as a
result, and the effect in many instances
closely resembles that produced by the
scald fungus. A microscopic examination
of the berries shows at once the differ-
ence. In the berry which has been affect-
ed by being covered with water no fun-
gous threads or filaments can be found,
whereas in the case of the berry attacked
by the scald fungus an abundance of such
filaments may readily be observed in the
pulp of the diseased berry. Only in the
rarest instances does the scald fungus
fruit on the berries after they have be-
come half grown.

The disease first becomes noticeable as
a small light-colored softened spot on the
surface of the berry. This spot rapidly
increases in circumference and finally en-
velops the whole fruit. Sometimes the
diseased portion shows more or less dis-
tinct brownish zones. In other cases the
zones are lacking and the whole fruit be-
comes very soft and has a light watery
color. In many instances it is very diffi-
cult to tell from the external appearance
only whether the disease is due to the
scald fungus or the rot fungus.

CRANBERRY DISEASES

845

Remedies and Treatment

Only preventive measures are available
at present in combating these diseases.
After the parasites have once entered the
tissues of the plant they are practically
beyond the reach of remedies. Hence,
efforts must be devoted to protecting the
plants and keeping them in the maximum
condition of health and vigor, as in this
condition they are most capable of resist-
ing disease.

It has been frequently noticed that the
plants on certain cranberry meadows and
portions of meadows suffer much more
from rot and scald than others. This is
no doubt due in great part, in many cases
at least, to the soil and water conditions
under which the plants are growing. From
personal observations and the experiences
of growers it is the opinion of the writer
that in the majority of cases the control
of the water supply is the most important
single factor.

Water Supply

Just what the best quantity of water is
and the best way to distribute it can only
be determined in each case depending
upon the nature of the soil, subsoil, con-
tour and drainage of the land. In general
it may be said that the water supply
should be so controlled as to avoid any
great fluctuations in the quantity sup-
plied to the plants during the growing
season. The cranberry is by nature a
water loving plant, and seems to suffer
more frequently from a lack of water than
from an excess.

Destniction of Dead Vines

All dead vines and leaves should be de-
stroyed. Frequently small areas of vines
die, apparently from the attacks of the
cranberry fungi. All such vines should
be pulled or cut and collected early in the
spring, at least within two weeks after
the water has been drawn from the bog,
and burned. Vines which have been cut
in raking bogs to prepare them for scoop-
ing should also be treated in the same
manner. Such vines if not destroyed in-
variably produce the spores of the cran-
berry fungi in great quantities and are a
fertile source of infection for the young
leaves and fruit. Little is to be feared

from the rotten berries which have
reached maturity, as the fungi very rarely
produce any spores on such berries.

Disease-Resistant Plants

It is a matter of common observation
among growers that some varieties rot or
scald worse than others. Hence, in setting
new bogs or replanting old ones the most
hardy varieties should be used. By giving
careful attention to the selection of dis-
ease-resistant plants for propagation, a
practically immune variety can probably
be eventually secured.

Fungicides

The Bordeaux mixture has proved the
most efficient of any fungicide used.

Satisfactory results from spraying can
be secured only by exercising great care
and thoroughness in the preparation and
application of the mixture.

Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture

Bordeaux mixture should be prepared

as follows:

Copper sulphate (blue vitriol or blue-
stone) 6 pounds

T^nslaked stone lime 4 pounds

Water 50 gallons

Soap for Use witli Bordeaux Mixture

To complete the mixture for effective
use in treating cranberry diseases, it is
necessary to add something to cause it to
spread evenly and adhere to the foliage
and fruit, whose smooth, glossy surface
causes the plain Bordeaux mixture to
either collect in drops or run off entirely.
Several soaps have been tried for this
purpose, of which resin-fish oil soap has
proved the best. This is prepared as fol-
lows:

Uesin 5 pounds

I'otasli lye. such as is oi'dinarily sold

for washins: purposes 1 pound

Fish oil 1 pint

Water 5 gallons

Dissolve the resin with the oil in a
large iron kettle. Let this cool somewhat
and then add the potash, slowly stirring
the mixture at the same time and watch-
ing it carefully to avoid its boiling over.
Then add a part of the five gallons of
water and continue boiling until the mix-
ture will dissolve in cold water. This will
require about one hour, when the re-
mainder of the water should be added
slowly and the whole thoroughly stirred.

846

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Literature

Farmers' Bulletin No. 221.
Wisconsin Experiment Station Bulletin
No. 219.

CRANBERRY PESTS

Comparatively little new work on cran-
berry insects seems to have been done
since that of Professor J. B. Smith, of the
New Jersey station, the chief results of
which were published by the department
of agriculture in 1903. Malde, of the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, has done some work
along the same line. Professor Smith is
the main authority for notes on cranberry
pests embodied in this work.

Blackhead Cranberry Worm

Eudemis vacciniana Pack.

This is perhaps the best known and
most uniformly injurious of all cranberry
insects and is locally known as the "vine
worm" in Massachusetts and as the "fire-
worm" in New Jersey. As a larva (worm)
it is a deep, rather velvety, green, slender
little caterpillar, not over half an inch
long when full grown, and with a shining
black head and neck. The adult is a small
moth or "miller" with narrow, dusty-
brown wings that measure less than half
an inch when expanded and seem much
smaller because they are so slight.

The moths first appear on the bogs in
early June, continuing until nearly the
end of the month, and again late in July,
continuing into August, when they dis-
appear for the season. During the day
little is seen of them. In the early even-
ing and until the darkness sets in fully
they are on the wing and hover a short
distance above the plants.

Before the end of August, they have
left, scattered everywhere on the under-
sides of the leaves, their minute yellow
eggs. There they remain throughout the
winter, whether the bog be dry or flowed,
and the little caterpillars hatch from them
in spring. For a day or two the worms
nibble on the under surface of the old
leaves or may even burrow into them and
then make their way to the tip of an up-
right, where they spin together the edges
of the new leaves.

In about three weeks from the date of

hatching, the caterpillar is full grown,
lines the inside of its shelter more fully
and closely with fine silk, and changes to
a stubby little yellowish-brown pupa. In
a week the transformation is completed
and the moth appears about the first of
July. The bog at the beginning of July
shows very plainly the effects of the in-
sect's attack in brown tips that are every-
where noticeable; and every brown tip at
this time means a barren upright.

The second brood which soon appears is
more destructive than the first for the
reason that they extend their operations
farther and the fruit is coming on at that
time. They damage the fruit all out of
proportion to the food consumed by nib-
bling here and there on fruits and foliage
until the entire bog may have a burnt-
over appearance. Hence the term "fire
worm," as applied to this species.

There is another brood by the middle
of July but the great damage has been
done by the second brood.

Yellowliead Cranberry Worm

Teras minuta Rob.
This insect is much more abundant in
New Jersey than it is in Massachusetts,
and in some localities in the latter state
it does not seem to occur as a cranberry
feeder at all. It is quite as plentiful on
Long Island as it is in New Jersey, and
wherever it occurs is apt to be even more
injurious than the preceding species.

Life History

The life histories of these two species
differ in that, in the case of the yellow-
head, the moths hibernate during the win-
ter, come out and lay their eggs during
April and May and disappear. The larvae
appear a week or ten days later and in
feeding spin the leaves together as in the
case of the preceding species. The first
brood of moths appear in late May or
early June. They are bright orange red,
while the earlier brood is slate gray. The
second lot of eggs hatch in late June, and,
early in July, when the cranberries are
in full bloom, the larvae are half grown
and doing their greatest damage. They
pupate about July 15. The pupa is dis-
tinguished by a nob on its head. The next
brood is not so injurious.

CRANBERRY PESTS

847

Eemedial Measures
Flowing the Bog

The application of insecticides on large
bog areas where the plants cover the
ground as densely as do the cranberry
vines is a task no grower likes to con-
template; and provided he has control of
a satisfactory amount of water there is
no necessity for it. As against the "yel-
lowhead" (Teras), it will suffice if the
water be held on the bogs until the middle
of May, or perhaps a little later in cold
seasons. This will compel the moths to
seek other plants upon which to lay their
eggs.

As against the blackhead late holding
will not of itself suffice, because the eggs
are already on the plants and will, under
ordinary circumstances, hatch only under
the same conditions that favor the start
of vines themselves. But there is a little
leeway in favor of the plants and the eggs
do hatch under water at a temperature
not quite sufficient to start the vines.

Carefully carried out, this measure is
often very effective; the warmth favors
the development of the embryo within the
egg, and when the worm hatches it
drowns.

Reflowing

When the supply of water is abundant
above the bog area, so that a pond or
reservoir may be formed, both the yellow
and blackheads may be completely con-
trolled by drawing the water early, wait-
ing until all the eggs have hatched and
some of the worms are nearly half
grown, and then re-covering the bog with
water for 48 hours. This method is so
simple and so absolutely effective that the
larger growers are adopting it almost uni-
versally, and few new bogs are laid out
anywhere without considering the matter
of reflowage and providing for as good a
control of the water as possible. Cover-
ing the bogs should begin in the late after-
noon and should be completed before next
morning, if possible. On a rainy day it
may begin at any time, the object being
merely to prevent the sun from boiling
the young shoots. So drawing off the
water should also begin in the early aft-
ernoon, and the bog should be practically

dry the morning after. Incidentally, this
reflowing will rid the bog of numerous
other pests and may make a material im-
pression on the girdle worm where that
is abundant.

Insecticides

Sometimes it happens that bogs can be
neither winter flowed nor reflowed, and
the application of insecticides becomes an
absolute necessity. Only arsenites are to
be relied upon for good results. It fol-
lows from what has been said concerning
the habits of the worms that when once
they have spun up the tips and are feed-
ing in their cases they are practically
beyond the reach of our common insecti-
cides; and that is particularly true of the
first brood. If there is reason to believe
from past experience, or because eggs
have been found on the plants, that the
early brood will be numerous, spraying
must be done just as soon as the vines
make a start or not later than the date
when the first spun-up tip is seen.

All things considered, the best insecti-
cide for use on cranberry bogs is arsenate
of lead.

Fire Worm. See Blackhead Cranberry
Worm.

Cranberry Frnit Worm
Mineola vaccina Riley

Bogs that cannot be reflowed and high
and sandy bogs suffer most from this in-
sect.

The adult moth appears on bogs in
ordinary seasons about the middle of
July, when the berries are setting or have
already set.

The moth, with wings expanded, meas-
ures about three-fourths of an inch and is
of a glistening ash-gray, mottled with
white and blackish. It is a shy species,
not easily started during the day, and
flies with a darting motion for quite long
distances. It is not generally recognized,
therefore, even by growers who annually
lose heavily by it. When at rest the
wings are folded close to the body, and
on a cranberry stem, where it usually
rests head down, it is not readily seen
even by an experienced eye.

The eggs are laid on the young berry,
preferably in the calyx, just beneath one

848

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

of the lobes, but they may be on any part
of the berry and possibly on the leaves
as well. The worms emerge in about five
days, and for a day or two feed on the
outer side of the berry. Then each worm
enters a berry, eats out the seed chamber,
and migrates to another. The vacated
berry turns red, shrivels up, and eventu-
ally drops. In this second berry it be-
comes half grown, then works out through
a large jagged opening and gets into a
third berry. By this time the season is
pretty well advanced, the fruit is of good
size, and, soon after the worm starts
feeding, the newly infested berry begins
to turn red. To the ordinary observer the
fruit is ripening nicely, if early; but the
grower knows better and realizes that
every such specimen is lost to him. Quite
frequently the worms do not get their full
growth at picking time, and emerge from
the berries after they are harvested. These
delayed forms make their way to any
crevice or other shelter that they can find
and there spin up for the winter rest.

At this time the worm is rather more
than half an inch in length, of a bright
green color, with a variably marked red-
dish tinge on the back.

The full-grown caterpillars winter in
their silken cocoons, which they make by
first rolling in the sand, gluing the par-
ticles together with saliva, and then spin-
ning their web inside of the rough casing
so formed.

Remedial Measures

Winter flowage is not fatal to these in-
sects, and covering the bogs with water at
any time after the winter cocoon has been
formed would probably be ineffective.
Nevertheless, water-covered bogs are less
troubled, and it is probable that the
earlier the water is put on in the fall the
more effective this practice will be.

Indications are that if a bog can be safe-
ly submerged for 48 hours between Au-
gust 10th and 15th, just before the worms
reach their full growth, the great majority
will be killed off. Sound berries covered
for. that length of time will not come to
harm if the water can be put on and
drawn off rapidly enough to avoid scald-
ing. Fruits not quite so far advanced may

be covered for even a longer time without
injury. The vines should be completely
covered before the sun beats upon them
high enough to warm the water, the cov-
ering should be sufficiently deep to pre-
vent a scalding effect, and when the water
is drawn sunrise should find at least every
berry above the water level, that the dry-
ing off may be gradual. A cool day would
almost insure safety to the berries, an in-
tensely hot one might cause injury, and
the nearer maturity the fruit the greater
the danger.

If reflowage be not practiced, pick the
crop as soon as it is at all practicable, so
as to get as many wormy berries off the
bog as may be. The worms will emerge
in the cranberry house and form their
cocoons in cracks and crevices or among
rubbish. Give them plenty of shelter in
the way of loosely piled slats, boards, or
other cover, placed wherever conveniently
possible, and any time during the winter
clean up thoroughly, so as to reach the
hibernating worms. Field mice will eat
these worms. Also a liberal use of gaso-
line in such places under the usual pre-
cautions against fire would reach every
one of them.

Insecticides are possible only during the
two or three days in which the young
worm feeds on the outside of the berry,
and the only material that offers any
chance of good results is arsenate of lead.
One spraying per week for three, or pref-
erably four, weeks offers a fair chance of
success by killing off the berry worms be-
fore they get into the berry.

On bogs that cannot be flowed the ar-
senate of lead, aided by early picking, will
probably reduce the amount of injury
materially; but on such bogs the develop-
ment of the moths may occur earlier and
the grower must rely more upon the stage
of growth, or, better, the appearance of
the moths themselves on the bog, than
upon any absolute dates.

Cranberry Girdler

Cramhus hortuellus Hbn.
This species, more commonly known as
the "girdle worm," is found abundantly in
all the cranberry districts, but it is seri-
ously injurious in Massachusetts only. The

CRANBERRY PESTS

849

larvae, which are slender, grayish cater-
pillars, with shining, light chestnut-brown
heads, and yellowish thoracic shields, pass
the winter in a torpid condition within a
silken tube or cocoon, which resists the
entrance of water. In New Jersey the
adults are found in May; in Massachusetts
they do not fly until July. The change to
the pupa takes place in the tube or cocoon
made in the previous fall, and on Cape
Cod at the latter part of May or in early
June. The adult is a pretty little creature,
with forewings expanding about three-
fifths of an inch, and is one of the long-
snouted moths, the palpi or mouth feelers
projecting well beyond the head. The
forewings are rather narrow and very
pale straw-yellow in color. The hind-
wings are much broader and of a uniform
silvery gray. When the moth is at rest
the wings are so closely wrappc^d around
the body that it looks like a narrow whit-
ish cylinder about three-quarters of an
inch in length.

The young worm is very active and
strong, and at once begins the construc-
tion of the silken tube, re-enforced by
bits of vegetation, in which it lives. It
works about the running portion of the
plants extending along the surface of the
sand in the stratum of fallen leaves which
always cover an old cranberry bog and
from which the delicate clusters of new
rootlets take their rise. Everywhere over
an infested area, but especially along its
borders, these worms can be found in
filmy silken galleries following the pros-
trate stems of runners, into the surface
of which they eat their way, destroying
the vital part of the plant and, especially
next to the base of the runners, deeply
girdling the stem. They grow rather
slowly, and not until November do they
make their coarse cocoon of mingled sand
and silk that serves as winter quarters.

An infested bog is rarely affected over
its entire extent. Small areas varying
from a few feet in diameter to half an
acre or more are found here and there,
and sometimes a little patch only a foot
or two across will remain for two or three
years in succession without becoming en-
larged, but rather it will become closed

up by runners from the adjacent healthy
vines.

Remedial Measures

It is quite obvious that insecticides are
not available here, because of the con-
cealed feeding habit, and that resort must
be had to more direct methods. But the
insect does not make this cocoon until
November, and a submergence of five days
immediately after the picking is com-
pleted destroys a great many. The sug-
gestion is therefore made that, imme-
diately after the fruit is off, infested bogs
be flowed and be kept covered for at least
a week, and better two weeks. While the
ripening fruit is on, any water covering
kept on over 24 hours would be apt to
do material injury.

An additional suggestion is that the
actually infested area be completely
burned off as soon as its extent can be de-
termined. For this burning a gasoline
torch may be employed, and the heat thus
applied directly to the point where it will
be most effective. The burned-over area
can be immediately reset and the actual
amount of injury limited to a minimum.

Cranberry Katydid

Scudderia texensis Sauss.

One of the most destructive insects on
the New Jersey bogs is a species of katy-
did, though its injuries, as a rule are
charged to grasshoppers in general.

The injury is chiefly caused by the feed-
ing habits of the adult of one species of
katydid which chews into the berries
when half to full grown, rejects the pulp,
and eats the seeds. The injured berries
wilt, shrivel, and die; but when they have
just been left by the katydids, the com-
mon, shorthorned grasshoppers feed on
the exposed pulp and, being detected in
this, are quite generally charged with hav-
ing caused the entire trouble. One katy-
did may eat out several berries at one
sitting, and when the insects are at all
abundant the percentage of fruit de-
stroyed is very large; on some bogs the
amount reaches almost or quite one-half
the entire crop.

The katydids when mature are green,
grasshopper-like insects, with very long

-1.3

850

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

antennae, or feelers, and long slender
hind legs.

The eggs are laid chiefly in two kinds
of grasses, locally known as "deer grass"
and "double-seeded millet." Occasionally
eggs are laid on other grasses or plants,
but never on cranberry leaves.

Remedial Measures

The character of the remedy to be
adopted follows from the egg-laying
habits of the species. Allow none of the
host grasses to maintain themselves on
the bogs and burn over the dams during
the winter while the bogs are flowed.
From the fact that the very young katy-
dids are never found on flowed bogs ex-
cept at the edges joining the upland or
at the base of the dams, it may be fairly
inferred that the eggs do not survive the
winter when kept completely submerged,
so that destruction of the grasses above
the water line might answer. It would
be safer, however, to have the grasses
out; they have no place on the bogs any-
way.

For burning the grasses and other host
plants on the dams some one of the gaso-
line torches now on the market may be
used. They give a very intense heat and
lick up leaves and plants with extreme
rapidity. As they can be used against
the wind or while the plants are some-
what damp there is practically no danger
that the fire will get away, and when the
ground is frozen, the covering of leaves
and stalks is burned so rapidly that no
heat gets to the roots.

Grasshoppers and Crickets

Numerous short-horned and long-
horned grasshoppers may be found on and
about the bogs, and more or less injury is
charged to them. As to the common gray
or brown short-horned grasshoppers the
charge is believed to be practically un-
founded. They do sometimes finish up
berries that have been opened by the
katydids; but direct evidence is lacking
that they would or even could get into a
sound berry. Nor do they occur in any
numbers on clean, well-kept bogs, free
from grass and overgrown edges or dams.
They belong naturally in the grassy un-
dergrowth along the margins, and simply

run over when there is an easy oppor-
tunity.

It is rather otherwise with some of the
long-horned, green, meadow grasshoppers,
which on grassy, reedy, or sedgy bogs are
sometimes present in immense numbers.
All of these are fond of seeds, and while
the smaller species cannot get into a half
or full grown berry, the larger species
can, and so they join the katydids in their
destructive work, but in comparison do
little injury.

Most of them have a long, flat oviposi-
tor, straight or slightly curved, and they
lay their eggs in the stems of the sedges,
rushes, and larger grasses found on the
bogs. None of these species can cut into
leaves. Their eggs are long, slender,
nearly cylindrical, and often just a little
curved. They are laid in series of any-
where from three to eight, one above the
other, the number of eggs in any series
depending upon the length of the ovi-
positor in the species.

Where bogs are very full of these little
species, a large proportion of the grasses
and sedgy plants will be found bearing
eggs, and these eggs are so well protected
that they survive the winter though they
be completely submerged. Accordingly, in
early June thousands of the little meadow
grasshoppers are found just hatched and
under such conditions that they could not
possibly have come on from the outside.

Remedial Measures

The only way to keep these species off
the bogs is to keep down the grasses.
They are not naturally feeders upon the
cranberry plant, and exact so small a toll
that the actual loss is less than the prob-
able cost of getting rid of them. If the
grasses, etc., cannot be readily taken
from the bogs, they might be mowed,
after picking, above the vine level. This
would cut off the parts bearing the eggs,
and as the loose grass would float when
the water is put on, the eggs would either
be carried to the edges or would decay
with the vegetation containing them.

Crickets also occur in greater or less
numbers on most bogs, and growers are
by no means agreed whether they cause
injury or not. That they will eat berries

CRANBERRY PESTS

851

on the ground, especially under cran-
berry crates, is certain; but it is not
proved that they ever go upon a vine to
feed upon a berry attached to it. The
species lay their eggs in sandy soil, and
never in wet or mud land; so, as a matter
of fact, no field crickets can really pro-
pagate on the bogs. But they get into
the dams, and oviposit in warm sandy
places, so that the young may hatch early
in the spring and find their way to the
moist, warm places in which they delight.
Their range of food seems to be wide, and
there is almost nothing they will not eat
under favorable conditions; but they live
on the ground and rarely get out of the
shelter of the vines or upon them.

If it be deemed desirable the crickets
can be kept off the bogs almost entirely
by broad, clean, marginal ditches main-
tained at least partly full of water. The
crickets rarely if ever fly, and, while they
are good swimmers, do not ordinarily at-
tempt to cross any ditch six feet wide.

A flowing just after picking would de-
stroy most of the grasshopper and cricket
tribe that then occur in their greatest
number.

Measuring Worm. See Cranberry Span
Worm.

Cranberry Span Worm
Cleora pampinaria Gn.

In some sections of Cape Cod certain
"span," "inch," or "measuring" worms
occasionally become injuriously abun-
dant and the most destructive of these is
the species above named. The color of
the parent moth is pale ash gray,
sprinkled with black, and both wings are
crossed diagonally by black lines and
shades. The worms first appear on the
bogs in June and become fully grown by
the end of that month or early in July,
They are then rather more than an inch
long; slender, smooth, livid gray cater-
pillars with deeply indented head and
long, pointed anal plate.

When full grown they bury themselves
in the ground and pupate. The moths
emerge a few days later. The second
brood comes on in early August and
pupates before the tenth. The moths ap-
pear late in August and September.

There seems to be no regularity about
the appearance of these insects. Some
years they do not appear at all. In
others they appear in great numbers and
occasionally in armies.

Remedial Measures

Being an open feeder upon the foliage,
this span worm is susceptible to arsenical
poisoning, and unless the bogs can be
rapidly reflowed and as rapidly laid dry,
spraying or dusting are the only alterna-
tives. Where the worms are noticed when
they first start, spraying the foliage just
ahead of them may answer all purposes,
and indeed this poisoning of their line
of advance should always be done before
treating the parts already infested. Eith-
er Paris green or arsenate of lead may
be applied.

Cranberry Tip Worm

Cecidomyia oxycoccana Johns

This is a minute orange-red or yellow-
ish grub about one-sixteenth of an inch
in length, found in the growing shoots,
whether uprights or runners. It appears
on the vines soon after they make a
start, and the first indication of its pres-
ence is when the small leaves of the tip
cease to unfold and become bunched into
a compact, bulb-like mass. When this
mass is opened, from one to five, and
usually two or three, of the little grubs
will be found at the very heart of the
growing tip, feeding upon the juices and
completely checking growth. If it is a
runner that is attacked, it is destroyed;
if a fruit-bearing upright, the flower buds
come out below the infested tip and no
harm is done to the crop. But the in-
sects continue to appear on the bogs at
intervals throughout the season, and the
danger is that the late-tipped uprights
will form no fruit buds for the next year.

The adult is a minute, two-winged fly
or midge whose wings when expanded
measure less than an eighth of an inch
from tip to tip. The male is quite uni-
formly yellowish-gray and inconspicuous,
but the female has the abdomen deep red,
the upper surface of the body gray, the
sides yellowish, the head and eyes black.
She also has a slender, extensile tip to the

852

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

abdomen, by means of which the minute
white eggs are laid in the very heart of
the bud.

Remedial Measures

Strictly speaking, no direct remedial
measures are known. It is not known
positively how the insect passes the win-
ter; hence control can not be attempted
at that season. The worm never comes
within reach of our ordinary insecticides,
and therefore direct attack is not pos-
sible. Since the loss of the tips attack-
ed in spring does not injure the crop of
that year, the effort must be to keep the
vines in such vigor that they will set
fruit buds on laterals and at leaf axils
when the direct tip has been lost.

This insect is not confined to the cran-
berry, and in fact breeds much more
abundantly on loose strife (Lysimacha)
and on some of the heaths. Therefore,
where the species is troublesome, those
plants should be kept down on the dams
and other bog surroundings.

Vine Worm. See Yellowhead Cranber-
ry Worm.

Cress

The word cress, when applied to plants,
refers to any one of several species most-
ly of the mustard family Cruciferae. It
has generally a pungent taste and is
used in salads.

The common cresses are the English
water cress; the American water cress;
common garden cress and the Indian
cress. The water cress is an aquatic
plant, with long stems, which readily
take root in water or very moist soil.
It is therefore generally grown along
the edges of streams, ponds, ditches, or
other places, where it grows partly in
the water and partly out. But it may be
cultivated by the digging of trenches or
small ditches, where the water may be
turned on at pleasure.

Granville Lowther

CRESS PESTS

Water Cress Leaf Beetle

Phaedon aeruginosa Suffr.
Attacks the under side of the leaves
and the stems, eating off the cuticle.

The beetles are less than an eighth of
an inch long and "shiny, bronzy black."
Both the adult and larva are injurious.

They probably range from Massachu-
setts to West Virginia.

Growing the cress in running water
which carries the bugs away, or flood-
ing for the same purpose are the best
remedies thus far discovered.

Literature

Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 66.

Water Cress Sowbug

Mancasellus brachyurus Harger

This pest has been troublesome in Vir-
ginia, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania,
where cress is grown commercially.

This creature is not a bug but belongs
to the same order as the crayfish. It
differs somewhat in appearance from the
common dooryard sowbug though similar
in general features. The water cress sow-
bug is "decidedly shrimplike" in appear-
ance, gray in color and when full grown
about a half inch long.

The only method of control which
seems to have worked successfully so
far is that of special construction of the
cress beds.

The beds are constructed sixteen feet
wide with a general slope of about three
inches to the 100 feet and graded toward
the center, through which, running
lengthwise of the bed, is placed a square
trough made of three ten inch boards.
When it is desired to get rid of the bugs
the water is shut off from the bed and
drained out through this central trough.
The bugs follow the receding water and
so are caught in the trough. After the
water is well out of the trough the bugs
are killed with bluestone. The water is
kept off the bed for twenty-four hours to
kill the bugs which remain in the cress.

Literature

Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 66.

Cropping, Preparatory. See Prepara-
tion of Ground under Apple Orchard.

CUCUMBERS

853

Cucumbers

Cucumis Sativus

i

V V

V.^

^^1,

J .4f

Lons Green Cucumber.

The cucumber is a well known fruit,
grown in all parts of the civilized world,
and cultivated from very early times.
It is supposed to have been cultivated in
the days of Moses, and mentioned in
Numbers XI: 5. Alphonso de Condolle
affirms that the cucumber was cultivated
in India 3,000 years ago. The plant is
an annual trailing vine, with stalked

hairy leaves, and tendrils by means of
which the plant can be trained to sup-
ports. There are a large number of var-
ieties which may be classified under two
general heads as follows:

First. Forcing or hot house varieties.

Second. Outdoor or field varieties.

The "forcing varieties," are started in
hot houses or hot beds, and later may
be transplanted to the open air, or the
growth continued under glass for winter
use.

The outdoor varieties are planted in
hills, about six feet apart, six or eight
seeds to the hill and then thinned to
two or three after they are fairly start-
ed, and the strongest plants left for
further development. When the vines are
about two feet long, some growers pinch
off the tops so that the vine will put out
lateral shoots and bear a heavier crop.
The fiowers are pollenized by insects,
and the varieties will mix by inter-
pollination.

Soil Best Adapted

The cucumber will do fairly well on al-
most any soil that will grow corn, wheat
or oats; but it does best on deep, rich
loam. When the ground is warm and
well prepared, it may be planted as early
in the spring as the time when danger
of frost is past; and the seed covered
about one inch deep. There are no spe-
cial directions necessary; for the cucum-
ber is so common that almost every one
knows something of its habits of growth.

Picking

The time for picking cucumbers de-
pends on the uses to which they are to
be applied. If grown for pickles, they
are picked when about three inches long.
The whole area should be gone over every
second day and all of the required size
carefully removed from the vines, cut-
ting the stem about a quarter to half
an inch from the cucumber. Care
should be exercised to see that the pick-
ers do not bruise the vines by tramping
upon them, or the crop will be injured.

If cucumbers are meant for table use,
they may be allowed to grow to consid-
erable size, say six inches in length, pro-
vided that they should not be allowed to

854

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

approach too nearly the ripening period
when the surface skin begins to turn
yellow.

Certain vines may be selected to pro-
duce seed, in which case they should not
be disturbed by the picking process, ex-
cept to train the vine to produce the larg-
est and best specimens. As soon as the
seed is ripened the plants begin to die.

Varieties

If cucumbers are planted for pickles,
the varieties producing the largest num-
ber of small fruits, rather than a few
large ones is preferable. For this pur-
pose the variety known as the Boston
Pickling is highly recommended. For
general home use the White Spine is
good. Other varieties are the Cumber-
land, Thorburn and Fordhook Pickling.
Granville Lowther

Cucnmbers in the South

W. P. WlLLLA-MS

Cucumbers can be made a very profit-
able crop in all sections where they can
be raised early, and shipped to North-
ern markets.

After the land has been prepared, the
best way to fit it for the crop is to plow
out furrows with a single shovel cultiva-
tor, or a bull tongue, and in this furrow
put the fertilizer, and with a narrow cul-
tivator thoroughly mix this with the
soil. Then with a sweep or cultivator,
level the soil into this furrow, and then
drill in the seed.

The rows are made five or six feet
apart, and after the plants are up, they
are thinned to about one foot in a row.
The seed are sown in the southern part
of the Gulf states from March 1st to the
15th, some risk being taken at this time
as there are occasional killing frosts this
late. Providing the crop is not injured
by frost, a few days gain on the market
makes a considerable addition to the
profits obtained.

Cultivation is given the cucumber sim-
ilar to that of other crops. Frequent but
shallow cultivation is practiced, care be-
ing taken not to disturb the vines more
than necessary. The soil is ridged
slightly to the row so as to allow sur-

face water to run off quickly. Cucum-
bers require a quick steady growth and
thus the land must be sandy so as to
give the best action for fertilizers.

The best fertilizer found in this sec-
tion consists of 7-4-8 goods, using about
700 to 1,000 pounds per acre, and made
up as follows:

lbs.

Acid Phosphate, 16 per cent 395

Cotton Seed Meal 286

Nitrate of Soda 1^5

Muriate of Potash 194

1,000

The nitrogen should be obtained from
some compound where it is easily avail-
able, as in dried blood. The above for-
mula is put under the plant, and when
the latter has developed the fourth leaf
a top dressing of about 75 lbs. of nitrate
of soda is given, and about the time the
blossoms fall, another dressing of 75 lbs.
is applied.

The cucumbers are picked when about
eight inches long, and packed in hampers
or crates. The harvesting in this sec-
tion begins about June 1st to the 15th,
varying a little with the season. The
hampers or crates are put in refrigera-
tor cars, there being about 300 to 500
per car. These cars are shipped to vari-
ous northern markets, as Chicago, Cin-
cinnati, St. Louis and Detroit.

The varieties most commonly grown
are Davis Perfect, Long Green and Klon-
dike. The market requires a long slen-
der cucumber, with very small and few
seeds, and the above varieties produce
cucumbers of this description.

Yields run from 250 to 400 hampers per
acre, and prices from 40c to $1.00 per
hamper. The outlook for this crop is
very promising where a person has the
right kind of soil, and sufficient coopera-
tion among his neighbors that all may
combine to ship in car load lots. A mar-
ket must be made, and when a place has
become known as a shipping point, buy-
ers will visit that point.

CUCUMBER DISEASES

For Diseases of Cucumber other than
those listed here, see Cantaloup, Squash
and related plants.

CUCUMBER DISEASES

855

Anthracnose

Colletotrichum sp.

Anthracnose occurs on the leaves and
stems of cucumbers and muskmelons,
and on the leaves, stems, and fruits of
watermelons. It also attacks other cu-
curbits. It is common and sometimes
injurious.

Appearance

Circular dead spots from one-fourth to
one-half inch in diameter are formed on
the leaves. On the stems anthracnose
causes elongated, discolored, and shrunk-
en areas, which finally lead to the death
of the branch. Watermelon fruits are
often badly spotted by this disease, and
much injury is done to the vines.

Cause

Anthracnose is due to a fungus which
is related to the fungi causing anthrac-
nose in grapes, raspberries, cotton, and
beans, and the bitter rot of the apple.
It is spread freely by the fruiting bodies,
which are produced in abundance in the
spots on the leaves and fruit. The de-
struction of such vines, together with
rotation of crops, is recommended as a
means of prevention.

Blight. See Downy Mildew, this sec-
tion.

Cucumber Rot

Cucumbers in Florida have been
troubled with a disease which attacks
both leaves and fruit. The plants may
be attacked when very young. There ap-
pear on the leaves irregular water-soaked
spots. The leaf becomes dwarfed and
misshapen if the disease strikes it when
young. If the sun is hot during the day
the spots dry up, leaving a brown area,
which will fall out. Quite often the in-
fection starts along the edges of the
leaves. The veins become affected, and
it appears as if the disease follows the
veins. Early in the morning, if one
should examine the under side of the
leaves, he would find underneath each
spot a drop of bacterial ooze. Later in
the day this dries, giving the appearance
of a white precipitate. The spot on the
cucumber fruit is small, about two milli-
meters in diameter. At first it is a trans-

parent area, then in the center there ap-
pears a small white spot which is the
dried bacterial ooze on the surface. If
one should cut through an early spot,
he would find only a water-soaked area.
Later this area turns brown. This brown
area spreads along the vascular bundles
in the cucumber fruit. Three days later
the whole cucumber is soft.

The disease is spread over the entire
cucumber-growing district of Florida.
Much loss is sustained while the cucum-
ber is on its way to market. The reports
show that while the cucumbers are on
the way to market, which takes four to
five days, they become soft.

Remove affected plants from the field
and spray with Bordeaux mixture,
thoroughly, beginning when the plants
have but three or four leaves.

O. F. Burger,
Florida Experiment Station.

Cucumber Scab. See Spot, this section.

Damping Off

This is a frequent trouble upon green-
house cucumbers. It is serious often where
plantings are made following lettuce at-
tacked by rosette. The fungus in that
case is the same as lettuce-rosette
(Rhizoctonia) or lettuce drop {Botrytis).
There is a strictly damping-off fungus
iPythium De Baryanum Hesse) that is
sometimes troublesome. The Botrytis
named at times attacks pruned parts of
cucumber plants, also extending its at-
tacks to the blossom end of young fruits.
The results of Rhizoctonia on green-
house cucumbers have been curious owing
to attacks on the smaller root branches
or rootlets. The growth of the vines is
at times checked, accompanied by color-
ing of the leaves and reduced fruitful-
ness. Some growers have given the
name "leaf-curl" to this phenomenon but
it is strictly the effect of the fungus
named. It has been found necessary in
soil treatments where cucumbers follow
affected lettuce to increase the strength
of formalin drench to 4 or 5 pounds per
50 gallons of water.

A. D. Selby,
Wooster. Ohio.

856

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

DoTvny Mildew

Pseudoperonospora cubensis
(B. & C.) Rost.
Downy mildew, the most destructive
of all cucurbit diseases, is especially in-
jurious to cucumbers, but also attacks
melons, squashes, pumpkins, gourds, and
other related vines.

Appearance

The first indication of downy mildew
in the field is a yellowing of the older
leaves in the center of the plant. Faint-
ly defined angular spots bordered by the
veins will then be detected. These be-
come more distinct, and if the weather
is moist an obscure violet coating of the
spores may be noticed on the under side
of the spots. The disease progresses
from the center of the hill outward, the
young leaves at the tips of the branches
living longest. It spreads slowly in bright
weather, but under the more favorable
conditions afforded by cloudy, humid
weather it often develops with the great-
est rapidity, so that the fields quickly be-
come as if scorched by fire.

Downy mildew has been known in this
country since 1889, and in various years
has caused serious loss, especially to the
pickle industry on Long Island and in
Ohio and other states. It is also de-
structive to cucumbers in greenhouses.

Cause

Downy mildew is caused by a parasitic
fungus closely related to the destructive
downy mildews of grape, onion, etc., and
to the late blight of potato. So far as
known, it is spread entirely by its conidia,
or summer spores, produced on the low-
er surface of diseased leaves. These are
blown about by the wind, but are very
thin-walled, delicate bodies, which perish
quickly when dried.

Conditions Favoring Derelopment

The disease lives through the winter
in Florida and probably spreads north-
ward each summer. There is also good
evidence that it lives over in greenhouses,
which may later become the centers of
local epidemics.

Spray fi'equently with half strength
Bordeaux mixture, coating both sides of
the leaves.

References

Farmers' Bulletin 231.
Connecticut Station Bulletin 56.
Ohio Station Bulletin 214.
Eelwobm. See Nematode, this section.
Leaf Blight. See Cantaloup Diseases.

Leaf Mould

Not important. Yields to same treat-
ment as downy mildew.

Leaf Spot Diseases

Aside from anthracnose, downy mil-
dew, and leaf blight there are a number
of other leaf spot diseases hardly distin-
guishable from the above, all of which
yield to the Bordeaux treatment.

Mosaic Disease

This disease of greenhouse cucumbers
is analogous in character to the mosaic
diseases of tobacco and tomatoes and to
the yellows of the peach. It is due to an
oxidizing ferment in the leaves and is
transmitted like the tobacco mosaic dis-
ease, by touching first diseased and then
healthy plants. The fruitfulness of these
variegated yellow plants is very low and
it is best at all times upon the appearance
of the disease to remove the diseased
plants and destroy them.

A. D. Selby

>'^eniatodes or Eelworms

Heterodera radicicola (Greef.) Mull.
These minute parasitic worms are of-
ten very destructive upon cucumbers un-
der glass. The greatest injury may oc-
cur on the seedling plants, but plants of
all ages are destroyed by the parasitic
worms. Their presence may be known
by the small, bead-like enlargements pro-
duced upon the roots or rootlets. No
remedy has been discovered that is ef-
fective with plants once attacked by eel-
worms. The time to prevent this trouble
is in the selection or preparation or treat-
ment of the soil for greenhouse benches.
Indeed the nematodes seem to be present
in old sod, and to some extent in decay-
ing vegetable matter generally. An ef-
fective remedy against eelworms consists
in steaming and so treating the soil that
the parasites will be destroyed. For this
procedure see Ohio Bulletin 73. Also

CUCUMBER DISEASES— CUCUMBER PESTS

857

Massachusetts Experiment Station Bulle-
tin 55. In thus handling the soil due
time must be given for draining and dry-

^°S- A. D. Selby

Powdery Mildew

Erysiphe cichoracearum DC.
Frequent in hothouses, but not trouble-
some elsewhere. Selby recommends a
dilute copper sulphate solution.

Reference

Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 214.
Root Rot. See Daviping Off, this sec-
tion.

Spot of Cucumber Fruit or Cucumber
Scab

Cladosporium cucumerium Ell & Arth.
Yields to same treatment as downy mil-
dew.

Wilt, Bacterial Wilt

Bacillus tracheiphillus
Scattered plants wilt gradually with-
out evidence of injury. The sap tubes
are filled with a milky, stringy mass of
bacteria instead of watery sap. Insects
are instrumental in spreading the disease.
Spray with Bordeaux as an insect repel-
lent. Cut out and destroy all affected
plants. Practice rotation.

References

Pennsylvania Experiment Station Bul-
letin 110.

Farmers' Bulletin 231.

South Carolina Experiment Station Bul-
letin 141.

CUCUMBER PESTS

For cucumber pests other than those
listed here, see Cantaloup, Squash, and
related plants.

^

^'"^^m^a^

f

TrC. est.

Fis. 1. Banded Leaf-Footed Plant Bur.

Banded Leaf-Footed Plant Bug

Leptoglossus phyllopus. Say
This conspicuous plant bug is a suck-
ing insect belonging to the same family as
the squash bug, and is capable of inflict-
ing similar injury to cucurbits.

This species is distributed over all the
Gulf states and many of the neighboring
states. In North Carolina it is quite
abundant in some sections.

Remedies

In case these bugs should become abund-
ant, they might be controlled by hand
picking during the early morning hours
or about sundown, for at such times they
are less active than during the heat of the
day. It has been suggested that the young
nymphs may be killed with kerosene emul-
sion.

The yellow thistle {Carduus spinossissi-
mus) is their normal food plant, which
suggests the advisability of keeping these
plants cut down around gardens or fields
where cucurbits are grown, or leaving
only a few plants to serve as traps on
which the bugs may be killed by spray-
ing or hand picking.

Cucumber Flea Beetle

Epitrix cucwmeris, Harr.

A small, black, oval-shaped, jumping
beetle, about one-twelfth inch in length,
sometimes causes quite severe injury by
eating holes in the foliage of young cu-
cumbers and other cucurbits. The larva
of this species is a leaf miner, attacking
the same plants, but seldom causing much
damage.

Remedies

Wire screens or other mechanical cov-
ers, poison and repellent sprays, dry
poison applications, clean culture are
equally effective against flea beetles.

Cutworms

Various Species

These may be destroyed by the use of
poison bait made by mixing bran (40
parts) with Paris green (one part) moist-
ened to make a soft mash and then
sweetened with molasses.

Distribute around the hills about sun-
down.

Keep the chickens out when this method
is employed.

858

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Hop Flea Beetle. See under Potato
Pests.

Melon Aphis. See Aphids.

Melon Worm

Diaphania hyalinata Linn
This pest occurs in large numbers in
Florida, Georgia and North Carolina.

Description and Habits
Parent Moths

Melon worm moths are beautiful crea-
tures, which may often be seen flying
about cucurbit fields during the late fall
months. They have wings of a pearly
white color, bordered with brownish black
(Fig. 1). The abdomen is also pearly
white, tinged with brown at the caudal
end, which terminates in a large movable
brush of elongated yellow and dark-brown
scales. Nearly all the underside of the
body, including the legs, is of the same
color as the wings. The wings expand
one inch, or a little more. The moths,
although shy and rapid fliers, are fre-
quently seen during the daytime.

Eggs
These are pearly white in color, very
small in size, and are laid in groups of
from two to six or more on the stems,
leaves and buds. They hatch in about
four days in warm weather.

Larvae

Just hatched larvae are about a twen-
ty-fifth of an inch long, with a pale
brown head, and body of a pale yellow
color, with no distinct markings. At
about three days of age the skin is molt-
ed for the first time, and then the body
shows two faint longitudinal sub-dorsal
white stripes, which become more prom-
inent as the larvae develop. By these two
white stripes melon worms (Fig. 1) may
be readily distinguished until they are
nearly grown, when the white stripes dis-
appear.

These worms often feed for their en-
tire lifetime on the foliage, remaining
on the underside partially concealed by
thin silken webs. They also feed in the
terminal bud clusters, and bore' into
melons and squash like the pickle worms.
The habit of feeding on the foliage makes
it profitable to use poison sprays as a
remedy.

Cocoons and Pupae

Melon worms spin thin silken cocoons
in the folded edge of some leaf, like the
pickle worms, but differ from the latter
in being inclined to select a green leaf
rather than a dying one. When the food
plants are nearly defoliated the worms
crawl to nearby weeds or grass, and
there spin cocoons and pupate.

Remedial Measures

Because of feeding freely on the fol-
iage, melon worms may be poisoned with
arsenical sprays, and the additional meth-
ods suggested for controlling pickle
worms. See Pickle Worm, this section.

Supplementing the poisoning method,
the complete removal and destruction
of badly infested trap plants, bady in-
fested fruit of all cucurbits, and rem-
nants of infested crops, together with the
practice of deep plowing and rotation,
should suffice to prevent serious damage
from melon worms. r j Smith

>*?.f*5h

Fig. 1. Melon Worm. 1, adult; 2, larva;
3, pupa.

N. C. Exp. Sta.

]Nortliern Leaf -Footed Plant Bug

Leptoglossus oppositus Say.
This species has been reported as dam-
aging melons in Maryland and the Dis-
trict of Columbia, and occurs in many

CUCUMBER PESTS

859

'*ict^5^

Fig. 1. Northern Leaf-Footed Plant Bug.

of the Southern states, including North
Carolina.

Hand picking as for other plant bugs
and destruction of young nymphs by
kerosene emulsions are the remedies sug-
gested.

Pickle Worm
Margaronia nitidalis Cramer

Description

The parent of the pickle worm is a
night flying moth of rather distinctive ap-
pearance (Fig. 1). The general color, is
yellowish brown. The front wings bear a
yellowish, semi-hyaline spot near the cen-
ter, and the hindwings have the inner
two-thirds of the same appearance. The
abdomen terminates in a large movable
brush composed of numerous elongated
scales. In size the moths have a wing
expanse of a little over one inch, while the
body averages about five-eighths of an
inch from the tip of the head to the end
of the brush. The shy, retiring habits of
these moths prevent their being often ob-
served, for they seldom fly in the day-
time, unless disturbed, and then quickly
attempt to hide. In this respect they dif-
fer from the melon worm moths, which
are often seen flying about cucurbit fields
during August or September.

Eggs

Freshly laid eggs are white, but soon
turn yellowish, as the larvae inside devel-
op. They may be laid singly, but more
commonly in clusters of from three to
eight, on bloom buds, leaf stalks, or
leaves, and are usually attached to the
plant hairs in such a manner that the
egg mass seems to be pierced by the hair.
The eggs hatch in warm weather in about
four days.

Larvae

Very young larvae are uniformly yellow-
ish white, but after a few days the body
segments show transverse rows of brown
spots, which become more prominent and
nearly black in color before the fourth
molt is passed (Fig. 1). Larvae molt
four times before attaining full growth,
and their distinctive marking, previous
to the fourth molt, enables one to separate
them readily from the related species
called the melon worm. After the fourth
molt pickle worms become greatly changed
in appearance by practically losing the
transverse blackish spots. Pickle worms
feed in bud clusters, blooms or fruit and
often in the vines, but seldom feed, like
melon worms, on the foliage.

Fig. 1. Pickle Worm. 1, Moth magnified twice;
2, Larva before fourth moult ; 3, larva ready

to pupate

860

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 2. Tickle Worm Injury to Cantaloup.

Cocoons

The cocoon is a thin, scanty covering
of white silken threads, spun by the worm
in a fold of some leaf before transform-
ing to the pupal stage. They are general-
ly found in dead or dying leaves near the
ground, or lying on the soil under the in-
fested plants.

For this reason the practice of raking
up and burning or composting remnants
of infested crops, followed by deep plow-
ing, is of value.

Kemedial Measures

Early plantings of cantaloupes and cu-
cumbers may escape injury from this pest
in the South.

Trap Plants

Pickle worms evince a decided prefer-
ence for the buds, blooms and fruit of
summer squash.

To secure the best results, seed should
be planted two or three times at intervals
of about three weeks, making the first
planting in time to insure having the
squash plants blooming freely by the
middle or latter part of June. They
must then be examined frequently, and,
when worms are discovered, infested
blooms and fruit should be gathered and
destroyed at least once a week.

Destroy infested plants and fruit and

as soon as the crop is gathered rake up
and destroy all vines, weeds and trash.
R. I. Smith

N. C. Exp. Sta.

Potato Flea Beetle. See under Pota-
to Pests.

Striped Cucumber Beetle

Diahrotica vittata Fab.

General Appearance

The adult beetles are small, measuring
about two-fifths of an inch in length and
half as much in width. The color is yel-
low above with black head and three
black longitudinal stripes on the wing
covers. The under surface as well as
parts of the legs and antennae are black.
The larvae are very small white grubs
with head, anal and thoracic plates
brown. They live in the earth. The eggs
are oval in shape and bright lemon to
orange in color and are laid in the soil.

Pig. 1. Striped Cucumber Beetle.

Life History

The adult beetles hibernate over winter
under rubbish or in other protected
places, and emerge during the early
spring months of April and May. As soon
as the host plants appear the eggs are
deposited in the soil around the bases
and hatch in about nine days. The lar-
vae upon hatching feed at the base of the
plants upon the roots and stems. The
greatest damage is done by the adults
boring down into the soil and feed-
ing upon the tender appearing foliage.
Throughout the entire summer they con-
tinue as foliage destroyers and do much
damage. They also act as carriers of the
bacterial wilt disease of cucumbers.

Food Plants

Squashes, cucumbers, cantaloupes,
pumpkins and watermelons are its favor-
ite food plants and suffer most from its

CUCUMBER PESTS

861

attacks. Peas, blossoms and leaves of
the apple and numerous other cultivated
and wild plants are devoured.
Control

In many instances control measures
are necessary. Cheap coverings are espe-
cially desirable for small plantings and
may be very practicable for extensive
fields. When no coverings are used the
plants may be started early in hothouses
and set out after they are well establish-
ed. If the plantings are made directly
in the field an excess of seed should be
used to allow for the destructiveness of
the beetles.

Poison sprays, such as arsenate of lead
or Paris green, aid much in controlling it,
but successive applications are necessary,
because of the rapid growth of the plants.
The poisons are sometimes added to Bor-
deaux mixture and serve as a remedy for
fungous diseases as well. In small
patches pyrethrum is an excellent
remedy.

Repellents such as land plaster or gyp-
sum soaked in turpentine or kerosene or
tobacco dust placed around the hills will
tend to drive the beetles away. Bordeaux
mixture is also considered a good repel-
lent.

E. O. EssiG

Coniraon or Greenhouse White Fly

Aleyrodes vaporariorum Westw.

General Appearance

The adult white flies are about three-
fiftieths of an inch long, the males being
slightly smaller than the females. The
bodies are yellow and the wings pure
white. The eggs are exceedingly small,
oblong in shape, at first light green, grow-
ing black with age and attached by a
short stipe. The larvae are light in color,
transforming to flat pupae about three-
hundredths of an inch long; oblong-oval
in shape; light green and supporting
noticeable wax-like rods or spines, which
makes this species readily distinguish-
able from all others.

Life History

The eggs are laid upon the leaves of
the plants, each female depositing over
100. These hatch in about two weeks

into larvae which begin feeding very
shortly and after three moults, covering
nearly a week, they become pupae, which
after two more weeks are ready to emerge
as adults. These feed during their life
of thirty days.

Tomatoes and cucumbers suffer most.

Fumigation as for scale insects is the
best method of control, but emulsions and
resin sprays are effective.

E. O. EssiG

Western TwelTO-Spotted Cucumber
Beetle

Diabrotica soror Lee.
General Appearance

A small green black spotted beetle
about the size of, and often mistaken by
farmers for, a ladybird beetle. The ven-
tral surface is entirely black. The lar-
vae are white and subterranean in habits,
so are seldom met with.

Life History

The eggs are laid in early spring
around the bases of the food plants from
one-half to one-fourth of an inch under
the ground. They hatch quickly and the
white grubs begin feeding upon the roots.
The pupal cells are made near the sur-
face and in about two weeks the adult
beetles emerge. The broods overlap
throughout the summer, there being two
distinct generations. The adults hiber-
nate during the winter.

Food Plants

Beets, melons, cucumbers, squashes,
beans, corn, cabbages, peas, zinnias,
daisies, orange, alfalfa, peanuts, potatoes,
spinach, lettuce, mustard, roses and
chrysanthemums.

Control

It is seldom necessary to resort to con-
trol measures for the larval forms, though
they often do much damage. For the
adults, however, control measures are of-
ten urgent. Poison sprays applied to the
tender growth are very effective.

Natural Enemies

Two natural enemies prey upon this
beetle; one a tachinid fly, Celatoria dia-
hroticae Shim., and the other a spider,
Xysticus gulosus Keys.

E. O. Essio

862

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Currant

The currant derived its name from the
Greek city of Corinth, where it was first
cultivated and became commercially im-
portant. Many new varieties have been
developed, chief of which is the red cur-
rant, Ribes rubrum, from which have
grown several white varieties and many
red varieties as well. One peculiarity
of the currant is its tendency to varia-
tion in color. It is not very unusual to
find red, white and striped berries on
the same stalk.

There is a black species, Ribes nigrum,
which is popular in some parts of Europe,
but not so in America, because of its pe-
culiar flavor, because it is a light bearer
and is not commercially profitable. The
principal use to which this fruit is ap-
plied is in the making of jellies; although
it is used fresh for the table, and in the
making of pies.

There is also an American black cur-
rant, Ribes floridum, or Americanum,
which resembles the black currant of
Europe, but is not much esteemed. There
is an American species of flowering cur-
rant, Ribes aureum, but it is not culti-
vated for its fruit, since it ripens very
unevenly and is not of first-class quality.

On the Pacific coast several varieties
classed as Ribes sanguineum, are grown
for ornament, mostly producing a red
flower.

The currant is native to the United
States, and many parts of Europe. It
thrives best in cool, rather humid cli-
mates; upon soil that is rich, well drained,
and with a clay subsoil. However, it
may be grown in hot climates, if planted
on the north side of buildings, or where
the plants are shaded by trees of larger
growth; provided that the ground is suf-
ficiently fertilized to support the larger
trees and currants as well.

The plant is propagated mainly by
means of cuttings which may be plant-
ed either in the autumn or spring; but
if planted in the spring the planting
should be early, as they begin to grow
earlier than most other shrubs or trees.
The cuttings should be made from six
to eight inches long, cutting just below

the bud for the root, and just above the
bud for the top. There is no secret
about planting, except that there should
be a careful preparation of soil, and the
cuttings should be set so that at least
two buds shall be below the surface of
the soil, and one or two buds above the
surface. The planting may be done with
a spade, or a furrow may be plowed and
the plants dropped against the perpendic-
ular side of the furrow, and the dirt
pressed firmly against them. Currants
may be propagated by means of roots;
but it is generally done by means of
cuttings. Seeds are planted, if it is de-
sired to originate new varieties.

There is considerable difference of opin-
ion about the distance of planting; some
say the rows should be made four feet
apart, and the plants three feet apart
in the row. Others say the rows should
be eight feet apart and the plants five
feet apart in the row. If I were planting
and the ground was so that one could use
the square method, I would plant them
according to that method, five feet apart
each way, then cultivate both ways. By
this means, I think labor could be saved
and better fruit produced. In adopting
this method, there would be a waste of
land for the first and second years of
growth, but if so desired some other crop
could be grown between the rows until
the currants needed the soil and space.

Cultivation should be shallow, as the
roots are fine and grow near the sur-
face of the soil.

Pruning is a simple process, although
it is impossible to reach good results if
it is neglected. It should be remember-
ed that the fruit is borne on both the
old and the new wood, most of it near the
base of the one-year-old shoots. Conse-
quently most of the wood more than one
year old might be cut out and still a
crop be produced, or most of the new
wood might be pruned off and a crop re-
sult; but the new wood bears the strong-
er, better fruit, so it is better to sacrifice
the old stalks. Card says: "For field cul-
ture, four to eight main stems are allow-
ed, and these should be frequently re-
newed." It is my judgment that wood

CURRANT

863

,''^=*fe

•MBIfc

Plate I. Currants. 1. Pomona — Bright red, sweet, very prolific ; hangs on a long time ;
excellent, early. 2. Red Cross — -Bright red, large, prolific; mild flavor; excellent, early.
3. Victoria — Bright red, hardy, prolific, a popular variety ; blooms late and avoids
spring frosts ; excellent, late. 4. London Market — Red, firm, acid, prolific, excellent,
early. 5. La Versaillaise — Medium sized, dark red, not prolific here. 6. Wilder —
Light red, mild, hangs on a long time, excellent, early. 7. Cherry — Dark red, large,
not very prolific, good, mid-season. 8. Fay's Prolific — Red, large, prolific, excellent,
mid-season.
Photo and Descriptions by J. H. Stahl, Western Washinnton Experiment Station.

864

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

more than three years old should be cut
out.

Like most other fruits, currants
should not be picked when wet; as they
tend to mold or decay if so treated.
Granville Lowther

Currants for tlie Home Garden or
Commercial Plantation

The currant is one of the few fruits
that if planted at all in the home garden
is permitted to grow at will, usually more
or less choked with grass and weeds or
rarely or never given any pruning or cul-
tivation. While it will exist under such
conditions, it rarely gives satisfactory
returns and for this reason is not gener-
ally considered a profitable commercial
crop in many parts of Washington.

Propagation

The currant, like all other cultivated
fruits, does not "come true" from seed,
so, for this reason, it is necessary to prop-
agate it by means of cuttings, layers or
division.

The wood for cuttings should be of the
current year's growth and may be taken
any time between the falling of the leaves
in the summer and the beginning of
growth in the spring. The strongest plants
and most satisfactory results are usually
secured from cuttings made early in the
fall and planted immediately. The cut-
tings are usually made from seven to
eight inches long. The lower end should
be cut just below a bud while the upper
end may be from one to two inches
from a bud, depending upon the length of
the wood. If the cuttings are made late
in the fall or during the winter it is
usually best to pit them in a callousing
pit or pack them in damp moss or soil in
a cool cellar until early spring. They
should then be planted in deep, rich,
moist soil in nursery rows three or four
feet apart and the cuttings six or eight
inches apart in the row. Plant down to
the top bud, making the soil very firm
around the base of the cuttings in order
to prevent drying out during the sum-
mer months. After from one to two year's
growth the plants will be in excellent
shape to set in the permanent planta-
tion.

Soil

Almost any good rich soil of sufficient
depth and fertility to produce a good
crop of grain will produce good crops
of currants. While this class of fruit
may be grown in hot, dry soil, the best
results are secured on cool, moist soils.
A well drained, rich, sandy loam with
considerable humus in it, or even clay
loam properly treated, will give excel-
lent results if there is plenty of available
plant food. When the soil becomes very
hot and dry during the summer it is
sometimes advisable to mulch with coarse
litter in order to hold the moisture and
keep the temperature down. It' is diffi-
cult, however, to grow good, clean fruit
under these conditions. As a plant the
currant is a heavy surface feeder and so
should receive heavy annual dressings of
well rotted manure or a substitute for
manure in the form of commercial fer-
tilizers.

Planting

One or two-year old plants from cut-
tings or layers give better results for the
permanent plantation. Most planters pre-
fer a one-year-old plant, as it is easier to
handle than the two-year-old plants.

Early fall planting gives good results
where the plants are mulched before the
cold weather comes on, but for general
planting early spring gives the best re-
sults, especially where the stock is se-
cured in the fall or winter and is set out
just as soon as the ground is ready to
receive the plants in the spring. Late
spring planting is not satisfactory since
the rootlets and shoots of the currant be-
gin to form early and are easily dam-
aged in handling.

The same care should be exercised as
in planting a fruit tree. All broken or
bruised roots should be removed, the top
thinned and cut back and the plant set
from one to two inches lower than it
stood originally in the nursery.

The square planting plan of 6x6 feet is
commonly used. However, it does not
give sufficient room for the bushy sorts,
especially after they begin to bear and
the limbs become weighed down with the
heavy crops of fruit. A better plan.

CURRANT

865

would be to place the rows eight feet
apart and the plants six or seven feet
in the row. This would allow room for
thorough cultivation.

Cultivation

If the plantation has received an ap-
plication of well rotted manure during
the winter this should be worked into the
soil as early as the ground is ready to
work in the spring. This may be done
by shallow plowing or deep, double shov-
el work. After thoroughly working the
manure into the soil the surface should be
left smooth and as near level as possible.
Regular surface cultivation should con-
tinue until picking time. After the crop is
harvested, the plantation should again be
thoroughly cultivated and then the plants
permitted to become dormant and ready
for winter. Late summer or fall growths
should always be discouraged as there is
danger of fall or winter injury resulting
from the unripened condition of the
shoots.

Pruning

The currant will bear some fruit every
year whether it is pruned or not, but, if
fine, large fruit is desired pruning is ne-
cessary. There are two general types of
training currant plants, i. e., the tree form
and the bush form. The tree form is de-
veloped by cutting away all the shoots but
one and the removal of the lower buds and
branches from this shoot for from twelve
to twenty-four inches from the ground,
which results in a little tree. This meth-
od does very well for the amateur or the
novice, but is not practical from a com-
mercial point of view on account of the
improductiveness of the plant and the
danger of a borer destroying a whole
plant instead of one cane, as is frequent-
ly the case with bush grown plants. The
bush form is the more common method
used not only in commercial but in home
gardens as well and results in the de-
velopment of a well formed bush of from
six to eight two to three-year-old fruit-
ing canes, and from two to four young
shoots or one-year-old fruiting canes.
The common difficulty with the cur-
rant bush is that there is too much
wood left annually upon the plant and

so it is compelled to produce a great
number of small berries instead of great-
er or equal weight of fine large fruit.
While currant wood will produce fruit
for an indefinite period of time, yet after
it passes its fourth to fifth year it ceases
to be valuable on account of the inferior
quality of its fruit. Good, healthy wood
produces its best fruit during the second
and third years of its life and should be
replaced by young shoots before it
reaches its fifth year.

In ordinary field culture, from five to
eight bearing canes on a plant will give
better results than a greater number,
especially where these canes have been
summer pinched in order to develop
strong lateral buds. If these shoots have
produced strong, lateral shoots they
should be cut back to from three to four
inches in length. For market purposes
it is better to remove too much wood and
produce a small quantity of fine fruit
than not enough and produce an un-
salable crop of small fruit. Pruning may
be done in the fall or early in the spring.
Ordinarily it is best to do it just before
the plants start into growth in spring.

Hanesting and Marketing

Since the currant is largely used for
jellies and spice purposes, a rather tart
fruit is more desirable than a thoroughly
ripened fruit. For this reason as well
as the better shipping qualities of slightly
green fruit, currants should be picked
just before they are ripe rather than after
they have become fully ripe. Fruit
picked while it is cool ships much better
than fruit picked during the heat of the
day. Under no considei'ation must fruit
be picked while it is wet with rain or
dew, as it soon spoils if handled while
wet. The bunch should be removed
whole from the plant and kept whole,
never shelling or stripping the bunches,
as it is sure to lower the grade, if not
ruin the fruit entirely.

Up to the present time there is no es-
tablished method in the West, for
marketing currants. The common 24-
quart crate is extensively used and is
undoubtedly the best and most adaptive
Western package. A few growers use a

2—14

866

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ten or twenty pound shallow box for near
markets, but find it unsatisfactory for
long shipments. The pony refrigerator
can be advantageously used for the fancy
grades, but should not be used for any-
thing but the best.

Discussion of Varieties

The size, color, productiveness and at-
tractiveness of the Red Cross currant
makes it an especially valuable new sort,
while the mild flavor, productiveness and
good plants of the Wilder places it at
once among our best sorts. The older
standard sorts, like the Victoria, Pomona
and Cherry, are popular and very valu-
able for home as well as commercial pur-
poses.

The following notes on varieties were
secured from the plants in the experiment
station grounds at Pullman, Wash.:

Red Varieties
Cherry

A weak, spreading bush with long
canes which frequently break in the
wind. The foliage is dark green, abun-
dant and practically free from dis-
ease. The berries vary in size from
medium to very large, but are usually
very large, of a dark red color and are
borne in loose, short, poorly-filled clus-
ters. An early to medium productive
sort, valuable for home use, but not good
for commercial purposes on account of
its short-stemmed clusters, which makes
picking rather expensive.

Comet

A medium to large, irregular shaped
plant with good strong canes and an abun-
dance of dark green, healthy foliage. The
berries are rather large, dark red, of a
brisk acid flavor and borne in long-
stemmed, loose, but well filled clusters.
A new, very productive, mid-season sort,
not commercially grown.

Fays Prolific

A large, spreading, irregular shaped
bush, with good, strong, erect canes and
an abundance of large, light green,
healthy leaves. The berries are large, of
a dark red color, medium acid flavor, and
borne on fine, long branches. A very pro-
ductive, late season sort. Valuable for
commercial as well as home use.

La Versaillaise

A large, spreading, irregular shaped
bush with good, strong canes and an abun-
dance of large, dark green leaves. The
berries are medium sized, of a dark red
color, with a brisk acid flavor and borne
in long, loose, poorly filled clusters. A
good market sort, commonly grown, but
not very productive in many parts of the
state.

London Market

A large, strong growing, erect bush
with slender, erect canes, which stand
the wind well, but break very easily when
handled during picking. The foliage Is
dark green, abundant and free from dis-
eases. The berries are medium to large,
of a bright red color, mild subacid flavor
and very attractive. The bunches are of
medium size, short, compact and well
filled, making a very showy market sort.
A very fine mid-season, productive vari-
ety.

Long Bunch Holland

A rank growing, stocky plant, with
short, heavy erect canes and an abun-
dance of dark green healthy leaves. The
berries are small, of a bright red color,
rich acid flavor and are borne in long,
loose bunches. A popular mid-season
sort, but not so profitable as many larger
fruited sorts.

Perfection

A large, strong, upright growing plant,
with long, erect, strong canes and an
abundance of fine, dark green foliage.
The berries are very large, of a bright red
color, brisk acid flavor and are borne in
short, compact, well filled clusters. A
new, very productive, mid-season variety.
Valuable for home as well as market
purposes.

Pomona

A large, rank growing bush with erect,
rather slender canes and an abundance
of small dark green leaves. The berries
are medium to large, of a dark red color,
a mild acid flavor, and are borne in long,
well filled clusters. A comparatively new
variety for home as well as for market
purposes.

CURRANT

867

Red Cross

A strong, erect growing plant with stiff,
short canes and an abundance of dark
healthy leaves. The berries are very
large sized, of a dark red color; a mild
acid flavor and are borne in long, loose
well filled bunches. A comparatively new
variety that is rapidly becoming popular
for market and home use on account of
its large size and productive habits.

Red Dutch

A large, irregular shaped bush with
slender, long canes and an abundance of

fine, dark green foliage. The new canes
frequently suffer severe injury from the
summer winds. The berries are small,
dark red, mild acid and are borne in
short, poorly filled clusters. An old, very
productive, and, while small fruited, popu-
lar sort.

Victoria

A strong growing, upright, productive
bush, with heavy upright canes and an
abundance of dark green healthy foliage.
The berries are very large, bright red, of
a mild acid flavor and borne in rather

14-

Plate II. Currants. 9. Fertile de Palluau — Large, red. not prolific here. 10. White
Grape — White, mild, prolific, excellent, mid-season. 11. Red Dutch — Bright red, acid,
small, good. 12. White Transparent — Very similar to White Grape, mid-season.
13. Black Naples — Large, black, not very prolific, good, late.
Photo and Descriptions by J. H. Stahl, Western Washington Experiment Station.

868

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

small, poorly filled loose bunches. One
of our best late sorts.
Wilder

An irregular shaped, spreading, very
productive bush with strong, spreading
canes and an abundance of fine dark green
foliage. The berries are of medium size,
dark red color, very mild subacid flavor
and are borne in loose, short stemmed
bunches. Its mild flavor and fine quality
Mrith other admirable traits make this
an excellent sort where a table fruit is
desirable.

White Varieties
White Grape

A medium sized, flat spreading, very
productive bush, with long, slender canes
and an abundance of healthy, dark green
foliage. The berries vary greatly in size,
but average well, are of a light greenish
white color and excellent quality. The
bunches are long, loose and poorly filled.
A very valuable sort for home table use,
but not popular as a market sort. The
yellow and white fruited forms of practi-
cally all kinds of small fruit are not so
popular in the market as the bright col-
ored sorts.

European Blacli Varieties
Blacli Champion

A large, rank growing, spreading bush
with slender, recumbent canes and an
abundance of dark green foliage. The
berries are medium sized, black, of good
quality, and are borne in short, poorly
filled bunches. While a very rank grow-
er, this variety is a very shy bearer.

Black Victoria

A very large, strong growing plant,
with strong, erect canes and plenty of
dark green foliage. The berries are of
medium size, pure black color and pleas-
ant flavor. The bunches are medium
sized but poorly filled. This is the best
and most productive black sort tested.
None of the black varieties are of com-
mercial importance in the West but are
occasionally grown for home use.

American Black Variety
Crandall

A large, rank growing, spreading plant
With long, strong, erect canes and a

rather small amount of light green foli-
age, which is frequently diseased. The
berries are variable in size, of a blue
black color and rather sweet flavored.
The bunches are small, poorly filled and
the plants are not very productive.

None of the Missouri Yellow Flowering
currants are profitable for fruit produc-
tion; nor should they be grown near the
red or white sorts as they are nearly
always the harboring places for the cur-
rant fruit worm, which is so hard to com-
bat and does so much damage in many
parts of the state.

W. S. Thornber,

Washington Experiment Station Popular
Bulletin 26.

CuRRATvTs FOR ALASKA. See Alusku.

Varieties To Be Planted

The following varieties are recommend-
ed by the American Pomological Society
for planting in the various districts: (See
Map, p. 192.)

District 'So. 1

Recommexded as successful — Cham-
pion, Lee's Prolific, Naples, Saunders, Al-
bert, Red Cross, Red Dutch, Red Grape,
Versaillaise, Victoria, White Dutch.

Very successful — Cherry, Fay, White
Grape, Wilder.

Recommended for trial — Moore's Ruby.

District So. 2

Successful — Champion, Lee's English,
Naples, Saunders, Albert, Holland, Lon-
don, North Star, Pomona, Red Dutch,
Versaillaise, Victoria, White Dutch, White
Gondouin.

Very successful— Cherry, Fay, Red
Cross, Wilder.

Recommended for trial • — Wales,
Moore's Ruby, Perfection, Raby Castle,
St. Giles.

District jVo. 3

Successful — Lee, Moore's Ruby, Red
Dutch, Versaillaise, Victoria, White
Dutch, White Gondouin, White Grape.

Very successful — Cherry, Fay, Wilder.

Recommended for trial — Naples.

District No. 4

Recommended .\s successful — Black
Champion, Lee, Wales, Victoria, White
Dutch, Wilder.

CURRANT— CURRANT DISEASES

869

Very successful — Cherry, Fay, Red
Dutch, White Grape.

RECOiiMEXDED FOR TRIAL — Crandall, Al-
bert.

District No. 5

Recommended as successful — Crand-
all.

Recommended for trial — St. Giles.

District No. 6 and District No. 7

Includes Florida, and the Southern
states bordering on the Gulf where it is
too hot for currants.

District No. 8

Recoaimended as successful — Cham-
pion, English, Holland, Versaillaise,
White Dutch, Wilder.

Very successful — Cherry, Fay, Perfec-
tion, Red Dutch, Victor, White Grape.

Recommended for trial — Crandall,
Wales.

District No. 9

Recommended as successful — Cham-
pion, English, Lee, Naples, Wales, Albert,
Cherry, Fay, Perfection, Red Cross, Red
Grape, St. Giles, Victoria, Wilder.

Very successful — Holland, London,
North Star, Pomona, Red Dutch, White
Grape.

Recommended for trial — Saunders.

District No. 10

Recommended as successful — Cherry,
Defiance, North Star, Red Cross, St. Giles,
White Grape.

Very successful — Red Dutch, Red
Grape.

District No. 11

This district includes a part of Texas
and New Mexico, and is not adapted to
currants.

District No. 12

Recommended as successful — Albert.
Holland, Victoria, White Grape.

Very successful — Cherry, Fay, Red
Dutch, Versaillaise, White Dutch.

Recommended for trial — English, Lee,
Red Cross, Red Grape, White Gondouin,
Wilder.

District No. 13

Recommended as successful — Cham-
pion, Lee, Naples, Saunders, Wales.

District No. 14

Recommended as successful — Cham-
pion, North Star, Red Cross, Red Dutch,
Red Grape.

Very successful — Cherry, Fay, White
Grape.

Recommended for trial — Perfection.

District No. 15

Recommended as successful — Cherry,
Victoria.

Very successful — Fay, White Dutch,
White Grapes.

District No. 1.6

Recommended as successful — Fay,
White Dutch.

District No. 17 and District No. 18

Include part of California and Arizona,
where it is too hot for currants.

CURRANT DISEASES

Anthracnose

Pseudopeziza ribis
H. S. Jackson
Currant anthracnose seems to be the
most common fungous disease of this
fruit which occurs on the Pacific coast.
It seems to be widely distributed in the
state and is generally known throughout
the United States. It is also common in
Europe. This disease is known to attack
the gooseberry, but usually not in a seri-
ous form. It is more severe upon the red
and white currants than upon the black.

Symptoms

The disease is primarily a leaf disease,
though it may grow upon practically all
parts of the plant above ground including
the fruit. On the leaf the disease causes
small brown spots which are more or less
thickly scattered. When abundant the
affected leaves turn yellow and fall. This
disease is probably the cause of much of
the premature defoliation of currants.
The general effect of the fungus is to
interfere with the proper development of
the fruit and generally to reduce the
vitality of the plants, thus interfering
with the proper ripening of the fruit and
the formation of the fruit buds for the
next year. Spots of the disease may also
occur upon the petioles and young canes
and upon the fruit stalks and young

870

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

fruits. Conspicuous black spots which
are slightly sunken are formed on the
leaf stalks and petioles and also on the
fruit stems. Here the spots are black and
from one-fourth to one-half inch long.
On the fruit black spots resembling fly-
specks are formed.

On the young canes the disease pro-
duces only a slight discoloration; it oc-
curs only upon young canes of the current
year's growth, and is very difficult to
detect.

Where plants are in partial shade they
are not as seriously attacked. Older
plantations are found to be more seriously
affected than more recent plantings.

Cause

This disease is caused by a fungus
known technically as Pseudopeziza ribis.
The fungus exists in two spore stages. In
the spots on the leaves, petioles and canes,
the summer spores are produced in pecu-
liar fruiting structures known as acer-
vuli; these are doubtless disseminated by
wind and spattering rain, and when com-
ing to rest upon any part of the plant
grow into the tissues and cause new
spots.

It has been proved that the fungus ma-
tures on the stems, and it is possible that
it winters over on the canes in this condi-
tion.

It is certain that the fungus is carried
over the winter by the foliage, which lies
on the ground.

Treatment

The first infection results from the
dissemination of spores from the dead
leaves of the previous season, and any
method of destroying these leaves might
tend to reduce the seriousness of the
attack. It would be advisable, there-
fore, to plow early, before the leaves
come out in the spring, in order to bury
the dead leaves. Where practicable, rak-
ing and burning the leaves would have
the same result and would probably be
more effective. A dormant spraying to-
ward spring, to prevent any further de-
velopment of the summer spores on the
canes, would be advisable. Use the Bor-
deaux mixture 5-5-50. Spray again when
the leaves unfold and repeat at intervals

of ten days until the fruit is two-thirds
grown, avoiding the blossoming period.
If summer rains are abundant it may be
found profitable to spray once or twice
after the fruit is gathered.

Black Knot. See under Cherry Dis-
eases.

Cane Blight

Nectria cinnabarina (Tode) Fr.
This is a very serious disease whenever
stools are attacked by it. The fungus sur-
vives by its threads in the tissues of the
stool and upon the death of the canes de-
velops as a bright pink mass of the fun-
gus upon dead parts. While spraying
may, and surely must, keep down the
risk of Infection, whenever stools show
attacks by dying of a part of the canes
and the development of this fungus these
infected stools are doomed and should be
removed and burned. A. D. Selby

Reference

Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Currant Blight, Currant Cane Blight,
Currant Cane Jfecrosis

Botryosphaeria ribis
An Old, Obscure Disease

More than twenty years ago, a disease
was discovered which has become today
a very destructive trouble in the currant
plantations of the Hudson valley. New
York. The cause of this disease re-
mained long unknown; but careful study
by botanists of the Geneva and
Cornell stations proved it to be due to a
fungus which has three distinct spore
forms. Of these, the basal form is Botry-
osphaeria ribis, so that this stands as the
scientific name of the fungus which
causes currant blight, currant cane blight,
or currant cane necrosis. Usually, the
discovery of the cause of a disease soon
leads to a remedy, but in this case no
preventive or remedial treatment can yet
be recommended.

Symptoms of the Disease

On certain canes, or portions of the
canes, the leaves wilt, turn brown and
die. An affected cane will show a sec-
tion of dead wood from one to four
inches long where the bark has been
killed and wood and pith invaded by the

CURRANT DISEASES— CURRANT PESTS

871

mycelium of the fungus. This hinders
the ascent of sap and thereby causes all
the upper part of the plant to wither and
die. The general appearance is very simi-
lar to that caused by borers in the canes,
but when this insect is responsible, a
distinct burrow will be found and the
larva, itself, may be present. In fungus-
blighted canes, neither burrow nor larva
can be found, but on careful examination,
especially with a microscope, iine, whit-
ish, cobwebby threads may be discovered
in the discolored pith at the point of at-
tack.

Dropsy
This disease causes very considerable
enlargement upon the young stems of
the currants, not unlike in appearance
the enlargements due to crown gall in
the peach, except that usually more of
the stem is involved than in the other
case. The trouble appears to be due to
physiological causes and the pruning
knife may aid cultural efforts.

European Currant Rust

Cronartium ribicola Fisch. de Waldh
An outbreak of this rust has been re-
ported from New York, although before
1906 supposed to have been confined to
Europe and Asia. It appears also upon
the white pine. No practical means of
control seems at hand.

References

Ohio Bui. 214.

Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Knot

Due to a fungus, requires further in-
vestigation.

Leaf Spot
Septoria ribis, Desm.; Cercospora angu-

lata Wint.
Leaf spot of currants is referable to
two species of fungi. These fungi
produce early spotting and prema-
ture dropping of the currant foliage; in
some instances the leaves drop even be-
fore the fruit has ripened. Bordeaux mix-
ture applied as per calendar is effective
against this disease, though late appli-
cations may render it necessary to wash
the fruit. For this reason, if for no
other, the first application should be made

very early and followed by about two
more at fortnightly intervals.

A. D. S.

PowDEUY Mildew. See under Goose-
berry Diseases.
Wilt. See Currant Blight this section.

CURRANT PESTS

American Currant Borer

Psenoceriis supernotatus Say
When red and white currants are leaf-
ing out in spring, some bushes are no-
ticeably slower in expanding their foliage
than other individuals of the same vari-
ety. This is frequently due to the pres-
ence of stem-boring larv«, either those
of the above beetle, which are white, cy-
lindrical, and without feet, about a quar-
ter of an inch in length, or those of the
imported currant borer, which somewhat
resemble the above but have a brown
head and short legs beneath the body.
The parent of the American currant
borer is a small, narrow, brownish-black
beetle, about 14-inch long, with long slen-
der feelers and two conspicuous white
spots on the back towards the end of the
body, and two smaller dots about the mid-
dle. These beetles may sometimes be
found in the month of June crawling
about upon the bushes. The eggs are laid
in summer, and the young grubs burrow
inside the canes and do not change to
pupae until the following May. The at-
tack of this insect, although occasionally
serious to fruit growers, is only an excep-
tional one, for the species propagates
much more freely in the stems of the
Virginian creeper.

Remedy

When currant bushes are being pruned,
all the wood which is cut out should be
burnt, and if the presence of this insect
or of the currant borer is detected by
the black burrows in the centers of the
stems, such stems should be pruned down
until the larva is found, so that it may
be destroyed.

Cottony Scale. See Apple Pests.

Currant Aphis

Myzus ribis L.
When the leaves of currant bushes are
nearly full grown, many of them bear

872

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

blister-like elevations of a reddish color,
beneath which will be found yellowish
plant-lice, some winged and some wing-
less. The blisters are due to the attacks
of these insects, and when, as is some-
times the case, they are very abundant,
considerable injury is done to the bushes.

See Aphids.

Remedy

Spraying forcibly with whale-oil soap
solution or kerosene emulsion will destroy
large numbers of these plant-lice at each
application; but the liquid must be copi-
ously applied and driven well up beneath
the foliage by means of an angled nozzle.
Two or three applications at short inter-
vals may be necessary.

Currant Leaf Hopper

Em.poasca mali, Le Baron
A frequent cause of considerable injury
to the leaves of currants and gooseberries,
is a small pale green leaf hopper which
during May and June is found in large
numbers beneath the leaves, from which
it sucks the sap. This is the same insect
that is often so abundant upon apple trees.
The mature insect is a slender leaf hopper
less than % of an inch in length, and
passes the winter beneath rubbish, leaves,
etc. It flies to the bushes in spring, as
soon as they leaf out. The young wing-
less leaf hoppers of the first brood may
be found about the beginning of June,
and should be destroyed before they de-
velop their wings and propagate.

Remedy

Spraying the bushes with kerosene
emulsion or whale-oil soap solution before
the insects become winged, is the best
remedy. Care must be taken to drive
the liquid well up under the leaves.
See also Apple Pests.

Jajies Fletcher,

Ottawa. Can.

€iirraut Maggot or Gooseberry Fniit Fly

Epochra canadensis Loew

A. L. LOVETT

This insect is possibly as serious a pest
of the currant and gooseberry fruits as
we have in the Northwest. The attack is
on the fruit itself and causes it to become
prematurely ripened and altogether worth-

less. The first indication of injury due to
this insect is a small spot on the one side
of the fruit where growth has apparently
ceased. Later the fruit shows a cloudy
appearance, becomes prematurely ripe and
upon examination reveals a dark spot in
the interior, which proves, when the fruit
is opened, to be a small footless grub.
The fruit drops to the ground, and as a
result, the crop is shortened greatly or is
entirely ruined.

The adult of this maggot is a very
pretty two-winged fly about the size of a
house fly. It is of a pale yellow or orange
color. The wings are marked with dusky
bands. The grub or maggot is footless,
white in color and with the body com-
posed of 13 segments. The head is armed
with a pair of black, parallel, retractile
hooks, the rasping organs of the maggot.

Life History

The adult flies emerge during May and
may be observed about the bushes during
late May and June. Soon after emergence
the female commences depositing eggs.
One female may lay as many as 200 eggs;
usually she will deposit but a single egg
in a fruit. The egg-laying process is in-
teresting; the fly alights on the fruit and
hurries about in a nervous manner, keep-
ing the wings in constant fanning motion.
When at last suited with the location she
pierces the fruit with her ovipositor and
pushes the egg under the edge of the skin.
The egg hatches into a small white grub,
which at once commences to feed and
travel. Its route may be readily traced
just under the skin by the discolored path
of injured cells and excrement left be-
hind. After traversing a greater or less
distance around the fruit, the maggot
turns to the interior and enters one of the
seeds. After growing too large to remain
in a seed, it binds several seeds together
and continues to feed on their contents.
Occasionally the larvae leave the fruit be-
fore it drops to the ground. More often
they remain in the fruit until after it has
fallen, where they complete their growth,
and when ready to transform to a pupa
crawl out of the fruit and into the soil.
They enter the soil to a depth of about
one and one-half inches, where they form

CURRANT PESTS

873

an earthen cell and transform to a pupa.
They remain in the soil as a pupa until
the following May when they emerge as
adult flies.

Control Measures

This insect is not an easy one to control.
The fact that the egg is deposited under
the skin of the fruit and that the larva
spends its entire existence in the interior,
makes poison sprays for the larva of no
avail.

Sweeping

An insect net swept over the vines in
the early forenoon during June should
collect many of the flies. They could then
be dipped in hot water or suds.

Poultry

Young poultry allowed to run in the
patch a few hours each day will pick up
the fallen fruit containing the maggots
and materially lessen next season's crop
of flies.

Spading:

Advantage may be taken of the fact
that the pest spends nearly 11 months in
the soil. Spade up the soil thoroughly to
a depth of four or five inches close up
about the bushes. This will break up the
pupal cells and expose the insect to un-
favorable weather conditions and the at-
tack of its enemies.

Mulching

Mulching heavily with straw in the
spring might prevent the flies from emerg-
ing as they are very weak when newly
emerged.

Currant Soft Scale
Lecanium ribis Fitch

There are occasionally noticed upon the
stems of currants and gooseberries clus-
ters of large swollen dark-brown polished
scales, about 1-10 of an inch in diameter,
beneath which, when mature in July, large
numbers of white eggs may be found.
These hatch during that month, and the
small, mite-like young crawl all over the
plant and suck the sap from the leaves
and young growth. By autumn they have
grown but little and are covered with a
flat brown scale about 1-32 of an inch in
length. As winter approaches, they crawl
on to the twigs and pass the winter there.

During the spring of the next year they
grow rapidly and, as they are sometimes
in such numbers as almost to cover the
twigs, they do a considerable amount of
harm by sucking the sap at the time when
the bushes require all their vigor to ripen
fruit.

Remedy
Spraying the bushes in winter time
either with the lime-sulphur wash or with
kerosene emulsion, is the best treatment
for this scale.

Currant Span Worm

Cymatopliora ribearia Fitch
This voracious caterpillar, which fre-
quently does much harm to currants and
gooseberry bushes, but particulaiiy to the
black- currant, is more difficult to conti'ol
than the common currant worm, the
larva of the imported currant sawfly.
The caterpillars are about an inch in
length, of a whitish color, with yellow
stripes down each side, and one down the
middle of the back; the whole body is
dotted with black spots of different sizes.
There is only one brood of this insect in
the year, the moths appearing about the
end of June and in the beginning of July.
The eggs are laid on the twigs during the
latter month, and remain there unhatched
until the following spring. The caterpil-
lars may be found during June.

Remedy

It is necessary to use a much stronger
poison for the currant span worm than
for the ordinary currant worm. Paris
green, arsenate of lead, or some other ar-
senical poison, are preferable to the white
hellebore usually recommended. When
occurring only in small numbers, hand-
picking is practicable, owing to the habit
of the caterpillar of letting itself down
by a strong silken thread when the
bushes are disturbed.

In addition to the above, which is the
commonest of the span worms found on
gooseberries and currants, there are occa-
sionally found two much larger caterpil-
lars of the same shape and looping move-
ment of the body when walking. These
are those of the currant angerona (Xan-
thotype crocataria. Fab.) which has a
caterpillar an inch and a half long or

874

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

more when full grown, of a yellowish-
green color, with a whitish line down the
back and a broad white band on each side
bordered with pale purple, below the spir-
acles, and the pepper and salt currant
moth (Lycia cognataria, Gn.), which has
a large caterpillar two inches long, vary-
ing in color from green to dark brown,
and when at rest standing out rigidly, like
many of the other span worms, so as to
resemble a twig or the stem of a leaf.
Neither of these latter caterpillars is a
regular pest of the small fruit grower; but
they occasionally appear in such numbers
as to require attention. They are easily
controlled by the same remedies as given

^'^°^^' James Fletcher,

Ottawa, Can.

Currant Stem Girdler

Janus integer
After the leaves have fallen so that
the stems of currant are well exposed
many among them are sometimes observed
to have been pruned off across the top,
and by splitting the cane, a tunnel is
found running down the pith chamber
for from four to six inches. The excre-
ment or frass of the borers is scattered
along the tunnel and after early Septem-
ber the lower part of the tunnel will be
found to have been cleaned out and is oc-
cupied by the grub, enveloped in a thin
silken cocoon. A passageway from the
center to the bark is eaten out and by
means of this opening the adult sawfly,
into which the grub transforms, makes its
way to the outside the following May.
The sawfly is a close relative to the insect
which lays eggs to produce the well
known currant worm. It has four wings,
a shining black body, and light brownish
legs. The abdomen of the male is brown-
ish yellow, while in the female the first
half of the abdomen is of a reddish-orange
color and the rest is black. This insect
is known as the currant stem girdler.

Remedy

By cutting off and burning about eight
inches of the tips from the girdled canes,
any time during the occupancy of the
tunnel by the larva, the insect will be con-
trolled. TT A /-.

H. A. GOSSARD,

Ohio Bulletin 233.

Currant Worm or Imported Currant
Sawfly

Pteronus ribesii Scop.
By far the best known of all the insects
which injure currants and gooseberries, is
the "Currant Worm." The black spotted
dark green false-caterpillars of this insect
may unfortunately be found in almost
every plantation of currants or goose-
berries, every year in almost all parts of
Canada. The white eggs are laid in rows
along the ribs of the leaf on the lower
side, towards the end of May. From these
the young larvae hatch and soon make
their presence known by the small holes
thej^ eat through the leaves. Unless
promptly destroyed, they will soon strip
the bushes of their leaves, thus weakening
them considerably so as to prevent them
ripening fruit the first year, and also re-
ducing the quality of the crop of the fol-
lowing season. There are at least two
broods in a season in Canada. The first
appears just as the leaves are attaining
full growth, and the second just as the
fruit is ripening. The perfect insect is a
four-winged fly which may be seen flying
about the bushes early in spring. The
male is blackish, with yellow legs and of
about the same size as a house fly, but
with a more slender body. The female is
larger than the male and has the body as
well as the legs yellow.

Remedy

For the first brood a weak mixture of
Paris green, 1 ounce to 10 gallons of water,
may be sprayed over the bushes, or a dry
mixture 1 ounce of Paris green to 6
pounds of flour may be dusted over the
foliage after a shower or when the leaves
are damp with dew. For the second brood
Paris green must not be used, but white
hellebore; this is dusted on as a dry pow-
der, or a decoction of this powder. 1 ounce
to 2 gallons of water, may be sprayed over
the bushes. It is, of course, far better to
treat the first brood thoroughly, so as to
reduce the number of females which
would lay eggs for the second brood.

Four-Lined Leaf Bug

Poecilocapsus lineatue Fab.
An occasional injury of no very great
importance, as a rule, to the leaves of cur-

CURRANT PESTS

875

rants and gooseberries, is by the four-
lined leaf bug. The eggs of this insect
are inserted into the twigs of bushes, par-
ticularly currants. They are usually
placed near the tips and protrude slightly
through the bark. As they are white, they
can be easily seen and, when once known,
can be recognized again without difficulty.
Much good may be done in controlling this
insect by cutting off all egg-bearing twigs
when pruning. The mature insect is a
flat, bright green or yellow bug, with four
black lines down the back and with the
tips of the wings and two large round
spots on the thorax also black. The
nymphs or immature bugs occur with the
adults near the tips of shoots and are ex-
ceedingly active. These insects puncture
the young leaves of currant and goose-
berry bushes as well as of many other
kinds of plants, causing brown spots
which are sometimes so numerous and
close together as to make the leaves
wither.

Remedy
When, as is generally the case, only a
few bushes are attacked, shaking off the
nymphs and perfect insects into open pans
containing water with a little coal oil on
the top, is often sufficient. If the attack
is more extensive, spraying the bushes
with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap
solution will destroy all the insects
reached by the spray. The winter is
passed in the egg state, therefore, all egg-
bearing twigs should be cut off and
burnt.

James Fletcher,

Ottawa, Can.

Gooseberry Gall Miuge. See under
Gooseberry Pests.

Imported Currant Borer

Sesia tipuliformis Clerck (Family
Sesiidae)
Aegeria tipuliformis Clerck.
General Appearance
The adult females are clear-winged
moths with delicate, slender bodies about
three-eighths of an inch long and a wing
expanse of from five-eighths to three-
fourths of an inch. The general color is
jet black with deep blue iridescence.
There is a yellow band around the base

Fi'yi. 1. Ailult I-'cni;iU's of llii' IniiHirlrd Currant
Borer, Scsia iipuUformifs (Chn-ck). The lisht-
bands on the bodies are somewhat confusing,
due to extremely bright light when the photo-
graph was taken.

of the head; three distinct and two indis-
tinct yellow bands around the abdomen
and two oblique longitudinal yellow
stripes on the thorax. Because of sun-
shine these lines and bands are mislead-
ing in the photograph (Fig. 1) excepting
the last two abdominal rings in the left-
hand specimen. The areas on the thorax
just below the wings are also yellow. The
fore wings are opaque along the borders,
with a small band enclosing a clear area
near the opaque tips which are bronze.
The hind wings are clear, excepting a
brown border. The legs are banded yel-

Fig. 2. The Pupae Cases of the Imported
Currant Borer, from which the adult moths
have emerged.

876

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

low and black with the inner sides of
tibiae and tarsi yellow and the outer sides
black. The larvae are slightly more than
half an inch in length and yellowish
white, with dark heads. The chrysalids
are amber brown.

Life History

The eggs are deposited in the early sum-
mer and the young upon hatching bore
into the canes of the currants and work
upon the inner pith during the summer
and winter, eventually destroying the
bushes. Late in the spring the pupae are
found within the old burrows near an
opening through which the adult emerges,
drawing nearly all of the pupal case after
it. The winter is passed in the larval
stage.

Distribution

Canada and the United States.

Food Plants

The young caterpillars work on the
pith within the stalks or canes of the
currant and gooseberry, doing much dam-
age to the fruit-bearing wood. In not
a few cases entire patches have been ren-
dered worthless before the unsuspecting
grower was aware of the real cause of the
dying bushes.

Control

Control is rather difficult and consists
in cutting out and burning the sickly-
looking canes as often as they appear.

E. O. EssiG

Imported Curraxt Sawfly. See Cur-
rant Worm, this section.

Oblique-Banded leaf Roller

Archips rosaceana Harr.
Late in May and during June the leaves
at the tips of young shoots of currants of
all kinds may be seen gathered together
by active pale green caterpillars about
three-fourths of an inch long, with black
heads. Upon tearing the leaves apart
these wriggle quickly out of their shelters
and fall to the ground. When full grown,
which is during June, the caterpillars
change to brown chrysalids inside their
tents, and from these a little later the
moths appear. These are flat and broad
in shape, resembling a bell in outline

when at rest. The front wings are light
brown, crossed by broad oblique bands
of a darker tint. The hind wings are of
a pale ochre yellow. The moth expands
about an inch across the wings. The
caterpillars are very general feeders and
may be found on a great number of ti-ees
and shrubs.

Remedy

Spraying bushes with Paris green and
water to destroy the first brood of the
currant worm, will control this cater-
pillar also, as it occurs about the same
time. The clusters of leaves containing
the larvae are easily noticed and should
be pulled apart and the caterpillars killed
whenever detected.

Oyster Shell Scale

Mytilaspis ulmi L.

Sevei'al kinds of scale insects attack
currants and gooseberries. These plants
seem to be particularly susceptible to the
attacks of the well known oyster shell
scale of the apple, and the San Jose
scale. In neglected plantations these in-
jurious insects increase rapidly, and a
great deal of injury results to the trees.

Remedy

The remedies for scale insects are direct
treatment for the destruction of the in-
festing insect, and preventive measures
such as the invigoration of the tree by
special culture and pruning, to enable it
to throw off or outgrow injury. Infested
plantations should be cultivated and fer-
tilized early in the season, and all un-
necessary wood should be pruned out.
As direct remedies, spraying the bushes
at the time the young scale insects first
appear in June with kerosene emulsion
or whale-oil soap, or spraying in autumn
before the hard weather of winter sets
in with a simple whitewash made with
one pound of lime in each gallon of water,
gives the best results. Two coats of the
whitewash should be applied, the second
one immediately after the first is dry. In
putting on two thin coats of the wash in-
stead of one thick one, far better results
have been secured. For the San Jose
scale the lime and sulphur wash is neces-
sary, and must be repeated every year.

CURRANT PESTS— CYTOLOGY

877

"Red Spider"

Tetranychus species
In dry years great injury is occasionally
done in plantations of currants and goose-
berries, as well as on raspberries, apples
and many other kinds of fruits, by vari-
ous species of spinning mites which are
usually spoken of in a general way, by
horticulturists, under the name of "Red
Spiders." These are all very minute red-
dish, or greenish white, mites that are
found on the lower surfaces of the leaves,
which they cover with a fine network of
web in which they live and which ren-
ders it difficult to get at them with or-
dinary liquid applications. These minute
creatures propagate very rapidly, and
their injury to trees by sucking out the
juice of the leaves is very soon apparent
by the bleached appearance of the foli-
age, which soon dries up and falls away.

Remedy

It is probable that most of the kinds of
"Red Spiders" pass the winter as eggs on
the bushes. Plantations which have been
infested one year, should be thoroughly
sprayed early in spring with the lime and
sulphur wash. Sulphur has a specially
fatal effect upon all kinds of mites. If
bushes are found to be infested in spring
or summer time, they should be sprayed
forcibly with kerosene emulsion, which
might be followed in persistent attacks,
which often occur, by dusting the bushes
while wet with powdered sulphur by
means of one of the so-called insect guns
or horticultural bellows.

James Fletcher.

Ottawa, Can.

Scurfy Bark Louse. See under Apple
Pests.

Yellow Cukraxt Fly. See Currant
Maggot, this section.

Cytology

Cytology is the science which deals
with the structure, development, and
functions of the cell; of the multiplication
of cells into organs and tissues. The cell
has been defined as "A mass of pro-
toplasm with a nucleus in it."

History of Cell Theory

Cells were first discovered in various
vegetable tissue, by Robert Hooke, in

1665, but it was not until the beginning
of the nineteenth century that any insight
into the real nature of the cell and its
functions was obtained. In 1846, Hugo von
Mohl was the first to recognize that the
essential vital constituent of the plant
cell is a slimy protoplasmic mass, in-
side of the cell and not the cell itself.
This mass was called the nucleus, and was
distinguished from the cell wall which is
now supposed to be a protection to the
vital part, rather than the vital part
itself.

The cell theory, in so far as it relates
to plants, was established by Schleiden
in 1838. He showed that all the organs
of the plants are built up of cells, that
the plant embryo originates from a single
cell and that the physiological activities
of the plant are dependent upon the in-
dividual activities of these vital units.
This conception of the plant as an ag-
gregate or colony of independent vital
units governing the nutrition, growth and
reproduction of the whole, cannot, how-
ever, be maintained. It is true that in
the unicellular plants all the vital ac-
tivities are performed by a single cell,
but in the multicellular plants there is a
more or less highly developed differentia-
tion of physiological activity giving rise
to different tissues, or groups of cells,
each with a special function. The cell,
in such a division of labor, cannot there-
fore be regarded as an independent unit.
It is an integral part of an independent
organism and, as such, the exercise of its
functions must be governed by the or-
ganism as a whole.

Size of Cells

Prof. Charles .Joseph Chamberlain,
University of Chicago, says:

"Most cells are too small to be seen
with the naked eye, cells which are
visible without the microscope being ex-
ceptional rather than the rule. The egg
of a bird consists of a single cell, as do
the eggs of animals and plants. The larg-
est plant cells are the internodal cells of
the stonewort, Chara. which reach a
length of two inches. The largest egg
cell for any plant is that of the Zamia,
a plant related to the sago palm; this

878

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

cell reaches a length of about one-eighth
of an inch.

"The most usual shape of the free cells
is the spherical, and cells forming a part
of a tissue are more or less rectangular
in form.

"When first formed, the cells of the in-
dividual animal or plant are very much
alike, but as one examines the cell furth-
er from the regions where actual cell
multiplication is taking place, it is seen
that the originally similar cells are be-
coming very unlike. In the higher
plants, the outer cells become different-
iated into pi'otective tissue, the innermost
into conductive tissue, others into as-
similative tissue, and still others become
reproductive cells. In higher animals,
similar differentiations take place, cells
which finally become so diffei'ent as those
which form nerves, muscles, glands and
even teeth, having been practically alike
in the beginning. Among the unicellular
organisms, there is often remarkable dif-
ferentiation and division of labor, the
single cell performing the functions of
locomotion, securing food, digestion, as-
similation, etc. Such differentiation and
the causes which lead to it are among
the most important cytological problems.

"It is a remarkable fact, that while
undergoing nucelar division, the cells of
plants and animals strikingly resemble
each other, even in the behavior of the
most remote constituents of nucleus and
protoplasm.

"This must mean that animals have
been derived from plants, or that struc-
tures of amazing similarity have arisen
independently in animals and plants.

Fertilization

"Fertilization is one of the most im-
portant problems of cytology. While new
individuals without fertilization, even in
the more highly organized animals, may
occur occasionally (by parthogenesis,
chemical stimulus, vegetative multiplica-
tion, etc.) such cases are so rare, that
fertilization is assumed to occur, unless
its absence is clearly established. To the
cytologist, fertilization consists in the
union of definitely organized male and
female elements. The cytological details

of fertilization of plants and animals are
essentially alike. Fertilization both in
plants and in animals is preceded by a
reduction in the number of chromosomes,
so that the number of chromosomes
found in the male nucleus or in the fe-
male nucleus is just one half the num-
ber found in the body cells of a given
plant or animal. Consequently, when the
two sexual nuclei fuse during fertiliza-
tion, the number of chromosomes which
characterizes the body cells is restored.
The complicated details of the process by
which this reduction in the number of
chromosomes is effected is essentially
alike in plants and animals. Those cytol-
ogists who have investigated most
thoroughly the phenomena of fertiliza-
tion have come to the conclusion that
heredity is referable to a definite cyto-
logical basis.

A Cytological View of Heredity

"Almost without exception, cytologists
have believed that chromatin is the
physical basis of heredity. The reasons
for this belief are briefly as follows: The
male and female parents are about equal-
ly potent in transmitting characters to
offspring; an equal amount of chromatin
and an equal number of chromoses are
contributed by each parent; nothing but
chromatin is contributed equally by each
parent. There is usually a great differ-
ence in size between the male and the
female germ cells. The sperm cell
(spermatozoan) of the ostrich, is almost
invisible to the naked eye, while the egg
is as large as a cocoanut, and such diff-
erences in size are usual both in plants
and animals. The egg contains a large
amount of protoplasm and various food
stuffs and in many cases even that little
is left outside at the time of fertiliza-
tion, only the nucleus entering the egg.
Hence, protoplasm and foodstuffs do not
transmit hereditary characters. While
the male nucleus is usually the smaller
at the time of its entrance into the egg,
it increases in size so that at the time of
fusion the sex nuclei are alike in size.

"The organization of embryos and ma-
ture organizations from eggs is a cyto-
logical problem which has not yet been

CYTOLOGY— DATES

879

solved. The visible stages in develop-
ment have been observed and described
ad infinitum. Both experimental cy-
tology dealing largely with living ma-
terial, and anatomical studies of thin
sections, stained so as to show the most
minute details of structure, are contribut-
ing to the solution of the problem, but
the fundamental underlying phenomena
are still unknown and seem as difficult as
the problem of life. The eggs of the sun-
flower and the willow, like the eggs of
flowering plants, are too small to be
examined with the naked eye, but even
when examined by the aid of modern
technique and the most powerful micro-
scopes, they present no essential differ-
ence in external appearance, nor in ex-
ternal structure, and yet one will al-
ways develop into a willow, and the
other into a sunflower. Within the fer-
tilized egg are all the potentialities of
the adult, even to the color of the flow-
er, or the markings of the wings of the
butterfly.

"This view of Professor Chamberlain,
is in substance supported by H. M. Ber-
nard, an eminent French scientist, who
in 'Some Neglected Factors in Evolu-
tion,' published in 1911, outlines his
work as follows:

" 'The cell, long considered to be the
unit of organic structure, is here treat-
ed as a form-feature of a fundamental
network universally present in pro-
toplasmic tissues. The most primitive
organisms are, essentially, living net-
works from which all the tissues and
organs of the higher animals and man
have become differentiated, in response
to an ever-widening range of environ-
mental stimuli.

" 'The periodic rise in the level of or-
ganic life through the appearance of new
types of animals, which the Darwinian
theory of variation does not explain, is
attributed to a series of units of struc-
ture, starting with one simpler than the
cell. Each of these units in turn, by
colony-formation, has succeeded in pro-
ducing an organism of a more complicated
type, and has thus inaugurated a new
and higher evolutionary period. In man.

the unit of the present period, the build-
er of human societies, the psychical func-
tions of the organic living network, latent
in former periods, have been developed by
interplay with a psychical environment.
The mental development of man and the
complicated problems of social life are
thus treated as being serial with the
simpler phenomena of organic life and as
pointing to some future higher develop-
ment of the great Cosmic Rhythm.' "

Dahlia. See Floral Section.

Dates

Phoenix dactylifera
The' dates of commerce are the fruit of
a species of palm, a tree which ranges
from the Canary islands through North-
ern Africa and the southeast of Asia to
India. It has been cultivated and much
prized through most of these regions
from the remotest antiquity. Its culti-
vation and use are described on the
mural tablets of the ancient Assyrians.
In Arabia, it is the chief source of na-
tional wealth, and its fruit forms the
staple article of food in that country.
The tree has also been introduced along
the Mediterranean shores of Europe; but
as its fruit does not ripen as far north,
the European plants are used only to
supply leaves for the festival of Palm
Sunday among Christians, and for the
celebration of the Passover by the Jews.
The date palm is a beautiful tree, grow-
ing to a height of from 60 to 80 feet,
and its stem, which is strongly marked
with old leaf scars, terminates in a
crown of shining pinnate leaves. The
flowers spring in branching spadices from
the axils of the leaves, and as the trees
are unisexual it is necessary in culti-
vation to fertilize the female flowers by
artificial means. The fruit is oblong,
fleshy and contains one very hard seed
which is deeply furrowed on the inside.
The fruit varies much in color, size and
quality, under cultivation. Those who
only know the date palm from the dried
specimens of that fruit shown beneath
a label in shop windows, can hardly im-
agine how delicious it is when eaten fresh
in Central Arabia. The dried fruit used

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

for dessert in European countries con-
tains more than half its weight of sugar,
six per cent of albumen, and 12 per cent
of gummy matter.

Encyclopedia Britannica.

The Date Palm in the United States

The date was early introduced into
America by the Spanish. The history
and present status of the date palm in
the United States has been made a sub-
ject of study by the Arizona station. The
following statements are taken mainly
from a bulletin of that station. The
palm followed the progress of Catholic
missions from St. Augustine to Mexico,
New Mexico, Arizona and California,
where it is now grown in the open
ground as an ornament as far north as
San Francisco. The tree will, however,
produce fruit only over a much more
limited area. It is not yet grown on a
commercial scale anywhere within the
United States, though occasional seedlings
are found in the desert regions of South-
ern New Mexico, Arizona, and South-
eastern California, which produce fruit
of excellent quality.

The greatest impulse was given to date
growing in this coimtry by the importa-
tion by the Division of Pomology of this
Department of rooted suckers supposed
to have been taken from female trees
known to produce fruit of excellent qual-
ity. These were distributed and planted
in Las Cruces, N. M. ; Phcenix and
Yuma, Ariz.; Indio, Pomona, Tulare, and
National City, Cal. Of the trees thus
planted it appears that 39 are now living,
of which 15 have blossomed, seven of
them being pistillate or fruit-bearing
plants. It may be two or thi'ee years
before their true fruit qualities can be
ascertained.

The regions in which the date palm
thrives are characterized by deficiency of
rain and wide variations of temperature.
The summer heat is intense, reaching
115° or more, though in winter the ther-
mometer may fall as low as 16° below
freezing. These climatic conditions are
practically identical with those that ob-
tain in the more southerly portions of

the great Colorado desert. So great is
the similarity in fact that, so far as cli-
mate is concerned, we may reasonably
expect the date palm to fruit satisfac-
torily in the arid regions of our South-
west. Although the date palm requires
exceptionally intense heat in summer, it
will withstand in winter a temperature
that would be fatal to the fig or orange.
Probably the soil best adapted to the
date palm is one containing a small per-
centage of clay, fairly free from humus,
and charged with alkali. Irrigation and
heat are the all-important considerations.
Water is indispensable. The roots should
be moist at all times. "The date must
have its head in the fire and its roots in
the water" is an old Arabian proverb.
The water should be applied frequently
throughout the year, the most in the
spring before blooming and in the fall
prior to ripening of the fruit. Care
should be taken not to irrigate too much
at the time of blooming and just after,
as this is liable to interfere with success-
ful fruit setting. The water may advan-
tageously be quite warm, from 75° to 95°,
and contain considerable alkali. In mid-
summer irrigation should be in the late
afternoon or evening to avoid scalding.

Palms may be planted along streams or
flooded basins. All desert regions are
characterized by occasional depressions
where the water comes nearly or quite
to the surface. During the rainy season
these are filled with water and some-
times do not become entirely dry before
another rainy season. The date palm
thrives in such spots when once estab-
lished, although its trunk may be par-
tially submerged for some time. Where
irrigation is practiced, however, water
should not be allowed to rise above the
surface of the soil for any considerable
length of time, and later be allowed
to dry away, as baking of the soil under
these conditions may result in serious in-
jury to the tree. From a study of the soil
and climatic conditions in Northern
Africa, where the date palm flourishes, it
seems probable that dates may be grown
in the region adjacent to the Salton basin
west of Yuma.

The date may be propagated from seeds

DATES

881

or suckers. The former method is not
much used except in originating new va-
rieties, because, like many other fruits,
the date does not come true to seed. The
fruit is generally later and poorer, and
the excessive number of males that spring
up cannot be distinguished and destroyed
until the tree blossoms, hence propaga-
tion by suckers is resorted to, although
the date is difficult to transplant with uni-
form success. Frequently as many as
50 per cent, of the transplanted dates die
after they have received the best of care,
and if neglected hardly any will survive.
The Arizona station gives directions for
transplanting as follows:

Suckers may be removed at any time
during the spring or early summer, or
even in the winter if proper care be given
them after removal. If they are to be
planted in the open ground, it is advis-
able to remove them during the spring or
early summer, April probably being the
best month. In winter, when the plants
are at a standstill, the suckers may be
removed with comparatively small loss,
if the bulbs be not less than four inches
in diameter and have a few roots. It is
necessary, when suckers are removed at
this season, to set them in rather small
pots, so that the earth, which should be
given a daily soaking, may have a chance
to get warm quickly. The pots should be
kept in a greenhouse, or, better yet, em-
bedded in a hotbed of manure, covered
with the customary frame and glass. In
all cases the leaves should be cut back to
six to 12 inches in length. * * *

If proper attention can be given it is
best to plant the suckers where they are
to remain, as a second chance for loss
occurs when they are planted in a nur-
sery and later removed to the position
that they are finally to occupy.

A two-inch chisel well sharpened, and
an appropriate mallet, are the important
tools to use in removing suckers. The
leaf stalk should be cut away, exposing
the bulb of the sucker, care being taken
not to injure the bulb in removing. One
should cut in rather deeply at either side,
not being afraid of injuring the old plant,
cutting out a V-shaped portion extending
from the base of the bulb downward for

a foot or more and being careful to secure
in uninjured condition all the attached
roots. If the position of the sucker be
not too high above the ground, the V-
shaped portion should be continued
downward into the soil, that all estab-
lished roots be obtained. The Pomona
substation in California has the best suc-
cess in removing suckers by banking
earth about the stem of the plant so as
to cover the bulbs a number of weeks
prior to removing them. A good system
of roots is established by this method of
procedure.

Male and female flowers of the palm
are borne on separate plants. In the male
plant the flowers are crowded closely
together on a large branched panicle and
have an odor like musty flour. If the
panicle is shaken when the flowers are
well opened quantities of pollen will es-
cape, filling the air as if with dust. The
flowers in the female panicle are much
farther apart; the segments are smaller
and less spreading. The center of the
flower is well filled by three pistils, two of
which soon become abortive.

It is evident, then, that male and female
trees should be planted near each other.
It is quite common to set one male plant
in the center of an irregular circle of six
or eight females. If the trees are planted
in a row along a roadside the male trees
should be planted to the windward. The
wind may be depended upon as a rule to
effect pollination if the staminate is not
more than six or seven rods from the pis-
tillate flowers. At greater distances pol-
lination may be effected, though with
doubtful certainty of completeness, by
both wind and bees.

The palm is peculiar in that the pollen
retains its fertility for a long time. It
may be transported to great distances and
artificially applied to the female blossom
with success. Pollen should not be dusted
on the flower too profusely, as overpollin-
ation is said to weaken the developing
dates and cause them to drop from the
tree. "When artificial pollination is neces-
sary the male blossom is cut from the
tree as soon as the cracking of the
spathe shows that it is about to open.
The panicle may then be cut into pieces

2—15

882

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

and a piece tied near the opening of each
female panicle.

The date palm, whether male or female,
varies greatly as to time of blooming. It
always blooms late, however, thus escap-
ing injury from late spring frosts. In
Arizona the blossoming period begins
about April 15 and continues six weeks
or more. In planting male trees suckers
should be selected from those that blos-
som earliest and most profusely and con-
tinue in bloom from three to five weeks.
The varieties of dates are almost innu-
merable. They vary greatly in size, color,
sweetness, delicacy of flavor, and length
of time required to mature. The dates of
commerce are usually light colored, these
being of firmer texture, and are hence
preferable for shipping purposes.

The average yield of a tree is eight
bunches, each weighing about 17 14
pounds, though they may weigh as much
as 44 pounds. In Arizona seedling trees
seven years of age have produced up-
wards of 200 pounds in a single season.
Young trees blossoming the first or second
time should not be allowed to bear more
than four or five bunches.

Among the various enemies of the
date, birds and bees do much injury by
feeding on the ripe fruit. Cheese cloth
sacks loosely inclosing the bunches on
the tree afford the best protection. The
expense should not exceed 10 cents per
tree. Grasshoppers do much damage by
feeding on the foliage. The most serious
pest that the date has in this country is
a scale insect that was imported on palms
several years ago. The insect is small,
but conspicuous against the dark green
leaves, both sides of which are infested.
The Arizona station has not yet discov-
ered any means of eradicating the pest.
Applications of whale-oil soap washes and
fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas
have been only partially successful.

Office of Experiment Stations. IT. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 92.

Delaware

Delaware has a land area of 1,257,600
acres, and with the exception of Rhode
Island, is the smallest state in the union.
It has a population of 202,322, a large per-

centage of which live in manufacturing
centei-s. There were reported in 1909
10,836 farms which give a fairly good esti-
mate of the number of farmers. The aver-
age number of acres per farm is 95.6, and
the average value of farm land per acre
is $33.63.

The soil and climate are not much dif-
ferent from those of New Jersey, or any
of the portions of country along the Atlan-
tic coast. There is in the soil a consid-
erable mixture of clay and sand with
some humus, which renders it adaptable
to the growing of fruits, melons, potatoes
and vegetables. The waters also furnish
reasonable protection from frosts. It has
been supposed that Delaware was espe-
cially adapted to the growing of peaches;
and some supposed it would soon become
a great peach orchard; but at the time of
the largest hopes in this direction, the
"Peach Yellows," a disease not well under-
stood, struck the orchards and thousands
of acres of trees were dug up, while the
planting was in a considerable degree
checked. According to the census of 1910
Delaware had of peaches and nectarines
1,177,402 trees; apples, 429,753; pears,
449,692; grapes, 260,936 vines, and straw-
berries, 7,194 acres. In 1909 the produc-
tion of all orchard fruits together was
65 per cent less than in 1899.

For market facilities, there is no state
more favorably situated than is Delaware.
Of the total value of crops in 1909, 51.4 per
cent was contributed by cereals, 21.1 per
cent by potatoes and vegetables, 12.9 per
cent by hay and forage, and 15.6 per cent
by small fruits, forest products, orchard
fruits and nuts.

Granville Lowther

Progress in Apple Growing in Delaware

Progress in apple growing in Delaware
in twenty years is from practically noth-
ing to a respectable crop. To realize just
what has been done, a comparison must
be drawn between then and now.

Then a few venturous spirits had been
making excursions into the unknown by
planting any variety that any one recom-
mended. Out of that hodge podge of
planting had appeared some few varieties
seemingly well adapted for use here, but

DELAWARE— DEWBERRY

883

mostly Delaware orchards were the relics
of the tree agent age when the glib tongue
and beautiful pictures of fruit sold trees
well adapted for planting in the north but
worthless for this soil and climate. Rem-
nants of these oi'chards still exist in many
localities. With these were found a few
varieties like Winter Grixon and some of
the earlier sorts, good enough in them-
selves at that date for local consumption,
but none of them free enough of scabs,
blights, rusts and worm-holes to have com-
mercial value. Men who know, said that
good, clean fruit had been grown here,
but for some reason would not grow any
more. No market existed for the stuff
that was grown, for none were so poor as
to do it reverence. When a little start
had been made and more good fruit was
raised than local markets could consume,
it was uphill work to convince buyers for
the large markets that Delaware could
produce any apples suitable for their
trade.

Today Delaware ranks high in pro-
duction per acre and per tree; and
year by year advances in quality and
quantity.

S. H. Derby.

Address before 24th Annual Session of the
Peninsula Horticultural Society, Dover, Del.,
January 10-12, 1911.

Fruit Crop of Delaware

The fruit crop in 1910 amounted to
20,000,000 quarts of berries; 750,000 bush-
els of apples; 500,000 bushels of peaches;
631,000 bushels of pears; 279,000 carriers
of cantaloupes; 373 carloads of water-
melons.

Dehydration. See Evaporation of
Fruits.

Dewberry

The dewberry is one of the most
luscious of the small fruits. It has a fine
flavor, and is rapidly growing into popu-
larity. It requires about the same care
and treatment as the blackberry, but is
a little more tender, and in the colder
regions it would be necessary to protect
the canes by a light covering of earth or
straw, during the winter. Its habits of
growth are somewhat different from those
of the blackberry. The blackberry is an

upright grower while the dewberry is a
trailing vine and is usually trained on
trellises.

Card, in his "Bush Fruits," doubts the
value of the dewberry, and suggests that
its place may be occupied with some im-
proved varieties of blackberries. This
may be true, on account of the dewberry
being a poor shipper. It must be in the
market not less than 36 hours after pick-
ing; but for early ripening and flavor, we
have no blackberry that is its equal.

Soil and Location

In its wild state, the dewberry is found
growing on light sandy soils; but experi-
ence has shown that any soil adapted to
raspberries or blackberries will grow dew-
berries successfully.

Gbanville Lowther

Dewberry Culture
Propagation

The dewberry may be propagated by
layering the tips or from root cuttings.
In fact the plants are so easily secured
that one may generally get them from his
neighbors' plantation more easily than
from a nurseryman. If plants are re-
quired by the wholesale a good plan is to
plow a furrow along the row, place the
tips of the runners in this and turn a
light furrow back upon them ; the tips must
be actually covered. This work should
be done before the opening of the picking
season in most altitudes, and the plants
will be ready for next spring's setting.
Deep cultivation that will disturb or break
large roots will cause many new plants to
start. If an old bed is to be discarded, a
good crop of plants may be secured by
thoroughly plowing and working down
the bed in the spring, allowing the young
plants to spring up from the broken roots
the following summer. Root-cuttings,
from roots the size of a lead pencil, may
be taken in the fall, stored in moist sand
over winter and planted out in nursery
rows the following spring. If these root-
cuttings are well cared for during the
winter and planted three inches deep in a
good soil, kept well moistened, a fair per
cent will produce plants. Root-cuttings
taken in the spring and planted in the
same way will also give fair results. The

884

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

dewberry does not sucker as freely as the
blackberry, neither does it root as readily
from root-cuttings.

Preparation of Land for Planting

In an irrigated section the first step in
the preparation of land for any crop is
proper leveling; low spots where water
settles or high spots difficult to irrigate
materially cut down the dewberry yield.
Best stands are secured when the ground
has been deeply plowed, well worked down
and pulverized; no doubt fall preparation
is advisable for spring setting.

Planting

The majority of our dewberry beds are
from spring settings but many of our ex-
perienced growers seem to be of the opin-
ion that fall setting would prove as satis-
factory and would bring quicker returns.
I see no reason for not setting in the
fall, the plants would necessarily be quite
tender the first winter but could be well
protected and should suffer no injury.
Planting in the fall should be done in
early September and spring planting as
soon as the ground can be worked. As
to distances for planting there is still
some dispute, but, if the plants are to be
allowed to grow prostrate, setting 5x5 feet
seems to be the most satisfactory system.
They can be pruned accordingly and cul-
tivated either way. If grown on a wire
trellis, rows six feet apart with plants
three feet in the row would no doubt be
a better system. When planted in the
young orchard, the distance can be made
such as to best utilize the space. There is
no particular objection to planting dew-
berries in the young orchard but the
grower is to be cautioned about crowding
the trees and advised that in most cases
it is not a crop for the old orchard.

For planting, the ground is furrowed
out one way and cross-marked. The
plants are dropped in the furrow at its
intersection with the cross-mark, and par-
tially covered with the foot. The furrow
is turned back, the plants straightened up,
the soil firmed about them, and the job of
setting is completed by running water
down the row. As with any other plant,
the top should be cut back at setting time
to offset the loss of roots in digging.

Cultivation

The cultivation of the dewberry patch
should not be unlike that for any other
bush fruit. It should be well cultivated
in the early part of the season to keep
down the weeds and conserve the mois-
ture. Cultivation stops at the opening of
the picking season and is resumed again
at its close, continuing until the end of
the growing season. Since deep cultiva-
tion which disturbs or breaks the roots
tends to start objectionable plants in the
middles, the early cultivations and possibly
the later ones should be rather shallow.
If the plants are allowed to run for the
purpose of being trained on a trellis, cul-
tivation must be in one direction; when
checked equal distance each way the gen-
eral plan is to keep the middles open only
one way. While it may be possible to
overgrow the plants by continual cultiva-
tion, it is better to counteract this by
withholding water rather than by discon-
tinuing cultivation. Good cultivation is
no doubt conducive to vigorous, but not
necessarily to rampant growth.

Irrigation

There are really no tricks in irrigating
dewberries. The ground should be kept
moist and in good condition during the
early part of the growing season. The
young plants will stand a good deal of
water the first season. During the picking
season it is the common practice to water
after each picking, just a light surface
watering. This supplies the roots with
the needed moisture to swell the berries
to good size and by keeping the surface
of the ground moist the berries ripen
better, there is less loss from the drying
of the fruit. It would be a good plan, no
doubt, to try to induce early maturity of
the canes by withholding water after the
close of the picking season. In localities
where the winter snowfall is not great the
dewberry patch should be given a late fall
irrigation.

Fertilizing

The grower of dewberries cannot ex-
pect that the plants will continue bearing
good annual crops without fertilization.
If properly cared for, there seems to be
almost no limit to the duration of the

DEWBERRY

plantation. Good stable manure is one of
the best fertilizers. It maybe applied in
early spring before uncovering the plants
and the uncovering process as well as
early cultivation will help incorporate it
with the soil. Frequent light applications
are preferable to heavy and irregular
ones, as they tend to promote more uni-
form growth and yields.

Pruning

In most sections dewberries are al-
lowed to grow prostrate; growers say it
is too expensive to trellis them and it
might be added that the present system
seems highly satisfactory. No doubt, un-
der certain conditions, trellising would
be advisable but surely could not increase
the yield any considerable amount. Where
the plants are grown on a trellis, they
receive no summer pruning as a rule;
the new canes are allowed to trail on the
ground under the trellis while the fruit-
ing canes are tied to the wires. The only
pruning the plant requires — unless it be
a clipping back in August to induce early
maturity — is cutting out the old canes in
the fall or spring and shortening the
new ones to three or three and one-half
feet. A two-wire t'^ellis is generally used,
the top wire being about three feet from
the ground. The training of the dew-
berry without the trellis requires a little
more care in pruning but saves the labor
of tying up and allows of early cultiva-
tion either way. The first pruning con-
sists in tipping the new growths when
they have attained a length of 12 or
18 inches; the canes then stand up-
right above the old wood and the tips
may be mowed off with a sickle or large
knife. It is important that this pruning
be done at the right time; do not wait
until the canes are longer and then cut
back to eighteen inches or weak lateral
canes will be the result. This early
pruning forces out lateral canes and thus
increases the bearing surface as well as
stiffens the lower part of the cane, making
it support itself better. The general
practice is to prune the second time
just before picking begins. The main
object of the pruning seems to be to get
the new wood out of the wav of the

pickers. At this time the lateral canes
forced by the first pruning are cut back
to two or two and one-half feet; they
should be left long enough to shade the
old wood and the fruit, yet short enough
to be easily lifted by the pickers. This
pruning must not be delayed too long
as it starts new growth which should
have time to mature. At its best it is
not satisfactory and it is probable that
the growers will yet learn to avoid this
pruning. The third pruning is admin-
istered the following spring, and consists
in removing all old canes and shortening
in the new canes that may have grown
too long. There seems to be no reason
why this pruning may not be done before
covering in the fall other than that the
foliage makes the pruning more difficult.

Picking

In growing dewberries on a large scale
one of the serious problems is that of
securing pickers. The average picker
will pick from five to seven crates a day,
and this means that it will take from
eight to ten average pickers to pick an
acre per day. The general practice is to
pick every third day, and the large
patch may be divided so as to furnish
the pickers employment every day.

The pickers must at least wear a glove
on the hand used to lift the vines and
most of them wear a glove with the tips
of the fingers removed on the picking
hand. Some growers supply the pickers
with a twelve-basket carrier, or two if
the pickers are fast and able to carry
them. Others advocate the use of the
regular shipping crate holding twenty-
four baskets. A bale may be made of
heavy wire bent in a way to clamp into
the grooves that serve as handles in the
end of the crate. Of course crates used
to pick in cannot afterwards be used as
shipping crates. The deck boards and
baskets for the second tier are carried
along and placed in position when the
first tier is filled. In this way the picker
carries a full crate in one hand and at
the same time does not expose them to the
sun for any length of time. A piece of
heavy cloth large enough to cover half
the crate may be tacked by two corners

886

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

across the center of the crate and used
to shade one end of the crate while the
other is being filled. The pickers should
be made to grade the fruit, and the best
way is to have them put the culls in cer-
tain boxes and pay them for picking
these the same as first class fruit. This
plan provides a place for fruit the picker
gathers and hates to throw away because
it fills up. Dewberries should be picked
when a full glossy black. Berries which
have gone beyond this stage and turned
a dull or more ashy color are too ripe to
ship. The cull box is the place for over-
ripe, dry, and poorly colored berries.
Ripe berries start mold if packed for
shipment.

Dewberries should not be picked when
moist, as after a heavy dew or rain.
Pickers are paid by the crate, thirty
cents, if they pick part of the season, and
thirty-five cents if they finish the season.
If the grower does not protect himself
in this way, some of the pickers will
leave him when picking gets poor.

Yields and Returns

A dewberry plantation in good bearing
will yield from three hundred to four
hundred crates of berries per acre. Mr.
Baldridge's patch, on four and one-half
acres of ground was set in 1903. In 1904
it yielded 125 crates of berries, in 1905,
1,800 crates; in 1906, 1,800 crates and in
1907, 2,000 crates. It would probably
be hard to give a satisfactory estimate
of the cost of production of dewberries.
The crate costs the grower 27 cents and
picking 35 cents per crate, plus probably
5 cents for overseeing and crating the
fruit. At present (1909) the average
price paid for dewberries has been $2.25
per crate F. O. B. the nearest shipping
point.

O. B. Whipple

Colo. Exp. Sta. Bui. 1.36.

Varieties

[Only three varieties are recommended
by the American Pomological Society for
propagation, the Lucretia and Mayes or
Austin-Maj'es having proven successful
and the McDonald, which is recommend-
ed for trial. — Ed.]

DEWBERRY DISEASES

The dewberry is troubled by the same
fungus and other diseases, for the most
part, as the raspberry and blackberry.
The reader is referred to the diseases
of these plants.

Double Blossom

Fusarium rubi Winter

A disease known as "double blossom"
occurs on several species of rubus; but
has attacked the Lucretia dewberry es-
pecially. It has been reported from the
Middle Atlantic states and westward to
the Mississippi, having first attracted at-
tention in Illinois.

The disease produces witches' brooms
on the buds which sometimes remain
green after the canes are dead. Diseased
buds show larger than normal in the
spring and are frequently of a reddish
color.

The outer flower parts are increased in
number and appear crumpled while the
ovaries fail to develop fruit. Soon after
the opening of the flower buds the fungus
fruits and the spores falling upon young
buds germinate and grow inward. The
fungus remains dormant here until the
following spring.

Hand picking of the diseased buds is
the most practicable method of control
at present known.

Reference

M. F. Cook, Delaware Experiment Sta-
tion, Bulletin 93.

DEWBERRY PESTS

The dewberry is attacked by much the
same species of insects as other members
of the Rubus family. See under Black-
berry and Raspberry Pests.

Diseases of Plants

Origin and IVature of Disease

All diseases originate from one of two
sources. First, the nature of the organ-
ism in which the disease is located.
Second, the nature of the environment,
which is something outside of the organ-
ism and to which it is closely related.

Whoever would, therefore, understand
disease, must know something of the
organism in which the disease is lo-

DISEASES OF PLANTS

887.

cated, the environment and the relations
between the organism and the environ-
ment. It is often difficult to distinguish
between health and disease; because of
the differences between the standards
by which comparisons are made. For
instance, whoever has seen an oak in the
Appalachian mountain range, where it is
"King of the forests," and would com-
pare it with the same species and vari-
ety found in the semi-arid bluffs of
Kansas and Nebraska, would incline to
the opinion that the stunted specimen of
the semi-arid section is diseased. How-
ever, the short, scrubby specimen of the
Central West is normal to that region
and not diseased. It may be pointed out
that certain specimens of that region
are decaying, have been attacked by in-
sects, broken by storms, are not properly
nourished, the leaves turning yellow, and
that these particular specimens are dis-
eased while the normal specimens, with
no visible decay, no external injuries
and no apparent lack of nourishment, are
healthy. Prof. A. D. Selby, Botanist of
the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, says: "The idea of disease is not
an easy one, though it may seem so be-
fore trying to define it. In reality, the
term disease as applied to plants means
any change in the plant towards re-
duced vigor from the ordinary behavior.
To put it in another way, a plant is said
to be diseased when it shows deviation
from the average behavior of the plant
in respect to appearance, growth, color
of bark, foliage, fruitfulness, time of
dropping the leaves, or length of life. In
short, when the plant fails to perform
those functions, or conform to those aver-
ages which have been established by ob-
servation for the species and variety
in question, we say that it is diseased.
Under such general definition, variegated
or purple hued spots would be included,
although diseased potentially rather than
in reduced vigor."

In deciding the question of what are
favorable and what are unfavorable con-
ditions results obtained from experi-
ments or from observed phenomena
would be determining factors as against
any theory. The best conditions would

be those in which the best specimens
were produced ; average conditions would
be those in which average specimens
were produced; and poor conditions
those under which poor specimens were
produced. By observations of this char-
acter, it can be determined what envir-
onments are most favorable for the
health and vigor of the plant. In this
manner we have come to know in a
measure what are the conditions best
suited to the different varieties of apples,
peaches, pears, plums, grapes, straw-
berries and bush fruits. We have by a
general study of the subject, by infor-
mation gathered from all available
sources, from farmers, experiment sta-
tions and experts who have traveled
widelj', made comparisons so that there
is a general ideal or standard of judg-
ing, by which plants are compared and
the plants of normal growth, excessive
growth and stunted or diseased condi-
tions determined.

It would seem that a comparison
should not therefore be made between
the most perfect specimens and any
particular individual of the species, nor
should it be made between the more
stunted specimens and the same indi-
vidual, but with the average, for it is
the great law of averages that deter-
mines the standard of any race, species
or variety.

Perfection as a Standard

We have often urged that perfection
should be the standard by which com-
parisons are made, and we still insist
on this when we are trying to improve
the stock. But judging in reference to
diseased specimens is another matter.
Perfection is defined as "Having all
properties and qualities necessary to its
nature, of the best, highest, or most com-
plete kind of type, without deficiency,
fault or blemish." Sometimes it is de-
fined as "Finished, incapable of being
improved upon." In this latter sense
the word is never used in reference to
fruits, for like most other things in na-
ture, there is no limit to the degrees
of improvement. The apple of the future
will perhaps be as much better than the
apple of today as the finest specimens

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

of Spitzenburg are now better than the
forest crab, from which they probably
came. Perfection is therefore a relative
term, in the same sense that disease is a
relative term, and a just comparison
can only be made with the average. That
which is now considered perfection may
be very imperfect in the future, and that
which is now a standard of health may
be considered stunted, because it may
fall below the average.

Nature of the Organism and Disease

There is much more knowledge than
formerly upon the nature of organisms and
their adaptations to particular localities.
It is understood that no two things in na-
ture are exactly alike; but several things,
like apples, for instance, are sufficiently
alike so that the conditions necessary for
the growth of one variety may be favorable
for the growth of another variety. Still,
it remains true, that the different varie-
ties of apples are in many particulars
unlike, and that the unlikeness is suffi-
ciently marked so that conditions favor-
able for the growth of one variety may
not be the best for another, and in some
extreme cases are decidedly unfavorable.
This is the reason why the American
Pomological Society has divided the
United States into districts and has giv-
en a list of the various fruits and their
varieties that are "Successful, very suc-
cessful, fairly successful and recom-
mended for trial," in the different dis-
tricts. (See page 192).

We will compare a few plants that
belong to different species, rather than
those of the same species, as illustrating
our idea. Take celery, cress and cran-
berries as illustrations of plants that re-
quire a great amount of water. In a dry
soil, where the sun was hot, they would
sicken and die. On the other hand, al-
monds, sand-plums, sage brush and cacti
would reach a normal condition and
manifest health where the first named
group would die. This is on account of
the nature of the organism, which adapts
one to a wet soil and the other to a dry
soil. Because of this difference it would
be folly to expect success in the growing
of celery without plenty of water, or to

expect success with almonds in a damp
or sub-irrigated soil.

All Plants Once Aquatic

It is taught by geologists that in the
early history of our globe the whole sur-
face of the earth was successively cov-
ered with water, and that all vegetable
and animal life was adapted to the wa-
ter. With the changes that came from
the shrinking of the surface of the earth,
the consequent upheavals, the building
of mountain ranges and the valleys be-
tween them, the subsequent draining
of great basins of lakes and seas, and
the consequent forming of deserts it came
about that gradually both plants and
animals became adapted to the many con-
ditions existing between the extremes of
water and desert. The struggle of all
forms of life is for existence and the
tendency is in the direction of those
changes necessary to existence and to
adapt the organism to a given environ-
ment. The plant that cannot become
so adapted will in so far as that par-
ticular locality is concerned, become
extinct. Naturally, therefore, the plant or
tree that is adapted to the desert will
have a small leaf surface, from which
little water can be evaporated, or if the
leaf surface is large as in the case of the
cacti, it must have few stomata, or
pores, from which the water can be
taken by the action of the heat. It must
also have a root system, adapted to the
dry soil conditions under which it lives.
Another example of the leaf formation in
adaptation to the different conditions is
the difference between the Indian corn
and the Kaffir corn. The latter having
a thick, compact leaf with few cells ex-
posed to the air and which admits of a
small amount of evaporation, lives in
dry regions. For this reason certain va-
rieties of peaches will live and bear fruit
where other varieties would die, and
watermelons will grow successfully
where pumpkins and muskmelons would
fail. It has, therefore, come to be ob-
served, that plants have certain likes and
dislikes, growing out of the nature of the
organism, and that if any particular plant
gets what it likes it is healthy, but if it
does not, it becomes diseased.

DISEASES OP PLANTS

889

Organs Have Become Permanent

Whatever may have been the causes
of variation in plants, the facts remain
that they are variously adapted, and
that these adaptations are suited to all
the conditions common on the surface of
the earth. This has made necessary or-
gans that mark them as different, per-
forming different functions in different
degrees, and these differences have be-
come permanent. Therefore, unless these
permanent likes and dislikes are consid-
ered, the wants growing out of them sup-
plied and they are protected from that
which they dislike, there cannot be a
condition of health. For this reason it is
necessary to study the nature of the
organism and the nature of the environ-
ment. It is only by this means that it
can be determined whether they are
adapted to each other, or whether the
soil, climate and general surroundings
contain injurious elements. If a certain
soil, for instance, contained all that was
necessary to the health of a tree, but if
at the same time it contained something
injurious, the tree would suffer; as in the
case of a man who ate a good healthful
meal containing all that was necessary to
his vigor, but at the same time took poi-
son. Again, it is often true that certain
chemical qualities in the soil are good
in certain proportions, but taken in larger
portions become injurious. This is true
of alkali salts, which in a certain degree
are fertilizers, and stimulate the growth
and vigor of fruits and other crops, but in
larger quantities, become injurious. In
certain excessive quantities they kill the
little hairs that form on the roots and
which gather the food substances in solu-
tion, thus causing a lack of nourishment
and final death of the plant. The symp-
toms are generally a yellowing of the
leaves. If we may judge by the unfavor-
able conditions under which plant life has
been observed to grow, we might conclude
that there is life potentially in every par-
ticle of earth, air and water. In other
words, that life is everywhere, and that it
strives to clothe itself with whatever
forms are adapted to its surroundings.
Whoever has observed the growing of

moss on the rocks in the desert or on a
marble slab in a cemetery, must have
wondered at the tenacity with which life
struggles to maintain itself, and with
which it strives to adapt itself to the
most unfavorable conditions. Yet, it
would be folly to plant a tree in the solid
rock or try to grow a garden on a marble
slab. We must, if we succeed, study the
nature of the organism and the environ-
ment.

Health the JTormal Condition

Whatever may be the cause or causes
of diseased conditions in plants, we are
forced to the conclusion that the ten-
dency of life is toward health and toward
a more perfect expression of its being.
Among the many proofs that may be of-
fered are the following:

First. The tendency of all plants to
change, in order to become adapted to
different conditions of soil, climate and
whatever environment affects them.

Second. The effort to repair any injury
that has been done by insects, animals,
wounds, diseases or from whatever
cause.

Diseases Classified

We give herewith a general outline un-
der which diseases may be classified.

1. Secretional diseases, in which cel-
lulose is transformed into gum, resin,
manna. The effect is produced by over-
action of the normal functions.

2. Diseases produced by fungi and
other vegetable parasites.

3. Diseases produced by decomposition,
as gangrene, or canker. These are pro-
cesses of decay in which the cellulose is
transformed into a muddy fluid, a brown
powder, or a carbonaceous mass.

4. Diseases produced by the attack of
insects and other animals.

5. Atmospheric conditions.

6. Soil and moisture conditions.

7. Light, electricity, winds and storms.

8. Crowding so that the food supply is
cut off.

9. Isolation and consequent lack of fer-
tilization.

10. Unknown causes.

Granville Lowther

890

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

History and Definition

Diseases in plants have existed as long
as plants themselves — ages before the ad-
vent of man. Civilization and agriculture
have usually developed together in all
parts of the earth and it is not strange
that anything that troubled or destroyed
an important food plant should be ob-
served and the cause sought. In the earli-
est historic records as well as in early
Greek and Roman times some of the more
destructive diseases of plants, like rust
and mildew or blight of cereals were
widely known and discussed. A special
deity was recognized who ruled these
phenomena and to whom sacrifices were
offered.

Injury due to animals, especially in-
sects, and to extremes of weather and
unfavorable soil conditions were early
often associated with their appropriate
causes. It was not, however, until the
latter part of the eighteenth and the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century that
the solid foundations of plant pathology
were laid by the development of anatomy
and physiology. The early works of
Unger, "Die Exantheme der Pflanzen," etc.
(1833); Weigmann, "Die Krankheiten
und Krankhaften Misbildungen der Ge-
wasche" (1839); and of Meyen Pflanzen-
pathologie" (1841), marked an important
step forward in the embryo science of
plant pathology. During this period mi-
croscopical, chemical and physiological
work with plants was active. The writ-
ers of this period rather overworked un-
favorable nutrition as the cause of dis-
ease. Maladies that could not be traced
to visible external causes were usually
held to be due to unsuitable nourishment
or the lack of something in the soil. It
was not believed that the fungi so often
found associated with diseases had any
casual relation to them. They were held
to be abnormal developments of the dis-
eased cells themselves and not independ-
ent organisms. It remained for De Bary
to determine the true nature and habits
of fungi and bacteria and to demonstrate
their causal relation to disease in many
cases. His careful work gave a great
stimulus to investigation in plant and ani-

mal pathology and opened what has
proved to be the most important field of
the science. His two most important
works are "Untersuchungen uber die
Brandpilze," etc. (1853), and "Morpho-
logic und Physiologic der Pilze," etc.
(1866). Since De Bary the rapid develop-
ment of the subject is well represented by
the works of Hartig (1874-89), Frank,
(1880-96), Soraurer (1886-8), Marshall
Ward (1889-1901). The last work "Dis-
eases in Plants," is one of the most ex-
cellent and readable expositions of the
subject that has appeared.

Health and Disease Compared

That there is no defined line between
health and disease is generally recognized
by pathologists and physiologists. A
plant continually varies in response to
changes in its environment. There is,
however, for each individual and for a
given species as a whole a certain accus-
tomed range or power of adaptation to
each factor of its environment and to the
various combinations of these factors.
The process of natural selection operates
to perfect this adaptive attuning of the in-
dividual and the species as a whole to the
conditions under which they live. If
these conditions are subject to great ex-
tremes of moisture and dryness or heat
and cold, the natural or indigenous vege-
tation will be found, as a rule, equal to
the emergency, while an introduced spe-
cies, if developed under an environment
not subject to such extremes, might be
seriously injured or destroyed, and if the
change is very unusual even the indige-
nous species may suffer. A moist, warm,
cloudy spring may be followed by dry,
hot weather and the tender watery
growth be so much dried out and checked
that it may be deformed and abnormal in
shape, structure and size. This variation
may be slight or it may be great. If it is
slight it may have no appreciable effect
on the vigor and growth of the plant.
The leaves become a little firmer and
smaller and more resistant to the hot,
dry conditions, while the maturer leaves
that cannot adapt themselves to the
change turn yellow and fall, cut off by
the parent plant. The plant is better for

DISEASES OF PLANTS

891

the change and can live under the modi-
fied conditions with greater ease and safe-
ty.

If the variation is greater, the growth
of the plant may be decidedly checked,
the leaves being small and many more
of them shed. In still more extreme
cases the tender leaves may be dried up
and killed either wholly or in part. Ac-
cording to Hartig, "It is only when the
sickly condition leads to the death of
some part of the plant that we may speak
of actual disease." Where a few leaves,
unable to adapt themselves to a changed
condition, turn yellow and fall, the
leaves themselves may be diseased, but
the plant as a whole is benefited by their
loss as being relieved of sources of un-
controlled drain of its water supply. As
the loss of leaves becomes greater, how-
ever, we pass from the extremely localized
disease to a point where the whole or a
considerable part of the plant is weak-
ened, either by the direct loss of food that
should be furnished by the leaves to the
rest of the plant structure, or by the use
of reserve food in the reproduction of
lost parts. It is evident in such cases
that the border line between health and
disease is hard to define. The case is
not much easier if, instead of variations
produced by moisture and temperature, we
consider those caused by insects or fun-
gi. A few leaves eaten from a tree by
some insect or destroyed by a fungus
might have no injurious effect on the tree
as a whole, and might even be an advan-
tage, but as the number of injured leaves
increases the tree is weakened and its
life threatened. Slight doses of certain
poisons stimulate the cells to more vigor-
ous growth, acting as a tonic, while a
little larger dose poisons and destroys
the cell. Leaving all questions of con-
sistency of definition, we may practically
define as diseased all those conditions of
a plant which directly or indirectly en-
danger its life or prevent normal devel-
opment under given conditions of environ-
ment. Or, as Marshall Ward puts it, "We
may define disease as dangerous disturb-
ances in the regularity, or interference
with the completeness or range of the
molecular activities constituting normal

life — that is, health — and it is evident
that every degree of transition may be
realized between the two extremes."

Preyeiition

Successful treatment of plant diseases
consists in preventing the spread of the
disease and not in curing the plants al-
ready affected. The tiny thread-like
plants — the fungi — which cause diseases,
grow inside the tissue of the leaves,
stems, fruit, etc., of the plants, which
they attack, and after they have gained
entrance there it is impossible to reach
them or to treat the tissue which they
are destroying. These fungi perpetuate
themselves by producing myriads of tiny
seed-like reproductive bodies — spores —
which are so tiny as to be invisible and
so light that they float about everywhere
in the air. They are thus carried from
one plant to another by the wind, and
where they lodge on a leaf or stem and
find conditions favorable they germinate
and grow. Disease is thus scattered from
plant to plant and from field to field.
These spores are always produced on the
diseased areas of affected plants, and for
this reason where it is possible to do so
all diseased parts should be collected and
burned as soon as the disease appears on
them. If this could be done with all
plants and all diseases they could be elim-
inated at one clean sweep. Unfortunately,
some of these fungi live over in the soil
or in fragments of decaying plants, which
cannot be collected by any practical
means. In such cases we have to resort
to other means of controlling them. One
way of doing this is by using disease
resistant varieties. Certain individuals
and certain varieties of plants are more
resistant to disease than are other indi-
viduals and varieties. By planting seed
from such individuals, and by continually
discarding the plants which succumb to
the disease, we originate a disease-resist-
ant strain or variety. In some cases this
is simple and can be practiced by any
one; in other cases where the plants, such
as trees, are long-lived, and we have to
wait a long time for results, it is objec-
tionable, and we have to resort to some
more artificial method, such as spraying.

892

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Spraying usually gives immediate
but temporary relief. It is the meth-
od, however, to which we must resort
at present in order to control the
large majority of plant diseases.
The principle of spraying depends upon
the fact that these fungi are more delicate
and more easily killed by poisons than
are the plants on which they grow. The
object is to use some poisonous solution
which will not injure the plant that you
are "doctoring," but will kill the fungus
parasite, or if applied as a preventive, will
prevent the fungus from entering the
host plant. For instance, if a plant is
■covered with copper sulphate or some
other poisonous solution the spores,
which lodge on its leaves and stems, can-
not grow and produce disease but will
be killed by the poison. In this way
plants are protected. In this connection,
too, we can readily see the necessity for
making the spraying thorough. Fungus
spores lodging on exposed surfaces would
germinate and grow directly into the leaf
or stem, and actually undermine the
neighboring surfaces, which might be
thoroughly coated with the poison. So
spraying in order to be effective must
be done in such a way that every particle
of surface of the susceptible part of the
plant is covered. No possible exposed
place should be left on the leaves or the
fruit or the stems where the fungus could,

perchance, enter.

H. W. Baere,

Botanist South Carolina Asricultural Experi-
ment Station, Clemson CoUese, S. C.

Saving Trees by tlie Use of Cement

How the Tree Surgeon Stays Decay with

Cement Fillings

In our minds disease and suffering are
so closely associated that we ordinarily
regard the allaying of pain as the funda-
mental function of medicine and surgery.
We are apt sometimes to overlook the
economical gain to the community which
the maintenance of health among its
members implies. The economic factor is
of course quite pi'ominently displayed in
veterinary practice, though here also
there is pain to be alleviated. When we
come to the vegetable kingdom the pure-
ly "benevolent" motive for medication is

practically absent. This, perhaps, is the
reason why we hardly class plant surgery
in our minds in the same category as the
treatment of human and animal ailments.
But while there is thus a pronounced
difference in the two fields, in most other
respects they are very similar.

The plant, like the animal, is a living
thing, subject to the attacks of enemies
in life and ultimately to death. Like the
stricken animal, also, the diseased plant
is ready to receive at the hands of man
beneficent medical or surgical treatment.
And in plant surgery, as in the practice
of the art on the human being, a species
of asepsis is essential for success.

In the science of plant medication quite
an important role is played by cement.
This material has, in the practice of tree
surgery, a definite, well defined purpose,
and certain fixed methods of application.
This does not mean that all trees should
be treated alike. This is obviously im-
possible. However, there are certain
principles which must be incorporated
into each cavity, and these principles are
the same for each case.

In order to understand the use of ce-
ment in trees we must understand the
purpose of the operation and something of
the life's processes of the tree. The in-
side of a tree is practically dormant, ex-
cept the few layers of woody fibers just
under the bark. The sap ascends in these
outer woody fibers, and enters the leaf,
where it undergoes the chemical change
which produces the "tree-food." This
tree-food descends just underneath the
bark, building as it goes. It continues to
descend and build until it reaches the
tiniest roots. Thus we see a real circu-
lation in the tree. The central tissues
serve no purpose save that of physical
support. If any other substance can take
its place and accomplish the same result,
the tree will continue to live and thrive
indefinitely, provided the new center of
the tree is sealed tight to the adjoining
tissues and remains so. The real life of a
tree is represented by the bark, the cam-
bium layer just behind it, two, three or
four inches of sap-wood just behind the
cambium, the leaves, and the roots. If
these parts are vigorous, it makes little

DISEASES OF PLANTS

893

or no difference whether the center is
wood or stone.

The bark is a protection for the tree.
Where the bark remains intact, the woody
fibers of the inside are preserved for
generations and for centuries, unless some
outside agency kills the tree. Destroy any
part of the bark by any means whatso-
ever, and when the protection is gone the
wood decays. Once decay secures a start,
its progress is rapid. It continues until
checked by artificial measures or until the
tree becomes so weak that it is blown
over in a windstorm. The tree may ap-
pear to be in a perfectly healthy con-
dition even with the entire inside rotted
away, simply because the vital parts
(three or four inches on the outside) are
the last to be destroyed. Decay attacks
and disintegrates the dormant tissues
first, and gradually works outward. Ce-
ment in trees fulfills the three-fold pur-
pose of stopping decay, serving as a struc-
tural support, and providing a surface
over which the bark may heal.

Is cement work in trees a success? In
other words, is tree surgery a real or fan-
cied good? Does it save the trees? That
depends on the vitality of the tree, and
the ability of the man who undertakes
the work. A man may be so nearly ex-
hausted and so low in vitality that all the
doctors in the land could not save him.
A tree may be the same. If it is weak
and far spent the chances are against it.
If it is vigorous and healthy, the chances
are all in its favor if the man who oper-
ates knows hoiv. The only real test of a
tree's vitality is the appearance and dens-
ity of the foliage. A rich-green abundant
foliage indicates health, and vice versa.
And still almost the entire inside may
have rotted away!

Tree surgery, or that part of it pertain-
ing to the filling of cavities, is aptly com-
parable with dentistry. The three funda-
mental principles of each are the same.
The dentist must remove all decay and
prevent more, prepare the cavity so that
the filling will stay permanently in place,
and exclude all foreign substances. The
tree surgeon must do the same things, al-
though the means to that end may differ
somewhat. To remove the decay from a

cavity requires chisels and gouges of va-
rious lengths and sizes. The smaller
cavities are not exceedingly difficult, al-
though they require the same exacting
care. The larger a cavity becomes the
harder the task of removing the decay.
It must be followed in the cracks and
crevices and away up and down through
limbs and trunk as far as it goes. It is
sometimes burned out, although this
measure is very dangerous unless applied
by a man who thoroughly understands its
use. When the decay is removed, it is
wise to apply corrosive sublimate or a
similar solution to destroy any remaining
fungi. The walls of the cavity must then
be thoroughly waterproofed to protect the
wood. The waterproofing material must
be durable, penetrating and adhesive.
This is the first step and is very similar
to the first principle applied by the den-
tist.

Perhaps the most difficult and trying
part is in preparing the cavity so that the
filling will stay permanently in place.
This requires more than a knowledge of
cement and its use. It requires more
than a scientific knowledge of trees.
It requires both these and more.
The operator absolutely must know the
practical methods of tree surgery, and
have acquired almost instinctive skill
with his hands by long practice. Cement
improperly put into a tree is far worse
than none. The law does not permit un-
trained men to practice upon the human
body or even that small part of it called
the teeth. Why should untrained men
operate on trees which are just as much
alive as human beings?

The cavity must be thoroughly braced if
it has any size. No man can set down in
words the manner in which this should
be done, because it depends absolutely
upon the size, shape and general condi-
tion of the cavity and the strength of the
woody shell. The operator must deter-
mine the weakest side or point and brace
it with great care. He must know what
stress must be borne by the tree and in-
sert steel ribs or truss rods to reinforce
the trunk. All this must be done with a
full appreciation of the fact that there
will be some sway to the tree. Often-

894

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

times it is necessary to put the cement in
in sections, leaving natural joints which
will permit the swaying without damage
to the cement fillings. If the operator
does not understand the swaying of the
tree and guard against it, or does not
where necessary build his cement in sec-
tions, all his carefully laid plans up to
this point will go for naught. Unless he
can keep his filling permanently in place,
just as in dentistry, his work is a com-
plete failure.

The exclusion of foreign substances,
especially water, is the ultra-important
task of the tree surgeon, just as it is
with the dentist. If the water seeps in
behind the cement filling, it is only a
question of time until the condition of
the tree is worse than formerly. No ce-
ment work is a success which does not ex-
clude the moisture. The skilled tree sur-
geon prepares a "water shed" at the edge
of the cavity, beyond which the moisture
cannot penetrate. To make assurance
doubly sure he applies to this water shed
all around the edge of the opening an
adhesive waterproofing material. At
times it is necessary to go farther than
this and cover the entire opening with
a metallic shield, non-corrosive, which
is nailed very tight on the top and along
the sides especially. Waterproofing ma-
terial is then applied on the outside.

All of this must be done with the ulti-
mate purpose of allowing the bark to
heal over the filling. Therefore the fill-
ing must be under the edge of the bark
at every point, and the contour of the
tree must be restored, so that when the
bark does heal over and seal the filling
permanently, there will be no evidence
of the old yawning cavity save the un-
obtrusive scar. As surely as there is
health and vigor in a tree the bark will
begin to roll out and over the filling.
Nature responds wonderfully to proper
treatment.

A tree is a living creature! This is the
foundation fact of tree surgery. It min-
isters to the human family in comfort,
health, beauty and pleasure. It is past
valuation. It makes possible the solemn
stillness of the forest. It holds in check
the waters that go to form the rivers

and insures their continuity. It robes
the hills in green and hides their gaunt
and lifeless forms. It gives grace and
beauty and verdant loveliness to the val-
leys. It shades the urban highways where
masses of mankind pass to and fro. It
shelters and makes beautiful the public
parks, the breathing places of the people.
Its contribution to the food of man is
of untold measure.

A tree is a fitting companion to man.
It is quite proper that the highest develop-
ment of the vegetable kingdom should
contribute so largely to the well-being of
man. Man should in turn give it rea-
sonable care and protection so that its
period of ministration may be a maxi-
mum. Because a tree is a living organism
it is subject to decay and premature
death. Tree surgery is the concrete ex-
pression of man's desire to protect the
physical well-being of the trees and pre-
serve them for his own pleasure and pro-
fit, and for that of the generations to
come. Real tree surgery saves trees. It
is well. Thus we have another step in
the advancement of man.

M. L. Davey,
Scientific American, March 18, 1911.

For Particular Diseases. See under
the Various Fruits.

Districts. See Fruits Recommended for
Cultivation, under Apple, page 192.

Drainage

The greatest problem of an arid country
is irrigation, and the next greatest is
drainage, because in irrigation there must
be seepage and waste that will injure and
render more or less valueless the lower
lands onto which this seepage and waste
are drained. Very often it causes al-
kali deposits; or it becomes boggy so
that few crops can be grown upon it.
Reasons for Drainage

First — It prevents water which falls
upon the ground from remaining at or
near the surface and renders the soil dry
enough to be worked or plowed very soon
after a rain, whereas if it is not drained,
the farmer must wait for the water to
seep away or to evaporate, and thereby
lose much valuable time.

DRAINAGE

895

Second — It renders the soil porous and
spongy, which enables it to take in the
water easily.

Third — It prevents the adhesion or ce-
menting of the soil, assists in pulver-
izing it, and allows the roots of trees or
vegetables to pass easily through it.

Fourth — It assists in the mixture of the
chemicals from manure through the pul-
verized portions of the soil, thus greatly
increasing the amount of plant food avail-
able.

Fifth — It allows water which falls on
the surface to pass down into the soil, car-
rying with it fertilizing substances.

Sixth — The temperature of the water
of falling rain is generally much warmer
than the subsoil of the earth, as is prov-
en by the fact that the water drained from
the subsoils is colder than the falling
rain. A proper drainage system, there-
fore, will enable this warmer water to
penetrate the earth and warm the roots
of vegetables or trees, thus stimulating
their growth.

Seventh — The increased porosity of the
soil renders it a more perfect non-con-
ductor of heat, and therefore the roots
are kept warmer and the trees less in-
jured by freezing in winter.

Eighth — It assists in aerating the soil,
therefore aiding in the decomposition of
any vegetable or organic matter in the
soil.

Ninth — Farming operations may be be-
gun earlier on account of the earlier dry-
ing of the soil in the springtime and an
increase of crops is almost sure.

Tenth — It economizes labor by allowing
work to go on at almost any time without
waiting for the ground to become dried
out after a rain and before plowing is
begun. I have seen farmers with adjoin-
ing lands, one with his farm properly
drained and the other not drained, and
have seen the farmer with his land drain-
ed, plowing and cultivating, economizing
the time and labor of men employed to
work on the farm, the labor of teams,
etc.; while the one by his side, with con-
ditions almost identical, except that his
land was not drained, with his hired men
and teams lying idle, waiting for the

ground to dry so that he could plow and
cultivate.

Soil Conditions Where Drainage Is
Desirable

It is better to drain where the water
stands on the surface and interferes with
the growing crops; where the water ac-
cumulates beneath the surface and orig-
inates springs; where there is a sub-
stratum of hardpan or hard soil that will
not allow the water to pass through, but
compels it to seep along on a hard sur-
face called a water line; where they are
basins or ponds that hold the water. Gen-
erally these basins are very rich in humus
and under proper conditions would pro-
duce abundant crops. It is better to
drain where the water flows from high
lands that are being irrigated and where
waters seep from higher lands. No mat-
ter whether these higher lands are irrigat-
ed or unirrigated, if there is seepage
above, they should be drained. Drains are
made of tile or burned clay, of concrete,
or stone, or of boards, depending on the
character of the soil and the choice of
the one who does the draining. They
are generally placed at such a distance
apart as to carry off the waste and seep-
age water, and if the object is to open
up and make porous a compact soil, they
are generally placed about 2^ to 3 feet
deep and 25 to 30 feet apart.

The problems of drainage in the vol-
canic ash soils of the Northwest are vast-
ly different from those in the open, por-
ous and sandy soils of some other sec-
tions of the country. This grows out of
the fact that the volcanic ash soils incline
to pack and puddle when the water is
placed upon them and are not so suscept-
ible to the influence of drainage systems,
as are most other soils.

Granville Lowther

History and Principles

The primary object of drainage is to
decrease the excessive supply of soil
water, while in irrigation the chief ob-
ject is to increase the amount of soil
moisture. In either case we are dealing
with moisture, and a knowledge of its
forms, movements and control is of great
importance at the beginning.

896

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Importance of Soil Moisture

Of all the factors which influence
growth, moisture is without doubt the
most important. Plants suffer more fre-
quently for want of proper moisture
conditions than they do for want of
chemical elements of plant food. Moisture
is a carrier of plant food on the soil and
in the plant. There is a wide range in
which the moisture content will be fav-
orable to growth, but for each soil there
is a low limit at which plants wilt for
want of moisture, and there is also a
line of excessive wetness above which
nothing but water plants will thrive.
Moisture is necessary to bacteria of the
soil. It gives turgidity to the plant cells
and makes plant food available.

Supply

The amount of water in the soil is not
always greater in the region of greater
rainfall. Soil of a wet climate may dry
and bake quickly after rains. The ini-
tial amount of water will depend on the
rainfall, and stored supply as for irriga-
tion. A thing that is more important is
the supply during the growing season, so
the amount of rainfall is not so vital as
the time of occurrence. The rate of loss
and the retentive capacity of the soil will
modify the amount available during the
growing season.

Forms

1. Hydrostatic water. This can be
seen and is free to move by gravity. It
is removed in drains. 2. Capillary moist-
ure. This is held against the force of grav-
ity by surface tension. It is the form
used by plants. There is no distinct line
between this and free water. 3. Hydro-
scopic moisture. This is absorbed by dry
soil from the air.

Limitations

The maximum amount of the different
kinds of soil moisture depends on texture,
structure and content of organic matter.

Movements

Percolation. This is more rapid in tile
after small streamlets have formed in the
soil about the tile, and in coarse grain
soils. Run-off may remove a large per-
centage of the rain. Evaporation. Most

of the rain not lost by percolation is
lost by evaporation. Capillarity. Relieves
congested condition at the surface when
water first comes to the soil. Capillarity
depends on gravity, surface tension and
pressures.

Control of Capillarity — Increase by

Irrigation — Decrease by

Drainage

We will for the present omit the meth-
ods for increasing the moisture content
of the soil, and take up the methods of
decreasing the water content. The three
ways of doing this are:

1. Cultivation. We can hasten evapora-
tion by early spring cultivation of the
soil. By increasing the air circulation and
leaving the soil with an uneven, rigid sur-
face which exposes a greater surface for
evaporation. Rolling a light sandy soil
causes upward capillarity and increases
evaporation at the surface. When rain
falls on the soil it can be lost by run-off.
Cultivation will check excessive run-off.
It will also increase the water capacity
and there will be less percolation.

2. Growth of Plants. Crops of any
sort, weeds and cover crops will dry the
soil by transpiration of the water through
the leaves. This may be taken advantage
of in taking out the excess water in the
early spring. We can take advantage of
this in the fall, when the cover crop is
planted in the orchard to take up the
moisture and check the growth, so the
buds will prepare for winter.

3. Drainage. Drainage consists es-
sentially in the direct removal of gravi-
tational water from the root zone of the
soil by affording free passages for its
percolation and flow. This is the chief
means of decreasing the supply.

History of Drainage

The subject of drainage is attracting
more widespread attention throughout the
country at the present time than ever
before. It becomes more important as
the agricultural resources of a country
are developed. There are over 1.000,000
square miles in the United States that
must be drained before they can be util-
ized. Thirteen per cent of the irrigated

DRAINAGE

897

lands of the West are already injured by
alkali and are in need of drainage.

The history of drainage shows that vari-
ous methods and materials have been used
in the past, but we have now settled
on one universal method. The first rec-
ord of tile drainage is found in the gar-
den of a monastery in France about 1620,
where it was noticed that it was very fer-
tile in times of drought, and that the
quality and earliness of the fruit were
very marked. Investigation revealed that
tile 10 inches long and 4 inches in diam-
eter were in the soil in such a manner as
to form a drain at a depth of 4 feet.
Each pipe was funnel shaped and made to
fit into the next one. How early they were
placed there was not known.

In 1650 Captain Walter Raleigh pub-
lished a book on drainage called "The
English Improved Agriculture," in which
he proposed a plan of boring down into
the hard sub-strata and letting the water
down into the gravelly zone underneath.
In 1832 the Denston system was intro-
duced by Mr. Smith of Denston, Scot-
land. This was a system of clay pipes.
In 1833 Smith published a pamphlet en-
titled "Smith's Remarks on Thorough
Drainage." His plan was as follows: 1.
Frequent drains. 2. Shallow depth, some
30 inches. 3. Parallel drains at equal
distances apart throughout the field. 4.
Minor drains should run down the steep-
er places and the main drains run along
the chief hollow, tributary drains being
provided for lesser hollows.

In 1837 Mr. Johnson, of Geneva, N. Y.
introduced tile drainage on his farm.
This was the first drainage system in
America and is in still successful opera-
tion. Drainage has been rapidly develop-
ed in the Middle West during the last
20 years. Drainage laws and drainage
machinery have helped to reclaim swampy
areas in the Central states.

Box, stone and brush drains have given
place to tile drains, which are now in
general use. There are over 5,000 tile
factories in the United States; some are
very large. To make tile requires expen-
sive machinery.

Soils That Need Drainage

Soil texture and structure. These of-
ten determine the need of drainage. Clay
offers great friction to the movement of
water. It has a greater water capacity
and is apt to have a compact puddled
structure. In retentive soils the first step
in improvement is drainage. Getting out
the excess of moisture assists in granula-
tion. The addition of fertilizer will only
be effective after good drainage. The or-
der of improvement should be: 1. Drain-
age. 2. Tillage. 3. Manure. 4. Lime.

Soil and Subsoil

Soil is the surface strata where the
bulk of plant foods are found, while sub-
soil is the strata on which the soil rests.
It is lighter in color, finer in texture and
contains less organic matter. Certain pro-
portions of gravel and clay form hardpan.
Iron or lime may cement and clay and
give the condition known as hardpan.

Water Zones

There are three zones of flow of water
through the soil: 1. The saturated zone
or the strata through the water moves
vertically to the water table. It may move
by capillarity or by percolation or both.
2. Surface zone. This is the water table.
In winter the water table is very near the
surface, and in the summer the water
table goes down to various depths, some-
times quite deep. 3. Deeper zone. Veins
of water.

All soils must be drained, but fortun-
ately most soils are more or less drained
naturally. Natural drainage is much
cheaper. The following are the conditions
which require drainage:

1. Nearly flat lands upon which the
water from the surrounding higher lands
collects.

2. Areas adjacent to higher lands
where the soil is of such a nature that
water which falls on the upland will seep
under and out through the low land, mak-
ing it wet.

3. Lands inundated regularly by the
rise of tides or frequently by the overflow
of rivers.

4. Extremely flat lands in wide areas
which are underlaid near the surface by

2—10

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

a thick, close, nearly impervious clay
subsoil.

5. Lands like rice lands, water mead-
ows and cranberry marshes, where water
is applied excessively and must be remov-
ed again.

In general, all low-lying fine-grained
soils with fine, heavy subsoil will need
drainage.

Benefits of Drainage

1. Removes excessive water. 2. In-
creases the capillary supply of moisture.
3. Improves the texture. 4. Increases
the root pasturage. 5. Affords better air
circulation. 6. Makes the soil warmer.
7. Lengthens the growing season; firms
the soil. 8. Assists decay and nitrifica-
tion. 9. Prevents erosion. 10. Dimin-
ishes the effect of drought. 11. Prevents
heaving. 12. Prevents the rise of alkali.
Drainage does this and more. It pays in
increased yields and land values. Road
drainage aids in transportation. Sani-
tary drainage improves healthfulness. To
what extent drainage is warranted de-
pends on the crops to be grown.

Kinds of Drainage

1. Natural drainage, (a) Through gravel
subsoil, (b) Through surface run-off.

2. Artificial. (a) Open drains. (b)
Underdrains (brush, stone, box for alkali
and tile).

The object of underdrains is to assist
the action of gravity. Both surface and
underdrains have their field for useful-
ness.

A. Open drains or surface drains are
essential auxiliaries to tile for drainage
of large areas. They remove water from
the surface and also from the subsoil.
The amount removed from the subsoil
depends upon their depth and fall and the
amount of water in the channel. Surface
they are adapted to: 1. Where the volume
to be removed is large. 2. Where the water
table is near the surface. 3. Where the
drainage is designed to be only for a
short time. 4. As a supplement to tile
drainage for large areas of flat land.

The efficiency of open drains depends
on the surface flow of water into the
channel. A double plow should be used
to make dead furrows that will serve as

surface drains and as temporary stor-
age for excessive water. In order to
drain the subsoil the ditch must be deep
enough to permit percolation from the
adjacent subsoil and the efficiency will
depend on the texture and structure of
the subsoil.

To be effective, an open drain must be
evenly graded and have a smooth bottom
and sides, and these side walls must be
staple. A semi-circular form will give
the greatest carrying capacity per cross-
sectional area, and will have the least
surface friction. Usually the bottom will
be made flat, however, and will be about
one-half the width of the top. The slope
of the wall will vary with the soil. One
to one slope is commonly used with clay,
and one and a half to one for loam soils.
Lighter soils will stand a deeper grade.
The fall should be uniform and just suf-
ficient to afford scouring without erosion
or silting. Silt or sand is more sus-
ceptible to erosion than clay. Sedimenta-
tion will be less where growth of vegeta-
tion in the bottom is prevented.

When it is desired to reclaim and im-
prove large areas of level land such
tracts must be cut up into sections or
districts by large open ditches, in order
that tile drains may be laid in every part
without necessitating the use of mains
too large and costly to be profitable.
While these open ditches are not desir-
able in themselves, since they occupy the
land and divide the field into irregular
shapes, yet they are necessary to every
large system of drainage. They should
be located with care, following the course
of natural drainage as far as possible,
with due regard to straight courses.

Construction of Ditclies

A common method of making small
open ditches is to use a team and scrap-
er. This is a good method to use where
the earth is dry enough to afford a foot-
ing. Contractors have done such work
for as low as ten cents per cubic yard,
where conditions were favorable. A
large part of the open ditch work must
be done in swamps, and where it is too
wet to use a team and scraper.

For the construction of small and shal-

DRAINAGE

899

low ditches, what is known as the cap-
stan ditch plow is used in some locali-
ties. This is an immense plow which
makes a ditch by cutting and throwing
the earth from the center each way, its
action being similar to a common sod
plow. There are wings which push the
loose earth three feet away from the
edge of the ditch, leaving it in a large
continuous ridge on each side. The plow
is pulled by two capstans, each of which
is turned by a team of horses. The cap-
stans are anchored ahead, and their
winding drums are attached to the plow
by winding ropes. This machine makes
a clean ditch 8 feet wide at the top,
1 foot wide at the bottom, and ordi-
narily limited in depth to 2% feet. Used
in Minnesota. Contract work is taken
for about $1 per rod of completed ditch.
The earth should be wet for this plow
to work easily.

Steam dredges are used for the recla-
mation of large areas, and are of three
different types. 1. Floating dredge; be-
gins work at the upper end of the chan-
nel and works towards the outlet. There
must be sufficient water in the ditch to
float the boat which carries the engine
and excavating machinery.

The excavated earth is deposited on
each side of the ditch about 9 feet
from the edge of the channel. This
style of dredge is adapted to the excava-
tion of large channels, varying from 12
to 40 feet wide, and as deep as required.
It has been used extensively in the Mid-
dle West. The ditch has a shape similar
to the letter U.

A second type of steam dredge will
make ditches 4 feet at the bottom, 12
to 15 feet at the top, with a depth of
from 4 to 9 feet and a slope of 45 de-
grees. This machine is placed at the
outlet and pulled up grade by means of
a drum and cable. No water is required
in the ditch in order to operate it. It is
limited in its field and not much in favor
with contractors.

The third type of steam machine has
similar limitations. It is constructed to
move up grade on the surface of the
ground in advance of the excavation.

The plant carrying the machinery rests
upon long runners which rest upon mov-
able rollers. The plant is moved by a
cable, one end of which is attached to a
winding drum at the engine, and the
other to a log anchored some distance
ahead of the machine, technically called
a "dead man." The excavating machin-
ery consists of two dippers which are
filled by being pulled toward the machine
and then dumped alternately.

The machines described have been
used for 15 to 20 years. The boats are
built and the machinery mounted where
the work is to be done. The machines
cost not less than $5,000 each. They are
operated by contractors, who provide
themselves with full equipment to do the
work by the cubic yard, under direction
of an engineer. Contracts have been
taken at 6 to 15 cents per cubic yard.
The larger contracts approach the lower
figure. Large areas are drained co-opera-
tively, each farmer benefited paying a
share. In most states the main canal
is subject to the drainage law.

The course of ditches and streams is
crooked in flat land, but artificial drain-
age channels may improve and straight-
en them. Ditches on rolling land may
differ from those on flat lands by having
narrow bottoms, since the velocity of
flow is sufficient to scour and deepen
them. The outlets of tile in rolling land
may be shallower where there is a mark-
ed rise in the ground surface above the
outlet.

Cross-Section and Behavior of Ditches

It has been found by experience that
ditches may be constructed with sides
more nearly vertical than was formerly
thought practicable. In stiff loams and
clays It is not desirable to cut sides
with slopes greater than 1-1. Loams,
l^^-l. Ditches made with a floating
dredge have a slope of about l^/o-l.
Weathering and erosion will in any case
change the slope, so it is of greater im-
portance to secure ample bottom width
in order to allow this change than to
attempt to make the exact slope desired
and to expect it to remain.

The excavated earth, or waste bank,

900

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

which lies in unsightly masses along the
edge of the ditch will, in a year or so,
assume a more workable shape and can
be leveled down with the plow and
scraper, until the land can be cultivated
nearly to the edge of the ditch. It is
always well, however, to keep a strip
on each side bordering the ditch in grass,
to prevent crumbling of the banks and
loss of soil from the adjoining iield. The
space between the waste bank and the
ditch is called the borm, and should equal
the depth of the ditch. Water will flow
with a fall of six inches to the mile,
but to be effective the fall of a ditch
should be from 4 to 6 feet. Large and
deep ditches made straight and so con-
structed that they will not receive silt
or debris in large quantities will prob-
ably be self-cleaning, are necessary for
large areas, and should be from 6 to 10
feet deep.

In many cases the entire grade for
lateral drainage must be made by addi-
tional depth of the outlet. The velocity
and carrying capacity of the ditch in-
creases with the depth. Water eight feet
deep will have twice the velocity of that
one foot deep for the same width of ditch.
This partly explains why shallow ditches
make poor drainage outlets.

Capacity

The capacity depends on the area to
be drained, the slope of land and the fall
obtainable. See text for tables.

Velocity of Discharge

This is modified by the fall and a num-
ber of other factors. A poor ditch with
a rough bottom and irregular sides will
carry only about half as much as a
smooth, cement-lined canal. Grass and
weeds will decrease the capacity to about
one-fourth. The form of ditch is very
important.

Wetted Perimeter

The sides and bottoms of the ditch
touched by the water are known as the
wetted perimeter. Friction varies direct-
ly with this factor. The wetted peri-
meter should be as small as possible in
comparison with the cross section.

Disadvantages

Open surface drains have several dis-
advantages as deep soil drains.

1. They are seldom of sufficient depth.

2. They are apt to have a small carry-
ing capacity, due to their uneven grade
and rough bottom and sides.

3. They are expensive to maintain.

4. They waste much land.

5. They greatly interfere with cultural
operations.

6. They may be subject to serious
erosion.

Covered or Uiiderdrainage
This is the only complete form of drain-
age. Underdrains or any underground
channels are constructed for the removal
of water. Many kinds of materials have
been used for this purpose, but in recent
years they have been almost entirely sup-
planted by tile. Brush, stones, boards
and bricks were formerly used. Under-
drainage will improve the soil wherever
there is not complete natural drainage.

Tile

Tile is best for underdrainage because
it is the cheapest, the most durable, the
easiest to lay, and finally because it will
drain the soil most quickly. Box drains
will last from ten to twelve years. In
draining the land with red tile use well
burnt cylindrical tile. These tiles, one to
two feet long, are laid through the soil in
one continuous line with such a grade
that all water which finds its way into
them will be carried by gravity to the
lower end of the line, thus carrying the
surplus away. The water enters the
openings at the ends, or joints as they
are called. The ends of the tile are
placed close together in order to prevent
the soil from entering, yet none too close
to prevent the water from entering.
The action of the tile drain in removing
the surplus water from the soil is as
follows:

The drain being surrounded with soil,
the spaces of which are filled with water,
the water in the soil flows by gravity
through the crevices in the ends of the
tile and passes off more or less rapidly,
according to the grade with which the
tile is laid. Other water of the soil

DRAINAGE

901

takes the place of that removed by per-
colation. Water moves downward and
laterally toward the drain, and the lateral
distance through which the drain will
relieve the soil of water is governed by
the resistance which the soil particles
offer to the flow of water among them.
This process does not leave the soil with-
out moisture, but simply removes the
excess or free water and makes more
room for the storage of capillary or
usable water. It does not remove the
free water from points below the level of
the drain. The free water removed by
tile drains may come from rain, or it may
come from seepage.

Kiuds of Tile

1. Red tile.

2. Vitrified.

3. Cement — except the very large
ones — is more expensive than the red clay
tile. It becomes harder as it ages, and
is more durable.

The tile should be round in form,
straight, and every particle of clay used
in making them should be completely
burned. Such a tile will last indefinitely
in earth and water. Where exposed to
long-continued freezing and thawing, as
at the outlet, the best vitrified tile should
be used. After one has become familiar
with the product of a given factory, pro-
perly burned tiles may be readily dis-
tinguished by their color and by their
ring when struck with a piece of steel.
Good clay may be semi-vitrified by skil-
ful burning. Porosity of the finished
tile is not important, since the per cent
of water that passes through the walls
of the tile is very small. Vitrification is
desirable.

Systems of Drainage

Mains, sub-mains, laterals.

Single, double, natural, grouping, grid-
iron, parallel.

The natural and grouping systems are
used where the aim is not to secure per-
fect drainage, but rather so nearly suffi-
cient for ordinary crops as to make the
increase in yield pay a fair return for
the money invested. They can be used
to remove water that has collected in
low places.

Compare the amount of double drain-
ing with the gridiron system and parallel
system. The latter has the advantage
here, but long parallel lines will require
large tile, or else many junctions. The
parallel system is generally the best.

Deptli, Frequency and Size of Tile

Principles of Drainage — In general
we should drain the land where the water
collects.

1. Lay the mains in the line of natu-
ral drainage, except where a "cut-off"
will be in line of economy.

2. Lay the laterals in the line of
greatest slope, otherwise the water may
ooze out of the tile in the upper part of
its course.

3. Use long parallel laterals in place
of short ones where possible.

4. Make the lines straight and with
easy curves — easy to lay.

5. Bring all the land needing drainage
under the influence of the drains.

6. Use the level wherever in doubt.
In addition to this, keep the water

spread out. Small tile are cheaper.

Depth, Frequency and Size of Tile —
These three factors are closely related
and constitute the most important part
of drainage. These factors will depend
on —

1. The character of the soil and sub-
soil.

2. The amount and distribution of
rainfall.

3. The topography of the surface.

4. The crop to be grown.

5. Prevalence of underground water.

6. Level of the ground water.

The system should always be arranged
with reference to these conditions.

Deptli

The depth must be such that water can
get to the tile before it shall have caused
serious injury to the crop. The drain
should be near the water to be removed,
and below the bulk of the roots. This
necessitates that it be shallower in
clay to work properly. In coarse texture
soils the drains attain their full efficiency
almost at once, but in dense clay there is
an increasing efficiency as the soil be-
comes granulated and the system is estab-

902

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

lished. Some silt is washed out through
the tile, and tiny streamlets are formed
leading to the joints of the tile. A dense
clay holds its pores almost full of capil-
lary water, which is not subject to perco-
lation. With this condition the drain
must be near the surface and function
chiefly as a surface drain. Deeper drains
are necessary in orchards, irrigated fields
and all deep rooting crops. In general it
is not desirable to lower the water table
as far in sand as in clay, because there
is less capillary action in the former.
Place tile on the boundary of sand and
clay if this is from two to four feet be-
low the surface. This allows the water
to move to the tile through the sand.
Generally three to five feet will be suffi-
cient depth, and three and one-half is the
common depth. The rule in the reclama-
tion service in draining alkali land is
to never place the tile more than four
feet below the surface.

Frequency or Distance Apart

The distance apart is closely related to
the depth. It also depends on the tex-
ture of the soil and the amount and rate
of the removal of rains.

1. Relation of Depth and Distance
Apart — If tile placed three feet deep and
100 feet apart lowers the water table one
foot from the surface at the highest
point, then placing tile four feet deep
will lower the water half-way between
them, two feet below the surface. We
could accomplish the same thing by plac-
ing the tile 50 feet apart and three feet
deep. If we put the tile deeper it will
draw the water further each way, and the
tile can be laid less frequently.

2. The Amount of Rain and the Time
Alloived for Removing It. — Water moves
through clay very slowly, and if a large
amount is to be removed in a short time
the drains will necessarily be placed close
to the surface, and at frequent intervals
their function will be primarily as sur-
face drains.

3. Influence of Soil Texture. — In clay
the interval must be much less than in
sand. King found that 48 hours after
a heavy rain the water table was one foot
higher in clay soils at a distance of 27

feet from the drain. In sand the grade
was one foot in 175 feet. Then to remove
the water table to within one foot of the
drains in clay, the tile lines would be
placed every 54 feet, while in sand the
distance would be 350 feet. This is
probably the extreme, and the tile would
need to be larger with this greater dis-
tance. Impermeable soil will require fre-
quent parallel drains where level. Use
the regular, thorough system of drains
where level, uniform soil is to be
drained. The aim should be to reduce
the water table a definite distance in a
reasonable time after rains, and the
drains must be sufficiently frequent to ac-
complish this.

The natural system removes water
where it has accumulated in low places.
Large areas are drained by single lines
of tile. The tile follows the natural
water course, or is placed so as to inter-
cept the seepage. This will do where the
aim is to secure only fairly perfect drain-
age, so nearly sufficient for ordinary
crops that the increased returns will pay
a fair return for the outlay.

Where in doubt, one could adopt the
minimum interval and place the first line
of tile at two or three times this interval.
If necessary, other lines could be placed
between these at a later date.

Experience with different soil condi-
tions has given us a fairly definite dis-
tance for placing tile in given soils:
100 feet to 90 feet apart for sandy soils.

60 feet to 75 feet apart for loam soils.

50 feet to 60 feet apart for sandy loam.

40 feet to 50 feet apart for loam.

35 feet to 40 feet apart for heavy loam.

30 feet to 40 feet apart for heavy clay.

30 feet apart for soils high in iron and
clay.

Size — The size of the tile depends on:

1. The amount of rain.

2. The rate of removal.

3. The amount of surface run-off.

4. The grade.

5. The soil.

6. The area drained.

There are times when the crop has
taken the moisture out of the ground
so that a two-inch rain will not start the
tile. At other times it may be necessary

DRAINAGE

903

to remove a large part of the rain in 48
hours. At times the water cannot pass
through the soil fast enough, even though
the tiles are large enough to carry it off,
so that part will need to be removed over
the surface.

The total rainfall in different sections
varies materially. Drainage has to deal
with extremes of rainfall rather than the
mean. Laboratory experiments are so
different from field conditions that our
best deductions come from the working
of drains in land of a known character.
Generally, if the main drains have the
capacity to remove one-half inch in depth
of water from the entire tract in 24 hours,
they afford what may be regarded as good
farm drainage. This is the capacity of
many good systems in alluvial soils. In
places where no advantages can be taken
of surface flow, mains may be arranged
to carry away one inch of water in 24
hours.

Where several laterals empty into a
main, the latter must have a capacity
nearly equal to their combined flow; but
it is not possible to calculate the total
or relative sizes with the exactness
which is possible with a pressure system
of pipes. This is due to the effect of the
soil, which acts as a sponge, and gives up
its water gradually and to the eddies
caused by joints. The greater the fall the
greater the capacity.

The area of a cross-section of a tile
increases in ratio of the squares of the
diameters. Thus 2, 3, 4 and 5 feet tile
have cross-sectional areas with a ratio
of 4, 9, 16 and 25 square inches. Friction
and eddies are less in large tile, so that
doubling the size of tile makes the ca-
pacity more than four times as great.
Longer length of tile gives less capacity,
due to increased friction. In general, a
4-inch tile will drain about five acres, and
should not be over 500 or 600 feet long.
A 5-inch tile will drain 10 acres; 6-inch,
20 acres; 7-inch, 40 acres; 8-inch, 60 acres.

Direct Leveling

The first working principle in drain-
age is the finding of the differences in
level of two or more points.

A level surface is one that is parallel

to the surface of standing water. A
water surface is not level theoretically,
due to the curvature of the earth's sur-
face. It is assumed to be level, and per-
pendicular to a vertical line or the line
of gravity. Thus a true level line is a
curved line whose points are all equi-
distance from the earth's center, and is
apparently level.

A point is above or below another
point according as it is a gi'eater or less
distance from the earth's center. This
difference is called "difference of level"
of two points. The height of a point is its
distance above a given surface, measured
on a vertical line, and is called its eleva-
tion.

Dii'ect leveling depends on three prin-
ciples:

1. That the surface of a liquid in re-
pose is level.

2. That a vertical line is perpendicular
to that surface.

3. A bubble of air confined in a ves-
sel otherwise filled with liquid will rise
to the highest point in that liquid.

In direct leveling two instruments are
necessary. (1) The "Y" level, which is
an instrument that can be adjusted so
as to mark out a horizontal place in any
direction from a given point. (2) A
leveling rod, an instrument that can be
used to measure vertical distances. As
accessories to the work, we need a tape
line, or chain, for measuring distances,
and a set of eleven pins for marking
points; also some flags.

Definitions

A datum line is the base line to which
the elevation of every point of a series
is referred.

Benchmarks are permanent objects
whose elevations are determined and re-
corded for future reference.

Turning points are points where the
bearing of the line changes, and these
are marked by placing a pin in the hub
stake used at this point.

Backsights are readings on points
whose elevations are known. A backsight
is taken for the purpose of obtaining a
new height of instrument. Backsights
are plus quantities and are to be added.

904

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Foresights are readings on stations
whose elevation is to be found. Fore-
sights are minus quantities and are to
be subtracted from the height of the
sight line. This gives the elevation of
the station road.

Laying Out a Drainage System — Records

The first thing in laying out a drain-
age system is to tramp over the land to
be drained and find out the lay of the
land and then set up some fiagpoles. Just
a straight stick with a cloth on top will
do, if you do not have regular surveyor's
poles. These are placed so that the chain-
man can chain the levels.

A Preliminary Survey

It may be exact or it may be taken
roughly. It may be necessary to make
a topographic map of the whole area to
be drained. In this sort of a map put
in streams, etc. After this you should de-
cide on some definite plan. Decide on
some bench mark. Then go ahead and
take your level notes from which you
could figure your total available fall.
Should chain all the lengths in order to
know accurately how much tile you will
need. Then make a statement and put
down how many 8-inch, 6-inch, 4-inch and
3-inch and then total up and see how
much it will cost.

Contour Maps, Relief Maps

A contour line is simply a line connect-
ing all points of equal elevation. To
make a contour map take the elevation of
every certain distance, say 100 feet. This
distance is regulated by the topography
of the land to be drained. Sometimes
make a topographical map and then be-
low make a relief map. Every farm sub-
ject to drainage or irrigation needs to be
provided with a contour map. Such a
map will show the proper location of
drains or irrigation ditches.

Profile Maps

These show a cross section of the strata
through which the line of tile is to pass.
They will show you the depth to be dug
at each station. In preparing profile maps
use a scale of four feet to the inch ver-
tically, and 100 feet to the inch horizon-
tally. The tile line should be in red ink.

Permanent Map

Plane table. The permanent map
should be accurate so that in after-years
it would be possible to go out in the field
and locate the drainage system or any
part of it immediately.

Details of Drainage

The bearing of the line is the angle
which it makes with the magnetic
needle.

Length of Laterals

This should not exceed 800 or 1,000
feet for 3-inch tile and may be 2,500 feet
for 6-inch tile.

Amount of Fall

Fall is the common term for slope of
land or for total head when applied to
drains.

Available fall is the fall that can be
given to a drain in a prescribed distance,
and may be greater than the fall of the
surface.

Grade of a drain is the rate of fall
expressed in decimals of one foot per 100
feet. A uniform grade is simplest, but
it is often necessary to change the grade.
When this is done it is best to change
from a less to a greater grade. A change
from a greater to a less fall would check
the velocity and cause silting of the
drain. If it is necessary to change the
grade, it is a good plan to use a silt
basin.

Silt Basins

Silt basins are small cisterns in the
drain extending to the surface and af-
fording a means of cleaning out the silt.
They help to collect flood water quickly.
They prevent the drain from being
clogged and becoming silty. They may
afford watering places for stock. In a
small drain a large 12-inch tile may be
used by standing on end. Larger basins
may be used made of brick, or boxed up
with wood, and should be three feet in
diameter, so that a man can enter and
clean out the silt.

Collars

The use of collars is obsolete. Gravel
or straw may be used in heavy soils where
convenient, to allow water to enter tile
more readily. The big problem in clay

DRAINAGE

905

land is to get the water into the tile,
as it does not draw well, so some-
times gravel is put in. This will help
for several years, but in a volcanic ash
soil or in heavy soils it will become silty.

Junctions

Laterals should enter the main at an
angle of 45 degrees, and with a slight fall.
It is then less likely to clog up, and is not
so likely to back up and become silty.
Sometimes the drop will only be one-
tenth of a foot, sometimes more.

Sinks

They are useful in ponds where there
is a layer of hard clay imderlaid with
sand. They are made by simply digging
a small well (probably three feet in di-
ameter and 12 feet deep) down through
the clay to the sand to let the water
through. Sometimes this is all the drain-
age that is necessary.

Surface Vents

They may be on the order of silt basins
or catch basins. Surface vents are used
to catch surface water. Surface vents are
also used to afford ventilation in close
soils.

Outlets

Outlets are very important. It is neces-
sary to have a good outlet. Where the
outlet is submerged and the velocity of
the outflow is checked, sediment is apt
to collect and clog the drain. The water
should have a free spillway at the out-
let. Vitrified tile, wood or masonry
should be used at the outlet where the
drain is exposed to frost.

Obstructions

The principal obstructions to tile are:
1, Small animals. 2, Roots. 3, Silt.
The outlets should be protected with
screens to keep out small animals. A good
screen is made by a Vi-inch iron rod set
one inch apart. The roots of such trees
as willow, elm, larch, tamarack and soft
maple are troublesome. Also alfalfa and
grapevine roots. Trees within 15 or 20
feet of the drain should be girdled or cut
down. Silt will be less troublesome in
large tile. Small tile must be laid true to
grade to prevent trouble. To locate ob-
structions dig holes in several places over

the tile. When below the obstruction we
find the water will fall away into the
tile; above the obstruction it will stand
in the hole.

Digrging, Laying to Grade and Coyering
Ditching Tools — Their Uses

Tile spading for removing the first
spading is 18 inches long, concave, with a
square cutting end. It is important that
the ditch be started properly, so that the
sides are plumb and smooth. The begin-
ner makes harder work and less progress
by cutting the spadeful too thick. Cut
one inch and dovetail at center. A three-
foot ditch should be started about nine
inches wide. The common round-pointed
shovel may be used to remove crumbs
from the bottom of first spading. Leave
crumbs till last in dry weather. The
second spading is removed by use of a
spade about 16 inches or less in length,
concave with rounded cutting edge. The
second spading should go to within one
inch of the grade line. Crumbers are
used to remove crumbs from the last
spading and bring the ditch to grade.
They are concave, semi-cylindrical, with
rounded cutting blade at either end. The
handle may be set at any angle. Can get
3-inch or 6-inch size. Man with crumber
should keep near the one who is laying
the tile.

Tile Hooks

Tile hooks are used for smaller sizes
of tile, and are a great aid to rapid work
where the tiles are cylindrical and the
ditch is carefully prepared. A good hook
should be less than a right angle, and
may be made by running a 10-inch bolt
through the pole about two inches from
the larger end. The pole should be a
little larger than a rake handle, and the
end may be used to tap the tile firmly
into place.

Laying to Grade

This may be done by use of a line, by
use of targets, or by use of line and fre-
quent cross lines.

Difficulties

Quicksand — caving in.

Laying Tile

In laying tile take advantage of imper-
fections in tile and make them fit the

906

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

joints tightly. Keep true to grade and in
a straight line or use easy curves.

Covering

As soon as it is inspected, blind tile.
The ditch may be filled with a plow, using
long double tree where no crop is grow-
ing. Plow may be used to open ditch
where it will not interfere with crops or
surveyor's stakes.

Drainage of Farmyards, Buildings and

Road — Septic Tank

Road Drainage

Drainage is the foundation of good road
construction. The surface must be
crowned. Use frequent culverts and pas-
sages to fields and avoid letting the water
accumulate so that it has much erosive
power. Use "water breaks" on hills to
throw water to side of road. Keep the
surface smooth and with a 1 to 20 slope
to the exact peak of the road, not round-
ed. Side ditches should have flaring
sides, 1 to 18 slope on side of hills. Pro-
tect the side of the ditch from erosion
by paving the bottom with stone or brick.

Sub-Drainage

A good road must be thoroughly
drained, and artificial drainage should be
provided in low, wet places. Get rid of
the water in the foundation of the road
before frost. Three-inch tile with a fall
of 3-lOths of a foot per 100 feet— cross
drains.

Barnyards, Buildings, Etc.

There should be a ditch around the
farmyard to shut out any water that
might run in from the outside. Have the
feed floor slope gradually to a catch basin
and carry the water below. Water from
caves should also be collected and car-
ried to a catch basin. This basin should
be large enough to check the water and
allow the silt to settle. The inlet must
be protected by wire grateing. Drain
around all basements.

Septic Tank

Waste from farmhouse and from the
other buildings can best be handled by
means of a sanitary septic tank. A
tank 3x5x6 i/l> feet is large enough for a
farm or for 10 or 11 persons.

The liquid as it passes out is free from
disease germs, and it percolates away
from tile to soil.

In close ground it may be well to put
a load of gravel along in the trench be-
fore laying the tile. The capacity re-
quired per person is about four cubic
feet. The tank need not be more than
20 feet from the house. Sewage contains
about two parts per thousand solids. One
of those two parts is mineral matter, the
other organic matter. The mineral mat-
ter will not dissolve or decompose, and
so a manhole is provided at the top for
cleaning out about once a year. The
liquid leaving the tank should be almost
odorless, but in order for this to be so
there must be no strong currents in the
tank. The inlet should have but a mod-
erate fall, one inch per rod. In cleaning
out, do not remove the scum, as this
contains the ferments, causing decom-
position of the sewage.

Materials for tlie Septic Tank

Gravel, 2i/> yards; sand, V2 cubic yard;
cement, 3V2 bbls. ; lumber for form; tile
at outlet, 50 feet; vitrified brick, 60;
sewer tiles; labor.

The cost complete is $30 to $35.

Special Drainage Problems
Muck Lands

These lands part with their moisture
easily and may become too dry. They set-
tle when drained. Open ditches four feet
deep and 200 feet apart, or tile drains
150 feet apart will in general be about
right. Because those soils part with their
moisture readily they may be drained
very successfully. Frequently cranberry
marshes will not need to be thoroughly
drained, but drained part of the year.

Drains to Prevent Erosion

This is frequently a special problem.
On hill sides use open ditches of moder-
ate fall, or underground tile lines. Plow
the ground so as to have terraces run-
ning around the mound and check the
run-off.

Salt Marshes

These are problems that need special
attention. To drain salt marshes dyke
the tides out and then collect the water

DRAINAGE

907

in surface ditches. This will generally
require an engineer. Select land that is
close to a market. Should be governed
by the location of the land, its nearness
to market, as to whether it will pay to
drain. Locate the dykes so that the
drains will discharge at low-tide. These
dykes should be high, strong and wide,
and provided with tide gates. Then the
drainage area should have main drain
and laterals leading to it. The rains and
drains should remove the excessive salt in
a couple of years, during which time the
land may be pastured. Soi'ghum or rye
may be used for the first crop. Cost of
draining such lands will be about $30 to
$60.

River and Creek Bottoms '

Straighten the stream, dyke the upper
part of the flat lands necessary, clear the
river channel of brush, deepen it if neces-
sary, clear the land of organic matter
where the dyke is to be built. The slope
of the side walls will depend on the char-
acter of the soil. They ought to be three
feet above the high-water mark. They
are ordinarily six or eight feet wide on
the top. Sluice gates are necessary so
that you can let the water out when
necessary.

Drainage of Irrigated Lands

About 13 per cent of all the irrigated
land in the United States, or about one
million acres, is in need of drainage. The
reason for this is the excessive use of
irrigated water. The first appearance of
excessive water is the appearance of
swails and swamps, and later on white
and black alkali, brought to the surface.
The water table rises, and when it reaches
to within several feet of the surface the
alkali or soluble salts rise to the surface,
the water evaporates and leaves this de-
posit of salt. (See next article.)

Remedy

The best remedy is to drain the land.
Lower the water table to about four or
five feet below the surface. The seep-
age from above should be intercepted and
removed by a deep cut-off ditch. Use a
second ditch if necessary, and then tile
below as needed. The size of the drain

depends on the area above. It may be
necessary to line the canal in places
where the soil is gravelly.

Kind of Drain

It should be four to seven feet deep
and may be open ditch. Box drains are
often better than tile. Use the larger size,
never less than five inches. Box drains
should never be less than 6x6 inches,
while 10x12 or 12x20 inches is often used.
Tramp the dirt back into the trench and
watch surface irrigation water to prevent
it from entering the tile.

Obstructions are more frequent in irri-
gated land. Alfalfa roots have been
cleaned out by dragging brush and wire
through. Should leave a manhole to the
tile every 500 feet.

Arid soils are not full of water crevices
and water moves in special underground
passages. In planning for a drainage
system, the first thing is to study under-
ground conditions and lay drains to the
water.

Cost of Drainage

First of all, we must know the num-
ber and size of tile required before we
can make any definite estimate.

Items of Expense

1. No. of Tile — Lay direct to source
of water and use no more than is neces-
sary.

2. Cost of Tile— Much, $16 per 1,000;
4-inch, $20 per 1,000; 5-inch, $30 per
1,000; 6-inch, $40 per 1,000; 8-inch, $60
per 1,000. (Of course, the price of tile
will vary at times and in different local-
ities. The prices given above are for the
local market.)

3. Freight if Shipped — 3-inch tile
weighs 4^2 lbs.; 6-inch tile weighs 11 lbs.
The cost of freighting tile is about 10c
per 100 lbs. This is for small quantities.

4. Hauling and Distributing — 3-inch
tile will run about 400 to the load, and
6-inch tile about 175 to the load. Cost
about $5 per team.

5. Digging and Laying — $2.50 to $3.50.
Considerable tile has been laid in this
vicinity for 40-60c per rod. This includes
filling the ditch.

908

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

6. Laying out and superintending. 5
per cent.

Tile required per acre if laid parallel
and 50 feet apart will be 872 feet. Cal-
culate the cost of such thorough drain-
age per acre of 4-inch tile.

Benefits

1. Cause Firmness and Fineness of the
Soil. — The excess of water recedes from
the surface and takes its place lower in
the soil, soon leaving a firm surface,
which can be passed over by teams or
live stock without injuring the texture.
The fineness of the soil is increased by
percolation.

2. Permits Earlier and More Timely
Cultivation. — The water from rains and
thawing ice passes down through the
soil, admitting warm air and rains, so
that the surface is ready for early plants
much sooner than wet soils.

3. Produces Aeration of Soil. — The
interspaces of soil becoming relieved of
water are filled with air which carries
fertilizing gases and furnishes oxygen to
the roots of the plants and for the sup-
port of soil bacteria.

4. Increases the Temperature of the
Soil. — This is explained in King's book
on "The Soil." If we allow the surplus
water to drain away from the field rapid-
ly, rather than to hold it there until it
has time to evaporate, it will greatly
favor the warming of the soil.

5. Prevents a large waste of fertility
by surface washing.

6. Increases the depth of the soil.

Approximate Prices and Weights of Tile

Weislit

Average

Price

per

car-

No. of

Size in

per 1,000

foot in

load in

feet

inches

feet

pounds

feet

per ton

3

$ 16

4V.

7,500

400

4

20

61/2

6,500

3.34

5

30

9

5,000

250

6

40

llVa

4.000

182

7

f)0

14

3.000

143

8

60

18

2,400

111

10

90

25

1,600

80

12

120

33

1,000

60

14

150

43

800

56

16

190-220

62

500

36

18

26.'>-300

80

400

27

24

450-526

120

300

18

F.

. E. Jones.

New Westminster.

B. C.

DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LANDS

Walter W. Weir
Drainage Engineer

The drainage of irrigated lands has
become a problem whose magnitude al-
most equals that of irrigation itself.
Fully 30 per cent of the irrigated land
of the United States could be benefited
by drainage or by some of the preventive
measures which are used to stop seepage
from canals and laterals.

Probably the most important reason
why irrigated land needs drainage is that
irrigation is an unnatural condition for
most of the irrigated soils. These soils
have no natural drainage, the capillary
drainage channels that are found in the
soils of humid sections are often entirely
lacking because there has been no water
to form them. The soil does not adjust
itself to these conditions readily and con-
sequently artificial drainage is necessary.

Another reason for irrigated lands
needing drainage is that often very large
amounts of water are used in a compara-
tively short time. It is not at all un-
usual to learn that 5 to 10 or even 15
acre feet of water are being used during a
single season. Only a very small part
of this is actually used in the growing of
plants and the remainder either is lost
by evaporation or seeps into the ground
probably to appear at some lower level.

A third cause for damage is the pres-
ence of hard-pan streaks in the soil which
prevents the percolation of water in the
directions it would naturally take. These
impervious strata may hold the water
table so close to the surface that damage
is done or it may form pockets which col-
lect water, or again it may form a pas-
sage for the excessive seepage of a canal
or lateral.

All soils in arid regions contain alkali
to a greater or less degree depending on
the degree of natural drainage which the
soil has. Gravelly soils which have bet-
ter drainage than the deep volcanic ash
soils seldom develop bad alkaline condi-
tions such as are often found in the deep-
er soils. Alkali is a broad term used to
cover all of the injurious salts, the most
common of which are the sulphates, chlor-

DRAINAGE

909

ates and carbonates of calcium, sodium
and magnesium.

An accumulation of alkali on the sur-
face of land is not the cause of the land
being unproductive, but is rather the re-
sult of a high water table which is the
primary cause for the unproductiveness.

The surface accumulation of alkali be-
ing a result rather than a cause, the only
permanent method of removing it is to
remove the cause, namely the water, and
this can be done only by some method
of drainage. Alkali being readily solu-
ble in water is brought to the surface by
capillary attraction and is deposited as
the water evaporates. If then the ground
water can be kept in the ground deep
enough to prevent its evaporation from
the surface there can be no alkali depos-
ited. This depth depends upon so many
things that it is difficult to specify ex-
actly what it should be. In coarse
grained soils such as sand or gravel
water will not rise from as great a depth
as in the finer grained soils such as the
ordinary volcanic ash of the arid regions
of Washington. The condition of the
surface of the soil also has its influence
on the rise of ground water by capillarity.
The water can stand closer to the sur-
face without injury on land that is well
cultivated than it can on land whose sur-
face is hard and compact. Land growing
crops which shade the land, such as al-
falfa or clover, are less subject to alkali
than land which is bare. Under ordinary
conditions and in soil similar to that
which is ordinarily found in the Yakima
valley, the ground water should never be
allowed to come closer than five and one-
half or six feet of the surface.

One of the fundamentals of drainage
in irrigated sections is not only to take
off surface water but to maintain a water
table below the limit of capillarity and
to do this it is generally necessary to
have drains at least six feet deep.

The gridiron system of tiling which is
used in the humid sections is seldom em-
ployed in irrigated sections as the water
generally comes from some definite direc-
tion and can be intercepted or cut off
by drains located so as to catch the water
before it reaches the land.

It is very essential that the individual
tract to be drained be carefully studied
as to subsurface conditions. By this is
meant that a drainage system cannot be
accurately planned without a definite
knowledge of where the water is coming
from, the location and depth to hard-pan
if there is any, the nature of the subsoil,
whether sand, gravel or loam and the
nature of the surrounding land, whether
irrigated or dry, flat or sloping.

In gravelly soils or soils with a gravel
subsoil it will be almost universally found
that the water is traveling in the gravel
and that such lands drain readily and for
a considerable distance from the drain.
On account of the distance that this kind
of land will drain the principal difficulty
is in determining the amount of water
which it will be necessary to handle.

In land which has a hard-pan stratum
or strata beneath the surface, the diffi-
culties are increased. It may be found
that water is traveling on top of the hard-
pan or it may be beneath or both above
and below. If the water is below the hard-
pan it is often found that it is under
slight pressure and is forcing its way up
through the hard-pan. In such cases drains
located so as to cut through this strata
will often relieve the pressure and carry
away the excess water. When the water
is found to be on top of the hard-pan
some method of intercepting it should be
planned. It is not always possible to
reach this water at the proper place and
depth to give relief, and it must pass too
close to the surface before reaching the
drains.

Dynamite has been used to break up
the hard-pan strata so as to allow a freer
passage through the soil, where it is
closer than three or four feet to the sur-
face. It is seldom that by dynamiting
the land alone relief can be secured, as
there must be some means provided
whereby the water can escape. Hard-pan
can be successfully broken by exploding
from one-half to one stick of 20 per cent
stumping powder at intervals of 15 to
25 feet. The depth and distance apart
should be governed by the depth and
thickness of the hard strata.

Attempts have been made to rid land

910

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

of alkali by flooding when no under
drains are provided. This method can
never give more than temporary relief
and may do a great injury. It should al-
ways be remembered that alkali is very
soluble in water and that the first water
which touches it will dissolve the salt.
When flooding is resorted to the first wa-
ter added sinks into the ground carrying
the salts down with it. The more water that
is added the deeper the alkali is taken
and the farther away it is from the
very water that is expected to remove it.
The black stain that is seen in the water
used for this purpose is not all alkali, but
is largely humus and vegetable matter
from the soil and should not be removed.
Aside from removing some humus the al-
ready high water table in the ground is
raised and conditions will soon be worse
than before. If, however, the land is
provided with underdrains the water
which sinks into the soil is taken up
by them and carried away, taking with it
the alkali. This then suggests a means
of removing the surface alkali from a
tract that is provided with underdrains.
To remove the surface alkali from a
tract provided with underdrainage it
should be irrigated freely to carry the
alkali down and cultivated so as to re-
tard evaporation from the surface which
prevents it from returning. If it is de-
sired to raise a crop on this kind of land
a crop should be chosen which requires
considerable water and constant cultiva-
tion. There are difficulties encountered
in the installing of drains in volcanic
ash soils that are not found in most hu-
mid sections. This soil when saturated
with water becomes very difficult to han-
dle as it flows into the ditch or trench
almost as fast as it can be dug out. It is
quite often necessary to line the trench
with sheeting before any work can be
done in it. This is accomplished by dig-
ging down to the surface of the semi-
fluid soil and from there driving down
sheet piling of either lumber or metal.
These must be made very tight and
driven from two to five feet below grade.
It is nearly always necessary to construct
some kind of a box or flume in the bottom
of open ditches which are constructed in

this soft material. After a drain has
been in place for a time the soil becomes
settled and the drain can be deepened or
the box removed.

On account of the fineness of the soil
it is best never to use tile of less diameter
than four inches, and six is often better.
The soil entering a three-inch tile will
soon fill it up, while the larger sizes can
be cleansed by flushing. The small sizes
are much more likely to be displaced
than the larger and their efficiency de-
creased.

In summing up the drainage situation
in irrigated sections the secret is to know
your conditions and then proceed with a
definite knowledge of what is going to
happen. In this way costly failures may
be avoided and successful systems in-
stalled.

Dropping of Fruits. See under Fruits,
Settivg and Dropping.

Drought

Curious Benefits

Drought is dreaded by farmers and
gardeners because it injures grass and
grain, fruits and flowers; but scientific
observers testify that it brings, as a com-
pensation, subtle gifts which enrich the
soil and increase future crops.

Nature has stored in the earth a rich
supply of phosphates, silicates, carbonates
and other chemical salts essential to vege-
table life. Those on the surface of the
ground are soon exhausted, and the large
supply at greater depths is often un-
reached by subsoil plowing.

But a drought is nature's subsoil plow
to bring up the rich nutriment below.
When the surface is parched, the sun
draws moisture from the deeper soil, and
this moisture brings with it, in solution.
salts of lime and magnesia, of potash and
soda. The moisture evaporates, but leaves
the salts for the use of plants and grain.

Drought, therefore, does a double work.
It parches the surface and lessens the
present crop. It forces up rich nutriment
from the deeper soil and enlarges future
crops.

Drought in Middle West

In the Middle West perhaps no ont
thing causes greater loss to the fruit

DROUGHT— DRY FARMING

911

grower than the lack of rain when need-
ed. Any method of treatment, therefore,
which will enable us to mitigate this
effect, even in a small degree, is well
worthj' of our most careful attention.
How then shall we treat our orchards in
order to retain for the use of the trees
the greatest possible proportion of the
rain which falls upon and among them?
It is simply a question of evaporation,
and whatever prevents the evaporation of
water from the soil is a benefit to the
tree and an aid to fruit production. The
means of preventing evaporation which
naturally suggests itself first is some
kind of a mulch to cover up the soil, pro-
tecting it from sun and wind, and thus
keep it from drying out. But how are we
to secure such a mulch? To cover the
ground with straw or any other coarse
material to a sufficient depth to properly
protect it is a tremendous job and very
expensive, when we come to consider both
the value of the material and labor of ap-
plying it. Moreover, there is a disad-
vantage in a mulch of that kind, in that
it induces the roots to run near the sur-
face, thus limiting the area from which
they can obtain their fertility and render-
ing them unusually subject to injury from
drought in the future should the mulch
at any time become deficient. Strange
it is how many of our lessons we need
to learn through the teaching of what
seems a misfortune. We mulch our corn
fields, not so much because we want to,
as because we have to. Why? Because
Dame Nature has filled the soil with
a multitude of weed seeds which spring
up and grow so vigorously that they
practically choke down the corn unless
we destroy them. To rid the ground of
these weeds we must cultivate, and in
doing this we leave a layer of loose mel-
low soil on top of the ground, which
is really the most satisfactory mulch we
can get. It needs to be often renewed
to be sure, for every shower packs it
down so that to a certain extent it loses
its value as a mulch. It is only when it
remains light and mellow that it serves
this office as it should.

Here then is the key to the solution
of the problem, namely, frequent sur-

face cultivation at least every ten days
or two weeks throughout the season. In
some experiments reported by Professor
Roberts, of Cornell University, the daily
evaporation from soil in a warm room,
but not in the sun, was found to be at
the rate of from one to two tons of
water per acre less from portions stir-
red to a depth of one and one-half inches
every day than from that not stirred.
The difference varied greatly with the
kind of soil. * * * j,^^^ ^ ^^^^

Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station.

Dry Farming

We have a good deal of literature pub-
lished now on the subject of dry farm-
ing. Really there is no such thing as
dry farming, for no vegetation will grow
without moisture. The terms are com-
parative. In all of the so-called dry
farming districts there is more or less
of moisture, generally about 15 to 20
inches of rainfall per annum. The
question is, how to conserve this moist-
ure so as to profitably grow crops, espe-
cially those crops that are necessary to
support a farming population with a
fair percentage of merchants, mechanics
and the classes that depend upon the
farming population for a living. In so
far as our interest in the subject is con-
cerned, the question is, how to grow
fruit. We are not treating the general
subject of agriculture, we are treating
the specific subject.

There are a great many places in the
United States, where by proper cultiva-
tion and by the proper selection of
trees that will grow fruit with the least
possible amount of water, the farmer
could have at least a home orchard, or
in some instances might produce com-
mercial fruits. The almond requires
very little water; certain varieties of
peaches and plums will grow on com-
paratively arid soil. We have seen
plum^ growing wild in some arid dis-
tricts where there was not more than
20 inches of rainfall per annum. Then
among the apples perhaps the Wagener
and the Grimes Golden will grow suc-
cessfully with less water than most
other varieties.

912

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Volumes have been written upon the
subject. Professor W. C. Palmer, of
North Dakota, has produced what he calls
the "Ten Commandments of Dry Farm-
ing." They are given here as he has
written them, because they seem to con-
dense into very small space nearly all
the information that we have ever seen
on that subject:

I. Thou Shalt Plow Deep.

Lets rain get into soil easily.
Lets in big rain without run off.
Provides more feeding space for

plant roots.
More plant food made available.

II. Thoii Shalt Keep the Surface Soil
Loose.

Keeps soil moisture from evapor-
ating.

Lets rain get into soil easily.

More plant food made available,
due to more moisture.

Harrow the grain after it is up two
inches or use weeder.

III. Thou Shalt Cultivate Level.

Level soil has the least soil exposed
to the air.

More evaporation from a ridged
soil.

Level soil will take in rainfall
much faster than ridged soil.

On ridged soil the rain runs off
through furrows.

The soil in the ridges dries out so
that the plant has less moist sur-
face soil to draw on for food and
moisture.

Ridging the soil is a most effective
way for getting rid of both the
moisture in the soil and of rain-
fall.

IV. Thou Shalt Summer Fallow When
the Rainfall Is Less Than Fifteen
Inches.

The summer fallow saves up two
years' rain for one crop.

The summer fallow kills weeds
and plant diseases.

The summer fallow should be cul-
tivated.

When rainfall is over 1.5 inches
corn will be as good a prepara-
tion for a crop as the bare' fal-
low.

V. Thou Shalt Add Organic Matter to
the Soil.

Holds moisture and plant food.
Improves mechanical condition for

the soil.
Helps make plant food available.

Lessens drifting and blowing of the

soil.
Lessens washing of the soil.
Stable manure is the best form.
Plow weeds under when green.

VI. Thou Shalt Keep Down the Weeds.

Weeds use up moisture.

Weeds use up plant food.

Weeds crowd the plants.

Weeds shade the crops.

Weeds make it difficult for the

plants to grow.
Weeds make it hard to work the

land properly.

VII. Thou Shalt Grow Early Maturing
Crops.

Growing conditions best in early

summer.
Winter grains better than spring

grains.

VIII. Thou Shalt Grow Corn Every
Three to Five Years.

The cultivation given corn saves

moisture.
The cultivation given corn kills

weeds.
The cultivation given corn kills

plant diseases.
Corn best preparation for a grain

crop.
Corn produces fine stock food, both

grain and fodder.
Corn produces more per acre than

other crops.
Do not hill up the corn, as this

wastes the moisture.

IX. Thou Shalt Grow Clover or Alfalfa
Every Few Years.

Clover and alfalfa add fertility to
the soil.

Clover and alfalfa add organic mat-
ter to the soil.

Clover and alfalfa kill weeds and
plant diseases.

Clover and alfalfa produce a most
valuable hay.

Clover and alfalfa produce very
valuable seed crops.

X. Thou Shalt Keep Stock.

The most profitable way of mar-
keting grain and fodder is
through stock.

They produce manure, which is
very necessary to the soil.

They bring about prosperity.

Some Misconceptions Concerning: Dry
Farniing

"The following misconceptions concern-
ing dry farming may be mentioned as
among the most serious: (1) That any

DRY FARMING — EDUCATION IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS

913

definite 'system' of dry farming lias been
or is likely to be established that will
be of general applicability to all or any
considerable part of the Great Plains
area; (2) that any hard and fast rules
can be adopted to govern the methods
of tillage or of time and depth of plow-
ing; (3) that deep tillage invariably
and necessarily increases the water hold-
ing capacity of the soil or facilitates root
development; (4) that alternate crop-
ping and summer tillage can be relied
upon as a safe basis for a permanent
agriculture or that it will invariably
overcome the effects of severe and long-
continued droughts; and (5) that the
farmer can be taught by given rules how
to operate a dry land farm."

E. C. Chilcott,

U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook 1911.
E. S. R. 27-6.

Dry Land Farming. See Apple Or-
chard, Cultivation of.
Duty of Water. See Irrigation.
Dwarf Apple. See Apple, Botany of.
Eastern Apple. See Apple, Botany of.

Education in the Common
Schools

Agricultural

In an article of this character for
a work on horticulture, we are necessa-
rily more or less restricted to those por-
tions of the subject which relate to our
work and the purpose for which it is
published. However, in order that we
may have a proper setting for that de-
partment of the subject suited to our
purpose, it is pertinent that we should
outline the subject of education and then
perfectly treat that part of the subject
which is adapted to our work. In a gen-
eral outline, we have seen nothing that
seems to us clearer and more logical than
that by Herbert Spencer, who says that
a child should be taught to avoid the
dangers of many kinds through which
he must pass in order to live. These
dangers imply the perils of accident,
diseases, temperature, climate, environ-
ment and all those things that might af-
fect the organism unfavorably. Second,
he should be taught those things that
pertain to self-sustenance. He should

know how to provide for himself and
not be dependent upon the intelligence
and the labor of others for those things
which are necessary to sustain life.
Third, he should be taught those things
that pertain to social relations, of mar-
riage, the family and society in general,
and be able to meet the conditions neces-
sary in order that he may act the part
of a good citizen. Fourth, he should be
taught those things that tend to unfold
the mind, develop and strengthen the
character and that tend to the refine-
ments of life.

This is not quite a complete outline
of Spencer's "Philosophy of Education,"
but it gives the main points and seems
to cover the ground so thoroughly and
to be so clear that we have adopted it
here. Now, in relation to education in
agriculture or horticulture in the public
schools, we are confronted with that
question in a very practical way in that
it is being carried on throughout the
whole country. On the question of vo-
cational training in the public schools,
students are being taught home economics
and mechanics. Boys are taught how
to handle tools in carpentering and vari-
ous other things relating to those oc-
cupations which they will probably fol-
low when they grow up to manhood and
are charged with the responsibilities of
life.

In ancient times and during the Mid-
dle Ages, education was for the most
part the privilege of a few persons, most-
ly of the aristocratic classes who ruled
the masses and these masses were kept
in ignorance. With the growth of the
democratic and republican ideas of gov-
ernment, there has grown up a tend-
ency to educate the masses, and to do
so at the public expense. Under the old
system of education, emphasis was giv-
en to the classes. Probably this was
true in part, because science did not oc-
cupy the broad field which it has come
to occupy with the new discoveries of
truth through the means of the tele-
scope, microscope and other instruments
used for investigation and discovery.
Now that science is so large a part of
the sum total of human knowledge, and

2—17

914

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

that it is so important in order to suc-
ceed in any particular calling or busi-
ness, it is necessary that the student
should know many things that years
ago were not a part of human knowl-
edge.

We must educate in chemistry if our
pupils would fairly understand many of
the things with which they have to deal,
practically. There must be some knowl-
edge of bacteriology if we are to intel-
ligently control many of the diseases
that affect our crops. We must have
some knowledge of plant physiology if
we are to know the laws of plant life
and succeed in the highest degree in
the growing of crops. We must have
some knowledge of climatic conditions
and the adaptations of different kinds of
crops to climates. We have come to
know that no particular department of
work and no particular law exists alone
but all things are inter-related. It would
seem proper in an agricultural coun-
try, that the students in the public
schools should be taught those things
that pertain to agriculture or if we par-
ticularize in horticulture, it would seem
proper that they should be taught those
subjects which relate to the dominant
industry in the community in which they
live. There is greater probability that
the son of a farmer will be a farmer,
provided the farm can be made to pay,
than that he will follow any other voca-
tion. In like manner, there is greater
probability that the son of an orchard-
ist will be an orchardist, provided the
orchard can be made to pay, than that
he will leave the orchard and go into
some occupation with which he is not
familiar. Considering the importance
of anricultural subjects, using the word
agriculture in the broad sense to include
horticulture, it would seem entirely
proper to teach in the public schools
those things that relate to the most im-
portant industry in the world, and this
is more especially true v hen we come
to consider that in the teaching of those
subjects, we are giving as good mental
discipline, as good training, and as
large an information with reference to
the things of life as could be given in

any possible course of education that
can be pursued, and that in so far as it
concerns self-sustenance and the susten-
ance of those dependent upon us, it is
much more important than the classical
courses that have generally been mapped
out. This might not apply to persons
who expect to acquire a living by teach-
ing the classical courses in the schools,
but these persons are exceptions.

The masses of men must always do
the practical work of life, and in order
to do it well, they should be trained as
early as possible to know how to do
those things that they must in future
years do in order to live.

Carroll D. Wright, in his outline of
"Practical Sociology," says:

"That part of the public school system
which interests the greatest number of
persons is to be found below the grade
known as the high school, for probably
90 per cent of the children passing
through our public schools leave them at
the grammar grades, or the highest
grade under the high school. Public in-
terest is therefore largely centered in
the perfection of the primary, inter-
mediate, and grammar grades, in which
many a child is taught all that he will
ever receive in the way of education be-
fore entering upon his life work."
Granville Lowther

Methods in Agricultural Education

Nearly every one today believes that
our schools must become more closely al-
lied to the industries by which our people
live. But our power and prosperity in the
future depend upon the skill and the in-
telligence by which our people are able
to practice the arts of agriculture and
horticulture.

It is easy to agree that the schools
shall take in agriculture. But it is
tremendously difficult to find out just
how this may be done. No one knows
as yet. There must be myriad experi-
ments and a thousand grotesque fail-
ures before we succeed. The casual ob-
server does not dream of the difficulties
and stumbling blocks in the way. It is
the work of years to get a new idea
really planted and growing in the set

EDUCATION IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS

915

conservatism of a social institution like
our school system. There is danger, when
professional educators take hold of
a live and vital thing like agriculture,
that they take all the real live inter-
est out of it in order to teach it in a
conventional way. When it becomes em-
balmed in regular text books, perfunc-
tory recitations, and periodical examin-
ations, it fails of its true mission. If it
would truly succeed, ways must be found
to keep it alive, to keep it in touch with
country life, to invest it with the realities
of extracting a living from the soil.

Teachers of agriculture are not yet
bred. Hundreds of years have been spent
in growing good teachers of mathe-
matics, literature, language — let us not be
run away with by the notion that we can
build up an agricultural Rome in a day.
It is necessary to have some foundation
for any kind of building. It is highly
desirable to instil a spirit of sympathy
for agriculture into the minds of all the
people and to bring them into actual
contact with the agricultural life. For
many generations everything in educa-
tion has tended away from the farm.
The district school never does one thing
in all its curriculum to prepare the boys
and girls for a living on their fathers'
farms. It heads them rather toward
clerkly or professional pursuits in the
town or city.

The object of this article is to call at-
tention to the fact that we must find
something different from the traditional
text book method of approach if we
would really get the genius of agricul-
ture into the public schools; to name
two or three methods of approach that
are different, and to suggest that the
best plan for a school to undertake agri-
culture is by finding ways to co-operate
personally with the nearest agricultural
industry, by actually entering into its
spirit and its labors.

A movement has started in the prune
orchards of the Santa Clara valley, Cali-
fornia, that bears directly upon these
educational questions. The idea is to en-
list the interest and the labor of the
children and the people of the villages

and towns in the harvesting of perish-
able fruit crops, paying them full mar-
ket wages for their work, furnishing
them safe and attractive camping places,
facilitating their coming and going, and
giving them a season of healthful, ac-
tive outdoor life. This is a practical
course of study in California agriculture
that may well command the co-operation
of the educational forces of the state.

The school term may very well begin
and close so that the children and their
parents can take part in the chief in-
dustry of the neighborhood.

The raising of a school garden is a
most delightful and practical method of
approach. Not all teachers have the
knowledge and sympathy that make for
the highest success, but nearly all come
of ancestry that lived by the soil; and
if their minds are open, their hearts
willing, the old interest will come back.
Not all rural schools are adapted to
gardening, but many of the most suc-
cessful school gardens are raised at the
homes of the children.

Most of the things we now teach
would group themselves about and grow
out of this practical life — arithmetic,
bookkeeping, nature study and science.
And let us remember that the thing does
not even need to be a commercial suc-
cess in order to be successful education-
ally. * * * Failure is as natural as
success — probably more so. If the bugs
get away with the crop, if neglect of a
certain point cuts out the profit, if the
season was unfavorable, if the frost came
too late, was the enterprise then desti-
tute of value, and a fair mark for clumsy
and thoughtless wit? By no means. It
is real life, and it is doing the work it
set out to do, no matter whether the ac-
tual returns were large or small.

It is the experience of many states
that the most efficient approach to agri-
culture is by the organization of boys'
and girls' agricultural clubs. These are
formed for some specific and tangible
purpose, as a competition under certain
rules in the growing of wheat, or po-
tatoes, or cotton, the raising of poultry
or gardens, the baking of bread, the can-
ning of fruit. New York is the pioneer.

916

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Under the direction of Cornell University
this state began work in 1898. It now
has a membership of 75,000 boys and
girls in its clubs, and has for its official
organ the Cornell Rural School Leaf-
let, that goes to 7,000 teachers. Ne-
braska began this work in 1905, devot-
ing its chief energy to the growing and
the cooking of corn, under directions and
recipes sent from the State University.
In the counties, and finally for the
state, with a "corn banquet," bringing
together 2,000 to 3,000 boys and girls
from all over the commonwealth. The
county superintendents of Winnebago
county, Illinois, and Keokuk county,
Iowa, have made national reputations
in this work.

An agricultural club may be organ-
ized in a single school, and may do en-
thusiastic work. It is larger and bet-
ter for the whole county to undertake it.
Ambitious county superintendents of
schools in the rural regions have an in-
spiring opportunity for usefulness in
this field. There should be means pro-
vided for public displays of the results
of competition. There should be some
periodical to knit the organization to-
gether. There should be some leader who
can travel about among the different
clubs encouraging them and telling them
what their fellows are doing. Doubtless
the time will come when the superin-
tendents and teachers of agricultural
counties will be chosen for enthusiasm
and skill in this very kind of work.
There is a fascinating field lying ready,
a field for fame as well as for the high-
est service to the state.

Edward Htatt,
California State Superintendent of Schools.

Egg Plant

The egg plant is a native of the warm
countries, but has become adapted to al-
most all parts of the United States. Pro-
fessor Beattie describes its cultivation
as follows:

The plants for this crop should be
started and handled in the same man-
ner as for the tomato. After the
weather has become settled and the
ground quite warm, set the plants in the

garden in rows 3 feet apart and 2 feet
apart in the row. The soil best adapted
to the production of egg plant is a fine,
rich sandy loam and should be well drain-
ed. Cultivate freely and keep the plants
growing rapidly. Many growers believe

Egg Plant.

— Maxted Photo.

that fresh stable manure should not be
used in connection with the growing of
egg plant and that the land should not
contain unfermented vegetable matter to
any extent.

Egg plant is used in several ways,
among which are the following: Peel
and cut into slices one-half inch thick,
soak in salt water one hour; boil until
tender; then coat with rolled crackers or
flour and fry in butter or fat. Another
method is to steam or bake the egg plant
whole and serve in the shell, the pulp be-
ing eaten with salt, pepper and butter.

Varieties

Black Beauty, Early Long Purple,
Early Dwarf Purple.

EGG PLANT DISEASES

Aiithracnose

Gloeosporium melongenae, Ell & Hals.
The anthracnose fungus of egg plant
attacks the fruits of egg plant and causes

EGG PLANT DISEASES— EGG PLANT PESTS— ELDERBERRY

917

spots in them. These show early as pits
in the surfaces of the fruit which show
the usual border.

Bacterial Blight

Bacterium solanacearum Erw. Sm.
The common solanaceous blight organ-
ism attacks the egg plant as well as the
potato and tomato. Where attacks oc-
cur destruction of the affected plants is
all that can be done.

Fmit Rot

A fruit rot of egg plant likewise oc-
curs and may at times appear as a leaf
spot fungus. This, like the anthracnose
and leaf spot, should yield to treatment
by sprays. Ammoniacal copper carbon-
ate may be used toward the ripening
period.

Leaf Spots

Two or more leaf spot fungi have been
recorded on egg plant.

Rot

Botrytis
A mouldy decay of fruit giving a dusty
appearance. Not serious.

Stem Rot

Nectria ipomoeae Hals.
The stem rot fungus of sweet potato
has been described upon egg plant by Dr.
Halsted. The conidial stage is evidently
a species of fusarium and it may or may
not be a different one from that with
which we have to contend upon the po-
tato; it is recorded by Dr. Halsted as the
same that occurs on sweet potato.

References

Smith. Delaware Experiment Station
Bulletin 70.

A. D. Selby. Ohio Experiment Station
Bulletin 214.

Duggar. Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Smith. California Experiment Station
Bulletin 218.

EGG PLANT PESTS

Greenhouse White Fly. See Cucum-
ber Pests.

Harlequin Cabbage Bug. See Cabbage
Pests.

Red Spidek. See Apple Pests.

Egyptian Beet fok Alaska. See Alas-
ka.

Egypt, Irrigation in. See Irrigation.

Elderberry

The elderberry is the purple, black,
drupaceous fruit of the common elder,
having a sweet, acidulous taste. The
shrub belongs to the genus Sambucus of
the natural order CaprifoUaceae. There
are about 20 species characterized by op-
posite pinnate leaves, small white flow-
ers, usually in compound cymes, and
black, red, white or green juicy fruits.
They are not grown largely for home use
or for the market. They succeed well on
nearly all varieties of soil, but are found
more frequently along the streams, in
rich, sandy loam, and grow successfully
in nearly all the states. They
are easily propagated by means of
root or stem cuttings, and are often
grown for ornamental purposes, since
they grow rapidly, are rather graceful in
appearance, and grow to a height of from
8 to 12 feet.

The fruits are used for making pies,
jellies, and elderberry wine. The wine
has rather a pleasant taste, and is said to
have some medicinal properties, especial-
ly for asthmatics.

* In considering the possibilities of the
elderberry it is well to first mention its
good points.

1. Late blooming, being absolutely be-
yond danger of late spring frosts.

2. Sure cropping. I think that there
has not been a failure of the wild elder-
berry crop for 30 years.

3. Freedom from disease. So far I
have not noticed any disease on the el-
berberry.

4. Freedom from insects. So far as I
know there is only one insect trouble-
some to the elderberry.

5. Ease of gathering the fruit. The
berries grow in large bunches, easily pick-
ed and there are no disagreeable thorns
to interfere with the operation.

6. Time of ripening. The elderberry
ripens just after the blackberries are
gone and fills in a period otherwise with-
out berries.

There are some bad features about
the plant, chief to be mentioned being the

* P. C. Pellett, Iowa State Horticultural So-
ciety, 1909.

918

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

difficulty of eradicating it when once it
becomes established. But this might prove
a desirable feature once a market was
created for the fruit, as a plantation
would be well nigh permanent and would
require the minimum of attention.

By itself the elderberry sauce is a
little insipid but with a few drops of ap-
ple vinegar added it is unsurpassed for
pies and mixed with rhubarb makes
splendid sauce. A mixture of apples and
elderberries makes a good jelly.

As an ornamental shrub also the
elderberry is worthy of a place.

If we can succeed in making as great
improvement in this fruit as has been
made in the native wild grape in produc-
ing the Concord, we will have a fruit
equal to anything now on the list, but
of course it will require a long period of
painstaking experiment. On our grounds
the clump that gets the wash water near
the kitchen door produces much larger
bunches and larger berries than those
carefully cultivated in the garden.

Granville Lowtheb

Elements Removed by Vabious Crops.
See Apple Orchard Cover Crops.

Endive

A salad crop, grown for its blanched
leaves about the same as head lettuce.
In the Southern states, it does better as
a fall than as a spring crop.

"Sow the seeds thinly in drills, and
when the plants are well established thin
to 8 inches. Water and cultivate
thoroughly in order that a good growth
of leaves may be made. When the leaves
are 6 to 8 inches in length draw them to-
gether and tie them so the heart will
blanch. The leaves should not be tied up
while wet or decay will follow. The
heads should be used as soon as blanched.
For winter use sow the seeds rather late
and remove the plants, with a ball of
earth adhering to the roots, to a cellar
or cold frame, and blanch during the
winter as required for use.

"Endive is used as a salad at times of
the year when lettuce and similar crops
are out of season."

English Walnut. See Walnut.

Europe as Fruit Market. See Market.
European Grain Aphis on Apple. See
ApMds.

Evaporation of Apples

The utilization of the poorer grades of
fruit is frequently an important matter
to the grower. That portion of a crop
which is of too low grade to market in
the ordinary way can often be made to
pay a large part, at least, of the expense
of maintaining the orchard if it is con-
verted into some other form than that
practiced with the better grades. In
some of the apple growing districts the
evaporating industry has kept pace with
the planting of orchards and has become
an important factor in the utilization of
the fruit which is unfit or would prove
unprofitable for marketing in the fresh
state. In some of the older apple grow-
ing sections, such as Western New York,
the number of evaporators in use is very
large, and for many years the industry
has been well established. Its present
state of development, however, has been
a matter of gradual evolution. During
its course methods have changed more or
less, appliances have been perfected, and
marked improvement in the construction
of the evaporators themselves has been
accomplished.

Many evaporators are located in vil-
lages, at railroad stations, and at other
central points; a considerable number,
however, are erected in close proximity to
or in conjunction with apple orchards,
owned and operated by the fruit growers
themselves, each plant being intended on-
ly for "working up" the fruit not other-
wise marketed from a single orchard. The
evaporators located in towns or villages
are usually operated by men who make
a business of evaporating fruit, and the
apples handled in them are bought
wherever they can be obtained to best
advantage. These are generally of much
larger capacity than the ones at the or-
chards, and the type of construction and
the character and number of conven-
iences correspond.

The average weight of ripe winter ap-
ples of mixed varieties is about 50 pounds
to the bushel. In evaporating them about

EVAPORATION OF APPLES

919

40 pounds of water per bushel, or ap-
proximately 5 gallons, passes off in the
form of vapor. The evaporating of ap-
ples may be said, in brief, to consist of
driving off as rapidly as possible, by
means of artificial heat, enough of their
moisture to prevent deterioration through
decay or other natural processes which
occur in fresh fruit and at the same
time to maintain a desirable texture and
flavor.

Buildings formerly used for other pur-
poses are frequently converted into
evaporators. An old dwelling house, a
blacksmith shop, a cheese factory, and
even a school house and a church are
examples. Others are built substantially
of brick or stone, thus reducing the risk
from fire, which is an important consid-
eration.

A large quantity of fruit, in the ag-
gregate, is still dried by primitive meth-
ods. In rural communities, especially
where the "home orchard" represents
the extent of fruit growing, one often
sees during the autumn a fiat-topped
rock, the roof of some low, easily acces-
sible shed, or other fiat surface on which
have been spread apples, sliced or quar-
tered, for drying in the sun. In some
sections "strings" of quartered apples
hanging by a doorway to dry, or behind
a kitchen stove, are still familiar sights.

While much of this sun-dried fruit is
intended for home use, large quantities
of it are marketed, and it is also export-
ed to some extent. This fruit is common-
ly referred to as "dried apples," in dis-
tinction from that handled in evapor-
ators, which is known as "evaporated ap-
ples."

Types of Evaporators

Many types of evaporators are now in
use, though in a general classification
they may be grouped, for convenience,
under a few heads. The more important
of these are:

1. Cook stove evaporators.

2. Portable outdoor evaporators.

3. Kiln evaporators.

4. Tower evaporators.

5. Miscellaneous types.

It is well to emphasize, at this point.

the fact that the descriptions which fol-
low are representative of types only and
that the details of construction and ar-
rangement admit of endless modification.
For the most satisfactory results, how-
ever, in all types, thorough ventilation
is essential to insure a good circulation
of heated currents of air.

Cook-Stove Evaporators

Some of the cook-stove evaporators
are small box-like structures, usually
made of sheet iron or galvanized iron, of
such a size that they can be placed on
top of an ordinary cook stove. They are
arranged for holding a series of small
trays, on which the fruit is placed after
it has been prepared for drying. Vari-
ous sizes are in use, from one covering
only a portion of the top of a common
kitchen stove and having a capacity of
only a bushel or so a day, to those re-
quiring the entire top of a stove on which
to operate it.

Another style consists of a watertight
rectangular box of tin, upon the upper
surface of which the fruit is spread. The
heat is supplied by boiling water, with
which the evaporator is filled, the tem-
perature being maintained by placing one
end of the evaporator on top of a stove.
There are various other styles of this
type.

Portable Outdoor Evaporators

Portable evaporators are especially con-
venient when it is desired to dry only a
few bushels of fruit at any one time. The
usual sizes have a capacity of 5 to 10
bushels a day, and even more in some
cases, although the quantity will of
course vary with the attention given to
them. As they are complete in them-
selves and are not too heavy to be read-
ily moved, they may be placed where-
ever convenience from time to time dic-
tates.

There are other styles of this type ob-
tainable from manufacturers which are
made of sheet iron, usually galvanized.
As no wood enters into their construc-
tion, danger from fire is eliminated. One
of these styles is provided with a heat
deflector and so constructed that hot
currents of air pass over the fruit as

920

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

well as up through it, the claim being
made that this movement of air induces
a more rapid drying of the fruit than
in ordinary methods of construction.

Kiln Eyaporators

Of the types having sufficient capacity
for handling apples from large com-
mercial orchards, the kiln evaporator is
by far the most important.

While the principles of construction
of the different evaporators of this type
are similar in all cases, the details and
the arrangement of the appliances are
endlessly varied.

In constructing kilns the same gen-
eral principles are followed, whether the
evaporator is a small one with only a
8.

B.

Fig. 1. First-floor Plan of an Evaporator,
showing the arrangement of the principal de-
tails : A, doors ; B. windows : C, paring
table ; D, bleacher ; B, stairs ; F, chimney ;
G, furnace ; H, pipes.

single kiln or an extensive establish-
ment having several of them. The most
satisfactory size of kiln, all things con-
sidered, is about 20 feet square. This is
a convenient size to fill, so far as the
preparation of the fruit is concerned;
the heat can be well regulated, made suf-
ficiently intense for the purpose desired,
and evenly distributed, so that the fruit
will dry uniformly, and for various mi-
nor reasons a kiln of this size is a desir-
able "unit" in the construction of evap-
orators of this type.

A kiln consists essentially of a fioor
made of slats and placed over a furnace
room or over a system of steam pipes.
The floor is usually built from 10 to 12
feet above the floor of the furnace room.
Provision should be made for regulating
the heat by means of small openings at

the base of the walls, communicating
with the outside, which can be opened
or closed as desired. The inflow of cold
air can thus be regulated. Such control
is especially desirable in windy weather.
While many evaporators are constructed
without special provision of this kind, it
is an important point to have such open-
ings, particularly if the walls are brick
or otherwise made very tight, so that
there is but little circulation of air.

If the evaporator is a frame building,
the walls of the furnace room may well
be plastered or covered with asbestos
paper to lessen the danger of fire, which
may otherwise be great, because of the
intense heat generated within them.

If the walls, at least the portion below
the kiln floor, are double, with an air
space between the two sides, the insula-
tion will be more perfect than if they
are solid or of only a single thickness,
thus best conserving the heat and in-
creasing the efficiency of the plant. The
height of the walls of the kiln above
the drying floor should be sufficient to
permit an attendant to work on the floor
conveniently and with comfort.

Some means for the escape of the air
laden with moisture from the fruit is
necessary. This may be provided for by
means of an opening in the roof, or a
cupola-like ventilator may be built, the
sides of which should consist of slats
placed so that they overlap one another
as in an ordinary window blind. An-
other form of ventilator is in the form
of a tower about 3 feet square and ex-
tending 8 or 10 feet above the roof,
which is sufficiently high to cause more
or less draft, and hence augments the
circulation of hot air through the fruit.

Flfi

Section of a Kiln Floor, Showing the
Method of Construction.

EVAPORATION OF APPLES

921

The kiln floor is constructed of strips
especially designed for the purpose.
Such floors are generally made of pop-
lar or basswood strips, seven-eighths of
an inch thick, one inch wide on the top
surface and one-half inch wide on the
under side. In laying the floor, these
strips are placed one-eighth to one-
fourth inch apart on the upper surface.
This makes the space between them wid-
er on the under side than on the upper,
thus allowing the small particles of fruit
which work down between them to drop
through without clogging the interven-
ing spaces. Reference to Fig. 2 will
make plain the method of constructing
the floor.

The heating apparatus, parers, slicers,
bleachers, details of arrangements, etc.,
referred to here are described under
their respective headings.

Tower Evaporators

At one time tower evaporators were
extensively used in some sections for
apples, but in recent years this type has
been largely superseded by the kiln
evaporator, so that at the present time
there are comparatively few towers in
use.

As the name of this type implies, a
tower is its characteristic feature of con-
struction. It may be likened to an im-
mense chimney, provided with the neces-
sary appliances for receiving the fruit,
except that the heat alone is allowed to
pass through it, a separate flue being
provided for the smoke.

There is no more definitely prescribed
manner in which these towers are con-
structed and arranged than there is gov-
erning the construction of kiln evapora-
tors. They may consist of one tower or
several. If several, they may be en-
tirely disconnected from one another.
They may be built side by side or back
to back, opening on the opposite sides.
They may be entirely within the build-
ing, extending through the several floors
from basement to roof and projecting
above, or entirely on the exterior, open-
ing into the interior after the manner
of an "outside chimney," common in
some sections of the country. They may

be built either of wood or brick. They
are usually from 4 to 5 feet square, in-
side measure, and 30 or 35 feet in
height, as desired. Heat is supplied by a
furnace at the bottom of the tower.

There are two principal methods of
constructing the towers in regard to re-
ceiving and handling the fruit to be
dried. The apparatus in one case con-
sists of two endless sprocket chains oper-
ating over wheels properly adjusted at
the top and bottom of the tower. Each
sprocket chain is provided with swing-
ing brackets, corresponding with one
another on each chain, for holding the
racks on which the fruit is placed for
drying. In one speciflc make of appara-
tus these brackets are arranged in series
of six each, so that this number of racks
can be put in, one immediately above
another. A space of two feet or so in-
tervenes on the sprocket chains between
each series of six brackets. This sprock-
et-wheel-and-chain device for carrying the
fruit in the tower is turned by means
of a crank, which works on the outside
of the tower.

The racks on which the fruit is dried
consist of frames 4 feet long and 21iA
inches wide, over which is placed gal-
vanized wire netting having a % inch
mesh. This size of rack permits the
apparatus on which the racks are car-
ried in the tower to work readily, those
on one side passing upward, while those
on the other side move downward, with-
out interfering with one another.

In this method the point of admitting
the fruit to the tower is near the base
on the first floor. When the fruit is dry
it is removed at the same point.

In operating the tower, the appara-
tus is turned every few minutes to bring
each rack of fruit in its course to the
base of the tower, where the heat is
greatest. In this way it is made to dry
uniformly, and each rack is brought re-
peatedly into view of the one in charge;
hence he is always able to know its exact
condition.

In one particular evaporator of this
kind there are three towers, about 30
feet high, each holding 120 racks. The
capacity of a single tower is about 100

922

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

bushels a day. The fruit is prepared
in every detail the same as for drying
in kilns.

In the other method the racks are
about 4 feet square and occupy the en-
tire cross section of the tower instead
of half the space, as in the method just
described. The racks are admitted to
the tower at the same point as in the
other style, but as each rack is put in
position it is raised by a lever attach-
ment, together with the other racks
which may have been already put in
place, and held in the new position by
dogs or clutches which work automatic-
ally, allowing the racks to be moved up-
ward, but not permitting them to move
downward. The distance which the
racks are raised each time the lever is
moved is sufficient to allow another
rack to be inserted below them at the
usual point of admission. It will thus
be seen that the racks are gradually
raised from the point of insertion on the
first floor to the point on the second
floor where they are removed. The
racks do not come into the view of the
operator from the time they are insert-
ed until they reach the place where
they are removed, and so do not come
under the same scrutiny of the opera-
tor as in the other style. The arrange-
ment of the furnaces is the same in both
methods of construction.

Miscellaneous Types of Evaporators

While the types of evaporators previ-
ously described admit of endless modifi-
cation in the details of construction, and
other types and styles of lesser impor-
tance are frequently seen, there is but one
additional evaporator to which it seems
desirable to refer in this connection. The
type in question has no particular desig-
nating term applied to it. Several styles
which possess some features similar to
this one have been called "cabinet evapor-
ators," and this term is applicable in the
present instance. While it appears to be
largely of local reputation, it is believed
to possess certain points of merit worthy
of more extended application in construct-
ing evaporators of considerable capacity.

The fruit is dried on racks similar to
those used in tower evaporators.

In the first one of this type to be erect-
ed, so far as the writer has been able to
learn, and which is still in use, the com-
partments in which the fruit is dried are
located in the central part of a large room
in which the fruit is sliced and handled
after it is removed from the evaporator.
Each compartment, of which there are
three, is slightly more than eight feet
square, or large enough in cross section
to receive four racks (two square) on the
same plane. The two opposite faces or
sides of these compartments are a series
of narrow doors, about six inches wide
and slightly more than four feet long,
which extend horizontally. These doors
are hinged on the lower side and held in
place by a button at the top. The sides
of the interior are supplied with cleats
on which the racks rest. Two racks
placed one directly on the other are ad-
mitted at each door. In the particular
case in question, there is sufficient space
between the floor and ceiling of the room
for eleven of these doors, each door ad-
mitting, as stated, two racks. It will thus
be seen that the capacity of each compart-
ment is 88 racks.

As arranged in this evaporator, the
racks are admitted to the drying compart-
ments on the same side of the room that
the apples are sliced, the ones that are put
in first being pushed to the opposite side
of the compartment, thus making room
for the second set of racks in the course.
The attendant in charge of the drying
makes his examinations and removes the
fruit when dry through the doors on the
opposite side of the compartment.

It will thus be seen that the method of
handling the fruit is similar to that em-
ployed in the case of the tower driers, but
the work is all done on a single floor of
the evaporator.

The heat is supplied by a system of
steam pipes which extend in horizontal
tiers through the compartments between
the racks.

Evaporator Appliances, Etc.

During the development of the industry,
the machinery and other appliances used

EVAPORATION OF APPLES

923

in the process of evaporating apples have
undergone great changes, until at the
present time a high degree of perfection
has been attained. Reference to some of
the more important articles for equipping
an evaporator may be of value to those
who are unfamiliar with them. Nearly all
of them may be obtained from manufac-
turers ready for use, hence detailed de-
scriptions are unnecessary in most cases.

Paring Tables

There are two general plans of construc-
tion. One consists of a single long table
common to all the machines; the other.
Individual tables, one for each parer.

Where several hand parers are used
they are commonly placed on opposite
sides of a relatively wide table, through
the center of which, between the two
rows of parers, is a sluice 10 or 12 inches
wide and as many inches deep. An end-
less belt the width of the sluice covers
its bottom. This belt works on rollers
and is operated by means of a crank at
the outer end. As the apples are trimmed
they are thrown into this sluice, and the
helper who attends to the bleacher fills
the crates or trays in which the fruit is
handled by turning the crank which
moves the belt forward, carrying with it
the fruit which has been placed thereon.
By this means all the trimmers contrib-
ute to the filling of a single tray, thus
making it possible to get all the fruit
into the bleacher in the shortest possible
time after it is pared. This is considered
essential in order to make the highest
grade product. Such a table as this is
especially adapted to small evaporators
which are run entirely by hand power.

In power evaporators a long table com-
mon to all the parers is generally used.
The necessary carriers for removing the
apples and the parings operate beneath
the table. If individual tables are used
in such cases, a small sluice may con-
nect each table with a carrier which
works just beneath the floor, which car-
rier in turn delivers to an elevator that
connects with the bleacher. By thus
placing below the floor the carrier which
takes the fruit from the tables, the space
above is left unobstructed, which would

not be the case were the individual tables
connected with a common carrier.

Paring Machines

Paring machines are made for opera-
ting either by hand or power. The more
recent patterns have two, or even three
forks for holding the apples while they
are being pared. The attendant puts an
apple on one of the forks while one on
another fork is being peeled.

The number of bushels which can be
pared in a given time of course varies
with the size and condition of the fruit,
but 70 or 75 bushels for a day of ten
hours (or even more if the fruit is of
good size and the machine is speeded
up to its limit) is not an unusual amount
for a good power machine.

The hand machines are equally com-
plete and satisfactory in their working.
Under favorable conditions an experi-
enced operator will pare 60 or more bush-
els a day if the fruit is not too small.

Bleachers

In order to make the fruit as white as
possible, it is usually subjected to the
fumes of burning sulphur. The apparatus
in which the fumes are applied is called
a bleacher.

The form and manner of construction
vary greatly, as do most of the other ap-
pliances. The requisites are a perfectly
tight compartment having a capacity com-
mensurate with the size of the evaporator
and the necessary facilities for burning
the sulphur.

Perhaps the simplest form of construc-
tion consists of a box sufficiently long
to meet the requirements, placed hori-
zontally, and large enough in cross sec-
tion to admit the boxes or crates in which
the fruit is handled. Rollers are placed
in the bottom, on which the crates rest,
which permit them to be moved along
with but little friction. The crates are
entered at one end of the bleacher, those
previously put in being pushed along to
make room for the following ones. The
sulphur is usually burned immediately
below the point where the fruit is put into
the bleacher. A short piece of stovepipe
is placed at the opposite end for the

924

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

escape of the fumes after they have
passed through the bleacher.

Another simple bleacher in which the
fruit is handled in bulk (not in crates)
consists essentially of a large square box,
the interior of which is fitted with a
series of inclined planes sloping in op-
posite directions to prevent the fruit from
dropping to the bottom in a compact
mass. The fruit is usually admitted at the
top directly from the paring table. It
then rolls from one inclined plane to an-
other to the bottom, where there is the
necessary opening, with means for closing
it tightly to prevent the escape of the
sulphur fumes, for removing the fruit
when it is bleached. The sulphur is
burned beneath the lowest inclined plane.

In the case of the bleacher where trays
are used the sides of the interior are pro-
vided with series of cleats for supporting
the trays in which the fruit is handled.
The distance between the cleats is slight-
ly more than the depth of the trays. The
sides toward the platform consist of series
of closely fitting doors about six inches
wide, placed horizontally, through which
the trays are entered and removed from
the bleachers. The trays of fruit are put
into the bleachers and left in the "Sulphur
fumes a sufficiently long time for the fruit
to bleach. The sulphur is burned at
the bottom of the bleachers, and the tall
shafts which are to be seen projecting
from the top are ventilators, which give
sufficient draft to take the fumes up
through the fruit and to allow their es-
cape at a point some distance above the
workmen.

While all of these types may do the
work well, they are so constructed that
much handling and lifting of the fruit is
necessary.

There is an upright style in common
use in some sections, which reduces the
lifting of the fruit by hand to a minimum
and serves not only as a bleacher, but also
as an elevator. This is especially suited
to the smaller, two-story evaporators,
operated without mechanical power, in
which the slicing is done on the second
floor and having the kiln floor on the
same level. By this means the fruit is

raised from the first or paring room
floor to the level of the kiln floor while
it is being bleached.

The construction is comparatively sim-
ple. It consists of an upright box extend-
ing from the first floor to three or four
feet or any convenient height above the
second. The cross dimensions are such
as to admit the crates or trays in which
the fruit is handled. The crates are ad-
mitted to the bleacher at a convenient
height, 18 inches or two feet from the
bottom, through a trapdoor or some
other arrangement which can be tightly
closed to prevent the escape of the
sulphur fumes.

A movable frame, slightly smaller than
the cross dimensions of the bleacher, rests
on a solid support just below the point
where the crates are entered and on
which the crates are placed when pushed
inside. This frame is connected with a
level at the top of the bleachers by means
of iron rods which are attached to a cross
arm on the level and extend down the
sides of the bleacher to the frame. The
relative length of the long and short arms
of the level must be such that in the
sweep of the long arm the frame on which
the crates rest will be raised a distance
slightly greater than the depth of the
crates in which the fruit is handled.
There are dogs, or catches, on the inside
of the bleacher, which work automatically
and permit the crates to be moved up-
ward, but not downward. When a crate
is put in place, the lever is pulled down,
usually by means of a rope which passes
through the second floor within convenient
reach of the helper who handles the
crates. The crate which was last put into
the bleacher and all that may have been
put in previously are raised to the point
where they are caught by the clutches
just mentioned and so held in that posi-
tion. On releasing the lever, it regains
its former position and the frame drops
to its place just below the level of the
doorway through which the crates are
admitted and is then ready for receiving
another crate. A small-sized stovepipe or
other tubing should extend from, the top
of the bleacher to the exterior of the
building to permit the escape of the sul-

EVAPORATION OF APPLES

925

phur fumes after they have passed
through the fruit.

The crates are removed through a tight-
ly closing door in the bleacher on the sec-
ond floor, where the apples are sliced and
spread on the kiln floor.

The sulphur is burned at the bottom of
the bleacher, below the point where the
fruit is admitted. It is a safe provision
to have this portion of the bleacher coated
with cement or lined with asbestos, espe-
cially the floor, to lessen the danger of
fire.

Perhaps the most satisfactory bleacher
for evaporators in which an engine is in-
stalled is the "power" or "horizontal"
type. Its characteristic feature is the
movable bottom, or rather false bottom,
on which the fruit is carried through the
bleacher.

Briefly stated, this bleacher consists of
a tight box about three feet square and
20 or more feet long, the length being
regulated by the capacity of the evapo-
rator in connection with which it is
operated and the time it is desired to
bleach the fruit.

The apples are conveyed from the par-
ing room to the bleacher by a carrier, or
elevator, similar to those already referred
to, and are dropped into one end of the
bleacher, falling on the movable bottom,
which consists of an endless belt of
"lugs," turned by the proper gear attach-
ment. The speed of movement is gov-
erned by the gearing, and is adjusted
to correspond with the time it is de-
sired to keep the fruit in the bleacher
and the length of the latter. When
the fruit has been carried through
the bleacher, it passes to the slicer, which
is located in close proximity to the bleach-
er. The end of the bleacher is closed
when in actual operation by means of a
closely fitted piece of canvas or other ef-
fective arrangement. Provision for the
escape of the fumes may be supplied as
suggested in connection with the upright
type previously described.

Snlplinr Stoves

In a large proportion of instances noth-
ing more elaborate than a broken or
otherwise discarded iron kettle or some

similar receptacle is used for containing
the burning sulphur. This is the case if
the compartment in which the sulphur is
burned is a portion of, or in direct com-
munication with the bleacher. In other
instances, such as the power bleacher just
described, where in some cases it is more
convenient to burn sulphur at some dis-
tance from the bleacher, a small sheet-
iron stove about a foot square and 12 or
15 inches high is used. This is connected
with the bleacher by means of a small
stovepipe.

Slicing Macliines

There are several styles of slicers now
obtainable which are operated by hand,
foot, or mechanical power. In general,
they consist of a table in which a series
of knives is so arranged that when the
apples are carried over them by a revolv-
ing arm they are cut into slices. In at
least one type the apples are delivered to
the slicing table by an attachment which
works automatically.

The capacity of slicers varies somewhat,
as does the industry of the men who oper-
ate them, but from 200 to 400 bushels for
a day of ten hours may be expected of a
good machine.

Small hand slicers which slice only a
single apple at a time are sometimes used
in the smaller evaporators.

Quartering machines are used instead
of slicers, if it is desired to dry the fruit
in quarters instead of slices.

Crates and Trays

Crates and trays are essential accesso-
ries. A relatively large supply facilitates
the handling of the fruit both before and
after it is pared, especially where there
are no elevators or carriers to convey the
fruit from one point in the evaporator to
another. They are usually made to hold
about a biishel. The bottoms of those in
which apples are bleached should be made
of narrow slats, and preferably also the
sides, to permit a free circulation of the
sulphur fumes through the fruit.

Backs

In the construction of all racks on
which fruit is dried, whether for use in a
large tower evaporator or in a small cook
stove type, a special caution should be

926

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

observed to select only the best grades
of galvanized wire netting for making
the racks. If poorer grades are used the
acids of the fruit are likely to act on
the metals, producing undesirable re-
sults.

Heating Apparatus
Satisfactory results are so dependent
upon the heating apparatus that this
becomes one of the most important fea-
tures of an evaporator.

In the smaller types of evaporators,
where comparatively little is involved
and the question of fuel does not enter
seriously into consideration, almost any
small stove commensurate with the size
of the particular evaporator in question
may be used.

In the larger kiln evaporators the mat-
ter is a more important one. Formerly,
ordinary cast-iron stoves were used con-
siderably, two or more of them frequent-
ly being required to heat a single kiln,
but these have largely gone out of use.
In their stead large furnaces are now
most commonly used. These are spe-
cially designed for the purpose and are
provided with relatively large fire pots,
correspondingly large -ash pits, and large
radiating surfaces. As it is necessary to
burn a relatively large quantity of fuel
in a given time, the size of the grate is
made with this end in view. For a kiln
floor 20 feet square, or 400 square feet
of surface, the grate surface is usually
about three feet in diameter, containing
from five to seven square feet.

As to the most satisfactory length of
pipe connecting the furnace and chim-
ney, opinions differ. Perhaps the most
common method of piping is the follow-
ing: The furnace, with two flanges for
attaching the pipe, is placed in the cen-
ter; the pipe from each flange is then
extended to the side of the room opposite
the chimney, and from this point the two
sections, extending in opposite directions,
follow the wall, at a distance of two or
three feet from it, to the chimney. In
a kiln 20 feet square, some 65 or 70 feet
are thus required. Ten-inch pipe is a
common size to use for this purpose. It
is placed about three feet below the kiln
floor.

Some operators think that a better dis-
tribution of heat is obtained if the pipes
extend back and forth, two or three feet
apart, under the entire floor of the kiln,
thus requiring 200 feet or more instead
of the shorter length above suggested.
The greater length, however, is less fre-
quently used than the smaller.

In some cases the heat is so intense
directly over the furnace that the fruit
dries more rapidly in the center of the
floor than about the sides. To regulate
this and make the drying as uniform as
possible, a "deflector," consisting of a
piece of sheet iron or tin several feet
square, is attached to the floor directly
above the furnace.

Open grates, which in effect are fur-
naces with all parts above the grates
removed, are used occasionally and are
recommended by some because they re-
quire less fuel, less attention to firing,
and will dry the fruit in a shorter space
of time. On the other hand, so much
dust rises from them that they are not
used in making the best grades of fruit.

Tower evaporators may be heated by
the same style of furnaces that are used
in kiln driers. The size of furnace suffi-
cient to evaporate a given quantity of
fruit in a given time is probably about
the same in either type of evaporator.

In some respects a steam system is the
most satisfactory method of heating, but
it is comparatively little used, possibly
due to the larger first cost of installing
such a system. It is especially applicable
in case of evaporators that are operated
in connection with some other business
that requires the use of considerable
steam power, such as a large cider mill,
which requires the power for running
the presses.

In kiln evaporators the steam pipes
are generally placed in as close proxim-
ity to the floor of the drying room as is
convenient — within a foot or even closer.
That every steam pipe nearest the floor
may supply the greatest amount of heat
it should have its own return to the
main return of the system.

One inch pipe is generally used for
such systems. No very definite data are
available in regard to the amount neces-

EVAPORATION OF APPLES

927

sary to supply the requisite heat. Sev-
eral kilns, however, which are said to
work admirably, have about 650 running
feet of pipe for every 100 square feet of
floor space. One-half of this Is "riser,"
the other half "return."

In the type of evaporator referred to as
"cabinet evaporators," the length of one
inch steam pipe required per square foot
of surface directly exposed to the pipes
is considerably less than in the case of
the kiln just described, although it is
probable that in the system in question
a greater degree of heat can be main-
tained than with the usual piping for a
kiln. As previously mentioned, in this
system the pipes are arranged in hori-
zontal tiers, the racks on which the fruit
is placed being inserted between them.
Hence, the upper racks receive more or
less heat from the lower tiers, as well
as from those to which they are directly
exposed. In one evaporator of this type,
which gives excellent satisfaction, and in
which the drying compartments are
about nine feet square — that is, large
enough to hold four four-foot racks (two
square) in the same plane — there are
thirty-two one-inch pipes in each tier.
Each pipe is about 8^1> feet in length, or
approximately 270 feet in each tier. In
the evaporator referred to there are eight
tiers in each compartment. Eight racks —
two deep — are placed between each tier
. of pipes.

In another evaporator of this type, hav-
ing a capacity of 400 bushels every twen-
ty-four hours, a 40-horsepower boiler,
with about 15 square feet of grate sur-
face, furnishes the necessary steam when
run at a pressure of 40 to 50 pounds.
This is sufficient for drying the fruit and
for running the parers, slicers, elevators,
etc., required to handle this quantity of
fruit. The steam pressure at which such
systems are run varies considerably ac-
cording to the individual requirements of
the systems. A range of from 40 to 90
pounds has been noted in different evap-
orators.

Fuel

Where the owner of an evaporator has
an abundant supply of wood and it can

be cut at times of leisure, this is probably
the least expensive fuel in actual cash
outlay that can be had in most of the
apple-growing sections. In fact, under
these conditions, it is commonly esti-
mated that the fuel costs nothing. But in
a great number of cases fuel has to be
bought, even by operators who are drying
apples from their own orchards.

For kiln evaporators using the common
type of furnaces, hard coal is probably
the most satisfactory fuel, and requires
less attention than any other. Coke is
sometimes used, and if it were as satis-
factory as coal, other things being equal,
it would be the cheaper fuel. But it re-
quires much attention, and even with the
best of care it is difficult to maintain
a uniform degree of heat. A combination
of coal and coke is sometimes used with
satisfactory results, in which case the
faults and advantages of one tend, in a
measure, to equalize those of the other.

In a steam-heated plant soft coal serves
the purpose in a satisfactory way, and
in most apple-growing sections is prob-
ably cheaper than any other fuel that is
readily available.

Quantity of Fuel Required

While the amount of fuel necessary to
dry a given quantity of fruit will vary
more or less, depending upon the condi-
tions of the weather, the efficiency of the
furnace, the construction of the kiln, the
percentage of moisture to be left in the
fruit, and various other things, it is
roughly estimated that a ton of hard
coal, for a kiln evaporator, will make a
ton of dried fruit. Probahly the average
requirement is rather more than this.
It is claimed that a tower evaporator re-
quires slightly less for the same results.
Open grates also considerably reduce the
amount of fuel necessary for a given
quantity of fruit, but on account of their
objectionable features they can not be
used for the better grades of apples.
Coke is rather more efficient, 2,600 to
2,700 pounds of apples being evaporated,
it is claimed, by a ton of fuel.

A good steam system should require
considerably less than a ton of soft coal

928

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

to a ton of dried fruit, one estimate be-
ing about one-half this amount.

These estimates are for evaporating
sliced fruit. If the apples are quartered
or dried whole, being merely pared and
cored, considerably more fuel is required.
From 25 to 50 per cent more fuel should
probably be estimated for in such cases.

Apples Suitable for Eraporation

There is an increasing demand for
dried apples of the highest quality. The
tendency has sometimes been to make
quantity at the expense of quality. But
prices are governed not only by the sup-
ply but also by the grade. The cleanest,
whitest fruit, that is well cored, trimmed,
bleached, ringed, and dried, is most in de-
mand. Carelessness in any particular
injures the product.

Primarily the economic usefulness of
an apple evaporator is through its utili-
zation of windfalls and the poorer grades
of fruit which can not be marketed to
good advantage in a fresh state, and it is
these grades that are most often evapor-
ated. But the magnitude of the crop also
influences the grade of the evaporated
product in a decided way. In seasons
of abundant crops and low prices for
fresh fruit large quantities of apples that
would ordinarily be barreled are evap-
orated and the grade of stock produced
is correspondingly improved. On the
other hand, in years of scanty crops, when
all apples that can possibly be shipped
are in demand at high prices, only the
very poorest fruit is evaporated, as a rule,
thus lowering the grade of the output.

The commercial grading of evaporated
apples is based primarily on appearance
rather than on dessert quality, and the
fact that one variety may make a better
flavored product than another is not con-
sidered. As a rule, a product of high
commercial grade can be made from any
sort which has a firm texture and
bleaches to a satisfactory degree of
whiteness. A variety of high dessert
quality, such as the Northern Spy, may
be expected to make an evaporated
product of correspondingly high flavor.

In sections where the Baldwin apple is
grown extensively it is in demand at the

commercial evaporators, as it meets the
requirements in a fair degree and it is
also available in relatively large quanti-
ties. In the Ben Davis sections that va-
riety supplies a similar demand.

Most early varieties lack sufficient firm-
ness of texture for the best results and
are undesirable on this account. On the
other hand, some comparatively early
sorts, such as Gravenstein and Yellow
Summer Pearmain, are considerably
prized in some sections; the dessert qual-
ity of the latter is especially high.

Similarly the product made from other
sorts possesses qualities that are due
more or less to varietal characteristics.
For instance, that from Esopus is said to be
unusually white; Hubbardston and varie-
ties of the Russet group also make very
white stock. The latter make relatively
a large amount of stock, by weight, to a
given quantity of fresh fruit. Limber-
twig is said to produce from one and one-
half to two pounds a bushel more of dried
stock than most sorts do, but it is not
as white as that from some other varie-
ties.

Preparing the Fruit for Drying
Paring

No special comments are necessary un-
der the head of paring, save to mention
this step in the order in which it occurs
in the preparation of the apples for dry-
ing. The apples are cored in the same
operation by an attachment applied to
the paring machine for this purpose. The
fruit is automatically forced from the
fork and drops to the table, where it is
next taken in hand by the trimmers. In
the smaller evaporators the slicing is
often done at the time of paring by a
slicing attachment applied to the parers.

In nearly all the evaporators the paring
and trimming are done by women and
girls.

Trimming

In paring the fruit there is usually
more or less skin left around the stem
and calyx of the apples and any irregular
places that may occur. There will be
wormholes, decayed spots, and other blem-
ishes which will detract from the appear-
ance of the product, if allowed to remain.

EVAPORATION OF APPLES

929

Even bruises are objected to by the most
exacting operators. Hence all such de-
fects are cut out as soon as the fruit
is pared if the highest grade of product
is expected. This is done with an ordi-
nary straight-back, sharp-pointed knife,
having a blade two and one-half or three
inches long.

Bleaching
The fumes of burning sulphur are em-
ployed not only to make the fruit white
where the freshly cut surfaces have be-
come discolored by contact with the air,
but to prevent further discoloration after
it is sliced. Sulphuring is also generally
supposed to be necessary to destroy fungi
and insects, though under present meth-
ods of handling this is open to question.
There are no definite standards govern-
ing the bleaching as to the time required,
amount of sulphur necessary to accom-
plish the desired end, etc. The aim is to
treat until enough of the fumes have been
absorbed by the apples to prevent discolor-
ation after they are sliced and exposed
to the air. If it is found that the fruit is
not retaining its clean, white appearance
with the treatment that is being given,
either the length of time that the fruit is
kept in the bleacher is increased or more
sulphur is burned in the customary time
for bleaching. Due caution should be ex-
ercised, however, in this connection, in-
asmuch as the bleaching of desiccated
fruits with sulphur fumes is open to criti-
cism. The sale of fruit containing sul-
phurous acid in any considerable quantity
is prohibited by the pure food laws of
some states, as well as being restricted
in some of the foreign markets. The Fed-
eral pure food law will also make definite
restrictions.

In many cases the bleaching process is
doubtless continued much longer than is
necessary for the desired results. Until
some definite standards are established
and recognized, the greatest care should
be exercised not to bleach more than the
minimum required to maintain the de-
sired color a reasonable length of time.

The allotted time for bleaching in a

large number of evaporators, from which

information has been secured, varies from

twenty minutes to one and one-half hours.

2—18

The more usual time appears to be about
forty-five minutes. This, however, may
be regulated in a measure by the amount
of sulphur burned in a given time.

The estimates regarding the amount of
sulphur used to bleach a ton of fruit vary
from four or five pounds to 20 pounds,
though but little information of a definite
character is to be obtained at present.

The usual practice is to start the sul-
phur fumes by putting a few live coals
into the receptacle used for the purpose,
then adding a small piece or two of stick
brimstone. Before this has all been vapor-
ized, more is added. This is continued as
long as the bleacher is in operation, suffi-
cient heat being generated to vaporize the
sulphur without the further addition of
burning coals.

When apples are dried whole, without
slicing or quartering, they require less
bleaching than if they are to be sliced,
inasmuch as the interior of the fruit does
not come in contact with the air.

For the most satisfactory results it is
essential that the fruit be put into the
bleacher in the shortest possible time
after the surface is exposed to the air by
paring. If a long delay occurs the sur-
face becomes discolored, in which case it
does not regain its original whiteness in
the bleaching process.

Slicing, Quartering, Etc.

After bleaching, the next step in pre-
paring the fruit is slicing, unless instead
of slicing it is quartered or dried whole,
as is done to a limited extent. In prepar-
ing fruit for some of the smaller evapor-
ators, as previously mentioned, the slicing
is done when the fruit is pared, the
bleaching then follows the slicing instead
of preceding it.

The slices are one-fourth inch in thick-
ness, and in the largest degree possible
should be cut at right angles to the hole
made through the axis of the apple when
the core is removed by the parer, thus
producing the "rings," which is the form
most desired. Other things being equal
that fruit is sliced the best which con-
tains the largest proportion of "rings,"
and this point is given more or less
weight in grading the finished product.

When it is desired to evaporate apples

930

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

in quarters or sixths they are run through
machines which cut them accordingly, the
cutting being done in the opposite direc-
tion from the slicing; that is, in a direc-
tion parallel to instead of at right angles
to the axis of the apple.

If they are to be dried whole, they are
transferred from the bleacher directly to
the drying compartment without further
treatment.

Drying the Fruit

When the fruit has been placed in the
drying compartment of an evaporator, of
whatever type it may be, it has reached
the most critical stage in the whole pro-
cess of evaporation, and it is here that the
greatest care and skill are required to in-
sure the best possible results.

Capacity of Floor Space and Racks

In the case of kiln evaporators, the
sliced fruit is evenly spread on the floor
to the depth of from four to six inches.
A kiln 20 feet square will hold the slices
of from 120 to 150 bushels of fresh fruit,
depending upon the amount of waste in
the apples and the exact depth to which
they are spread on the floor.

If the fruit is in quarters or is dried
whole, it may be somewhat thicker on the
floor, since in these forms it does not pack
down as closely as the slices do and hence
does not impede the circulation of hot air
through it if the depth is somewhat in-
creased.

In tower evaporators and other types
where the fruit is handled on racks the
slices are seldom placed much more than
one inch in depth. A rack four feet
square will hold from three-fourths of a
bushel to a bushel.

The fruit is generally put on the floor
of the kiln as fast as it is sliced, and the
fire is started in the furnace below as soon
as the floor is filled, or, in many cases,
before it is entirely covered.

Oiling the Floors and Racks

It is common practice to treat the floor
of kilns occasionally with tallow to pre-
vent the fruit from sticking to it. This
is done every few days, or as often as con-
ditions appear to make it advisable.
Sometimes a mixture of equal parts of tal-
low and boiled linseed oil is used for this
purpose.

Another practice, with the same end in
view, is to thoroughly scrub the floors as
often as is necessary with water, using
with it some one of the scouring soaps.
This is preferred by some operators, who
claim that oil or tallow discolors the
fruit.

At each filling of the racks, where these
are used, the surface of the wire netting
is lightly wiped over with a cloth mois-
tened in lard. This prevents the fruit
from sticking to the netting and keeps it
clean.

Temperature Maintained

The temperature maintained in kilns or
other drying compartments, in actual prac-
tice, is largely a matter of experience, not
a factor governed by any definite stan-
dards or regulated in accordance with
thermometer readings, as might be ex-
pected. In general, the object in view is
to force the heat as high as possible with-
out endangering the fruit. A probable
temperature which has been suggested by
some of the operators is 150 degrees Fah-
renheit, or more when the fruit is first
put into the drying compartment, dropping
to about 125 degrees Fahrenheit as the
drying process nears completion. Suffi-
cient and proper provision for controlling
the indraft of cold air below the fruit
will aid in maintaining the desired tem-
perature.

Turning the Fruit

In order to prevent the fruit from burn-
ing and from sticking to the floor by re-
maining in contact with it too long, and
to insure the most uniform drying that is
possible, the fruit, in the case of the kiln
driers, is turned occasionally. The inter-
val between turnings varies with different
operators, with the condition of the
fruit, and with the degree of heat which
is maintained. Some operators do not
turn the fruit until five hours have elapsed
after the furnace has been started, while
a more common practice is to make the
first turning within two or three hours
after the drying is begun, or even sooner.
For the first five or six hours it is gen-
erally turned every two hours or so, and
more frequently as the fruit becomes
drier, until perhaps it may require turning
every half hour when nearly dry.

EVAPORATION OF APPLES

931

The objects to be obtained by turning
must be kept in mind and the fruit
handled accordingly. It should be ex-
amined from time to time and turned
often enough to prevent scorching or
sticking and to Insure uniform drying.

In the case of the tower evaporators and
other types in which the fruit is handled
on racks, no turning more than an occa-
sional stirring of the fruit with the hand
or with a small wooden paddle is re-
quired. Sometimes the relative positions
of the racks are changed to make the dry-
ing more uniform. This is one reason
why the tower-dried fruit is generally of
rather better quality than that from kilns.
The repeated turning on the kiln floor is
likely to make the fruit more or less
"mussy," while in that which remains
practically undisturbed on the racks the
rings are maintained in better condition.
The fruit also dries more quickly, and is
often of better color than the kiln-evapor-
ated product, and hence is more attractive
in appearance.

The same general principles must be ob-
served in tending the fruit where steam
heat is used in place of direct hot air from
furnaces.

Time Required for Drying

The time necessary for drying fruit de-
pends upon several factors. The more im-
portant are: Type of evaporator; depth
to which fruit is spread; method of pre-
paring— whether sliced, quartered, or
whole; temperature maintained; condi-
tions of the weather, and, to a certain
extent, the construction of the evaporator.

The application of these several factors
to the point in question readily follows. A
good kiln evaporator should dry a floor of
slices, other things being equal, in about
twelve hours, ten to fourteen hours being
the range of variation. Where the fruit
is handled on racks the time required is
much shorter, but conditions are quite dif-
ferent from the kilns, as the fruit is sel-
dom more than one or two inches thick on
the racks. For slices, five hours is con-
sidered a reasonable time, with a range of
four to six hours.

It is estimated that quarters will require
from eighteen to twenty-four hours in the
average kiln, while the time for whole ap-

ples will range from thirty-six to forty-
eight hours.

If the atmospheric conditions are
heavy and damp, the drying is retarded.
Under some conditions it is hardly possi-
ble to thoroughly dry the fruit. During
windy weather also it is more difiicult
to regulate the heat, especially if the
walls are poorly constructed so that the
draft of cold air into the furnace room
can not be controlled. This applies espe-
cially to kilns heated by furnaces. It
is claimed that steam-heated evaporators
are less subject to the influence of cli-
matic conditions.

When Is tlie Fruit Dry?

Perhaps there is no step in the entire
process that requires better trained judg-
ment than the matter of determining
when the fruit is sufficiently dried to
meet the requirements. Like several
other steps in the process it is largely
a matter of experience, though there are
certain general features which are capa-
ble of being reduced to words.

The fruit should be so dry that when
a handful of slices is pressed together
firmly into a ball the slices will be
"springy" enough to separate at once
upon being released from the hand. In
this condition there will be no fruit, or
only an occasional piece, that has any
visible moisture on the surface. In a
slice of average dryness, it should not
be possible to press any free juice into
view in a freshly made cross section of
it. The general "feel" of the fruit, as it
is handled, should be a soft, velvety,
leathery texture.

The foregoing should represent as
nearly as possible the average condition,
but it cannot be expected to be absolutely
uniform throughout. Some slices — they
should constitute only a very small per-
centage— will still plainly possess some
of the juice of the apple; others — like-
wise, properly only a small proportion —
will be entirely too dry, possibly dry
enough to be brittle.

The Curing Boom

When a quantity of fruit is considered
dry enough, it is removed from the kiln
and put in a pile on the floor of the

932

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

curing room. Every day or two the pile
should be thoroughly shoveled over to
make uniform the changes which take
place. Thus managed, the pile in a few
days will become thoroughly homogen-
eous. The pieces that were too dry will
have absorbed moisture, the superfluous
moisture of other pieces will have dis-
appeared, and the entire mass may be
expected to reach the condition above
described.

Handling the Waste
In the usual grades of apples that are
taken to the evaporator there are many
specimens that are too small to pare or
which for other reasons can not be profit-
ably used in this way. In the case of
some of the larger evaporators which are
operated in connection with vinegar fac-
tories, these apples, as well as all parings
and trimmings, are used for "vinegar
stock," but in the smaller ones these
portions are usually dried. It is gen-
erally estimated that about one-third as
much space is required to dry the parings
and trimmings as is demanded for the
"white fruit."

"Waste" and "chops" are generally
bleached, but are seldom passed through
the bleacher which is used for the white
fruit. Where they are dried in kilns,
which is usually the case, a common way
of bleaching is to burn the sulphur in the
furnace room after the stock has been
spread on the floor.

It is generally estimated that the waste
from a given quantity of apples will pay
the cost of the fuel for evaporating that
quantity of fruit; that is, putting it on a
bushel basis, the waste from a bushel
will pay for fuel to evaporate both the
white fruit and the waste from that bush-
el. While in some instances, when the
price of such stock is low, this estimate
may be too high, it not infrequently hap-
pens that it more than pays for the fuel.

Weight of Evaporated Apples

Some varieties of apples will make
more evaporated stock to the bushel than
others. The grade used also affects the
amount, but an average weight — a fre-
quent basis of estimates — is about 6%
pounds of white fruit and S^A pounds of
waste to a bushel of fresh fruit. When

the apples are dried whole, without slic-
ing, they will make from one to two
pounds more to the bushel than when
sliced.

Handling Evaporated Apples
While comparatively few of the manu-
facturers of evaporated apples pack their
own fruit for the trade, it will be of in-
terest to them and of direct value to
know something of the methods pursued
by dealers, and especially in regard to
grading and the requirements of the vari-
ous grades.

The product of all grades is generally
shipped to the dealers in gunny sacks
having a capacity of one and one-half to
two bushels. The "white fruit" is usu-
ally bought by the pound. Sometimes the
waste is rated by the hundredweight. The
price paid is not governed by the market
conditions alone; the quality is an im-
portant factor.

Grading
In classifying evaporated apples, three
grades are generally recognized which
are commonly designated as "fancy,"
"choice," and "prime." Two other grades,
which in reality are special grades, are
also sometimes recognized, viz.: "extra
fancy," and a lower grade than prime —
usually called prime with some prefix,
frequently the name of a locality, to dis-
tinguish it from that grade.

The standards demanded for these vari-
ous grades are about as follows:

"Fancy" is very white, clean stock, free
from all pieces of skin and other objec-
tionable portions which should be re-
moved in trimming, and a good portion
of the slices in rings.

"Choice" denotes a grade intermediate
between "fancy" and "prime," not quite
clean enough for "fancy," yet more nearly
free from imperfections than the "prime"
grade demands.

"Prime" must be good stock, well cured,
and of a generally attractive appearance.
It must be comparatively white and most-
ly free from undesirable portions, but
stock having a small percentage of such
defects is usually put in this grade.

"Extra fancy," as the name implies, is a
fancy grade that is exceptionally fine. It
must possess all the qualities mentioned

EVAPORATION OF APPLES

933

in describing that grade in a marked de-
gree. At least 85 per cent of the slices
should be "rings."

The grade below "prime" is the stock
that has been so carelessly handled and
is so unattractive in appearance that it
cannot maintain the standard of "prime."
It is packed for an entirely different and
much poorer class of trade than any of
the other grades.

Kinds of Packages Used

In packing the fruit, several sizes of
packages are in common use. While the
proportionate dimensions of the packages
may vary with the different dealers and
packers, their capacity is more or less a
matter of uniform standards.

Perhaps the package most used is the
50-pound wooden box. A common form of
this box is IO1/2 by 11 by 22 inches, in-
side measure. Twenty-five pound boxes
are likewise much used; these are com-
monly made 9 by 9 by 18 inches, inside
dimensions. A box holding 55 pounds of
sliced fruit, having inside measurements
of 11 by 11% by 22 1/2 inches, is much used
for the export trade. These are generally
marked "25 kilos" when intended for ex-
port, instead of having the capacity des-
ignated in pounds.

Pasteboard cartons, holding one pound,
or one-half kilo (1.1 pounds) for certain
export trade, are also more or less used
for the better grades of sliced fruit.
These cartons are generally packed in a
box or case, 48 cartons to the case. The
cartons are 2 by 5 by 7 inches; the case
is about 12 by 16 by 21 inches.

All of these packages are used as de-
sired for slices or "rings," but the quar-
ters and whole fruit are generally packed
in the 55-pound boxes, which, however,
are expected to contain but 50 pounds of
fruit in these forms.

Packing'

The side of the box intended for the
top or "face" is packed first, as in pack-
ing fresh fruit in boxes or barrels. The
first step in packing, therefore, is to
"face" this side. The "facers" are slices
which are perfect rings. These are usu-
ally selected from a quantity of fruit
which contains a relatively large propor-

tion of them; they are then placed on
thin boards which are slightly smaller
than the top of the box, inside measure,
overlapping one another in rows, length-
wise of the board. The facers are put in
place by inserting the board on which
they are arranged into the box, which is
first lined with paraffin paper, and then
with a dexterous movement of the hand

Fig. 3. A 50-pound Box of "Fancy" Evapo-
rated Apples with Cover Removed.

flipping the layer of rings against the in-
ner face or the bottom, which is to be-
come the top of the box.

A press is generally used in filling the
boxes. Three men compose a packing
gang for each press; one to fill the boxes
and weigh the fruit; one to operate the
press; a third to nail on the cover, which
now becomes the bottom of the box.

In filling the boxes, an extension of the
box upward is necessary, since 50 pounds
of evaporated apples have to be com-
pressed greatly in order to get them into
a box of the required dimensions. This
extension may be another box of same
size with a rim nailed around the edge to
fit over the box to be filled. The box is
placed on a pair of scales and filled with
the desired quantity of fruit, by weight;
it is then passed to the press. A "fol-
lower" slightly smaller than the box is
put in position over the fruit and this is
pressed down until the fruit reaches
the desired point.

Quarters and whole apples are handled
in essentially the same manner except in
regard to the facing. In facing whole ap-

934

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

pies they are placed on the side in rows
lengthwise of the bottom (when packed,
the top) of the box. The boxes are then
filled the same as with slices. Quarters
are handled in the same way.

Figure 3 is a box of fancy evaporated
apples with cover removed, showing the
paper lace used for decorative effect. Fig-
ure 4 is the same box with the paper cov-
ering entirely removed.

Cartons are filled by hand, the work
usually being done on a table of conve-
nient height. Each package is weighed
to insure its proper content of fruit.

Fig. 4. A 50-pound Box of "Fancy" Evapo-
rated Apples with Cover and Paper Lace Re-
moved.

The sun-dried fruit, of which quite
large quantities are handled by some deal-
ers, is usually packed in sugar barrels.
This is largely exported. The waste is
also generally put into barrels, 240 to 250
pounds net usually filling a barrel. Chops
are handled in a similar manner.

Storing the Fruit

In years of great abundance of apples,
the evaporated product is likely to ex-
ceed the immediate demand. While fruit
that has been well bleached and cured
can be held for a considerable period of
time without loss it is by no means im-
perishable. The color is first to deterio-
rate. The fruit appears to lose the effect
of bleaching after a time and turns dark.
Though it may retain its flavor for a
long time, its unattractive appearance
renders it more or less unsalable.

When it is desired to hold evaporated
apples from one season to another, re-
course is had to cold storage. Some sea-
sons large quantities are handled in this
way. The temperature at which it is
stored is usually from 32 degrees to 35
degrees Fahrenheit, or about the same as
for fresh fruit. If well bleached and
properly cured it may be held for a rela-
tively long period. Four or five years is
said by commercial handlers to be about
the usual limit of time before the color
deteriorates. It is seldom, however, that
it is desirable to hold the fruit for so
long a time. h. P. Gould,

Assistant Pomologist, Bureau of Plant Industry,
Washington, D. C.

Condensed from Bureau of Plant Industry
Bulletin 291.

Experiment Stations

Alabama — College Station, Auburn; J.
F. Duggar*; Canebrake Station, Union-
ton; L. H. Moore*; Tuskegee Station,
Tuskegee Institute; G. W. Carver*.

Alaska — Sitka; C. C. Georgesont.

Arizona — Tucson; R. H. Forbes.*

Arkansas — Fayetteville ; M. Nelson*.

California— Berkeley; T. F. Hunt*.

Colorado— Fort Collins; C. P. Gillette*.

Connecticut — State Station, New Ha-
ven; Storrs Station, Storrs; E. H. Jen-
kins*.

Delaware — Newark; H. Hay ward*.

Florida — Gainesville; P. H. Rolfs*.

Georgia — Experiment, R. J. H. De-
Loach*.

Guam — Island of Guam; J. B. Thomp-
sonf.

Hawaii — Federal Station, Honolulu;
E. V. Wilcoxf. Sugar Planters Station,
Honolulu; H. P. Agee*.

Idaho — Moscow; W. L. Carlyle*.

Illinois — Urbana; E. Davenport*.

Indiana — La Fayette; A. Goss*.

Iowa — Ames; C. F. Curtiss*.

Kansas — Manhattan; W. M. Jardine*.

Kentucky — Lexington; J. H. Kastle*.

Louisiana — State Station, Baton
Rouge; Sugar Station, Audubon Park,
New Orleans; North Louisiana Station,
Calhoun; W. R. Dodson*.

Maine — Orono; C. D. Woods*.

Maryland— College Park; H. J. Patter-
son*.

EXPERIMENT STATIONS— FARMS

935

Massachusetts — Amherst; W. P.Brooks*.

Michigan — East Lansing; R. S. Shaw*.

Minnesota — University Farm, St. Paul;
A. F. Woods*.

Mississippi^Agricultural College; E.
R. Lloyd*.

Missouri — College Station, Columbia;
F. B. Mumford*. Fruit Station, Moun-
tain Grove; Paul Evans*.

Montana — Bozeman; F. B. Linfield*.

Nebraska — Lincoln; E. A. Burnett*.

Nevada — Reno; S. B. Doten*.

New Hampshire — Durham; J. C. Ken-
dall*.

New Jersey — New Brunswick; J. G.
Lipman*.

New Mexico — State College; Fabian
Garcia*.

New York — State Station, Geneva; W.
H. Jordan*. Cornell Station, Ithaca; W.
A. Stocking, Jr.J

North Carolina — College Station, West
Raleigh; State Station, Raleigh; B. W.
Kilgore*.

North Dakota — Agricultural College, T.
P. Cooper*.

Ohio— Wooster; C. E. Thorne*.

Oklahoma — Stillwater; L. L. Lewis*.

Oregon — Corvallis; J. Withycombe*.

Pennsylvania — State College; R. L.
Watts*. State College, Institute of Ani-
mal Nutrition; H. P. Armsby*.

Porto Rico — Federal Station, Maya-
guez; D. W. Mayf. Sugar Planters, Sta-
tion, Rio Piedras; J. T. Crawley*.

Rhode Island — Kingston; B. L. Hart-
well*.

South Carolina — Clemson College; J.
N. Harper*.

South Dakota — Brookings; J. W. Wil-
son*.

Tennessee — Knoxville; H. A. Morgan*.

Texas — College Station; B. Young-
blood*.

Utah— Logan; E. D. Ball*.

Vermont — -Burlington; J. L. Hills*.

Virginia — -Blacksburg; S. W. Fletcher*.
Norfolk, Truck Station; T. C. Johnson*.

Washington— Pullman ; I. D. Cardiff*.

West Virginia — Morgantown; E. D.
Sanderson*.

Wisconsin — Madison; H. L. Russell*.

Wyoming — Laramie; H. G. Knight*.

* Director.

t Special aRcnt In charge.

t Acting director.

Exposure. See Apple Orchard, Select-
ing a Site For.
Evaporation of Water. See Irrigation.

Farms

*Farm Value of Important Crops

(Average prices paid to producers in the United States.)

PRODUCT

Feb. 15,
1912

Jan. 15,
1912

Dec. 15,

Nov. 15,

Oct. 15,

1911

1911

1911

$ 0.86

$ 0.73

$ 0.66

1.11

.85

.97

2.42

2.34

2.27

1.13

1.03

1.02

1.83

1.51

1.58

.79

.76

.86

10.62

10.37

10.33

6.72

6.90

6.91

16.70

16.69

16.73

134.00

136.00

137.00

4.37

4.36

4.32

5.98

6.10

6.15

42.72

42.70

42.69

3.71

3.65

3.68

4.93

4.68

4.68

5.72

5.86

6.09

.222

.218

.213

.155

.156

.155

.138

.136

.137

26.99

20.72

Feb. 15,
1911

Apples, per bu

Pears, per bu

Beans, per bu

Onions, per bu

Cabbage, per 100 lbs. . . .
Sweet Potatoes, per bu.
Clover Seed, per bu. . . .
Timothy Seed, per bu. . .

Cotton Seed, per ton

Horses, per head

Beef Cattle, per 100 lbs.
Veal Calves, per 100 lbs.
Milch Cows, per head. . .

Sheep, per 100 lbs

Lambs, per 100 lbs

Hogs, per 100 lbs

Milk, per gallon

Wool, unwashed, per lb.
Honey, comb, per lb. . . .
Branf, per ton

$ 0.98

$ 0.93

2.38

1.40

2.24

.94

12.22

7.26

16.81

137.00

4.61

6.07

43.40

4.01

5.15

5.79

.232

.163

.140

28.62

2.38

1.17

1.89

.87

10.89

6.99

16.57

134.00

4.46

6.06

42.89

3.89

5.22

5.74

.228

.162

.138

27.39

$ 1.19

"2!23'
1.04
1.48
.82
8.37
4.51
25.61
144.00
4.57
6.38
44.98
4.34
5.44
6.93
.221
.173
.133
25.27

t Price to Feeders.

* From Crop Reporter, March, 1912.

936

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

* Farm Wages

The average wages of farm labor in the United States, as reported by correspond-
ents of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, for years indicated, was
as follows:

Year ending June 30, 1911.

Wages of Farm Labor, when employed by —

YEAR

Month

Day, at harvest

Day, other than
harvest

Without
Board

With
Board

Without
Board

With
Board

Without
Board

With
Board

1911

$28.77
27.50
22.14
20.23
19.38
17.69
17.74
19.10
18.60
18.33
18.24
17.97
18.94
16.42
19.87
25.92
26.87

$20.18
19.21
16.40
14.07
13.43
12.02
12.16
13.29
12.54
12.45
12.36
12.34
12.41
10.43
12.72
16.55
17.45

$1.85
1.82
1.53
1.37
1.30
1.14
1.13
1.24
1.30
1.30
1.31
1.40
1.48
1.30
1.70
2.20
2.20

$1.49
1.45
1.34
1.12
1.05
.92
.93
1.03
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.10
1.15
1.00
1.35
1.74
1.74

$1.42

1.38

1.13

1.01

.96

.81

.81

.89

.92

.92

.92

.91

.93

.81

1.08

1.41

1.49

$1.09

1910

1902

1.06

.89

1899

1898

.77
.72

1895

1894

.62
.63

1893

1892

.69
.67

1890

.68

1888

.67

1885

.67

1882

.67

1879

1875t

.59

.78

1869t

1866t

1.02
1.08

t In currency.

* Fr

om Crop I

leporter, 5

larch, 191

2_

KEEPING OUR CHILDREN ON THE
FARM

There is only one way known to the
writer to keep children on the farm,
after they reach their majority, and
that is to make the farm attractive. In
order to make it attractive, it must be
made financially profitable, and social-
ly pleasant. How to make the farm as
profitable as other lines of business, is
the problem. In order to be made pro-
fitable, its products must yield as much
money, for a given amount of labor, as
other lines of business. If the farm can
be made to supply these needs, our young
people will not desire to leave it, but if
it cannot, they will continue to crowd
into the cities for the purpose of mak-
ing money, and obtaining social privi-
leges they cannot obtain in the country.

The days of social isolation are prac-
tically past, except for a limited num-
ber of persons, who care little for edu-

cation, entertainment, and the gratifica-
tion of the social instincts. The farmer
generally tries to educate his family.
Even though he has not the advantages
in the sparsely settled districts he sends
his children to high school, and often to
college, during which period they come
into contact with the world in a broad-
er way than ever before, and develop
some kind of social life not possible on
the farm. Education has created wants
and if the farm will not furnish the
means and opportunities to supply them,
the best educated of our young people
will leave the farm.

It is a fact that with the present
status of our industrial development, the
farm does not produce enough to supply
the wants of an educated citizenship.
Statistics show that the average farm, in
the United States, yields less in net pro-
fits than the average wage worker re-
ceives. Yet the average farm requires an

FARMS

937

investment of over $6,000 for land, stock
and farm machinery. So long as it is true
that the average wage worker, with no
investment at all, can live in town and
receive for his year's labor as much as
the average farmer receives with his
$6,000 investment, it will be impossible
to keep our best, most educated and
spirited young people on the farm.

The tendency has been to build up
our manufacturing, mining, and com-
mercial industries by bonuses, subsidies,
tariffs, land grants and other devices,
disproportionately when compared to the
importance and extent of the wealth pro-
duced and the number of persons em-
ployed on farms. The tendency is now
to give more attention to the farm, to
educate the farmer as to the best meth-
ods of production, to show how larger
crops can be produced for a given amount
ot labor, and how greater profits may be
obtained without raising the cost to con-
sumers.

It is a fact that work on the farm is
conducted with less system, and less
scientific analysis of all the factors in-
volved, than most other lines of business.
Comparatively few farmers keep any-
thing like correct book accounts of the
expenses and income of the various de-
partments of farm work. Few have any
idea as to the best methods of soil con-
servation for the various kinds of crops,
and how to leave to their children land
as rich or richer than they found it, and
fewer still seem to recognize the value of
a proper cultivation of social life.

The isolation of farm life is being,
in part, overcome by the use of auto-
mobiles which, on account of the rapid
travel, seems to shorten the distances be-
tween places. But the ownership of
automobiles implies more than average
conditions on the part of the owners. It
implies an additional expenditure for
good roads. This means that the farm
must be made sufficiently profitable to
pay for all these expenses.

Generally a fruit growing district
yields more wealth, in proportion to a
given area, than a country devoted to
other kinds of production. It would
probably be easier therefore for fruit

growers to live on smaller tracts of
land, live in closer relations to each oth-
er, have better roads, more modern im-
provements and better social life than
farmers in general; but it is neverthe-
less a question largely of financial profit,
which must be worked out in a more
scientific way than formerly.

Granville Lowther

MINOR ARTICLES OF FARM
EQUIPMENT

Few farmers realize the extent of their
investment in small items of equipment
or the time and inconvenience involved
in buying numerous articles singly or in
small lots. Before planning the farm
equipment, due consideration should be
given to the necessary outlay for minor
items, and where possible the latter
should be secured at one purchase, there-
by saving time and, usually, money. The
purchase of these articles in such a man-
ner will mean a total expenditure suf-
ficient to impress the farmer with the
need for their systematic care. The
minor items for a general farm of 160
acres in the Middle Western states will
probably cost from $200 to $300.

The lists given below are in the na-
ture of a census in that they present
data from which each individual may
secure the information suited to his own
use. These lists are printed with that
object in view rather than as a recom-
mendation of what should be purchased.
Farmers' Bulletin 347, following a discus-
sion of the various workshop tools, states
that the complete equipment of a shop
for the making of general farm repairs
should include a blacksmithing outfit, a
$25 collection of wood working and gen-
eral purpose tools, a pipe working com-
bination, miscellaneous tools, a harness
repair outfit, a work bench, a pair of saw
horses, and a grindstone, and that this
entire equipment for a shop can be se-
cured for about $100 in a fair quality of
goods, while for $150 tools of excellent
quality can be obtained.

The great number of general purpose
items, other than those mentioned, to-
gether with those for use in connection
with the producing enterprises, and the
stock of materials needed for the repair

938

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

of farm equipment will easily bring the
total cost of a good working equipment
in miscellaneous articles up to $250. The
expenditure of this sum for this purpose
in the organization of the farm is prob-

ably out of the question for many farm-
ers, but due consideration at the out-
set for the necessary investment in minor
items will save much inconvenience and
disappointment later.

Table I

Summary of items of minor equipment, with the number and cost of all items
suggested as necessary and their total cost.

ITEMS

Percentage
of farms
reporting

2

Average
number of
items per

farm
reporting

3

Number of
each item
suggested

Cost of
each item

Total coat

of items

suggested

General purpose:

Auger

Awl

Ax and handle

Pinch bar

Bench screw

Auger bit

Bit brace

Steel square

Bevel square

Try-square

Wood chisel

Compass

Level

Drawing knife

Scratch gauge

Gimlet bits

Grub hoe

Claw hammer

Hand ax

Hatchet

Screw-driver

Log chain

Wooden mallet

Mattock

Compass saw

Handsaw

Crosscut saw, large. . . .

Plane

Iron wedge

Tapeline

Rasp

Brush hook or scythe . .

Cant hook

Chalk line

Buck saw

Carpenter's pincers. . . .

Anvil

Vise

Forge

Combination drill press

Drills

Tinner's snips

Cold chisel

Whetstone

Screw plate

Tongs

Flat file

Round file

Taper file

Oil can

Machine oil

Pipe wrench

Monkey wrench

Tool grinder

Grindstone

Riveting hammer

Sledge hammer

Pliers

Nippers

67
27
88
64
55
94
94
85
35
25
73
42
64
91
45
55
21
82
36
70
67
82
36
79
42
94
85
73
79
39
39
21
42
27
10
30
21
15

3
23
27
18
73
24
27

6
70
35
42
30
61
24
64
30
91
39
33
67
52

3.0
1.9
2.1
1.1
1.0
6.7
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
4.3
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.4
3.0
1.1
1.3
1.0
1.4
1.7
2.5
1.5
1.4
1.0
1.7
1.2
2.3

1.0
1.0
1.2
1.0
1.2
1.0
1.0
3.9
1.0
2.3
1.8
1.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.2
1.7
• .8
1.3
2.1
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.1
1.4
1.5

$0.25
.10

1.25
.75
.60
.30

1.50
.75
.40
.25
.40
.30
.75
.75
.40
.20
.60
.50
.50
.75
.25

1.50
.25
.75
.30

1.25

3.00

1.25
.30
.50
.50

1.25

1.25

.10

.75

.60

10.00

5.50
16.00

4.00
.50

1.25
.20
.10
10.00
.50
.15
.30
.10
.10
.30

1.50
.50

3.00

4.00
.75

1.00
.50

1.00

$0.75
.10

2.50
.75
.60

2.00

1.50
.75
.40
.25

1.50
.30
.75
.75
.40
.40

.50

.50

.75

.25

3.00

.25

.75

.30

2.50

3.00

2.50

.60

.50

.50

1.25
.10

.60

4.00
2.00

.40

.10

10.00

.30

.30

.20

.10

.30

1.50

1.00

3.00

4.00

.75

1.00

.50

1.00

•Gallons.

FARMS

939

Table I — Continued

Summary of items of minor equipment, with the number and cost of all items
suggested as necessary and their total cost.

1

2

3

4

5

ITEMS

Percentage
of farms
reporting

Average
number of
items per

farm
reporting

Number of
each item
suggested

as
necessary

Cost of
each item

Total cost
of items
suggested

as
necessary

General purpose — Continued:

33
18
36
16
41
11
29
22
31
44

6
16
31
31
13
16
34
28
38
24
26

3
45
52
58
68
16
71
39
48
26
52

45
48
10
29
52
55
15
39
39
64
88
12
12
3
3
36
21
64
21

9
15
42
27
18

9
12
42

40
91
89
89
43

2.2
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.0
1.6
1.4
1.0
1.4
1.9
1.4
1.3
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
2.1
5.0
1.4
1.4
1.0
1.8
1.2
3.0
1.8
3.3
1.4
5.8

1.0
1.0
2.8
1.1
2.4
1.7
1.2
1.3
54.7
1.2
2.4
1.3
1.3
8.0
3.0
1.4
1.1
1.0
1.0

2.0
1.0
2.6
4.4
5.3
2.3
1.0
1.4

2.4
2.8
2.0
2.3
2.7

2

S .15

.50

.60

.60

1.25

1.00

1.00

1.25

1.00

.40

1.00

.50

1.00

1.00

1.00

5.00

.50

2.00

8.00

.50

.15

2.00

1.75

2.00

2.00

.90

2.00

.75

.40

.30

.75

.30

5.50

2.00
.10
.05
.30

2.50

1.50
.40
.40
.50
.40

4.00
.25

2.50
.10
.75
.50

4.00
.40

.30
6.00
.70
.15
.25
.25
.75
4.00

.40

2.00

.50

.25

3.00

$ 30

1

60

1

1.25

1
1

1
1

1 00

1.25

1.00

40

Pick..

1
1

1.00

1.00

1
1
1
1
1

.50

2.00

8.00

.50

.15

1

1
1
2

i.75

2.00

2.00

1.80

Barrel

3

1
2
1
4

1

1
2
1
2

1

2.25

Padlock

.40

.60

.75

Basket

1.20

Household and farm:

Lard press and sausage staffer

5.50
2.00

.20

.05

.60

Kettle

2.50

1

40

1

2

.40

16.00

Garden rake

.50

Hoe

.80

Trowel

Flat .

Spade

1

.75

Lawn mower

Lawn rake

1

4.00

All stock:

Manure fork

Pail

2
3
3

1.40
.45

Tie chain

.75

Hand sprayer

Wheelbarrow

Horse and driving:

Bit

1

2
3
2
2
2

4.00
.80

Blanket

6.00

Brush ....

1.00

Currycomb

.50

Collar

6.00

940

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Table I — Continued

Summary of items of minor equipment, with the number and cost of all items
suggested as necessary and their total cost.

ITEMS

Horse and driving — Continued:
Harness oil

Fly nets

Halters

Muzzle

Nosebag

Sweat pad

Harness punch

Riveting machine

Rivets

Tie rope

Saddle

Riding bridle

Snaps

Sponge

Neck straps

Syringe

Storm apron

Buggy jack

Wagon jack

Clevis

Chamois skin

Dust robe

Lap robe

Evener, 2-horse

Evener, 3 or 4-horse

Storm front

Dash lantern

Neck yoke • .

Whippletree

Whip

Whisk broom

Cattle:

Cow bell

Calf muzzle

Crate

Tie rope or chain

Dehorning clipper

Milk tube

Dairy:

Milk can

Milk crock

Milk pan

Milk pail

Churn

Butter crock

Butter bowl

Butter scales

Strainer

Skimmer

Thermometer

Sheep:

Bell

Shears

Swine:

Ring plier

Rings

Snout clipper

Tongs

Crate

Portable house

Poultry:

Fountain

Feed hopper

Trap nests

Feed pan

Feed sieve

Percentage
of farms
reporting

34
34
97
26
14
37
69
69
43
31
57
23
23
14
43
23
17
40
14
40
11
62
71
60
63
46
23
14
29
60
11

6
3
3

39
9

15

36
27

6
70
45
21
21

6
30

6
24

12

48

58

3

3

15

39

6
3
3
3
3

Average
number of
items per

farm
reporting

tl.5
2.8
6.5
1.8
1.4
2.2
1.2
1.0

tl.2
2.8
1.0
1.3
7.4
2.0
1.9
1.1
1.2
1.1
1.0
4.3
1.0
1.2
1.6
2.0
1.5
1.1
1.4
1.6
3.1
1.4
1.0

1.5
1.0
1.0
3.9
1.0
1.0

4.9
9.9
5.0
3.2
1.1
10.1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

5.0
1.6

1.1

Number of
each item
suggested

1.0
1.0
2.0
6.6

3.5
3.0
8.0
6.0
1.0

Cost of
each item

i .25

1.00

.75

.20

.50

.35

.50

.50

.10

.15

10.00

1.00

.05

.10

.75

.60

.75

.75

1.00

.10

.50

1.00

5.00

1.50

2.00

4.00

1.00

1.00

.30

.50

.10

.25
.20
.50
.30
5.00
.25

1.50
.10
.20
.50

4.00
.20
.50

1.50
.50
.10
.25

.15
1.00

.20
.10
.40
..TO
1.00
4.00

.25
.25
.25
.05
.25

Total coat
of items
suggested

.50
2.00
4.50

.40

.70
.50
.50
.10
.30
10.00
1.00
.20
.10
.75
.60
.75
.75

.30

1.00
5.00
3.00
2.00
4.00
1.00
1.00
.60
.50

.90

6.00
.70

1.50
4.00
1.20

.50
!25

.45
1.00

.20
.10

20.00

tQuarts.

fBoxes.

FARMS

941

Table I— Concluded

Summary of items of minor equipment, with the number and cost of all items
suggested as necessary and their total cost.

1

2

3

4

5

ITEMS

Percentage
of farms
reporting

Average
number of
items per

farm
reporting

Number of
each item
suggested

as
necessary

Cost of
each item

Total cost
of items
suggested

as
necessary

Poultry — Continued :

3
6
3

6
6

6

12

9

15

12

12

6

9

6

6

27
70
61

6
42

9
30
12

3
30
58
55
61
30
88
21
88
70
32

9
67

48
36
15
33
15
36
97
82

3
3
3

3
39

3

21
15

3
12
12

9

6.0
1.0
3.0
50.5
1.0

•6.0
2.8
1.0

19.6

30.3
1.0
2.0
1.3

13.5
1.0

1.0
2.7
1.3
1.0
1.5
1.3
2.9
•1.3

2.0
1.1
1.1
4.5
X132.5
X 65.0
3.2
1.6
1.4
1.1
1.1
2.7
1.2

1.0
1.0
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.3
38.6
1.7

2.0
6.0
9.0

1.0
1.4
1.0

471.0

485.0

500.0

1.0

2.5

2.0

$ .25

.15

3.00

6.00

.75

.75
.75

1.00
.50

1.00
.25
.10
.25

3.50

.50

.25

1.50

1.00

.50

1.00

.10

.75

8.00

3.00

1.25

.40

Bees:

Section box (100)

Hive

Corn:

1
2

1

$ .50

.50

1.50

1

.50

2

.20

Hay:

1

1
4
•110
• 40
3
1
1
1
1

3.00

1.25

1.60

5.00

.45

.60

.30
1.25
5.00

.50
2.00

.75

5.00
3.00

1.80

.30

Scythe and snath

1.25

5.00

Sickle

.50

Knife

1

1

1

.75

Small grain and seed :

Cradle..

5.00

3.00

Flail.

1

.50
.70
.25
.20
1.00

1.50
.50
.25

1.50
1.50
1.75

.20
.03
.06
1.00
.75
.30

.50

Hand rake

1
38

2

.25

7.60

2.00

Sugar beets:

Potatoes:

Fork or hook

1

1.50

Maple sugar:

Total cost of items suggested as

$270.70

xFeet.

•Pounds.

•Pairs.

942

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

WATER SUPPLY FOR THE FARM
HOME

The failure to employ modem methods
of lightening labor inside the house is a
great hardship on many farms. Thought-
fully planned, conveniently arranged,
and carefully constructed buildings are
as essential in the country as in the city.
Plumbing is becoming a necessity, not
only for comfort and convenience but
even more for health and cleanliness;
and the proper disposal of the wastes of
the household should not be neglected.

For domestic purposes the water must
be clear, pure, and palatable; the es-
sentials being freedom from disease
germs, turbidity, color, odor and taste.

Springs and Wells

Of the various sources of supply
springs usually rank first and deep wells
next in desirability. The character of
the water in a shallow well depends
upon its past history and present envi-
ronment. If it has traveled long dis-
tances through the soil without encoun-
tering organic impurities or taking up
objectionable mineral salts, or if after
possible pollution it has been filtered and
purified in its travels, its quality is prob-
ably excellent. But shallow wells near
barnyards or privy vaults should always
be regarded with suspicion. It is well
to remember that the price of pure water,
wherever you go, is everlasting and un-
remitting vigilance.

To locate a cesspool and a well on the
same small piece of ground is almost im-
possible without contaminating the water.
Slop water of any kind should never be
thrown near the well. The top 4 or 5
feet of the well casing should be laid in
cement mortar to prevent water flowing
in without first filtering through the
ground. A sewer pipe or waste drain
near a well is dangerous because such
a pipe or drain is seldom watertight. If
a sewer pipe must be run near a well,
cast iron pipe should be used.

The carelessness that will locate the
barn on higher ground than the well and
take no precautions to divert the surface
drainage is almost as deplorable as the
use of the cesspool or privy vault. To

keep the earth clean in the vicinity of
the water supply is of the greatest
importance and requires constant watch-
fulness.

Water Storage
Cisterns

There are localities where the only
available water supply is obtained by
storing the water which falls from the
roof of the house during rainy weather.
In other places the water is so hard that
rain water is desirable in the laundry
and bathroom.

Construction

The size of the cistern needed will
vary with the size of the family, the
length of the dry season, and the number
of plumbing fixtures supplied with the
rain water. This cistern may be located
close to the house for convenience and
should be added by building an 8-inch
wall not less than 8 inches in thickness,
laid in Portland cement mortar. The
bottom should be laid with two courses
of brick well bedded in the cement mor-
tar. If the water is to be used for drink-
ing or for cooking, a filter chamber
should be added by building an 8-inch
partition wall after the bottom has been
paved. This wall should be built a lit-
tle higher than the outlet of the over-
fiow pipe. The walls of both compart-
ments should be plastered with a good
coat of cement mortar, composed of one
part good Portland cement and two parts
clean, sharp sand, excepting 10 or 12
inches of the bottom of the partition wall
(4 or 5 courses of brick, which are laid
together without cement) for the water
to pass through. The water from the
roof is collected in one compartment and
is pumped from the other, the filtering
material being put in the first compart-
ment. An overflow pipe should be pro-
vided on the side of the cistern which
the water enters, the opening of the over-
flow pipe being fitted with a fine strain-
er to exclude insects or vermin. A cut-
off should be placed on the rain water
pipe leading to the cistern to divert the
flow to the outside when necessary, as,
for instance, for a short time at the be-
ginning of the rains to exclude the dirt
collected on the roof and in the gutters.

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943

The cistern may be built of concrete,
and may be either round or rectangular.
The round form is the more difficult to
build, but it is the stronger.

Use of a Pump

A small force pump, placed at one end
of the kitchen sink, with the suction pipe
reaching to the cistern, is a convenient
means of getting the soft water supply
if the more expensive method of using
a gravity tank or a pneumatic tank and
piping the soft water to the sink, wash
basins, and bath tub is not desired. If
a gravity soft water tank is placed in the
attic it can have a direct connection with
a rain water leader which will keep the
tank full during the rainy season. This
conection must be supplied with an
automatic cut-off which will send the
water to the cistern when the attic tank
is full. The force pump can be connect-
ed to the tank and used to fill it in dry
seasons.

To have a constant water supply in the
kitchen and bathroom it is necessary to
have some means of storing it under
pressure. An elevated tank which will
deliver the water by gravity may be
used, or a pneumatic tank which will de-
liver it by air pressure. The labor saved
by having the water carried to the house,
barn and garden, will soon pay for the
storage tank, while the value of ade-
quate fire protection and the healthful-
ness of sanitary plumbing can not be esti-
mated in dollars.

Elevated Tanks
Location of the Tank

If the gravity system is chosen, the
tank for the storage of the water may be
in the attic or on an outside tower. If
a windmill is used for power, a small
tank can be supported 20 to 40 feet from
the ground, on the same tower. These
tanks can be constructed of wood or of
galvanized steel, and of capacity varying
from 300 to 2,000 gallons. If a larger
tank is desired, a tank on an independ-
ent tower should generally be used with
pipe connections to house and barns.
When the storage for the house supply
is in the attic, too large a tank should
not be used, as water is heavy (62.5

pounds per cubic foot) and there is dan-
ger of overloading the attic floor unless it
has been especially designed to carry the
tank.

Kinds, Construction and Cost

Attic tanks are constructed of wood
lined with zinc or lead, of galvanized
steel, of cast iron, and of wrought iron.
Such tanks should always be provided
with an overflow pipe to carry off the
water if the float valve fails to shut it
off when the tank is full. If of iron or
steel, a galvanized steel tank pan with
a drain connecting with the overflow pipe
should be placed beneath the tank to pre-
vent damage to floors and ceilings from
condensation of moisture on the outside.
The water supply is regulated by means
of a float valve which cuts off the inlet
pipe when the tank is full enough. The
size of the tank will be regulated by the
power used to raise the water as well
as the amount required by the family.
The hydraulic ram or the windmill will
require only a small storage tank, as
they are so easily set going. If an en-
gine is used, a tank that will hold a
two or three days' supply would be more
convenient and economical. A closed
steel tank, fitted with a water seal air
valve, may be used in the attic with the
overflow pipe leading to the stock tank
in the barnyard. This insures a con-
stant renewal of the water. There is
one farm in Illinois where the water sup-
ply is forced to an attic tank and the
fall of the surplus operates a water
motor for lifting the cistern water to
another tank in the attic, and then the
surplus water goes to a tank in the hay
mow of the barn with an overflow pipe
to a stock tank in the barnyard. This
illustrates how well the head can be
made to save the heels.

If all the plumbing fixtures are on the
ground floor, the closed steel tank for
the cold water supply can be placed in the
kitchen or bathroom. If desired, the en-
tire water supply can be made to pass
through this house tank and so the house
supply will be always fresh. With a
closed tank there is no danger from
overflow.

944

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

A tank like this, 12 inches in diameter
and four feet high, will hold 24 gallons
and cost about $16. An open galvanized
steel tank can be made or can be bought
ready made. A ready made one with a
capacity of 100 gallons will cost about $8,
while a 500-gallon tank will cost about
$16.

Pneumatic Tanks

Sufficient pressure to force a water sup-
ply wherever desired in a farmhouse may
be secured at all seasons by means of a
pneumatic tank built of steel plates and
located in the cellar, or in a small build-
ing erected over the well, or even buried
in the earth if desired. It is superior to
an elevated tank because the pipes and
tank can more easily be made frost proof
in winter and the water will be cooler in
summer. It is closed to dust and light
and has the additional advantage of rest-
ing upon the solid ground.

Principle of Action

Water is pumped into the bottom of this
air-tight tank, and as the water rises in

the tank the air above it is compressed.
The expansion of this compressed air
will force the water through the supply
pipes at the bottom of the tank to points
where the water is required. The pres-
sure is increased by pumping more water
into the tank and decreased by drawing
water off. A 15-pound pressure will raise
water to a height of 33 feet, a 10-pound
pressure to a height of 22 feet, etc. The
correct amount of air can be supplied and
maintained by an automatic air valve, by
a pump that forces both air and water
into the tank at the same time, or by a
hand air-valve. The last method is not
self-regulating, but if water is supplied
to the tank by a hand force pump, it will
not require much more attention to regu-
late the air pressure also.

Power; Cost

The water can be forced into the pneu-
matic tank by the same means required
to elevate it to a gravity tank, i. e., by a
windmill, gas engine, hot-air engine, hy-
draulic ram, or by hand. From ten to

Fig. 1. I'neumatic I'rcssure Tank Showing Pump and Separator Operated
by an Electric Motor.

— Cniirtcsii Krnnnee Sustetn.

FARMS

945

twenty minutes a day with a good hand
force pump will furnish a moderate sup-
ply. If more than 100 gallons a day are
required, it is better to use some other
means of pumping. If an engine is used,
a large tank is more economical, and
twenty minutes' pumping twice a week
should furnish the supply. With a
windmill an automatic regulator should
be used, which will throw the windmill
out of gear when the pressure reaches a
given amount and start it again when the
pressure is relieved.

The prices vary with the different man-
ufacturers. A tank 30 inches in diameter
and 10 feet long, which would supply the
needs of a family of five, is listed at from
$101 to $138 (subject to discount). The
expense for repairs to an outfit like this is
very slight and the time required for
pumping varies with the power used.

Neighbors can frequently combine and
put in one large plant for supplying water
to several houses. This decreases the cost
to the individual and gives a greater
pressure in case of fire. The greater the
horizontal distance the water is carried,
the larger the pipes should be to lessen
the loss of pressure by friction.

Power Available

What will be the most convenient and
economical means of forcing water into
the storage tank depends upon the situa-
tion in each case. The source of the sup-
ply, the amount required, the need of
power for other purposes, the available
fuel, and the cost of labor will all have
a bearing on the matter. The hydraulic
ram and the windmill have the advantage
of operation without fuel, but the ram re-
quires at least 18 inches of waterfall,
while with the windmill the daily supply
of water is not always subject to control.
The gas or hot-air engine requires fuel
and attendance, but the supply is more
easily regulated.

The Hydraulic Ram

The hydraulic ram can be used to fill
the storage tanks if the source of supply
is a spring, flowing well, or running
stream from which enough fall to supply
the power can be obtained. Its use is
practicable with a fall of only 18 inches,

but with greater heads water can be
forced to higher elevations and to longer
distances. The head can be increased by
damming the stream or by sinking the
ram into a pit, if a drain can be
secured to keep the pit free from water.
The relation between the height of
the spring, or source of supply, above the
ram and the elevation to which the water
is to be delivered determines the propor-
tion of water raised to water wasted. It
is not economy to increase the fall more
than is necessary to supply the required
amount of water, as the durability of the
ram will be lessened. The amount of
water procured by means of a ram from
a very small fall makes a good supply be-
cause the ram is always going.

TVindmills

The cost of installing a windmill will
depend upon the depth and character of
the well and its distance from the house
and barns, upon the height of the tower,
upon the elevation or pressure of the
storage tank, and upon the amount of wa-
ter required each day. These items vary
so much with the individual cases that it
is unsatisfactory to attempt to give even
general figures. Any manufacturer of
windmills will furnish an estimate upon
application.

Gas or Hot-Air Engines

Small gas or hot-air engines are now
manufactured for the express purpose of
pumping water from cisterns, springs, or
wells to elevated or pneumatic tanks to
furnish supplies for houses and barns.
One advantage of the engine over the hy-
draulic ram or the windmill is that the
water can be pumped when it is wanted,
and the size of the storage tank can be
more accurately determined. An engine
can be selected which will burn any kind
of fuel — natural gas, gasoline, kerosene,
coal, or wood. Such engines do not re-
quire an expert to run them, and, like the
power windmill, can be used for driving
other light machinery when not needed
for pumping water.

The arrangement of the pipes to carry
the water is governed by the same con-
ditions as when other power is used. No
more elbows or sharp bends should be

2—19

946

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

used than are absolutely necessary, as
they cut down the capacity of the engine;
and when the water is to be pumped
through a great length of horizontal pipe
it is well to increase the size of the pipe.
The cost of a two or three horsepower
engine will be from $60 to $130. The cost
of the fuel is very small, as a half hour's
pumping a day will furnish the average
supply of water.

The House
Location

In selecting a location for a house there
are certain points that should be held in
mind. A slight elevation, having proper
surface drainage, with protecting hills or
woods on the north, is greatly preferable
to a narrow valley, a low meadow, or the
north side of a hill. The house should
face so as to get sunlight Into all the
rooms, if possible, for "where sunlight
does not enter the doctor must." This
may be accomplished by facing the house
southeast, for example, instead of di-
rectly east or south.

Foundation and Cellar

After the selection of the site some
study should be given to the character of
the subsoil, the principal factors to be con-
sidered in this connection being the water
and the air. There is a certain amount
of moisture in the upper layer of the soil
which is the cause of damp and unhealthy
foundations. This dampness is derived
mostly from the surface water, and is di-
rectly proportional to the absorptive
power of the soil and can be diminished
lay tiling and trenching. The ground air
is rendered impure by the gases arising
from the decomposition and putrefaction
that are constantly going on in the soil,
especially in that which is contaminated
by household wastes.

In the construction of the cellar the
first thing is to provide such drainage as
will draw off the water at least one foot
lower than the surface of the cellar floor
and prevent the ground air from passing
through the walls and floors. In building
the cellar walls every joint should be
entirely filled with mortar. A good coat
of asphalt over the outside of the wall
turned in at the grade line with a course

of slate or bluestone above the ground
level will prevent all soaking up of mois-
ture. If a drain tile is laid just outside
the footing course and the space on the
outside of the wall is filled with sand
and gravel all the way up to grade, the
surface water will be carried away
through the drain.

The floor of the cellar is best made by
a layer of brick or of cinder concrete,
covered by a layer of asphalt and finish-
ed by a 4-inch layer of stone concrete.
A layer of well-beaten clay makes a good
cellar floor, but it can not be so easily
kept clean. The height of the cellar walls
above the ground is important. They
should extend a sufficient distance above
the ground to admit of windows in the
cellar at least 2 feet high. This will in-
sure plenty of light and thorough ventila-
tion. There should be cellar windows on
all sides of the house.

Plumbing
Important Points to Be Kept in Mind

There is a great difference of opinion
among those who have made special study
of sanitary plumbing concerning many of
the details of construction and design, but
the vital things to be kept in mind when
laying out the system are to use the best
material, isolate all plumbing, and con-
centrate as much as possible. By "best
material" is not meant the most expen-
sive, but the most durable. Secure sim-
plicity in all needed fixtures. Avoid com-
plications in waste pipes. Select sinks
without grease traps, bath tubs without
inaccessible overflows, wash basins free
as possible from fouling places, and water-
closets without valves, connecting rods, or
machinery.

The drainage system must be so con-
structed as to carry away completely, auto-
matically, and immediately everything
that may be delivered into it. It should
be constantly and generally vented, fre-
quently and thoroughly flushed, and have
each of its openings into the house se-
curely guarded from the entrance of air
from the interior of the drain or pipe into
the room. All drains, soil pipe, and waste
pipe should be absolutely tight against the
leakage of water or air.

FARMS

947

The main line of tlie house drainage
system begins at tlie sewer, flush tank,
or septic tank, as the case may be, passes
through tlie house by such a course as
may be indicated by a judicious compro-
mise between directness and convenience,
past the location of the highest fixture
that is to discharge into it, and then out
through the roof for free ventilation. If
possible, have the fixtures which are lo-
cated on different floors in a direct line
one above the other to avoid any consid-
erable horizontal run. If bathrooms or
water-closets are required in different
parts of the house let each have its own
vertical line of soil pipe. All plumbing
flxtures on bedroom floors should be con-
flned to bathrooms, and under no circum-
stances should there be a wash basin or
any other opening into any channel which
is connected with the drainage system in
a sleeping room or in a closet opening in-
to a sleeping room. Each bathroom
should have exterior location and at least
one window for light and ventilation,
but pipes should not be placed against
outer walls unless adequately protected
against frost. Never have plumbing out
of sight; let each pipe be in full view,
and each closet, bath, or basin be unhid-
den by any sort of inclosing woodwork.
There is quite as much danger from the
dirt which is apt to gather around con-
cealed pipes and beneath inclosed sinks,
bowls, or closets as there is from the ad-
mission of sewer gas. The simplest way
to prevent the accumulation of dirt is to
make it easier to be clean than to be
dirty. Therefore keep the plumbing fix-
tures where there is plenty of light.

Improvements for the Kitchen

The kitchen is a most important part
of the house. On it depends the physical
life, and to a large degree the spiritual
life, of the family. Realizing its impor-
tance, sufficient time and thought should
be given to it to secure the best results
possible from the material at hand.

Ventilation, Walls and Floors

Perfect ventilation is the first require-
ment of a kitchen, light comes next, and
in turn the possibilities of perfect clean-
liness. The walls should be painted so

that they may be wiped off with a damp
cloth, making cleanliness possible with-
out great demand on strength, and with-
out the disarrangement caused by white-
washing and kalsomining. In these days
of enameled paint the walls and shelves
of all kitchen closets should be painted.
Painted shelves can be wiped off with a
damp cloth every day if need be. Paper
in kitchen closets is always a bid for dust
and vermin.

Hard wood makes the best kitchen
floors. Linoleum or oilcloth are labor
saving and, if cut to exactly fit the floor
and all joints cemented, are perfectly san-
itary. Intelligence does not countenance
a carpet on the kitchen floor.

The Range

Whatever fuel is used, let the range
be one of the best in the market. This
is true economy. Near the range and
under the same ventilating hood should
stand the oil or gasoline stove. There
is an infinite variety of these stoves, all
economical, cleanly, and safe if managed
with care.

A hood suspended over the kitchen
range and connected to a flue in the
chimney will gather all the steam and
odors and carry them away.

Laundry Arrangements

When the kitchen is also used as the
family laundry, stationary tubs of enamel-
ed iron or of soapstone should adjoin the
sink. They should be covered to form a
table when not in use, but as confined air
near plumbing becomes dangerous the
covers should close upon rubber knobs
or wooden blocks, so as to leave an air
space for ventilation. Nickel plated
union strips and hardwood wringer hold-
ers should be added between the tubs and
at the right hand end so that a wringer
may be used. One of the needs of the or-
dinary farmhouse is a suitable place for
the workmen to wash as they come from
the fields. When a separate room is fitted
up as a laundry, provision should be
made here for the men by adding a large
sink and bench.

The Kitchen Sink

The kitchen sink should be of cast iron,
plain, galvanized or enameled, broad, and

948

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

of a generous size, preferably with a high
back to protect the wall from the water
which Is certain to splash when drawn
rapidly from the pipes. The faucets
should be set well up and back to avoid
the breakage of dishes by striking them
against the faucets. The waste pipe
should be covered with a fairly fine brass
strainer, which should be held securely
in place by screws. At one end should be
placed a long draining shelf, the shelf
should be well grooved and inclined
slightly toward the sink. Both tubs and
sink should be well trapped, but as grease
traps when neglected are filthy things,
and as proper care of the pipes renders
them unnecessary in an ordinary kitchen,
they should be avoided. Kitchen and pan-
try sink drains should be treated fre-
quently to a wash of hot water and am-
monia or soda to keep them clear from
deposits of grease. Kitchen sinks are
used for the discharge of liquids which
in their original condition are not of-
fensive, but which after a little retention
begin to putrefy, and it is very impor-
tant to secure the complete removal of
all such matter well beyond the limits of
the house before putrefaction begins.

Refrigerator drains should never con-
nect directly with the drainage system.

Hot Water Apparatus

A hot water supply may be furnished by
a special heating apparatus in the cellar,
a furnace connection, or, as Is usual in
small houses, by a boiler and water front
attachment for the range. The cold water
should always enter the boiler at some
distance below the point of entrance of
the hot water from the water front of the
range; the greater this distance the bet-
ter will be the circulation, and the less
time it will take to heat a certain amount
of water. The kitchen boiler is simply
a storage tank to keep a supply of hot
water on hand so that it can be drawn
when required. The chemical properties
of the water often determine whether a
copper or galvanized iron boiler may be
used. Certain waters will rust out a gal-
vanized iron boiler in a few years, while
a copper boiler, used in its place, would
last a lifetime. The hot water stores it-

self in the upper part of the boiler and
is forced out by the cold water entering
at the bottom. The upper pipe, or hot
water pipe, from the water front to the
boiler must not be allowed to sag but
must have as much elevation as possible,
and also large sized elbows should be
used, in order that the flow of water will
have the least possible friction to contend
with. The more elevation we get from
the water front to the boiler the better
the water will circulate, but the slight-
est rise in the pipe will make a satisfac-
tory job. It should be a continuous rise
from the range to the boiler. To prevent
the pounding of steam in the boiler an
expansion pipe should be provided to al-
low the escape of steam and air bubbles if
the water comes from a tank in the at-
tic. This expansion pipe should open
over the overflow from the attic tank.
When pressure tanks are used the expan-
sion pipe must be omitted. The sediment
which is constantly accumulating in the
boiler should be blown off through the
stopcock for that purpose, found under
every boiler.

The range and boiler are set as close
together as they can be for the purpose
of getting the best results in regard to
the heating of the water. The best kind
of pipe for connecting them is either cop-
per or brass, three-fourths or one inch
in diameter, with fittings of the same ma-
terial having threaded joints. Lead pipe
is too soft for the purpose and will not
stand the high temperatures which the
water in these connections often reaches.
If it is desired to draw hot water from the
different faucets throughout the house at
the moment the faucet is opened instead
of having to wait until all the water in
the pipe has been drawn out, it is neces-
sary to have a circulation of the hot
water at all times from the boiler to the
different fixtures. The hot water pipe is
started from the boiler and carried up,
as shown in Fig. 2, to the highest fixture
and then connected. The return pipe is
carried down, as shown by the direction
of the arrows, and this pipe connects with
each of the lower fixtures, finally ending
at the bottom connection of the boiler.
Be sure to have some upward slope at all

FARMS

949

points to the pipe wliich leads from the
boiler to the highest fixture; but it is
not necessary that the return have a
continuous fall.

Installation of the Batbroom
Walls and Floors

The bathroom should be a light, well
ventilated room with every facility for
cleanliness. Floors and wainscoting of
tile or composite material are most de-
sirable, but painted walls are much less
expensive and give excellent results. Tile
is undoubtedly the most satisfactory ma-
terial which can be used for the cover-
ing of the floors and walls where it can
be afforded. Tile floor with covered base
and walls finished with cement or hard
plaster, painted with enamel paint, are
much cheaper. When a tile floor can not
be had, linoleum is an excellent substi-
tute as it is practically impervious to
water. It should be laid before the flx-
tures are set, in order that there may be
no joints. Cement mixed with small
chips of marble well rubbed down after
setting makes an excellent floor, one that
washes as clean as a porcelain plate and
has no cracks to harbor dirt; the cost is
only about twice that of a double wood
floor, or 50 cents per square foot, includ-
ing the necessary cement bed on which it
is laid. When it is desired to lay a ce-
ment, composition, or tile floor upon
floor joists, proceed as follows: Nail a 2
by 4 to the side of each of the floor joists
flush with the bottom. Upon the top of
these stretch wire lath, after the joists
have first been covered with tarred paper
to prevent them absorbing moisture: and
upon this lay cinder concrete, made of
one part Portland cement, three parts
loose sand, six to eight parts crushed
and screened furnace clinkers; filling in
to a level at least two inches above the
tops of the joists. Upon this is placed
the floor finishing. Cinder concrete is
used because it is so much lighter than
that made of stone. When a tile or ce-
ment wainscot is too expensive the walls
should be painted. Wall paper is not de-
sirable in a bathroom, nor is wood
paneling.

Bath Tub and Lavatory

A porcelain lined or enameled iron bath
tub is the best medium priced tub. For
supplying the tub with water a combina-
tion cock is best, allowing hot or cold
water to enter the tub separately or the
temperature to be regulated to suit the
bather. The cock should be placed high,
so as to allow of water being drawn into
pitchers.

The best lavatories are those of porce-
lain or enameled iron, with back and
overflow all formed as integral parts of
the flxture. The basin cocks through
which the hot and cold water come are
of various shapes, the simplest being the
best.

The Closet

The water closet is the most important
plumbing fixture in the house, and should
be selected and put up with particular
care. A good closet should be simple,
neat, and strong, of a smooth material,
with ample water in the bowl. Among
the modern closets there is none more
satisfactory than the flushing-rim, siphon-
jet closet, which can be had, including
the trap, in a single piece of porcelain.
Porcelain is used because no other ma-
terial can be kept so clean and sanitary.
But even this is an imperfect protection
from dirt and disease unless the bowl is
flushed so as to clean it completely and
absolutely. The water should be poured
from the rim of the bowl, so that every
part of it is perfectly cleaned. The
wash-down and wash-out closets are sim-
ilar in make, but are not so thorough in
their action. In the wash-out closet the
basin acts as a receiver, a small quantity
of water being retained in it, and into
this the deposit is made, to be washed
out afterwards into the trap by the flush.
The water in the basin is prevented from
leaking into the trap by a raised ridge
which is apt to break the force of the
flush so that its whole force is not di-
rected into the trap, which is objection-
able. The wash-down closet receives the
deposit directly into the water held in
the bowl by the trap. It has a straight
back and a much smaller fouling surface.
There is no open vent. The outlet is en-

950

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

tirely covered with water, so that the
water does not throw the soil against
the side. The only advantage the siphon
closet has over it is the greater force of
discharge given by the siphon.

The siphon closet, like the wash down
closet, retains a certain amount of water
into which filth is discharged. In addi-
tion there is a siphon trap provided with
a long ascending arm, so that the water
in the trap is at a lower level than the
water in the bowl. The water from the
flushing cistern is directed not only into
the bowl, but downward into the trap
itself. As a result of this discharge into
the trap a siphon action is produced
whereby the contents of the bowl are
sucked through the trap into the soil pipe
without soiling the bowl. The seal —
that is, the body of water which prevents
the sewer gas from escaping into the
house — is deep, broad, and always in
plain sight.

Flushing Apparatus

The flushing cistern or tank for a
water closet is always distinct from the
main water supply. As a rule, a plain
hardwood box, copper lined, is support-
ed by brackets from the wall about 7
feet above and communicating with the
closet by a pipe. This pipe is usually
about 1^2 inches in diameter and should
have as few bends and angles about it
as possible. The cistern should hold 2
or 3 gallons of water, all of which should
be discharged at one time Into the closet.
The flush of the closet should be quick,
powerful, and noiseless, thoroughly scour-
ing all parts exposed to fouling.

The flow into the cistern is regulated
by a float valve which allows the tank
to fill, the float rising with the water;
when it reaches the proper level the float
is entirely raised and the supply shut off.
When the tank is emptied by opening
the flush valve, which is lifted by pull-
ing a chain attached to it, the process is
repeated. The cistern is usually provided
with an overflow connected with the flush
pipe, so that if the ballcock fails to act
properly in shutting off the water the sur-
plus will escape through the water closet
to the drain instead of overflowing.

Soil-Pipe Connections

The best closets are provided with a
brass screw soil-pipe connection, calked
with lead and cemented into the base of
the closet. The corresponding threaded
brass coupling is soldered into the end
of the lead bend which connects with the
soil pipe. The closet is then screwed in-
to the threaded coupling until the base
rests on the floor. The closet may be
removed at any time by simply unscrew-
ing it. No bolts are necessary through
the base flanges. In setting a water
closet a neater flnish can be obtained if
a porcelain floor slab is put in with the
flnished floor.

General Suggestions

The important need of the work is sim-
plicity, not only in detail, but in general
scheme. Construct the water closet to be
used as a urinal and slop sink and ar-
range to draw water through the bath
cocks placed at the top of the tub. It not
only saves cost, but is a great advantage
to have the fewest possible points requir-
ing inspection and care and to secure the
most frequent possible use of every in-
let into the drainage system. Great care
must be taken not to throw into the
water closet hair, matches, strips of cloth,
or anything which is insoluble and liable
to clog the trap and soil pipe. A burnt
match seems small in itself, but if lodged
in the trap it will collect other things
and cause serious obstruction of the out-
let. Tissue toilet paper should be used.
Its cost would be exceeded many times if
a part of the system needed to be taken
out to free it from newspaper obstruction.
It is often found more convenient to have
the water closet with a separate en-
trance from the hall and entirely inde-
pendent from the bathroom.

Traps and Vents

Every plumbing flxture must have a
trap to prevent the foul air from coming
back from the drain through the waste
pipe. In its simplest form a trap is a
downward bend in a pipe, so deep that
the upper wall of the pipe dips into the
water held in the bend, the extent to
which it dips being known as the depth

FARMS

951

of the seal. With slight modifications this
is the trap most commonly used foi- wash
basins, laundry tubs, etc. Its greatest
fault is the danger from siphonage; that
is, the water seal may be carried out of
the trap into the soil pipe by the rush
of the water when the fitting itself is
emptied, by the flow of water from an-
other fixture on the same branch waste
pipe, or by the discharge of water from
a fixture higher up but connected to the
same soil pipe. This danger is much les-
sened by the introduction of a system of
ventilation pipes extending upward either
from the trap itself or from the outlet
near the trap. To avoid this extra ex-
pense of a third system of pipes, it is bet-
ter to supply each fixture with one of the
patent non-siphonage traps, which should
also be self-cleansing. There are several
good ones on the market. It is a good
habit, after emptying the wash basin,
bath tub, or kitchen sink, to allow some
clean water from the faucet to run into
the fixture in order to have clean water
in the traps. All traps should be provid-
ed with trap screws, placed below the
water line, and arranged so as to be ac-
cessible for cleaning.

Nothing short of continuous use will
prevent the evaporation of the water in
the traps. One with a large dip is best,
but at the same time the trap must be so
formed that at each use of the fixture all
the filth that is delivered shall be carried
away, the trap being immediately refilled
with fresh water. Hair and fibers from
cloth sometimes carry the water out of
traps by capillary attraction, and care
should be taken not to allow such things
to enter the pipes.

The Soil Pipe

The soil pipe should extend from cellar
to roof in a straight line, if possible, as
each offset or bend forms an obstruc-
tion to its proper flushing with both water
and air. Use only "extra heavy" soil pipe
of uniform thickness throughout, as the
hubs stand the calking better.

Avoid if possible plumbing fixtures in
the cellar if the drain must go under the
floor. If it is necessary to make connec-
tions with a fixture in the cellar it is bet-

ter that the main channel should run
under the floor to or near the location of
such flxtures that all or nearly all of its
length should constitute a part of the
main drain thoroughly flushed and venti-
lated like the rest of the system. The
pipe should be laid in an open trench and
so thoroughly calked that under a pres-
sure equal to one story in height not a
drop of water should escape at any point,
and then it should be inclosed in good con-
crete, after which the trench should be
filled. The soil pipe should pass through
the foundation by means of an arch, and
the cast iron pipe should extend at least
5 feet outside the foundation; from there
on, a carefully laid and rigidly inspected
vitrifled pipe drain is to be preferred.
The joint between the iron pipe and the
vitrifled sewer pipe should be made with
neat Portland cement mortar. If there
are no fixtures in the cellar carry the
drain in full sight along the face of the
cellar wall, or suspended from the floor
beams, so the joints may be inspected. At
the point where it is to turn up as a ver-
tical soil pipe support it by a post or a
brick pier. Use no short turns in the
soil pipe, like "tees" and "quarter bends."
Two one-eighth bends or a Y branch and
a single one-eighth bend give a more
gradual and therefore a better change of
direction. Water closets should connect
to the soil pipe with a Y branch. The
soil pipe should be secured along its en-
tire length at distances not over 5 feet
with hangers and clamps or hooks, so
that it will be rigidly held in position.
The joints in the cast iron soil pipe should
be made by flrst inserting a little picked
oakum into the socket, allowing none to
enter the pipe; it is better formed into
a sort of rope. The oakum prevents the
lead from running into the pipe to form
an obstruction to the flow. Enough molt-
en lead is then poured into the hub to fill
it. After the lead has cooled it is care-
fully hammered with a special calking
tool until the space between the spigot
and the hub is perfectly gas and water
tight. Every joint should be made with
a view to being tested with hydraulic
pressure.

952

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

In making this test the simplest way is
to close all openings into the pipe with
wooden plugs or disks of India rubber
compressed between two plates of iron
forced together with a screw. There is
no especial advantage in applying a great
head of water, for if a joint is not tight
it will leak under a head of a few inches.
It is generally most convenient to test
the vertical pipe story by story, the plugs
being inserted through the water closet
branches. There is probably no occa-
sion to fear that work once made tight
will develop leaks for many years, the
tendency to rust after a time, even with
tar-coated or enameled pipe, being rath-
er to close such slight leaks as may
exist.

Four inches in diameter is sufficient for
soil pipe, and the best results are obtain-
ed by running it full size straight above
the roof and covering the top with a wire
basket such as is used to keep leaves out
of gutters.

There should always be a trap between
the house and the sewage disposal plant,
and there must also be on the house side
of it an inlet for fresh air. There can be
no real ventilation of the system if it is
open only at the top, but a generous inlet
for fresh air on the drain outside the
house, in connection with the opening at
the top of the soil pipe, will insure a
free movement throughout the whole sys-
tem. The fresh air inlet must be guard-
ed from obstruction. It may be brought
out close to the foundation walls, but not
too near windows and doors. If the trap
is formed by the submerging of the inlet
pipe in the settling chamber of the dis-
posal system the fresh air inlet should be
placed close to this.

The Waste Pipes

For all minor waste pipes lead pipe is
used, as it may be bent and cut to suit
all possible positions and requires but
few joints. Only "heavy" lead pipe should
be used. As lead is quite a soft material
it would not be practicable to use thread
joints on it, so the joints are made by the
use of solder. Where lead pipe joins to
cast iron pipe the connection should be
made by means of a brass ferrule of the

same bore as the lead pipe, and soldered
to it. The ferrule is introduced into the
hub of the cast iron pipe and calked tight
with oakum and lead.

Heating Systems
The Ideal System

The health and comfort of the home
depends to a considerable extent upon
the heating apparatus, which, in impor-
tance, is second only to that of sanitary
plumbing. Stoves are a development of
the fireplaces of our ancestors. Their
waste of fuel, their uncleanliness, and
their inability to properly heat even one
room are features recognized by most peo-
ple. The ideal heating apparatus is one
that will promptly and continuously sup-
ply every room in the house with enough
warm fresh air to make it comfortable in
the coldest weather. It must be easy to
manage and not complicated in construc-
tion. The cost of installing a steam or
hot water system is more than that of a
hot air furnace. The amount of fuel used
by them is less, but for a small house the
hot air furnace is most often used. It
has the advantage, too, if properly in-
stalled, of supplying fresh air, while the
other systems demand special means for
ventilation, or dependence must be placed
entirely upon opening the doors and win-
dows.

Furnaces

A furnace is a stove within a casing of
galvanized iron or brick. Air is admitted
to the space between the two and when
it becomes heated passes through pipes to
the different rooms of the house. The fur-
nace may be constructed of cast iron,
wrought iron, or steel. The cast iron
furnace has fewer joints than the one
made of steel plates and will not vary in
temperature so rapidly.

Direct and Indirect Draft

In construction there are two styles,
the "direct" and the "indirect" draft. The
better class of the "direct" draft fur-
naces have a radiator through which the
hot gases pass on their way to the smoke-
stack, and so utilize much heat that
would otherwise be lost. In the "indi-
rect" draft furnaces the gases pass

FARMS— FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS

953

through radiators at the bottom and from
there to the smokestack. A direct pas-
sage is furnished to be used when the
fire is being started or wlien coal is be-
ing added. Some furnaces are "built to
sell" by their size and are not furnished
Avith a radiator. These will burn more
fuel and give off less heat.

The Smoke Pipe

The smoke pipe should connect to the
chimney as directly as possible, for elbows
diminish the draft. The flue should be at
least 8 inches by 12 inches and should
have no other opening into it for range
or fireplace. A clean-out door should be
provided at the bottom, fitted with a tight
door, and this door must be kept shut,
except when cleaning out the flue.

The Grate

The grate is one of the most important
parts of a furnace, and there are many
kinds to be had. The essential things
are the removal of the ashes and cin-
ders from the entire grate surface with-
out carrying unburned coal with them,
and the admission of air to secure proper
combustion of the fuel. In comparing
furnaces the average diameter of the
fire pot is taken. The space above must
be large enough to permit of the thor-
ough mixing of the gases with air or
else much heat will be lost by imperfect
combustion. If soft coal is to be burned
a larger combustion chamber is needed
than with hard coal, as the supply of air
must be greater.

Furnaces differ in the manner of bring-
ing the air to be warmed into contact
with the surfaces heated by the combus-
tion of the fuel. The area of the heat-
ing surfaces should be about 60 times
the area of the grate surface to prevent
overheating of the air in cold weather.

Where natural gas is available the
furnace can be arranged to burn it, but
it is well to have a coal grate also in
case the gas should be shut off. Wood
furnaces are generally more simple in
construction and are often built to take
a 4-foot stick. Where wood is cheap
excellent results may be obtained. The
smoke should pass through a radiator,
as in case of coal furnaces.

Distribution of Hot Air by Means of Pipes

Much depends upon the location of the
furnace. It should be placed somewhat
to the north and west of the center of
the house — that is, toward the prevailing
cold winds. As the hot air travels best
through the pipes leading toward the
sheltered part of the house and to the
upper rooms, the pipes leading toward
the north and west or to the rooms on
the first floor should be given the prefer-
ence with respect to length and size.
Make all pipes as nearly the same length
as possible and as short as the location
of the registers will permit. Long hori-
zontal runs of pipe should be avoided,
especially in first floor pipes. The pipes
should pitch upward as sharply as possi-
ble so the resistance will be less. Each
pipe should have a damper near the fur-
nace. Each room should have a sepa-
rate pipe, if possible, or the heat will go
to the less exposed room when a wind
is blowing. Exposed pipes should be pro-
vided with an asbestos covering, even
when made double; double pipes are the
best for all work. Bright tin is almost
always used for hot air pipes, as it rad-
iates less heat than any other suitable
material. The registers should be as
near the furnace as possible. Nothing is
gained by putting them on the exposed
side of the room and much heat is lost.
First floor registers may be placed in the
floor if wall registers would interfere with
the pipes to the second floor. Second
floor registers should be placed in the
wall so as to avoid the necessity of cut-
ting carpets and not to furnish recep-
tacles for dirt. If only the first floor is
heated the registers should be placed in
the wall. The net area of the register
should be about 15 per cent greater than
the section of its hot air pipe.

Elmira I. Wilson,
T'. S. Department of Asriculture.

Fermentation and Ferments

>o. 1 — Insoluble Ferments

Fermentation is a chemical change pro-
duced by a class of bodies called fer-
ments. Insoluble or organized ferments
are single celled, microscopic plants

954

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

which have a definite structure. Nearly
all of them secrete definite chemical prod-
ucts capable of producing fermentation.
The insoluble, or organized ferments, are
composed mainly of nitrogenous com-
pounds, but also contain non-nitrogenous
and mineral matter. Some, as the tuber-
cular organism, contain cellulose.

No. 2 — Soluble Ferments or Enzymes

Enzymes are organic compounds, se-
creted by cells, and have the property of
producing chemical changes. They are
also called soluble ferments, chemical
ferments, and diastases. Diastase is a
virhite amorphous compound, converting
starch by fermentation into dextrine and
sugar. It is found in the sap of plants,
and in animal saliva. There are a great
many kinds of soluble ferments, some of
which as diastase are capable of acting
upon carbo-hydrates, while others, as
pepsin and pancretin, act upon proteid
bodies. Enzymes produce chemical
change, without entering into the com-
position of the substance or giving
up any of their material to the reacting
compounds. A small amount of diastase
will change a large amount of starch
to soluble forms, without losing its pow-
er of action. The enzymes are all sol-
uble in water and are precipitated with
strong alcohol. Their action is not gen-
erally retarded by antiseptics and chemi-
cals which are capable of destroying the
organized ferments. When seeds are
soaked in water, the diastase and pro-
teose enzymes are extracted and if pre-
cipitated in alcohol and recovered they
appear as a light gray powder. An or-
ganized ferment is a low form of plant,
while a soluble ferment is a chemical
compound.

No. 3 — Aerobic .ind Anerobic Ferments

Ferments that require oxygen for their
existence are aerobic while those cap-
able of working in the absence of oxygen
are anerobic. The aerobic ferments pro-
duce carbon dioxide, water, ammonia and
hydrogen sulfid as final products while
anerobic ferments usually produce inter-
mediate products as organic acids.

No. 4 — Conditions Necessary to Fermen-
tation

The conditions necessary to fermenta-
tion are:

(1) Moisture. (2) Favorable tempera-
ture. (3) A ferment body. (4) A fer-
mentable substance.

Moisture is necessary in order that
chemical changes may take place. Dur-
ing fermentation water enters often into
the chemical reaction, as in hydration
changes, and is also necessary as a
medium of exchange for the chemical
products of the reaction.

The most favorable temperatures for
the fermentation are between 15 and 60
degrees Centigrade. Below zero and
above the boiling point of water, fer-
ments are inactive. Some ferments re-
quire a different temperature for activ-
ity from any others.

A ferment body is always necessary to
start the fermentation change, and in
the absence of a ferment, either organ-
ized or unorganized, no ferment can take
place.

A fermentable substance, with the right
kind of ferment to act upon it, is also
requisite, as a ferment which acts upon
one class of bodies is incapable of chang-
ing starch to soluble forms. When a sub-
stance is freed from all ferments and is
protected from all sources of outside con-
tamination, it is in a sterile condition.
Many forms of fermentation are produc-
ed by the spores of organized ferments
gaining access to a material along with
dust particles carried in the air. In the
preservation of food, a knowledge of the
conditions necessary for fermentation is
made use of. The products formed by
ferments are numerous, as are ferment
bodies capable of acting upon all forms
of organic matter. Some of the ferments
assist in the digestion of food and in the
preparation of food products, while others
take an important part in every-day life
affairs, and in agriculture in the libera-
tion of plant food. The growth of plants,
the preparation of foods, their digestion
and the manufacture of food products
all depend largely upon fermentation.

FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS— FIGS

955

In the growth of plants, ferments play
an important part, both in the prepara-
tion of plant food and in the chemical
changes that take place in the plant.
Disintegration of the 'mineral food of the
soil is assisted by ferment action. The
nitrogenous food of the plant is all pre-
pared in the soil by ferment action.

Aceteus or Acetic Fermentation

A form of oxidation in which alcohol
is converted into vinegar or acetic acid
by the agency of a specific fungus or fer-
ment called "Mycoderma aceti." The pro-
cess involves two distinct reactions in
which the oxygen of the air is essential.
An intermediate product called "alde-
hyde" is formed in the first process.

1 C,H,,0 + O = H,0 + C,H,0.

2 C,H,0 + 0=C,H,0,.

Alcoholic Fermentation

The fermentation which saccharine
bodies undergo when brought into con-
tact with the yeast plant or torulae. The
sugar is converted either directly or in-
directly into alcohol and carbonic acid,
the rate of action being dependent on the
rapidity with which the torulae develop.

Ammoniacal Fermentation

The conversion of the urea of urine in-
to ammonium carbonate, through the
growth of the special urea ferment.
Whenever urine is exposed to the air for
several days in open vessels, it under-
goes this alkaline fermentation.

Butyric Fermentation

The fermentation of various forms of
organic matter through the agency of a
peculiar worm shaped vibrio, with the
formation of more or less butyric acid.
It is one of the many forms of fermenta-
tion, that collectively constitute putre-
faction.

Enzymatic Ferment

This has already been described.

The Fermentiition Theory of Disease

The theory that most, if not all, infect-
ious or zymotic diseases are caused by
the introduction into the organism of the
living germs of ferments, or ferment
bodies, already developed, (organized
ferments) by which, processes of fermen-

tation are set up injurious to health. This
is akin to the germ theory of disease.

Glycerine Ferment

The fermentation which occurs on the
mixing of a dilute solution of glycerine
with a peculiar species of schizomycetes
and some carbonate of lime and other
matter favorable to the growth of the
plant, the glycerine being changed into
butyric acid, butyl and ethel alcohol.
With another form of bacterium (Bacillus
subtilis) ethel alcohol and butyric acid
are mainly formed.

lactic Fermentation

The transformation of milk sugar or
other saccharine body into lactic acid, as
the souring of milk, through the agency
of a special bacterium (Bacterium lactis
of Lister). In this change the milk
sugar, before assuming the form of lactic
ccid, presumably passes through the
stage of glucose.

Fertilization. See Apple Orchard.

Fertilizer, Commercial. See Apple Or-
chard Cover Crop.

Fertilizing Value of Rain and
Snow

Experiments have been conducted dur-
ing the past few years at the Canadian
Experiment farms by F. T. Shutt, relat-
ing to the fertilizing value of rain and
snow. The report for 1911 shows that
during the year the precipitation amount-
ed to 26.97 inches, the total nitrogen
per acre brought down by rain and snow
was 5.27 pounds, about 84 per cent be-
ing furnished by the rain and 16 per cent
by snow. Of the total nitrogen 3.73
pounds was in the form of free and al-
buminoid ammonia and 1.54 pounds ni-
trates and nitrites.

E. S. R.

Figs

The fig is the fruit of any one of
the various species of the cultivated
varieties of Ficus carica. Fig trees vary
greatly in habit, some of them being low
trailing shrubs, others gigantic trees.
They have alternate leaves, which abound
in a milky juice, usually acrid, though in
a few instances sufficiently mild to be

956

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

used in allaying thirst. The figs of com-
merce are grown on a small tree or shrub,
rarely more than 20 feet in height.

The fig seems to be indigenous to Syria
and Asia Minor, but for a long period of
time has been grown in the countries
around the Mediterranean sea and judg-
ing from passages in the writings of
Herodotus, and from the Hebrew scrip-
tures, it was an article of food and com-
merce, centuries before the Christian era.

In the warm countries, the tree gen-
erally bears two crops in one year, the
first in the early summer from the buds
of the previous year, the other in the
autumn from the buds of the spring
growth.

Fertilization

The question of the fertilization of figs
was early little understood. It was be-
lieved that the flowers were unisexual
and therefore from very ancient times it
was the habit of certain growers to place
branches of the wild fig in flower over the
cultivated varieties, in order that the
pollen from the wild flower might ferti-
lize the female flowers of the other. From
the Louisiana Experiment Station, we
quote the following on the subject of fer-
tilization:

Southern figs produce pistillate or
female flowers and mule or sterile flow-
ers. While they do not produce stami-
nate or male flowers, nevertheless, they
possess the ability to develop an edible
product, with no true seed. It is impos-
sible for any of our figs to produce true
viable seed, hence unless figs of another
class capable of producing seed are grown
in Louisiana, one may never expect a
variety of figs of Louisiana origin. The
different blooming habits of our figs easi-
ly separate them into three distinct divi-
sions.

Class 1 — Mission Figs, capable of pro-
ducing both an early and a late crop.

Class 2 — Adriatic Figs, capable of pro-
ducing a late crop, but dropping all of its
first crop.

Class 3 — San Pedro Figs, capable of
producing an early crop, but dropping all
of its late crop.

The sterile or mule flowers are the

ones that develop into our edible fig. The
pistillate or female flowers invariably
drop off.

In the Mission class of figs the sterilr
or mule blooms predominate in both its
earlij and late crops, hence, climatic con-
ditions being favorable, two crops of figs
may be obtained.

In the Adriatic Figs the pistillate or
female blooms predominate in the early
crop, and the sterile or mtile blooms pre-
dominate in the late crop, hence the early
crop drops, and the late crop matures.

In the San Pedro Figs, the sterile or
7itule blooms predominate in the early
crop, and the pistillate or female blooms
predominate in the late crop, hence the
early crop matures and the late crop
drops.

Occasionally sterile or Ttiule blooms on
both the early crop of the Adriatic type
of figs and the late crop of the San
Pedro type of figs may develop into edible
fruit.

Granville Lowther

Propagation

The fig is easily propagated by cuttings,
layering, ring-budding, and grafting.
Propagation by cuttings is the easiest and
most satisfactory way. The work can be
done at almost any time of the year; but
by far the best results are obtained if
done during the winter while the plant is
dormant.

The cuttings should be taken from
strong, healthy plants of the desired
variety and preferably from plants grow-
ing in the immediate locality. Select
the one-year-old branches that are plump
and stocky, which are usually found on
the outside, where they were well ex-
posed to the light. Do not take the long,
slender shoots or suckers found on the
base of the plant.

A good cutting should be at least one
foot long, or preferably longer. The cut
ends should not expose any pith, but the
hard wood of the partition found at the
node. The cuttings should not be allowed
to dry out, or become shriveled; as soon
as made they should be tied into bundles
of convenient size and buried in moist
sand. The following spring they should

FIGS

957

be planted either in tlie field where they
are to remain permanently or in the
nursery row. The latter method is usual-
ly preferable, as they can be given better
care and grown at less expense. They
should be planted deep, leaving only the
uppermost bud just above the surface of
the soil. Some prefer to make the cut-
tings late in the spring and plant them
at once in the field. This is certainly
the most economical method.

Flail ting

The soil should be thoroughly prepared
by deep plowing and enough disking
and harrowing to pulverize every clod.
Usually clay soils are not plowed deep
enough, especially by the beginner. It
must be remembered that the fig is natur-
ally a very shallow-rooted plant, espe-
cially where the subsoil is hard and comes
up near the surface. Clay soil should be
plowed eight to ten inches deep and
then subsoiled to a depth of six to eight
inches. This gives opportunity for prop-
er root development, and storage of large
quantities of water.

The best time to do the planting is in
the spring. Fall planting is not advisable,
as the young plant can not endure very
much cold until it becomes well estab-
lished. If the planting is done in the
fall or winter the young plant should be
entirely covered with dirt until spring.

The distance apart to plant will depend
on the variety and the method of train-
ing, whether in tree or bush form. Such
semi-dwarf varieties as Brown Turkey
are usually planted 10x10 or 12x12 feet
apart in this state. Large growing va-
rieties, like Celestial, need more room —
1.5x15 to 20x20 feet.

For best results the fig should be plant-
ed deep. The young plant should be
planted from four to six inches deeper
than it stood in the nursery row; and
then the entire top of the plant should
be cut off at the surface of the ground.
This induces a number of branches to
come out from below the ground, which
give the clump or bush form so desirable
in the Upper South. If the cuttings are
planted in the permanent places in the
field the plants should be cut down to

the ground one year after planting. Some

growers put from three to five plants or

cuttings at each place instead of one,

with excellent results.

F. C. Reimek,

Horticulturist, North Carolina Agricultural
Experiment Station, West Raleigh, N. C.
Bulletin 208.

Pruning

As the Magnolia fig bears only on
late wood of the previous year's growth
or new wood of the current year's growth,
the object is to produce as much new wood
as possible — as in growing grapes.

Standard Heads

First Year

Allow three to five limbs to start close
to the top so located as to make a well
balanced head, and rub off all other limbs
and remove all suckers that may start
from the base of the tree.

Second Year

Cut previous year's growth back to
within 12 inches of main stem. When
growth starts allow each of the stubs to
throw out two or three limbs, keeping
all others off.

Tliird Year

Cut previous year's growth same as sec-
ond year, and allow them in turn to pro-
duce two or three limbs each.

Tools

For cutting back, small and large prun-
ing shears should be used; for removing
suckers from the root use a carpenter's
gouge chisel.

Soils

The fig will grow on most soils, but
commercial plantings should be confined
to heavy black land and black sandy
land, and it must be underlaid with por-
ous clay subsoil not more than two feet
below the surface. The reason for this
selection of soil is that the only danger-
ous disease attacking the fig is what is
commonly known as Knot Root {Nema-
tode), and this seldom does injury in
heavy black soil. The reason for this, I
believe, is that the heavier the land is
the less oxygen there is available, and
the parasite cannot exist without a cer-
tain amount of this element.

R. H. BUSHWAY,

Algoa, Texas.

958

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Districts Wliere Grown

Figs are grown in hot houses, or in
specially protected places, in the Northern
or Middle states, or they are sometimes
grown in very limited quantities by spe-
cially protecting the tree from the freez-
ing of winter. But the districts where it
can be grown in commercial quantities,
according to the recommendations of the
American Pomological Society are as fol-
lows:

District No. 4 — Turkey Brown.

District No. 5 — Angelique.

District No. 6 — Angelique, Brunswick,
Celesta, Genoa, Turkey Brown, Marseil-
laise, Mission, Monaco, Bianco, Osborn
Prolific, Reine Blanche.

District No. 7 — Celesta, Turkey Brown,
Mission, Monaco, Bianco, Osborn Prolific,
Reine Blanche.

District No. 16 — Mission.

District No. 17 — Mission.

For description of districts see page 192.

For further information and for pro-
fits from Fig Culture, see Alabama.

Figs in the United States

There are but few states in the Union which produce figs for commercial purposes.
The following are reported in the census of 1910 and the number of bearing trees
produced by each state appended:

(Scale, 5 cm per 100,000.)
California, 269,001.

Texas, 230.171.

Louisiana, 71,464.
Alabama, 52. 7.31.
Georgia, 49,424.
Florida, 12,784.
Virginia, 10,136.

Floriculture

John W. Duncan.
Spring Flowering Bnlbs

In the early days of spring the first
flowers to appear are such as the snow-
drop, the crocus or the scilla, to be fol-
lowed a little later by the tulip, the
hyacinth and the many varieties of
narcissi, see Fig. 1. In order to have a
good showing of these flowers, they
should be planted during the fall months
of October and November. This gives
the bulbs a chance to form roots so that
they have a stronger start in the spring.
When beds are to be solidly planted with
these bulbs, the soil should be well pre-
pared and a rich sandy loam is un-
doubtedly preferable.

It is very essential that the beds
should have perfect drainage so that
there is no danger of water standing on

Arkansas, 4,174.

I

Arizona, 3,848.
I

Delaware, 32.
Nevada, 14.

the ground during the winter, which has
a tendency to rot or weaken the bulbs.
The soil should, if not naturally sandy,
get a good coating of sand mixed into it
and should be dug to a depth of at least
15 inches. Well rotted cow manure is
perhaps the best fertilizer that can be
used, but fine ground bone will also be
beneficial. The beds are better to be
raised a few inches higher than the sur-
rounding ground, to effect a more per-
fect drainage.

In planting bulbs, many people put a
small quantity of sand around each bulb,
or often the top soil is taken entirely
off the bed to the depth at which the
bulbs are to be planted, a coating of
sand then spread over the bed, the bulbs
then set the proper distance apart and
the top soil carefully replaced. Where
the bed has been prepared as mentioned
in the first place, this plan need not be

FLORICULTURE

959

960

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 2. Golden Cbain (Labrum alinnum)

FLORICULTURE

961

adopted as the bulbs may be more read-
ily planted with a trowel. The depth at
which each bulb should be planted de-
pends mainly on variety but care should
be taken that each bulb in a bed should
be planted at the same depth, so as to in-
sure blossoming at the same time.
From four to five inches is deep enough
for tulip bulbs and five or six for
hyacinths, while small bulbs like the
crocus and scilla, etc., three to four
inches is sufficient, but better results will
follow from a little too deep planting
than from too shallow. Larger bulbs
like lilies should be planted to a depth
of from eight to twelve inches. If in
a section of country where the ground
freezes during winter, a coating or mulch
of coarse litter or leaves should be put
on the beds to protect the bulbs from too
severe freezing and the changes from
freezing and thawing of the ground.
This mulching should be removed as
early as possible in the spring. In many
instances it is necessary to lift the
bulbs so that something else may be
planted in the beds. This may be done
before the plants are thoroughly ripen-
ed by lifting with a little dirt along
with each bulb which may be placed in a
row somewhere else until ripened, when
they may be laid past for another sea-
son's planting.

In the hardy border, bulbs may be
planted in patches among herbaceous
plants. They will not only do well and
make the border look showy in the earli-
est days of spring, but have a good
chance of ripening there and need not
be disturbed from year to year. Where
bulbs are grown this way, annuals may
be planted to take their places through
the later summer months. Some of the
varieties of bulbs, like the crocus, snow-
drop and the scilla, may be effectually
planted in the lawn and make a good
showing in the early spring immediately
after winter is past.

In semi-wild gardens these bulbs are
very effective planted along with such
plants as the erythoniums, bleeding
hearts, etc. When this is done, each va-
riety or color should be in as large a

patch as possible. Nature always plants
this way.

Lawns

The importance of a good lawn is one
of the principal features of ornamental
gardening. Contrary to the expectations
of many, a first-class lawn cannot be ob-
tained unless there is sufficient depth of
soil and the same has received the proper
preparation. It should always be borne
in mind that grasses are deep-rooted
plants and if a fine velvety luxuriance is
to be had, the soil must be from 12 to 18
inches deep. In many places we see only
a few inches of soil spread on the top
of a poor sub-soil, or gravel, or even
often on a ledge of rock and a lawn
started and kept green on the same by
means of copious and almost continuous
watering. In no instances of this kind,
however, can a good lawn be expected.
That fine velvety touch of the good lawn
is found only where consideration has
been given to the various grasses of
which the lawn is composed.

Any good soil is suitable for a lawn.
It will, however, need some attention to
prepare it for the proper plant food. If
it Is sandy or gravelly, attention should
be given to the addition of humus. If,
on the other hand, the soil is clayey, or
should contain signs of alkali, attention
should be given to counteract these and
bring into the soil more of the plant
foods required by the grasses. For the
counteraction of alkali in soils abundant
quantities of manure should be plowed
into the soil and turned up to the storms
of winter.

In preparing the soil for seeding, it
should be deeply plowed, well drained
and properly graded and finished to an
even surface with an iron rake. In seed-
ing a small lawn the sowing may be done
by hand but care should be taken to
scatter the seed evenly. On a large lawn
a hand or power seeding machine may
be used, and in many cases it is desirable
to use various grasses on a lawn; in fact,
it is always advisable to use several spe-
cies. The reason for this is that some
grasses will thrive better in some soils
than others, and by using a combination

-20

962

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

FLORICULTURE

963

experience has shown that a better lawn
will always be obtained. A good lawn
mixture is a combination of Kentucky
Blue Grass, Fancy Red Top and Creep-
ing Bent in equal parts with, if desired,
a proportion of ten per cent (10%) White
Clover.

In sections where the winter is not
severe, the seeding may be done in the
spring or early fall, while in some of the
mountainous sections, early summer will
be more satisfactory for the starting of
the young grasses. Where summer seed-
ing is done, proper care must be given
to the watering and it has been found of
great advantage to cover over the ground
with a light mulch of well rotted manure.
This prevents the hot sun from burning
the young rootlets of the small grass
plants and also helps to hold moisture
after watering. The proper care of lawns
after they are established consists of
cutting the grass at the right time, suffi-
cient watering and the keeping free of
obnoxious weeds. The latter can be done
only by persistent work from the start
in taking them out by the roots. Occasional
rolling is beneficial in that it keeps the
soil of an even nature. Mowing should
not be done as often as sometimes seen;
in fact, most people are apt to cut the
grass too closely, thus preventing the
lawn having that velvety texture so much
desired. Good judgment is also required
in watering and it is much better to give
a good watering and then let the lawn
remain until such time as it may actually
need watering rather than to sprinkle
too often.

In the autumn the grass should not be
cut too short for during the winter
months, at mild intervals, weeds will
start in and get ahead of the grass which
has been weakened by its continuous crop-
ping and therefore cannot cope with its
more sturdy neighbor, the weed.

Many different fertilizers are used; per-
haps one of the most satisfactory is fine
ground bone applied in liberal quantities
at various seasons of the year. Sheep
manure is also one of the best natural
fertilizers that may be applied towards
the end of winter.

Ornamental Trees

For the decoration of grounds, both
public and private, there are many variet-
ies of ornamental trees both deciduous
and evergreen that may be used and
where the grounds are of sufficient size to
warrant the grouping of different species
to give the most picturesque effect much
studying is required.

In the planting of parks or parking,
the main thought should always be the
appearance of the picture when completed
and the size and shape of the tree, the
foliage effects both summer and fall and
harmony with its neighbor, all require
forethought.

In general street planting, much more
care is necessary than is generally seen
in the preparing of the parkings for the
trees. When new streets are being laid
out, little or no attention is paid to the
planting space. The street parking
should have sufficient quantity of good
loam for the development of whatever
variety of tree is planted. Well shaped
nursery grown trees should be selected
and planted at a distance of from 30 to
60 feet apart, according to the variety. It
is often the custom to cut off the entire
top of the tree when planting. This is
the greatest mistake ever made by the
planter. A tree should be pruned when
planted, but the proper pruning is only a
thinning out or shaping back of side
branches, leaving a straight leader in the
center of the tree. When the tree is
being dug for planting, it is absolutely
necessary to save all of the fibrous roots
possible and any of the large roots which
may have been mutilated should be
pruned back, so that a new growth will
start. The most important of all when
digging trees out is an immediate cover-
ing of the roots from the weather, to
prevent drying up. More trees die from
lack of this precaution than from any
other cause. The drying winds and hot
suns, so prevalent in many sections of the
country, soon take the vitality out of the
fibrous roots and the tree is unable to
cope with the transplanting.

In planting a street tree, see that a
large enough hole is dug to give the tree

964

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

FLORICULTURE

965

plenty of nourishment for growth in
years to come. Ordinarily, holes five to
six feet in diameter by three feet deep
should be made for street trees, and good
loam used for the entire planting. In
planting, place the loose loam in the bot-
tom of the hole, treading it firm and rais-
ing it so that it will be higher than the
center and the proper height to have the
roots of the tree not too deep. This will
have to be done in accordance with the
quantity of roots the tree has and, as a
safe guide, a mark where the soil before
touched the stem will be seen, and this
should be taken as the place that should
again touch the surface of the ground.
In no case should the ground slope away
from the tree when planting is finished.
On the other hand, it is better that the
ground should slope toward the tree. In
filling in the hole, only fine loam should
be put nearest the roots of the tree and
as it is thrown in should remain firm,
being tamped with a round tamper about
the size of a pick handle, so as to make
the soil firm over and through the roots.
Make the soil firm among the roots and
do not be afraid to thoroughly tamp.

Trees should be planted, in many loca-
tions, in the early spring and before the
buds start into a new growth. On the
other hand, fall planting will be found
more advantageous to many of the va-
rieties.

Much might be said regarding varieties
and it is often a hard matter to settle
which variety is the most suitable for a
certain location. Some of the best variet-
ies of trees for street planting are the
Platanus Orientalis (Oriental Plane tree)
Acer, Platanoides (Norway Maple)
Acer, Pseuda Platanus (Sycamore Maple)
Acer, Saccharinum (Sugar Maple)
Aesculus hippocastanum (Horse chest-
nut)
Catalpa Speciosa (Western Catalpa)
Quercus Rubra (Red Oak)
Quercus Palustris (Pin Oak)
Sorbus Aucuparia (European Mountain

Ash)
Tilia Europea (European Linden)
Tilia Platyphillos (Broad-leafed European
Linden)

Tilia Dasytyla (Crimean Linden)
Ulmus Americana (American White Elm)
Ulmus Campestris (English Elm)

Roses

In the planting of roses the selection
of a good location is the first essential
and it is better to keep them from shade
and away from the roots of trees. Roses
will thrive in any good soil. It has often
been said that roses require a clayey soil.
This has been proven however to be in-
correct, as many of the best rose plants
will be found growing in the gravelly and
fine sandy soil. The soil however must be
well enriched with plenty of decomposed
stable manure, cow manure being prefer-
able. The ground should have good
drainage and should be loosened up to
a depth of from IY2 to 2 feet.

Roses may be planted in the fall or
before the ground freezes, or in the early
spring before the growing season starts
in. Care should be taken to spread the
roots of the plants out evenly and the
soil should be drawn firmly through the
roots of the plant. When budded or
grafted plants are used they should be
planted at from three to four inches below
the bud or graft, that is, where the rose
is united to the stock. This is beneficial,
as by so doing new roots are pressed from
the base of the rose plant, thereby giving
it increased strength and helping to pre-
vent the growing of suckers from the
briar on which the roses budded are
grafted. The distance for planting may
be varied according to the varieties
planted, 18 to 24 inches being about the
general distance for most varieties.

In some sections mulching will have
to be done in the winter, to prevent the
ground from heavy freezing and help
protect the plants. This means the cov-
ering of the ground with five or six
inches of coarse litter. Pruning should
be done in early spring before the growth
is started in the plants. Cut out as
much as possible of the old wood; that
is, wood that has flowered last year,
leaving the strong shoots of last year's
growth which should be cut back to from
eight to 12 inches from the ground.

966

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 5. Western Wild Rose {Rosa arkansana)

FLORICULTURE

967

From these shoots the fairest flowers
will be had.

Tea roses and hybrid teas should be
pruned more lightly than the hybrids.
Perpetuals, ramblers or climbing roses
do not require much pruning. All that
is necessary is the thinning out of the
dead shoots. Roses require lots of culti-
\ation during the growing season and
the ground should be loosened up
through the plants once a week, and
when the watering is done, the ground
should be well soaked, not sprinkled.

Insect pests may easily be kept from
the rose plants; for the slug or worm
which is found eating the leaves, helle-
bore powder dusted on the leaves will
quickly destroy them. If the White
Thrip appears, the ground will have been
kept too dry and this may be gotten rid
of by plenty of watering and syringing
of the plants. For exterminating the
aphis, frequent spraying with the hose
will be found as effective as anything.
For mildew, sulphate potassium in pro-
portions of one pound to 40 gallons wa-
ter will be found very satisfactory.

The number of species of Rosa is ex-
tensive and the popular varieties of to-
day are hybrids of the many species from
all parts of the world. The hardy garden
roses have formerly been the hybrid
perpetuals or more properly hybrid re-
montant— largely hybrids of Rosa Damas-
cena, Borbonica, Gallica, etc., but within
the last decade so much advancement has
been made in the hybrid tea class that
they have become by far the most popular
of all garden roses.

The climbing roses are largely hybrids
of Rosa Multiflora, Setigera and Wichu-
raiana, and so much improvement has
been made in the latter hybrids during
the last ten years, that no garden is com-
plete without a number of varieties of
them.

The Japanese roses, Rosa Rugosa, are
hardy and of much value for natural
plantings; their foliage is entirely distinct
and during the latter part of the season
their fruit is extremely ornamental.

On the American native roses, until re-
cent years little value has been set unless

it has been Setigera and Laevigata, both
of which have been used in the hybridi-
zation of climbers.

There are a number of the native roses
which have proven of great value in na-
tural plantings of shrubbery in parks and
other public grounds, among them being
Rosa Lucida, Blanda, Nitida and Arkan-
sana. The latter is perhaps the most
valuable of any for this purpose.

Hybrid Perpetual Varieties

The list of varieties of this class con-
tains only those which are of the most vig-
orous habit, though there are many oth-
ers that may have been found of great
value by some rose growers.

Abel Carriere — Rich, velvety maroon
shaded with violet, large, full and finely
shaped.

Alfred Colomb — Bright, clear red, large
and full, form globular and excellent.

American Beauty — Rosy crimson.

Anna de Diesbach — Clear rose.

Baron de Bonstettin — Red, black and
crimson.

Baroness Rothschild — Pale rose shaded
with white.

Beauty of Waltham — Rosy carmine.

Belle Siebrecht

Captain Christy

Captain Hayward — Crimson-carmine.

Charles Lefebvre — Bright crimson.

Clio — Flesh color.

Duke of Edinburgh — Scarlet-crimson.

Eugene Furst — Velvety-crimson.

Fisher Holmes — Reddish scarlet.

Francois Michelon — Deep rose.

Frau Karl Druschki — Snowy white.

General Jacqueminot — Brilliant red.

George Arends — Pink.

Hugh Dickson — Brilliant crimson.

John Hopper — Rose, crimson center.

Jules Margottin — Bright cherry.

Lady Helen Stewart — Crimson-scarlet.

Madame Gabriel Luizet — Pale pink.

Madame Victor Verdier — Bright cherry.

Magna Charta — Bright pink.

Margaret Dickson — White with pale flesh
centers.

Marie Baumann — Bright carmine.

Merveille de Lyon — Pure white.

Mrs. John Laing — Soft pink.

Mrs. R. G. Sharman Crawford — Deep rosy-
pink.

Paul Neyron — Dark rose.

Pride of Waltham — Delicate flesh color.

Prince Camille de Rohan — Crimson-ma-
roon.

Tom Wood — Cherry-red.

Ulrich Brunner — Bright cerise-red.

Victor Verdier — Rosy carmine.

968

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

FLORICULTURE

969

Teas and Hybrid Teas

The most of the varieties enumerated
are the hybrid tea varieties and are the
most popular of all garden roses on ac-
count of their continuality of bloom
throughout the season. Some tea variet-
ies require protection unless in well shel-
tered locations.

Arthur R. Goodwin — Coppery orange-red.

Augustine Guinoisseau — Rosy white.

Belle Siebrecht — Rosy pink.

Betty — Coppery rose, shaded yellow.

Caroline Testout— Clear rose.

Countess of Gosford — Salmon pink.

Countess of Shaftsbury — Silvery carmine.

Cynthia — Lemon-yellow.

Cynthia Forde — Rose-pink.

Dean Hole — Carmine shaded with salmon.

Dorothy Page Roberts — Coppery-pink suf-
fused apricot yellow.

Duchess of Albany — Deep pink.

Duchess of Wellington — Saffron-yellow.

Earl of Warwick — Salmon pink.

Edward Mawley — Velvety crimson.

Elizabeth Barnes — Salmon-rose, fawn
center.

Etoile de France — Crimson, center fiery
red.

General MacArthur — Scarlet-red.

George C. Waud — Vermilion tinted
orange.

Gruss au Teplitz — Cinnabar-scarlet.

Instituteur Sirdey — Golden yellow.

Irish Fireflame — Orange splashed crimson.

Jonkheer J. L. Mock — Red and salmon-
pink.

Kaiserin Augusta Victoria — Pure white.

Killarney — Rose color.

Konigan Carola — Satiny rose flowers.

La France — Pale peach rose center.

Lady Alice Stanley — Coral rose.

Lady Ashtown — Pale rose.

Laurent Carle — Velvety-carmine.

Liberty — Brilliant crimson.

Lyon Rose — Buds coral red, flowers
shrimp pink shaded coral red and
chrome yellow.

Mabel Drew — Cream.

Madame Abel Chatenay — Rosy salmon car-
mine.

Madame Ravary — Golden yellow, open
flowers nankeen yellow.

Madame Segond Weber — Bright salmon-
rose.

Margaret Molyneux— Saffron yellow.

Marquise de Sinety — Carmine-ochre.

Melody — Saffron yellow with primrose
edges.

Mildred Grant— Blush-white tinted with
pink.

Mrs. Aaron Ward — Indian yellow.

Mrs. A. R. Waddell— Rosy scarlet buds
opening reddish salmon.

Mrs. David Jardine — Bright rosy pink.
Mrs. Wakefield Christie-Miller — Pearly

blush.
Pharisaer — Rosy-white, center deep

salmon-rose.
Prince de Bulgarie — Silvery-fiesh.
Rayon de'Or — Cadmium-yellow.
Richmond — Reddish-scarlet.
Souvenir du President Carnot — Rosy

flesh.
Viscountess Folkestone — Creamy-pink.
White Killarney — White.
William R. Smith — Creamy white shaded

with pink.

Provence Roses

Rosa centifolia
Cabbage or Common — Rosy pink.
White Provence — Pure white.

Moss Roses

Blanche Moreau — Pure white.
Countess de Murinais — White.
Crested Moss — Rose color.
Crimson Globe — Crimson.
Gloire de Mosses — Blush.

Austrian Briar Roses

-Rosa lutea
Austrian Copper — Coppery red (single).
Austrian Yellow — Yellow (single).
Harrisonii — Golden Yellow (semi-double).
Persian Yellow — Deep golden yellow.

Japanese Roses

Rosa rugosa.
Belle Poitevine — Rose color.
Blanc Double de Coubert — Double white.
Conrad F. Meyer — Silvery-rose.
Delicata — Soft rose.

Madame Georges Bruant — Paper white.
Repens alba — Flowers single white.
Rugosa — Crimson.
Alba— White.

Wichuraiana Roses and Their Hybrids

Alberic Barbier — Yellow buds, opening
creamy white, double.

American Pillar — Flowers single; rich
pink with a well defined white eye and
yellow stamens.

Bonnie Belle — Single pink fiowers with
yellow stamens.

Coquina — Flowers single, pale pink shad-
ing deeper at the tips of the petals.

Dorothy Perkins — Large clusters of rich,
soft rose color.

Evangeline— Single flowers, white shaded.

Excelsa — Brilliant scarlet-crimson.

Gardenia — Bright yellow in bud, chang-
ing to cream as the flowers open.

Hiawatha — Single bright rich crimson
with white eye.

Joseph Lamy — Porcelain white tinted
pink.

Kalmia — Pink with white center, single.

Lady Gay— Pink double.

970

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Milky Way — Single white with yellow

stamen.
Minnehaha — Deep satin rose, double.
Mrs. M. H. Walsh — Snow-white.
Pink Roamer — Pink flowers with silvery

white centers.
Sweetheart — Pale pink.
White Dorothy Perkins — White.
Wichuraiana — Type of the group; pure

white.

Multiflora Roses and Their Hybrids

Aglaia — Canary yellow flowers.

Blush Rambler — Single flowers; blush.

Crimson Rambler — Crimson flowers.

Fairy — Snow-white.

Flower of Fairfield — Crimson rambler.

Leuchtstern — Bright rose, distinct white

eye.
Newport Fairy — Single pink flowers with

white eye.
Philadelphia Rambler — Crimson rambler

bright in color.
Queen Alexandra — Crimson.
Rubin — Ruby-red.
Tausendschon — Soft pink to carmine

rose.
Thalia — Double white.
The Dawson Rose — Pale rose.
Veilchenblau — Bluish purple.
Wedding Bells — Rosy pink.
Sweet Briars
Anne of Gierstein — Dark crimson.
Brenda — Blush or peach.
Lady Penzance — Beautiful soft copper.
Lord Penzance — Soft shade of ecru.
Meg Merrilies — Crimson.
Refulgence — Semi-double flowers, scarlet.

BOSE DISEASES
Black Spot

Actinonema rosae

Produces purplish or discolored areas
of considerable size on the surface of the
leaves, causing them to drop.

See Mildew, this section.

Cane Blight

Affected wood turns a dark purplish or
black color, with a sharply defined line
between the sound and diseased bark.

This trouble is due to a fungus which
is apparently undescribed in plant disease
literature. It infests stubs left in pruning
and often develops down into the main
branches, seriously injuring the bushes.

May be largely avoided by proper prun-
ing.

Crown Gall

This is the common crown gall which
affects many species of plants.

See under Apple Diseases.

Rose Leaf Blotch

Actinonema rosae (Lib.) Fr.

Nearly as common as the powdery mil-
dew. Irregular brown spots appear on
the upper surface of the foliage.

Climbing sorts are likely to be more
immune than bush kinds.

Spray with Bordeaux early before blos-
som buds begin to form. Secure healthy
stock for planting.

Reference

Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Rnst

Phragmidium subcorticium

Affects the hybrid roses, causing the
leaves to turn yellow and fall, with black
or bright orange pustules of rust spores
on the under side.

See Mildew, this section.

Mildew

SpJiaerotheca pannosa and 8. humuli
Roses are commonly affected with two
different powdery mildews quite different
in appearance from one another. The first
named is seen most characteristically on
the hybrid roses and is particularly severe
on the Crimson Rambler. It forms a
thick, dense, felty white growth upon the
green shoots, buds, and young leaves
more than on the surface of the older
leaves. This does not affect the tea roses.
The latter are particularly susceptible,
however, to the second fungus named,
which produces a more delicate fungus
growth upon the leaves and blossoms
rather than the stems, giving them a
crinkled appearance.

The most effective treatment for these
rose troubles consists in spraying the
bushes occasionally with a solution of sul-
phide of potash (liver of sulphur), one
ounce to three gallons of water. Spray
the under side of the leaves as well as the
top and make up the solution fresh each
time the spraying is done. If the bushes
are also affected with plant lice an addi-
tion of tobacco extract or cheap soap
may be made to the spray. In bad cases of
mildew further relief may be obtained by
dusting the bushes thoroughly with fiow-
ers of sulphur while they are still wet
with the spray.

FLORICULTURE

971

Different varieties vary greatly in sus-
ceptibility, and the ordinary grower will
find the most satisfaction by discarding
the most susceptible kinds and growing
others which are less liable to disease.
R. E. Smith,
Calif. Exp. Sta. Bui. 218.

References

California Experiment Station, Bulletin
218.

Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants.

ROSE PESTS

Large Rose Aphid

Macrosiphum rosae Linn
General Appearance

A large aphid, being green and pink in
color. The apterous forms have dark cor-
nicles and the joints of the legs and an-
tennae dusky, while in addition to these the
thorax, entire antennae and blotches on
the sides of the abdomen of the winged
forms are dark. Length, two to three mm.
Readily distinguished from the other com-
mon green rose aphid by the large size
and pink forms.

Life History

Works on the young shoots and buds of
the roses, almost throughout the entire
year. Especially troublesome in the early
spring during the months of April and
May. Not so serious a pest on roses as is
the small green louse (Myzus rosarum.)

Food Plants

Roses, wild and cultivated.

Control

In order to save the buds it is some-
times necessary to spray the bushes with
a soap and tobacco spray. Washing the
bushes every day with a high pressure
of water will keep them off and is a prac-
tical method of control.

Natural Enemies

Natural enemies completely eliminate
the attacks of this pest by the middle of
summer.

Fuller's Rose Beetle

Aramigus fulleri Horn. (Family Otiorhyn-

chidae)

General Appearance

The adults vary from gray to very dark
brown in color and from three-eighths to

one-half an inch in length. The eggs are
about one-twentieth of an inch long, pale
yellow and laid in rows. The larvae are
milky white and without legs. The pupae
are also white.

Life History

The eggs are laid in clusters in secluded
places on the trunks of trees or at the
base of the trees or plants often close to
the ground. The young white grubs are
subterranean in their habits, doing great
damage to the roots of many plants. The
adults when seen during the day are very
sluggish. They have no power of flight.
Much damage is done to plants by this
pest unknown to the farmer, owing to the
fact that the larvse work underground and
the adults feed at night.

Food Plants

Foliage of citrus trees, roses, oaks, ca-
mellias, palms, Canna indica and the roots
of strawberries. Young or newly budded
citrus trees are often greatly damaged by
this pest.

Control

The larvae, like all subterranean pests,
are difficult to control, but thorough culti-
vation and hoeing close to the plants are
great aids. In light sandy soil, carbon
bisulfid is efficient. The adults being un-
able to fly are easily kept from trees by
means of a cotton or tanglefoot band
around the trunk, but are very trouble-
some to low plants and bushes where such
methods are impracticable. Poison sprays
such as arsenate of lead must be resorted
to in such cases to save the foliage.

E. O. EssiG

Raspberry Horn Tail. See Raspberry
Pests.

Rose Scale
Aulacaspis rosae Bouche.

General Appearance

The female scales are nearly circular
with very irregular edges and white to
gray in color with reddish body. This
scale multiplies very rapidly and clusters
in great numbers on the stems of roses
and kindred plants, especially about the
crowns.

Somewhat difficult to control. Badly in-
fested canes should be cut out and burned.

972

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Spray with kerosene or carbolic acid emul-
sion or lime-sulphur during the winter.

Reference

Monthly Bulletin California Commission
of Horticulture II., 1 and 2.

Rose Snoot Beetle

Bhynchites Mcolor Fab. (Family Rhyn-

chitidse).

General Appearance

A small bright red snout beetle, with
head, snout and legs black. The average
length of the females is about one inch.
The males are noticeably smaller than the
females.

Life History

The beetles hibernate over winter in
sheltered places and appear early in the
spring. The females roll up the edges of
the leaves into small pockets like minia-
ture thimbles into which the eggs are laid
and the young reared. The larvae and
adults feed upon the foliage, the latter
also puncturing the fruit of blackberries
and raspberries with their snouts or bills.

Food Plants

The beetles confine their attacks almost
wholly to the wild rose, though they may
occasionally work great damage to culti-
vated roses and to berries. The adults
also feed upon oak leaves and grape-
vines.

Control

As this pest is normally a leaf eater
it may be controlled by liberal applica-
tions of arsenical sprays. These meet
all requirements, except where they
damage the fruit of berries, but even
such attacks could have been prevented
by spraying the vines before the berries

began to ripen.

E. O. EssiG

Small Green Rose Louse

Myzus rosarum Walk
General Appearance

A very small species, not nearly as
large as Macrosiphum rosae; green
throughout except dark markings on the
winged forms. It is often mistaken for
the larger species.

Life History

A very serious rose pest at times, and
especially bad in the summer months.

It breeds very rapidly, collects in great
numbers upon the leaves and excretes a
great amount of honeydew which smuts
the bushes. The worst rose pest in many
parts of the state.

Food Plants

Roses, usually more serious on climb-
ing varieties. Attacks the leaves and
buds and may prevent the production of
flowers.

Natural Enemies

Syrphid flies do considerable work upon
this species, but the natural enemies are
not numerous enough to check the rav-
ages until late in summer.

E. O. EssiG

Other Insect Enemies

The rose is attacked by various in-
sects which are common to fruit trees.
Among them are San Jose scale, greedy
scale, oyster-shell scale, red spider, apple-
leaf hopper, etc. These will be found
treated under Apple Pests. Frosted scale
will be found under Prune Pests.

LANDSCAPE GARDENING

By John W. Duncan
Landscape gardening covers a broad
fleld and considerable study, taste and
judgment are required on the part of
those who undertake the business. Land-
scape gardening of the best order is the
beautification with as little change as
possible from what nature has already
done. Mere planting and grading does
not constitute landscape gardening and
the proper grouping or clustering of
shrubs and trees make really the most
picturesque landscapes. Some of the best
landscape scenes are found in this West-
ern country and there is a wide field
here for the artificial gardener. The
great wealth of native trees, shrubs and
other plants found all over this section
of the country adds greatly to the work
and simplifies the problem. A general
theory or plan is necessary before there
is any grading or planting, as it is neces-
sary to work out the whole from the
well studied out plan which should be
made in the beginning.

The indiscriminate growing of shrubs
or plants often spoils a beautiful land-

FLORICULTURE

973

scape and the inherent love of nature is
absolutely necessary to the best success
of a landscape gardener, who must also
be familiar with all varieties of trees,
shrubs and other plants, besides having
a thorough knowledge of grading, drain-
ing, road building and the like. Care
should also be taken to avoid scattered
effects. The best planting of trees and
shrubs is accomplished by the grouping
of the suitable varieties which can only
be decided by a thorough study of the
location.

Single or individual trees or plants
may be used to heighten an effect. It is
best always to widen out or leave as
much open land as possible. Walks and
drives are necessities and therefore
should be hidden as much as possible
from the landscape. Where there are
buildings, the grounds must conform to
them and it is a problem to work out
the best possible plantings, so that these
buildings will not occupy the most prom-
inent part of the landscape picture. Ob-
trusive or undesirable features should be

hidden by the artificial planting of trees
and shrubs. Natural plantings should be
adhered to as much as possible and the
planting of different trees should be care-
fully studied so that when they have at-
tained their growth they will accomplish
the purpose for which they were intended.

Avoid as much as possible the making
of designs or the planting of trees or
hedges which will constantly require cut-
ting or pruning into shapes which do not
agree with nature. The variety of trees
and shrubs should be restricted to those
that are perfectly hardy and that will
adapt themselves to the locality.

In the planting of a large space it is
well to have as much open expanse as pos-
sible, so as to produce a wide landscape
effect. The tall growing trees should be
kept in the background with the dwarfer
growing varieties in front graduating to
irregular belts of shrubs, so that one
may look over the foreground to an irreg-
ular background of the larger trees be-
hind.

The best decisions of the varieties to

Pig. 7. Japanese Snowball (Viiumum plicatum)

974

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

use may always be made during the sum-
mer when the different deciduous and
evergreen subjects may each and all be
readily seen to the best advantage, when
their leaves are fully expanded. At such
times, too, any defects may be noted for
remedying at some later period.

Conifers and all evergreen trees may
be used to good advantage and should be,
where plenty of space is available, planted
in large groups, so as to avoid a patchy
appearance. Consideration should be
given to the location of summer trees with
particular individuality, so that they can
show the same to the best advantage dur-
ing the whole of the season. Again,
many of the trees or shrubs which have
different color of bark or foliage should
be grouped so that they will emphasize
their particular feature and the particu-

lar season at which these features may
show to the best advantage.

A water effect is one of the most pleas-
ing and almost essential features of a fine
landscape, whether it is a lake or river
effect; either will go a long way toward
the effectual natural planting and making
of a fine landscape. Many times good ef-
fects can be worked out by utilizing
springs or small rivulets where there were
practically no water effects formerly. In
water scenes, the judicious planting of
trees and shrubs on the borders or isl-
ands will greatly enhance the natural
landscape and many water plants may be
introduced to make the effect more gar-
denesque.

In the planting of small estates or home
grounds, the mistake generally made is
the scattering too much of the trees and

N'iburuuLU yui^

FLORICULTURE

975

shrubbery through the lawn, as already
mentionedi The finest effects can be
made by the judicious border planting,
leaving as much open space forming vis-
tas from the house piazza or views from
the various windows, so that the grounds
will, in reality, look much larger than
they really are.

History and General Principles of Land-
scape Gardening

L. P. Jensen
History

The history of the gardens of the an-
cients is more or less fabulous.

The Jewish paradise is supposed to have
been situated in Persia, of great extent,
watered by a river and abounding in tim-
ber and woods. Paradise seems to have
borne some resemblance to a pleasure
ground of the modern taste. The gardens
of the Hesperides were situated in Africa
near Mt. Atlas, or according to some, near
Cyrenaica. They are described as lying
in places eighteen fathoms deep, steep
on all sides, two stadia in diameter and
covered with trees of various kinds plant-
ed very close together. The principal
Jewish garden was King Solomon's. This
garden is said to have been quadrangular
and surrounded by a high wall. It con-
tained a variety of plants, such as "the
hyssop which springeth out of the wall,"
odoriferous and showy flowers as the rose,
lily of the valley, calamus, camphire,
spikenard, saffron and cinnamon; trees as
the cedar, pine and fir, and fruits, as the
fig, grape, apple and pomegranate. It
contained water in wells, and in living
streams. The situation of the garden was
probably near to the palace.

The gardens of Cyrus, at Babylon, 2,000
years B. C, were of square form and ac-
cording to Strabo, each side was 400 feet
in length, so that the area of the base was
nearly four acres. They were distin-
guished by their romantic situations,
great extent and diversity of uses and
were reckoned in their day among the
wonders of the world. They were made
to rise with terraces constructed in a curi-
ous manner one above the other in the
form of steps, and supported by stone pil-
lars to a height of more than 300 feet,

gradually diminishing till the area of the
upper surface was reduced considerably
below that of the base. The garden of
the Phacacian King, Aelianus, was situated
on the island of that name, probably an
Asiatic island. It is minutely described
by Homer in his "Odyssey," and may be
compared to the garden of an ordinary
farm house in point of extent and form,
but in respect to variety of fruits and
vegetables was far inferior. It embraced
the front of the palace, containing less
than four acres surrounded by a hedge
and interspersed with three or four sorts
of fruit trees, some beds of vegetables and
some borders of flowers. It contained two
wells, one for the garden, and the other
for the palace.

The Persian and Grecian gardens of
this period seem to have been nearly of
the same description as those mentioned.

We know little of the gardens of the
Augustan age of Horace and Virgil, gen-
erally thought to be that in which taste
and elegance were eminently conspicuous.
Prom the descriptions of the villas Laur-
entinum and Thusculum, by the younger
Pliny, we gain a general idea of the gar-
dens of the Romans. The Laurentinum
was a winter residence on the Tiber, be-
tween Rome and the sea, now called San
Lorenza, seventeen miles from Rome. The
garden was small and is but slightly de-
scribed. It was surrounded by hedges of
box and rosemary, and there were plat-
forms and terraces; figs, mulberries and
grapes were the fruits. Pliny's Thuscu-
lan villa was situated in a natural amphi-
theater of the Appenines whose lofty sum-
mits were clothed with forests of oak and
their fertile sides covered with cornfields,
vineyards and villas. Pliny's description
of this villa is of importance as showing
what was esteemed as good taste in the
gardens and grounds of a great Roman
nobleman of the first century, under the
reign of Trajan, when Rome was still in
her glory.

The Thusculan gardens may have con-
tained from three to four acres and lay
around the palace. The terrace is de-
scribed as in the front of the portico and
near the house; from this descended a

976

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 9. Black Haw (Viburnum primufoHum)

FLORICULTURE

977

lawn covered with acanthus, supposed to
have been a sort of moss and adorned
with figures of animals cut in trees. This
lawn was again surrounded by a walk
enclosed with evergreens sheared into
a variety of forms. Beyond this was a
place for exercise ornamented in the mid-
dle with box trees sheared as before into
numberless different figures, together with
a plantation of shrubs kept low by clip-
ping. The whole was fenced in by a wall
covered with box, rising in different
ranges to the top. Another quarter of
the house compassed a small space of
ground, shaded by four plane trees with
a fountain in the center, which, over-
flowing a marble basin, watered the trees
and the verdure beneath them. Opposite
to another part of the house was a plan-
tation of trees in the form of a hippo-
drome, formed of box and plane trees al-
ternately planted, and connected togeth-
er with ivy. Behind these were placed
bay trees and the ends of the hippo-
drome, which were semi-circular, were
formed of cypress. The internal walls
were bordered with rose trees and were
in a winding direction, which, however,
terminated in a straight path, which
again branched into a variety of others
separated from one another by box-
hedges. These were sheared into a vari-
ety of shapes and letters, some express-
ing the name of the master, others of
the artificer, while here and there small
obelisks were placed intermixed with
fruit trees, sheared as already described.
At the upper end of the garden was an
alcove of white marble, shaded by vines
and supported by marble pillars, from
the seat of which recess issued several
streams of water intended to appear as
if pressed out by the weight of those that
reposed upon it, which water was again
received in a basin so contrived as to
seem always full without overfiowing.
Corresponding to this was a fountain
that threw water to a considerable
height and which ran off as fast as it
was thrown out. An elegant marble
summer house, opening into a green in-
closure and furnished with a fountain
similar to the one last described, fronted

the above. Throughout the walks were
scattered marble seats, near to each of
which Avas a little fountain and through-
out the whole, small rills of water were
artificially conducted to entertain the
ear with their murmur as well as to
water the garden.

It will be seen later that the garden
of Pliny had a striking resemblance to
the French and Dutch style of gardening
of the 16th and 17th centuries. After the
fall of the Roman Empire little is known
of the art of gardening up to the begin-
ning of the 16th century when it was
revived by the Medici family in Rome.
These gardens were geometrical designs
and served as models for other famous
gardens which succeeded them until the
change of taste in gardening in Eng-
land about 1760.

The so-called Dutch or Holland style
differs but little from those already men-
tioned. At the end of the 16th century
the French began to copy the gardens of
the Italians, and during the reign of
Louis XIV, 1651-1715, Le Notre improved
and settled the French style in his lay-
ing out of grounds and gardens. His
taste and style continued in full repute
for upwards of a century. Hirchfeld, in
his "Theorie der Gartenkunst," Vol. 1,
1779, observes that "if Le Notre had
been born under any other monarch than
Louis XIV, his taste would in all prob-
ability never have spread nor his name
been known to posterity. But that age
in which a feeling for the fine arts had
begun to awaken in men's minds, together
with the personal character of this mon-
arch, was favorable to pomp and bril-
liancy. The nation and the court wished
to be dazzled and enchanted by novelty
and singularity; and though there cer-
tainly was nothing in Le Notre's man-
ner that had not before been displayed in
France and Italy and with the exception
of parterres, even by the Romans, yet
the grand scale and sumptuous expense
of the plans surpassed everything be-
fore seen in France, and produced pre-
cisely the desired end. His long clipped
alleys, triumphal arches, richly decor-
ated and highly wrought parterres, his

-21

978

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

fountains and cascades with their
strange ornaments, his groves full of
architecture and gilt trellises, his pro-
fusion of statues, all these wonders,
springing up in a desert-looking open
country, dazzled and enchanted every
class of observers." The principal works
of Le Notre are Versailles, which cost
nearly 200 million francs, Trianon, St.
Cloud, Chantilly, and the celebrated ter-
race of Saint Germain. He went to Italy
and England, and the rest of Europe
adopted his style. He died in 1700.

The Romans abandoned England to the
Saxons in the beginning of the fifth cen-

tury and the art of gardening, which had
revived in France under Charlemagne,
was probably introduced into England
at the end of the eleventh century. Dur-
ing the following centuries, until after
the hundred years of dispute between
the houses of York and Lancaster, we
find little or no record of gardening
until the time of Henry VIII. when the
royal gardens of "Nonsuch" were laid
out. These gardens were said to have
been cut and divided into several alleys,
quarters and rounds, set about with
thorn hedges. On the north side was a
kitchen garden surrounded by a wall

Fig. 10. White Fringe (Chionanihes vir(/inica)

FLORICULTURE

979

14 feet high; on the west was a wilder-
ness containing ten acres. In the gar-
dens were pyramids, fountains and ba-
sins of marble, one of which was set
round with six lilac trees. Besides the
lilacs there were 144 fruit trees, two
yews and one juniper; in the kitchen
garden were 72 fruit trees and one lime
tree; lastly, before the palace was a neat
bowling green, surrounded with a balus-
trade of strong stone. This was in the
year 1650.

Lord Francis Bacon attempted to re-
form the national taste in gardening dur-
ing his time, but apparently with little
immediate success. He wished still to
retain the shorn trees and hedges, but
proposed winter or evergreen gardens
and rude or neglected spots as specimens
of wild nature. "As for the making of
knots and figures," said he, "with divers
colored earth, they be but toys. I do not
like images cut out in juniper and other
garden stuff, they are for children." Sir
Henry Wotton said the garden at Lord
Bacon's was one of the best he had ever
seen, either at home or abroad. It is al-
lowed on all sides that Joseph Addison
and Alexander Pope prepared for the
new art of gardening the firm basis
of philosophical principles. Addison had
a small retirement at Bilton, laid out
in what may be called a rural style.
Pope attacked the verdant sculpture and
formal groves of the ancients with the
keenest shafts of ridicule, and in his
"Epistle to Lord Burlington," laid down
the most just principles of art, the study
of nature, of the genius of the place,
and never to. lose sight of good sense.

But it was reserved for William Kent
to carry their ideas more extensively into
execution. It was reserved for him to
realize the beautiful descriptions of the
poets for which he was peculiarly adapt-
ed by being a painter as the true test
of perfection in landscape gardening is
that a painter would choose it as a com-
position. Kent was born 1675 and died
1748. Kent was succeeded by Launcelot
Brown. Brown was bred a kitchen gar-
dener, but was afterwards head garden-
er at Stowe. He was extensively em-
ployed by the nobility. His new planta-

tions were generally void of genius,
taste and propriety. His creations were
all surrounded by a narrow belt, and
the space within was distinguished by
numbers of round or oval clumps, and a
reach of one or two tame rivers on dif-
ferent levels. This description in short
will apply to almost every place in Eng-
land laid out from the time about 1740,
when the passion commenced for new
modeling country seats, to about 1785 or
1790, when it, in a great measure, ceased.
The leading outline of this plan of im-
provement was easily recollected and
easily applied. The great demand pro-
duced abundance of artists and the gen-
eral appearance of the country so rapidly
changed under their operation that in the
year 1772 Sir William Chambers declared
that if the mania were not checked in
a few years longer there would not be
found "three trees in a line in the entire
country." This system was, in fact, more
formal than the ancient style, which it
succeeded, because it had fewer parts.
The ancient gardens had avenues, alleys,
platoons, circular masses, rows double
and single, all from one material wood,
but the new style, as then degraded, had
only three forms, the clump, the belt
and single tree.

The good sense of the country soon re-
volted at such monstrous productions,
and proprietors were ridiculed for ex-
pending immense sums in destroying old
gardens, avenues and woods, and plant-
ing in their place young clumps for no
other reason than that it was the fash-
ion to do so. The writers who ventured
to protest were principally: George Ma-
son, in his "Design in Gardening," 1765;
William Sheustone in "Unconnected
Thoughts on Gardening," 1764; Whately
in "Observations on Modern Gardening,"
1771; William Chambers in "Dissertation
on Oriental Gardening," 1772; William
Mason, the poet, in "The English Gar-
den," 1772-1789; and especially the writ-
ings of Richard Paine Knight, Sir Uoe-
dale Price and Rev. William Gilpin, 1780-
1800.

The change of taste in gardening seems
to have been materially aided by accounts
of Chinese gardens, about the end of the

980

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

17th century. According to these de-
scriptions, the Chinese gardens were laid
out in the natural style.

The gardens of Japan are original and
unique. The Japanese landscape garden-
er studies a natural landscape and re-
produces it in miniature, his composition

including mountains, lakes, streams,
hills and woods. While these gardens
are often very small, they are artificially
arranged, and for this reason well worthy
of study, as the principles employed may
be utilized in the laying out of ground
on a larger scale.

Fi"- 11. Dwarf Muuntain Tine i Finns monticola)

FLORICULTURE

981

Humphrey Repton was the first who
took unto himself the title of landscape
gardener and the first to lay down fixed
principles for the art. His published
works are still indispensable to the land-
scape gardener. His career as a profes-
sor began about 1788. The elegant, sen-
sible style soon rapidly spread over con-
tinental Europe and was introduced into
America by Andrew Parmentier, who
came here from Belgium about 1824.
He was followed by Andrew Jackson
Downing, whose "Landscape Gardening"
and "Letters to the 'Horticulturist,' " are
well known to have greatly assisted the
advancement of landscape art in America.
But the one who carried the art to its
highest point was Frederick Law Olm-
sted. His writings are classics on out-
door art, and his work in designing
parks and other grounds were object les-
sons which have paved the way for the
wave of interest in landscape gardening
and civic improvement, which is now
becoming general throughout the coun-
try.

General Principles

The naturalistic methods of gardening
are undoubtedly the most interesting to
the American people, and I think the for-
mal arrangement should be confined to
restricted areas, disconnected from the
other parts of the ground. In connection
with magnificent architecture and con-
sidered as part of the architectural
scheme, this kind of gardening is per-
fectly fitting.

The aim of the landscape gardener is
the formation of pictures and the prin-
ciples governing his works are the same,
whether he is working on a large park
or on the area of a city lot. The mate-
rials are earth, rocks, woods and water.
The buildings, roads and walks are arti-
ficial features necessary for the comfort
and convenience of man.

The first step in the arrangement of
any landscape is the making of a plan.
This plan should give every detail of
grading and planting arrangement. It
should be made to a scale large enough
if possible to give the location of each
individual plant. It should show the

location of buildings, roads, paths, drains
and all existing and proposed features.
This plan should be accompanied by
written instructions and specifications,
and it should be conscientiously followed
as a guide in future operations to pre-
vent incongruities and confusion.

The laying out of the ground should
be done in the following order: Locating
and building the residence and other
structures, grading, laying drains, mak-
ing roads and paths, planting of trees
and shrubs, and lastly, the finishing of
the lawn. The location of the residence
and the planting near it should be very
carefully considered. Generally the
house is finished and the grading done
before the laying out of the grounds is
thought of, whereas the proper way is
to consider the location of the building
in connection with the planning of the
grounds. Planting about the base of a
building helps to connect it with the
lawn upon which it stands and softens
the stiff, regular lines. This planting
should consist of hardy material, which
will be effective, even in winter.

Porches and parts of the building
ought to be planted with hardy vines for
purposes of both privacy and comfort.
The lawn should be as spacious as possi-
ble to give extent to the place, and should
have boundaries of closely planted trees
and shrubs in irregular masses, the fore-
ground of which may be planted here and
there with masses of herbaceous and an-
nual flowers carefully arranged so as not
to cause a spotted effect.

Outbuildings should be partially
screened by mass plantings so as to show
only those parts of them which will add
to the beauty of the composition. Avoid
the common fault of scattering plants all
over the grounds without reason or
thought.

In the arrangement of the plantation
be careful to study the natural growth of
the plants such as height, form, rapid
or slow growth, texture and color of the
foliage and season of bloom. While most
plants have green leaves there are great
differences in the shades of green, which
differences must be carefully considered

982

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

FLORICULTURE

983

for the sake o^ harmony in the landscape
composition.

Such plants as the blue spruce, purple
beech, plum and birch, golden elder and
all plants with highly colored leaves,
should be used very carefully, as should
also many of the plants like the weeping
mulberry, weeping elm and the Kilmar-
nock weeping willow.

Take advantage of the beautiful points
in the surrounding landscape by open-
ing vistas and plant tall growing trees
and shrubs, to shut out undesirable ob-
jects.

When planting groups and masses, do
not Indiscriminately mix the plants.
Plant several of each kind or variety to-
gether, and where more than one kind
are used in a group, let them mix slight-
ly to avoid the formation of stiff, regular
lines.

The proper location of drives and
walks is an important consideration.
They should be as direct as possible and
planned for convenience as well as
beauty. Except on very small places, a
slightly curving road or walk is gener-
ally more pleasing than a straight one.
Every road or walk should have a dis-
tinct aim, such as buildings, pleasing
view points, etc. Large bends will only
be justified by natural obstacles, such as
rocks, water, or groups of trees. The
curves should be easy, and gracefully
follow the natural contour of the ground.
If possible, do not allow roads and walks
to run through the center of an open
lawn or meadow, but keep them to one
side and plant trees and shrubs irregu-
larly along their sides in such manner
as to prevent long stretches of either
road or walk from being seen from any
point of view.

The entrance to a place should be as
simple as possible, and in keeping with
the general lay of the ground. Water
is one of the most effective features in
the landscape, and should be introduced
whenever possible. The pond and lake
give a peacefulness to the scene not
otherwise easily acquired, and the rip-
pling brook and the waterfall enliven
the woods with their murmurs, the for-

mer never resting as it runs along from
shadow to sunshine. The planting of the
margins of streams and lakes gives an
opportunity for Introducing a great va-
riety of plants which could not otherwise
be grown, such as water lilies, cat-tails,
calamus, Japan iris, and scores of other
moisture-loving plants. The making of
artificial ponds and lakes and the plant-
ing of them to fit natural surroundings
is vastly more difficult than the arrange-
ments of ordinary ground surfaces. They
are apt to be made stiff and formal in
their outline, examples of which are to
be found in abundance in our parks and
pleasure grounds.

A good way is to study Nature's ar-
rangement, noting carefully how she goes
about the formation of her duties, the
obstructions in the streams causing the
formation of natural dams, and how she
forms her islands in streams and lakes.
One may thus gain much valuable in-
formation, and by following it he will
be able to make and plant the natural
water features of his garden.

Bridges should be of a pleasing, simple
design, harmonizing with their surround-
ings. No bridge should be built unless
there is a reason for it. Other structures,
such as summer houses, arbors and boat
houses, should be very carefully placed.
If the design is simple and in harmony
with its surroundings, the structure may
add materially to the beauty of the land-
scape, but if not properly designated or
placed without apparent reason for its
position, it had better be left out, as it
would only spoil what perhaps otherwise
was a fine composition.

In the planting of the naturalistic
garden or landscape, we should mainly
rely on plants of undoubted hardiness,
and for this reason our native plants
are splendidly adapted. We have a
wealth of native material in our woods,
fields and meadows, suited to every local-
ity, soil and condition. Nature is the
best teacher. Get acquainted with the
native material first, then visit as many
good gardens as possible and learn how
to use this material to the best advan-
tage.

984

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Do not try to grow such plants as love
shade and moisture on dry hillsides, as
is often done, but select plants which are
especially adapted to the climate, soil
and situation of your garden. Use Ameri-
can grown plants in your plantations if
you want to succeed. Do not attempt to
transplant large trees and shrubs from
the woods into your gardens, they will
either not live or produce a stunted
growth. Small plants may be collected
and transplanted successfully.

Make use of the many beautiful hardy
plants introduced from other countries,
especially those from Japan which are
well adapted to our American climate.
These, as well as our native plants, can
be obtained from our American nurseries,
where they have had the care necessary
for successful transplanting.

FLOWERS

Most of the flowers treated in this
work will be found catalogued in this
section, and not as generally treated in
the alphabetical order of names scattered
through the work. The Standard Dic-
tionary gives the following definition of
"flower":

"Botanically, a flower may be regarded
as a sporangia (spore-case) bearing
shoot, or sporophore. Only two parts
are essential, the androecium (male part)
and the gynoecium (female part), these
organs being necessary to the production
of seed. But not all seed-bearing plants
produce flowers in the popular meaning
of the term, the conifers and their allies
being considered fiowerless. As ordi-
narily used, the term flower refers to
those floral structures whose sporangia-
bearing leaves are made conspicuous and
are protected by colored leaves. Even
when the sporangial leaves are absent
(as hydrangeas and chrysanthemums) the
clusters of colored leaves are called flow-
ers. A flower in its simplest form may
consist of only an axis that bears a single
sporophyl. The opposite extreme may be
seen in certain composites and orchids
that possess complex and highly special-
ized floral structures, the differentiations
having arisen apparently to aid the more
easy transfer of pollen or the more effec-
tive scattering of seeds. A completely
developed flower consists of a central
short stem (torus), floral leaves (sepals,

■'M

^sism

Fig. i;;. l-^vertjreen llod^e. Kasteru llenihick r'isnfja canadensis)

— Photo 6.1/ Duncan.

FLORICULTURE

985

petals), and sporangial leaves (stamens,
carpels). These parts vary in number
in different plants. True flowers are pro-
duced only by the higher vegetable or-
ganisms. Double flowers are developed
by increasing the floral leaves at the ex-
pense of the sporangial ones, as the snow-
ball."

Floriculture was not an important in-
dustry until about 100 years ago. Previ-
ous to that there was not a comparatively
great effort to beautify the homes or to
make floriculture an important commer-
cial industry. This probably grew out of
a number of facts. First, when people
are struggling for subsistence and the
struggle is severe, they have little time
to devote to beautifying their homes, and
the energy of life is directed toward ob-
taining those things that are necessary
in order to live. Second, when society
in general has accumulated but little
money and there are few wealthy people,
not much money can be invested in flow-
ers or luxuries of any kind. Third, under
these conditions society would lack that
cultivated taste which would lead it to
devote what energy it could to the cul-
ture of flowers. With the growth of edu-
cation, with aesthetic culture and with
the accumulations of money, which may
be diverted from the necessaries of life
to the luxuries, flower culture has become
an important industry upon which mil-
lions of dollars are realized every year.
Granville Lowther

Roses for Central Wasliinston

The following list of roses which do
well in the Yakima Valley was compiler!
by Mr. Burton O. Lum, of North Yakima:*

Dark Red Roses — Etoil de France, H.
T.; Louise Van Houtte, H. P.; Sultan of
Zanzibar, H. P.; Prince Camile de Ro-
han, H. P.; Baron de Bonstetten, H. P.;
Reine Marie Henriette, H. P.; Ulrich
Brunner, H. P.; Gruss au Teplitz, H. T.;
Princess de Sagen, H. T.; Avoca, H. T.;
Jubilee, H. P.; Fischer Holmes, H. P.

Light Red Roses— Duke of Teck, H.
P.; General Jacqueminot, H. P.; Rich-
mond, H. T.; Papa Gontier, T. ; Liberty,
H. T.; Madame Battersea, H. T.; Captain
Haywood, H. P.; Duke of Edinburgh, H.

P.; Suzanne Marie de Rodocanachi, H.
P. There are many other red roses that
grow well in Yakima, but all of the
above have been easily grown by the
writer.

Pink Roses (including roses tinted
with pink) — Antoine Ri voire, H. T. ;
Clara Watson, H. T. ; Madame Carline
Testout, H. T.; Magna Charta, H. P.;
Paul Neyron, H. P.; Rosalind Orr, H.
T.; Belle Siebrecht, H. T.; Madame Jules
Grolez, T.; Prince de Bulgarie, H. T.;
Maman Cochet, H. T.; Dean Hole, H. T.;
Betty, H. T.; Duchess de Brabant, T.;
Mrs. R. S. Sherman-Crawford, H. T.;
Viscount Folkestone, T.; Anna de Dies-
bach, H. P.; Madame Gabriel Luizet, H.
P.; Baron de Rothschild, H. P.; Jonkherr
Mock, H. T.; La Tosca, H. T. These pink
roses are especially adapted to Yakima.

Light Yellow Roses — Marie Van
Houtte, T. ; Amateur Teyssier, H. T.:
Safrona, T.; F. Diegin, H. T.; Madame
Pernet Ducher; Mile. H. Cambier, T.;
Chromatella, N.; Marechal Niel, N.;
Sunset, T.

Dark Yellow Roses — Le Progres, H. T.;
Harry Kirk, H. T.; Doctor Grill, T.;
Madame Ravary, H. T.; Francisca Kru-
ger, T.; Mrs. Aaron Ward, H. T.;
Duchess of Wellington, H. T.; Madame
Melanie Soupert, H. T.; Madame Hector
Leuillot, H. T.; Melody, H. T.; Isabella
Sprunt, T.; Sunburst, H. T.

The Hybrid Perpetuals, or H. P.'s, are
quite hardy and hold their color better
than the Hybrid Teas, or H. T.'s. The
Teas must be protected in winter. All
yellow roses do better in Yakima if they
are in the shade part of the day.

White Roses — Frau Karl Druski, H.
P.; Kaiserin, H. T.; Souv. Pres. Carnot,
H. T.; Margaret Dickson, H. P.; White
Maman Cochet, T.; Hon. Edith Gifford,
T.; Ivory, H. T.

Neither the American Beauty, nor any
of the La France roses, are included in
these lists, as they do not grow well in
Yakima. The buds blight with the ex-
ception of a few blooms in the late fall.

♦Abbreviations: H. T., Hybrid Tea: H. P.,
Hybrid Terpetual : T.. Tea : N.. Noisette.

986

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Flowers and Plants in the United States
1899 and 1909

Acreage Value

1899 9,307 $18,758,864

1909 18,248 34,872,329

The Cultiration and Uses of Annual

Flowering Plants

Ageratura

"For strengthening the garden's color
forces in blue, no annual is so good as the
ageratum." Though ordinarily used in
bedding and borders in contrast with
such plants as geraniums, perillas,
amaranthus, etc., the rose, white, and
blue ageratums are exceedingly attractive
when mingled with alyssum, candytuft,
and similar plants. They grow well upon
almost all soils and through a wide range
of climate; for that reason many combin-
ations with them are possible. The
plants are neat, bushy, and erect, with a
continual profuse clustering of pretty
brushlike flowers throughout the season.
The dwarf blue sorts make fine borders
and are much used where contrasting col-
or effects are desired. For early bloom
the seed should be sown in cold frames
or in boxes in the house early in the
season — March — but for summer and fall
bloom the seeds may be sown in well
prepared beds in the open. Seeds sown in
August will produce good plants for win-
ter flowering.

Althaea Rosea. See Hollyhock.

Alyssum

For borders, edgings, baskets, pots,
rockwork, and for cutting, a liberal use
of this dainty little flower is recommend-
ed. For borders, the seed should be sown
thickly so as to form masses. For winter
bloom, sow late in August and thin the
seedlings so as to stand about four inches
apart, but for spring bloom or for borders
the seeds should be sown in the open
early in the spring, or even late in the
preceding autumn in some localities.
Where the plant will not endure the win-
ter, however, early spring planting under
cover, either in a cold frame or spent
hotbed, or in boxes in a dwelling, is most
to be relied upon. Alyssum can also be
increased from cuttings made from strong

new side shoots, as well as by division of
the roots. By cutting back after the first
flowers fade others will be produced.
While white is the most common and
popular color, there are yellow varieties
of alyssum.

Antirrihinum. See Snapdragon.
Aqtjilegia. See Columbine.

Aster

The aster is certainly one of the most
satisfactory of the annual flowering
plants. The great variety in its size, col-
or, form, and season of blooming makes
it a most satisfactory plant for supplying
cut flowers. In fact, many of the im-
proved sorts produce flowers equal in
form and size to some of the better sorts
of chrysanthemums. The range of color
presented in this group is one of its chief
merits. Strange as it may appear, the
plant world is not very well supplied
with blue flowers possessing characters
which render them suited to domestic or
commercial uses. In the aster, however,
are found many shades of blue and pur-
ple and for this reason, if for no other,
the aster should prove an attractive dec-
orative plant. The habit of growth
adapts the aster not only to close plant-
ing for cut bloom, but some forms are
robust, tall-growing plants, well adapted
for use in an herbaceous border where
late bloom and careless effects are desired.
The more compact-growing, large-
flowered forms are most desirable for
cut blooms, while the tall-growing, open
types are most useful in wild gardens or
for screens. The wild aster (Aster novae
angliae) is one of the most beautiful and
most satisfactory of this latter class. The
vigor and ease of culture of the aster
are factors which contribute to its popu-
larity.

Plants from seed sown in the open
ground in May bloom finely in Septem-
ber and October, when the flowers are
seen at their best. For July and Au-
gust bloom, seeds should be sown in
March or April in a cold frame, spent
hotbed, or in pots or boxes in a living
room. Cover the seeds about half an
inch deep with rich, light soil and when
the plants have three or four leaves

FLORICULTURE

987

transfer them to thumb pots or to other
boxes, setting the plants about two
inches apart each way. After all dan-
ger of frost is past transplant the plants
so treated to their permanent home,
where they should stand about 18 inches
apart each way in well prepared beds.
Fresh manure or manure used in too
large quantities sometimes proves injuri-
ous to asters. Only thoroughly composted
manure mixed with the soil is safe for
these plants. Small quantities of air-
slaked lime, or of fresh wood ashes,
stirred into the surface of the aster beds
prove beneficial to the plants. When giv-
en plenty of water and rich, fine soil
asters can be grown into beautiful pot
plants.

In some localities and during some sea-
sons the aster is seriously attacked by
the so-called black potato beetle or blister
beetle (Epicauta pennsylvanica) , an in-
sect which feeds upon the partly devel-
oped buds, causing them to develop, if at
all, into deformed, irregular blossoms.
In such localities asters can be success-
fully grown under screens of mosquito
netting or other thin cloth.

Bachelor's Buttons. See Coreopsis.

Balsam

Impatiens balsamina
A native of India, the garden balsam
loves a hot sun, rich soil, and plenty of
water. The young plants are quick, sure
growers, and from seed sown in the open
ground in May soon form handsome
bushes thickly massed with large, rose-
like flowers. Transplanting two or three
times has a tendency to dwarf the plants
into better shape and to make the flow-
ers more double. Balsams are not often
given room for perfect development; they
will easily cover 12 to 18 inches of space
each way. For the finest flowers choice
seed is more than usually essential, for
cultivation and selection have wrought
wonders with this plant. The one objec-
tion to the balsam is its habit of produc-
ing its flowers, as it were, on the under-
side of the leaves, or inside the plant.
While the individual flowers are beauti-
ful, the obscure manner in which they are
borne detracts considerably from the value

of the plants. When used at the margin
of groups or to crown a terrace they are
shown at best advantage.

For early bloom the seeds should be
sown about the middle of March in a
gentle hotbed or in the dwelling house. As
soon as the first true leaves have de-
veloped the young plants should be trans-
planted to thumb pots or to boxes where
they will stand about two inches apart
each way. An abundance of light and
water is at all times necessary for suc-
cess with these plants. Care should be
exercised to prevent them from becoming
drawn, as stocky, symmetrical plants
produce the best flowers.

Calendula or Pot Marigold

The calendula or pot marigold is a
hardy annual about a foot high. A mod-
erately rich, light soil is most congen-
ial to these plants, which should be
placed about 8 or 10 inches apart, if
planted in mass or in borders. The seed
may be sown in the open ground quite
early in spring, and the plants will be
in bloom early in summer and continue
to bloom until late in the autumn. The
coloring of the flowers ranges through
all shades of yellow from ivory to deep
orange. The plants bloom freely and
earlier than the marigold, and are use-
ful in beds, borders, or backgrounds. The
dried flowers are sometimes used for
flavoring soups and stews. There are
both single and double forms of the pot
marigold. One of the most satisfactory
methods of propagating this plant is
from seeds sown about April 1 in the
North in spent hotbeds or cold frames.
After the middle of May, in localities
north of Washington it will be safe to
transfer the young plants to their per-
manent summer quarters.

California Poppy

Eschscholtzia
The eschscholtzia is the state flower
of California, and an annual of striking
character both as regards the form and
color of its flowers, which are bright and
rich in their tints of yellow and orange.
The plants average about a foot in height,
have attractive silvery foliage, and pro-
duce their large poppy-like flowers quite

988

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

lavishly from early spring until frost.
They are most effective when grown in
beds of considerable size, over which the
seed may be thinly sown broadcast and
lightly raked in. These sowings may be
made early in spring, or late in autumn
for earlier germination and bloom the
next spring. The eschscholtzia is also
very useful as a pot plant and for cut
flowers.

Calliopsis, Coreopsis

Coreopsis is a genus of showy annual
or perennial herbaceous plants, with
graceful long-stemmed flowers well suit-
ed for bouquets. The hardy annuals of
this genus are generally known by the
name calliopsis. This is one of the gar-
den's great forces in yellows, strength-
ened with rich maroons and browns.
Seeds of the calliopsis for summer flower-
ing in situations north of New York
city should be sown in March in boxes
in a living room or in a gentle heat in a
greenhouse or hotbed. In localities south
of New York the seeds may be sown in
the open in May in good garden soil,
with the hope of an abundance of flow-
ers from August until frost. The plants
should be thinned or transplanted to at
least 10 inches apart each way. Their
tall, slender habit makes neat staking and
tying necessary. All are fine for cutting,
especially Coreopsis grandiflora and C.
lanceolata.

Campanula

Canterbury Bells, Bell Flower

Slipperwort

Campanula is a genus comprising both
perennial, biennial, and annual flowering
plants. These fine old plants are rich in
color, profuse in bloom, and of easy cul-
ture. For outdoor effects, when planted
in quantity, they are glorious, and fin-
est full-blown specimens of such varieties
as calycanthema or Canterbury bells can
be transplanted to pots for house decora-
tion by soaking the soil about them with
water and lifting with a ball of earth.
The seeds of the annuals should be sown
in April or early in May. The seeds of
biennials should be sown outdoors early
in July, and the plants may be thinned

or transplanted to temporary quarters as
late as October.

The old practice of covering Canter-
bury bells with leaves through the winter
is not satisfactory. Transplant them six
or eight inches apart in a cold frame,
where they will make large plants by
spring and are as easily cared for as
pansies. In the spring set them 18 to 20
inches apart in beds where they are to
bloom. In June and July they flower
most profusely, and are in fine form a
long time. They also make beautiful pot
plants for Easter. If sown early in good
soil the hardy perennials will bloom early
the next year. All varieties like a rich,
sandy soil, with good drainage.

Candytuft

neris

The candytufts are among the best
white flowers for edging beds, for plant-
ing in belts, beds, or massing, for rock-
eries, and for cutting. Several of the
varieties are fragrant, and all are profuse
bloomers. The seeds should be sown out-
doors in April where the plants are to
bloom, and well thinned when they have
grown about an inch high. Make a sec-
ond planting a month later, and a third
late in July for fall flowers. September
sowings will give winter blooming plants.
The soil for best results should be rich,
and the plants given an abundance of
water. They branch freely, and if some
are removed the flowers will be larger.

Canterbury Bells. See Campanula.

Carnation. See Pinks.

Castor Bean

Ricinus

The castor oil plant, commonly spoken
of as the castor bean, is especially valu-
able because it is one of the few annuals
which can be used to produce a semi-
tropical effect. Its rapid growth and large
size make it valuable as the central object
in groups where rich, luxuriant growth is
required. The variety of color in the foli-
age of the different sorts of castor bean
is of value in giving contrast, and when
used in combination with cannas, calad-
iums, coleus, or scarlet sage most strik-
ing effects of contrast can be produced.
As a background for lower growing plants

FLORICULTURE

989

the castor bean has no equal among gar-
den annuals. Only the annual climbing
vines, when provided with suitable sup-
ports, equal it as a low screen. It can
be used with good effect in groups, as
masses along shrubbery borders, or as
belts for covering and shutting out an un-
desirable view.

At the North, the castor bean is most
satisfactory when started in March or
early in April in a gentle heat. A hot-
bed, greenhouse, or living room can be
made use of for the purpose. As soon as
the first true leaves have formed, the
young plants should be pricked out into
small boxes or pots, where they should
be kept growing slowly until all danger of
frost has passed, when they may be trans-
ferred to the open. After transplanting
the young plants, it is desirable that they
have sufBcient room to prevent them from
growing too tall and consequently from
losing their lower leaves.

If planted in the open ground at the
same time garden beans are planted, the
castor bean will make a growth of from
four to six feet by the middle of August.
This plant loves a rich soil, plenty of
moisture, full sunlight, and great heat.
The varieties range in height from 3 to
10 feet and have leaves of correspond-
ing size.

Centaurea. See Corn Flower.

Chrysantliemums

The chrysanthemums, like the pinks,
contain some of the most valuable of the
commercial florists' products, both hardy
perennial and annual flowering plants.

The large flowered types of chrysanthe-
mums, which each autumn produce such
gorgeous shows in the stores, florists'
establishments, and conservatories, are
not hardy, and since they are treated as
greenhouse plants by the florists they are
only mentioned in this list. The class of
hardy chrysanthemums, which should be
more commonly seen in every flower gar-
den, and which are known as pompons,
are simply noted to give proper relation
to the annual chrysanthemums which are
the subject of this sketch.

These plants bloom most satisfactorily
if the seeds are sown early in a hotbed

or cold frame and the young plants trans-
ferred to the open as soon as the soil
has become sufficiently warm to keep them
growing without check. If started in a
hotbed the young plants should stand 10
to 12 inches apart when set in their pei'-
manent locations. Somewhat less satis-
factory results can be secured by sowing
the seed about corn planting time in the
open where the plants are to bloom. The
seedlings should be thinned to stand at
least eight inches apart. If the same care
in regard to disbudding and pinching back
is taken with the annual plants as with
the large flowered perennials the work
will be rewarded by greatly increased size
of the flowers.

Clarkia

The clarkia is one of the prettiest
hardy native annuals of the Inland Em-
pire. It blooms freely, which character-
istic, taken in connection with the va-
riety and brightness of its flowers, makes
a bed of them in full bloom an attractive
sight. They are useful, too, for hanging
baskets, for vases, as edging plants, for
low massing, or for borders.

The seeds should be sown outdoors in
early spring and the plants grown in
partial shade. The clarkias thrive in a
warm, light soil, and their period of bloom
is midsummer and late autumn. The
average height of the plant is 114 feet.

Cobaea Scandens

Cobaea scandens is a rapid growing,
climbing vine which is easily propagated
from seed. The dark color and refined
character of its foliage, together with its
bell shaped flowers, render it a very satis-
factory vine for covering broad areas. It
is a less rampant grower than the moon-
flower, but furnishes quite as satisfactory
a screen made up of much finer leaves.
The flowers are not conspicuous, because
of their modest colors and because they
are hidden by the foliage. Their form,
however, is pleasing and they are open
during the day.

When the young seedlings have devel-
oped their first true leaves they should
be transferred to three inch pots or to
tomato cans and kept growing slowly un-
til danger of frost is past. In the open.

990

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

a rich border should be provided, for as
soon as hot weather comes on the plants
grow very rapidly if ample food is at their
command. A rabbit netting trellis or sup-
port is more satisfactory than cords or
smooth wire for this plant, as it fastens
itself chiefly by tendrils rather than by
twining, as does the morning glory.

Cockscomb

Celosia crista
The cockscomb are prized and planted
as an odd and picturesque decorative fea-
ture of the garden. The dwarf varieties
make novel and attractive borders; the
tall ones form striking groups, and when
interspersed with other lower growing
plants in a border they produce a pleas-
ing contrast. There are both red and yel-
low forms of the cockscomb, but the bright
red and crimson varieties are most ef-
fective in gardens and also in winter bou-
quets, for which they are cut before fully
ripe and dried in the house. The young
plants can be grown from seeds sown in
gentle heat in April and transplanted to
the open ground the middle or last of
May, or the seeds may be sown early in
May in the open where the plants are to
stand. Transplanting into rich soils about
the time the combs begin to form makes
the flower heads much larger. They are
bright from midsummer until frost.

Columbine

Aguilegia

The columbine is a hardy perennial,
with many horticultural varieties, and is
a desirable border plant. Its habit of
growth is to form large clumps. It blooms
profusely early in the season and remains
in bloom for a considerable period. It is
quite hardy, and is useful for cutting. The
peculiar pendant flowers are interesting
in themselves because of their unusual
form, and this feature, taken in connec-
tion with the graceful habit of the plant,
gives each clump of columbine a strik-
ing and interesting appearance.

Sow the seed in the open ground in
spring, preferably where the plants are
to grow, and thin the young seedlings to
about a foot apart. Seeds may also be
sown in the autumn for flowering the
following season. The plants thrive well

under good garden culture, but such
rare sorts as Aguilegia coerulea and A.
chrysantha do best in partially shaded,
well-drained nooks. Few hardy peren-
nials are so easily grown from seed.

Coneflower

Rudbeckia

Many of the rudbeckias are hardy and
perennial, but they may be treated as
annuals. The flowers are quite showy
and usually have yellow rays, though
some are crimson and others more or
less covered with brown toward the
base. The rudbeckias are of very easy
cultivation, thriving in almost any soil
and climate. Most of them prefer a
moist soil, but will thrive in the garden
under ordinary cultivation. Rudbeckia
hirta — the Blackeyed Susans, or "nig-
ger-heads," as they are sometimes called
— will thrive in the hottest and driest sit-
uations. Rudbeckia triloba, a biennial,
perpetuates itself through self-sown
plants. The triloba may be used quite
effectively as a border to a large bed of
delphiniums or as a screen, as it forms
a dense bush between three and four feet
high. The rudbeckias are propagated
by means of seeds or cuttings, or by di-
vision. The Golden Glow, one of the
most satisfactory plants of this group,
is well adapted for planting in a shrub-
bery or herbaceous border. It grows to
a height of from three to four feet, and
may be used as a screen when lower
growing plants are placed in the fore-
ground.

Coreopsis. See Calliopsis.

Corn Flower

Centaurea
Centaurea cyanus is also known as
"blue bottle," "ragged sailor," "kaiser
blumen," and sometimes as "bachelor's
button." These bright flowered plants
are of a hardy nature, requiring simple
culture, yet they are among the most at-
tractive and graceful of all the old fash-
ioned flowers. When placed in water af-
ter cutting, the flowers increase in size.
Seed of the annual sorts should be sown
in the open in April or May and the
young plants thinned to four to six
inches apart. They thrive well on all

FLORICULTURE

991

moderately rich garden soils. The per-
ennials may be grown from seeds sown
in gentle heat in March and planted out
in May or June.

Cosmos

Cosmos is now one of the notable fall
flowers. It is a strong, tall growing an-
nual, yet its bright, bold flowers have a
daintiness and airiness which is height-
ened in effect by the feathery green foli-
age. It is most effective when planted
in broad masses or long background
borders against evergreens or fences at
some distance from the house and the
garden walks. From seed started in the
house in March or April the plants will
have reached three or four feet in height
by September. The bright colored,
daisy-like flowers are borne in great pro-
fusion and come at a season when they
are very acceptable. Because of the ro-
bust habit of the plant the young seed-
lings should be thinned to 18 inches
apart when grown on moderately good
soil. Sowing the seed late and in poor
soil will dwarf the plants. In the lati-
tude of Washington, D. C, the plants
perpetuate themselves from self-sown
seed. These volunteer plants can be
taken advantage of for early bloom.

Cypress Vine. See Ipomoea.

Delphinium. See Larkspur.

DiANTHUS. See Pinks.

Digitalis. See Foxglove.

EscHSCHOLTZiA. See California Poppy.

Cypress Vine

Ipomoea guamoclit
The cypress vine is very distinct both
in foliage and flower from the moonflow-
er and the morning glories. The flowers
are small, star shaped, and usually pink
in color; they are feather-like both in
form and delicacy. The leaflets being
fine, the general appearance of the plant
is light and airy. While the plant does
not grow as robustly as those named
above, it i? well adapted for covering low
screens and arbors. It grows readily
from seed, which should be sown in a
rich border rather thickly, about corn
planting time, and the young plants thin-
ned to stand four to six inches apart in
the row.

Evening Primrose

Godetia
The evening primroses are choice,
free-blooming annuals, with widely open-
ed flowers of satiny texture, with deli-
cate colors. They are suited for solid
beds, border lines, for pots, and to grow
in shrubbery borders in shaded places,
where few other flowers will flourish.
The seed should be sown in an open bor-
der or in a cold frame in spring. If the
latter, the seedlings should be trans-
planted to stand about a foot apart in
rather thin or sandy soil. These plants
are also successfully treated as biennials
by sowing the seed in July and trans-
planting the young plants to a cold
frame, to be placed in the open the fol-
lowing May. The blooming season is
from early spring until frost, and the
average height of the plants is I14 feet.

Forget-Me-Not

Myosotis
The dainty little flowers commonly
known as forget-me-nots are hardy
perennials that love cool, moist soils,
and, like pansies, bloom most freely
in fall and early spring. They make a
satisfactory close border, the beauty of
which is heightened by abundant bloom.
The forget-me-not is also satisfactory as
a winter-blooming plant for growing in
cool rooms or cold frames. Another fea-
ture characteristic of this plant is that,
after once having been introduced into
a garden, it perpetuates itself from year
to year by self-seeding like the poppy,
portulaca, and several of the other desir-
able annuals. Sow the seeds in spring
in a warm, sunny border. Most varieties
bloom freely the first season and profuse-
ly the second year. The average height
of the plant is six inches.

Four-o'Clock

Mirabilis jalapa
The mirabilis, sometimes called the
"Marvel of Peru," is normally a peren-
nial in its native region, the warmer
parts of America, but under garden cul-
ture it gives satisfactory results when
treated as an annual. The seed may be
sown in the early spring under glass and
the plants set out in May. The four-

992

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

o'clock is often used as a screen with
good results. The colored part of the
flower, which is white, various shades
of red, and striped, is the calyx, drawn
out in the semblance of a corolla and
surrounded at the base by a leafy in-
volucre. In some cases, as in MiraMlis
jalapa, only one flower is borne on an in-
volucre.

The plant is a quick growing, erect,
bushy herb, attaining to a height of from
two to three feet. Its blooming period
is during the late summer and autumn.
Because of its habit of opening its flow-
ers only late in the afternoon and on
cloudy days the popular name, four-
o'clock, hafc been given. While this
plant is a tender annual in the northern
part of the United States, it frequently
reproduces itself from self-sown seed,
and even as far north as New York city
it frequently manifests its perennial
habit of developing tuberous roots suffi-
ciently large to be lifted and stored like
those of the canna.

Foxglove

Digitalis

The tall flower stems of the foxgloves
are particularly attractive when seen
growing among shrubbery or in bold
masses along walks or drives. As a back-
ground for lower growing plants the fox-
gloves are also very useful and interest-
ing. The spikes are frequently a foot
or more in length and thickly strung with
many showy, thimble-shaped flowers.
Some of the new sorts rival gloxinias in
shadings and markings.

Plants may be grown from seeds sown
in the open in May and the seedlings
transplanted where they are to grow in
the open or, preferably, to a cold frame,
where they make extra strong plants that
will flower profusely the next season.
They are most satisfactory when treated
as biennials, sowing the seed every year
in rich, deep soil and partial shade. The
average height of the plants is from two
to three feet. When the center spike be-
gins to fade it should be cut out and the
side shoots will, in consequence, grow
more vigorously.

Gaillardia

In the gaillardias are found both annual
and perennial plants offering a wide se-
lection of varieties and a profusion of
bloom over a long period. The blooming
period begins early and continues late in
autumn. They are well adapted to mix-
ed borders and are very satisfactory as
cut flowers. The stems are of good
length, carry the flowers well, and keep
fresh as cut flowers for a long time when
placed in water.

The annual gaillardias are all propa-
gated readily from seeds sown in the
open, but earlier flowers will be secured
by sowing seeds in a hotbed and trans-
planting the plants to the open as soon
as killing frosts have passed. In either
case the blooming plants should not stand
closer than ten or twelve inches. They
grow and bloom best when fully exposed
to sun and air, and when planted on a
fertile but light and well drained soil.

GoDETiA. See Evening Primrose.

Helianthus. See Sunflower.

Hollyhock

Althaea rosea
These too frequently neglected old-
fashioned perennials are most pleasing
and attractive when seen in groups or
long rows against evergreen hedges or
shrubbery as a background, and, in turn,
form a very satisfactory background set-
ting for plants of lower growth. The
color variety in these plants is very
great, ranging from pure white through
almost every conceivable shade of yel-
low red, and rose to ashen-gray and al-
most black. Although hollyhocks are
permanent and hardy, even during the
flrst winter, it is advisable to make seed
sowings every year, as the flowers on
young, vigorous plants are much finer
than those upon old ones. Seed sowings
should be made in April or May, and not
later than June, to flower the next year.
In the flnal transplanting each seedling
should be given a foot or more space
each way to allow for full development.
The average height of the hollyhock is
four feet; many sorts, however, are
much shorter, while an equal number are
taller than the average above stated.

FLORICULTURE

993

Ipomoea

Morning Glory, Moonflower and Cypress

Vine

The plants included under the names
morning glory, moonflower, and cypress
vine, while all classed together botanical-
ly, are quite varied in form of flower and
foliage. Their chief merit rests in the
fact of their rapid growth and ability to
cover large spaces in a short time. The
shoots grow long and are well provid-
ed with foliage, two factors which adapt
them well for temporary uses, such as
covering structures and summerhouses,
and for immediate effect upon new build-
ings. All three of the above named types
grow readily from seed, the morning
glory and cypress vine both giving good
returns from seeds sown in rich borders
about corn planting time. The moon-
flower can be propagated either from
seeds sown in a hotbed about the first
of March in the climate of Washington,
or from cuttings carried over winter in
a greenhouse. For best success with the
Imperial Japanese morning glories and
the moonflowers the seeds should be
filed to make a slight aperture in the
hard, horny covering, or they should be
soaked for several hours in warm water.
If these precautions are not observed a
poor stand will usually be the result.
Both these groups profit by being start-
ed in a hotbed or greenhouse in March
or April, and are then transplanted to
the open only after all danger of frost
has passed.

Larkspur
Delphinium

Blue is a comparatively rare color
among our cultivated plants, and for that
reason the delphinium, which. shows this
color in great variety, is particularly
valuable. The brilliant flower spikes can
be seen from a distance and are striking-
ly effective in beds or masses, in bor-
ders, shrubberies, or in combinations with
white lilies or other plants where a high
contrast is desirable. The tall sorts
should be planted among shrubbery or
used as a background for other low grow-
ing plants whose bloom will produce a
pleasing contrast with the larkspur. The
dwarf types are better suited for bed-

ding and for low borders. Improvements
are continually being made in the size
of the flowers, as well as in the length
and fullness of the spikes. Some of the
species flower both early and late, and
the season for all can be prolonged by
care in cutting away withered flower
stems as fast as they appear. The del-
phinium is sometimes increased by divi-
sion, but like most other plants they are
more robust when grown from seed. This
plant is easily propagated and adapts
itself to many conditions, but in a soil
deeply dug and well enriched with fine
old manure their blooms are largest and
best. For best results the plants must
have ample room to grow; IV2 to 2 feet
each way is not too much for the taller
sorts.

Annual Varieties

These include the rocket and hyacinth-
flowered larkspurs, so called from their
long, narrow flower spikes. They bloom
best in a rather cool, moist soil. The
seed may be sown in the open border,
either in spring or fall, preferably the
latter, so that germination may take
place very early in spring. As the seed-
lings grow, thin them to stand 6 to 18
inches apart, according to variety. The
shades of color include light, dark, and
azure blue, white, buff, rose, apple blos-
som, pink, brick red, red lilac, dark lilac,
violet, and fawn. The varieties are sel-
dom kept separate, as they are quite as
pretty and convenient for cutting when
sown in mixture. Some of these are real-
ly hardy biennials, but because they bloom
the flrst season they are treated as hardy
annuals.

Perennial Varieties

These are usually taller than the an-
nuals, requiring more space between the
plants. If sown in the autumn or very
early in spring many will bloom the
first season. The foliage is clean and
attractive and the habit of growth
strong, producing long flower spikes.

Lobelia

The Erinus varieties (lobelias) are
charming little plants that bloom very
quickly from the seed and continue gay
with flowers all through the season. For

994

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

beds, edgings, baskets, and pots there
is nothing prettier; their clear colors
and generous bloom make them welcome
anywhere.

The seeds may be sown outdoors in
early spring where the plants are to
grow. As the plants appear they should
be thinned moderately, or transplanted
several inches apart in rich, open soil.
Liquid manure given while they are in
bloom greatly improves the flowers.
Many sorts are also good winter con-
servatory plants of trailing habit. The
perennial or tall varieties are handsome,
showy plants, found quite effective for
backgrounds and grouping.

Marigold

Tagetes

There are two distinct types of garden
marigolds, each with numerous horticul-
tural varieties, derived from two distinct
species.

The French marigold, which is the
most compact and regular in growth, and
consequently the most valuable as a bed-
ding or a border plant, has been develop-
ed from Tagetes patula, while the Afri-
can marigold, which is of a more spread-
ing and open habit of growth and there-
fore less suited for bedding purposes, but
well adapted for herbaceous or shrub-
bery borders, has been developed from
Tagetes erecta. The common names of
these plants give no clew to their nativ-
ity, both being tropical American plants,
in spite of common names to the con-
trary.

The French marigolds are all useful
bedding plants. The habit of growth is
erect and compact, with good foliage.
The flowers are well formed, bright in
color, and occur from June until frost.
While these plants can be grown and
successfully brought into bloom from
seeds sown in the open in April in the
latitude of Washington, such plants do
not give as early bloom or the profusion
of bloom which will be borne by plants
started in a house and shifted for a time
into pots which confine the roots of the
plant and check it, so that when set in
the open the increased food supply has
a tendency to induce the development of

flowers rather than wood, a tendency
which is maintained, much to the grati-
fication of the gardener, throughout the
season. When transferred to the open
the plants should be set at least a foot
apart each way. The same distance
should also be given plants grown from
seed sown in the open. There are both
double and single forms of the French
marigold. The named varieties are espe-
cially good, but very satisfactory results
are obtained from mixed seeds.

The African marigolds frequently grow
two or more feet in height, and for this
reason are better suited for planting in
mixed borders or along belts of trees
and shrubs than in beds or masses in
small areas. This is, however, the com-
mon marigold of the garden in America.
The leaves and flowers are strong scent-
ed. The range of color in the flowers of
this type of marigold is from sulphur
yellow to orange, the darker shades be-
ing more commonly met with than the
lighter ones.

Mignonette
Reseda
Every indoor or outdoor garden must
have mignonette in plentiful supply. The
seed can be sown at any time, and if
successive plantings are made, its frag-
rant, modest colored flowers may be gath-
ered outdoors until November. For early
bloom in the open, sow seed in pots or
boxes under glass in February or March
and thin or pot off the seedlings, to make
stocky plants for bedding out, as soon
as severe frosts are past. To insure a
succession of bloom throughout the sea-
son, sow a row or two at a time in the
open about April 15 in the vicinity of
New York, and earlier southward, repeat-
ing regularly at intervals of about three
weeks till August. The July sowing will
make good winter flowering plants. The
average height of mignonette is one foot.
MooNFLOWER. See Ipomoea.
Morning Glory. See Ipovioea.

Morning Glorj^

The Imperial morning glory is the
most varied and most beautiful of the
group. One of its interesting features is
the variety of its flowers and leaves. The

FLORICULTURE

995

latter differ greatly in shape, as well as
in size; some are plain green, while
others are oddly marbled and blotched
with white or yellow. The colors and
markings of the flowers vary from pure
white to rose, crimson, and carmine
through blues and purples of every shade
to almost black. There are velvety
single self-colors, a few doubles and semi-
doubles, others with quilled or feathered
petals, many fancifully bordered, blotch-
ed, striped, penciled, and marbled —
hardly any two plants from a seed pack-
et seeming alike. The vines are vigorous,
growing rapidly to a height of 30 or 40
feet. In sowing or planting they should
be allowed about twice as much space
as the ordinary morning glory, and in
the open should not be sown quite as
early in the year.

Moonflower

Ipomoea bona-nox
The moonflowers are the most vigor-
ous in growth of any subdivisions of the
genus included in the above list. The
leaves are large, frequently five or six
inches across, and the large white flow-
ers, which open soon after sundown, are
frequently four to six inches across.
These plants with good soil conditions
and plenty of moisture will make a
growth of from 40 to 50 feet during the
season.

^Nasturtiums

A wide range of colors has been de-
veloped in this favorite flower, the nas-
turtium, which for three or four months
of the season makes a better display than
almost any other plant. No other annual
will produce such a profusion of flowers
for so long a time with the same outlay
of time and labor. The maximum of
bloom is produced on thin soils, and
the plant never flags through the hot-
test weather; in fact, too much rain or
moisture greatly reduces the supply of
flowers. In soils too rich the leaves pre-
dominate and the plants are apt to rot off
in wet weather, especially if standing too
close. The seeds should be planted an
inch deep, and the seedlings thinned to
10 or 12 inches apart. The rows for bed-

ding varieties should not be less than a
foot apart, and for tall varieties four
feet.

Dwarf or Tom Thumb Ifasturtiums

Tropaeolum minus

These plants have a neat, compact habit
of growth an4 attractive foliage, and are
not infested by insects. Blossoms appear
in two months from the date of seed sow-
ing, and continue throughout the whole
season. A bed of dwarf nasturtiums in
full bloom is a sea of color. It is said
that a good bed, 6 by 20 feet in size,
will yield about 1,000 flowers per day.
The average height of the dwarf variety
is nine inches.

Tall or Climbing Nasturtiums

Tropaeolum majus
Besides their ordinary garden use for
trailing over fences, trellises, stone walls,
etc., the climbing nasturtiums can also
be grown as pot plants for winter-flower-
ing as screens, or as trailers for hang-
ing baskets and vases. Sow plenty of
seed in drills, and thin to six inches
apart in the row. Like the dwarf forms,
these plants bloom most quickly and pro-
fusely in poor soil. Their flowers are
usually a little larger than those of the
dwarf sorts. The average height of the
plant is five feet.

Nemophila

The representatives of the genus Nemo-
phila are dwarf, compact growing, hardy,
annual herbs, which produce an abun-
dance of showy bell-shaped flowers from
early spring to late autumn, for which
reason they are esteemed for borders and
for bedding purposes. All the species
may be propagated from seed. If the
seeds are sown in the open about the
middle of August and then transplanted
in late autumn very early flowers may
be obtained. For summer and late fall
blooms the seed may be sown in the open
in April and not transplanted. The nem-
ophilas love a moist loam, with partial
shade, and produce an abundance of
showy flowers, which are very valuable
for bedding and for cut flowers. The
whole plant is more or less hairy.

996

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Pansy

Viola tricolor

The pansy, sometimes called heart's-
ease, is a favorite with almost everyone.
It is a plant that demands more than
ordinary attention, but none repays such
attention more liberally. For very early
outdoor bedding the seed is sown in the
autumn — September — in a cold frame, or
in rich, moist garden beds, from which
the plants can be transferred to a cold
frame, setting them two or three inches
apart each way before severe winter
weather begins. In spring three-fourths
of them can be lifted out for bedding,
and the rest left to bloom in the frame.
For winter bloom in a frame, set the
plants about twice as far apart, and thin
out half of them in spring. Cover the
blooming plants with sash, adding a cov-
ering of matting or straw in very cold
weather. In mild weather remove the
mats and lift the sashes to admit light
and fresh air and to prevent the plants
from becoming drawn. In outdoor beds
raised a few inches above the ground,
with a mulch of dry leaves and some
brush to hold them in place, pansies will
often winter nicely and bloom until mid-
summer, when a relay of young, vigor-
ous plants should be ready to replace
them.

Spring sowings should be made early,
so as to secure good flowers during the
early rains. Seed sown in a cool, moist
place in June and July, and well tended,
will give good flowering plants for fall.
If they come into bloom in the heat of
summer the flowers may be small at flrst,
but as the weather becomes cooler they
will increase in size and beauty. Through
summer heat the flowers are finer in a
somewhat shaded place, but in almost any
situation good pansy seed will give fine
flowers in spring and fall. Early fall
sowings give the finest spring flowers.

Petunia

Because of the ease and facility with
which all of the single-flowered varieties
of the petunia can be grown from seed
this plant commands attention as a
worthy candidate for the summer flower
garden. The young plants grow rapidly

and come into bloom early, and in addi-
tion to this they furnish a continuous
wealth of blossoms until destroyed by
frost. The large-flowered strains are very
beautiful and of great variety. While the
single sorts are common and inexpensive,
the double giant-flowered varieties are
rendered expensive because they must be
reproduced from seed which sets only
after careful hand pollination of the flow-
ers, which is in itself an expensive oper-
ation, or from cuttings, of which an in-
dividual plant can supply but a limited
number.

For best results the seeds of all sorts
should be sown in a gentle hotbed, cold
frame, or in .fine soil in a box placed in
a sunny window in March or early in
April for localities north of Washington,
D. C. When the soil has warmed suf-
ficiently and the danger of frost has
passed, the seedling plants should be
transplanted to a rich garden loam and
placed about a foot apart each way. The
seed of the double varieties is less vigor-
ous than that of the single sorts and
therefore requires more attention to pre-
vent extremes of temperature and of
moisture to insure good germination. If
the seeds are sown in boxes in the liv-
ing room, a pane of glass may with ad-
vantage be kept over the top to maintain
a close atmosphere, and thus prevent the
loss of moisture until the young plants
are well out of the ground. In planting,
the seeds should be scattered over the
surface of the soil and brought in con-
tact with it by firming. They should not,
like most other seeds, be covered.

Petunias are attractive in beds and
masses, serve well for broad borders or
bands and thrive well in window boxes.
They are not exacting as regards soil
conditions, thriving well in almost any
arable soil, and they endure drought well
and bloom profusely.

Phlox

Phlox druvimondii
The annual phlox, sometimes called
flame flower, is particularly useful and
attractive when sown in masses or ribbon
beds of contrasting colors. Few annual
plants are more easily grown from seed.

FLORICULTURE

997

give a quicker return of bloom, or offer
such a variety to choose from as do the
phloxes. There are few desirable colprs
beyond their range, and if given good soil
and plenty of water they furnish a sup-
ply of delicate flowers for cutting through-
out the season. The phloxes are also use-
ful as window garden plants, and may
be used as an undergrowth for tall, bare-
stemmed plants. The first sowing of seed
should be made as soon as the frost is
out of the ground in the spring; later
ones in May, either where the plants are
to bloom or in a seed bed, as the phlox
transplants readily. In transplanting set
the taller kinds about a foot apart; if
planted too thickly they suffer from mil-
dew. The removal of flowers and seed-
pods makes the plants more bushy and
compact and lengthens their blooming
period. The average height of the plant
is about a foot.

Pinks
Dianthus
The large and varied genus of Dian-
thus contains some of our most beautiful
and most profitable flowers. The most of
them are hardy perennials that bloom
freely the first season, the plants remain-
ing green all winter and blossoming the
next year also if lightly protected by a
mulch of straw, cut fodder, or leaves.
Old plants flower the earliest, but as
young ones give the largest, finest flow-
ers, sowings are made every year. Seed
can be sown under glass or in an open
sheltered bed in March. The seedlings are
easily transplanted and should stand 8
to 12 inches apart; dwarf ones, about six
inches. If especially large brilliant flow-
ers are desired, a bed of well mixed turfy
loam, leaf mold, and well decayed manure
should be prepared for them. Good drain-
age should be provided, as the plants are
impatient of too much moisture and are
more liable to winter-kill in moist than
in well drained situations. In fact, the
plant is hardy to severe cold, but suc-
cumbs when exposed to low temperatures
in wet places.

The Carnation Pink

Dianthus caryophyllus

This plant, which is the forcing carna-

tion of the American florist, can be grown
from seeds sown early in the season in
hotbeds, the young plants being given fre-
quent shifts to pots of increased size as
they grow until all danger of frost is
past and the growing season is well on,
when they may be transferred to the
border where they are to bloom. If they
are given a rich soil and an abundance
of moisture, the bloom will more than re-
pay the extra trouble taken. Seedling
plants are more variable in character than
plants propagated from cuttings, and for
that reason are not well suited for com-
mercial purposes.

On the continent of Europe this type of
dianthus is more commonly used as a gar-
den annual than in America. The form
known as "Marguerite carnation," which
has recently come into popular favor, is
well adapted to cultivation as an annual.
The majority of its flowers come double,
and it has a pleasing habit of growth.
Poppy
Papaver

In the spring, even before the tulips
are fairly gone, old gardens begin to be
gay with poppies, which, in some one or
other of their many forms, continue a
procession of bright blooms until frost.
No other plants possess so bold and bril-
liant a flower, coupled with the same
grace of stem, airiness of poise and del-
icacy of tissue as the poppy. For beds
and borders, with a background of green,
there is nothing which will produce a
more striking contrast. Some sorts are
admirable for naturalizing in open wood-
ed grounds; others, like the Shirley, are
beautiful for. cutting... A. sandy, loam suits
poppies best, and as their strong tap roots
are difficult to transplant it is well to
sow seeds where the plants are to bloom.
Seed sowings made in the autumn and at
intervals in spring will provide a long
succession of flowers. The seeds should
be sown thinly and covered very lightly,
as the seed is quite small. As soon as
the young seedlings are well established
thin the plants to stand about a foot
apart. The plants which bloom most pro-
fusely are those grown from fall or early
spring sowings while the earth is cool and
moist.

998

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Portulaca

This bright flowered, thick leaved an-
nual (portulaca) is unrivaled for bril-
liancy among plants of low growth. It
possesses the ability to flourish under ex-
tremely adverse conditions; even the hot
sun and a light sandy soil, with sparse
water supply, will not destroy it. It is
satisfactory for beds, edgings, and rock-
work, and for filling up irregular spaces
or unexpected gaps in flower beds. As
an'"undergrowth for taller plants it is also
valuable. It flourishes, carpeting the
ground with a mat of succulent foliage
that in the forenoon is hidden by the gay-
est flowers. The plant is particularly use-
ful in the Northwest. The seed does not
germinate until hot weather, and should
be sown late. Beyond the sowing, this
plant requires little care. The hardy
character of the plant is shown by the
fact that it can be transplanted while in
full flower through the driest, hottest sea-
sons. The average height of the portu-
laca is six inches.

At Washington and southward this
plant will perpetuate itself by self-sown
seeds. In some soils this is sufficient to
cause the plant to assume a weedy char-
acter. It never becomes troublesome like
its near relative, the weedy garden purs-
lane, or "pusley" (Portulaca obracea) .

Pot Maeigold. See Calendula.

RiciNUs. See Castor Bean.

RuDBECKiA. See Cone-Flower.

Salvia. See Scarlet Sage.

Scarlet Sage

Salvia splendens

The scarlet sage is a standard bedding
plant that keeps the garden bright with
color until late in autumn. This plant
lends itself to many uses; it makes a
good pot plant, does well in window boxes,
and is useful for cutting to give color.
Its best use, however, is as a hedge or
border plant where long broad bands of
intense color are desirable.

In the climate of Washington. D. C,
seeds should be sown in window boxes
or frames in March or April and the
plants set outdoors during the latter part
of May, or the seed may be sown outdoors
after the first of June if protected from

heavy rains and strong winds. The
plants grow and bloom profusely in any
light, rich soil. Both the tender and
hardy perennial sorts bloom the first
year and all are treated as annuals.
Scotch Pink. See Pinks.

Snapdragon

Antirrhinum
The snapdragon is a valuable border
plant. It flowers the first year from
seed sown as an annual. The bright color
and peculiar form of the flowers always
attract attention. The newer sorts offer
variety of colors and of markings. The
spikes are useful for cutting and keep
fresh a long time. From seed sown in
the open ground in May plants will bloom
in July and August. For early flowers
the seed should be sown under glass in
February or March and transplanted into
beds of warm, dry soil moderately en-
riched. If protected by a cold frame or
even a mulch of leaves, the plants will
winter well and bloom early the following
year. The snapdragon, like most peren-
nials and biennials which bloom the first
year, and of which a particular display is
desired, should be treated like an annual
and sown every year. The plant blooms
freely and continually until frost, its aver-
age height being one and one-half feet.

Stocks

MattMola
The group of plants known as stocks of-
fers many desirable qualities. The plants
are vigorous, have a good habit of growth,
fragrant flowers in various colors, a long
season of bloom, and are adapted to a
wide range of cultural conditions. Stocks
are suitable for bedding, edgings, pot cul-
ture, house or conservatory use, and for
cutting. For bouquets and floral work
the double white sorts are especially use-
ful. To secure early flowers, seeds should
be sown under glass in March or April,
and the young seedlings transplanted
when an inch high into other pots or
boxes, or into the fine soil of a spent
hotbed. Advantage should be taken of
showery May weather to transfer the
plants to garden beds or deep, rich soil,
setting them about a foot apart each way.
As with other plants, frequent trans-

FLORICULTURE

999

plantings during the early stages of
growth tend to give them a more dwarf
and compact habit. For late flowers
seed sowings may be made in the open
ground in May. If plants that began to
bloom late are carefully lifted and potted
in the fall they will flower freely during
the winter in a house or room that is
tolerably cool and moist. The blossoms
are very lasting. The average height of
the stocks is from one to one and a halt
feet.

Sunflower

Helianthus

These tall growing, bright flowered an-
nual plants have not received the atten-
tion they deserve. They have suffered the
misfortune of having been cheapened by
use as a burlesque. In reality, however,
the tall growing, large flowered sorts, as
well as the dwarf, many flowered var-
ieties, are useful when skillfully employ-
ed in mixed plantations with other herb-
aceous annuals. The golden yellow disks
are like sunbursts among the shrubbery.
The tall habit of the plant and the dense
foliage of some varieties suit them well
for backgrounds and screens. Their long
stems and extraordinary lasting qualities
make them of value as cut flowers.

The seed should be planted in the open
garden in spring, at about the same time
that corn is planted, and the plants thin-
ned to stand from two to four feet apart,
according as the plant is dwarf or tall
growing. There is wide variation in the
height and habit of growth of the differ-
ent varieties, which range from two to ten
feet in height, with from one to many
flowers.

Sweet Peas

Lathyrus odoratus

The sweet pea during the last decade
has been greatly modified and improved
by careful selection and cultivation, the
flowers being larger and more varied in
color and marking than formerly. The
result is that the sweet pea ha? come to
be one of the most popular annual flow-
ering plants. It repays well the attention
given it. The flowers are well suited for
bouquets, and lend themselves well to
table decoration. While the climbing

habit of the plant is such as to prevent its
use in groups and borders, its height is
not sufficient to allow its use as a cover
or screen for a lattice. The most satisfac-
tory method of growing it is in long rows
provided with rabbit netting wire, sup-
ported by strong anchor posts and inter-
mediate stakes, to prevent the wire from
sagging between its supports.

Sweet peas require a soil deeply tilled
and well supplied with plant food. A
satisfactory method is to open a trench
about a foot wide and ten inches deep in
rich garden loam, in the bottom of which
about three inches of well rotted manure
are placed, with two inches of fine top
soil scattered immediately over it. Upon
this bed sow the peas in double rows
about eight inches apart, the seeds be-
ing placed from half an inch to an inch
apart in the row. Cover the seed about
three inches deep, and after the young
plants appear and have attained sufficient
height fill the trench completely.

As the sweet pea can hardly be placed in
the soil too early in the spring, all gen-
eral preparatory work should be done in
the autumn, and the seeds sown as early
in March as practicable. In sections with
a winter temperature less severe than that
of Washington the best results will un-
doubtedly be obtained from fall sowing.

Sweet William. See Pinks.

Sweet William

Dianthus barbatiis
The sweet william, which is to be found
in every grandmother's garden, is one of
the most satisfactory members of this
group for annual planting. While seed
can be sown in the open early in the sea-
son, about corn planting time, the best
results in the way of early bloom come
from plants produced from seeds sown in
a hotbed not later than the 10th of March
in the latitude of New York, the young
plants being pricked out into flats or,
preferably, into thumb pots, and later
shifted to three inch pots before planting
in the flowering border. The outside
planting of hotbed grown plants should be
delayed until the season has advanced suf-
ficiently to prevent the plants suffering
from a check by cold after being placed

1000

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

in the open. The pot grown plants should
be set at least ten inches apart and seed-
lings from seed sown in the open had best
be thinned to stand at least eight inches
apart.

The Scotch Pink, or Grass Pink

Dianthus plumariios

The Scotch pink is a hardy dianthus,
which, when treated as an annual in like
manner as the sweet william, gives very
satisfactory results. The delicately fring-
ed, variously colored, fragrant flowers give
the plant an odd yet attractive appear-
ance.

The flowers of all the plants of this
group are most satisfactory for bouquets
and table decoration because of the length
of time they will keep in a fresh and
attractive condition after being cut and
placed in water.

Verhena

The verbena is a low growing annual,
with a decumbent or creeping habit. The
flowers are borne on terminal or lateral
shoots, which lift themselves from five
to seven inches off the ground, and when
grown in mass the plants will form a mat
which in full bloom will give the soil
the appearance of having a carpet of flow-
ers. Because of the ability of the plant to
form a compact growth and produce a
wealth of flowers over a long period, the
verbena is frequently used as a bedding
plant where carpet bedding effects are
desired. The contrasting colors in the
varieties which come true from seed al-
low of securing pleasing combinations
of colors which are effective where low
growing plants can be used. The length
of stem and the texture of the flower are
such that the verbena is of value for bou-
quets and table decorations. The ver-
bena can be used with good effect in beds,
borders, mounds, and in window boxes.

"While the verbena grows readily from
cuttings and from layers, seedling plants
are more vigorous and as a rule produce
better flowers. For the earliest bloom in
the latitude of Washington, D. C, sow the

seeds early in February in a moderately
warm living room or greenhouse. For
general outdoor planting the seeds may be
sown about March 10, either in a living
room, hotbed, or greenhouse. . Soak the
seed a few hours in tepid water and sow
in seed boxes filled with light, rich soil;
cover one-fourth of an inch deep, press
down firmly, and water sparingly. When
the seedlings are about an inch high trans-
plant them into other boxes, placing the
young plants two or three inches apart
each way. If thumb pots are available
use these in place of boxes. When plant-
ing out time arrives choose a bright,
sunny situation. Make the soil rich and
compact rather than light, but in all cases
provide good drainage. Set the young
plants 10 to 15 inches apart each way and
give good cultivation until they cover the
ground. With such treatment the ver-
bena should give continuous bloom from
early summer until killed by frost.

Zinnia (Youth-and-Old-Age)

The zinnia is easily grown from seed
sown in the open ground. When sown
in April the plants will bloom abundantly
and continuously through the entire sea-
son. Of late, great improvements have
been wrought both in the color and form
of the flower. During the month of
August zinnias are at their best. To se-
cure large flowers and a profusion of
bloom the plants must be given ample
room for full development, as well as an
abundant supply of food. Strong, rich
soils suit the zinnia. If the seeds are
sown in a dwelling house or in a hotbed
in March and the young plants are prick-
ed out once or twice before being placed
in their permanent situations more satis-
factory results will be secured than from
outdoor sown seeds unless equal care in
thinning or transplanting is given. The
plants can be used for groups, beds, bor-
ders, garden lines, and summer hedges.
Their average height is one and one-half
feet.

L. C. CORBETT,
Washington. D. C.

FLORICULTURE

1001

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1002

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

DISEASES OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

Ornamental plants are for the most part
subject to the same kinds of troubles as
plants of the same species or family but
which may have acquired more economic
importance. Usually a reference to the
list of diseases of kindred plants found
in the main body of this work will give
the reader the information needed for
recognizing and controlling the diseases
of ornamentals. A few of the more im-
portant ones are given in this section in
alphabetical order with the exception of
roses which may be found under Rose in
the Floriculture section.

Anthracnose

Maples, oaks, lindens, sycamores and
other trees are affected by some one of
the anthracnoses. The leaves of young
trees and shoots are affected. It may be
controlled by the use of Bordeaux in the
nursery and early in the season.

Reference

Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Black Spot of Maple

Rhytsima acerinum (Pers.) Fr.
This fungus occurs on maples, willows
and other forest trees. It appears as an
irregular black spot upon the leaf. Not
serious.

Carnation Bud Rot
Sporatrichum poae Pk.
A serious bud disease which has caused
severe losses in greenhouses in several
states. It causes a disfigurement of the
flowers with eventual rotting of the en-
tire flower in severe cases. Controlled
by general sanitation and destruction of
all diseased specimens by burning.

Reference

Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Crown Gall

Bacterium tumefaciens
This disease is common to many spe-
cies of plants. A full discussion will be
found under Apple Diseases.

Decay or Brown Rot of Trees

Polyporus sulphureus (Bull.) Fr.
This fungus seems to be universal
where trees are grown and attacks the
elm, maple, oak, beech, birch, willow, pop-

lar and many, if not most, other shade
trees including the conifers.

When the fungus reaches the fruiting
stage it appears as a bright, sulphur-yel-
low, sponge-like cluster, very striking in
appearance. The spores find lodgment
in wounds, broken limbs and knots and
the growing fungus thus finds entrance
to the heart wood, which decays and is
eventually reduced to a brittle mass
which may be readily ground to powder.

Control

The only practicable method of control
is by painting wounds made by pruning
or otherwise with some heavy antiseptic
paint.

Reference
Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Fusarium
A species of fusarium produces a wilt
of China asters and a rosette of carna-
tions. Sterilization of the soil seems the
only remedy.

Reference
Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Leaf Blotch
See black spot of maple, this section.

Rhododendron Rnst

Chrysomyxa rhododendri (Dec.) DeBary
This is the most common disease of
rhododendron and occurs in practically
all regions where the rhododendron is na-
tive and particularly where spruce and
fir abound as the fir is also a host plant.
No method of control has been worked
out.

Powdery Mildew
See under Apple, Pear, Peach Diseases.

Root Rot

Several forms of root rot attack carna-
tions, violets, asters, etc. The trouble is
most likely to occur in alkaline soils or
soils poorly drained. Care should be
taken not to set out plants which are
already affected and attention to drainage
and manuring to correct alkaline condi-
tions will be effective. These rots have
a wide range of host plants. See under
potato, lettuce, beans, etc., where it ap-
pears as a damping-off and rhizoctonia.
See index.

FLORICULTURE

1003

Root Rot of Trees

Various forms of root rot attack shade
as well as fruit and forest trees.

These will be found fully discussed
under diseases of the various fruit trees.
See index.

Soft Rot of Calla
Bacillus aroideae, Town

This organism has caused a serious
soft rot of the calla which destroys the
plants about the time of blossoming.

The disease occurs chiefly in the bulbs,
flower stalks and petioles.

Controlled by selection of healthy bulbs
and by changing beds every three or four
years.

Reference

Duggar, Fungus Diseases of Plants.

White Rot

Polyporus squamosus (Huds) Fr.

This fungus fruits in a conspicuous
bracket. It is found upon many species
of forest and ornamental trees.

Prevent by painting all wounds to pre-
vent entrance of spores.

INSECT PESTS OF ORJfAMENTAL
PLANTS

These plants are attacked by much the
same list of pests as infest similar spe-
cies amongst the economic plants. Refer-
ence to the various fruits and vegetables
belonging to the same family will usually
furnish the reader with the desired infor-
mation as to the method of control in the
case of a pest of a given plant.
Holly

Holly is sometimes troubled with
scale insects of various species.

They may be controlled by the usual
methods adopted for the fruits, which see.

Ivy or Oleander Scale

Aspidiotus hederae (Vail.)
General Appearance

Circular flat scale, one-sixteenth to one-
eighth of an inch in diameter, the male
scales being very much smaller. The col-
or varies from light to dark gray. On
lemons this species often appears quite
red and is occasionally taken for red
scale iChrysomphalus aurantii), but the
lack of the small, central dark exuviae to-
gether with its smooth, flat surface makes
it easily distinguishable from red scale

and also from the greedy scale {Aspidio-
tus camelliae), which is decidedly
pointed.

Life History

Same as the other species of this genus
of which the San Jose scale is given as
typical. This species is cosmopolitan and
is everywhere throughout the state. It is
a greenhouse pest and often causes alarm
to citrus growers by appearing on the
fruit, but we find it attacks only old "tree
ripes." It is perhaps most serious in
many of the olive orchards in the Sacra-
mento valley, where it infests the fruits
so as to make them unfit for pickling pur-
poses.

Distribution

Throughout the entire country.

Food Plants

Ivy, oleander, holly, boxwood, orange
and other citrus species, olive, plum,
cherry, currant, maple, camellia, grass,
clover, yucca, asparagus, fern, pepper
tree.

Control

Same as for San Jose scale.

Natnral Enemy

A small chalcid parasite works effective-
ly upon this scale.

E. O. EssiG
Privet
San Jose scale. Sometimes troubles
hedges of this plant. See under Apple
Pests.

Red Violet Lonse

Rhopalosiphum violae Perg

General Appearance

All forms are dark red; the wings are
noticeably clouded along the veins which
easily distinguishes this species from all
others infesting violets.

Life History

Viviparous females, winged and apter-
ous, bring forth young continually
throughout the early spring and summer
months. Evidently the entire life cycle
is passed upon the violet.

Food Plants

Cultivated violets.

Natural Enemies

This species is usually held in perfect
control by internal parasites.

E. O. EssiG

1004

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Florida

Florida is mainly a peninsula 350 miles
long by 60 to 100 miles wide. On the
north there is an arm, reaching west-
ward along the Gulf, more than 100 miles
long and 50 wide, once known as West
Florida. The extreme length of the state
from north to south is 450 miles and it
contains an area of 58,680 square miles,
of which 4,440 is water. The surface is
generally level, or slightly undulating;
but in the northwest it is hilly, or at
least broken and called hilly; yet none
of the elevations rise more than 300 feet
above the level of the sea.

For the main part the soil is formed
of calcareous rocks, overlaid with sand,
clay and drift. No state in the Union
has so much coast line as Florida (1,150
miles) and none so many navigable riv-
ers. Among the rivers navigable for
steamers are the St. Mary, forming part
of the boundary between Florida and
Georgia, and navigable as far as the town
of St. Mary's; and the St. Johns, which
flows into the Atlantic near the northeast
corner of the state. This river rises in
the South, and with its tributaries and la-
goons has more than 1,000 miles of navi-
gable water. It flows through a series
of lakes, lagoons and swamps, and for
150 miles above its mouth has a width of
two miles. The Indian river is a narrow
lagoon or sound about 100 miles long. The
rivers rising in Alabama and flowing
through Florida are the Perdido, Escam-
bia and Choctawhatchie. Those rising in
Georgia are the Appalachicola, Ocklocko-
nee and Suwanee. Those flowing from
Lake Okeechobee are Withlacoochee, Peace
Creek, Caloosahatchiee. Rivers of the in-
terior are Ocklawatha and Kissimmee.

The chief harbors of Florida on the
Atlantic coast are St. Augustine, Fernan-
do, Port Orange and Jacksonville, and
on the Gulf coast Key West, Charlotte
Harbor, Tampa, Cedar Keys, St. Marks,
Appalachicola and Pensacola. Numerous
lakes of pure water dot the state, the
largest of which is Okeechobee, having an
area of 500 square miles and discharging
its waters by several outlets into the
Everglades. The Everglades are swamps

full of islands covered with vines and
shrubbery, and in the rainy season mostly
covered with water, forming an addition
to the Lake Okeechobee. There are many
small islands along the Gulf coast, and
from the southern end of the peninsula, a
chain of reefs and islands called quays
or keys extend in a southwesterly direc-
tion for 200 miles. Many of the streams
of Florida are subterranean, having been
formed by the action of the water in
wearing the limestone rock, which forms
so large a part of the sub-stratum of
Florida soils.

For agricultural purposes Florida may
be divided into the Upland region, com-
prising the northern tier of counties; the
Northern and Central Florida region, and
the Treeless and Alluvial region, south of
a line drawn from Charlotte Harbor to
Cape Carnival. Again, the state is some-
times divided into sections designated by
the natural productions or flora, as fol-
lows:

1. The oak, hickory and pine, upland
region, comprising most of the northern
tier of counties.

2. The long-leafed pine region, which
lies chiefly in Northern and Central Flor-
ida, dividing it into rolling, flat and hum-
mock lands.

3. The pitch pine, a treeless and allu-
vial region in the southern part of the
state.

The hummock lands are small eleva-
tions or hillocks, rising above the sur-
rounding swamps and generally covered
with grass, shrubs or trees. Its surface
soil is generally underlaid with clay and
therefore the timber that grows upon it
is adapted to the conditions described.
All the fruit trees grown in Florida
do well on the hummock lands, and it
was formerly supposed they would not
succeed on the sandy soils, but this has
lately been proven a mistake, for by fer-
tilizing from the marshes, or by the use
of shells from the sea, or other methods,
it has been proven that certain kinds of
fruits, especially oranges, will reach a
high state of perfection. There are many
varieties of sandy soil, from the coarse
sand containing 95 per cent of insoluble

FLORIDA

1005

matter to the hummock lands mixed with
clay. These differences have been caused
by the action of tlie winds and waves and
have made a scientific study of the quali-
ties of soil and their adaptability to cer-
tain forms of vegetable life necessary in
order to reach a fair degree of success.
However, by a study of adaptation of
crops to conditions men are making large
profits in fruits and vegetables grown for
the early markets of the Atlantic coast
cities.

The principal fruits grown are the cit-
rous fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes.
Other species of fruits are peaches, pears,
plums, grapes, Japanese persimmon, or
kaki, strawberries, pineapples, bananas,
guavas, mangoes and cocoanuts.

Many kinds of vegetables are grown
among which are beans, beets, cabbage,
cauliflower, collards, egg plant, Irish po-
tatoes, lettuce, watermelon, muskmelon,
onion, okra, English peas, pepper, radish,
squashes, rutabagas and sweet potato.

The marl or drained lands of the
southeast coast raise mostly tomatoes,
egg plant, peppers and okra.

Cocoanuts are grown mostly along the
coast and in the southern part of the
state.

Bananas are not largely cultivated for
the markets but are grown mostly for
home use.

Grapes grow rapidly owing to the long
season for growth and the vines of the
native varieties grow to be very large.
The Scuppernong is the leading variety
and produces immense quantities of fruit.

Pears are rather subject to blight. The
most resistant varieties are the Kieffer,
Le Conte and Smith.

Peaches grow in almost all sections,
but seem to prefer the hummock or flat
woods lands, if these lands are properly
drained. The varieties of peaches rec-
ommended are the Alexander, Early
Cream, Florida Crawford, General Lee,
Imperial, Angel, Colon, Ferdinand, Honey,
Peento, Waldo and Yum Yum.

Granville Lowther

Varieties of Fruits and jVuIs for Central
and Soutli Florida Planting

The following list is recommended by

Griffing Bros, of Florida.

Citrus Fruits — Budded on Sour Orange
and Rough Lemon Roots.

Oranges — Early Ripening, Boone's Early,
Parson Brown, Centennial, Medium
Early, Homasassa, Medium Sweet,
Tangerine, Mid-Season, Mandarin, Pine-
apple, Ruby, St. Michael's Blood, Tan-
gerine, Washington Navel, Late Orange,
Jaffa, King, Tardiff, Valencia Late.

Grape Fruit — Duncan, Florida Common,
Marsh Seedless, Pernambuco, Triumph.

Lemons and Limes — Kennedy, Villa
Francha Lemons, Persian Seedless,
Florida Key Limes.

Kumquats — Nagami (oblong), Marumi
(round).

Nut Trees —

Pecans — Bradley, Columbia, Curtis, Presi-
dent, Randall, Schley, Stuart, Van De-
man.
Japanese Walnuts, Japanese Chestnuts.

Peaches — Angel, Bidwell's Early, Bid-
well's Late, Florida Crawford, Florida
Gem, Glen, Gibbon's October, Griffings
No. 4, Hall's Yellow, Honey, Howard,
Jewell, Miami, Peento, Ceylon, Suber,
Waldo.

Plums — Excelsior, Gonzales, Happiness,
Kelsey, McCartney, Stumpe, Terrell.

Figs — Brown Turkey, Brunswick, Celes-
tial, Lemon.

Japanese Persimmons — Hyakume, Okame,
Triumph, Tana Nashi, Zengi.

Pears — Cincincis, Keiffer, Magnolia, Le-
Conte, Suwanee.

Apples — Jenning's Florida.

Mulberries — Downing, Hicks, Merritt,
Stubbs.

Pomegranate — Sweet, Purple Seeded.

Grapes^ (Bunch varieties) Agawam, Con-
cord, Delaware, Elvera, Niagara.

Grapes — (Muscadine varieties) James,
Scuppernong, Thomas.

1006 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

FEOST AND PRECIPITATION FOR FLORIDA

Frost

Precipitati'n

Average

Date of

Date of

Station

First Kill-
ing in
Autumn

Last in
Spring

Earliest

Killing in

Autumn

Latest in
Spring

Annual
inches

De Funiac Springs

Pensacola

Nov. 21
Dec. 5
Dec. 8
Dec. 6
Nov. 28
Dec. 28
Dec. 24
Jan. 9
Dec. 21
Dec. 29

Mar. 13
Feb. 23
Mar. 4
Feb. 19
Mar. 9
Feb. 18
Feb. 17
Feb. 8
Feb. 16
Feb. 14

Oct. 27
Nov. 12
Nov. 4
Nov. 12
Oct. 24
Nov. 28
Nov. 28
Nov. 28
Nov. 18
Nov. 18
Dec. 21

Mar. 29
Apr. 6
Mar. 28
Apr. 6
Apr. 16
Feb. 24
Mar. 18
Mar. 19
Mar. 17
Apr. 7
Feb. 14
Feb. 19

67.8
56.8

Talahassee

58.8

Jacksonville

Archer

53.4
54.9

Eustis

49.6

New Smyrna

51.1

Tampa

Bartow

53.1
54.5

Jupiter

Myers.

58.7
55.1

Miami ....

58.3

Key West

37.9

NoETH Flobida. For bloom period of
Apples, see Louisiana.

Food

Time Required for Digesting

Food How Cooked H.M.

Apples, sour, hard Raw 2:50

Apples, sweet, mellow Raw 1:30

Bass, striped Broiled 3 :00

Beans, pod Boiled 2:30

Beans and green corn Boiled 3:45

Beef Fried 4:00

Beefsteak Broiled 3 :00

Beef, fresh, lean, dry Roasted 3:30

Beef, fresh, lean, rare Roasted 3:00

Beets ...Boiled 3:45

Bread, corn Baked .3:1 5

Bread, wheat, fresh Baked 1:30

Cabbage Raw 2:30

Cabbage, with vinegar Raw 2:00

Cabbage Boiled 4:30

Carrot, orange Boiled 3:13

Catnsh Fried 3:30

Cheese, old, strong Raw 3:30

Chicken, full grown Fricasseed ...2:45

Codfish, cured dry Boiled .2:00

Custard „„.Baked 2 :45

Duck, tame Roasted 4:00

Duck, wild Roasted 4:30

Eggs, fresh Raw 2 :00

Eggs, fresh Scrambled ....1:30

Eggs, fresh Roasted 2:15

Eggs, fresh Soft boiled....3 :00

Eggs, fresh Hard boiled. . 3 :30

Eggs, fresh Fried 3:30

Fowls, domestic Roasted 4:00

Hashed meat and vegetables.... Warmed 2:30

Lamb, fresh Broiled 2:30

Milk Boiled 2:00

Milk Raw ...2:15

Mutton, fresh Broiled 3 :00

Oysters, fresh Raw 2:55

Oysters, fresh Roasted 3:15

Oysters, fresh Stewed 3:30

Parsnips Boiled 2:30

Pork, steak Broiled 3:15

Food How Cooked H.M.

Pork, fat and lean Roasted 5:15

Pork, recently salted Stewed 3:00

Pork, recently salted Fried 4:15

Potatoes, Irish Baked 2:30

Potatoes, Irish Boiled 3:30

Salmon, salted Boiled 4:00

Sausages, fresh Broiled 3 :20

Soup, bean Boiled 3:00

Soup, chicken Boiled 3:00

Soup, mutton Boiled 3:30

Soup, beef, vegetable Boiled 4:00

Trout, salmon, fresh Boiled 1:30

Turkey, domesticated Roasted 2:30

Veal, fresh Boiled 4:00

Veal, fresh Fried 4 :30

Forecasting Frost. See Frost.

Freight Rates of Movement in. See
Reduction of Waste in Marketing under
Marketing.

Frost

Frost is frozen dew; the moisture of
the atmosphere crystallized by the cold.
Young and tender plants are often in-
jured by the frost, thereby causing much
loss to the farmer and horticulturist. In-
asmuch as the wealth of the world is
mainly produced from the soil, all kinds
of business and commerce are therefore
affected by frost conditions and all classes,
as well as the farmer and horticulturist,
suffer loss. If, therefore, we could know
the conditions and provide against them,
it would greatly lessen the uncertainty
of crops. With our present knowledge

FROST

1007

this can be done in a measure, but there
is much to be learned and much to be
accomplished before we can be fully as-
sured against losses caused by cold.

Frost occurs only during calm, cold
nights when the mercury Is as low as 32
degrees Fahrenheit. This statement
makes it necessary to distinguish between
a frost and a freeze. There can be no
frost without freezing, but there can be
a freezing temperature without frost pro-
vided there is little moisture in the air.
Freezing occurs at that degree of tempera-
ture at which water will solidify; or at
which ice will melt. Thus the freezing
point and the melting point, or the point
of fusion, are one. The freezing point of
water is 32 degrees above zero; the freez-
ing point of mercury is 39 degrees below
zero; the freezing point of sulphuric ether
46 degrees below zero, and the freezing
point of alcohol, 203 degrees below zero.
The freezing point of water is the approx-
imate danger point of vegetable life. We
call the degrees of the thermometer be-
low the freezing point, degrees of cold;
the degrees above the freezing point, de-
grees of heat. When the atmosphere
which comes in contact with the body of
a plant or animal is colder than the body,
it absorbs heat from the body and is
called cold, because it is so in relation to
the temperature of the body. All animals
and plants have a certain power of main-
taining the heat of the body in defiance of
external cold. This power in animals is
due to the process of combustion, in which
carbon and hydrogen taken into the sys-
tem as food, unite with oxygen. This is
accomplished by means of breathing,
which oxygenizes the blood. The normal
heat of the blood of birds is 100 to 112,
while in mammals it is 96 to 102. Thirty
degrees below this normal temperature is
almost sure death, because at this point
circulation stops; while ten degrees above
is almost equally dangerous, for then the
system is consumed by heat. Plants, dur-
ing the summer, store food; they breathe
and manufacture heat out of food parti-
cles just as do animals, but not in the
same degree nor in the same manner.
Plant life resists cold by the radiation of
heat. There is considerable difference in

the rapidity with which the different va-
rieties of plants give off heat. This can
be illustrated by the differences of radia-
tion in soil, rock and water. Animals
know that during the cool nights of
spring and autumn, after the earth has
become cool, by huddling up against a
large rock they can keep warm. It has
held its heat longer than the soil.

Horticulturists know also that adjacent
to large bodies of water the temperature
is modified by the radiation of heat from
the water after the soil has lost a much
greater degree of heat. An illustration
of this is seen in Western Michigan along
the eastern shore of the lake, where a
strip of territory about 15 miles wide and
150 to 200 miles long is protected against
cold by the milder temperature of the lake
during the cold season, and that region
is a good fruit-growing section, whereas
other portions of the state grow compara-
tively little fruit.

Danger Point

There is considerable difference in the
power of plants to radiate heat, and in
the rapidity of radiation, and these facts
determine in a large measure their re-
sisting power to a temperature greater
than that of their bodies. It is very in-
teresting and yet very difficult to
determine with exactness the de-
gree of resisting power belonging to
any particular plant, for there are so
many counter influences that modify any
rules. The Missouri Agricultural Experi-
ment Station has found that dormant
peach buds can stand a temperature of
eight or nine degrees below zero with no
injury. When the buds are appreciably
swollen, zero weather is the danger
point; when the buds are showing pink,
they can stand 15 degrees above zero;
when the buds are almost open, 25 degrees
is the danger point; when they are newly
opened, about 26 degrees would be the
point of danger; when the petals are be-
ginning to fall, 28 degrees above zero is
cold enough to cause uneasiness; when
the petals are off, they can stand 30 de-
grees above zero; when the "shucks"
(calyx tubes) are beginning to fall off,
32 degrees above zero is the danger point.
This shows the different degrees of resist-

1008

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ing power of the same varieties of fruit
during different degrees of development.
The United States Department of Agri-
culture makes the statement that the
danger point for apples when they are
showing pink is 20 degrees above zero;
in full bloom, 26 degrees above zero.
Pears showing pink are in danger at 20
degrees above zero, in full bloom 27 de-
grees above; peaches showing pink, 23 de-
grees above and in full bloom, 28 degrees
above. It will thus be observed that
there is substantial agreement between
the conclusions reached by the Missouri
Agricultural Experiment Station and
those of the United States Department
of Agriculture, although these conclusions
are differently expressed.

Mr. P. J. O'Gara states that in Southern
Oregon the temperature at which the apri-
cot is injured when in the bud is 28 de-
grees above zero, and 30 degrees when in
blossom. Cherries are injured at 29 de-
grees, just before the blossoms open, and
plums are injured at 30 degrees above
zero when the flowers begin to show
white.

It should be observed further that the
latitude to which a tree is acclimated has
much to do in determining the degree of
cold it will stand without injury. Trees
of the same varieties brought from Flor-
ida will not stand the cold of the North-
ern climate as well as those grown in the
North, which have for several years, per-
haps for generations, been used to the
colder atmosphere. Furthermore, it
makes a difference whether the cold comes
suddenly or gradually. It is with plant
life as with animal life, that the tendency
of nature is to provide against injuries
caused by sudden changes. Animals suf-
fer more from cold if the change is sud-
den than if it is gradual. In the gradual
changes there is a closing of the pores of
the skin, a shrinking of the muscles and
drawing upon the food substances for the
manufacture of heat, a lighting of the
fires of the system that protects in a de-
gree not possible where the change is sud-
den. The same law prevails among
plants, but not in the same degree. How-
ever, it is observable that following a
very warm day, if it should turn suddenly

cold, the fruit buds are much more sub-
ject to injury than if the same degree of
temperature followed a cool day. In the
winter of 1908 and 1909 in the North-
western part of the United States, the tem-
perature was lower during the months of
January and February than for eighteen
years before, and more damage was done
to the tender varieties of fruit during
that winter than had ever been known in
the history of fruit growing in that re-
gion. We made in our own orchard and
in the orchards of our neighbors the fol-
lowing observations:

First: Peach trees and the trees
that belong to the prunus family, such
as almonds and apricots, are among the
tenderest trees and have less power to
resist cold than apples, pears and other
varieties. The almond will stand about
14 degrees below zero without killing;
the peach will stand about 18 degrees.
Among the varieties of peaches on our
place the Early Crawfords were the ten-
derest, while the Elbertas, Carmens and
Salways were comparatively hardy. A
few feet of altitude when the mercury
is down to the danger point may deter-
mine whether an orchard will be killed or
not. For instance, in one orchard the
trees were killed in a little depression
or draw that ran through the place, but
at a point twenty feet higher they were
not killed. It was argued by some of the
neighbors that this was due, in part, to
the fact that this low portion of land was
irrigated more and did not mature the
wood as well, or that the wood was too
sappy, and therefore more easily frozen.
In making other observations I have con-
cluded that there may be some force in
this, and that if an orchard has been
properly irrigated so that it has matured
its wood normally, it is in better condi-
tion to stand the cold than where it is
overirrigated, and therefore the wood
sappy; or where it has lacked irrigation,
and therefore the tree not sufficiently vi-
talized. Among the apples the cheaper va-
rieties generally stood the freeze better
than the higher grades. The exception
to this rule was in the case of the Ben
Davis, on which there was very little
fruit the following year. It was shown

FROST

1009

that the English walnut is tender, and
the wood was badly injured by the freeze.
Pear trees were comparatively hardy,
about a medium between peaches and
apples, or perhaps a little nearer ap-
proach to the apple. Plums were not
hardy; there was a fair crop of prunes
and but few apricots, as the wood was
not hardy. Pears were heavily loaded
with bloom and bore a good crop.

The effects of rain or extra humidity
should be remembered when considering
the resisting power of a tree or plant.
It is the same as with animal life. If ex-
posed to rain, the body radiates heat
much more rapidly than if it is kept per-
fectly dry. As has already been remarked,
plants do not respond so sensitively to
these changes of temperature as do ani-
mals, but any person knows that he has
less power to withstand the cold if his
clothes are wet than if they are dry. It
is so with plants. If a cold wave follows a
shower of rain, plants are much more
sensitive to the cold and in much more
danger of being killed than if the atmos-
phere is dry. The degree of vitality,
also, in a plant, has much to do with de-
termining its resisting power.

Conditions Which Affect the Frost
Problem

There are three conditions that affect
the frost problem. The first is eleva-
tion; the second is air drainage; the third
is evaporation, usually from large bodies
of water, which tend to modify the tem-
perature.

In rough or hilly country there will be
what is known as thermal belts, usually
following the contour of the hills. Low or
pockety lands will be relatively cold while
higher situations above the level of the
natural air outlets will be relatively
warm and orchards situated on this high-
er land will not be so liable to suffer
from frosts.

There are valleys that are often called
lowlands through which the air currents
sweep with force enough so that there is
seldom frost to injure the vegetation.
Reference has already been made to pro-
tection by lakes, bays, inlets or bodies of
water that modify the temperature. Even

several miles inland this is often true.
For instance, the prevailing winds from
the Pacific ocean are generally from the
west or northwest. These winds are ob-
structed by the Cascade mountain range
so that the territory along the foothills
on the east side of the mountain range
is more or less protected from the winds,
but there are mountain passes like the
Cowlitz pass, for instance, through which
these winds sweep with considerable
force. The air currents coming through
the Cowlitz pass and sweeping down the
Naches valley, which is part of the
drainage system of the Yakima and Co-
lumbia rivers, modifies the temperature
in the Naches valley so that, while the
valley itself is not at a higher elevation,
only being about 1,100 to 1,500 feet above
sea level, yet they are seldom injured
by frosts, while the lands in the Ahtanum
valley, only a few miles separated from
the Naches and on substantially the
same level, but sheltered from the winds
of the coast by a higher elevation of the
mountain, generally are not quite so well
protected from frosts and ordinarily
there will be a little more danger to
fruit crops in the Ahtanum valley on
a general elevation than in the Naches;
but there have been notable exceptions.
One of these exceptions was in April of
1911, when a cold current of air came
down from the north and settled in the
Naches valley, and did as much damage
or perhaps more than in some of the
other valleys on the same level. There
are exceptions to the general rules grow-
ing out of the changes in the direction
of the wind, but the fact still remains
that wind currents have much to do in
preventing the settling of frosts upon
the earth's surface.

The question of how the higher altitude
furnishes better protection from frost
than the lower is one about which a
great many persons inquire. We can
perhaps better answer this by saying
that we are living upon the bottom of an
ocean of air very like the ocean of wa-
ter in which living creatures breed and
grow. This ocean of air is not less than
fifty miles deep, and is perhaps much
deeper than that. One law of this at-

2—23

1010

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

mosphere is the same as the law of the
sea, that is, that cold contracts it and
increases its weight, while the heat ex-
pands it and lightens its weight, so
that, because it is heavier the coldest air
tends to settle into the lowest places on
the uneven surface of the earth just as
the coldest water tends to settle into the
lowest places on the uneven bed of the
ocean. This law may be demonstrated
in the heating of our homes. Those whose
homes are heated with hot water know
that the pipes which carry the hot water
from the furnace to the upper rooms are
called the hot water pipes and that the
hot water rises from the boiler in the
furnace room to the upper rooms of the
building, and that after the same water
has been cooled by contact with the air
of the upper rooms, it is carried back by
return pipes into the furnace room to be
reheated and rise again. Thus is kept up
the general round of circulation during
the winter. Another illustration is in the
circulation of the air in our homes from
hot air furnaces. The heated air rises
from the furnace, pouring from the regis-
ters and driving the cold air of the rooms
into the lower story where by means of
cold air ducts it is carried into the fur-
nace room either to be reheated or to be
carried away from the house. Every travel-
er has noted how, after the sun has set and
the air is cooling, the colder air tends to
settle in the valleys, while the warmer
air tends to rise to the higher altitudes;
lie knows that in ascending the hillsides
be will sometimes feel very sensibly a
change in temperature in a distance of a
few feet. During the day, especially in
the summer time, the temperature of
the valleys is warmer than that of the
higher levels, because the radiation and
reflection are greater. This can be illus-
trated. If we stand beside a large build-
ing on a hot day and get the direct rays
of the sun at the same time that we
get the reflected rays from the building,
we will find that it will be much
warmer near the side of the build-
ing that reflects the sun's heat
than it will some distance away from the
building. During the day the south slope
of a hillside receives the direct rays of

the sun's heat, during the night these
hills radiate that heat and send it into
the atmosphere to warm the colder air
coming down from the hills. An illus-
tration of this heat radiation at night is
seen in the heated stone buildings and
pavements of a great city where long
after midnight the walls and walks are
hot, especially during the hottest weeks
of summer. We have seen persons trying
to sleep on the beaches or in the parks
at night because the radiated heat from
the buildings in which their rooms were
located was unendurable. These facts,
together with the uneven surface of the
earth, cause a constant circulation of the
atmosphere of our globe.

Why the Highest BTountains Are Covered
With Snow

If heated air rises and cold air settles
it is pertinent to ask why the highest
mountains are covered with snow and
why the air is colder as we ascend.
There are two principal answers to this
question.

The first is that or near the sur-
face of the earth there are innumer-
able particles of dust and layers of
clouds and vapor that act as a blanket or
covering to hold the reflected and radi-
ated heat from the earth's surface. It is
the same principle as when we sleep in
a cold room, the covering on the bed
which keeps us warm does not warm the
atmosphere of the room, but it holds the
heat radiated from our bodies. So, if
we rise above a certain altitude, we rise
above that blanket of dense atmosphere
which we call the earth's covering.

Another reason is that in the highest
altitudes of the mountains there is less
friction of air currents, less generation
of heat through friction, and therefore
after ascending above the vapor, dust and
clouds into a rarer atmosphere it be-
comes colder. "We say "we rise above the
clouds," but we speak in comparative
terms, because we have not, in ascend-
ing the highest mountains, gone beyond
all clouds, but beyond the general alti-
tude of clouds. An illustration of this is
seen on the Pacific coast where the pre-
vailing winds are from the west. These

FROST

1011

winds carry the clouds against the moun-
tain range and deposit a large amount of
rainfall on the western slope. Compara-
tively a small amount of moisture is car-
ried in currents high enough to cross the
mountain range from the west to the
east, for the average amount of rainfall
on the west side is about forty inches per
annum, while the average amount on the
east side would be about ten inches per
annum, or only one-fourth that of the
west, but of the amount that is carried
across the mountain range from west to
east the highest peaks and the eastern
slopes receive their share in the form of
snow and ice, and the air is never warm
enough at that altitude to melt it. When
we say, therefore, that the higher alti-
tudes are warmer, that is true up to a
certain point; it is true in summer where
there is much radiation of the sun's heat
from the surface of the earth and after
the sun has set and the cool air of the
mountains is coming down the valleys;
it is also true up to a certain altitude
only, but beyond that the higher we
ascend the cooler the atmosphere.

Granville Lowther

For additional information on orchard
sites and soils, see Selection of Site under
Apple Orchard.

FROST AKD FROST FORECASTING IN
THE NORTH PACIFIC STATES

* Protection against frost injury is by
no means a new thing, although perusal
of some recent writings and discussions
would lead one to believe that it is. As
a matter of fact, however, the protection
of plants and fruits from frost injury
dates back perhaps more than two thou-
sand years. It is known that the Romans
practiced heating and smudging as a
protection against frost injury; this fact
is vouched for by Pliny, who recom-
mended the practice. Smudging was also
recommended by Olivier de Serres, a
French agriculturist, in the sixteenth cen-
tury. He recommended the use of wet
straw and half-rotten manures so as to
produce a heavy smoke. In the latter
part of the eighteenth century the prac-

♦ Office of Pathologist, Medford, Ore. Bulle-
tin No. 5.

tice of smudging was compulsory in parts
of Germany, and failure to comply with
certain set regulations resulted in prose-
cution before an officer of the law who
imposed exemplary punishment. It is
also recorded by Boussingault that the
Indians of Peru practiced frost preven-
tion, and that this was inherited from
the pre-Spanish civilization. A reference
to the literature which we have at hand
shows some of the earlier work in frost
prevention was by no means so crude as
one would suppose. As a matter of fact,
some of the modern practices are less
scientific in their adaptations than the
earliest attempts at frost prevention of
which we have any record. During the
eighties and early nineties the French
vine growers did some remarkable work;
and we find them even at that time using
heavy oils as fuel, placing these oils in
flat ironware dishes. There were also
used many prepared fuels, which would
render a very dense smoke. There had
also been devised systems of automatic
lighting which were more or less success-
ful. These systems were operated by a
mercuric column, not very much unlike
some of our modern automatic alarm
thermometers. Even at this time it was
understood that there is a certain ad-
vantage in co-operation in frost preven-
tion since the work done by one grower
nearby aided in the protection of the
crops of others. About the same time
that the French vine growers were carry-
ing on their work in frost prevention by
certain heating and smudging devices,
our California and Florida orange grow-
ers were experimenting. At this time
some of the deciduous fruit growers of
the Sacramento valley and elsewhere in
California were also working along this
line.

Mr. Edward A. Reals, of the U. S.
Weather Bureau, located at Portland,
Oregon, says with respect to the history
of frost prevention in the Northwest:

* Very few growers in the Northwest
a few years ago made any attempt to
protect their orchards from frost, and
those that did were not very successful,

* Weather Bureau Bulletin No. 41.

1012

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

as their methods were crude, and where
the necessity was greatest the orchards
were badly located and the task was al-
most hopeless from the start. Frost
warnings were issued by the Weather
Bureau during that time, although very
little attention was paid to them, as fore-
knowledge of frost is of practically no
benefit to the horticulturist unless he is
prepared to protect his crop from threat-
ened injury.

In 1907 Mr. P. J. O'Gara, one of the
scientific assistants in the Bureau of
Plant Industry, was sent to the Rogue
River valley to study the pear blight,
which was making inroads among the
pear and Spitzenburg apple trees in that
section of the country. He quickly real-
ized that the fruit growers were losing
much more fruit by spring frosts than
they were willing to acknowledge, and
being familiar with orchard-heating
methods in California, he soon induced a
number of orchardists to adopt similar
methods in the Rogue River valley. The
plan was so successful the first year that
it was tried the next on a fairly large
scale and with even greater success. In
the meanwhile a few orchardists in other
important sections had taken up this
work, and by the spring of 1910 the move-
ment had obtained large proportions in
four important fruit centers, viz.: Rogue
River valley, Yakima valley, Lewiston or-
chard district, and the Boise orchard dis-
trict.

ROGUE RITER TALLET
* When Frost May Be Expected and

Where Frost Is Likely to Occur
The conditions obtaining in the Med-
ford district are thus described by Mr.
P. J. O'Gara:

In the spring it is found that during
the day, that is between sunrise and sun-
set, the wind blows mostly from northerly
quarters. These winds are not moisture
laden as a rule, the relative humidity
often being as low as twenty-five per cent
at a temperature of seventy degrees Fah-
renheit. During the night when frosts
are likely to occur the winds die down
altogether, or change to a southerly quar-

* Office of Patholosist. Bulletin No. 5.

ter. The winds from the south are very
dry, and the relative humidity is often
much lower during the period in which
the winds come from the south. If the
winds continue to blow from the north-
west or westerly quarters, frosts rarely
occur, because these winds tend to raise
the dewpoint, or, in other words, bring
in air with a larger percentage of water
vapor present. While the water vapor
content of the atmosphere is high, dam-
aging frosts cannot occur. It is only
when the dewpoint temperature ap-
proaches the freezing point or is below it
that we may expect a serious freeze. As
a rule it is only on the valley floor that
serious injury may be caused by low
temperatures during the blooming period
or some time thereafter. Even on the
valley floor where there may be some
slight elevation no frosts occur, while
serious injury may result only a few
feet below. The hillsides surrounding the
valley usually escape frosts altogether,
and the average variation in temperature
in favor of the lands lying above the val-
ley floor is from five to six degrees;
therefore, even though a heavy frost may
occur on the valley floor, the temperature
may not go to freezing on the uplands.
During the past season some records
were made by observing temperatures on
and near the ground, as well as on the
roof of the Garnett-Corey building, which
is fifty feet above the street level. While
temperatures ranged as low as twenty-
three to twenty-five degrees on the ground
and four feet above it, the temperature on
the roof was from thirty-two to thirty-
five degrees. There is at times, therefore,
a difference of twelve degrees or more
between the temperature on the ground
and at a height of fifty feet above when
taken on the valley floor. Under usual
conditions we are quite safe in saying
that there may be little danger to the
crops on the higher lands surrounding
the main floor of the valley.

The experience of the season of 1911
indicates that a heavy rain followed by
a cold wave gives practically the same
temperature on valley floor and hillsides,
and also that under certain conditions

FROST

1013

'.""'•"'"."flfci.L ""'^

-.^

Fig. 1. Official Tliermograph Eecord, United States Weather Bureau, Medford, Oregon.

April 10 to 17 inclusive.
Note the short space of time during which low temperatures prevailed.

the injurious temperature may not con-
tinue for more than two hours and in
some cases but a few minutes.

Frost Prevention

* High winds never occur during the
time that the temperature may be below
the freezing point. A slight breeze usual-
ly comes up from the south during the
early morning. However, this breeze is
never sufficient to more than waft the
smudge through tlie orchards and does
not interfere to any great extent in keep-
ing up the temperature where fires are
built. It will be seen that the conditions
in the valley are ideal for the prevention
of injury from freezing.

t The Rogue River valley is surrounded
on all sides by mountains ranging from
4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, and
with many peaks much higher. During
periods of frost it is usually calm, and
in the several years during which careful
observations have been made the great-
est movement of the air recorded during
a spring frost has been from one to three
miles per hour. Contrast this with the
severe freezes which have occurred in
other districts where wind velocities
ranging from twenty to thirty-eight miles
per hour were recorded when the ther-
mometer stood at fifteen degrees or more
below the freezing point. The fruit grow-
ers of the Rogue River valley little realize
the wonderful climatic assets they are so
fortunate to have. It can be truly stated
that the only reason for losing a crop by
frost is carelessness or neglect.

YAKIMA VALLEY

The conditions in the Yakima valley
are described by Mr. T. R. Reed, special
observer for that district.

The conditions favorable for frost in
the Yakima valley include the usual con-
ditions of high barometer following a
spell of cloudy, cold weather in which the
soil has lost its accumulated heat, clear
sky and very light or no wind. It is
considered by local observers that frost
is most likely to follow a period of bad
weather and the shift of wind from the
south or southwest into the northwest
or north. It is popularly supposed that
danger of frost is small unless the veering
to northerly quarters has been preceded
by quite a marked period of southerly
wind. This of course may be a popular
way of indicating the necessary intensity
and duration of the cyclonic low* occupy-
ing the Northwest; but it is worthy of
note that judging from observations this
season, dangerous frost is not likely except
following protracted cloudy and cold
weather, and that all the really serious
frosts of the season have followed days
on which the maximum temperature has
been under 65 degrees and the current
temperature under 60 degrees at the time
of the afternoon observations.

High barometer alone, while causing
frost in other localities in the state, has
repeatedly failed to bring freezing tem-
peratures to this valley, attributable
partly, perhaps, to active air movement
often occurring in connection with anti-
cyclonic weather. A freeze may occur

* Farmers' Bulletin No. 401.

t Office of Pathologist, Bulletin No.

* Note — -An area of low pressure at the north-
west of a given point would be accompanied by
southwest or south winds.

1014

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

^ 0 U N TA I ;j S

Fig. 2. Rogue River Valley Fruit District.

here when the Northwest is occupied by
low pressure; in fact, when a rain fore-
cast would seem more legitimate than a
frost warning, as on the night of the 6th
of April; but this is an uncommon con-
dition. Under such conditions the barom-
eter may show no fluctuation worth
speaking of, the surface currents may be
from the south, in fact nothing to war-
rant a frost warning being issued except
the fact of a clearing sky and a sharp fall
in temperature.

The forecaster has then to determine
whether the wind is to remain light and
the sky clear, and this is an extremely
precarious undertaking. Perhaps the
daily rise in the barometer occurring at
the time his decision is being made adds
to the difficulty; and he must be able to
distinguish to a certain extent between
the periodic and the unperiodic move-
ment, for it is the latter upon which he
depends in a large measure to foretell
the condition of the sky. Under such
conditions, and unless the forecaster is
sure of his position, it is wiser to place
on their guard those who wish to protect
their orchards, for the growers would
rather be warned a few times unneces-
sarily than to have freezing temperatures

— After Reed.

descend on their orchards without fore-
warning.

The freeze occurring on the morning of
April 6, 1911, when the temperature at
North Yakima dropped to 25 degrees,
could scarcely be foreseen, either from
the weather map or from local observa-
tions, but it is a type of local freeze
which should be studied and for which
the local observer should be constantly
on guard.

The ensuing freezes, which occurred
with unusual frequency and severity for
this section, were more easily foreseen.
Between the inclusive dates of April 5
and 15 nine heavy frosts were recorded
in North Yakima, and during the first
half of the month there were more than
this number in the neighborhood of Moxee
and on the low ground below Union
Gap. Seven times the minimum temper-
ature dropped to 28 degrees or lower at
the North Yakima station. The severest
freeze of the entire period occurred on the
morning of the 13th of April. The
North Yakima station registered 24 de-
grees; in Moxee 16 degrees was reached,
and the temperature in the lower valley
ranged from 17 degrees at Sunnyside to
28 degrees at Parker Heights.

FROST

1015

On the two mornings following what
was very nearly a repetition of the phe-
nomenal temperatures of the 13th was
experienced. It was undoubtedly a stren-
uous period for the fruit men and one
which is not likely to be repeated for
many years. It showed the necessity of
using an ample number of smudge pots
and also the value of orchard firing on
a large scale, showing the greater ease
of heating a large district than a small
one, or one in which heating is practiced
only in a sporadic way.

North Yakima men were unsuccessful
in maintaining safe temperatures, partly
because they used too few pots — generally
about 40 to 50 to the acre — and partly
because each heated orchard was sur-
rounded by unheated ones, and the wind,
which was a feature of several frosty
nights, effected a dispersion of heat and
smoke. When practically all the orchard-
ists fire, windy conditions can much bet-

ter be coped with. On the morning of
the 11th in particular orchardists re-
ported that whereas under ordinary cir-
cumstances they could raise the tempera-
ture six degrees to seven degrees with 55
pots to the acre, on this morning it could
only be raised three degrees. On the
south slope of Nob Hill the smoke blew
rapidly away, scarcely reaching the lower
branches of the trees.

It was on this night (lOth-llth) that
the severest freeze occurred in the Nob
Hill and Pruitvale districts, which are
generally least affected by frost, the for-
mer being considered immune. The ther-
mometer in the Weather Bureau shelter
in North Yakima registered 29 degrees,
and in Moxee 28 degrees; 31 degrees was
reported from Parker, 28 degrees from
Zillah, and 33 degrees from Sunnyside.
That conditions as usually experienced
suffered a complete reversal will be seen
when it is stated that the temperature

x.#),. ^^"".„.

-►.

!\. " "^'\/ ,

"■>,,

'■■<■< ; ,

„

>r^^\^

<r

--— .^-.-^^

S^— /•' 4;^

FR UIT

'"■■,/
LAND

.11'' ,.

% % "%

\ "^

''//,,,

W^v^ /»-••»•» ^-<

'■''■//r/''' II''''

Fig. 3. Yakima Valley Fruit District.

— After Reed.

1016

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

on Nob Hill and Fruitvale varied between
20 degi-ees and 23 degrees.* The reports
from these districts showed much uni-
formity and many readings were made
from reliable instruments. Moxee varied
only a degree from North Yakima, and
Sunnyside, which more often corresponds
with Moxee, was even warmer. An inter-
esting problem is here presented and its
solution may disclose some interesting
facts. The following is suggested by ob-
servations this spring:

A study of a topographic map of the
region should be made in order to appre-
ciate the situation. The Yakima valley is
inclosed on all sides by mountain ranges
varying from 2,500 to 3,000 feet in height
and higher in the Cascades to the west.
Access is had to the valley by two gaps
on the north and one on the south. Noc-
turnal air drainage will always be from
north to south under normal conditions,
following the slope of the land, and ob-
servations show this actually to be the
case. Fruitvale and the northern slope
of Nob Hill are the first to benefit by the
northwest breeze from the Naches can-
yon, as they lie directly in its course
and in close proximity to the Nachez
gap, from which it issues. There may
be a similar breeze from Selah gap, a
little to the eastward, but observations
do not cover this point, nor are there
any extensive orchards in line with Selah
gap to benefit by such a breeze if there
were one.

The Naches valley above Naches gap
forms a natural reservoir for the air
drainage from a vast mountainous area,
and it is natural to conclude that when
the convergent air is expelled into the
Yakima valley below through the outlet
formed by Naches gap a mixing of the
air and possibly an adiabatic warming en-
sues, which would account for the com-

* This statement was based on temperatures
as recorded at Scudder's station, located at the
mouth of the Moxee valley. Had we more sta-
tions in the valley southeast of Scudder's I be-
lieve they would show that minimum tempera-
tures do not vary a great deal from those re-
corded at Bender's station in North Yakima.
The district at the junction of the Moxee and
Yaltima valleys, represented by the Scudder sta-
tion, is probably the coldest in the region above
Union gap. due to the air drainage from not
only the Selah -ind Naches valleys, but also
from the Upper Moxee.

paratively higher temperatures encoun-
tered in the region lying directly in its
path, as at Fruitvale, and the compara-
tively lower temperatures in the Fair-
view and Moxee districts, which lie sev-
eral miles southeast of Fruitvale.

The Weather Bureau station is located
in the city of North Yakima, and, there-
fore, between the two districts under dis-
cussion, Fruitvale being northwest of the
city and Fairview and Moxee southeast.
The thermometer at this station strikes a
pretty fair mean, for while Fairview is
often two degrees and Moxee five degrees
to eight degrees colder than the North
Yakima station, Fruitvale is usually a
few degrees warmer. As the breeze from
Selah gap spreads out and flows across
the valley it loses its force, its tempera-
ture is lowered by radiation, and with
further southeastward movement its
character is changed from a protective
wind to a more or less destructive one.

On the morning of the 11th, when the
conditions in these districts reversed, a
freezing wind was blowing from the south
and southwest, having blown from this
quarter throughout the night. There was
no counter breeze from Naches gap, and
the minimum temperature reported from
the Naches valley above, a district from
which comparatively high temperatures
are usually looked for, was 22 degrees.
Thus it appears that strong connection
exists between a reversal of the customary
wind direction and a reversal of tempera-
ture conditions in the several localities
under discussion.

Boise

Edward L. Wells
(See diagram C)

The Boise valley is well suited to the
growing of such fruits as apples, pears,
prunes, sour cherries, and common ber-
ries. Some fruit has been grown in the
valley for many years, but it is only with-
in the last few years that scientific fruit
growing on a commercial scale has be-
come an important industry.

While the entire region is more or less
subject to spring frosts these frosts are
rarely sufficiently severe to cause wide-
spread damage. For this reason, prior to

FROST

1017

1909, comparatively little attention was
given to measures to protect fruit from
frost injury. The spring of 1909 was
one noted for a succession of damaging
frosts, resulting in almost a complete
failure iji many orchards. This failure
turned the attention of the growers to-
ward protective measures, and some of
the more progressive of them provided
themselves with oil pots and oil for use
in 1910. The spring of 1910 was much
more favorable for fruit than that of
1909, so much so that there was a good
yield of fruit in most of the unprotected
orchards, as well as in those that were
protected. This being true, there was
little increase in 1911 over the area
heated in 1910; the entire area in the
upper part of the valley adjacent to
Boise probably not exceeding 1,000 acres.
Like that of 1910, the spring of 1911 was
not a good one to demonstrate the effi-
ciency of protective measures, for while
some very low temperatures were ex-
perienced, these low temperatures oc-
curred when the buds were least suscep-
tible to injury, and little damage oc-
curred that could be directly traced to
frosts.

It is probable that orchard heating
will not become common in this valley
as it is in the Grand valley in Colorado
and in the Rogue River region in Oregon,
until another season like that of 1909
is experienced, when the practical value
of heating can be demonstrated.

The topography of this region is pe-
culiar and gives rise to some weather
conditions that make frost forecasting
a difficult matter. The Boise river, in
its upper reaches, flows through a rugged
mountainous region. About six miles
southeast of Boise it emerges from a
deep box canyon, the mouth of which
marks the head of what is known as the
Boise valley, which extends thence
northwestward with increasing width to-
ward the Snake river. Northeast of
Boise are the Boise mountains, reaching
in 12 miles an elevation of 7,500 feet, or
4,800 feet above the city. Toward the
southwest the ground rises in a series
of widening benches. Through this bench
land, where most of the large orchards
are located, run several water courses,
rather unimportant naturally, but form-
ing a means for air and water drainage,
and apparently playing an important

Fig. 4. Boise Valley Fruit District

-After Reed.

1018

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

part in determining local temperatures
on frosty nights. The entire region may
be classed as arid, having approximately
13 inches of precipitation annually at
Boise, and somewhat less at points away
from the mountains. Water for irriga-
tion is supplied by the Boise river.

In fair weather there is quite a no-
ticeable mountain and valley breeze
blowing down the valley, or from the
southeast from early morning to about
10 a. m. and up the valley or from the
northwest in the afternoon. Frosts oc-
cur ordinarily upon the approach of a
strong high-pressure area from the
northwest. The outflow from this high,
combined with the ascending currents
already mentioned, makes a strong
northwesterly wind in the afternoon,
which has come to be considered as the
surest indication of frost. At night, in
addition to the ordinary nocturnal les-
sening of the wind velocity, the descend-
ing current opposes the outflow from the
high, causing a stagnation of the air
highly favorable for the occurrence of
low temperatures near the ground. At
such times there is a noticeable tendency
for the colder air to settle into the shal-
low depressions along the water courses
already mentioned. When conditions for

rapid radiation are particularly favor-
able no two thermometers in the valley
will indicate the same temperature. At
other times the distribution of tempera-
ture is fairly uniform. Whenever there
is any considerable amount of wind at
night frost does not occur.

Sometimes when the crest of the high
reaches or passes this region before
morning an easterly wind will spring up.
A brisk easterly wind, coming as it does
off the mountain range, partakes of the
nature of a Chinook. Usually the effect
of these chinooks is hardly noticeable
except over Boise and the belt of land
lying between the foothills and the river.
Sometimes, however, the effect becomes
noticeable on the bench lands, and on
rare instances the chinook has been
known to pass over the city and mate-
rially affect the temperature on the
bench.

Lewiston-Clarkston District

For the purpose of a study of the tem-
perature conditions at different points in
the valley a temperature station was es-
tablished in a favorable location in the
Clarkston (Wash.) section, one and a
half miles southwest of the Weather
Bureau station.

H Key Stoti'fn B

Fig. 5. Lewiston-Clarkston Fruit District.

— After Reed.

FROST

1019

Owing, however, to the fact that or-
chardists have not taken up the idea of
orchard heating to the extent that has
characterized certain other sections,
there has not been given the careful
study to conditions here as elsewhere.

COLORADO

Grand Junction District

The most distinctive climatic feature
of this section, especially of its lower
valleys, is the comparative uniformity
of the weather conditions from day to
day. This is due to the high mountains,
which practically surround the section
and deflect the course of low pressure
areas. A storm approaching from the
west will usually cross the Continental
Divide either to the north or the south
of Colorado, where the height of the
mountains is less. In consequence, the
sudden changes that attend the passing
of a low center are rarely experienced
here. Severe cold waves, so common
on the Eastern plains, are comparatively
rare. There is, on the contrary, a ten-
dency for a stationary area of high pres-
sure to form over this region in winter,
where it may remain for days, and even
weeks, together. When one of these
highs controls the weather, the sky is
clear, the wind light, and of the moun-

tain and valley type, the day tempera-
tures are moderately high and remark-
ably uniform, and the nights cool, but
seldom excessively cold, except when the
ground is covered with snow, and where
the air drainage is poor.

The annual mean temperatures range
from 52.5 degrees, at Grand Junction, to
less than 32 degrees, at the higher levels.

The night temperatures depend large-
ly on the topography, air drainage exert-
ing a greater control over this factor
than does the absolute elevation. The
mildest weather, in cold spells, is found
where the night wind is the strongest,
which is usually below the larger can-
yons. The comparative freedom from
frost experienced by such regions has
led to the development of an extensive
fruit-growing industry.

The growing season, or interval when
frost is not to be expected, varies great-
ly in different localities. Where longest
(in the Grand valley), it extends from
early in April to late in October; above
9,000 feet, frost may be expected every
month. It is probable that the growing
season is longer, in most localities, than
is indicated by the attached frost table;
a temperature of 32 degrees, which is
taken as the standard, is not generally
destructive to the staple crops.

ATCrage Date of Killing Frosts

Stations

Length
of record

years

Last in
Spring

First in
Fall

Precipi-
tation
Av. Annual
Inches

Cedar Edge. .

Colbran

Delta

Durango

Grand Junction
Grand Valley. .

Lay

Mancos

Meeker

Montrose

Pagoda

Paouia

Silt

T. S. Ranch...

11

8

13

12

16

14

9

10

14

10

13

8

12

May 20

May 26

May 16

May 28

April 18

May 10

June 16

June 9

June 12

May 16

June 12

May 5

May 21

April 27

Sept. 23

Sept. 24

Sept. 25

Sept. 26

Oct. 18

Sept. 29

Sept. 6

Sept. 17

Sept. 12

Oct. 2

Sept. 3

Oct. 3

Sept. 27

Oct. 10

11.02
15.16

7.82
17.51

8.74
12.30
12.70
16.88
16.10

9.50
18.26
12.16
11.99
10.69

1020

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

In the lower valleys the amount of
sunshine is large, especially during the
summer months; the greatest cloudiness
is usually found in spring.

At the lower levels the wind move-
ment is light, and is commonly of the
mountain and valley type. The wind
blows toward the mountains in the
afternoon, and in localities attains con-
siderable velocity. After sunset the
wind subsides, and toward morning
there is a light breeze from the moun-
tains toward the lower levels. At the
summits of the mountains the winds are
generally from the west, and are fre-
quently very strong in winter and
spring.

The precipitation, up to the 10,000-
foot level, is fairly represented by the
table. It will be seen that, in the princi-
pal agricultural districts, the average
is less than 15 inches, and is less than
10 inches over important areas. There
is an increase in precipitation with alti-
tude up to the highest points where ob-
servations have been made; an annual
mean of more than 40 inches is indi-
cated for certain localities.

By far the most important part of the
precipitation occurs in winter and early

Fis- 6. Grand Junction Fruit District, Show-
ing Position of District Below the 8,000-foot
level. (U. S. Weather Bureau.)

spring, March and April being usually
the months of heaviest snowfall. In the
southern counties there is a pronounced
tendency toward drought in late spring
and early summer; June is often prac-
tically rainless. From the latter part
of July until September, thunderstorms
are common, but the precipitation is sel-
dom heavy, except in the San Juan
mountains.

The snowfall in the lower valleys is
light, and remains on the ground but a
short time. With increasing elevation,
the depth increases rapidly; near the
mountain summits a total fall of over
30 feet has been observed in a single
year. At the very highest levels, prac-
tically all the precipitation is in the
form of snow. Although the depth of
snow varies much from year to year,
the fall is so great that there are but
few streams in this section that do not
carry enough water for present needs,
even in a dry season.

Frederick H. Brandenburg,

District Forecaster.

The Occurrence of Injurious Spring Tem-
peratures in the Fruit Districts of
Western Colorado

The fruit district under consideration
embraces portions of the Grand and
Gunnison valleys and branches thereof
in Mesa, Delta, Montrose and Garfield
counties in Western Colorado. The fruits
principally raised are apples, peaches
and pears. On account of variations in
elevation, topography, air drainage, etc.,
fruit in some sections reaches a tender
stage and is liable to injury (sometimes
by the latter part of March), while that
in other sections is still dormant. But,
on the other hand, the later localities are
the most likely to be visited by late
spring freezes, and danger there is not
entirely over until after the first of June.

The Grand valley fruit section is the
lowest in elevation in the district and,
in general, the earliest. Near the upper
end it is narrow, and protected on the
north by the Little Book cliffs, which
rise more than a thousand feet abruptly
almost from the edge of the orchards.
In general the valley slopes towards the

FROST

1021

Grand river, and down stream at the
average rate of about ten feet per mile;
so that air drainage is generally good,
especially in the upper and middle por-
tions. Also, in the narrow upper end
mountain and valley and canyon breezes
are naturally strongest and most effi-
cient in stirring and w^arming up the
air on frosty nights. So that Palisade,
especially that portion close to the cliffs,
is the earliest locality and the least like-
ly to be injured by late spring freezes.

Outside the Grand valley the orchards
are generally located on hillsides, slop-
ing mesas or benches, or in narrow val-
leys, so that air drainage is usually
good. For example, the fruit in the
Paonia section is largely raised on the
comparatively steep sides of the valley
of the North Fork of the Gunnison river
and in the narrow valley bottom, down
which a wind usually blows during the
latter part of the night and in the early
morning, especially during clear weath-
er.

Damaging spring temperatures are
most likely to occur in the district when
a high-pressure area of considerable en-
ergy advances in the rear of a low-
pressure area across this part of the
state from the northwest. If the high
has advanced so far that the district
lies well within it, local air drainage
produces considerable differences in min-
imum temperature. But if the district
lies in the region of circulation between
the high and the low (particularly if
the latter be vigorous and lie central
over the southern part of the eastern
slope of the Rocky mountains), tem-
peratures will be more nearly uniform,
and mountain and valley and canyon
breezes are likely to be weakened or en-
tirely counteracted. If the center of the
high pass some distance north of the
district, some cloudiness may be ex-
pected (especially if there be a low over
Arizona), and temperature fall will be
retarded. It has been found that there
is no useful relation from the viewpoint
of the forecaster, between the evening
dew-point and the minimum tempera-
ture the following morning; although

the quantity of moisture in the air af-
fects radiation and hence the fall of
temperature. The minimum tempera-
ture on an April morning at Grand
Junction is usually about five-eighths of
the maximum temperature of the preced-
ing day. If the air be very clear, still
and dry, the minimum will be lower
than the above relation indicates.

E. S. Nichols,
Local Forecaster, U. S. Weather Bureau.

METHODS AJTD ORGANIZATION IN
FROST FIGHTING

P. J. O'Gara.

Efficiency of Present Methods

The present methods of frost preven-
tion by means of fires and smudges,
using the various types of oil pots and
heaters, are by no means perfect. Per-
haps in time we will have some method
of orchard protection that is better than
the oil pot now in use. It must be under-
stood at the outset that the orchardist
cannot afford to equip his orchard with
apparatus of too costly a nature; it
must be simple, or at least easily work-
able, and not too delicate for practicable
use.

The protection of orchards from frost
injury is not an experiment in Rogue
River valley. A perusal of the records
will show that the experimental stage
in practical orchard heating has
passed. A glance over the valley will
show the large commercial orchards
equipped with fuel pots for burning
crude oil, distillate and coal, while oth-
ers are protected by means of wood, which
has proven very successful. A commercial
orchardist who has for the past four
seasons saved his crop, valued at more
than $1,000 per acre, is not much in need
of advice. If the cost of saving his crop
is well below the maximum it would
seem that, for him, his method must be
the best. During the 1911 season of
frosts the Rogue River valley orchard-
ists did not experiment. In saving the
crops from frost injury a safe approxi-
mation would put the number of fires
used at fifty thousand. A large number of
these were fuel pots burning crude oil
and distillate, but there was also a very

1022

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

large number of wood fires, which,
though somewhat clumsier to handle,
were none the less effective in obtain-
ing the desired results, namely, saving
the crops from damage.

Types of Orchard Heaters

In a commercial way, the types of
pots used are the Fresno, Bolton and
Hamilton. The Ideal coal pot was in use
during the 1910 and 1911 frost periods.
It is not the object of this article to dis-
cuss the relative merits of the different
types of pots. The writer, however, has
contended that the simplest type, which
of course, will be the least expensive, is
the one which will grow in favor with
the fruit growers. A lard pail type is
just as efficient as the Fresno pot with
its row of holes near the upper rim. The
Bolton pot has one disadvantage with
respect to the arrester, or partial cover,
which is placed over the mouth of the
pot. No doubt in burning 28-degree test
distillate this type of pot will work very
nicely, but with crude oil or slop distil-
late the heavy coating of soot will tend
to clog the openings and, in the course
of a night's use, will have a marked ef-
fect in reducing the efficiency of the pot.
It may even clog so much as to put out
the flame. However, this pot, used open
and without arrester, may be equal to
the Fresno or lard pail type, and has
proven so in actual test, since, burned

Fig. 1.

Hamilton Reservoir Type of Orchard
Heater.

that way, it is practically the same as
the other two types. The Hamilton
heater is so arranged as to increase or
decrease the burning surface so as to
regulate the amount of heat. This pot,
which is made in the form of a rectan-
gular trough, is not so saving of fuel as
might be supposed, since there is often
a tendency for the flame to burn back of

the apron which hangs downward from
the sliding cover, and which regulates,
or is supposed to regulate, the amount
of fuel burned. The Ideal coal heater is
designed to hold 25 to 30 pounds of coal,
and is very satisfactory so far as heat-
ing is concerned, but the fact that a
great deal of time is required to lay the
fires, or prepare the heaters, is some-
what against their use. There are a

Fig. 2. Oil Stove Type,
large number of heaters on the market,
each one with its particular claim for
efficiency; but as yet, with the fuels we
have, it is a question as to what superi-
ority one type may have over another.
So far there has been no real efficiency
test made in any part of the country
where heaters have been used side by side
under absolutely like conditions. It is
the young orchard, which covers only a
small part of the ground and traps lit-
tle heat, with the fruiting area very
low down near the ground, that is diffi-
cult to protect from frost injury. A test
in such an orchard would really be
worth while.

Fuels
The fuels used are crude oil, 28-degree
test distillate, coal, wood (old rails and
cordwood), straw, sawdust and manure,
the latter being mainly used to produce
a dense smudge. One of the greatest
difficulties in the use of crude oil and

FROST

1023

slop distillate is the presence of water,
which tends to extinguish the flame or
cause the pots to boil over. The pres-
ence of water in crude oil is due to the
fact that water is forced into the rifled
delivery pipes as a jacket so that the oil
will flow readily. Crude oil cannot be
forced through long lines of pipe without
this water jacket. Outside of the fact
that the crude oil often contains water, it
has a very great tendency to deposit
large amounts of soot on the trees, as
well as tending to clog certain types of
pots. Besides, a very large amount of
residuum is left behind so that a second
or a third fllling will so coat the sides
and bottom of the pot that it will hold
much less oil in future fillings, and will,
therefore, burn for a much shorter peri-
od. For instance, a pot that will hold
one gallon when clean will not hold more
than three-fourths of a gallon after hav-
ing been burned two or three times.
This is a very serious defect, and one
that cannot be overlooked. The crude
oil from the wells of the Pacific coast
is unlike that of the East or Middle
West in that it has an asphaltum base.
No matter what the type of pot, a
heavy asphaltum oil cannot be perfectly
burned; that is to say, combustion is
not complete. The heavy asphaltum
base requires a much larger amount of
oxygen than even the best type of pot
can furnish, hence the large amount of
residuum left on the sides and bottom
of the pot. The oils of the East have
a paraflSne base and burn much better.
At this time, however, it would seem im-
possible to bring this oil in so as to
compete with the Pacific coast product.
The freight charges would bring the
price up to a point where its use would
be prohibitive.

The distillate burns readily, leaves but
very little deposit and does not tend to
produce so much soot. This is what is
called the 28-degree test. Its cost to the
growers is very much above that of
crude oil, and, therefore, was not used
in 1911. The distillate used is known
as "slop" distillate, and, although it was
supposed to test 23 degrees, it has been

found to test about 20 degrees, or per-
haps a little more. This slop distillate
proved to be very little, if any, better
than the crude oil, since some of it con-
tained water; and, besides, it tended to
produce a great deal of soot. The
amount of residuum left in the pots was
in many cases nearly equal to that left
by the crude oil. Both the crude oil and
the slop distillate will eventually be re-
placed by a better fuel. We will either
use a distillate, such as the 28-degree
test, or the lighter paraffine oils of the
East. The cost of crude oil laid down
at Medford is about four and one-half
cents per gallon, and that of the slop
distillate six and one-quarter cents per
gallon. The 28-degree test distillate, in
1910, cost the growers approximately
nine cents a gallon. The greatest ele-
ment of cost in obtaining these crude
products is the high freight charge.
Crude oil at the wells in California is
worth scarcely two cents a gallon, and
the distillates, which are refinery prod-
ucts, do not cost more than twice that
figure.

By some of the fruit growers wood
has been used for several years. That
wood has been effective in preventing
frost injury even when the temperature
may run very low is proven by an exam-
ination of the orchards where wood was
properly used. In connection with the
wood one grower used a small amount
of crude oil, which he threw upon the
wood fires ranged along the east side of
the orchard so as to produce a dense
smudge just before sunrise. In the Hol-
lywood orchard wood was also used for its
heating effect, and the dense smudge was
produced by adding quantities of stable
manure to the wood fires. An examina-
tion of the orchard showed that the
method worked very well. In other or-
chards the same scheme of using wood
and manure was carried out, and excel-
lent results were obtained. In some very
small orchards sawdust and shavings,
put into large paper sacks and satur-
ated with crude oil, also proved to be
quite effective. These fires burned from
six to seven hours, giving off a consid-

1024

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

erable amount of heat and a very dense
smudge.

Methods of Lighting

The methods of lighting the different
fuels are not difficult. With crude oil
and distillate a small amount of gasoline
or kerosene, squirted from an oil can
onto the surface of the oils, was easily
ignited by a torch. In most cases the
torches were home-made affairs, but
were none the less serviceable. A man
could easily light the pots as fast as
he could walk. The cover on the pot
was quickly thrown off, a few drops of
kerosene or gasoline spilled on the sur-
face of the oil and the torch quickly ap-
plied; this is the work of but a moment,
and scarcely needed a stop on the part
of the operator. In order to ignite the
wood it is necessary to pile it in a par-
ticular way. Fine material is not abso-
lutely necessary if the wood is dry. A
kerosene can and a torch are all that is
needed. A small amount of kerosene
spilled on the wood, which is piled
"dove-tail" fashion, and the torch applied
will easily start it. During the past sea-
son of frosts some difficulty was experi-
enced in lighting the wood on account of
the fact that during the week previous
there had been a heavy precipitation
amounting to about 1.27 inches. How-
ever, this exigency was overcome by us-
ing kindling and a little more kerosene
and some crude oil. In using wood the
particular thing to keep in mind is that
it should be dry. Frost conditions are
almost certain to follow a heavy rain,
and this was particularly true during
this season.

Planning- the Frost-Fighting Campaign;
>uml)er of Pots or Fires per Acre

The work of planning the frost-fight-
ing campaign really begins the previous
fall. If crude oil or distillate is the fuel
to be used the pots must be purchased
so as to be on the ground not later than
the last week of March, even though
frosts do not usually occur before the
first week of April. The fuel oil is also
ordered in tank cars of 6,000 to 10,000
gallons each, and upon delivery is emp-

tied into large storage tanks on the
ranches. These tanks are usually of
concrete, and are placed upon an eleva-
tion so that the work of unloading the
delivery wagons, as well as the subse-
quent filling of the tank wagons for de-
livery to the pots in the orchard, is
effected by gravity. Pumping crude oil
is rather an impossible task, or a diffi-
cult one at best, especially when it is
cold. Distillate is easier to handle, but
the gravity method of handling it is
much quicker and saves a lot of work.
The method of filling the pots is usually
by means of a large hose attached to a
gate valve on the delivery tank. An-
other method is to use large buckets
with which to fill the pots. When this
method is used the hose is dispensed
with, and only a large gate valve or mo-
lasses gate is used. Six men working
eight hours can easily fill 2,000 pots. The
number of pots to be used per acre will
vary within wide limits. Large spread-
ing trees, with the fruit borne not low-
er than four feet from the ground, may
easily be protected from the most serious
freeze we have experienced during the
past four years by using sixty-five to
seventy pots per acre. However, it is to
be understood that the sides or outside
rows should be reinforced by at least two
rows of pots. This is especially true of
the sides of orchards in the direction of
the prevailing wind. However, it is a
good plan to reinforce all sides so as to
meet any emergency. During the 1911
season sixty-five pots burning slop distil-
late saved the Potter and Goold pear
orchard when the temperature outside
of the orchard registered 20 degrees by a
tested thermometer. The results in this
orchard are so clear that there is no mis-
taking the effectiveness of systematic
orchard heating. A few pear trees of
the same variety standing about ten rods
outside of the heated area lost their en-
tire crop.

The number of pots to be used will
depend upon the geographical position of
the orchard, its elevation, and the size
and height of the crop bearing portion
of the trees. In a young orchard of per-

FROST

1025

haps four to eight years of age it will
take two or three times as many pots as
in an old orchard with spreading limbs
almost touching each other and effective-
ly trapping the heat. A perfect knowl-
edge of the frost possibilities of any par-
ticular tract will guide one as to the
amount of protection necessary. It would
be safe to say that from 150 to 200. pots
will be needed in very young orchards
situated in what are known as "cold
spots." Every orchardist knows, or
should know, where these spots are.
When wood is the fuel to be used it
should be secured early, and must be
dry. Most of the firing done by wood
has been with old rails which were well
seasoned and burned without diflBiculty.
Cordwood has also been used to a some-
wnat less extent, but, nevertheless, with
entire satisfaction. Wood is very clum-
sy and much in the way, and there is no
doubt that its use will be abandoned in
the near future. Some growers, however,
are of the opinion that wood is the best
fuel, and it is quite probable that for
small tracts its use will be continued.
There is really no difficulty in handling
it if properly placed, but for large tracts
I would rather think its use to be quite
out of the question. The element of
time consumed in placing it as well as
the space it takes up in the orchard,
thus interfering with cultivation, argues
against its use. The number of wood
fires necessary for large trees may be
all the way from 25 to 50. The fires
should not be large, since large fires tend
to produce convective air currents and
may be more harmful to the orchard as
a whole than the same number of small
fires. In most orchards it was found
that the temperature could be raised six
to ten degrees. Manure, sawdust and
rubbish are used mainly to create a
smudge, and are of practically no value
in raising the temperature. In using
wood these materials are often quite an
additional help in holding the heat gen-
erated by the burning wood. It often
happens that the temperature cannot be
kept above the danger point; if this hap-
pens toward morning the smudge is ben-

eficial in protecting the frozen blossoms
and fruit from the morning sun, which
would tend to thaw them too rapidly. It
is not the freezing of the fruit that
causes the injury; it is the thawing.
Blossoms may be frozen solid for sev-
eral hours and not be injured if tliawed
out very slowly. Freezing causes the
water to be abstracted from the cell pro-
toplasm. The protoplasm has taken this
water up from the soil very slowly. If
the water which has been abstracted
from it can be returned very slowly the
cell will recover its former activities.
No matter what fuel is to be used a plen-
tiful supply should be distributed in the
orchards. Even if fifty pots will do the
work it is better to have one hundred
or more for each acre even in an orchard
of old trees. The same may be said of
wood. It is only necessary to light as
many fires as will keep the temperature
above the danger point. It is as great a
mistake to light too many fires as it is
to light too few, for the reason that
burning unnecessary fuel may cause a
shortage at a time when lack of fuel
would mean a total loss. Once the tem-
perature goes very much below the dan-
ger point it is hard to raise it, and if
this happens very near sunrise a smudge
dense enough to protect the frozen blos-
soms may be hard to secure or to keep
hanging over the orchards. It is best
to take no chances.

Thermometers and Frost Alarms

Good thermometers should not be
overlooked, and no fewer than two or
three per acre should be used for the
best results. These instruments should
not be the very cheap kind, although it
is not advised that they should be very
expensive. All thermometers should be
tested and the correction for the differ-
ent points on the scale carefully marked
so as to be easily read. A thermometer
with its correction is just as good as one
that reads absolutely true. As a mat-
ter of fact, the very best thermometers
are not accurate, and must have correc-
tions made for different parts of the
scale. For the orchardist, it is usually
sufficient to know within at least half a

1026

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fifj- 3. Carbondale
degree of the correct temperature read-
ing, since he is quite certain to keep
on the safe side at all times. Besides
the tliermometers in the field, the frost
alarm thermometer, which is designed to
awaken one when a certain temperature
has been reached, may be more or less
advisable. Of course, all a frost alarm
thermometer can do is to indicate that
a certain temperature has been reached.
It is usually made to ring at, say 33 or
32 degrees, and does not necessarily in-
dicate that dangerous temperatures will
follow. During the past the local fore-
casting station has indicated very nearly
the hour when it would be necessary to
fire as well as forecasting the possible
temperature, so that with this in mind
those who had no frost alarm thermom-
eters got along very well with a good
alarm clock. It would be a serious mis-
take to begin lighting up without know-
ing whether or not the temperature
would go below the danger point; this
is where the local forecaster's work is of
greatest value.

Frost Alarm.

Physics of Orchard Heating

In all that has been published no
figures have been given to show what
a certain quantity of fuel will do under
actual conditions. Of course, this can-
not be accurately stated, but we can
give what we might expect under set
or ideal conditions. We will take as an
instance the protection of a pear
orchard with the trees set 25 feet apart
on the square. With the trees in good
bearing the maximum height at which
fruit is borne is not more than 15 feet,
and is usually much below this. We will
consider each pear tree as growing in a
cubical space which, under normal at-
mospheric pressure at our elevation
above sea level (1,400 feet) and at a
temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit,
contains, in round numbers, 600 pounds
of air. If this space contained 600
pounds of water it would require 600
British Thermal heat units to raise the
temperature through one degree Fah-
renheit, but since the space is filled with
air under the above conditions it will

FROST

1027

take only one-fourth as many heat units
to raise the temperature one degree with-
in such space. If one oil pot is provided
for such a space, that is, one pot per
tree, we will have 70 pots per acre. Each
pot will have to take care of 600 pounds
of air. Most of the crude oils used as
fuels for orchard heating in this dis-
trict average nearly eight pounds per
gallon, and it has been found by labora-
tory test that a pound (one pint) has a
calorific, or heat value, of about 18,000
British Thermal units. Some oils test
higher, some lower. In burning tests in
the field under actual frost conditions it
has been found that for the lard pail
type of pot, such as the Bolton, with
or without perforations in the upper
rim, two pounds of oil are consumed per
hour. Naturally, the oil consumption is
greater when the pots are first lighted,
and this is also true where there is con-
siderable air movement. Of course, com-
bustion is not perfect, hence the total
calorific power of the oil is not utilized.
However, since we are dealing only in
round numbers we will suppose that
combustion is fairly complete. Then two
pounds of oil will give off 36,000 heat
units per hour, or 600 per minute. Now,
since the cubical space occupied by one
pear tree contains about 600 pounds of air
at our average pressure and at a tempera-
ture of 32 degrees, it means that each
minute 600 heat units are expended on
600 pounds of air, or sufficient to raise
the temperature of this mass of air
through four degrees Fahrenheit. We
have not taken into account the small
amount of water vapor present under
frost conditions, as this would not ap-
preciably affect the calculation. It is
supposed, of course, that the air is not
in motion, and that there is no radiation
of heat beyond the imaginary cubical
space occupied by the tree. In actual
practice we know that radiation does
take place, and that there is usually
some air movement. Of course, this is
offset to a very great extent in old or-
chards by the trapping of the heat and
the braking effect on wind currents, due
to the extended branches, but in young

orchards, covering but a small ground
area, air movement and radiation are
practically the same as in the open.
There is one thing to be said, however,
under our conditions. Upward radiation
of heat is not so great as one would sup-
pose. During the past four years a large
number of observations have shown that
the temperature of the atmosphere dur-
ing a freeze rarely reaches the danger
point at a height of 15 to 20 feet above
the level of the valley floor. Since this
is true, there would be no tendency for
heat to be radiated from below into this
upper stratum of warmer air — in fact the
heat movement would rather be the re-
verse, that is, downward. As previously
explained in another part of this arti-
cle, frosts which occur in this valley are
due to depression rather than elevation.
It is the cold air coming from very high
elevations in the surrounding mountains
that flows downward into the valley floor,
tending to push the warmer air upward.
For a while radiation from the ground,
which has taken in heat during the
hours of sunshine, tends to warm this
cold air. But to return. "We have shown
that with no wind and with one oil pot
for every pear tree the temperature may
be raised four degrees per minute within
the calculated space. But if the air
moved only 100 feet per minute, or a
little more than one mile per hour, the
temperature could never rise more than
one degree above the temperature of the
incoming cold air. At four miles per
hour it could rise but one-fourth degree.
This would be true only in the outside
tree rows, on the side from which the
air movement comes. For all the rows
beyond the outside row, some of the
heat units generated in the first row
would be added to the heat generated in-
side. This interesting calculation shows
that an orchard in the form of a solid
square would not be so difficult to save
from frost injury as one of the same area
of only a few rows. During the past four
seasons this has been demonstrated in
several of our orchards. In the Potter
and Goold orchard the main body of
pears has easily been saved when tem-

1028

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

peratures ran as low as 20 degrees out-
side, while two rows of. pear trees ex-
tending beyond the main body of the
pear orchard but surrounded by apple
trees fully larger lost most of their crop,
although protected by a greater number
of fires. No orchard heating device on
the market effects perfect combustion of
crude oil or distillate, therefore the theo-
retical figures given above are hardly
approached in practice. In some tests
carried out in this district the beneficial
results of certain devices did not show up
when it came time to harvest the fruit.
The time to tell whether orchard heating
has been successful or not is when the
fruit is picked and brought to the pack-
ing house. Just to make fruit stick upon
the trees is not protection. A misshapen
or frost marked fruit is not commercial
either for fancy box trade or for the can-
nery. Canneries do not want badly frost
marked pears, as the waste is too great.
In the above calculation we have consid-
ered only crude oil, but practically the
same figures will apply to all the heavier
distillates. It might be well to mention
something in regard to other fuels we
have used in this district. A pound of
dry pine wood, under perfect combustion,
will generate about 6,000 heat units. A
pound of oak contains practically the
same number of heat units. Coal, under
the same conditions, has approximately
12,000 heat units. The average weight of
a cord of pine is about 2,000 pounds, and
that of oak is about 4,000 pounds. These
figures are, of course, only approximate,
but they will serve as a basis for calcu-
lation in case anyone should desire to use
wood or coal for orchard heating pur-
poses. The use of wood and coal has
been discussed in previous articles, also
in United States Farmer's Bulletin No.
401, which may be obtained by address-
ing a letter to the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Meteorological Instrnments

Wherever it is found necessary to pro-
tect orchards from frost injury each fruit
grower should provide himself early in
advance of the season for firing not only
with fuel, pots or other heating appara-

tus, but also with a sufficient number of
thermometers. It is also advised that
each fruit grower should have a good
maximum-minimum theremometer. A
dew-point apparatus or psychrometer for
determining the dew-point temperature,
accompanied with tables, would also be
a valuable part of the equipment. The
dew-point apparatus is simply two fairly
good thermometers fixed together, with
one of the bulbs covered with linen. A
string tied into the rings of sufficient
length to whirl the instrument completes
it. In using the instrument, wet the
covered bulb and whirl rapidly so that
evaporation will take place from the wet
surface. When the mercury in the wet
bulb thermometer cannot be lowered any

Fig. 4. Thermosraph. or Self-Resistering
Thermometer.

further it should be read simultaneously
with the dry bulb theremometer. The
readings are referred to tables (See U. S.
Farmer's Bulletin No. 401) which give
the dew-point temperature. The dew-
point temperature, when found in the
early evening, is usually in close agree-
ment with the minimum temperature the
following morning, providing the sky re-
mains clear and there is no wind. This
is true during only a part of the year.
The following data taken from the rec-
ords made by the Medford United States
Weather Bureau station for the years
1909, 1910 and 1911 will show that the
above statement holds good. It will be
noted that the dew-point temperatures
observed, both when frosts occurred and
when they did not, agree fairly well with
the minimum temperature:

FROST— FRUIT GARDEN

1029

Fi'^-s- SLING PSYCHROMETER

Temp.

Dew-

during

point

night

Year

Date

Time

degrees

degrees

1909

April 19 .

. . .6:45p. m.

29

29

1910

April 3 .

.. .6:30p. m.

27

27

1910

April 9 .

...6:30 p.m.

44

44

1910

April 11 .

. ..6:30p.m.

41

40

1910

April 13 .

. . .6:30 p. m.

29

26

1910

April 25 .

. . .6:30 p.m.

42

44

1910

May 2 .

. . .6:30p. m.

40

42

1911

April 14 .

. . .6 :30p. m.

23

22

1911

April 25 .

. . .6 :30p. m.

41

43 V2

1911

April 28 .

. . .6:30p. m.

31

27 Va

These figures are taken at random
from the records and represent pretty
fairly all the data which have been re-
corded during the above years through-
out the frost season. The minimum tem-
peratures are for such nights as re-
mained clear and with very slight air
movement, which was from the south.
An aneroid barometer is also a valuable
instrument. By carefully noting the
movement of this instrument one may
readily learn to predict with more or
less certainty the kind of weather to be
expected. With the pressure high the
chances are that frost may be expected
and the reverse when the pressure is
low. In making readings with all me-
teorological instruments there should be
a set time for observations. Random
readings, taken at odd times, are of very
little value. A careful record will surely
repay the observer many times for his
trouble. It would be a very fine practice
for each grower to be able to tell what
were his maximum and minimum tem-
peratures, barometer, wind direction and
estimate of velocity, dew-point tempera-
tures and rainfall for each day in the
year. This data would not only be valu-
able to himself, but to the district as a
whole. Lastly, whenever it is possible
get the weather from the nearest United
States Weather Bureau station. The lo-
cal observer is usually better equipped
to tell what weather conditions are likely
to be expected and what emergencies are
to be provided for than anyone else. He

is also able to tell what temperatures are
injurious to the several kinds of fruits
through the season. Injurious tempera-
tures are not the same for all varieties,
nor are they the same for any one vari-
ety during different stages of its growth.

Fruit Garden

In all undertakings of this sort it is
very important to have a clear and intel-
ligent idea of what is to be done. There
are so many matters which have to be
adjusted to one another that the essen-
tial items are sure to be overlooked,
unless the project is systematically de-
veloped. The garden-plan should be
made as carefully as the plan for a house
and with as much attention to detail as
the architect gives in his finished draw-
ings. Every tree and bush should be lo-
cated and its species and variety desig-
nated. After this much has been done,
it will be easier to decide on drainage,
cultivation and management. Unless
these things are done, all other questions
are settled by guesswork.

There is no end of entertainment for
winter evenings in this matter of making
a design. Many families spend years of
pleasant recreation in planning houses
which they never build, but gardeners'
plans are cheaper and just as interest-
ing.

We all know that the common city lot,
or suburban garden, is not an ideal place
for fruit growing, agriculturally and
geologically speaking. The soil is apt to
be made up of ashes and the drainage
secured by a varying admixture of tin
cans and discarded umbrellas. While
such soils do not appear under terms of
high praise in the agricultural survey,
they are not altogether impossible to the
determined city gardener; and the first
term in their utilization is that of drain-
age.

1030

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

It may be difficult for a perfect igno-
ramus to tell by looking at a piece of
land whether it is drained enough or not.
Yet a good deal can be told by observa-
tion. If water stands in pools on the
surface for any length of time after a
rainstorm, it indicates that the drainage
is poor. If the soil is left very hard and
brick-like when it dries out after a rain,
better drainage is required.

The best way to secure drainage where
such treatment is required is by means
of porous drain tiles. These must be fur-
nished with some satisfactory outlet,
either into the sewer or open ditch. They
should be laid through the soil at a
depth of two to four feet, and the branch
drains in the small garden should be
thirty feet apart.

Good drainage is essential to success
with a fruit garden.

Preparation of the Soil

Considerable care will be needed to
prepare an unsuitable suburban lot for a
successful amateur garden. In many
cases the city dweller or suburbanite is
compelled to make the soil first. Per-
haps he has to buy it. In case the place
has no good soil on the surface, it will
be necessary to get a supply, even though
it has to be bought from contractors.
For our purposes we need a strong, grav-
elly soil, without too much clay. If we
can get surface soil containing vegetable
matter, humus and loam, so much the
better.

The best preparation to be given to
soil comes through drainage and cultiva-
tion. The ideal way to prepare the gar-
den is to spade it up deeply — just as
deeply as possible. This work should be
done early in the spring. Then the land
should be planted with some crop which
will make a vigorous growth. Cow peas,
soy beans, crimson clover and buckwheat
are the best crops, each one having its
particular advantages. Any one of these
will add humus and life to the soil. Sup-
pose a crop of this sort has been grown
the first year; it will be allowed to stand
through the winter and will be plowed
or spaded in the following spring. The

second year the ground should be plant-
ed to some crop requiring high cultiva-
tion, such as beets, cabbage or potatoes.
A liberal allowance of barnyard manure
should be given, and the hoe and cultiva-
tor frequently applied. The third year
the ground will be in excellent condition
for planting. This program will be ef-
fective on everything except the most re-
fractory soils. On better land the prep-
aration may be reduced to a single year,
and on good land the soil may be dug up
and planted to fruit trees the first year.

Plant Food

Backyard lots are apt to be deficient in
available plant food. There are usually
enough chemicals in the soil to grow
trees, but they are not accessible and di-
gestible. The deficiency is to be made
good with fertilizer. In beginning the
garden, no fertilizer can be compared
with well-rotted barnyard manure. This
should be used liberally. A garden 50
feet square would usually be able to use
two cords of stable fertilizer to good ad-
vantage at the beginning of its cultiva-
tion, and might have one cord annually
for the first two or three years.

As soon as the work is well under
way, soil in good condition, and the
trees beginning to make some growth,
the amount of barnyard manure should
be materially reduced, or cut off alto-
gether. At the same time, the amount
of chemical fertilizer should be increased.
For smaller gardens it will be found
best to buy ready-mixed fertilizers, de-
pending a good deal on the advice of the
best dealers. Such dealers can supply
mixtures suitable for fruit trees and are
willing to give information regarding
amounts to be used, times of application,
etc.

Getting the Trees

Varieties to be planted should be se-
lected, as far as possible, on the basis of
the gardener's own taste, corrected only
by what you are able to learn regarding
their probable success in the locality. Of
course, if you know nothing about' the
different varieties of peaches, plums or
apples, you would better consult the ex-

FRUIT GARDEN

1031

pert, and, in this case, the professors at
the agricultural college will give un-
prejudiced and reliable advice. The best
nurserymen can be relied on in this way,
also; since it is to their interest to sup-
ply only such trees and varieties as will
succeed and please their customers. But
avoid, always, at all times, the itinerant
tree peddler.

In nearly all cases trees should be
ordered in the fall, and they should be
delivered and planted in the spring.

A great deal of superstition surrounds
the practice of tree planting. Many per-
sons imagine there is some hocus-pocus
about it. In many of the horticultural
books there will be found most elaborate
directions, amounting almost to religious
ceremonies, for the planting of trees.
Much of this is unnecessary and nonsen-
sical, as is shown by the fact that com-
mercial tree planters do the work with
low-priced, ignorant help, and still ac-
complish it very rapidly. I have seen a
gang of four men, no one of them able to
read Caesar, plant 800 trees in a day —
and every tree grew. A very able Ameri-
can horticulturist has recently advocated
a new and striking method of tree plant-
ing, which consists in cutting off all the
roots and most of the top from every
nursery tree, and inserting the stubs
in holes driven in the soil with a crow-
bar. The most amusing thing about this
proposition is that it succeeds admirably
in most cases. Wherefore, let us say
that young fruit trees may be planted
with every prospect of success if the most
ordinary common sense is exercised.
Broken roots should be cut away, and the
top of each tree should be liberally
pruned before setting. Water or fertili-
zer should not be put into the hole with
the tree roots. Under most circum-
stances, both should be omitted from the
process altogether, though either one
may be applied in small quantities to the
surface about the tree after it is plant-
ed.

Management After Planting

In order to make the fruit tree suc-
ceed, constant and intelligent labor is
required. The garden must be well

tilled, especially during the early portion
of the summer. Tillage ought to cease
about July 10th in central latitudes.
Trees ought to be pruned year by year.
Several books have been written about
pruning, and I hesitate to condense their
information into a single paragraph.
Some regular treatment, such as spray-
ing, should be planned for the suppres-
sion of insects and fungus diseases. In-
formation on such matters can be se-
cured from books, or from experts, who
may be consulted without expense. The
annual supply of plant food is to be kept
up. Where trees are grown in dwarf
forms or on trellises, there is more or
less training to be done.

Dwarf Fruit Trees

It will be quite wrong to pass over the
subject of dwarf trees in the discussion
of city lot fruit gardens. On all small
places the dwarf trees are of great ad-
vantage. Their principal superiority in
this case lies in the large number of
them which can be put on a small tract.
Dwarf fruit trees bear fruit exactly like
the ordinary trees, and of the same varie-
ties, such as Baldwin apples or Anjou
pears. In size they may stand anywhere
below the ordinary fruit trees, but, of
course, for backyard gardens the smallest
sizes are desirable.

These dwarf fruit trees are secured
by budding or grafting the ordinary vari-
eties upon diminutive stocks. For ex-
ample, the smallest dwarf apples are
grafted upon so-called Paradise stocks,
these being simply very diminutive apple
trees grown from cuttings. Dwarf peach
trees are secured by budding the ordi-
nary varieties on small slow-growing
plum roots. Dwarf pears are secured by
budding the pear scion upon quince roots.
Unfortunately, the demand for such
things is not great enough in this coun-
try to insure a constant supply. Dwarf
pears and dwarf apples can be secured
from leading American nurserymen, but
it is almost impossible to get dwarf peach
or plum trees without sending to Europe
or propagating them at home. This busi-
ness of home propagation is worth try-

1032

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ing, however. It is quite as interesting
as fruit growing itself, and is capable
of furnishing liberal education to the
boys, not to mention the girls.

Some other advantages of dwarf fruit
trees will be fairly plain without argu-
ment. They bear fruit at a much earlier
age than the ordinary trees, often yield-
ing good crops two or three years after
planting. The trees being small are eas-
ier to care for, easier to prune, easier to
spray.

It must not be understood that it is
cheaper to grow fruit in this way, or that
the dwarf trees are to take the place of
standard trees in money-making enter-
prises. We are talking of them now only
as a first-class entertainment; but they
do form an almost essential feature in
the design of a city fruit garden.
Some Specific Suggestions

Our country is so large, and its climate
and soils so diversified, that we cannot
possibly lay out one fruit garden which
can be adopted everywhere. Points to be
kept in mind are: (1) that a consider-
able diversity of fruit should be put in
every home garden; (2) that these
should be chosen according to personal
taste; (3) that due attention should be
paid to the adaptability of all varieties
to the soil and climate; (4) that varieties
should ripen in succession; (5) that va-
rieties of fine appearance and high qual-
ity be chosen in preference to those
which are commercially successful.
Frank A. Waugh,

Amherst, Mass.
CCourtcsy Woman's Home Companion.)

*Fruit Trees — Winter Killing of

About once in each decade, and some-
times oftener, a severe winter occurs in
which an unusually large number of
fruit trees are killed. An examination of
the orchards after such winters shows
many irregularities as to the extent of
the injuries in orchards differently lo-
cated and managed. Some varieties of
fruits are uniformly less hardy than oth-
ers, and the winter injury to these sorts

* Compiled from Ohio Experiment Station
Bulletin 157.

may be traced directly to their greater
tenderness. On the other hand, trees
normally perfectly hardy in a locality
may suffer serious injury or be entirely
killed during such "test" winters, while
other trees of the same varieties in the
same orchard may escape injury entirely.
During the prolonged cold winter of
1903-4 great losses were suffered by or-
chardists in the Lake Erie peach belt.
Some orchards were entirely destroyed;
others were apparently uninjured and
came through the winter in a vigorous,
hardy condition; and still others, while
suffering severely, yet contained sections,
rows or parts of rows, or individual trees
that came through the winter uninjured.

Many theories were advanced by the
orchardists as to the cause of these anom-
alies, and as many contradictions ap-
peared. The theory of insufficient drain-
age, which might be advanced as the
cause of the injury in one orchard,
would receive direct refutation in the
next. If an orchard on elevated ground
escaped in one instance it might be par-
tially or entirely killed in another. In
order to learn the cause of these irregu-
larities, the horticulturist of the Ohio Ex-
periment Station and his assistants vis-
ited both injured and uninjured orchards
in Catawba island and the peninsula of
eastern Ottawa county, in Ohio, and made
a thorough study of the matter, reporting
the results of their investigations in a re-
cent bulletin of the station.

Their investigations show that while
a general or direct cause of the injury
was, of course, the severe and long-con-
tinued cold, the specific causes of the
varying degrees of injury were exceed-
ingly numerous. Generally speaking, it
was found that where the vitality of the
tree or orchard had been lowered by any
cause whatever during its previous his-
tory the chances of injury to the tree by
the cold were by so much increased. Fac-
tors observed in different orchards
which contributed to low vitality in the
trees were an insufficient degree of fer-
tility, a low physical condition of the
soils, prevalence of San Jose scale, leaf

FRUIT TREES— WINTER KILLING OF

1033

curl, peach tree borers, extremely dry
condition of the ground in some sandy
and gravelly ridges, "water-logged" soils,
etc.

Injury on Bare Ground
There was a marked contrast in the
extent of the winter injury on bare soils
— soils given clean cultivation — and on
covered soils. The bare soils froze deeper
and the injury was much greater than on
soils covered with a mulch or other ma-
terial. The greater depth to which bare
soils freeze in winter than covered soils
was brought out in an experiment made
at the station. A plat of peaches in an
exposed situation was selected and a
strip of sod 10 to 12 feet wide removed
from one row, leaving the bare surface
of the soil fully exposed to the cold.
Another row alongside was left in
grass which had been clipped and al-
lowed to lie upon the ground, t When the
sod was removed the ground froze to a
depth of 18 inches, while under the thin
sod covering of grass and weeds in the
other row the ground froze to a depth
of about eight inches. The trees in the
bare ground "were very slow in starting
into growth the following spring of 1904.
All of the trees in this row were seri-
ously injured by the cold, many large
branches dying, while in one case the
entire tree was so badly injured that but
few leaves appeared throughout the sea-
son, and these upon shoots so feeble and
slender that the tree might well be con-
sidered dead. Later in the season, how-
ever, some of the trees rallied slightly,
though all showed a serious lack of vital-
ity. The trees in the sod * * * ^j^j
not suffer in the least degree — all mak-
ing a healthy, uniform growth during the
season of 1904."

Value of Cover Crops

The value of an annual cover crop as
compared with clean cultivation was
found in an orchard 18 years planted,
one-half of which had been cultivated
during the first half of each season and
then sown to crimson clover, while the
other half was given clean cultivation

t See United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Farmers' Bulletin 202, p. 11.

during the growing season. "Upon the
clean culture area there was a much
greater percentage of injury from the
cold of the winter than upon the crim-
son-clover section. Where the clover
crops had been grown and plowed down
the trees showed remarkably healthy,
heavy, dark-green foliage, contrasting
sharply with the yellowish, sickly foliage
of the clean culture plat." Another grow-
er in the injured peach region stated
that "not a single orchard or section of
an orchard of which he knew, that had
received even a light dressing of barn-
yard manure within the last year or two,
had suffered noticeably from cold."

Injury in Scale-Infested Orchards

A 13-year-old orchard of 660 trees was
found located on shallow limestone soil
covered with a dense, heavy growth of
bluegrass. The San Jose scale had
wrought havoc in the neighborhood, but
it had been kept under control in this
orchard by spraying. As a result, not a
tree in the whole block was killed by
cold. Across the road from this orchard
was another, located on similar soil and
also in sod, but in which the scale had
not been controlled. "The story is told
in two words — entirely dead."

Injury from Leaf Curl

Another instance is cited in which an
orchard was sprayed in the spring of
1902 for the control of the scale, with
the exception of three rows through the
middle, which were overlooked. As a
result, the scale increased rapidly during
this season on these unsprayed trees, and
they were also attacked by leaf curl,
which practically defoliated them. The
whole orchard was sprayed in 1903, nev-
ertheless the trees had been so weakened
by the leaf curl of the preceding year
that the good care given them in 1903 was
unavailing, and every tree in the three
rows was killed, while every tree on
either side of them which had been
sprayed came through the winter sound,
vigorous and healthy.

Benefits from Banking Trees

A simple, easy, and very effective meth-
od of preventing winter killing of peach
trees was observed in the orchard of one

1034

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

grower. Just before v/inter set in this
grower hauled manure to the orchard,
but instead of scattering it beneath the
trees in the usual way he banked a very
few forkfuls immediately around the stem
of the tree. When the supply of manure
ran out peat or earth was hauled into the
orchard and banked around the stems of
the tree in the same manner.

"The results from the use of these ma-
terials were uniform, and, surprising as
it may seem, every tree that received this
simple treatment survived the winter
without the least injury from cold, while
the few trees and sections of rows left
here and there unbanked and serving as
'checks' in the experiment died almost to
a tree." Another orchard of some 500
trees a little farther to the west of this
orchard, "which had received the same
high culture and good care, with the ex-
ception of the simple banking process,
was almost a total loss." The trees in
these orchards were extremely vigorous
and had made a rank growth, which made
them peculiarly susceptible to injury by
freezing.

Orchards in Sod

On the same farm trees on a piece of
ground which was so stony that it could
not be cultivated and which was kept in
bluegrass sod, with a heavy mulch of
coarse material, such as cornstalks, barn-
yard manure, etc., about the stems, accord-
ing to the true "sod-and-mulch" method,
came through the winter without injury.

These investigations bring out striking-
ly the necessity of such continuous and
thorough cultural practices in the orchard
as shall maintain the trees at all times in
a vigorous, healthy condition. The fer-
tility and vegetable matter of the soil
must be maintained by the addition of
manure or the growing of cover crops.
Spraying to control insect pests and fun-
gus diseases must be thorough and un-
remittent. Trees on undrained or very
rich soil, trees weakened by over bearing
or by borers, all alike invite winter in-
jury. Cover crops and mulches protect
the ground from deep freezing and re-
sultant winter injury. Sod serves the
same purpose. Banking up the trunks

with a few shovelfuls of manure or earth
appears to have a marked favorable in-
fluence.

Fruit as Food

Edible fruits show the greatest range
in form, color, and appearance and are
found in almost countless varieties; yet
from the botanist's standpoint all our
fruits are the seed-bearing portion of the
plant. The edible fruits of temperate
regions fall into a few groups — stone-
fruits, like cherries and plums; pome
fruits, like apples and pears; grapes;
and berries, like strawberries, blackber-
ries, and currants. There are several prod-
ucts, such as muskmelons, cantaloupes,
and watermelons, sometimes classed as
fruits and sometimes as vegetables, which,
of course, would not belong to any one
of these groups. Tropical fruits are not
so easily classified, though the citrus
family (oranges, lemons, etc.) includes
many of the more common sorts.

There are a few vegetable products
which are not fruits in any botanical
sense, but which by common consent are
included in this class of food products
since their place in the diet is the same.
The most common of these products is
rhubarb, and there are few uses of fruit
which the acid rhubarb stalk does not
serve. Angelica stalks, which are candied
and used for making cakes and confec-
tionery, are much less common, though
the total amount used is large. It is cer-
tainly more natural to include preserved,
candied, and crystallized ginger root with
candied pineapple, candied cumquats and
similar products than with any other
class of food materials, and old-fashioned
candied sweet flag root may also be men-
tioned in this connection.

Wild and Cultivated Fruits

In an account of the first Virginia col-
ony it is stated that the Indians ate wild
mulberries, crab apples, and huckleber-
ries, but nothing is said of their cultivat-
ing fruits, though they raised corn and
other vegetables. Wild fruits have been
part of the diet of primitive man when-
ever obtainable, and no one can say with
certainty when wild varieties were first
cultivated, but it must have been early

FRUIT AS FOOD

1035

in the history of the race, since such
fruits as apples and pears have been un-
der cultivation so long that the varieties
now grown have scarcely any resemblance
to the very small, woody, inferior fruit
of the wild parent. As a country becomes
more thickly settled, less and less re-
liance can be placed on wild fruits, and the
market gardener and fruit grower become
of increasing importance. In the United
States, strawberries, blackberries and
raspberries are examples of fruits which
are still eaten both wild and cultivated,
and cranberries have so recently come un-
der cultivation that many persons still
think of them as a wild fruit. Huckle-
berries and blueberries are practically un-
known, except as they grow wild, though
attempts are now being made to bring the
blueberry to greater perfection under cul-
tivation. Among little known wild fruits
elderberries and scarlet haws or thorn
apples, to give them their New England
name, may be mentioned. Both are used
for jelly making to some extent and the
former for other purposes also, but as yet
neither is considered as of much impor-
tance.

It would be difficult to say why some
fruits which are considered to be fairly
palatable and equal to others which are
generally eaten have obtained so little
popularity. For instance, both wild and
cultivated mulberries have long been
known and prized by many, but are per-
haps unknown to the majority of persons
and very little used. In the same way
the medlar, a fruit closely related to
the apple and common enough in parts of
Europe, is almost unknown in the United
States, though it could be readily grown,
if desired.

In some of our cultivated fruits, like
the banana, seed is almost never found;
in the case of others, for instance the
orange, the seedless and seed-bearing var-
ieties are both common; but in the ma-
jority of fruits seeds are present in great-
er or less abundance. It has been said
that seedlessness is a result of long con-
tinued cultivation, but it seems more prob-
able that the seedless forms are due to
the propagation and cultivation of natural

sports without seeds. Seedless sports are
by no means uncommon in wild fruits.
Thus the native American persimmon is
now and then found bearing seedless
fruit, and such a form could be perpetuat-
ed by horticulturists, if need be. The seed-
less navel orange has been propagated in
recent times from a seedless sport, and
it seems very probable that bananas,
though the wild forms are commonly full
of seeds, were propagated from a seedless
sport in times too remote for record. In-
deed, it may be said that there is an al-
most universal tendency to cultivate and
perpetuate varieties in which seeds are
few in number or small in size, and quite
naturally, since such fruits are more con-
venient to use and contain a higher pro-
portion of nutritive material in a given
bulk.

In general, it is true that size, yield,
color, flavor, texture, and chemical com-
position are modified by cultivation.

The commercial fruit grower, of course,
desires a fruit of good appearance, hav-
ing satisfactory shipping and keeping
qualities, and too often the consumer is
satisfied to accept a product in which such
qualities predominate. Discriminating
purchasers, however, will insist on good
flavor, texture and cooking qualities as
well, and such demands should be more
often urged in order that quality may re-
place appearance as a standard in cultivat-
ing fruit for market.

Market Conditions and Fruit Supply

The fruit market has been very great-
ly modified and extended by improved
methods of transportation and storage. A
man need not be very old to remember the
time when, at least in the Northern
states, bananas were a comparative rar-
ity outside the large cities, and oranges
and lemons, though common commodities,
were rather high in price. In the sum-
mer there was an abundance of the com-
mon garden fruits, but in winter apples
were practically the only sort which was
at all plentiful. A few years have wit-
nessed a great change, and now there is
hardly a village so small that bananas
and other Southern fruits can not be pur-
chased at reasonable prices. In Europe

1036

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the situation is much the same. Such
quantities of bananas are now taken to
England and sold at such reasonable rates
that they are sometimes spoken of there
as the poor man's fruit. At the present
time there are a number of fruits, such
as avocados or "alligator pears," man-
goes, and sapodillas, which are fairly well
known in our large markets though sel-
dom seen in the smaller towns. The
enormous development of the fruit grow-
ing industry in California and Florida,
which includes the products of both tem-
perate and warm regions, as well as the
possibilities of supplying the Northern
markets with tropical fruits from Porto
Rico and Hawaii, makes it probable that
within a few years the avocado, the man-
go, and other tropical fruits will be as
well known as the pomelo or the pine-
apple.

Improvements in transportation have
also materially lengthened the season of
many fruits, such as strawberries, which
can not be stored for any considerable
period. Florida and the Carolinas now
send their berries to Northern markets
months before the home-grown crop can
be expected and several weeks before that
from tidewater Virginia or New Jersey
is ripe. As an illustration of the effect of
improved methods in shipping fruit, it
may be mentioned that melons from the
south of France, hothouse peaches from
Belgium, and peaches, plums and other
fruits from South Africa are now sent
to our American markets in winter. The
introduction or origination of new var-
ieties of fruits also prolongs the season.
As an instance may be cited the Peen-to
peach, a Chinese variety which can be
successfully raised in Florida and Texas,
and which is found in our Northern mar-
kets in early spring, though at present at
prices which clearly make it a luxury.
Furthermore, improved methods of cul-
ture and transportation have extended the
area planted to old and well-known var-
ieties.

Color and Flavor of Fruits

Fruits, like leaves and flowers, owe
their varied color to a number of chemi-
cal compounds, the green to chlorophyll

(the characteristic coloring matter of
green leaves), the yellow to xanthin
bodies and other yellow pigments, and
the blue and red to solutions in the cell
sap of complex coloring matters which
have in most cases been isolated and
classified. Several coloring matters are
often present in combination and give rise
to the great variety of shades which dif-
ferent fruits present. In white fruits
coloring matter is absent from the epi-
dermis and the cells are said to be filled
with air. As fruits develop, mature, and
deteriorate, the coloring matters present
undergo marked chemical changes, and
color is one of the most common means of
judging of ripeness.

Attractive color has a decided effect on
market value, and the public demand
varies greatly in different regions. Thus,
a yellow or russet dessert apple is de-
manded in the French market, while in
many parts of the United States the red
apple has the preference. A faded, dull
color is often an indication of staleness;
strawberries and raspberries which have
been kept too long have little of the bril-
liant color of freshly gathered fruit. That
fruit colors in general are not very per-
manent is shown by the way the color
deteriorates on long-continued cooking or
fades when canned and preserved fruits
are exposed to the light.

In preparing such fruits as plums,
peaches, etc., for the table, the skin may
be readily removed without injury to the
flavor by first immersing them for a short
time in boiling hot water. A silver knife
should always be used for paring apples,
pears, and other fruits, as if a steel knife
is used the acid of the fruit acts on the
iron of the knife and frequently causes
a black discoloration, and there is also
very commonly a noticeable metallic flav-
or. If pared or cut fruit is exposed to the
air, it rapidly turns dark in color, ow-
ing to the action of oxydases, as some of
the ferments normally present in fruits
are called, upon the tannin or other readi-
ly oxidizable bodies which are also nor-
mal fruit constituents.

In the same way the brown color of the
bruised spots in apples is caused by oxid-

FRUIT AS FOOD

1037

ation by means of the oxydases present in
the fruit of the tannin in the crushed
cells. Such bruised portions contain a
larger proportion of starch than the rest
of the apple because the tannin hinders
the transformation of starch into sugar.

In investigations carried on at the Ore-
gon Agricultural Experiment Station with
a view to preventing the discoloration of
evaporated fruits and vegetables, it was
found that treating sliced apples with a
weak solution of common salt (1 to 2 per
cent) resulted in a product which was
very bright and white and of better ap-
pearance than that obtained by the well-
known domestic method of treatment with
cold water. It seems probable that the
Oregon method may find application in
the household.

Fruits owe their flavor in considerable
degree to the sugars and the malic, citric,
and other acids which they contain, but
the flavor which is so characteristic of
different kinds is almost entirely due to
ethereal bodies. The amount present is
often too small for determination by the
usual chemical methods. However, in
many cases these flavor-giving bodies have
been studied and their chemical nature
is known.

The flavor of strawberries has been
shown to be dependent in part at least
upon the presence of a volatile oil with
pronounced strawberry odor which is
found in small proportions in the extract-
ed fat of the dried berries. Recent Ger-
man investigators* have identified the
compound ethers which give bananas their
characteristic flavor.

With the orange and other citrus fruits
the oil found in the skin has a very char-
acteristic odor and flavor which are al-
ways associated in our minds with the
flavor of the fruit. Obviously, the small
amount of these bodies of pronounced odor
and flavor can not materially modify the
nutritive value of fruits, but they are of
great importance in considering the place
of fruit in the diet, as they are very
largely responsible for its attractiveness
and palatability. There is no doubt that
we all eat more readily the foods which

please our palate than those which are
of indifferent flavor, and there is every
reason to believe that the foods which
please are actually digested more easily
than those which do not, since they stimu-
late a normal and abundant production
of digestive juices.

Composition of Fruits

Determining the proportion of water,
protein, fat, carbohydrates (nitrogen-
free extract and crude fiber), and ash
in fruits as in other foods furnishes a
convenient basis for pudging of their rel-
ative food value. It is quite common
for chemists to determine, instead of
their proximate constituents, the propor-
tions of the different nitrogenous bodies
present, as well as the amounts of the
different sugars, etc., which in the ordi-
nary method of analysis are grouped with
the other carbohydrates.

The more detailed analyses are of
great interest and value for many rea-
sons, but with our present knowledge
it seems fair to assume that the vari-
ous sugars and starches, for instance,
have the same nutritive value, and so
a knowledge of the total quantity of
these bodies present gives very satisfac-
tory data for estimating the food value
of the group.* Very many analyses and
studies of fruit and fruit products have
been made by chemists of the agricul-
tural experiment stations, as well as by
the different Bureaus of the Department
of Agriculture. Table 1 summarizes a
large amount of such data and shows the
composition of fresh, dried, and pre-
served fruits and fruit products, and for
comparison the composition of a few
other foods as well. In this table and
the discussions which follow, attention
has been given especially to the fruit of
northern and temperate regions and no
attempt has been made to summarize the
considerable amount of data available
regarding tropical fruits, except some
which are grown in the United States
or which are fairly well known at least
in the larger markets. Special studies of

* Deut. Essigindus, 1905, p. 81.

* An extended summary of the more detailed
analyses of fruits and fruit products may be
found In Konig's Chemle der menschliehen
Nahrunprs und Genussmittel. Berlin. 1903,
volume 1. fourth edition, pases 820-895.

1038

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

tropical fruits have been made by the
California and by the Maine experiment
stations, and the Bureau of Chemistryf
of this Department has reported an ex-
tended series of investigations of such
fruits and the jams and preserves made
from them.

Most of the fruits and fruit products
included in the table are too well known
to need description. Of those which are
less familiar, the avocado or "alligator
pear" is a green or purple fruit not un-
like an egg plant in appearance. The
portion eaten is the pulp which sur-
rounds the single large seed. In tex-
ture it is soft and somewhat like butter,
and to this quality it doubtless owes the
name "midshipmen's butter," given to it
in the days of sailing vessels. The avo-
cado is eaten in a variety of ways, but
is most commonly served as a salad.
This fruit has a delicate, almost nut-like
flavor, and is every year becoming more
popular. Earlier publicationsj of this
Department have discussed the avocado
at length and described its cultivation
and uses.

The fruits of several sorts of cactus
are very commonly eaten in Mexico and
other regions where cactus is abundant,
and are common though less well known
in New Mexico and the Southwest. Un-
der the name of prickly pear or Indian
fig fresh cactus fruits, particularly the
oblong, oval, yellowish or reddish fruits
of Opuntia ficus inclica. showing here
and there characteristic tufts of fine
spines or bristles, are occasionally seen
at certain seasons of the year in large
fruit shops. Cactus fruits may be used
for jam making and in similar ways. A
rather hard solid preserve or "cactus
cheese," which may sometimes contain
nuts, is a Mexican sweetmeat.

Many varieties of the guava, a very
aromatic tropical and sub-tropical fruit,
are grown in the warmer regions of the
United States, and its uses are so varied
that it is often said the guava occupies

t United States Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 87.

t United States Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 77 ; Farmers'
Bulletin 169.

much the same place in cookery in the
Tropics as the apple in northern regions.
The fresh fruit is seldom seen outside
the regions where it is grown, but guava
jelly and guava paste are common com-
mercial products, and have been popu-
lar ever since the days when the West
India merchantmen brought these del-
icacies, preserved tamarinds, and oranges
and lemons to our northern markets as
well as such staple goods as sugar and
molasses.

The roselle or Jamaica sorrel is the
fruit of a widely distributed tropical
hibiscus which is grown extensively in
California and Florida. The fruits some-
what resemble okra in form, are of a
dark magenta color, and have an acid
flavor much like that of cranberries.
They are used for jams, jellies, etc.

The Surinam cherry is the fruit of
a South American tropical shrub now
grown to a limited extent in Southern
Florida and California. It is about the
size and shape of an ordinary cherry,
and owes its common English name to
this fact. The fruit is bright red in
color, and has a sharp but pleasant acid
flavor. The Surinam cherry is used for
jelly making, etc., but is seldom a com-
mercial product.

The loquat, commonly though incor-
rectly called the Japan plum, is grown
to a considerable extent in the southern
United States. The small, yellowish,
plum-like fruits are almost translucent
when ripe, and are covered with a downy
fuzz or bloom. The pulp is soft and
tender and quite tart until fully ripe.
The flavor is distinct and agreeable. Lo-
quats are used both raw and cooked, and
both fresh and preserved fruits are
commercial products.

The sapodilla, a tropical fruit which
thrives in regions like the warmer parts
of Florida, suggests a good-sized russet
apple in appearance, but when broken
open is quite different in character, as
it contains a number of rather large flat
brown seeds embodied in a tender
brownish white pulp. The flavor is
characteristic, and to some palates sug-
gests a combination of a pleasant mild
acid with caramel or brown sugar. The

FRUIT AS FOOD

1039

sapodilla is a not uncommon commercial
fruit in large fruit shops.

Perhaps no fruit of the Tropics is more
often discussed than the mango, some
persons being exceedingly fond of this
juicy aromatic fruit while others are as
outspoken in their dislike. There are
countless varieties of the mango, and
many of them have a rank turpentine-
like flavor, and are very fibrous. These

qualities are not apparent, however, in
the best varieties, which are of very
delicate flavor and very palatable. The
fruit is cooked in a variety of ways, be-
ing a staple article of diet in the Tropics,
and is also eaten fresh. Some difficulty
is experienced in shipping mangoes, as
the flesh is very juicy and tender, but
they are occasionally found in market at
least as far north as Washington, D. C.

Table I

Average composition of fruit and fruit products.

Refuse

Edible Portion

Water

Protein

Ether
Extract

Carbohydrates |

Ash

Kind of Fruit

Nitro-
gen-
free

extract

Crude
Fiber

Fuel

value

per

pound

Fresh Fniits

Per ct.

25.0

6.0

29.0

35.0

Per ct.
84.6
85.0
81.1
75.3
86.3
79.2
80.9
88.9
85.0
79.0
79.1
85.6
77.4
82.9
81.9
89.3
77.9
87.4
74.6
84.7
89.5
82.9
67.0
86.9
89.4
80.9
66.1
80.2
89.3
78.4
76.8
79.6
85.8
84.1
89.6
94.4
86.5
84.0
77.9
75.8
90.4
85.0
92.4
82.4

26.1
29.4
29.2
9.7
19.0
15.4
18.8
16.5

Per ct.

0.4

1.1

1.0

1.3

1.3

1.4

1.0

.4

1.5

6.5

1.5

61.0

1.3

1.3

.6

1.0

.2

.6

.5

.4

.6

.6

2.5

.8

.7

1.0

.8

1.4

.4

1.0

1.5

.9

1.0

1.7

.1

.6

2.1

1.7

.5

2.0

1.0

.4

.4

.7

1.6
4.7
5.3
3.1
.5
2.1
4.3
2.8

Per ct.
0.5

"'l6'2

.6

1.0

1.3

.8
.6

""'6.3'

Y.e

.7

.6

.7

A

.3

■■'17Y
.2
.1
.5
.7
.6
.3

""1.6

" r.o

6.3

.7

.3

1.0

1.6

.7

.6

.2

3.0

2.2
1.0
2.3

.5
1.5
2.8

.3
5.4

Per ct.
13.0

Per ct.
1.2

Per ct.

0.3
.5
.9
.8
.5

2.7
.6
.2
.7

1.0
.6
.3
.5
.5
.3
.5

1.1
.5
.6
.6
.6
.6

4.4
.5
.4
.4
.9
.6
.3
.5
.6
.6
.6
.6
.2
.7
.8

1.1
.6
.8
.6
.7
.3
.4

2.0
2.4
5.3
2.6
.9
1.3
2.4
2.4

Calories
290

13.4
6 8

270

512

21.0
8.4
11.7
16.5
8 4

1.0
2.5
3.7
.2
1.5

460

270

375

Cherries

5.0

365

215

12.8
13.1 1 a6.1
18.8

cia.i

14.9 4.3
8.0 6.6
16.6

265

370

Figs

380

255

25.0

450

315

345

30.0

7.4
20.2

9.9
16.5

1.1

.6

1.2

7.5

205

Loquat

395

Mango a

640.0

220

455

14.3

7.2 1 2.1

15.9
5.7 1 3.3

11 6

280

50,0

6.6

17.9

27.0

18.0

10.0

625.0

24.0

40.0

5.0

630.0

5.8

185

305

407

240

5.8
15.7
29.7
15.1

9.3

3.6
1.5

1.8

2.1

.4

190

Pears

163

630

174

200

Plums

20.1
16.8 1 2.7
18.9

9.7 1 2.9
12.6

3.8 66.0
2.5 1.1

10.3

12.2
16.6 2.8
18.6 2.1
6.0 1.4

13.9

6.7

395

460

Prunes

370

255

310

Red bilberry . .

190

Rhubarb stalks

40.0

105

235

Roselle pod

290

Sapodilla a

640.0

20.0

5.0

425

Scarlet haws

212

180

260

.59.4

140

10.3

3.2

390

Dried Fruits

62.0

6.1

1,350

Apricots

62.5
55.8 2.1
83.4 .7

78.1

1,290

1,240

Banana flour

1,610

1,525

Dates

10.0

74.6
68.0
66.0

3.8
6.2
6.9

1,615

Figs

1,475

Pears

1,635

a European analysis.

6 Assumed.

c Including 3 . 5 per cent skin and seeds.

1040

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE
Table I — Continued

Kind of Fruit

Refuse

Edible Portion

Water

Protein

Ether

Extract

Carbohydrates

Nitro-
gen-
free

extract

Crude
Fiber

Ash

Fuel

value

per

pound

Dried Fruits — Continued

Prunes

Raisins

Raspberries

St. John's bread

Zante currants (English currants)

Per ct.
15.0
10.0

Canned Fruits, Preserves, Jelhes, Etc.

Crab apples (canned)

Apple sauce

Apricots (canned)

Apricot sauce

Blackberries (canned)

Blueberries (canned)

Cherries (canned)

Cherry jelly

Figs, stewed

Grape butter

Olives, green, pickled

Olives, ripe, pickled ,

Orange marmalade

Peaches (canned)

Pears (canned)

Pineapples canned)

Prunes, stewed

Strawberries, stewed

Angelica stalks (candied)

Apricots (candied)

Cherries (candied)

Citron (candied)

Ginger root (candied)

27.0
19.0

Fruit Products

Olive oil

Raspberry juice

Unfermented grape juice

Other Foods for Comparison

Cabbage

Potatoes

Wheat flour, high grade

Corn meal, bolted

White bread

Beans, dried

Honey

Sugar, granulated

Butter

15.0
20.0

Per ct.

22.3

14.6

8.1

617.3

17.2

42.4
61.1
81.4
45.2
40.0
85.6
77.2
21.0
56.5
36.7
58.0
64.7
14.5
88.1
81.1
61.8
76.6
74.8
10.4
14.4
12.1
18.2
12.3

49.3
92.2

91.5
78.3
12.0
12.5
35.3
12.6
18.2

Per ct.
2.1
2.6
7.3
5.7
2.4

.6

1.1

1.1

1.2

1.2

1.1

1.7

.6

.7

.3

.4

.5

.7

.1

.7

.5

.1

.3

Per ct.

1.6
2.2

11.4
9.2
9.2

22.5
.4

3.3
1.8
1.1

1.7

2.4

1.3

2.1

.6
.1

0.3
.1
27.6
25.9
.1
.1
.3
.7
.1

100.0

"b.h

.3

.1

1.0
1.9
1.3
1.8

Per ct.
71.2
73.6
8C
67.0
71.2

Per ct.
2.1
2.5

2

6.4
3.0

54.4
37.2
17.3
48.8
56.4
12.8
21.1
77.2
40.9
58.5
11.6
4.3
84.5
10.8
18.0
36.4
22.3
24.0

87.3

83.0

86.1

77.6

86.1

1.5
1.1

.5
1.0

.7

4.5
18.0
74.8
74.4
52.6
55.2
81.2
100.0

11.0

1.0

85.0

1.1
.4
.3

1.0

.5
4.4

Per ct.
2.3
3.4
2.6
2.5
4.5

.5

.7

.4

2.8

.7

.4

.5

.7

1.1

3.5

1.7

3.4

.3

.3

.3

.7

.5

.5

.6

.7

.6

3.0

.4

1.0
1.0

.5
1.0

.5
3.5

.2

3.0

Calories
1,400
1,605
1,705
1,480
1,495

1,120

730

340

1,000

1,150

275

415

1,455

785

1,115

1,400

1,205

1,585

220

355

715

430

460

1,550

1,445

1,455

1,380

1,520

4,035
935
150

145
385
1,650
1,655
1,215
1,605
1,520
1,860
3,605

a Probably contained added sugar.

b European analysis.

Most fruits, like other classes of foods,
contain more or less material, such as
pits, skin, etc., which is inedible. When
such portions are removed a larger or
smaller part of the edible material is
almost always of necessity removed also,
and is spoken of as "waste." In re-
porting analyses the amounts of inedible
material and waste are grouped together
under the heading "refuse." As may be
seen from the above table, the proportion
of refuse in fruits varies within rather
wide limits. Thus, of pears it constitutes
on an average 10 per cent of the total

fruit, peaches 18 per cent, apples and
grapes 25 per cent, and bananas 35 per
cent, while in the case of raspberries
and blackberries there is no refuse and
the whole fruit can be eaten.

The analytical data quoted above show
that fresh fruits are in general dilute
foods — that is, the proportion of water
which they contain is large, compared
with the total amount of nutritive ma-
terial. It has been suggested that fruits
containing 80 per cent or more of water
be classed as flavor fruits and those with
less than 80 per cent as food fruits. As

FRUIT AS FOOD

1041

may be seen from Table I such fruits
as strawberries, blackberries, and rasp-
berries would be included in the first
class, and fresh figs, bananas, grapes,
etc., in the second. In dried fruits which
have been concentrated by evaporation the
percentage of nutrients is very much high-
er than in fresh fruits. Some preserved
fruits also possess a comparatively high
nutritive value, owing to the evapora-
tion of water by the heat of cooking or
to the addition of sugar, or to both
factors. Candied fruits, such as cher-
ries and apricots, which are included in
the table, may be looked upon as typical
examples of this class of fruit products.
As regards composition, the water con-
tent is low and the carbohydrates and
consequently the energy value is very
high, owing to the added sugar.

Olives and the avocado are remarkable
for the large percentage of fat which
they contain, but in general it may be
said that this constituent is present in
very small proportion in fresh fruits.
In the case of the apple, pear, etc., it
seems probable that the small amount of
fat obtained in chemical analysis con-
sists of the coloring matter contained
in the fruit or of wax found in the skin.
That the amount of wax maj^ be consid-
erable is evident when we recall the fact
that fruit wax is collected from bay ber-
ries and other fruits in quantities suf-
ficient for candle making and other pur-
poses. That common fruits actually con-
tain fat, though it is not generally as-
sociated with them, is Shotv^n by a re-
cently published study of the fat of
woods strawberries. The dried berries
when extracted yielded a small amount
of oil, cloudy at ordinary temperatures,
but clear when heated, and much like
linseed oil in its properties.

In the majority of fruits and fruit
products the carbohydrates are the food
constituents most abundantly represent-
ed. The figures in the table show that
the proportion of nitrogen-free extract
varies greatly, being lowest in the fi-esh
and highest in the dried and preserved
fruits. It is interesting to consider also
the values which have been reported for

some of the constituents not shown in
the table, but included in the group
"nitrogen-free extract." In seeds which
are commonly eaten, such as the cereal
grains, and beans, peas, and other
legumes, the nitrogen-free extract is quite
largely made up of starches. In fruits,
however, sugars and the so-called pectin
bodies, with very often more or less
starch, make up the group. The princi-
pal sugars in fruit are cane sugar, grape
sugar (glucose), and fruit sugar (levul-
ose), the last two being usually pres-
ent together in equal quantity and
designated invert sugar or reducing
sugar. The stage of growth and the de-
gree of ripeness have a very marked ef-
fect on the kind and amount of sugar,
and it is therefore difficult to give aver-
age figures for the quantities present
which will be fairly representative. An
idea of the range in the sugar content of
ripe fruits may be gathered from figures
quoted from a summary* published sev-
eral years ago. According to these data,
invert sugar ranged from 2 per cent in
round numbers in large early apricots
to 15 per cent in grapes and a variety of
sweet cherries. A number of fruits
(strawberries, gooseberries, raspberries,
and apples) contained about half the
latter quantity. The cane sugar ranged
from less than 1 per cent in lemons to
14 per cent in a variety of plums.
Bananas also contained a fairly high per-
centage, namely, 11 per cent.

Fruit sugar rarely occurs unaccom-
panied by grape sugar, but has been thus
reported in the mango and in amounts
large in proportion to the grape sugar
in sweet apples and sweet pears and a
number of varieties of grapes. In the
case of grape sugar large amounts — 18
to 30 per cent — have been reported in
juice of different sorts of grapes, while
in dried fruits the values are even high-
er, 32 per cent having been found in
prunes, 54 per cent in Zante or "English"
currants, which are of course a small
seedless grape, 61 per cent in raisins, 48
per cent in figs, and 66 per cent in dates.

* Lippman : Chemie der Zuckerarten, 180.5,
third edition, paa;es 493, 591 ; 1904, fourth
edition, pages 200, 794.

1042

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

The acid in fruits, which in proximate
analyses is not usually determined sep-
arately, varies within rather wide limits,
1 to 2 per cent . being reported on an
average in such fruits as apples, pears,
plums, strawberries, etc., and as high as
7 per cent or more in lemon juice. It
often happens that of two fruits with the
same acid content one has a much sourer
taste than the other, because the acid is
not so much masked by sugar.

Fruits contain a comparatively small
amount of mineral matter — less than 1
per cent on an average — consisting quite
largely of potassium salts, with a little
phosphoric acid, iron, lime, etc.

As a class, it is apparent that fresh
fruits are directly comparable with green
vegetables and root crops rather than
with more concentrated foods, such as
flour or meal. The dried and some of
the preserved fruits, which are more con-
centrated than the fresh, compare fav-
orably with bread, dried beans, and simi-
lar foods on the basis of total food ma-
terial present. There is this difference,
however, that the cereals and dried
legumes contain fairly large proportions
of protein, while the quantity present in
fruits is always small. In other words,
fruits — fresh, dried, and preserved — are
sources of energy rather than of tissue-
forming material.

Grape juice and other freshly express-
ed juices are pleasant and wholesome
beverages. They are commonly preserved
for winter use at home as well as on a
commercial scale by sterilizing in bottles.
The fruit juices are dilute foods, as the
figures given for grape juice in Table 1
indicate. Fruit syrups made by adding
sugar to the juice are extensively used in
the household and in other ways. The
food value of such articles is, of course,
considerably increased by the sugar which
they contain.

In connection with the subject of
fruit juices and syrups, it may be of in-
terest to mention the Turkish prepara-
tion, which is made by evaporating grape
juice until it is of the consistency of
molasses, then thickening with flour or
starch, and spreading it out to dry in

the sun in thin sheets. This product is
not unlike the peach leather, which is
an old-fashioned domestic product still
made to some extent in much the same
way in the southern United States by
drying crushed peach pulp on platters
in an oven. Plum leather is also some-
times made in the same way. After soak-
ing in water for some hours peach leath-
er is ready for use on the table or for
making puddings, etc. Another Turkish
preparation called sujuk or rojik is made
by stringing walnuts on pieces of stout
twine about a yard long and immersing
them in a mixture of grape molasses and
flour. After receiving a coating about
one-fourth of an inch thick they are with-
drawn and hung up to dry, and may then
be preserved in jars in good condition
for a few months. Sujuk is said to be
an excellent article of food and palatable.
Sometimes wheat grits are used to thick-
en the grape syrup, and the nut and syrup
mixture is made in the form of cakes
about one-half an inch thick when dried.
Vinegar, which contains about 3 per
cent of extractive material and 0.5 per
cent ash, in addition to 6 per cent acetic
acid and over 90 per cent water, is one
of the oldest fruit products and also one
of the oldest and most common condi-
ments and household preservatives. It
owes its use in the diet to flavor and
other qualities rather than to the very
small amount of nutritive material which
it may contain. Honey vinegar,* malt
vinegar, etc., are well known, but vine-
gar made from fruit juice is far more
common. By fermentation the sugar in
the original material is converted into
acetic acid, and to this the vinegar large-
ly owes its flavor, though the salts and
other materials originally present in the
fruit juice have an effect upon this qual-
ity. Vinegar made from apple juice — that
is, cider vinegarf — has always had a repu-
tation for good quality, though other fruit
juices are of considerable importance in
domestic vinegar making, banana vine-

* For description and method of making, see
United States Department of Asriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin 276.

tVinegar making and related questions are
taken up in United States Department of Agri-
culture, Farmers' Bulletin 233.

FRUIT AS FOOD

1043

gar being one of the sorts which is rath-
er favorably known in regions where this
fruit is grown. The acid juice of lemons
and limes is used like vinegar as a con-
diment, and many persons consider that
lemon juice is more delicate. It is some-
times claimed that it is more wholesome
also, but this seems hardly more than a
matter of opinion, as there is no reason
to suppose that the small amounts of
vinegar ordinarily used are in any way
harmful.

Verjuice, the expressed acid juice of
green apples, crab apples, or other un-
ripe fruit, was formerly used as a con-
diment and was greatly prized. It has
survived in modern cookery in a limited
way and may occasionally serve a use-
ful purpose when lemon juice is not read-
ily obtainable.

Ripening and Its Effect on Composition

As fruits grow to their full size and
ripen they undergo marked changes in
chemical composition with respect both to
the total and to the relative amount of
the different chemical bodies present.
When stored after gathering, the changes
continue, some fruits improving on stor-
age and others deteriorating very rapid-
ly. In general, ripe fruits are less acid
than green and contain less starch, woody
material, crude fiber, and the carbohy-
drates commonly referred to as pectin
bodies and correspondingly larger
amounts of the different sugars.

Fruits contain oxydases and other fer-
ments, and these are believed to play a
very important part in the chemical
changes which accompany growth and
maturity. Many diverse views have been
expressed regarding the exact nature and
extent of the processes involved and the
compounds formed in ripening fruit. The
question as a whole has been a favorite
one with chemists, and the agricultural
experiment stations have made a number
of important contributions to the sub-
ject. One of the most recent and valu-
able contributions, both from a biblio-
graphical and from a chemical stand-
point, is the series of investigations pub-

lished by Bigelow * and his associates, of
the Bureau of Chemistry of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, on the ripening of
winter and summer apples and of
peaches. With winter apples it was
found that the starch increases from
early summer until the maximum is
reached in midsummer and then decreases
and finally disappears. The malic acid
content decreases from early summer un-
til maturity, while cane sugar and in-
vert sugar increases.

In the case of peaches, as the fruit de-
velops from early summer to ripeness the
proportion of flesh increases and the pit
decreases. During this period the weight
of reducing sugars increases about eight
times and that of cane sugar or sucrose
and acids considerably more than this.
An increase is also noted with the vari-
ous forms of nitrogenous substances.
Throughout the whole period of growth
the proportion of solids to water in the
flesh of the peach remains fairly con-
stant. The pit, on the other hand, be-
comes harder and the percentage of water
in it decreases as growth progresses. It
is interesting to note that throughout the
whole period of growth no appreciable
amount of starch is found in the peach.
Between the condition known as market
ripeness and full ripeness considerable
growth takes place in the peach, there
being an increase in both water and solid
matter and in reducing sugar and cane
sugar. A German investigator $ found
that when black currants were picked
when slightly green and kept for a few
days there was an increase in sugar and
a decrease in the acid content. The
changes which take place in gooseber-
ries do not appear to be of the same
character. Picked when green, they con-
tain 3.9 per cent sugar and 27.2 per cent
acid. When stored at a cool temperature
for six days they had taken on the dark
color of ripe berries and contained some-
what smaller proportions of both sugar
and acid.

A knowledge of the changes which ac-
company the growth, ripening, and stor-

• U. S. Department Agriculture, Bureau of
Chemistrv Bulletins No. 94 and No. 07.

t Landw. Jahrb. Schweiz., 19 (1905), p. 600.

1044

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

age of fruits is very important com-
mercially as well as from the housekeep-
er's standpoint. For instance, in cider
making it is desirable that the fruit
should be used when the sugar content is
high, as the quality of cider and vine-
gar is largely determined by the amount
of sugar present. As every housewife
knows, underripe fruit — that is, fruit
which still contains the so-called pectin
bodies rather than the sugars and other
carbohydrates characteristic of fully rip-
ened fruit — is the most satisfactory for
jelly making. In the case of bananas the
underripe fruit, rich in starch, is best for
cooking, and the very ripe fruit, in which
the starch has been changed into sugar,
for use uncooked. It is not unlikely that
failure to recognize this distinction is re-
sponsible for the digestive disturbance
which many persons experience when
bananas are eaten, as the raw, underripe,
starchy fruits are generally conceded to
be difficult of digestion. The underripe
bananas, when dried, sliced, and ground,
yield a flour or meal rich in starch, while
the riper fruit with the higher sugar con-
tent, sliced and dried, is very sweet and
not unlike figs in flavor and composition.

Ways of Serving Fruit

As regards the way in which they are
served fruits range from the muskmelon,
watermelon, and avocado, almost never
cooked, to cranberries and the ordinary
varieties of quince, which are not eaten
raw. The methods of preparation are
quite varied, including drying or evapor-
ating, and baking, boiling, and stewing,
while quantities of fruit are used in pud-
dings, pies, and other dishes, and for
the preparation of jams, jellies, and pre-
serves. Fruit juices are used for bever-
ages, and both fruits and the juices are
very commonly prepared for the table
by freezing, fruit ices being considered
as among the most appetizing desserts.
Some fruits, notably the green and the
ripe olive and less generally the lime, are
prepared for the table by pickling in
brine.

Even a casual examination of cookery
books and the periodical literature de-
voted to such topics shows that the ways

in which fruits and fruit products can
be cooked and served are practically end-
less. The housewife who desires to vary
her menu by the use of more fruit and
fruit dishes can do so very readily by
consulting such sources of information.

The temperature at which fresh fruits
are eaten is largely a matter of fashion or
individual taste. With the increased use
of ice in our homes during recent years
it has become a very common custom to
serve fruits colder than was formerly
the case. Cool or even cold fruits are
very refreshing and many prefer them
served thus. There are others, however,
who maintain that overchilling lessens
the delicate flavor and accentuates the
acid taste. They insist that the fruits
gathered in the cool of the day and stored
in a cool but not a cold place are at their
best. Still others find them sweetest and
most palatable when brought from the
garden warmed by the sun.

Place of Fruit in the Diet

In most families fruits are commonly
thought of as a food accessory, and are
prized for their pleasant flavor or for sup-
posed hygienic reasons rather than for
their food value; yet a study of avail-
able figures shows that they constitute
a by no means unimportant part of the
diet, since they supply, on the basis of
recent statistics, 4.4 per cent of the total
food and 3.7 per cent of the total carbo-
hydrates of the average American diet.
With a view to learning something more
definite regarding the possibilities of
fruits as sources of nutrients, the rela-
tive cost of nutrients supplied by fruits
and other foods, the digestibility of a
fruit diet as compared with an ordinary
mixed diet, and related questions, ex-
tended investigations were undertaken at
the California Agricultural Experiment
Station by Prof. M. E. Jaffa, the work as
a whole being carried on in co-operation
with the nutrition investigations of the
Office of Experiment Stations. In the
first series reported six dietary studies
were made with fruitarians — two women
and four children who had lived on a
fruit and nut diet for several years. The
dietary studies covered from 20 to 28

FRUIT AS FOOD

1045

days, and the dailj' food consisted of dif-
ferent combinations of fi'uits and nuts,
of which the following day's ration may
serve as a sample: 475 grams apples, 110
grams bananas, 850 grams oranges, 5
grams dates, 2 grams honey, 10 grams
olive oil, 55 grams almonds, 70 grams
pine nuts, and 50 grams walnuts.

The later studies were made with one
of the women and two of the children
included in the first group, and in addi-
tion with two elderly men who had been
vegetarians for years and had limited
their diet almost exclusively to fruits and
nuts, and with two young men, university
students, who were accustomed to the or-
dinary diet, though one of them had ex-
perimented with a vegetarian and fruitar-
ian diet for some time. The students and
one of the elderly men ate three meals
a day at the usual hours. The others ate
but twice, the first meal being taken
between 10 and 11 o'clock in the morn-
ing and the second between 5 and 6 o'clock
in the afternoon. As before, the diet in-
cluded a large assortment of fresh fruits,
with considerable quantities of dried
fruits and nuts, and some honey and olive
oil. In a few cases small quantities of
other foods were also eaten.

Considering these studies as a whole,
the diet of the women and children fur-
nished from 32 to 4.3 grams of protein and
1,190 to 1,430 calories of energy per day.
the cost ranging from 15.7 to 27.5 cents.
It is the usual custom to discuss dietary
studies on the basis of the amounts eat-
en per man per day, and the results ob-
tained with these women and children,
when recalculated to this basis, showed
a range of 47 to 80 grams of protein and
1,850 to 2,805 calories of energy, the cost
of the daily food ranging from 21 to 55
cents per man per day. In the studies
with the young and the old men the pro-
tein supplied by the daily diet ranged
from 40 to 85 grams and the energy from
1,712 to 3,305 calories, the average being
62 grams protein and 2,493 calories, the
cost ranging from 18.1 to 47 cents per per-
son per day. These amounts are consid-
erably smaller than have been found on
an average with families living in many
different regions of the United States and

under a variety of conditions, as is shown
by the fact that with 52 families in com-
fortable circumstances the average pro-
tein in the daily diet was 103 grams and
the average energy 3,500 calories. On
the other hand, in many of the dietary
studies made under the auspices of the
Office of Experiment Stations it has been
found that persons living on a mixed diet
have obtained amounts directly compar-
able with those supplied by the fruitarian
diet. Thus, at the North Dakota Agricul-
tural College several years ago a diet-
ary study showed that the food consumed
per man per day by a group of students
furnished 64 grams protein and 2,579
calories and at Lake Erie College 68
grams protein and 2,610 calories, calculat-
ed on a uniform basis per man per day.

In a recent investigation carried on at
Harvard it was found that the diet of
nine students who lived at the college
commons and, from necessity or choice,
endeavored to live cheaply supplied, on an
average, 89 grams protein and 3,068
calories. In this case the average cost
was 39.9 cents per day and at the North
Dakota and the Lake Erie colleges 13 and
18 cents, respectively. It will thus be
seen that in the California investigations
the fruit and nut diet supplied the sub-
jects with amounts of protein and energy
which are directly comparable with those
obtained by many other persons from a
mixed diet, though in general the quanti-
ties were smaller than are supplied by
the diet of the average family. It should
be said that the persons living on a fruit
and nut diet apparently maintained their
normal health and strength.

It seems fair to say that at the present
time the consensus of opinion of well-in-
formed physiologists is that the ordinary
mixed diet is most convenient and satis-
factory for the average individual. It is
equally clear from the investigations re-
ported that fruits and nuts should not be
looked upon simply as food accessories,
but should be considered a fairly econom-
ical source of nutritive material. It must
be remembered, too, that the use of fruits,
fresh and preserved, often makes palat-
able an otherwise rather tasteless meal.
Jam with our bread is a reasonable com-

1046

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

bination, the highly flavored fruit product
whetting the appetite for the needed quan-
tity of rather flavorless bread.

Digestibility of Fruit

In addition to the dietary studies, a
large number of digestion experiments
were made at the California Experiment
Station for the purpose of learning how
thoroughly a diet made up of various com-
binations of fruits and nuts was as-
similated. In such an experiment cover-
ing ten days, made with a child seven
years old, on an average 82 per cent of
the protein, 87 per cent of the fat, 96 per
cent of the nitrogen-free extract (sugar,
starches, etc.), 80 per cent of the crude
fiber, and 54 per cent of the ash of the
food eaten were digested, and 87 per cent
of the energy of the diet was available to
the body. In 30 experiments with men,
75 per cent of the protein, 86 per cent of
the fat, 95 per cent of the nitrogen-free
extract, 79 per cent of the crude fiber,
and 55 per cent of the ash of the fruit
and nut diet were digested, and 86 per
cent of the energy was available. These
values are comparable with those obtained
from an ordinary mixed diet, as is shown
by the fact that in 93 experiments with
young men 93 per cent of the protein, 95
per cent of the fat, and 98 per cent of the
total carbohydrates supplied were assim-
ilated. The average coefficients of digest-
ibility which have been calculated for
fruits in connection with the nutrition in-
vestigations carried on under the auspices
of the Office of Experiment Stations are
protein 85 per cent, fat 90 per cent, and
carbohydrates 90 per cent, and those for
fresh vegetables, protein 83 per cent, fat
90 per cent, and carbohydrates 95 per
cent.

The feces excreted per person per day
on the fruit and nut diet in the California
experiments were less in amount than
has been the case in some experiments
with a mixed diet or a ration of bread
and milk. This is contrai'y to what has
been commonly foimd with a vegetarian
diet made up of bread and other cereal
foods, garden vegetables, etc., and con-
taining little if any fruit or nuts. The
percentage of so-called metabolic nitrogen

in the feces from the fruit and nut diet
did not exceed that reported by other in-
vestigators in tests with a bread and milk
diet. In other words, if the amount of
metabolic products can be looked upon as
a measure of the work of digestion, no
more effort is required to digest the fruit
and nuts than is needed for bread and
milk. Although, as Professor Jaffa points
out, it is undoubtedly advisable to wait un-
til more data have been obtained before
making definite statements regarding the
digestibility of fruits and nuts, enough has
been done to show that they are almost
completely digested and have a higher
nutritive value than is popularly attribut-
ed to them. In view of this it is certain-
ly an error to regard fruit as something
of value only for its pleasant fiavor or for
its hygienic or medicinal properties, or to
consider nuts simply as an accessory to
an already hearty meal. As shown by the
composition and digestibility of both fruit
and nuts, they can be favorably compared
with other and more common food.

So far as can be learned, comparatively
few investigations have been made to as-
certain the digestibility of particular
fruits, raw or cooked. In a series of in-
vestigations by Bryant and Milner the di-
gestibility of apple sauce was determined
when eaten with a simple basal ration.
The coefficients of digestibility for apple
sauce alone were calculated in the usual
way and were, protein 28 per cent, nitro-
gen-free extract 99.6 per cent, crude fiber
96 per cent, and ash 100 per cent, while
all the energy supplied by the apple sauce
was considered to be available to the body.
The coefficient of digestibility of protein
is low, but, as the authors pointed out, the
total amount of this constituent present
was so small that it may be disregarded.
This investigation, like those at the Cali-
fornia Experiment Station, indicates that
the fruit carbohydrates (sugar, starches,
etc.), that is, the principal nutritive ma-
terials which fruits supply, are very
thoroughly assimilated.

Few studies seem to have been made to
determine the ease or rapidity of digestion
of different fruits in the stomach, but a
comparison of available data indicates
that fruits compare favorably with other

FRUIT AS FOOD

1047

common foods as regards stomach di-
gestion. Apparently it is fair to say that
stomach digestion is influenced by the
nature of the fruit and its stage of ripe-
ness. Beaumont states that mellow sour
apples eaten uncooked require two hours
for digestion in the stomach and mellow
sweet apples 1.5 hours. Another observer
notes that about five ounces of raw ripe
apple requires three hours and ten min-
utes for digestion in the stomach, but
states that if the fruit is unripe, and con-
sequently contains a high proportion of
cellulose, a much longer time may be re-
quired.

Little is definitely known regarding the
relative digestion and absorption of fruits
in the intestine, but experiments indicate

that as a class ripe fruits are quite
thoroughly digested, and it is evident that,
generally speaking, fruits, like other
foods, usually remain in the intestinal
tract long enough for the body to absorb
the nutritive material present, and that
therefore the rate of intestinal digestion
would not be a matter of special impor-
tance.

Relatiye Economy of Fruits and Other
Foods
In connection with his studies of the
comparative value of fruits. Professor Jaf-
fa summarizes data regarding the cost of
nutrients and energy supplied by fruits
as compared with some other foods at cer-
tain values per pound. Some of his data
follow:

Table No. 2 — Comparatiie Cost of Total Nutrients and Energy in Fruits and Other
Food Materials at Certain Arerage Prices

Price
pound

Cost of
1 pound
protein

Cost of

1,000

calories

energy

Amounts f

IT 10 cents

Kind of Food Material

Total
weight
of food
mate-
rials

Pro-
tein

Fat

Carbo-
hy-
drates

Energy

Fresh Fruits

Apples

Bananas

Grapes

Cents
1.5
7.0
4.0
6.0
4.0
3.0
3.0
1.5
7.0
5.0
5.0
7.0
7.0

12.0
10.0
15.0
10,0
10.0

16.0
5.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
20.0

25.0

20.0

3.5

2.0

2.5
5.0
5.0
6.0
20.0
5.0
5,0
1 5

Dolls.
5.00
8.75
4.00

10.00
8.00
6.00
3.33
7.50
5.38

12.50
3.33
7.00
7.78

7.. 50
5.26
3.50
5.56
4.35

91.43
10.00
26.66
32.00
26.66
32.00
26.67
53.33
40.00
53.33
80.00
17.78
53.33
20.00
83.33

1.31

1.30

1.06

.59

.22
.54
.56

" "^22

5.56

83

Cents
7.3
23.3
11.9
35.2
25.1
11.5
8.1
25.0
25.9
23.3
18.9
27.4
40.0

8.9
6.9
10.2
8.4
6.9

13.8
5.6
12.8
13.2
10.1
37.2
12 0
12.2
13.4
10.5
13.3
47.1
45.5
53.2
128.2

22.5
22.2
10.5
11.8

1,5
4,2
4 3
3.2

11,2
3.1

71.4
4.8

Lbs.
6,67
1,43
2,50
1,67
2,50
3,33
3,33
6.67
1,43
2.00
2.00
1.43
1.43

.83
1.00

.67
1.00
1.00

.62
2.00
.62
.62
.62
.62
.62
.62
.62
.62
.62
.62
,62
,62
,50

,40

,50

2.86

5,00

4,00
2,00
2,00
1,67
,50
2,00
2.0O
6 67

Lbs.

0.02
.01
.03
.01
.01
.02
.03
.01
.02
.01
.03
.01
.01

.01
.02
.03
.02
.02

Lbs.
0.02

■ ^03

'■".oi
■■■^oi

.01

'■■'!oi

.02
.03

■■■■^os'

Lbs.
0.72
.21
.36
.14
.19
.42
.64
.18
.16
.20
.26
.18
.10

.55
.71
.50
.62
.69

.39
.94
.42
.40
.52
.14
.44
.43
.40
.51
.40
.11
.11
.09
.04

,26

3.00

1.06

1.06

.1.67

.48

1.19

.05

,98

Calories

1,467

429

837

284

398

866

1,232

Watermelons

Blackberries

Cranberries

Currants ^

400
386
430
530
365

250

Dried Fruits

Apples

Dates

1,121
1,450

Figs

Prunes

988
1,190
1,445

Jams, Preserves, Etc.

727

.01

1,780

781

752

983

267

833

812

744

952

■ 750

.01

211

220

188

Grape juice

Other Foods for Comparison

78

.07
.07
,09
,17

.46
.18
.18

.07
.07
.11
.02

.04
.03
.01

444

445

Whole milk .

925

850

Wheat flour, patent roller process, high grade and

6,600

White bread

2,430

2,360

Sugar

Candy

Beans, dried

Celery

Potatoes, 90 cents oer bushel

3,106

892

.45
.02
.12

.03

■ "!oi

3,210

140

2,068

1048

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

From the data in the foregoing table
it appears that fruits are comparatively
expensive sources of protein as compared
with flour or dried legumes, the fruit
juices being the most expensive and the
dried fruits the cheapest of the fruit prod-
ucts. Ten cents on an average will pur-
chase fully as much energy when spent
for fresh fruits and more when spent for
dried fruits than for lean meats, but much
less than when expended for wheat flour.
From the data as a whole it is apparent
that fruits are reasonably cheap sources of
energy in the diet and are well suited on
grounds of economy for combination in
reasonable quantity with cheap proteid
foods to furnish a well-balanced ration.

Cooking- and Its Effects on Fruit-
Jelly Making

As is the case with all vegetable foods,
the heat of cooking breaks down the car-
bohydrate walls of the cells which make
up the fruit flesh, either because the moist-
ure or other cell contents expands and
ruptures the walls or because the cell wall
is itself softened or dissolved. Texture,
appearance, and flavor of fruit are mater-
ially modified by cooking, and if thorough
it insures sterilization, as in the case of
all other foods. The change in texture of-
ten has a practical advantage, since it
implies the softening of the fruit flesh so
that it is more palatable and may be more
readily acted upon by the digestive juices.
This is obviously of more importance with
the fruits like the quince, which is so
hard that it is unpalatable raw, than it
is with soft fruits like strawberries.
When fruits are cooked without the ad-
dition of water or other material, as is
often the case in baking apples, there is
a loss of weight, owing to the evapora-
tion of water, and the juice as it runs
out carries some carbohydrates and
other soluble constituents with it, but
under ordinary household conditions this
does not imply waste, as the juice which
cooks out from fruit is usually eaten
as well as the pulp. Cooking in water
extracts some of the nutritive material
present. Thus, a German investigator
found that after boiling, apples and pears
contained four or five per cent and

peaches about seven per cent less carbo-
hydrates than the uncooked fruit. In
this case also such removal of nutritive
material is of no practical importance.

The idea is quite generally held that
cooking fruit changes its acid content,
acid being sometimes increased and
sometimes decreased by the cooking pro-
cess. Kelhofer* showed that when goose-
berries were cooked with sugar the acid
content was not materially changed,
these results being in accord with his
conclusions reached in earlier studies
with other fruits. The sweeter taste of
the cooked product he believed to be sim-
ply due to the fact that sugar masks the
flavor of the acid.

It is often noted that cooked fruits,
such as plums, seem much sourer than
the raw fruit, and it has been suggested
that either the acid was increased or the
sugar was decreased by the cooking pro-
cess. This problem was studied by
Sutherst,$ and in his opinion the in-
creased acid flavor is due to the fact
that cooked fruit (gooseberries, cur-
rants, plums, etc.) usually contains the
skin, which is commonly rejected if the
fruit is eaten raw. The skin is more
acid than the pulp, as was shown by
analyses of gooseberries, in which the
skin was found to contain 2.7 per cent
acid and the pulp 1.8 per cent. To de-
termine whether acid is formed when
fruit is cooked, Sutherst boiled a mix-
ture of nearly ripe gooseberries in water
for about thirty minutes and then meas-
ured the amount of acid by trituration
with sodium hydroxid solution. The
boiled portion was found to contain less
acid than the raw, probably because some
of the acid was volatile and passed off
with the steam.

As regards the effect of cooking on the
kind and amount of sugar present, un-
cooked gooseberries were found to con-
tain 1.2 per cent cane sugar and 5.8
per cent invert sugar. After boiling, no
cane sugar was found, while the invert
sugar amounted to 6.9 per cent. This

* Landw. Jahrb. Schweiz.. 19 (1905). pp.
601. 602.

} Chemistry News, 92 (1905), No. 2.S93. p.
163.

FRUIT AS FOOD

1049

Indicates that all the sugar undergoes in-
version during cooking, the acid present
bringing about the inversion in the usual
way.

When fruits or fruit juices are cooked
with sugar, the material very commonly
solidifies or jellies on cooling, and this
well-known property is taken advantage
of in jelly making. In the case of some
fruits, like the apple, the jelly-yielding
material must be extracted from the
fruit by cooking with hot water, while in
the case of other fruits — the currant, for
instance — this extraction with hot water
is not necessary, as the expressed juice
will produce a jelly. Heating the ex-
tracted or expressed juice is commonly
considered a necessary step in jelly mak-
ing, but some fruit juices will, on stand-
ing, jelly without heat, and laboratory
tests have shown that jelly may also be
obtained without the addition of sugar.
Cooking and the addition of sugar are,
however, important features in the prac-
tical consideration of jelly making, as
they have a decided effect upon the yield,
flavor, and keeping qualities of the re-
sulting product.

Some fruits, like the ordinary var-
ieties of pear, possess so little of the jel-
ly-yielding material or possess it in such
an unusual form that they do not yield
a good jelly under ordinary household
methods of treatment. The proportion
of jelly-yielding material, like other con-
stituents, varies with the stage of ma-
turity, underripe rather than overripe
fruit being best for the purpose.

The jelly-yielding bodies are known to
be carbohydrates and have been called
pectin, pectose, pectin bodies, or some
similar name. They have been commonly
grouped with the plant gums and similar
carbohydrates, and the true nature of
these materials has been the subject of a
great deal of study.* At the present time
the consensus of opinion seems to be that

* The Bureau of Chemistry of the Department
of Agriculture has reported a number of im-
portant studies on the .ielly-vielding constitu-
ents of fruit and an extended summary of
previous investigations of the chemical nature
of pectins and related questions. TJ. S. Dept.
Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
94; .Journal American Chemistry Society, 28
(190G), p. 200.

the pectins are composed of several of
the simpler carbohydrates united to
form a complex carbohydrate. In some
fruits, like the apple, where the jelly-
yielding material must be extracted with
hot water, the pectin is apparently united
with cellulose as a part of the solid pulp.
As shown by the investigations of Bige-
low and Gore at the Bureau of Chem-
istry, 40 per cent of the solid material
of apple pulp may be thus extracted with
hot water, and consists of two carbo-
hydrates, one of which is closely relat-
ed to gimi arable. That such carbo-
hydrates as these should yield a jelly is
not surprising when we remember that
they are similar to starch in their chem-
ical nature, and, as every one knows,
starch, though insoluble in cold water,
yields when cooked with hot water a
large proportion of paste which jellies on
cooling.

When fruits are used for making pies,
puddings, etc., the nutritive value of the
dish is, of course, increased by the ad-
dition of flour, sugar, etc., and the dish
as a whole may constitute a better bal-
anced food than the fruit alone. It is
commonly believed that dishes in which
fruits are cooked with the addition of
sugar, butter, and a flour crust of some
sort are less easily digested than simple
rations of bread, butter, and fruit hav-
ing an equivalent nutritive value. The
large number of digestion experiments
which have been made with various
mixed diets do not indicate that there is
any special difference between the two
rations as regards thoroughness of diges-
tion, but additional experiments must be
undertaken before it can be said with
certainty whether or not there are actual
dfferences in the ease and rapidity of
digestion.

In different countries opinions vary
markedly regarding the relative whole-
someness of raw and cooked fruit. Thus,
as has often been pointed out, the Ger-
mans use comparatively little raw fruit
and consider it far less wholesome than
cooked fruit. On the other hand, in the
United States raw fruit of good quality
is considered extremely wholesome, and

1050

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

is used in very large quantities, being as
much relished as cooked fruit, if in-
deed it is not preferred to it. It has been
suggested that the European prejudice
against raw fruit may be an unconscious
protest against insanitary methods of
marketing or handling and the recogni-
tion of cooking as a practical method of
preventing the spread of disease by fruit
accidentally soiled with fertilizers in the
fields or with street dust.

Overripe, Decayed and Unripe Fruit

Overripe fruit is often injurious, very
probably because it has begun to fer-
ment, and stale or partially decayed
fruit is obviously undesirable for food
purposes. In addition to a deterioration
in flavor there is always the possibility
of digestive disturbance if such fruit is
eaten raw. Of course, where apples are
raised or where they are bought in large
quantities for family use the thrifty
housewife will sort them over and use
for cooking the sound portions of those
which have begun to decay. In such
cases, however, the best available meth-
ods of storing should be followed and
sorting should be done at frequent inter-
vals, for if decay has proceeded very far
the flavor is without doubt injured.

If fruits could be kept unbruised and
with the skin unbroken, decay would
be much delayed, as the mold spores, rots,
etc., which cause decay, find their readi-
est entrance through broken skins. That
mechanical injuries are the principal
causes of decay was shown in a study
of citrus fruits. When the skin of an
orange or lemon is broken the blue mold
finds access to the wound, and under fav-
orable conditions of moisture and tem-
perature develops readily and causes de-
cay. An examination of hundreds of
boxes of California oranges showed that
a large percentage of all the fruit was
made susceptible to such decay by ac-
cidental injuries to the skin in packing.

It is not at all strange that decayed
fruit should have a decided characteristic
odor and fiavor when we remember that
the decay is very commonly caused by
fungi, especially molds and rots, which
penetrate the pulp and grow and develop

rapidly. The fungi live upon the cell
contents, particularly sugars and pro-
teids, and produce bodies of marked
chemical characteristics, including odor
and flavor. It is said that the most un-
pleasant effects are due to one of the com-
mon molds.

It is almost universally believed that
green fruit is unwholesome and causes
serious digestive disturbances, yet those
who have been brought up in the coun-
try know that if illness had always fol-
lowed eating it there would have been
few well children in the community in
the summer. Recognizing that green
fruit may be a cause of illness at times
and at other times apparently harmless,
two German scientists have recently car-
ried on extensive studies to ascertain the
truth of the matter. Chemical analyses
were made of fruits of varying degrees
of ripeness, and studies in which green
fruit was eaten in considerable quanti-
ties and under varying conditions were
carried on with both animals and men.
It appears from the results of the experi-
ments that although unripe fruit is un-
doubtedly often harmful, particularly for
children, the danger from such foods, espe-
cially green gooseberries, plums, pears and
apples, when eaten raw, is less than is
commonly thought, and the effects de-
pend in marked degree upon individual
peculiarities.

The green fruit was found to contain
the same chemical compounds as the ripe
fruit, though in different proportions —
that is, no chemical element was found
in the green fruit which was foreign to
the ripe fruit and which could be con-
sidered in itself a cause for illness. The
injurious effects of raw unripe fruit
therefore, it appears, do not depend upon
chemical constituents, but rather on the
unusual proportions in which the con-
stituents occur, and especially the large
percentage of hard cell tissue, which, if
imperfectly masticated, it will readily be
seen, might be a source of digestive de-
rangement. Possibly the excess of acid
in the green fruit is also a cause of di-
gestive disturbance. Cooked green fruit
was found to be practically harmless, be-

FRUIT AS FOOD— FRUIT GROWERS' UNIONS

1051

ing especially palatable and wholesome
when cooked with sugar.

The possibility of injury by bacterial
contamination was considered, though
the data available were not sufficient for
final deductions. It is now well known
that such diseases are usually caused by
micro-organisms, so possibly the green
fruit very frequently picked up beneath
the tree is only an accidental carrier of
the real cause of the digestive disturb-
ances which may follow eating it.

AREA DEVOTED TO FEUIT IN GREAT
BRITAIN

The area devoted to fruit production
was reduced in 1910 by an amount equal
to that gained in the previous year, re-
verting accordingly to the position in
1908.

The following table gives the area of
each kind of fruit for the four years
during which the particulars have been
shown separately in the returns:

1910

1909

1908

1907

Small Fruit:

Strawberries

Acres
27,451
8,840
25,530

22,488

Acres
30,064
9,257
26,106
21,689

Acres
28,815
9,323
26,241
20,501

Acres

27,827

Raspberries

8,878

Currants and Gooseberries

25,590

Other kinds (including mixed areas)

19,880

Total

84,309

87,116

84,880

82,175

Orchards:
Apples

172,031

9,636

11,597

16,397

41,012

173,168

9,475

11,474

16,777

40,442

172,751

9,604

11,868

15,683

40,391

172,643

Pears

8,911

Cherries

12,027

Plums

14.901

Other kinds (including mixed areas)

41,694

Total

250,673

251,336

250,297

250,176

Report by R. H. Rew to the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, Great Britain.

FRUIT GROWERS' UNIONS AND ASSO-
CIATIONS IN NORTHWEST
British Columbia

Armstrong Fruit Growers' Association, Arm-
strong.

Boswell-Kootenay Lalje Union, Boswell.

British Columbia Fruit Growers' Association,
Victoria.

Creston Fruit and Produce Exchange, Creston.

Grand Forks Fruit Growers' Association, Grand
Forks.

Hammond Fruit Association. Ltd., Hammond.

Hatzic Fruit Growers' Association. Hatzic.

Kaslo Horticultural Association. Kaslo.

Kelowna Farmers' Exchange, Ltd., Kelowna.

Kootenay Fruit Growers' Union. Ltd.. Nelson.

Mission Fruit Growers' Association, Mission.

Okanogan Fruit Union, Ltd., Vernon.

Queens Bay Fruit Growers' Association, Queens
Bay.

Salmon Arm Farmers' Exchange, Salmon Arm.

Summerland Fruit Growers' Association, Sum-
merland.

Victoria Fruit Growers' Exchange, Victoria.

Western Fruit Growers' Association. Mission.

California

California Farmers' T'nion. Fresno.
California Fruit Exchange. Sacramento.
California Fruit Growers' Exchange, Los

Angeles.
Fresno Fruit Growers' Company, Fresno.
Jyincoln Fruit Growers' Association, Lincoln.
Lodi Fruit Growers' Union. Lodi.
Loomls Fruit Growers' Association, Loomis.

Newcastle Fruit Growers' Association, New-
castle.

Penryn Fruit Growers' Association, Penryn.

Sebastopol Apple Growers' Union, Sebastopol.

Sebastopol Berry Growers' Union, Sebastopol.

Stanislaus Farmers' TTnion, Modesto.

The Supply Company of the California Fruit
Growers' Association, Los Angeles.

Turlock Fruit Growers' Association, Turlock.

Vacaville Fruit Growers' Association, Vacaville.

Winters Fruit Growers' Association, Winters.

Colorado

Boulder Count.y Fruit Growers' Association,
Boulder.

Capital Hill Melon Growers' Association, Rocky
Ford.

Crawford Fruit Growers' Association, Crawford.

Delta County Fruit Growers' Association, Delta.

Denver Fruit and Vegetable Association, Den-
ver.

Fair Mount Melon Growers' Association, Swink.

Fowler Melon Growers' Association, Fowler.

Fremont County Fruit Growers' Association,
Canon City.

Granada Melon Growers' Association. Granada.

Grand .Junction Fruit Growers' Association,
Clifton. Palisade, Grand .Junction.

liouns Party Cantaloup Growers' Association,
Rocky Ford.

Lamar Melon Growers' Association, Lamar.

Jjongmont Produce Exchange, Tvongmont.

Jjoveland Fruit Growers' Association. I^oveland.

Manzanola Fruit Association, Manzanola.

Manzanola Orchard Association, Manzanola.

Montrose Fruit and Produce Association, Mont-
rose.

Newdale Melon Growers' Association, Swink.

1052

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Colorado — Continued

Palisade Fruit Growers' Association, Palisade.

Paonia Fruit Exchanse, Paonia.

Pent County Melon Growers' Association, Las
Animas.

Produce Association, Debeque.

Rifle Fruit and Produce Association. Rifle.

Roaring Fork Potato Growers' Association, Car-
bondale.

Rocky Ford Melon Growers' Association, Rocky
Ford.

San Juan Fruit and Produce Growers' Asso-
ciation, Duranffo.

The Producers' Association, Debeque.

Western Slope Fruit Growers' Association. Pal-
isade.

Idaho

Boise Valley Fruit Growers' Association, Boise.
Caldwell Fruit Growers' Association, Caldwell.
Council Valley Fruit Growers' Association,

Council.
Emmett Fruit Growers' Association, Emmett.
Fruit Growers' Association. Moscow.
Lewiston Orchards Assembly, Lewiston.
Lewiston Orchards Association, Lewiston.
Nampa Fruit Growers' Association, Nampa.
New Plymouth Fruit Growers' Association, New

Plymouth.
Parma-Roswell Fruit Growers' Association,

Parma.
Payette Valley Apple Growers' Union, Payette.
Southern Idaho Fruit Shippers' Association,

Boise.
Twin Falls Fruit Growers' Association, Twin

Falls.
Weiser Fruit and Produce Growers' Associa-
tion, Weiser.
Weiser River Fruit Growers' Association,

Weiser.

M^ontana

Bitter Root Fruit Growers' Association. Hamil-
ton.

Missoula Fruit and Produce Association, Mis-
soula.

Woodside Fruit Growers' Association, Wood-
side.

New Mexico

San Juan Fruit and Produce Association,
Farmingrton.

Oregon

Albany Fruit Growers' Union, Albany.

Ashland Fruit and Produce Association, Ash-
land.

Benton County Fruit Growers' Association,
Corvallis.

Brownsville Fruit and Produce Association,
Brownsville.

Coos Bay Fruit Growers' Association, Marsh-
field.

Conuille Valley Fruit Growers' LTnion, Myrtle
Point.

Cove Fruit Growers' Association, Cove.

Dallas Fruit Growers' Association, Dallas.

Douglas County Fruit Growers' Association,
Roseburg.

Dufur Valley Fruit Growers' Union, Dufur.

Dundee Fruit Growers' Association, Dundee.

Estacada Fruit Growers' Association. Estacada.

Eugene Fruit Growers' Association, Eugene.

Hood River Apple Growers' Union, Hood River.

Hyland Fruit Growers of Yamhill County,
Sheridan.

Imbler Fruit Growers' Union, Imbler.

La Grande Fruit Association, La Grande.

Lincoln County Fruit Growers' Union. Toledo.

McMinnville Fruit Growers' Association, Mc-
Minnville.

Milton Fruit Growers' Union, Milton.

Mosier Fruit Growers' Association, Mosier.

Mount Hood Fruit Growers' Association. Sandy.

Newburg Apple Growers' Association. Newburg.

Northwestern Fruit Exchange, 418 Spalding
Building. Portland.

Northeast Gaston Farmers" Association, Forest
Grove.

Oregon City Fruit and Produce Association.

Oregon City.
Rogue River Fruit and Produce Association,

Medford.
Salem Fruit Union. Salem.

Santiam Fruit Growers' Association, Lebanon.
Springbrook Fruit Growers' Union, Springbrook.
Stanfield Fruit Growers' Association, Stanfleld.
Sutherlin Fruit Growers' Association, Suther-

lin.
The Dalles Fruit Growers' Union, The Dalles.
Umpqua Valley Fruit Growers' Association.

Roseburg.
Washington County Fruit Growers' Association,

Hillsboro.
Willamette Valley Prune Association, Salem.

Utah

Bear River Valley Fruit Growers' Association,
Bear River City.

Brigham City Fruit Growers' Association,
Brigham City.

Cache Valley Fruit Growers' Association, Wells-
ville.

Centerville Fruit Growers' Association, Center-
ville.

Excelsior Fruit and Produce Association, Clear-
field (post office Layton R. F. D.)

Farmers & Fruit Growers' Forwarding Associa-
tion. Centerville.

Green River Fruit Growers' Association, Green
River.

Ogden Fruit Growers' Association, Ogden.

Springville Fruit Growers' Association, Spring-
ville.

Utah County Fruit and Produce Association.
Provo.

Willard Fruit Growers' Association, Willard.

Washington

Apple Growers' Union of White Salmon, LTn-
derwood.

Bay Island Fruit Growers' Association, Tacoma.

Brewster Fruit Growers' Union, Brewster.

Buckley Fruit Growers' Association, Buckley.

Cashmere Fruit Growers' Union, Cashmere.

Clarkston Fruit Growers' Association. Clark-
ston.

Cowlitz Fruit and Produce Association. Kelso.

Dr.yden Fruit Growers' Union, Dryden.

Elma Fruit and Produce Association, Elma.

Felida Prune Growers' Association, Vancouver.

Garfield Fruit Growers' Union. Garfield.

Goldendale Fruit and Produce Association,
Goldendale.

Grandview Fruit Growers' Association, Grand-
view.

Granger Fruit Growers' Association, Granger.

Kalama Fruit Growers' Associati'^n, Kalama.

Kennewick Fruit Growers' Association, Kenne-
wick.

Kiona Fruit Growers' Union, Kiona.

Lake Chelan Fruit Growers' Association. Che-
lan.

Lewis County Fruit Growers' Association. Cen-
tralia.

Lewis River Fruit Growers' Union, Woodland.

Mason County Fruit Growers' Association, Shel-
ton.

Mount Vernon Fruit Growers' Association.
Mount Vernon.

North Pacific Fruit Distributors. Spokane.

Northwestern Fruit Exchange. 510 Chamber of
Commerce Building, Spokane.

Peshastin Fruit Growers' Association, Peshas-
tin.

Pullman Fruit Growers' Association. Pullman.

Puyallup and Sumner Fruit Growers' Associa-
tion, Puvallup.

Spokane County Horticultural Society, Spo-
kane.

Spokane District Fruit Growers' Association,
Spokane.

Spokane Inland Fruit Growers' Association,
Keisling.

Spokane Valley Fruit Growers' Co., Otis Or-
chards.

Spokane Valley Growers' Union, Spokane.

FRUITS— PREPARING FOR MARKET

1053

Wasliingtoii — Continued

Southwest Washington Fruit Growers' Associ-

aticn, Chehalis.
Stevens County Fruit Growers' Union, Myers

Fal'=;
The Green Bluffs Fruit Growers' Association,

Mead.
The Ridgefleld Fruit Growers' Association,

Ridgefleld.
The Touchet Valley Fruit and Produce Union,

Dayton.
Thurston County Fruit Growers' Union, Tum-

water.
Vashon Fruit Union, Vashon.
Walla Walla Fruit and Vegetable Union, Walla

Walla.
Wenatchee District Fruit Growers' Union, We-

natchee.
Wenatchee Valley Fruit Growers' Association,

Wenatchee.
White River Valley Fruit and Berry Growers'

Association. Kent.
White Salmon Fruit Growers' Union. White

Salmon.
Yakima Valley Fruit Growers' Association,

North Yakima.
Yakima Valley Fruit and Produce Growers'

Association. Granger.
Yakima County Horticultural Union, North

Yakima.
Zillah Fruit Growers' Association, Toppenish.
— Better Fruit, January, 1913.

FRriT Growers' Association, Yakima.
See Marketing.

Fruit Marks Act, Canadian. See
Laivs.

Fruit Merchandising, Economics of.
See Marketing.

PREPARING FRUITS FOR MARKET

Rules for picking, sorting, packing of
various fruits in use by the Yakima Val-
ley Fruit Growers' Association:

Compiled by Charles L. Hamilton.

Picking

1. Care should be used by pickers not
to break off the fruit buds for the follow-
ing year.

2. Never allow the orchard boxes fill-
ed with fruit to stand in the sun.

3. Where possible, pick fruit during
the coolest part of day.

4. Picking at proper time is just as
important as any other part of the work.

(a) Fruit picked too early is usually
unfit for food.

(b) Fruit picked too late is usually
too ripe for shipment, as in the case of
overripe peaches, cots, prunes, plums,
etc.

(c) Apples picked after heavy frost do
not hold up well.

(d) Rain on fruit that is maturing in-
jures the keeping quality.

(1) In the case of yellow peaches
causes them to ripen without showing

proper amount of yellow color and often
causes them to turn black at pit.

(2) Cherries, plums, prunes and cots
will ripen and start to decay soon after
packing where rain comes at time fruit
is almost ready to move.

(3) Pears are affected in the same
way as cherries, plums, prunes, etc., but
will hold up longer.

(4) Apples that receive heavy rains
when maturing will not hold up as long
as they would under proper climatic con-
ditions.

5. Care should be exercised in picking
the different kinds of fruit so the mar-
ketable qualities will not be injured.

(a) CHERRIES:

(1) Cherries should be carefully pick-
ed from tree so as to secure part or all
of stem.

(2) When picking cherries, all blem-
ished, misshapen, stemless or green fruit
should be thrown out by pickers.

(3) Pick into small buckets and pour
gently into orchard boxes.

(4) Boxes should not be filled over six
inches deep and should never be allowed
to stand in sun.

(b) PRUNES AND PLUMS:

(1) Care should be taken by pickers
to pick fruit with stems intact.

(2) Pickers should be very careful in
picking not to brush off the bloom.

(3) Gloves should not be used in the
handling of prunes and plums.

(4) Prunes and plums should be hard
ripe for picking, fruit should contain
some sugar and be matured enough so
it will continue ripening and have a good
flavor.

(5) Wherever possible, pack directly
out of picking buckets. (Saves handling,
protects the bloom).

(c) PEACHES:

(1) Peaches should be hard ripe for
picking.

(a) White peaches should be in such a
condition that they will have lost that
deep green cast and show light green or
silvery white and be filled out.

(6) Yellow peaches, when in condition
to pick, should have lost the deep green
cast and should show a golden yellow on

1054

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the sunny side. They should be well fill-
ed out.

(2) Peaches should be laid in basket
or bucket, never allowed to drop.

(3) Pickers should throw away all
blemished or misshapen fruit.

(4) Baskets or buckets filled with
fruit should be hauled from orchard to
packing house in a wagon that has a good
set of springs.

(5) Peach trees should be picked over
from three to five times during season.

(d) APRICOTS AND YAKIMINES:
(1) Should be hard ripe for picking.

(a) Should show yellow over most of
specimen.

(b) Should be matured enough so that
it will continue ripening and have a good
flavor.

(c) Wherever possible pack directly
from picking basket or bucket.

(d) Where necessary to haul loose fruit
in orchard boxes care should be taken in
pouring from pail into boxes.

(1) Place bucket in box, place hand on
fruit, tip bucket and allow fruit to roll
out gently.

(2) Boxes should not be filled over six
inches deep.

(e) PEARS:

(1) Care should be taken not to pick
fruit before it is in condition to ripen.

(2) Should be green for shipment.

(3) Large growing varieties, such as
Bartletts, Flemish Beauties, Clapps Fav-
orite, etc., should be 2^ inches in diam-
eter, or larger.

(a) The first picking of Bartletts, Flem-
ish Beauties, Clapps Favorites, etc., from
young trees, should be 2^^ inches in diam-
eter, and from the older trees that are
heavily loaded 214 inches.

(4) Pickers should be very careful in
picking to secure the stem of pear in-
tact; by lifting up and out with a light
side twist on pear, it will come off spur
easily without breaking stem.

(5) Pears should never be poured
from bucket into orchard box, but trans-
ferred by hand.

(f) APPLFS:

(1) Apples should be carefully picked
and handled.

(a) Care should be used by picker to
secure stem of apple intact.

(/) By lifting up and out with a light
side twist, apple will come off spur easi-
ly and without pulling out stem.

(2) Lay apple in picking basket, do not
drop. Every apple dropped bruises two
or more. Bruised apples are unmarket-
able.

(2) Large apples should be transferred
from picking bucket to orchard box by
hand.

(3) Small apples may be carefully
poured from bucket into box. Place
bucket in box, tip slowly, holding hand
over top of bucket, allow apples to roll
out gently.

(4) Apples should not be picked when
frosty.

(5) Windfalls, if picked up, should
never be mixed with the good fruit.

(a) If grower wishes to have windfalls
handled, he should first store them away
for two or three weeks so that bruises
will have a chance to show up.

(b) It is impossible to sort windfalls
right if direct from orchard.

Sorting

1— GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:

Sorters should study the rules carefully
until thoroughly familiar with them, for
on them, next to the packers, rests the
responsibility for proper grades, and care-
ful work on their part will make it pos-
sible for the packer to put up a good box
of fruit.

Packers should be equally familiar with
grading rules and should not place abso-
lute dependence upon the work of the
sorter. They should look for and lay out
the off grade fruit which will sometimes
be passed by the very best sorter; on the
packer who is the last to see the fruit be-
fore it is wrapped and packed in box liea
the ultimate responsibility for the proper
grade and pack.
2— APPLES:

*(a) Apples should be sorted from or-
chard boxes into four boxes where the
three grades. Extra Fancy, Fancy and C
grade, are made; only three boxes will be

* See article on Packing: under Apples.

FRUITS— PREPARING FOR MARKET

1055

necessary where C grades are not packed.
Place the box for the Extra Fancy on
the right hand side of the orchard box,
box for Fancy on left of orchard box, and
where C grade are packed, place a box
for them on the left of the box for Fancy,
place a cull box on the floor.

(b) Care should be taken by the sort-
er to mark the grade on each box in such
a way that marks will not show when
boxes are used for packing and are nail-
ed up.

(c) In sorting, apples should be LAID
in the box, not DROPPED.

(d) If one end of the box is filled full
of fruit and apples allowed to roll from
that end to the other, punctured apples
and bruises will be the result.

(e) Where apples are packed into the
single grade to be known as Fancy, only
two boxes are necessary, one on the right
of the orchard box for the Fancy, and one
on the floor for the culls. If C grades
are to be packed another box to contain
them should be placed on left of orchard
box.

3— PEARS :

The apple suggestions apply also to
pears.

4— PEACHES, APRICOTS, PRUNES,
PLUMS, CHERRIES, ETC.:
Sorting out of inferior fruit should be
done by pickers in the orchard when pick-
ing, and by the packers when packing.

Packing

1. Proper packing is just as important
as proper sorting, for a good neat pack
helps sell the fruit. Observe these two
rules carefully:

(a) Wrap fruit neatly.

(b) Do not mix sizes; failure will
mean an unattractive package, which will
injure the sale of the fruit. There should
be little variation in the sizes of the pack-
ed box because the use of different sized
specimens makes it impossible to keep all
the spaces the same size, consequently the
packer loses the alignment and is in dan-
ger of changing the pack.

2— CHERRIES— 10-lb. Boxes:

(a) In making box, top should be nail-
ed on, bottom left off.

(b) Box should be placed before pack-
er with open bottom up.

(c) Carefully pack the bottom tier,
which will be the top when pack is com-
pleted.

(d) In packing the first tier, care
should be taken by the packer to place
the flattest side of the cherry next to the
board.

(e) Two boxes should be used. While
filling in the first box that has been faced,
pick out proper sized fruit to face second
box.

(f) Use only the square pack, never a
broken one.

(g) Both ends of box must be packed
alike.

(h) Keep all stems on first two tiers
up, and all stems down on the bottom
which will be the top of the box to the
packer.

(i) See that the corners are well filled.

(j) After box is nailed up there should
be no stems showing. Edges of the box
where cherries are exposed should pres-
ent a packed appearance.

(k) Nailers should be very careful
when lidding up not to cut or mash any
of the fruit; all such cherries should be
removed and replaced with good fruit.
3— CHERRIES in 20-lb or 25-lb. Boxes:

Follow same instructions when packing
either 20-lb. or 25-lb. boxes as those given
for 10-lb. except that two tiers should be
packed instead of one.
4— CHERRIES— Strawberry Crates:

Where strawberry crates or Four Hal-
lock Carriers are used for packing cher-
ries, hallocks should be well filled, shaken
down and topped or faced so they will be
rounding full. There should be no stems
showing. Use square pack.
5— APRICOTS, YAKIMINES, and all the

larger varieties of PRUNES and

PLUMS, and all such fruit:

(a) Should be packed in four basket
prune crates, unless special order is given
to put them up otherwise.

(b) Pick as large a percentage as pos-
sible with stems on; throw out all stem-
less fruit where skin is broken or torn.

(c) Fruit too small to pack 6x6 should
never be packed in prune crates and

1056

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

should only be shipped in 4-inch peach
baskets where special order is given.

(d) Wherever possible use square
pack.

(e) Size of crate 4i{.xl6xl7%, except
for extreme sizes, then increase or dimin-
ish depth only.

(f) Care should be used by the packer
in placing the paper in the basket. Crate
should be placed on packing table with
slatted side toward the packer; after four
baskets are fitted into the crate, they
should have the paper fitted into them in
such a way as to cover half the bottom of
each basket, allowing the remaining pa-
per to lap over the slatted sides of the
crate; after first tier is packed in basket
fold paper over it and pack second tier
which in turn should be covered by the
paper, and the third or last tier packed,
after which the remaining paper should
be folded over the top.

(g) Pack all Italians and Tragedies
three tiers, stem end down; pack top tier
with creased sides lined up.

(h) Varieties that will go 4x4 in a
square pack, or larger, may be packed
two tiers; Hungarians, Bradshaws, Peach
Plums and similar varieties smaller than
5x5 should not be packed.
6— CRAB APPLES:

(a) Crab apples should be shipped in
apple boxes only, unless otherwise spec-
ified.

(b) Double line the boxes and fill in.

(c) Care should be taken by those fill-
ing in boxes to keep out all imperfect
fruit; boxes, after being well shaken down
and nailed up, should have from one to
one and a half inch bulge, counting top
and bottom.

(d) Never mix varieties.
7— PEACHES:

fa) Pack direct from picking pail or
basket into three or more boxes if the
fruit does not run uniform in size.

(b) The folded ends of the paper on
wrapped peach should go down, as a
cushion for the fruit to rest on.

(c) In packing, the boxes should rest
on an incline with the lower end to the
packer. The peaches in the top tier should
rest in the spaces between the peaches

in the lower tier, so that no peach will
rest squarely on top of another.

(d) In packing the larger sizes, both
tiers should be carried forward together
so as to regulate the height of the pack.

(e) The stem of the peach should
always be packed down.

(f) Each box should show a bulge not
to exceed three-eighths of an inch.

(g) The packed box should never be
accepted by warehouse where the fruit is
loose and the box rattles.

(h) All peaches that go five across the
end of the box or smaller should be pack-
ed in a 3x3 pack. Those larger than five
across the end of box should be packed
three by two.

(1) 3x3 Pack. Place first peach in
lower left hand corner, the other two to
be so placed that the space between the
first and second and second and third will
be the same size as that between the low-
er right hand corner of box and the third
peach. Place the next three peaches in
the spaces formed by the placing of the
first three, continuing the pack in the
same manner until the tier is finished, al-
ways taking pains to see that the spaces
are the same size and the alignment of
the fruit is perfect. In starting the sec-
ond tier begin on the opposite side of
the box and pack directly over the spaces
formed by packing of the first tier.

(2) 2x3 Pack. Start the box with the
two and then the three. Place the first
two peaches so that the spacing between
the peaches and the two corners of the
box will be the same as that between the
peaches. Place the three peaches in the
spaces provided by the placing of the first
two. Continue the pack in the same man-
ner, remembering always to keep the
spaces the same size and alignment per-
fect. Pack the second tier directly over
the spaces formed by the packing of the
first tier.

8— PEARS:

(a) Two or more boxes should be used
in packing pears.

(b) Always pack direct from box into
which fruit has been sorted, never from a
canvas table.

FRUITS— PREPARING FOR MARKET

1057

(c) Bartletts and Flemish Beauties
should weigh, when packed and nailed up,
fifty-two pounds. A variation of from
fifty-one to fifty-three pounds is permis-
sible if pack is good.

(d) The Clapps Favorite, which is a
lighter pear, should weigh, when nailed
up, from forty-nine to fifty-one pounds;
nothing under forty-nine pounds should
be accepted by nailer. Those over fifty-
one and not to exceed fifty-two pounds
may be accepted if pack is good and
lid will go on without cutting or mash-
ing fruit.

(e) Buerre de Anjous and Cornice
should weigh from forty-eight to fifty
pounds.

(f) Winter Nelis should be packed
five tier deep, never six. The smaller
sizes will be light, often not over forty-
six pounds, but are acceptable if the pack
is tight.

(g) The weight of the packed box
should be regulated by the firmness with
which pears are placed in the tier.

(h) The large 3x2s and 3x3s should
be packed loosely, while the smaller sizes
should be packed tightly. All 4x3 packs
should be tight.

(i) Care should be taken by nailer not
to cut or crush any of the fruit along the
edges of the box; all such fruit should
be removed and replaced by good pears.

(j) The proper way to place pears in
the box: In starting the tiers of any pear
pack, the first row along the end of the
box should be laid with the blossom end
of fruit toward the end of box, and with
the stem pointing directly away from the
packer and slightly down; the remain-
ing pears of each tier should be so placed
that the stem will be pointing directly
toward the packer and slightly up.

(k) Never line pear boxes.

(1) The first tier should always be
packed with the smooth wrap of the pa-
per down, that is, the bottom of the box
should always be faced so that the nailed
up box will present a neat appearance.

(m) The 3x2 pack, 3x3 and the 4x3
should be used in the packing of pears.

*(1) The 3x2 pear pack. All 3x2 packs
should be four tiers deep. Start the pack
with three pears, placing them in the
lower end of box in such a way that
there will be one in each corner and one
in the center. Place the next two in the
spaces provided by the packing of the
first three, continue pack in the same man-
ner until the tier is finished, remember-
ing always to keep spaces the same size
and the alignment perfect. Pack second
tier over first tier spaces, third tier over
second tier spaces, and fourth tier over
third tier spaces.

(2) The 3x3 pear pack. This pack
should always be five tiers deep. In start-
ing the 3x3 pack, place the first pear in
lower left hand corner of box, the other
two to be so placed that the distance
will be the same between the first and
second and the second and third as
that between the third pear and the low-
er right hand corner of box. The next
three pears are placed in the spaces pro-
vided by the placing of the first three,
and continue the pack in the same man-
ner until the tier is finished, remember-
ing always to keep the spaces the same
size and the alignment perfect. The sec-
ond tier is to be packed over the first
tier spaces, the third over the second tier
spaces, the fourth over the third tier
spaces, and the fifth or last tier over the
fourth tier spaces.

(3) The 4x3 pear pack, This pack
should always be five tiers deep. In
starting the 4x3 pack, place a pear in
each of the two lower corners, the next
two to be so placed that the spaces be-
tween the two corner pears and the two
inner pears will be the same size as the
space between the two center pears. Place
the three pears in the spaces provided by
the placing of the first four. Continue to
pack in the same manner until the tier is
finished, remembering always to keep the
spaces the same size and the alignment of
the fruit perfect. Pack the second tier
over first tier spaces, third over second
tier spaces, fourth over third tier spaces,
and fifth over fourth tier spaces.

* See rackinsc under Apples.

2—26

1058

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

9— APPLES:

(a) From two to five boxes should be
used when packing apples.

(b) Always pack direct from orchard
or peach box into which apples have been
sorted, never from a canvas table.

(c) A box should be placed in a con-
venient position to receive the odd sized
apples, for which no box has been started.
There are 20 or more different apple packs
so it will readily be seen that all the dif-
ferent sizes cannot be packed at one time.

(d) All apples should be packed on
cheek with the stem directly from the
packer. Never allow the apples to slip
sideways, as that brings the stem of one
apple in contact with the side of another,
often causing punctures; it also fills up
the spaces and changes the alignment of
fruit.

(e) To regulate the height of apples
on end of box, place the end apples in the
box in such a manner that the shortest
diameter from cheek to cheek will come
directly up and down; after packing the
first two rows next to end of box in such
a manner, apples may be turned so the
greatest diameter from cheek to cheek
will be up and down. If packed in this
way, the box when finished will have a
good bulge and the ends will not be too
high.

(f) A bulge of from one to one and a
half inches on all packed boxes, counting
top and bottom, is required.

(g) Loose packed boxes, as well* as
those that are too high, should not be
received at warehouse except for a re-
pack.

(h) Apple Packs— 2x1, 2x2, 3x2 and 5
tier straight.

(1) The 2x1 pack takes care of all
those apples that are larger than three
across the end of box. Pack should be
three tiers deep. Start the box with the
two, one in each lower corner of box next
to packer. Place the one in the space
between the two corner apples; then place
next two in the spaces on either side of
the one. Continue pack until tier is fin-
ished, always remembering to keep stems
directly from packer, spaces same size.

apple on cheek, the alignment perfect,
and the apples in their tier firmly held in
place by the pack. The second tier is to
be packed over the first tier spaces and
the third over the second tier spaces.

(2) The 2x2 pack takes care of all ap-
ples larger than four across the end of
box and those that are just large enough
to go three across the end. They should
always be four tiers deep.

Place first apple in lower left hand cor-
ner of box, the next to be so placed that
the space between it and the first apple
and the space between it and the lower
right hand corner of the box will be the
same size. The next two apples to be
placed in the spaces provided by the plac-
ing of the first two; continue pack in the
same manner until tier is finished, al-
ways remembering to keep stems direct-
ly from the packer; spaces the same size,
apples on cheek, the alignment perfect
and the apples in the tier firmly held in
place by the pack. The second tier
should be placed over first tier spaces, the
third over second tier spaces, and the
fourth over third tier spaces.

(3) The 3x2 pack takes care of those
apples larger than five across the end of
box and up to and including those that
will just go four across the end.

Place first three apples in the lower end
of box next to packer in such a manner
that there will be one in each corner of
box and one in center. The next two to
be placed in spaces provided by the plac-
ing of the first three. Continue the pack
in the same manner, always remember-
ing to keep the stems directly from pack-
er, apples on cheek, spaces the same size,
the alignment perfect, and the apples in
the tier held firmly in place by the pack.
The second tier should be packed over the
first tier spaces; the third over second
tier spaces; the fourth over third tier
spaces, and the fifth or last tier over
fourth tier spaces.

(4) The five tier straight pack takes
care of all those apples that are just large
enough to pack five across the end of box.
It is the only apple pack to be used where
one apple rests squarely on top of another
apple.

FRUITS— SETTING AND DROPPING

1059

10— NAILING UP:

(a) The nailer should be thoroughly
familiar with the rules because he is the
last person to handle the box before the
lid is nailed on. It should be his place
to turn back to the packer those boxes
that are not properly packed; those that
are too high or too low, or those in
which pack has been changed. He should
also be able to tell whether the sizes are
mixed and if so send them back for a
repack. Unattractive packs, that is, those
in which the fruit has been poorly
wrapped, should not be accepted by him.

(b) Care should be taken by the
nailer not to injure the fruit in the pack-
box by the manner in which he nails it
up.

11— TIERING ON RANCH:

(a) Wherever possible the nailer
should stack the nailed up boxes away in
such a manner that each size, grade and
variety will be separate.

(b) The 10-lb. cherry boxes should be
stacked with top down.

(c) Apples and pears should always
be stacked on side with all the markings
one way.

(d) Prune crates, strawberry crates
and peach boxes should always be stack-
ed so that the weight comes on the
cleats; all stamped ends should be one
way in stack.

12— HAULING INTO WAREHOUSE:

In loading wagon with fruit to be tak-
en to warehouse or to a car, each load
should contain boxes of the same size,
grade and variety as far as possible; that
is, do not mix sizes, grades and varieties
in a load if a load can be made up other-
wise.

There are certain places in the ware-
house marked off for each variety, each
size and each grade. If in making de-
liveries to the warehouse two or more
varieties, two or three grades of each
variety, and six or ten sizes of each
grade are made in the same load, there
can be only a few boxes to go into each
stack. Consequently when fruit is load-
ed into car, only a few boxes of that one
load can be run into it, and when returns
are made on fruit it will be found that

the one load may be divided into eight,
ten or even more parts and sent out in
that many different shipments.

SETTING AlVD DROPPIIVG OF FRUITS

One of the discouragements in fruit
growing is the uncertainty which attends
the formation and development of fruit
buds. Failure to set fruit even though
the trees bear an abundance of blossoms,
the dropping of immature fruits, the
biennial bearing habit of certain apples
and unfavorable weather at blooming
time, are common and seemingly unpre-
ventable drawbacks to profitable fruit
growing. The Biblical injunction "to
dig about and dung the trees" may be
obeyed both literally and figuratively and
yet the trees may fail to blossom, or to
set a crop, or the fruit drops, or wind,
rain, cold or frost may destroy the em-
bryonic fruits. Indeed, seemingly, the
better the culture, the greater the retro-
gression in sexual reproduction, and the
forces set in motion by the cultivator in
no way nullify the effects of bad weath-
er.

Roughly the above problems fall under
two heads: First, those having to do
with the formation of fruit buds; sec-
ond, those having to do with the devel-
opment of the buds.

Controlling Frnit Buds

Can the fruit grower influence the
formation of buds? Though he cannot
wholly control the formation of buds,
he can at least greatly influence their
formation. We may lay down as the first
principle having to do with the formation
of fruit buds, one founded on the exper-
ience of fruit growers with practically
every fruit: that plants develop fruit
buds only where there is a store of food
materials in twigs and branches. An-
other statement to much the same effect
is that plants will not form fruit buds
when the food material is being largely
used in the production of new wood and
new leaves.

Many facts and horticultural practices
substantiate the statements just made.
Thus, trees unduly luxuriant in growth
do not set fruit; plants without sufficient
food for both wood and fruit bearing do

1060

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

not as a rule produce fruit; in warm,
damp climates trees and vines grow to
great size and with much foliage but bear
little or no fruit; pruning, which is fav-
orable to wood growth, is antagonistic to
fruit production. Plants that are pro-
ducing too much wood and foliage and
too little fruit may be subjected to sev-
eral treatments to induce them to bear
fruit.

Water Supply
Regulation of the water supply some-
times induces the formation of fruit buds.
In the irrigated regions of the West,
vegetative growth may be stopped by
withholding water and the setting of fruit
buds thus be materially influenced. It
is a matter of common observation every-
where that a dry season is more con-
ducive to the formation of fruit buds
for the ensuing season's crop than a wet
one. The water supply in unirrigated
regions may be regulated only through
drainage, but fortunately drainage may
often be made an important means of in-
ducing early fruitfulness and a fruit-bear-
ing habit. Other things being equal, trees
on wet, sodden soils do not bear fruit
early in life and do not set fruit regu-
larly and in proper quantities. Under
such conditions there is insufficient food
for either wood or fruit production. The
remedy is obvious and the subject needs
no further discussion.

Light

Much can be done in securing the proper
formation of fruit buds by giving the
trees an abundance of light. The outside
row in an orchard, where the trees have
most light, usually bears the most fruit.
It is true that these isolated trees have
more food and moisture as well as more
light and because of these two factors,
also, many buds set. Yet light must be
counted as important and is to be secured
by proper spacing and by developing
open-headed, well pruned trees.

Food Supply

The food supply has much to do with
the formation of fruit buds and probably
the most rational procedure under average
orchard conditions to induce fruit bearing
is to regulate the supply of food. With

the widely varying conditions of differ-
ent orchards, this is not easily done. It
does not appear from any information
th^t we now have that there is a storage
of particular food for fruit buds and of
other food for wood growth, but rather
that stored food is quite as available for
one sort of growth as for the other, yet
it is generally supposed that the kind of
food given plants influences the amount
stored and consequently, the number of
fruit buds formed or the amount of
growth made.

Briefly, the behavior of foods upon
manner of plant growth is supposed to
be this: An abundance of food, especial-
ly if it contains nitrogen, and if at the
same time there be a plentiful supply of
water, is most favorable to the formation
and growth of cells, hence of wood and
leaf growth. If the amount of food be
decreased, and more particularly if the
nitrogen as compared with the potash and
phosphate be decreased, and especially if
there be an increase of light and air,
wood growth is lessened and the number
of fruit buds is materially increased.

Sometimes the excess of food and
moisture is already in the soil and the
problem then is to reduce the quantities
and so bring on fruit-bud formation. The
orthodox method of reducing the quanti-
ty of plant food and soil moisture is to
sow a grain crop in the orchard. The
trees under such treatment cease to make
wood growth and use the assimilated
substances in the making of fruit buds.
This procedure, it should be said at once,
is seldom necessary.

The fact that leaf and wood growth
and fruit bearing in plants are opposed
to each other is well recognized by fruit
growers; but the knowledge is quite too
often wrongly used, exemplifying again
that "a little learning is a dangerous
thing." Thus, to bring trees into bearing
is often the owner's excuse for double-
cropping orchards, putting an orchard
down to sod and withholding proper cul-
tivation.

Pruning

Pruning often materially aids in caus-
ing the storing of plant food for the

FRUITS— SETTING AND DROPPING

1061

formation of fruit buds. One of the gen-
eral aims of pruning is to regulate the
crop of fruit by removing parts of the
plant that those remaining may store the
necessary food. The theory of pruning
to cause formation of fruit buds is sim-
ple but the practice is not so simple. The
effects of pruning are so varied under dif-
ferent conditions that it is exceedingly
difficult to give directions as to its use
in influencing the setting of buds.

Heading-in may sometimes be used to
advantage in pruning for fruit. It con-
sists in cutting back young, unbranching
shoots which set few or no fruit buds.
Heading-in is a necessity with dwarf
trees. Practice differs as to whether the
operation should be performed in sum-
mer or winter but it is usually performed
in summer and is then spoken of as sum-
mer pruning. Heading-in greatly thick-
ens the top, thereby excluding light, and
must be practiced very judiciously or
more harm than good is done.

Summer Pruning

Summer pruning is rather commonly
used to influence the formation of fruit
buds for the succeeding season. The
theory is that by removing a part of the
young shoots of the current season, we
take from the trees the portions which
are making the greatest demands on the
plant's nutritive powers and that the re-
maining parts of the shoots with their
buds are enabled to store up greater
quantities of reserve food than they oth-
erwise could. This summer heading-in
should be done before growth ceases. So
much, however, depends upon several
varying factors that no fixed rule can be
given as to time; thus, much depends
upon the fruit, the varieties, soil, climate,
weather and the amount of growth.

Summer pruning is a weakening pro-
cess and may permanently injure a tree
in our climate. With standard trees it
is only of advantage in moderation in
eastern North America and as usually
practiced more often results in evil than
in good. Summer pruning is of more
value in the early life of the tree than
later on. Summer pruning as means of
inducing fruitfulness is greatly overesti-

mated under American conditions and be-
longs more properly to the elaborate sys-
tems of pruning and training practiced
by Europeans.

Ringing

Those who do not find pruning a suf-
ficiently drastic method of checking wood
growth to augment fruitfulness may re-
sort to the removal of a ring of bark
from the trunk of the tree. In rather ex-
tensive experience on the grounds of this
station, we have found ringing of some
use with the apple. Our practice is to
remove a ring of bark from one-half to
one inch wide from young apple trees at
the period when the trees are making
the greatest growth, usually about the
middle of June. If the ringing is done
earlier in the season or later in the sea-
son than June, injury is certain to re-
sult. Should it be done when the growth
is being checked by drought, injury
would also result.

The theory upon which ringing is
based is simple. Crude sap passes from
the roots to the leaves through the out-
er layer of wood. In the leaves this crude
material is acted upon by various
agencies and transformed into food sub-
stances. This accumulated material
passes downward through the inner bark
to be distributed throughout the plant
where needed. When trees are ringed the
flow of sap upward through the wood con-
tinues as before the operation, but the
newly made food-substance can not pass
below the girdle and, therefore, accumu-
lates above and is used for the formation
of fruit buds, though at the expense of
other parts of the plant.

Heredity

Is heredity a factor in bud formation?
Can the fruit-bearing habit be passed
down from one tree generation to an-
other? Can the habit be augmented and
intensified by selection? Individuals in
an orchard vary as to time of coming in-
to bearing, regularity of bearing and num-
ber of buds formed in any season. But
it has not been proved that buds chosen
from the trees best in these respects
would produce trees that are early bear-
ers, or more regular in bearing or more

1062

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

fruitful. The present trend of science is
against such a possibility. Even were it
possible, there are a number of practical
drawbacks.

Thus, from tree generation to tree gen-
eration constitutes a period of time too
long for most men to bend their efforts,
especially with that clear conception of
exactly what is wanted that is required in
the intricate problem of plant selection.
The variations at best are but slight and
hundreds of trees would have to be ex-
amined to find one or two from which to
start a new race. One would have to
make sure, too, that the selected plants
would not fall behind their fellows in
other characters. The variations men-
tioned are almost certainly the result of
environment and are not passed on from
one tree generation to another so that,
even were the obstacles not so great in
practicing selection that few men would
be able, or would take the pains to sur-
mount them, heredity could not be count-
ed as a factor in causing the formation
of buds.

Biennial Bearing

Another phase of the subject of fruit-
bud control is the biennial bearing habit
of some varieties of the several fruits
and especially of the apple. So marked is
this habit in apples that we can ascribe
it as one of the characters of that fruit.
A good deal of attention has been given
by orchardists and experimenters to bi-
ennial bearing in apples, but as yet no
one has been able greatly to change na-
ture's way. It is maintained by some
that the biennial bearing habit is due to
the heavy crop which exhausts the tree's
energies and that a light crop follows be-
cause of such exhaustion. This can be
but partly true; for all can call to mind
two, three, or four heavy crops of some
varieties after which the trees settle down
to bearing in alternate years.

Thinning

Nor does thinning, often proposed as a
remedy for overbearing, prove of much
value. Pruning seems to alter the condi-
tion but little. We have on record sev-
eral experiments in which blossoms were
stripped from the trees during the bear-

ing year to cause the setting of fruit
during the off year. The trees so treat-
ed usually bear some fruit the off year
but seldom a satisfactory crop. Nor is
the matter one of food supply. Orchards
amply supplied with food are not always
annual bearers. Peculiarities of the sea-
son have something to do with alternate
bearing but do not wholly account for it.
Eliminating all the above conditions —
admitting, however, that all have some in-
fluence of the bearing habit — we must
conclude that the biennial bearing habit
of apples is a peculiarity of the species.
Good cultivation, an ample supply of food
at all times, careful attention to pruning
and training, proper control of pests and
systematic thinning, are all means which
can be used to some extent to circumvent
nature.

DeTelopment of Fruit Buds

Leaving now the formation of fruit
buds, let us see what can be done to con-
trol the development of fruit buds.

Blooming, the prelude of fruiting, had
little significance to the fruit grower un-
til the discovery was made that many
varieties of several fruits were unable to
fertilize themselves and that failures of
fruit crops were often due to the plant-
ing of infertile varieties. The knowledge
obtained by experimenters in this field
has to some degree modified the planting
of all orchard fruits. Pollination and
fertilization are events which take place
in blossoms that must be reckoned with
by fruit growers.

Pollination

It is necessary to distinguish between
pollination and fertilization, terms sup-
posed by many to have the same mean-
ing. Pollination is the dusting of the
stigma, the female organ of a fiower, with
pollen, the male element. Fertilization
is the process in which the male cell
unites with the female cell. Fertilization
takes place only after pollination, but a
flower may, of course, be pollinated and
fertilization not take place, a fact always
to be remembered. Fruits set and de-
velop, for most part, only after fertiliza-
tion. The young fruits when first form-
ed have but a slight hold upon life. Un-

FRUITS— SETTING AND DROPPING

1063

favorable influences, no matter how slight,
may cause them to perish. Fertilization
gives the tiny fruit life, and enables it
to hold upon the parent plant through
nourishment drawn to supply the em-
bryo which has been formed in the seeds.
Thus fertilization usually, not always, de-
termines whether a fruit is to develop
or to drop. Shortly after blooming time,
we have the fruit "drop," resulting for
most part from a lack of fertilization.

But fertilization does not insure the
complete development of fruit. Even af-
ter a perfect union of male and female
cells, so far as it can be determined, much
fruit drops in every orchard and without
regard to whether the trees bear few or
many blossoms.

Crops of many varieties of several
fruits do not set because of the infer-
tility of the blossoms— that is, with many
fruits pollen may be produced in abun-
dance, seemingly perfect in appearance,
and potent on the pistils of other varieties,
but which may wholly fail to fertilize the
ovaries of the variety from which it came.
There is a great difference in the quan-
tity of pollen produced by the varieties
of the several fruits, but it is doubtful if
insufficiency of pollen is a factor of much
importance in the failure of trees to set
fruits.

Varieties that do not set fruits often
have abnormal or abortive pistils or
stamens. A high percentage of abnormal
flowers nearly always indicates a weak-
ness in fruit setting. Another cause of
the failure to set fruits is the difference
in time of maturity of stamens and pistils.
When these organs do not mature at near-
ly the same time, fruits do not set unless
pollen is supplied from some other source.
The female organs of fruits are receptive,
however, for several days and the pollen
is not shed at once from all anthers and
is produced with such prodigality as in
most cases to insure the pollination of
late maturing stigmas.

The solution of the problem of self
sterility in the main, then, is to so plant
that varieties will be cross-fertilized. It
is obvious, if cross-pollenization is to play
an important part in fruit growing, in

planting to secure it varieties must be
chosen which come into blossom at the
same time as those that they are expect-
ed to fertilize.

There are several causes of dropping
other than lack of fertilization that need
the attention of fruit growers.

Weather

Weather conditions have much to do
with the dropping of fruit. Prolonged
cold saps the vitality of young fruits and
causes many of the more tender ones to
perish and let go their hold upon the tree.
Rain, whether a dashing shower or a pro-
longed drizzle at a low temperature, or
even an extremely moist atmosphere with-
out a fall of rain, weakens the chances
of full development of fruits if such con-
ditions prevail soon after fruit forma-
tion. Sometimes a lack of light causes
fruit to drop, and thus we may explain
the greater number of fruits at the tops
of trees, on well pruned trees, in open-
centered trees and in orchards not thick-
ly planted.

"June Drop''

The "June drop," especially of the
peach, may be explained in part as fol-
lows: When fruits reach a certain size
the food stored in the tree the previous
year is exhausted. Now if the leaves of
such trees are not fully expanded and if
they are not able to furnish a new sup-
ply of food, the young fruits often drop.
The June drop is especially liable to take
place if there be one or more of the un-
favorable conditions mentioned in the
previous paragraphs. With some fruits
there is a tendency to drop in late sum-
mer when seeds are making great de-
mands for food. In such cases the trees
become exhausted and cast a part of their
load. If at this time there be a drought,
or, on the other hand, too much rain, as
is often the case, fruit not infrequently
drops in considerable quantities.

It seems worth while with trees which
habitually drop their crop to try to
direct the food to the fruit-bearing
branches by pruning out surplus wood,
cutting out water-sprouts, and stimulat-
ing the growth of fruit buds the previ-
ous season. All factors which are con-

1064

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ducive to the best nutrition of the tree
influence its capacity to retain the crop.

Insect and Other Injury

Fruits often fall because of insect or
fungus injury to tree or fruit. The ef-
fects of serious injury to the foliage or
the puncturing of the fruit by any one
of the innumerable insect pests are too
well known to demand attention, though
insect injury must by no means be
thought to be a sure cause of the drop-
ping of a crop. Some insects, as cod-
ling moth, curculio, and the berry
worms may remain until the fruit is
fully developed.

OTcrloading
Lastly, it may be of distinct advan-
tage for a tree to drop a part of its load
if it have more fruit than it can bring
to the best maturity. If it does not do
so naturally, the fruit grower should
take the matter in hand and thin the
crop.

Frosts and Weather
The weather, as we have indicated in
a previous paragraph, has much to do
with the setting and dropping of fruit.
A study of the weather as it affects the
formation and development of fruit buds
was made at this Station several years
ago covering a period of 25 years be-
ginning in 1881.* Since the report of
this study can no longer be had the main
conclusions are again published here.

During this 25-year period late frosts
ruined the fruit crops in Western New
York in four years, seriously lessened
the yield in five years, and did much
damage to pears, peaches and plums in
three other seasons. That is to say, in
more than half of the 25 years, "unrea-
sonable" frosts caused serious loss to
fruit growers over the section as a whole.
The years of frosts appeared in cycles,
as there was but one harmful frost dur-
ing the first eight years of the 25, then
for six years in succession the crops
were damaged seriously, while during the
latter half of the period the frosts were
more evenly distributed.

• U. p. Hedrick. Bulletin No. 299 New York
Agricultural Experiment Station, March, 1908.

During seven years when frosts did
little or no harm, cold, wet weather play-
ed almost as disastrous a part and re-
duced the crops to unprofitable propor-
tions; while in five of the years of frost
the damage was increased by the effects
of cold storms. These storm years, like
the frost years, came in cycles. A first
short period of three years, beginning in
1881, was marked by storms, as was a
longer period of seven years beginning
in 1888. During the first period, wind
strong enough to harm the blossoms,
even without the accompanying rain,
was a feature of each season, as was al-
so the case in 1905; while in another
year, without injurious rain storms, the
wind alone did considerable harm to
blossoms.

Sunshine at blooming time, with warm,
dry weather, marked five years, only, of
the 25; and in each of these years the
crops were excellent. In three of them
the records were broken for one or an-
other of the fruits and enormous yields
were secured from practically all fruits.
From these facts, and more detailed
data given in the original bulletin, we
must conclude that rain and the cold and
wind that usually accompany it in mid-
May cause the loss of more fruit than
any other agency. Killing frosts take
second place as destructive forces, though
the sudden, plainly evident harm they do
attracts more attention and causes more
complaint than the slowly developing,
more concealed damage from a long, cold
storm without freezing temperature.

Frosts usually blacken and destroy im-
mediately the reproductive organs of the
flowers, giving very plain evidence of
harm; but such evidence is often given
undue weight, so that the injury from
light frosts is frequently overestimated.

Cold storms, or even very cool days
without frost, at blooming time lessen or
destroy the crop in several ways. The
rains wash off the tiny grains of pollen
from the delicate anthers of the flowers
and thus prevent their journey on the
body of some insect, so that they fail to
perform their fertilizing office. Even if a
pollen grain chance to reach the pistil

FRUITS— SETTING AND DROPPING

1065

it may fail to adhere and grow since
the rain also washes off and dilutes the
adhesive, stimulating secretion upon the
stigmas. Provided neither of these
causes prevents the journey and proper
placing of the pollen, the cold of such
storms often so lessens the vitality of
the grains that they germinate very
slowly or not at all.

The cold and the rain also check the
activities of hees and other insects, and
as these are the effective carriers of pol-
len grains, the possibility of successful
pollination is still further lessened.

Dampness is favorable to the growth
of most fungi — which cause our leading
leaf and fruit diseases — and such fungi
frequently attack and ruin flowers dur-
ing May storms.

Winds, alone, do comparatively slight
harm to fruits early in the season, but
occasionally are strong enough to whip
blossoms from the trees and to prevent
the flight or active work of insects. If
they are drying and long continued they
may evaporate the secretion from the
stigmas and thereby prevent the reten-
tion and germination of the pollen; while
cold, dry winds from the north at bloom-
ing time chill vegetation and retard all
plant activities. On the other hand,
light breezes on nights when frosts would
otherwise occur may sweep away the set-
tling chill and prevent damage; or, in
favorable localities beside large bodies
of water, may bring in clouds or fogs
to check heat radiation and prevent
freezing.

Unfortunately, at least in a narrow
sense, man cannot control the weather
to any great extent. Orchard heaters are
now used to warm the temperature of an
orchard and prevent frosts. By small
fires, especially of damp, smouldering,
smoke-producing materials, orchards and
vineyards may occasionally be protected
from light frosts. By proper placing of
windbreaks — not so simple a matter as
it may at first appear — some advantage
may be given tender fruits. By white-
washing the trees in early spring, blos-
soming may be retarded a few days. A
definite amount of heat is necessary to

bring buds to maturity, and since white
objects absorb less heat than dark ones,
such whitening of the trees may occasion-
ally carry the buds unopened safely
through a frost that would destroy the
flowers.

Aside from these comparatively un-
important exceptions, we can do nothing,
after the orchard is established, to pro-
tect fruit trees from weather stresses.
But we can do much to protect future
fruit crops by careful study, before we
locate the plantation, of weather condi-
tions and crop adaptations. It would be
most unwise to set apricots, plums and
peaches, which are relatively tender at
blossoming, in any locality where the
average date for the last killing frost is
as late as May 10; yet some late bloom-
ing or cold resistant varieties of even
these fruits, on some hillside rightly lo-
cated or beside a favoring lake, might
escape frosts often enough to make their
culture highly profitable since they could
be sold in near markets never glutted
with such fruits because of general un-
favorable conditions.

Orchard Site

In choosing a location for an orchard
we must consider latitude, altitude, and
general topographic conditions, especial-
ly proximity to large bodies of water,
since these all affect general climatic
conditions.

Perhaps fully as important as general
location, however, is the choice of a par-
ticular field on which to plant fruit trees
or grape vines. Omitting all discussion
of soil, markets, roads, and other sur-
roundings, the lay of the land may fre-
quently determine its value for an or-
chard or vineyard. Every fruit planta-
tion has a local climate varying in the
different parts of the tracts in accordance
with the lay of the land. Low lying spots
show the greatest extremes — lowest tem-
perature in cold weather and highest
temperature in hot weather. Converse-
ly, on the elevated portions of a tract
the temperature is most equable — less
cold in low temperature, less hot in high
temperatures. The direction of the slope
of the ground causes variation in the

1066

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

temperature probably because of the
greater amount of heat absorbed from
the sun by southerly slopes and because
of the different exposures to prevailing
winds. A slope also gives better air
drainage than a level. The difference
between high land and valley, slope and
plain, is often amply sufficient to account
for the idiosyncrasies in frost injuries so
often noted.

Some fruit growers in the state claim
to obtain a certain degree of immunity
from frost through good air drainage
secured by planting at a sufficient dis-
tance so that tops do not touch and by
keeping the heads within bounds by
pruning.

Quite as essential as location in doing
the little that can be done to avert frost
injury is the selection of varieties. Some
varieties of each of the several fruits
blossom later than others and these are
usually in least danger of frosts. The
length of time during which different
varieties are in blossom is worth con-
sidering, though it varies considerably in
accordance with the fruit, the variety,
and, most of all, the weather.

The average length of the period of
bloom for the different species of fruits
is: For apples, about nine days; for
pears, seven days; for peaches, eight
days; for plums, seven days; for cher-
ries, seven days, and for grapes, ten
days. The time from first blossoms until
all have dropped may vary greatly, as
the blossoms of some fruits do not last
longer than 48 hours in very hot, dry
weather. Blossoms of tree fruits, after
opening, do not close night or day, though
pollination probably takes place during
the day only.

Other things being equal, of course it
would be in the fruit grower's favor, in
a locality where late frosts are liable to
occur, to select late-blooming varieties.
Such varieties cannot be selected by
knowing only their time of ripening; for
some early fall apples blossom late, like
Williams, and some late winter apples
blossom early, like King and Wagener.
That is, there is no corelation between
the time of blooming and the time of

ripening of fruits. Early varieties do not
necessarily, though some may, blossom
earlier than late varieties. It is not pos-
sible, therefore, by selecting late varieties
to escape danger from late frosts.

Circular 22. New York Experiment Station.
Geneva. N. Y.

Fungus

A thallophytic plant destitute of chlor-
ophyl, and deriving nourishment wholly
or almost wholly from organic com-
pounds, as a mushroom, toadstool, puft
ball, mold or mildew.

The fungi reproduce chiefly by sex-
ual spores. They are divided (1) morpho-
logically, into three classes: Phycomy-
cetes, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes;
and (2) physiologically as parasites and
saprophytes. Their chemical composition
is complex and variable. They contain
proteids, cellulose, gums, oils, sugars,
acids, enzymes, resins, alkaloids, and
various pigments, but no starch. More
than 40,000 species have been described;
many of them microscopic. Some are ed-
ible, others poisonous; the antidote being
atropin, stimulants or heat. Many have
no economic interest; others cause dis-
eases of plants and animals.

Patliol.
A soft, spongy, morbid growth of ab-
normal excrescence.

Algal fungus (Bot.)
Any phycomycetous fungus.

Bracket Fungus, n.
A fungus of the order Agaricales grow-
ing on a tree trunk, resembling an in-
verted bracket, as others of the poly-
pori.

Cap Fungus, n.
A fungus with an expanded part, call-
ed the pileus, or cap, supported by a stem;
a mushroom or toadstool.

Fungi iniperfecti (Bot.)
Imperfectly known fungi, or those
whose true character and relationships
are unknown; 400 genera are included in
the three orders, Sphaeropisdales, Melan-
conciales and Moniliales. into which they
have been divided.

FUNGUS— GALLS

1067

Fungus Beetle, n.
A beetle that lives in or upon fungi,
as an endomycMd or Mycetophagid.
Fungus Cellulose, n.
The cellulose found in fungi; a term
used by De Barry and others. It always
resists the action of ammoniacal copper
oxid, but has the same chemical composi-
tion as ordinary cellulose.

Fungus cerebri (Pathol)
Hernia of the brain.

Fungus Diseas.e, n.
Mycetoma.

Fungus Gnat. n.
A minute mycetophilid gnat, whose
larvae inhabit fungi.

Fungus Midge
Fungus nematodes
A soft bleeding or ulcerating carcino-
matous tumor of rapid growth.
Fungus Pit, n.
A pit for growing mushrooms or other
fungi.

Fungus Stone, n.
A mass of earth and mycelium, used
for propagation (as of the Polyporus tub-
eraster in Italy).

Fungus Tinder, n
Tinder made from a fungus, as from
Polyporus igniarius.

Hedgehog Fungus
Same as hedgehog mushroom.

Horsetail Fungus
Same as horsetail mushroom.

Hoiise Fungus, n.
Any saprophytic fungus growing on
moist wood in houses.

Milk, Fungus, n.
Any species of Lactarius, a genus of
agarics, yielding white or colored juice.
L. volemus and L. delicious are edible.
Shelf Fungus, n.
A fungus attached to its supporting
surface like a shelf.

— f^tnndard Dictionary.

Fungi. See Diseases of Various Fruits
and Vegetables.

Fungicide. See Spraying.

Galls

A gall, in the botanical sense, is an
excresence on a plant due to some injury,
from instruments as in cultivation or

grafting, or from animals, insects, bac-
teria or fungi.

The disease manifests itself in a cal-
lous growth, or hypertrophied tissue on
some part of the tree or plant. In some
respects it resembles, in relation to plant
life, the tumor on the animal organism.
Some galls are caused by bacteria, as in
the case of crown gall {Bacterium tume-
faciens). Some are caused by toxins in-
jected by an insect that injures or punc-
tures the bark, others are caused by the
mechanical irritation of the plant cells as
in the case of sucking insects like the
woolly aphis.

Crown galls, so called because they
most frequently occur on the crown of
the plant, may occur anywhere on the
plant. The organism causing crown gall
is a bacterium and all galls so caused
are called "Crown Galls" wherever they
appear. Naturally we would suppose
"Crown Gall" was on the crown, no mat-
ter what were the causes, but according
to the literature of the subject it might
be on the lateral roots, the trunk or the
branches.

Some Causes That Produce Galls
Gall Fly

1. A kind of insect which stings the
plant in laying its eggs.

Gall Midge

2. An insect that punctures the bark,
leaf or surface, and deposits its egg in the
cavity. The subsequent growth, consti-
tuting the gall, is either the effect of
some virus deposited with the egg or of
the irritation caused by the larva which
lives in the gall until it has completed
its development.

Gall Louse

3. An aphid which often infests the
roots of orchard trees, forming what is
generally called "Aphis gall."

Apple Gall

Quercus infectoria

4. The gall or oak apple of the gall
oak.

Gall Beetle

5. A beetle that produces galls by
puncturing the bark.

1068

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Gall Moth

GelecMa pinifolia

6. A gall making moth, similar to a
"Clothes moth."

Gall Fungus

7. Any fungus of the order Chytridia-
ceae, that causes galls in plants, specific-
ally, one producing a disease in cranber-
ries and related plants.

Gall Bacterium

Bacterium tumefaciens

8. A bacterium that seems to be al-
ways present with crown gall and may
infect healthy trees with the disease.

Gall Worm

9. The Nematode eel worm. It is not
properly an insect but belongs to that
class of animals known as Vermes. It
attacks the potato more generally perhaps
than any other field crop and this may
be an objection urged against planting po-

Fig. 1. Crown Gall on Roots of Apple Trees.

tatoes among orchard trees, unless under
conditions where the freezing of winter
would kill the worms.

Forms of Crown Gall
*Hedgecock says that the different
forms of gall, such as "hard gall," "soft

♦Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 186.

gall," and various other forms and var-
ieties of the disease such as are found on
raspberries, blackberries, the peach, ap-
ple, etc., also the hairy root galls, are
but varying forms of the same disease.
Though the disease varies in the different
plants and different stages of develop-
ment, yet in all cases it is the same in
character, produced by the same causes
and always somewhat contagious. Hence
in no case should shrubs bearing this
crown gall be allowed to go into the
trade. Like nearly all bacterial contag-
ious affections, the only safe way to treat
it is to absolutely bar its entrance.

Economic Effects of Crown Gall

tStewart says that "Crown Gall, Bac-
terium tumefaciens, in New York is com-
mon on apple trees as well as on several
other woody plants. During 12 years of
experience he has never known of a well
authenticated case in which crown gall
has seriously affected apple trees in the
orchard." In 1899, C. H. Stewart & Co.,
of Newark, N. J., set out an experimental
orchard of 500 trees, mostly Baldwins, all
affected with crown gall. The trees have
now been set nine years, and show as
good growth as the trees planted at the
same time and free from crown gall.
The bark is smooth, healthy in appear-
ance and the trees look thrifty and vig-
orous.

"In 1901, we planted 22 apple trees af-
fected with crown gall to determine the
effect of this disease upon the growth of
the trees. The trees were three years
old. The galls varied in size from one
to two inches in diameter, and were lo-
cated mostly on the tap root, but in a
few cases on the lateral roots. Some of
the trees had several galls each. We be-
lieve the galls were typical of those found
on the trees of New York nurseries. Five
of the trees were dug up in 1903, five in
1905, and five in 1907. In no instance
was there any evidence that the galls had
increased in size or number or that they
had been in any way injurious to the
trees. Probably apple trees bearing large
galls should be rejected, but unaffected

t New York (Geneva) Experiment Station,
Bulletin 328.

GALLS

1069

trees from the same lot may be planted
without fear of bad results."

On the other hand, *Thompson, of Mis-
sissippi, puts crown gall among the most
serious apple diseases.

Our observation leads us to the con-
clusion that more crown gall occurs in
our apple orchards, in connection with
"Root grafting," than is generally sup-
posed. Often the graft fails to properly
unite and a favorable opportunity for
the entrance of the bacteria is presented.
Great care should therefore be exercised
in the grafting of nursery stock.

tW. B. Alwood has given the results
of experiments made with crown gall in
grafting on diseased and healthy roots.
Experiments showed:

1. That there is practically no differ-
ence in the susceptibility of varieties to
infection.

2. Experiments with grafting diseased
scions on diseased roots cut into three
sections.

(1) The top cut, only five lived. Three
showed cases of crown gall, and two were
weak.

(2) Of the middle cut, only six grew,
and these were weak, and all showed
cases of crown gall.

(3) Of the third cut or tip of the
roots, only one survived, and it had gall.

3. Healthy scions on healthy roots.

(1) From the first cut 11 strong
healthy plants.

(2) From the second cut eight strong
healthy plants.

(3) From the third cut five plants de-
veloped, four healthy and one weak.
There was not a case of crown gall in the
lot.

4. Healthy scions with long roots, on-
to diseased roots, set in the ground at
considerable depth, to see if the disease
would be communicated from the lower
diseased root, to the healthy upper root.
It was not so communicated.

5. The diseased root of No. 4 was cut
off the following year, and the healthy
part planted. This developed no disease
the second year.

6. Healthy graft on healthy root, but
a piece of crown gall was bound to the
root at the point of contact with the
graft. Three out of 12 show crown gall,
the other nine are healthy.

7. A healthy scion on a healthy root,
and a thin slice of diseased tissue was in-
serted under the bark. Out of the 12
planted, six grew and four showed more
or less traces of gall.

8. Twelve healthy scions were grafted
onto healthy roots and inoculated with
gall. Nine showed decided cases of crown
gall, one suspicious and two healthy.

9. Healthy scions were grafted onto
healthy roots. After planting, some fresh
galls were sliced with a sharp knife and
used for inoculating the soil about the
trees. Eleven plants grew, all healthy
except that two of the plants show in-
cipient cases of crown gall.

10. Galls were cut away with a sharp
knife. They have developed fibrous roots,
but no normal roots. The part of the
roots below the cut seems atrophied.

Pocket Gophers and Crown Gall

*Soft crown gall occurs frequently on
roots injured by pocket gophers or mice.
Of course the abundance of soft tissue in
the root knots would probably lead a
rodent to attack the diseased parts rath-
er than a smooth healthy root. Yet, the
fact that in some orchards, crown gall is
rare except in trees whose roots have
been injured by mice seems to indicate
that the disease is more commonly the ef-
fect rather than the cause of animal at-
tack.

N. Hollister, of the Biological Survey,
writing from Banning, California, May 5,
1909, stated that in that vicinity almond
trees are killed by root knot, or crown
gall, and he sent photographs of a four-
year-old tree that had died from this
disease. The old gopher tunnels had ex-
tended to its roots and no doubt the roots
had once been injured by these animals.

From what is now known of the nature
of this disease, and the fact that it oc-
curs commonly on trees once injured but

* Mississippi Experiment Station. Bulletin
147.

t Virginia Experiment Station, Bulletin 140.

* David E. Lantz. in the Tear Book, De-
partment of Agriculture, 1909.

1070

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

not killed by gophers or mice, it is safe
to conclude that it is often caused by
the attacks of these animals.

Crown Gall on Almond

tR. E. Smith reports crown gall on the
almond in California as somewhat serious.
"Large swellings appear on the main
roots just below the ground and to some
extent on the smaller roots. This results
in a gradual failure and dying of the
trees. This is one of the commonest
troubles of our stone fruit trees, being
found both in the nursery and on the
mature orchard soils. The organism
would seem to be abundant in California
soils, since cases are not rare of infec-
tion on the roots of trees grown from
pits in virgin soil."

Woolly Aphis Galls

*R. I. Smith, in treating the subject of
woolly aphis, says: "The woolly aphids
occur in damaging numbers, principally
on the roots, and are responsible for the
stunted, unhealthy growth and even death
of hundreds of apple trees each year. In
spite of this, their presence often remains
unnoticed except by orchardists who give
strict attention to the condition of their
trees. The extent of the damage must be
far greater than is commonly supposed,
when the number of infested trees in nur-
sery blocks, together with those in both
young and older orchards is considered.
In short, the woolly aphis is one of the
most serious apple pests, ranking with the
San Jose scale and the codling moth.

For Description of Woolly Aphis, see
Aphids.

Similar to all plant lice, the woolly
aphids subsist on the plant juices, feeding
by means of piercing and sucking beaks.
Wherever they feed, galls of greater or
less size are produced, the exact reason
for which is not fully understood. It is
due probably to some poison injected by
the insect, into the tissue of the plants.

The galls formed on the soft root tis-
sue are of large abnormal growths which
soon commence to decay, their destruc-
tion being hastened by the entrance of

t California Experiment Station, Bulletin
218.

* North Carolina Experiment Station, Bulle-
tin 206.

fungi and bacteria. As the roots weaken
and die, the aphids die also, or move to
other roots, so that when looking for the
first time for signs of woolly aphis, one
may find badly injured roots from which
the insects have all disappeared. By
further search, live aphids may be discov-
ered on the few live roots remaining, or
close by the trees. The continual weak-
ening and rotting of the infested roots is
what renders woolly aphis damage so
disastrous. The drain on the vitality of
the tree soon results in a sickly dwarfed
appearance of the root.

Nematode Root Gall or Root Knot

*The nematode is not an insect nor is
it related to the insects. It belongs to
the class of animals known as vermes or
true worms. The common earth worm is
the best known example of the class, al-
though it occupies a position in a high-
er group than that of the nematodes.
There are a good many species of nema-
todes, some living in the ground, some
parasites on animals, and a few live para-
sitically on plants. Often in moist soil,
rich in humus, such as vegetable gardens,
there may be large numbers of white
transparent worms. These are nematodes
however, that do no appreciable injury to
plants, and it is only the parasitic species
of which this subject is an example.

The Heterodera radicicola is widely dis-
tributed over the world and attacks large
varieties of plants. In the Argentine Re-
public it is said to be the most destruc-
tive pest of the vine occurring in that
country. In the United States it is chiefly
destructive in greenhouses.

This parasitic species is an exceedingly
small worm-like creature about one-sev-
enty-fifth of an inch long, and of a trans-
parent whitish color. It has a sharp slen-
der organ on the head that enables it to
make its way into the more tender por-
tions of the roots, where it embeds it-
self in the tissues. Here it develops and
lays eggs, from which succeeding genera-
tions arise. These may scatter through
the soil and attack other portions of the
roots. It is not so much the direct drain
upon the roots, however, that causes the

• H. J. Quavle, California Experiment Sta-
tion Bulletin No. 192, 1907.

GALLS

1071

damage as it is the decay of the hyper-
trophied tissue due to irritation caused
by the work of the worms. They make
conditions favorable for the attack of
wood rot fungi which hasten the decay.

*Schofield gives the following list of
plants commonly attacked: Beets, car-
rots, celery, egg plant, lettuce, carnation,
muskmelon, pumpkins, potatoes, salsify,
squash, tomato, watermelon, clover, cow
peas, rape, soy beans, catalpa, cherry, elm,
peach. The following are subject to at-
tacks of nematodes and although these
plants are not in themselves liable to
serious injury, they should not be plant-
ed on soil infested with it for fear of
keeping the gall worm alive: Alfalfa,
vetch, sweet clover, asparagus, cabbage,
cauliflower, garden peas, horseradish,
strawberries, kale, lima beans, onions,
radishes, spinach, sweet potatoes.

The following plants are seldom, if
ever, affected with them: Barley, oats,
wheat, rye, corn, sorghum, milo, kaffir,
timothy and redtop. At present no
method is known to eradicate the pest
from infested soils.

For Methods of Control, see under
Potato Pests.

Crown Gall of Alfalfa

tGalls and gall-like swellings appear
on the main roots just at the surface of
the ground and the plants die. The
trouble is favored by excessive moisture
in the soil and is caused by a fungus,
Urophlyctis alfalfae. This new disease in
California had not been reported any-
where else in this country at this writ-
ing (June, 1911).

Gall of Commerce

There is a form of gall called the
"Gall of Commerce" which is a product
of the gall fly (Cynips), which lays its
eggs in the soft twigs of an oak in West-
ern Asia and Eastern Europe. They are
rich in tannin and are used in making
ink, dyeing, tanning, etc.

Fungus Galls on Trees

Professor J. W. Tourney, formerly of
the Arizona station, has shown that a

♦Nevada Experiment Station Bulletin 91.
+ Smith, California Experiment Station Bul-
letin 218.

warty growth is due to a microscopic
vegetable organism — a slime mould fun-
gus, which in the case of the parasite
determined for Arizona soils has been
named for that investigator, Dendro-
pfiagus glohosus. There is evidence to
show that when the trees are transplanted
to the orchards, the galls continue to
grow, forming ultimately large warts.
When they girdle the trunk they interfere
with the movement of the sap. Young
trees often die of the disease. The galls
of varying sizes affect the base of the
trunk, the larger roots, and sometimes oc-
cur on the stem above the surface of the
soil. Affected trees show signs of starva-
tion, yellowish foliage and enfeebled
growth.

*Insect Galls

What are commonly known as galls are
vegetable excrescences and comprise all
abnormal vegetable productions develop-
ed on plants by action of animals, more
particularly by insects, whatever may be
their form, bulk or situation.

For the larvae of these insects, the galls
provide shelter and sustenance. The ex-
citing cause of the undue or excessive
growth in the case of the typical galls ap-
pears to be a minute quantity of some
irritating fluid or virus secreted by the
female insect and deposited with her egg
in the puncture made by her ovipositor
in the outside taark or foliaceous parts.
This virus causes the rapid enlargement
and subdivision of the cells affected by it
so as to form the tissues of the gall.
Oval or larval irritation also, without
doubt, plays an important part in the
formation of many galls.

A certain relation is necessary between
the stimulus and the plant, as evidenced
by the limitation in the majority of cases
of each species of gall insect to some one
vegetable structure, still, it must be a
quality of the irritant of the tissues rath-
er than the specific peculiarities on the
part of the plant affected that principally
determines the nature of the gall. Thus
the characteristics of the currant gall,
Spathegaster haccarum, which occurs
alike on the leaves and on the flower

♦ Encyclopedia Britannica. 11th edition.

1072

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

stalks of the oak, are obviously due to
the act of oviposition and not to the func-
tions of the parts producing it. The red
galls of the sawfly, Nematus galUcola,
are found on four different species of
willow.

Galls vary remarkably in size and shape
according to the species of their makers.
The polythalamous gall, found on the
roots of old oak trees, may attain the
size of a man's fist; the gall of another
Cynipid, which occurs on the male flow-
ers of oak, is two millimeters or barely a
line in length. Many galls are brightly
colored, as for instance, the oak-leaf hairy
galls of Spathegaster tricolor, which are
of a crimson hue.

The variety of forms of galls is very
great. Some are like urns or cups, others
are lenticular. Galls are formed by in-
sects of several orders. Among the
Hymenoptera are the gall wasps (Cynips
and their allies), which infect the various
species of oak. They are small insects
having straight antennae and a com-
pressed, usually very short abdomen
with the second or third segments great-
ly developed and the rest imbricated and
concealing the partially coiled oviposi-
tor. The transformations from the lar-
val state are completed within the gall,
out of which the perfect insect tunnels
its way usually in autumn, though some-
times after hibernation.

Among the commoner galls are the oak
apple or oak sponge, the currant or ber-
ry gall, "oak-spangles," generally reput-
ed to be fungoid growths until the discov-
ery of their true nature by Frederick
Smith, and the succulent "cherry galls."
Galls are formed by the hemopterous and
homopterous insects.

Literature

Hedgecock. Field Studies. Bureau
of Plant Industry Bulletin 186.

Stewart. New York Experiment Sta-
tion (Geneva) Bulletin 328.

Smith, Brown and Townsend. Crown
Gall on Plants. (Cause and Remedy).
Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 213.

Smith, Brown and McCulloch. Struc-
ture and Development of Crown Gall.
Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 255.

Smith. Crown Gall and Sarcoma.
Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 85.

Mississippi Experiment Station Bulle-
tin 147.

The following deal with Nematode
Galls:

California Experiment Station Bulle-
tin 192.

Nevada Experiment Station Bulletin
91.

Kentucky Experiment Station Bulletin
142.

Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 217.
Granville Lowther

Garden. See Vegetable.

GARDENER'S PLANTING TABLE

1073

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1074

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

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GALLS— GEORGIA

1075

D. S. Stanley, at Weiser, Idaho, re-
ports that the growing season for garden
crops will vary from the Medford, Ore.
season from a week to 30 days at each
end, the Weiser season being for the
most part later and shorter, but crops
will mature much quicker so that so
long a growing season is not needed.

Roseburg Nursery Co., Roseburg, Ore.,
reports that many of the hardy crops list-
ed may be planted as early as midwinter.
The time to mature the crops is about the
same.

Prof. O. M. Morris, at Pullman, Wash.,
reports that the season for early vege-
tables will be a month to six weeks later
than Medford and crops mature in about
the same period, though the growing
season is not so long.

In this the dates were considered for
the upland regions of Eastern Washing-
ton. The Snake river sections could, in
practically every case with early vege-
tables, plant about one month earlier,
and in the case of late planting the work
could be done about one month later and
still give the plants time to mature.

Irrigation will not be necessary with
any of the crops mentioned, but suffi-
cient temperature will not be attained
to grow such crops as watermelons, pep-
pers, egg plant and tomatoes successfully
on a large scale.

Garden Slug. See Radish Pests.

Georgia

On account of its altitudes and lati-
tudes, its mountains, hills and valleys,
Georgia produces the kinds of crops
grown in every state in the Union. On
its seacoast and islands in the south-
eastern portion, it produces oranges,
lemons and bananas; in its higher eleva-
tions, it produces small fruits, pears,
peaches, plums and apples. It has great-
er resources than are found in any of
the Southern states east of the Rocky
mountain range. Its climate, soil, tim-
ber, coal, minerals and marble are all
natural advantages, while its navigable
rivers and railroad lines give it better
transportation than is available to most

Southern states, and tend to make it a
section of great possible development.

The eastern portion of the state was
once a part of the bed of the Atlantic
ocean. This is shown by the Tertiary
and Metamorphic rocks which cover a
large portion of the state. The soil in
the lowlands and valleys is alluvial. In
the Cumberland plateau and the Great
valley regions there are red and brown
loams, rich in decomposed limestone,
calcareous shales and sandy or gravel
formations.

In the Piedmont plateau and Appala-
chian mountain regions the surface is
generally sandy, but in considerable
areas the subsoil is a red clay, derived
largely from the decomposition of horn-
blende.

For horticultural purposes, the state
has been divided into four parts as fol-
lows:

First: The fig and citrus belt, in what
is known as the Quatenary formation.

Second. The pear and melon belt, in
what is known as the Tertiary forma-
tion.

Third. The peach and grape belt, in
the Metamorphic formation.

Fourth. The apple and the cherry belt,
in the Tennessee Dip.

It is interesting to know why these
fruits thrive in the sections designated.
Why is the apple, for instance, adapted
to the Tennessee Dip, and not to the sec-
tions occupied by the Quaternary or
Tertiary formations? Soil conditions
have something to do in determining
this question; but the principal reason is
found in the climate.

In another connection we have shown
how, in a mountainous country, great
changes occur in short distances, on ac-
count of elevation. That which is true
in a general way is true in Georgia.
Other conditions enter into it, such as
wind currents, and relations to large
bodies of water, so that the climate of
Georgia is perhaps as variant as that
of any other state in the Union. There
are nine climatic belts in the United
States and all of them are represented

1076

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

in Georgia, except that of Southern
Florida.

The average rainfall for the whole
state is 49.3 inches. The maximum
rainfall at Rabun gap, in the extreme
northeast part of the state, is 71.7
inches. The minimum rainfall is at
Swainboro, Emanuel county, a little
southeast of the center, 39.4 inches.

The Quaternary represents the Pleis-
tocene, or glacial age. It represents
the formation of soils in an age when
glaciers, some of them miles in extent, ad-
vanced and retreated across the Ameri-
can continent and Northwestern Europe,
carrying rocks, soil, trees and other vege-
tation; crushing, grinding, eroding and
pulverizing everything in their track.
During this period, Arctic types of plants
and animals were forced southward, and
during the retreats other forms, grown
in the south, were carried toward the
north. It is not because the soil thus
formed is not favorable for the growth
of apples, but because this Quaternary
or glacial drift in Georgia is found in a
climate that is almost tropical, and
therefore adapted to oranges, lemons and
bananas, rather than to the growth of
deciduous fruits. As compared with the
whole state, this citrus belt is small.

The Tertiary formation is the third
leading division of sedimentary and fos-
siliferous rocks, formed in the bottoms
of the lakes, bays, estuaries and inland
seas. These basins were uplifted by
the cooling and shrinking of the earth,
and consequent changes in its crust, and
became rocky hills, which eroded and
disintegrated, forming soil. This soil is
especially adapted to melons and pears.
Here, also, sweet potatoes, yams, pump-
kins and other vegetables reach a high
state of perfection. This section in-
cludes more than half the whole area
of the state of Georgia.

The Metamorphic formation is mostly
limestone, clay, slate, schist, mica, quartz,
etc., laid down by the action of the water,
and then transformed by the heat, by
chemical agency, pressure or by all of
these combined. This formation in
Georgia has been lifted to a higher ele-
vation than the Tertiary, and is the home
of the peach and the grape. It is a red
clay and will grow a very high grade
of grapes and peaches; yet peaches are
not grown so extensively here, in this
Metamorphic formation, which is mostly
a red clay, as in the Tertiary. This is
probably due to the fact that the Meta-
morphic formation is farther from the
navigable rivers, bays and main lines of
railroad than the other sections, and
therefore farther from the markets.

The so-called Tennessee Dip is a lower
stratum of rock, therefore an older forma-
tion than the Metamorphic and the Ter-
tiary. Yet, though it was lower and old-
er, in the process of upheavals it was
thrown to the surface, and now occupies
a higher elevation than the later forma-
tions. It is generally known as the Cam-
brian layer, composed of a thick series
of slate, schists, sandstones and con-
glomerates, together with igneous rocks.
These are the formations that when erod-
ed and disintegrated compose the basis
for the soils of the Tennessee Dip, called
the apple belt. This is not to signify
that apples do equally well in all the sec-
tions of the Tennessee Dip, but that in
the coves of the hills and mountains,
where there is good air drainage and
protection from winds, they reach a high
state of perfection. This region is the
northwestern portion of Georgia; the
citrus belt is the southeastern; and the
pear, peach, melon and grape belts lie
between these extremes. During the de-
cade 1890 to 1900, the area devoted to
peaches was doubled.

Granville Lowtheb

GEORGIA— GINGKO— GOOSEBERRY

1077

STATION

FROST

Average Date of

First

Killing ia

Autumn

Last

Killing in

Spring

Date of

Earliest

Killing in

Autumn

Latest

Killing in

Spring

Precipita-
tion

Annual

Inches

Clayton Oct.

Adairsville Oct.

Dahlonega Nov.

Elberton ' Nov.

Atlanta Nov.

Covington Nov.

Augusta Nov.

Harrison Nov.

Talbatton Nov.

Dudley Nov.

Savannah Nov.

Lumpkin Nov.

Morgan Nov.

Poulan Nov.

Jesup Nov.

Waycross Nov.

Thomasville Nov.

21

April

15

31

April

3

4

Mar.

31

8

Mar.

29

7

Mar.

24

9

Mar.

31

9

Mar.

18

12

Mar.

20

12

Mar.

23

11

Mar.

20

27

Feb.

26

11

Mar.

11

13

Mar.

10

13

Mar.

11

20

Mar.

17

18

Mar.

13

21

Mar.

2

Oct. 1

Oct. 15

Oct. 15

Oct. 25

Sept. 27

Oct. 25

Oct. 8

Oct. 25

Oct. 25

Oct. 23

Nov. 1

Oct. 25

Oct. 21

Oct. 25

Nov. 4

Nov. 4

Nov. 8

April 24
April 24
April 24
April 7
April 10
April 11
April 16
April 1
April 10
April 8
April 5
Mar. 31
April 8
Mar. 28
April 11
April 8
Mar. 19

68.5
47.6
59.9
50.0
49.9
50.7
48.5
51.4
51.7
50.1
51.0
50.5
50.6
50.9
57.0
50.8
53.8

Southern Georgia

For Bloom Periods of Apples, see
Louisiana.

GIngko

A tree much prized by the Chinese and
Japanese, sometimes regarded as a sacred
tree and planted near their temples. It
belongs to the genus Salisburia of the
yew group of conifers. Its fruit, which
grows to about the size of the American
plum, has a disagreeable odor, enclosing
a seed that when roasted tastes some-
thing like maize or Indian corn. It is
of no commercial value in this country.
The tree is a graceful, stately grower, and
is sometimes planted in Europe for or-
namental purposes.

Granville Lowther

Gooseberry

The gooseberry is of the genus Ribes.
natural order Saxifragaceae. This fruit
is native to the Northern hemisphere,
and grows wild in many parts of North
America, especially the Eastern and Mid-
dle United States.

There are about a half dozen species
cultivated in Europe, some of them for

their fruits, and some for their flowers.
Some of the European varieties grow to
enormous size, weighing nearly two
ounces per berry; but these are not the
best for their fruits and have not proven
to be successful on the American conti-
nent on account of their tendency to
mildew. Also the skin is tough and
they are very sour.

History of American Gooseberry

The history of the American goose-
berry with notes on culture is given by
Dr. Wm. Saunders, of the Dominion Ex-
periment Station, as follows:

"As late as 1846 no cultivated varieties
of American species of gooseberries were
mentioned by writers, the first reference,
according to Bailey, being in 1849 in the
Northern Fruit Culturist, by Goodrich,
where the author writes: 'We have it
from good authority that native sorts
have been discovered both in New Hamp-
shire and Vermont well adapted to gar-
den culture.' In 1847 the Houghton's
Seedling was exhibited at a meeting of
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society,
this being the first improved form of
the native gooseberry of which there is a
record.

1078

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

"There is a good field for work in im-
proving the native gooseberries, as there
is no apparent reason why the size should
not be equal to the best English varieties.
The quality of the American varieties is
considered by some to be better than the
average English gooseberry, but the fla-
vor is not nearly as good as the best of
the English sorts.

Propagation

"Gooseberries may be propagated either
from cuttings or by layering. The aver-
age person will usually get the best re-
sults from layering, as cuttings are of-
ten very unsatisfactory. To propagate
by layering, the bushes should be pruned
severely in the autumn. This will induce
a strong growth of young wood the next
season. When these have made most of

iTTTTTTTTTf

y

English Varieties of Gooseberries — Columbus,
Chautauqua and Red .Jacket — recommended
by F. W. Rane for New England.

(New Hampshire Experiment Station.)

their growth, which will be early in
July, the earth is heaped up around and
through the bush until only the tips of
the young shoots are left uncovered. The
soil is packed down and then a cover-
ing of loose soil thrown over to retain
moisture better. Most of the American
varieties will have rooted well by autumn,
and the young plants may be detached

and planted in nursery rows either the
same fall or the following spring, to be
grown there for one season. English
varieties usually take two years to root,
and the soil must be left about the bushes
for that time. Cuttings of American va-
rieties will sometimes give fairly satis-
factory results if made from well ripened
wood and treated as currant cuttings.
The cuttings are made six to eight inches
or less in length, and buried in soil over
winter. In spring they are set out in
nursery rows, planting deep enough so
that only one or two buds are above
ground. Both American and English
varieties may be propagated from green
wood cuttings in a greenhouse, or hotbed
with bottom heat.

Soil, Planting' and Cnltnre

"The gooseberry is a moisture-loving
plant, hence a soil should be chosen
where there will be a constant supply of
water during the growing season. In
dry soils gooseberries suffer very much
in a dry time, the foliage often falling
prematurely and the fruit being scalded
by the sun. The soil should be a cool
one. Moist soils are usually this, but the
surface of a sandy loam soil gets very
hot in the summer, hence is not the best
for this fruit. Well drained, heavy clay
loams are the most suitable for goose-
berries, as these usually are both cool
and moist. The soil should have abun-
dant plant food easily made available. A
good application of well rotted manure
thoroughly worked into the soil will do
much to bring about these favorable con-
ditions. The soil should be well prepared
and made mellow as for a crop of roots.
As gooseberries start to grow early in
the spring it is usually preferable to plant
in the autumn, and as the leaves drop
early they may be planted in September
and will be in good condition when win-
ter comes. Well rooted cuttings or layers
may be used as plants. They should be
set in rows about six feet apart and four
feet apart in the rows.

"Cultivation should be very thorough
so as to retain moisture and keep the soil
cool, and as the gooseberry roots near the
surface cultivation should be shallow;

GOOSEBERRY

1079

mulching with straw is sometimes advis-
able to keep the soil cool.

"As the gooseberry makes much more
wood than it is desirable to leave, severe
pruning is necessary. English varieties
are usually trained to a single stem, but
this is not necessary, although the freer
circulation of air when trained in this
way may help to prevent the spread of
mildew. The usual custom in America is
to grow the gooseberry in bush form. The
bush should at first be brought into a
good shape by leaving a few of the strong-
est shoots regularly distributed to make
an open head. Five or six of these shoots
are quite sufficient to leave at first. As
the bush gets older, new shoots are al-
lowed to grow to take the place of the
older ones, as the pruning should be done
with a view to having only vigorous bear-
ing wood. Fruit is borne on year-old
wood and from spurs on older wood. It
usually is not desirable to have any wood
more than three years old. The best time
to prune is in the autumn or winter.
The weakest young shoots should be cut
off at the ground, also all the stronger
young shoots not required for fruiting or
to take the place of the older branches to
be cut away. The side shoots from the
older branches should be headed back or
cut out altogether so as to maintain a fair-
ly open head, making it as easy as pos-
sible to pick the fruit and yet leaving suf-
ficient wood to produce a good crop and to
shade the fruit from the sun, as in a
hot, dry time gooseberries are liable to be
injured by scalding. "When branches are
more than three years of age they should
be removed to make way for younger
wood. It is advisable to cut out all
branches which touch the ground as there
will then be a better circulation of air,
and the fruit will be kept off the ground.
Gooseberries will often begin to bear the
second year after planting, but there will
not be a full crop until the fourth sea-
son. If the soil is kept in good condi-
tion by an annual application of well
rotted barnyard manure in the autumn,
harrowed in the following spring, and
if the bushes are kept sprayed and well
pruned, the plantation will not need to
be renewed for many years."

Varieties

The list of American gooseberries
recommended by Card, is as follows:

Apex, Champion, Downing, Excelsior,
Houghton, Hudson, Jewitt, Orange, Pale
Red, Pearl, Red Jacket, Smith, Strubler,
Tree, Victoria.

Hybrids or Uiiolassifled Varieties

Cedar Hill, Crystal, Hale Golden, Moun-
tain, Newell Seedling, Orange Jumbo,
Stein.

English Gooseberries

Blucher, Chautauqua, Columbus, Crown
Bob, Dominion, Excellent, Frontenac, In-
dustry, Jolly Angler, Keepsake, Lady Pop-
ham, Lancashire Lad, Leveler, Lord Bea-
consfield, Matchless, Portage, Puyallup,
Queen of the Whites, Red Champagne,
Red Jacket, Red Warrington, Smiling
Beauty, Spineless, Stockwell, Success, Sul-
phur, Sunset, Tally Ho, Thumper, Tri-
umph, Wellington Glory, White Eagle,
White Smith.

Originated by l)r. Wm. Saunders

Perhaps no American has done so much
to improve the gooseberry as Dr. Wm.
Saunders, of the Dominion Experiment
farm, Canada. The following varieties
are due to his patient toil and intelli-
gence, as the best of his productions:

Deacon, Richland, Mabel, Duncan, Al-
ma, Pearle, Flora, Silvia, Ralph, Red
Jacket, Gibb, Rideau, Ruth, Saunders.

Recommended l»y tlie
American Pomological Society

Recommended by the American Pomo-
logical Society for the United States and
Canada:

^District No. 1

Successful: Industry, White Smith,
Josselyn, Smith.

Very successful: Downing, Houghton,
Pearl.

Recommended for trial: Columbus,
Keepsake.

District No. 2

Successful: Chautauqua, Columbus,
Crown Bob, Industry, Wellington, White

* See Page 192.

1080

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Gooseberries.
-Golden Prolific, a large English variety, green in color, turning yellow when ripe : quality
excellent. 2 — Keepsake, much like the Golden Prolific but does not bear as heavily. 3 —
Industry, another English variety turning dark red when ripe ; quality excellent. 4 — Chau-
tauqua, a variety much like the "Golden JProlific hut of a lighter color. 5 — White Smith, an
English variety, medium to large, and of good quality when ripe. 6 — Lancashire Lad,
resembling the Chautauqua but not as prolific. 7 — I'earl, medium in size, midway between
the English and American types, very prolific and an excellent berry. 8 — Portage, large,
dark red, spiny, of good quality. 9 — Josselyn, medium in size, red when ripe, of good
quality, very prolific. 10 — Houghton, small, prolific, of good quality: its chief objection is
its size. Oregon Champion Gooseberry is not in this list, but is one of the best varieties for
Western Washington.

— Photo and Descriptions hy J. H. Stalil, Western Washington Experiment Station.

GOOSEBERRY— GOOSEBERRY DISEASES

1081

Smith, Champion, Houghton, Pearl Red,
Pearl, Smith.

Very stjccessful: Josselyn, Downing.

District No. 3

Successful: Chautauqua, Columbus,
Crown Bob, Champion, Downing, Hough-
ton, Smith.

District No. 4

Successful: Industry, Josselyn, Pale
Red, Smith.

Veby successful: Downing, Houghton.

Districts Jfos. 5, 6 and 7

Are not suited to the growing of goose-
berries, therefore none is recommended.
These districts include Florida, parts of
Georgia, North and South Carolina, and
the states westward to Texas on the Gulf
of Mexico.

District No. 8

Successful: Crown Bob, Champion,
Pale Red, Pearl, Smith.

Very successful: Downing, Houghton.

Recommended for trial: Chautauqua,
Columbus, Industry, Wellington, Carrie,
Competine, Craighead.

District No. 9

Successful: Chautauqua, Columbus,
Crown Bob, Industry, Wellington, Carrie,
Champion, Josselyn.

Very successful: Downing, Hough-
ton, Pearl.

Recommended for trial: Competine,
Mathews, Smith.

District No. 10

Successful: Chautauqua, Columbus,
Industry, Champion, Houghton, Pearl,
Poorman, Smith.

Very successful: Downing.

District No. 11

None is recommended for this dis-
trict, as it includes a part of Texas, with
the Pecos and Rio Grande rivers as dom-
inant features. Gooseberries do not suc-
ceed in this section.

District No. 12

Successful: Berkeley, Chautauqua, In-
dustry, White Smith, Champion, Oregon.

Very successful: Downing, Houghton,
Josselyn, Smith.

Recommended for tri.a^l: Pearl Red,
Pearl.

District No. 13

Recommended as successful: Down-
ing, Pearl, Smith.
Very successful: Industry, Houghton.

District No. 14

Successful: Downing.

Very successful: Champion.

Recommended for trial: Industry.

District No. 15

Successful: Industry, Downing.
Very successful: Champion.

Districts 16, 17 and 18

Include California and Arizona, and
none is recommended for these districts.

A study of these recommendations will
show that the Downing and the Hough-
ton are more generally recommended as
very successful than any other varieties.

For V.\rieties Grown in Alaska, see
Alaska.

GOOSEBERRY DISEASES

Leaf Spot. See Currant Diseases.
Powdery Mildew

This is the most serious fungus disease
which is known to attack the foliage and
fruit of the gooseberry. It is a native
disease; that is, due to a fungus which
doubtless occurred upon wild gooseberries
before cultivated varieties were planted
in this country. It is found to be much
more serious upon European varieties
than American varieties. It is probable
that varieties originating from European
species, not having this fungus to contend
with, have never developed any natural
immunity. This disease is present in
more or less severity in all parts of the
United States where gooseberries are
grown.

Symptoms

This disease is characterized by the
production of a superficial white mold or
mildew in spots on the fruit and foliage
of young canes. It probably first starts
upon the young foliage, but is first
noticed by the grower upon the fruit.
The spots are at first whitish but later
become buff or almost brown in color.
From the fruit the disease spreads rap-
idly to the foliage and young canes. If
examined with a pocket lens the spots,
when young, are seen to consist of a

1082

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

white cob-webby growth. Several spots
may grow together and large patches may
be formed. In older spots the moldy
growth turns brown. Later in the year
small black specks, just visible to the
unaided eye, appear in the brown mold
in older spots.

The berries, when attacked on one side,
may develop unevenly, and in severe
cases may crack and decay. When at-
tacked at a later stage they do not crack;
but the presence of the mold renders them
unsalable.

The leaves of diseased shoots are small
and where badly affected gradually turn
brown. The general effect on the plant
is to reduce the vitality and market value
of the crop.

Cause

This disease is caused by a fungus be-
longing to a group known commonly as
the powdery mildews. These fungi are
superficial in their growth; that is, the
mycelium develops largely on the outside
of the affected spots instead of in the
tissues as is the case with most fungi.
The mycelium sends short branches into
the outer cells of the part of the plant
attacked. These absorb the sap. In the
early part of the season the summer
spores are produced in chains on the
erect branches of the mycelium. These
are produced in great abundance and soon
fall apart, giving the surface of the spots
a dusty appearance, from which fact the
name "powdery mildew" has originated.
These spores are easily spread by the
wind or other agencies and start new
spots wherever they come to rest. This
superficial mycelium, as noted above, soon
turns dark and becomes thick-walled, and
later in the season black spherical re-
ceptacles are formed which have long
thread-like appendages attached. These
are called perithecia; they are hollow
and enclose a single large sack or ascus,
inside of which are found eight rather
large spores. This stage, which may be
referred to as the winter spore stage,
serves to carry the fungus over winter.
The perithecia, when mature in the
spring, burst, forcibly ejecting the spores,
which, on coming to rest upon young

leaves or fruit, germinate, causing the
first spots. It is thus seen that the fun-
gus, which remains over the winter on
the canes of the current growth and on
the leaves and ground, etc., serves as a
source of infection in the spring.

Treatment

This disease is one of the most difficult
among the powdery mildews to control.
The standard remedy for years has been
to spray with potassium sulphide, 1
ounce to 2 or 3 gallons of water, begin-
ning when the buds break open and con-
tinuing at intervals of ten days until
about seven applications have been made.
This, wherever used thoroughly, has been
found to control mildew.

Co-operative experiments conducted by
the writer in Oregon during the past
season indicate that an application of
winter strength lime-sulphur to the dor-
mant branches, followed by applications
of lime-sulphur diluted 1-30 on the fo-
liage at frequent intervals, gives excellent
satisfaction. On account of the slight
deposit of lime-sulphur it may be found
desirable to use potassium sulphide in
the later sprayings.

H. S. Jackson

Rust. See Currant Diseases.
For other Diseases of Gooseberry, see
under Currard. Diseases.

GOOSEBERRY PESTS

Fruit Worm. See Currant Pests.

Gooseberry Fruit Worm

Zophobia grossulariae Riley
Just before gooseberries ripen, clusters
of two or three may sometimes be no-
ticed which are prematurely colored and
which are joined together by the webs
spun by the caterpillar or a small moth.
These caterpillars are pale greenish-white
and sometimes have a reddish tinge. They
live inside the berries and, when the
contents of one berry are consumed, at-
tack another near at hand, joining it to
the first by a silken web. When full
grown they fall to the ground and spin
brown parchment-like cocoons, just be-
neath the surface of the ground. The
moths, which are pale grey, marked with
dark streaks and bands, are very rarely

GOOSEBERRY PESTS— GOURD— GRAPES

1083

observed. They fly early in spring, and
tliere is only one brood in the year.

Remedy

The best method of controlling this
insect, which fortunately Is never very
abundant, is to pick by hand the clusters
of injured berries. It is claimed that
chickens and other poultry are useful in
destroying the larvae and chrysalids; and
it is certain that, while chickens are very
small, they are useful in a garden in de-
stroying a great number of injurious
insects. The old hen, however, should be
kept securely cooped up and not allowed
to run at large.

James Fletcher.
Dominion Entomoloalst. Ottawa, Can.

Gooseberry Midge

Cecidomyia grossulariae
This is a small, yellowish fly, about
one-tenth of an inch long, which deposits
its eggs beneath the skin of the young
fruit. Remedy, hand-picking and destruc-
tion of the infested berries.

Mealy Flafa or Frosted Lightning Hopper

Ormenis pruinosa

This insect is sometimes found on
gooseberry as well as grape, sassafras,
corn and other plants. It is a lead-colored
or pale green, wedge-shaped insect,
frosted over with a whitish bloom, and
has its wings lying flat against its sides
and prolonged behind the body to meet
each other. It is a sucking insect. No
remedy is needed. The eggs are laid in
twigs of sassafras and other trees in a
continuous raised slit, sometimes in Sep-
tember or soon thereafter.

Oyster Shell Scale. See Apple Pests.

Scale Insects. See Apple Pests.

For other Pests of Gooseberry, see Cur-
rant Pests.

Gourd

The gourd belongs to the order Cucur-
Mtaceae and includes the following:

First: The calabash, or bottle-gourd,
having a hard rind and club shaped,
technically called Lagenaria Vulgaris.

Second: Squash; any one of the trail-
ing annuals of the genus Cucurhita.

Third: Pumpkin; the large round fruit
of the genus Cucurbita pepo.

Fourth: Muskmelon; Cucumis melo.

Fifth: Watermelon; Citrullis vulgaris.

Sixth: Cucumber; Cucumis sativus.

For Culture, see Squash, Cucumber,
etc.

Grafting. See Propagation under
Apple.

Grain Aphis. See Aphids.

Grain. See Apple Orchard Cover
Crops.

Grapes

The subject may be divided into two
parts. First, "Grapes of the Old World,"
second, "Grapes of America."

Grapes of the Old World

There is just one species of grape cul-
tivated in the Old World, and that is
Yitis vinifera. This is the grape of an-
cient and modern agriculture, renowned
in history, fable, myth, allegory, and
poetry. Orientals believed that it was
planted in the Garden of Eden, to be
cared for by our first parents. Milton
says: "They led the vine to wed his elm."
It seems pretty clear that the Canaanites
grew large vineyards and grapes of very
fine quality, at the time of the conquest
of that country by the Israelites upon
their return from Egypt, as early as
1500 years before Christ. The history of
the grape dates back to the oldest his-
toric times and has followed civiliza-
tion into all parts of the world. In fact,
seeds of the grape are found in the re-
mains of the Swiss lake dwellings of the
Bronze Period and entombed with the
mummies of Egypt. Virgil gives fifteen
varieties of grapes, while Pliny gives
ninety-one varieties, and describes fifty
kinds of wine.

From the "Grapes of New York" we
quote the following:

"The history of the development of the
vine from Virgil's time through the early
centuries of the Christian Era and of the
Middle Ages to our own day is largely
the history of agriculture, in the South-
ern European countries, for the vine dur-
ing this period has been the chief plant
cultivated by the Greek and the Latin
nations.

1084

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Characteristics of the
European and American Grapes

"The Old World grape is grown for
wine; the American grape for the table.
The differences arise largely out of the
purposes for which they are grown. The
Vitis vinifera varieties have a higher
sugar and solid content than do those of
America. Because of this richness in
sugar, they not only make better wine,
but keep longer and can be manufactured
into raisins. The American grapes are
not good keepers, and do not make good
raisins. Taken as a whole, the European
varieties are better flavored, have a more
agreeable aroma, and lack the acidity and
what some call the 'foxy odor' of the
American grape. It is true that in some
of the varieties there is a disagreeable
astringency and that many are practi-
cally without flavor; yet, all in all, that
species produces by far the better flavored
fruit. On the other hand, American table
grapes are more refreshing, and the un-
fermented juice makes a much more
pleasant and refreshing drink. The
bunches and berries of the European
grape are larger, more attractive in ap-
pearance, and are borne in greater quan-
tity vine for vine and acre for acre than
the American grape. The pulp and skin
of the Vitis vinifera are less objection-
able than those of the native species, and
the pulp separates more easily from the
seeds. The berries do not shell from
the stem nearly so quickly, hence the
bunches ship better. In comparing the
vines, those of the Old World grapes are
more compact in habit, make a shorter
and stouter annual growth, therefore re-
quire less pruning and training. The
roots are fleshy and more flbrous. Taken
as a whole, the species is adapted to more
kinds of soil, and to greater differences
in environment, also is more easily prop-
agated from cuttings than the American
grapes. The cultivated forms of the wild
vines in this country have few points of
superiority over their relatives from the
Eastern hemisphere; but these few are
such as to make them now and probably
ever the only grapes to be cultivated in
the commercial vineyards east of the

Rocky mountains. Indeed, had it not
been for the discovery that the vine of
the Vitis vinifera could be grown on the
roots of any one of the several species of
the American grapes, the vineyards of
the Old World grape would have been
almost wholly destroyed within the last
half century because of one of its weak-
nesses. This weakness is its non-resist-
ance to the phylloxera, a tiny plant louse
working on the leaf and root of the
grape, which in a few years wholly de-
stroys the European vine, but does com-
paratively little harm to the American
vine. Three other pests are much more
harmful to the European than to the
American vines; these are black rot,
downy mildew and powdery mildew.

"The susceptibility of the European
grape to these parasites debars it from
cultivation in Eastern America so effec-
tively that there is but little hope of any
pure-bred variety ever being grown in
that region. However, by combining
the good qualities of the foreign grape
with those of the American grape,
and by careful selection and breeding, we
may in time secure varieties in all re-
spects equal or superior to those of the
Old World.

"Doubtless the quality of resistance to
various diseases which belongs to the
American grape is due to natural selec-
tion, resulting from the war which has
been waged for ages between host and
parasite, and the fact that they have
been able to survive is a guarantee that
they will perpetuate their powers of re-
sistance.

"In the western part of the American
continent European grapes have suc-
ceeded. At the old missions in New Mexi-
co, Arizona and California, grapes of the
European varieties were grown before
settlements were made in the eastern
parts of the United States. Great efforts
were made by the Eastern colonists to
grow European grapes and manufacture
wine as an article of commerce. Several
of the legislatures gave subsidies to
French and German experts to establish
successful and profitable vineyards; but
after more than one hundred years of

GRAPES

1085

1086

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

failure, the project was abandoned. Since
then, many attempts have been made but
they have not proved successful. There
have been practically three hundred years
of failure to grow European grapes along
the Atlantic coast and it has always
proven that unless the varieties are im-
proved or become better adapted, they
cannot be made profitable.

The American Grape

"The American grape is pre-eminently
a North American plant. There are about
fifty species of the genus Titis, more than
half of which are found on this conti-
nent. But few other plants in America
or in the world are adapted to such varied
climate and soil conditions. In North
America, wild grapes abound on the
warm, dry soils of New Brunswick and
New England, about the Great Lakes in
Canada and the United States, and almost
anywhere in the valleys and rich wood-
lands of the Southern states. They thrive
in the dry woods, sandy sea plains and
reef keys of the Carolinas, Georgia and
Florida, where the vines of the Scupper-
nong often run more than a hundred feet
over trees and shrubs, rioting in natural
luxuriance. They flourish in the moun-
tains and limestone hills of the Virginias,
Tennessee and Kentucky. They are not
so common in the West, yet they are
found in almost all parts of the Missis-
sippi valley, from the Great Lakes to the
Gulf of Mexico. Even in the Rocky moun-
tain and Pacific coast states, in semi-arid
plains and mountains, grapes are found
growing wild. It is certain that these
wild grapes were not distributed over
these regions by the hand of man. They
have doubtless been growing in this re-
gion from before the time of the migra-
tion of the first savages. The agents for
their distribution were birds, which car-
ried the seeds; animals, lake and river
currents. When the seeds were dropped,
they entered the competitive struggle
for existence with other plants, and suc-
ceeded. But climate, soil and other con-
ditions of environment tended to modify
them. The species found in the forests
have tended to develop long, slender
trunks and branches in their struggle to

obtain sunlight and air. On the dry
sands, or among the rocks, they are short
and stubby. Still another form runs on
the ground. One is almost evergreen,
while nearly all others drop their leaves.
Some are long-lived, growing and bearing
fruit for nearly two centuries; while
others are scarcely longer-lived than the
ordinary shrub. Some have enormous
stems a foot or more in diameter, others
are slender and graceful. Not less re-
markable than the differences in struc-
ture is the adaptability of the genus and
some of the species to varied climatic
conditions. Several of the wild grapes
develop full size and display natural lux-
uriance and fruit-bearing qualities only
in the Middle states, but may be found
on the dry, gravelly, wind-swept liills far
to the north or in some hot and humid
atmosphere of the South, as if to show
indifference to wet or dry, heat or cold.

"On the other hand there are many
strong points of resemblance between the
score or more of species. The organs and
characters that do not bear the strain of
changed environment nor suffer in the
perpetual warfare with nature, are much
the same in all the species of the Vitis.
Thus, the structure of fruits, fiowers and
seeds is practically identical. All have
naked tipped tendrils; leaves and leaf
buds are very similar, and various species
usually hybridize freely. They are alike
in the unlikeness of individual plants in
any of the species; that is, all of the indi-
viduals of the genus are most variable,
and the seeds taken from the same vine
may produce plants quite unlike one an-
other and quite unlike the parent. These
few facts regarding the evolution and dis-
tribution of American grapes lead to
two important conclusions:

"First, the species are so distributed
throughout the United States, and Indi-
viduals of the species grow in such lux-
uriance and abundance, as to suggest that
we may be able to improve and domesti-
cate some one or more of them for all
the agricultural regions of the country.
For it is proved that nearly all the wild
grapes have agricultural possibilities;
and experience with many plants teaches

GRAPES

1087

A Yakima Va

that the boundaries of areas inhabited
by the wild species of a given region
coincide witli tliose suited to tlie produc-
tion of the domesticated plant in that
region. It is not possible to tell where
the grape-growing regions of the future
are to be located; for species and indi-
viduals of that fruit are so common that
no one can say where the grape in
America is most at home.

"Second, grapes are so variable and
plastic in their nature that they yield
readily to improvement. Besides being
variable, they hybridize freely and thus
the plant breeder can obtain valuable
starting points. There are indications
that some of the characters of the grapes
follow Mendel's law of 'the inheritance by
the offspring of the dominant traits,' and
when once these liave been determined,
and the more important unit characters
segregated and defined, it ought to be
possible to rearrange and combine the
characters of this fruit with some system,
and surely with more certainty than in

the past." ^ r

Granville Lowther

Propagation

The Scuppernong grapes of the South
are almost exclusively increased by means

lley ^'ille.va^d.

of layerage. For this purpose the vine
is pulled down in spring and covered
with soil at intervals of two feet. Another
method now in common use is to lay the
new canes in shallow trenches in early
spring and cover only two or three
inches deep. When each node has thrown
up a shoot a foot long earth is piled in
about them, when they will take root.
If the vine be slightly twisted or other-
wise bruised at the points where covered,
they will readily take root and form
strong plants during the season. Late in
fall or the following spring, the vine may
be cut into sections, each part having
roots being a separate plant.

Nearly all of the many scores of va-
rieties root readily from cuttings. Grape
cuttings should be made in early winter
before there has been a hard freeze, from
wood of the last season's growth. Vines
with the joints close together make better
cuttings than those having the joints far
apart. Begin at the butt end of the vine,
cutting it off squarely just below a joint
or node. Counting this joint one, skip
two more joints and cut the vine off at
least two inches above the third one. It
is best to have at least three joints for
each cutting, although it is not absolutely

1088

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

necessary to have more than two. The
cuttings will range in length from 10 to
14 Inches, although the majority are
usually about 12 inches long.

Pack the cuttings in bundles of fifty
each and store in green sawdust in a cool
cellar until spring. The ground on which
grape cuttings are to be planted should
be moderately rich and plowed very
deeply, preferably the fall before they are
planted. The cuttings should be planted
out early in April, care being taken to
see that their buds have not begun to
push out while packed in the sawdust.
In the nursery the rows should be four
feet apart and perfectly straight, being
lined up with a wire or garden line. The
cuttings may be planted by making holes
about four inches apart, like planting
apple grafts, or a furrow from eight to
ten inches deep may be made. In either
case, the cuttings should not stand up
straight, but should lean toward the
south, and the soil be packed very firmly
around the bottom joint; only the top
bud should be left above ground and the
soil should be almost up to it.

The cuttings will often strike root from
both the joints under ground, thus mak-
ing very strong plants. They should
grow in nursery rows for one, or pref-
erably, two years, when they are ready
to be moved to the permanent planting.
The vineyard rows should be from eight
to ten feet apart and the vines from six
to eight feet apart in the rows. At the
time of planting the vines should be cut
back, leaving only about two buds to each
branch.

Old grape vines are sometimes renewed
or the varieties changed by cleft-grafting.
This is done in the manner described for
cleft-grafting the apple, except that
usually the soil is drawn away from
around the plants and the vines sawed
off below ground at least three or four
inches. The vine is split open and two
scions inserted and the earth packed
around them. It is not necessary to use
grafting wax on the wound. The soil
should be drawn around the scions, leav-
ing only one bud of each above ground.

Single Eye Cuttings

When wood for making cuttings is very

valuable or scarce, rapid propagation is

effected by means of single eye cuttings,

using either the matured wood of the new

growth in fall or the green growing wood

in summer. The cuttings in either case

are made by using only one joint for each,

and must be started into growth by being

covered an inch deep, while lying flat

in a sand box or bed in a greenhouse or

hotbed. Single eye cuttings' make weak

vines.

W. L. Howard

Grapes in jVortheastern United States

Next to the Pacific coast region, that
section of country known to horticultur-
ists as District No. 2, is the greatest grape
growing section of the United States.
(See Page 192.)

This section includes Nova Scotia,
Maine, below 500 feet elevation; New
Hampshire and "Vermont, south of lati-
tude 44 degrees; Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, Connecticut, New York, south of
latitude 44, except Long Island; North
New Jersey; above 500 feet elevation;
Pennsylvania, east of the Susquehanna
river and above 500 feet elevation, north
of latitude 41, west of the Alleghaney
river, and all that portion of the state
lying north of the Ohio river; Ohio and
Indiana, north of latitude 40 degrees; the
lower peninsula of Michigan; and Ontario
south of Atlantic coast, the lake region
of Western New York, Ohio, Ontario,
Michigan and the Hudson river valley
are the leading features of District No. 2.

There are in the Lake Erie valley of
Western New York, alone, over 30,000
acres of grapes. This section, in connec-
tion with Northwestern Pennsylvania,
produces annually over $2,500,000 worth
of grapes for the markets.

The following on the culture of the
grape is adapted to this region:

Culture
Location

*The ideal location for the vineyard is
gently sloping land. Many fine vineyards
are located on steep hillsides, yet the

* Circular 10. New York Experiment Station.

GRAPES

1089

liability of washing and difllculty of til-
lage tend to render such vineyards less
productive and shorter lived. The shores
about the large lakes appear to be espe-
cially well adapted to grapes — these dis-
tricts in some instances extending sev-
eral miles back from the water. But
very rarely can grapes be grown in our
northernmost latitudes without the in-
creased labor and cost of covering in
winter, except under the tempering in-
fluence of large bodies of water. Low
situations that prevent a free circulation
of air, such as river bottoms and the
basins of small lakes, should be avoided,
as such locations are more liable to un-
seasonable frosts; and also their poor air
drainage favors powdery mildew and
black rot. There is much difference of
opinion as to the direction the rows
should run. In the "Chautauqua Grape
Belt" the prevailing direction is north
and south, where the slope is not too
steep. This is ideal for this section, as
the morning sun rapidly dries the dew
on the east side of the rows while the
prevailing wind dries it on the west. The
constant west and northwest wind is
probably the chief reason why this dis-
trict is so free from black rot. Where
the slope is steep, the rows must neces-
sarily run at right angles to it.

The foregoing does not necessarily
mean that the grape can not be grown
on level land, for such is not the case.
Many fine, vigorous vineyards are so situ-
ated, but, as a rule, sloping land has
the better natural surface drainage. The
region about a large body of water is
usually rolling or sloping. Hence, more
vineyards are found on the slopes than
on the typical flat land.

Soils

Experience shows that grapes may be
grown upon a great variety of soils. Pro-
ductive vineyards are found on loam,
sandy loam, gravel, gravelly loam,
heavy clay and clay loam. It is not so
much a question of the kind of soil, as
the condition of that soil as to texture,
drainage and fertility, and the possibil-
ity of washing. It is true that certain
varieties exhibit a soil preference, but

most commercial varieties will thrive on
many types of soil.

Drainage

The first essential is that there be
good drainage. The cultivated grape
does not thrive with its roots continu-
ously in water, though it be more toler-
ant in this respect than most fruits. A
natural conclusion prevails that sloping
land is well drained; yet this is not al-
ways true. Especially where the soil is
shallow, an impervious rock or hardpan
below may form basins or "kettle" holes
in which water is retained and the soil
becomes saturated, as the water must rise
to the surface to escape. Under such
conditions, a slope is as badly water-
logged and as poorly drained as a low-
land area. If there be not good drainage,
the field should be tiled.

Preparation of Soil

In the preparation of the soil for set-
ting grape vines the grower should exer-
cise the greatest care. A little thought
and work before setting will pay for
themselves many times over. As a gen-
eral rule it is poor practice to reset to
grape land that has just been in vine-
yard, without putting under a good green
manure crop two or three times before
planting. When it is desired to reset
land where a vineyard has been pulled
out, or even where a new location is
selected, sow mammoth clover in August
and plow this under just before it blos-
soms the following summer; then seed
it again to clover and plow it under the
following spring, when ready to plant.
Deep turning under of a green manure
crop, followed by thorough dragging and
rolling, puts the soil in the best of tilth.
Once gotten in good tilth after thorough
preparation, it is far easier to maintain
in good condition than without such
preparation.

In fitting the field, preparatory to plant-
ing, plow as deeply as possible, with a
two-horse plow, into lands eight or nine
feet wide — the width depending on the
distance apart which the rows are to be
made. This will leave dead furrows eight
or nine feet apart. Then with a subsoil
plow, go twice through each dead fur-

2—28

1090

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

row. Much of the soil loosened by the
subsoil can now be thrown out by
again going through each furrow with
the two-horse plow, once each way. This
insures deep planting and increases great-
ly the area for root growth.

Yiiies

The selection of vines is an important
part in the foundation of the vineyard.
Too often it is neglected altogether, by
reason of the inability of the prospec-
tive grower to judge vines, or else poor
vines are purchased knowingly because
they are cheap. A poor vine purchased
because of cheapness is a poor invest-
ment. A vineyard started with poor
vines is handicapped at the start and
rarely, if ever, overcomes the burden,
even with good aftercare.

First-grade one-year vines are to be
preferred to those two years old. They
are as a rule much better, though to the
amateur a large vine promises more.
Very frequently two-year vines represent
the poorer one-year vines of the previous
season transplanted and allowed to grow
in the nursery row another season.
Most commercial vineyards are set with
one-year vines, while the amateur usual-
ly sets those two years old. There are
doubtless some good two-year vines, but
they are the exception.

Varieties

The Concord is pre-eminently the com-
mercial black grape in New York. In
Chautauqua county probably 95 per cent
of the acreage is of this variety. The
season of good black grapes could be
considerably lengthened by planting
Moore Early with Concord, as both these
varieties stand up well and could be ship-
ped to the most distant markets. Moore
Early and Worden are frequently sold
as Concord, as are several other black
grapes. In the latitude of Western New
York, Moore Early ripens about ten days
before Concord. If one is close to local
markets, Worden should have a place in
the commercial vineyard and by all
means in the home vineyard. Its quality
is excellent, but it will not stand ship-
ping. It ripens about a week before Con-
cord. Worden has proven very produc-

tive and its clusters are large, compact,
with large berries.

For red grapes, Catawba should cer-
tainly De planted where it will thorough-
ly ripen. It is of good quality and a
good keeper. For quality, the Delaware
is the grape par excellence and, with
close pruning and good feeding, it is a
very profitable grape. For green grapes,
Winchell, or Green Mountain as it is
listed by some nurserymen, should more
generally be planted. This is a very
early grape, of excellent quality, a good
bearer of large-shouldered, compact clus-
ters. For markets that prefer a green
grape and one extremely early Winchell
will find a ready sale. Niagara needs no
recommendation as a market grape and
with proper care and especially allowing
it to ripen fully, it will become even
more popular. By the selection of var-
ieties, black, white and red, that ripen
in succession, the grower can overcome
to a certain extent the frequent glutting
of the market that occurs in seasons of
big crops when only one or two varieties
are grown in an entire district and all
are being shipped to the same markets.
On the other hand he must not go to the
other extreme and set too many varieties
unless these can be handled in car lots
or disposed of locally.

Cross-Pollination

Owing to the fact that certain varieties
(self-sterile) of grapes will not form mar-
ketable clusters when planted by them-
selves, away from other varieties, it is
necessary that the prospective grower
learn whether the varieties he is setting
be self-fertile or self-sterile. If he is
setting both, he should alternate the
two classes so as to insure pollen dis-
tribution from the self-fertile to the self-
sterile. The varieties given in this cir-
cular are all self-fertile. Never set va-
rieties known to be self-sterile in large
solid blocks.

Distance

There are many recommendations as
to distances apart for rows and vines.
Some of the older vineyards are set 10
feet by 10 feet, but the prevailing dis-
tances are rows 9 feet apart and vines

GRAPES

1091

8 feet. A most suitable distance appears
to be 8% feet by 8 feet, as an Sy^-foot
row can be plowed most satisfactorily
with a three-gang plow by going twice
through the row, and the subsequent til-
lage with spring-tooth and disc may be
economically done. Many of the newer
vineyards are being set 8 feet by 6 feet,
and some even 8 feet by 4 feet. In this
instance the grower plans to take out
every other vine as soon as two or three
crops have been harvested; or else to
leave all and put up but half the wood
per vine that is usually put up where
they are 8 feet by 8 feet. But observa-
tion has shov/n that orchardists who have
set trees closer than they should have
been — intending to remove alternate trees
when they arrived at maturity — find it
exceedingly heartbreaking to remove a
healthy bearing tree; and this, no doubt,
will hold with the vineyardist who is set-
ting 8 feet by 4 feet with the intention
of pulling out each alternate vine.

Planting

The field having been plowed in lands
of the desired width, stakes are now set
in the furrow at the interval decided upon
for the vines in the row. These should
be lined carefully each way. Then with
the hoe and shovel, the hole is dug in
the bottom of the furrow with the stake
as the center. This can be readily done,
as the plowing has loosened the soil.
There is not much danger of setting the
vine too deep, but rather the other ex-
treme. The hole should be dug deep
enough so that the bottom may be filled
in with surface soil, leaving a mound
in the center of the hole upon which
the base of the vine is to rest. It should
be large enough to accommodate the
roots without crowding. The roots are
cut back more or less severely, depending
on their growth and condition, but gener-
ally to about eight or ten inches from
the base. The top is cut back to two
or three buds. The roots are then
spread out in the hole so that they are
equally disposed in all directions, the
base of the vine resting on the mound,
with the roots sloping downward at quite
an angle; then a little of the surface

soil is tamped firmly upon them. More
soil is added and firmly packed, until
the hole is nearly filled, but the soil
last filled in is not tamped, leaving the
surface soil loose. The vine should now
be deep enough so that the two or three
buds of the top are just above the
ground. The following winter or spring
the growth of the previous season is cut
back to two buds, for we should aim,
above all else, to get a good, well-estab-
lished root system. Then at the begin-
ning of the second year we find our vine
in apparently the same condition as the
year of setting. This spring we should
set the trellis posts, putting on but one
wire. The trellis is not put up to fix the
future training, but to get the canes out
of the way for cultivation. Some fruit
may set this season, but it should be re-
moved early. The following spring the
vine is ready to be trained permanently
upon the trellis and a variety of systems
are presented. The grower can choose
the one he believes best suited for his
varieties and local conditions. The la-
bor problem is an important factor to
be observed in this selection as it is more
costly to prune and tie some systems than
others.

Alleys
When the vineyard is to cover more
than three acres it is best to provide al-
leys or driveways for each such area,
these to run both parallel and crosswise
to the row. They facilitate all vineyard
practices, especially cultivation and har-
vesting, by permitting ready access and
shorter hauls. The alleys should be wide
enough to permit turning with a two-
horse wagon. The tendency is to provide
too few alleys rather than too many.

Tillage

Frequent and thorough tillage is very
essential for the vineyard. The first
spring operation is plowing under the
cover crops, with the single horse and
gang plows. This can be done as soon as
the weather and soil conditions will per-
mit. A single furrow is plowed up to
or away from the vines on either side of
the row; then follow this with the gang
plow, and, if the cover crop was particu-

1092

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

k-r,;^^ .»•

*^^tS//KKKt, j^tf^^^f/K^'^ ^M- '''''f'%!^ 4P^K^^9^k.

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y?A%

Kennewick Tokays.

GRAPES

1093

larly heavy, with the disc harrow. The
three-gang plow will cover an 8i/^-foot
row in one bout. Where no cover crop
was sown, the disc may replace the plow.
The subsequent cultivation is done with
the grape hoe, hand hoe, spring-tooth
harrow, and disc harrow. Just about the
time that the root-worm has transferred
to the pupa or "turtle" stage and has got-
ten into the upper layer of the soil,
ready to emerge and, as adult, to lay
its eggs on the canes, the grape hoe may
be used to throw a furrow away from
the hills. This exposes the delicate
pupal stage of the insect to the sun and
other climatic conditions which are very
destructive to it. Cultivate at regular
intervals of ten days and always just be-
fore the soil has crusted from a rain,
and especially often in a season of
drought. About the first of August dis-
continue cultivation, the last operations
being gang plowing, dragging, and plow-
ing a single furrow up to each side of the
hill. Care should be observed to keep
the soil level throughout the entire width
of the row during the growing season.
This insures a more uniform distribution
of rainfall.

CoTcr Crops

The vineyard should be sown to a cov-
er crop at this time by broadcasting and
dragging in with the spring-tooth har-
row or else drilling it. Before sowing,
it is well to watch the weather maps
pretty closely and try to sow just before
or just after rain. If good cultivation
has been given we will have now a good
seed bed. Mammoth clover, vetch, Can-
ada field peas, clover mixed with cow-
horn turnips, and winter wheat mixed
with cow-horn turnips can be used.
Mammoth clover sown at the rate of 20
pounds per acre has proven very satis-
factory and makes an ideal nitrogenous
cover crop for the vineyard. It decays
rapidly and adds much nitrogen and
humus to the soil.

The next most promising nitrogenous
cover crops for the vineyard are hairy
vetch and a mixture of mammoth clover
(15 pounds) and cow-horn turnips (1
pound per acre). A mixture of winter

v/heat (1 bushel) and cow-horn turnips
(12 ounces per acre) promises a very
satisfactory non-nitrogenous cover crop.

In addition to furnishing and liberat-
ing plant food in the soil, the organic
matter derived from a cover crop im-
proves the mechanical condition and con-
serves moisture. A crop growing late in
the fall, after the vines have ceased
growing, also utilizes nitrates that are
being formed then and would otherwise
be lost by leaching, especially on knolls
and hillsides liable to washing. There
can be no doubt that the grape does best
under frequent and thorough tillage, and
this means that organic matter and
humus are being rapidly burned out of
the soil. Hence the loss must be sup-
plied by the use of stable manure, cover
crops, or organic commercial fertilizer.

Intercropping

Many growers grow potatoes, cabbage,
beans, etc., between the rows of the
young vineyard for the first two years,
while others interplant blackberries, rasp-
berries, currants, gooseberries and straw-
berries for indefinite periods. Observa-
tion shows that neither of these plans is
in keeping with the best vineyard prac-
tices; and both the primary and second-
ary crops suffer as the result of such sys-
tems. The only crop that should be
allowed in the vineyard is the cover crop.

Fertilizers

The fertilizers required by the grape
are still largely a matter of experiment,
and until this phase is thoroughly worked
out, the grower must rely on his vines
to tell him what is needed. Even should
the wood growth indicate a lack of nitro-
gen, it would not indicate that more
nitrogen should be added to the soil, as
there might be a sufficiency already pres-
ent, yet unavailable by reason of poor
tillage, lack of drainage and other faulty
practices.

Manuring

The above statements will apply equal-
ly well to the use of stable manure. It
is probable that stable manure does pro-
duce vigorous wood growth in some in-
stances and it is just as probable that
its direct fertilizing value has been over-

1094

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

estimated. Its greatest value lies in its
power to improve the mechanical condi-
tion of the soil by making it more por-
ous and increasing its w^ater-holding
capacity. P. W. Gladwin,

Geneva, N. Y.

HISTORY OF THE PRODUCTION OF
RAISIN GRAPES IN CALIFORNIA

The grapevine has long been cultivated
in California. The mission fathers were
the first to grow successfully the Euro-
pean grape in that state. They had but
one variety, which is still largely grown,
and is known by the name of the Mission
grape. It was planted at San Diego in
1769; San Gabriel in 1771; Los Angeles,
1781, and Santa Barbara in 1786, and was
largely used for wine making. It was
nearly 80 years later before the raisin
grape was introduced into California.

The First Introduction of tlie Raisin Tine

In 1851 Colonel Agostin Haraszth, of
San Diego, grew some Muscatel vines
from seeds of Malaga raisins. In March,
the following year, he imported the Mus-
cat of Alexandria from Malaga, Spain,
and ten years later, during a visit to that
place in September, 1861, he selected cut-
tings of the Gordo Blanco, which were

afterwards grown and propagated in his
vineyard in San Diego county. He was
thus the first to introduce the raisin vine
into California. Another importation of
the Muscat of Alexandria was made in
1855 by A. Delmas, and planted at San
Jose. G. G. Briggs, of Davisville, also
imported Muscatel grapevines from Spain,
while R. B. Blowers, of Woodland, Yolo
county, started one of the first raisin
vineyards in 1863 from Gordo Blanco
cuttings received from Colonel Haraszth.

Early Vineyards in Southern California

In the more southern parts of the
state. Riverside entered the field in 1873,
when Judge John Wesley North, the
founder of the colony of that name, first
planted the Muscat of Alexandria; but
grape growing in that district did not
become general until about three years
later. In El Cajon valley, San Diego
county, the same variety of raisin vines
was planted by R. G. Clark, in 1873, but
most of the vineyards in that county were
not planted until 1884-86. In Orange
county raisin grapes were also planted
about the year 1875-76 by MacPherson
Brothers, who, at one time, were the
largest growers and packers in the state.
Raisins were also produced in San Ber-

Moore's Early.

Wonder.

-Maxtcd Photo

GRAPES

1095

nardino and Los Angeles counties in
former years, but owing to the ravages
of what has since become known as the
Anaheim disease, which destroyed thous-
ands of acres from 1884 to 1889, growers
became discouraged, and oranges and
lemons have taken the place of vines al-
most entirely.

Beginning of the Raisin Industry in
Central California

In 1876, W. S. Chapman imported some
of the best obtainable Muscat vines from
Spain for the Central California Colony
in Fresno county, which, however, proved
in no way different from those already
growing in that county. Who produced
the first raisins in California will prob-
ably never be satisfactorily proved. Ac-
cording to a report of the California
State Agricultural Society, raisins were
exhibited by Dr. J. Strentzel at the state
fair in 1863. The first successful raisin
vineyards in the state were those plant-
ed by G. G. Briggs, of Davisville, in
Solano county, and by R. B. Blowers of
Woodland, Yolo county. The former vine-
yard contained mainly Muscats of Alex-
andria, and the latter, Gordo Blanco.
Both these vineyards produced raisins as
early as 1867, but it was not until 1873

that any quantity was placed on the
market.

First Fresno Vineyards

In the fall of 1873, Muscat vines were
first brought to Fresno, when 25 acres
of the Muscat of Alexandria were plant-
ed in the Eisen vineyard. In 1876-77,
T. C. White planted the Raisina vineyard
in the Central California Colony, Fres-
no, with Gordo Blanco Muscatels brought
from Blowers' vineyard at Woodland.
The following year Miss M. F. Austin
planted her "Hedgerow" vineyard with
the same variety, and Robert Barton also
planted 25 acres of Muscat vines, but
did not make raisins until later.- The
Butler vineyard, one of the largest, was
first planted in 1879, while Colonel Wil-
liam Forsyth commenced grape growing
in 1881-82. Most of his vineyard, how-
ever, was planted a year or two later.

Production of Raisins Doubled in
Five Years

Twenty-five years ago Fresno county
commenced to take the lead, which it has
kept increasing ever since, while South-
ern California, especially Los Angeles and
Orange counties, continued to fall off in
their production, as illustrated by the
following summary:

1885

1886

1887

1888

1889

Fresno

2,140,000

2,580,000

2,780,000

1,340,000

200,000

120,000

4,500,000

3,900,000

3,600,000

1,500,000

500,000

160,000

7,000,000

3,800,000

1,700,000

2,500,000

400,000

200,000

8,800,000

5,400,000

840,000

2,500,000

800,000

220,000

9,500,000

5,300,000

160,000
2,400,000
150,000
300,000
80,000
500,000

Riverside and San Bernar-
dino

Los Angeles and Orange
Counties

Yolo

San Diego

Tulare

Kern

Other smaller districts

240,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

Totals

9,400,000

14,460,000

16,000,000

18,860,000

19,740,000

These figures are only an approximation.

Kings county does not appear in this
list, as it was then part of Tulare coun-
ty, not being organized into a separate
county until 1893. Within the last 20
years great changes have taken place.
Orange and Solano counties no longer
produce raisins; Los Angeles county very
few; Yolo county, which at one time pro-

duced Sultanas and Thompson's Seed-
less in considerable quantities, now finds
it more profitable to ship them as table
grapes; while the large vineyards in Riv-
erside and San Bernardino counties are
more devoted to wine grapes. Of the 52
counties in California, only ten produce
raisins in any quantity:

1096

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

TwelTC Counties Where Raisins are
Produced— (Crop of 1909)

Pounds

Fresno 83,404,000

Tulare 20,000,000

Kings 18,000.000

Sutter 4,500,000

San Bernardino 3,600,000

San Diego 3,200,000

Madera 2,400,000

Yolo 2,000,000

Kern.'.'. 1,100,000

Colusa 900,000

Los Angeles 600,000

Riverside 296,000

Total 140,000,000

GRAPES IN OREGON

The grape culture has not, as yet, been
very highly developed in Oregon; this
industry should receive much more at-
tention. There are two sections in the
state that are specially adapted for the
production of the Vinifera or European
grape as it is commonly called, near The
Dalles and in parts of Southern Oregon
in such regions as the Rogue River val-
ley. The best areas are found principal-
ly on red hill lands that are provided
with good air and soil drainage, have a
warm sunny exposure and are out of the
fog and frost belt. Such grapes as
Tokay, Muscat, Thompson Seedling, etc.,
grow to the highest degree of perfection,
possess splendid quality and are un-
excelled by any grapes the writer has
ever tasted. There is a large demand for
the product and much more attention
should be given to this industry.

These lands can also grow the Ameri-
can or table grapes. Much more atten-
tion should be given to this product, as
we are steadily importing grapes from
Eastern points. The Umpqua valley of-
fers a good field for early table or Ameri-
can grapes like the Worden, Concord,
Delaware, Niagara and Brighton. These
varieties also succeed well in the Wil-
lamette valley on the silt loams along
the rivers and on the sunny, rich hill
lands when such lands are not exposed
to cold winds.

The vines are planted in rows about
five to six feet apart and the plants
from six to eight feet apart in the row,

according to the system of pruning. The
renewal systems of pruning, in which
bearing wood is cut away each year and
new bearing wood produced, are the bet-
ter. Part of the canes should be re-
moved. A strong vine can stand four
canes, while some of the weaker grow-
ing sorts should have but two canes. At
times it is best to limit the number of
bunches the vine is allowed to produce,
and throw greater vitality into the re-
maining bunches.

Grapes must be given exceedingly good
care the first three years and not be al-
lowed to bear during that period, so
that more vitality may be thrown into
the growing vines. They will need
severe cutting back the first few years
and when pruned upright each will pro-
duce arms for fruiting. European va-
rieties are usually grown on stumps, al-
though sometimes they are placed on
wires, while the American varieties are
always grown according to the latter
method. — Oregon Experiment Station
Bulletin 111.

GRAPE GROWING IN THE SOUTH
Introduction

Grapevines grow well in nearly all
parts of the South, and with reasonable
care they seldom fail to produce abun-
dant crops. The grape may, therefore, be
set down as among the most satisfactory
fruits grown in this section. Grapes
ripen at a season when other fruits are
scarce; their acid flavor is especially
agreeable in the warm days of July and
August, and they can usually be sold at
a fair price. In the South the vines are
never injured by severe freezes, and
therefore need no winter protection. Oc-
casionally a late spring frost destroys
the early blooms, but never hurts the
vine enough to prevent its bearing a fair
crop of fruit. Pew fruit-bearing plants
are less particular about the soil in which
they grow, and few will yield so much
fruit in proportion to the land they oc-
cupy and the labor they require. "Wild
grapes are abundant in the woods
throughout the entire region, and where-
ever grapes are found growing wild the
cultivated vines are sure to succeed.

GRAPES

1097

There is no part of the South where
grapes of fine quality can not be grown
in sufficient quantity for home use, and in
many parts they are an exceedingly prof-
itable market crop.

The Question of Soils

Grapes will grow on any soil which is
suited to the growing of peaches. The
best soil is one which is fertile, but not
excessively rich; which is loose and easi-
ly worked, and which is underlaid by an
open and porous subsoil. Neither thrifty
vines nor heavy crops of fruit can be pro-
duced on a sterile soil. On the other
hand, if the soil be too rich, containing
an excess of humus and nitrogenous ma-
terial, as is usually the case with creek-
bottom soils, the vines will make a rank
growth, but the fruit will be small, im-
perfect, sour, and lacking in flavor. The
presence of lime in the soil is always
beneficial.

The character of the subsoil also is very
important. The surface soil is easily
changed and modified by cultivating and
fertilizing, but the subsoil will remain
practically unchanged. As the roots of
the vines are easily injured by excessive
heat and drought or by standing water,
the subsoil should be of such a texture
that the roots can penetrate below the
reach of intense heat, and still not suffer
from too much moisture. When the sub-
soil is loose and porous it not only per-
mits surplus water to pass down through
quickly, but it also assists the water
from below in passing back to the sur-
face in times of drought, thus securing
to the vine the constant and uniform
supply of moisture essential to its
healthy growth. Soils underlaid with
hardpan, those which are inclined to
wash badly, and those which are not
naturally well drained should always be

Niagara.

— Maxted Photo

1098

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

avoided when selecting a location for an
extensive vineyard.

Preparing the Ground

In preparing the ground it should be
plowed very deeply, as no loosening of
the subsoil is possible after the vines
are planted. An excellent plan is to plow
the ground in "lands" the width of the
rows, making the "dead furrows" come
where the vines are to be planted, and
running the plow through them several
times so as to break up the subsoil to
a good depth. This thorough loosening
of the subsoil is especially necessary
where an underlying hardpan prevents
good natural drainage. It will be better
if all the ground is subsoiled, and if the
work is done some weeks or even months
in advance of the planting. Just before
planting, the ground should be plowed
again, reversing the ".lands," so as to
make the ridge come where the furrow
was. This should leave at least two feet
of loosened soil where the vines are plant-
ed, and will afford the roots ample room
for a free growth, besides doing much to
insure them against suffering from
drought.

Laying Out a Yineyard

In laying out a vineyard the rows
should be made to run as nearly north
and south as possible if the vines are to
be trained on a trellis, but if only stakes
are to be used the rows may be run in
any direction. By running the trellis
north and south all the fruiting parts of
the vine have nearly the same exposure
to the sun, while the fruit, main stem,
and roots are shaded and protected dur-
ing the hottest part of the day. Protec-
tion of the soil from washing is of first
importance, however, and the direction of
the rows for any method of training
should be made to conform to the slope
of the ground when the vineyard is on
the side of a hill.

Distance Apart of Vines

The distances between the vines should
be somewhat greater than is recommend-
ed for Northern vineyards, as the longer
growing season produces a heavier
growth, and it is never profitable to
crowd the vines too closely. The rows

should be at least eight feet apart, and
the same distance between the vines in
the rows is close enough for such mod-
erate growers as Delaware, Elvira, and
Gold Coin. Vines of the stronger grow-
ing varieties like Concord or Carman
should be at least ten feet apart; 12
feet is none too wide for such rank grow-
ers as Fern, Laussel, and Herbemont.
Some give the stronger vines as much as
16 feet, and find that distance none too
great on good soil. Vines of the Scup-
pernong family should never be crowded,
and 8 by 16 or 12 by 12 feet is close
enough for them.

Planting

Only strong, one-year-old vines from
cuttings or layers should be used for
planting. Two-year-old vines are usually
larger and heavier, but do not often grow
so well or make as good vines as those
planted at one year, while the three and
four-year-old vines sometimes sold "for
immediate bearing" are of very little
value. It is more economical and in
every way more profitable to pay a good
price for good vines than to use old,
stunted, or unhealthy vines which cost
nothing.

The holes in which the vines are
planted should be of sufficient size to
give room for the roots to be spread out
in their natural positions, say from 15
to 18 inches in diameter, and deep
enough to allow the vines to be set about
two inches deeper than they grew in the
nursery rows. Very little is gained by
making the holes larger than is needed.
Where they can be secured, it is very
beneficial to put a few pounds of bones
in the bottom of each hole and cover
them with a little soil before the vines
ai-e planted. It is not usually possible
to do this for a large vineyard, but where
only a few vines are planted to furnish
fruit for home use a sufficient supply
can commonly be found around a
slaughter house or in the fields, and they
more than repay the trouble of gathering
them. No other fertilizer need be used
at the time of planting.

The tops of the vines should be cut
back to two or three buds. In planting.

GRAPES

1099

the holes should be filled with the finest
and richest soil. If the surface soil
taken from the holes is rich, fine, and
mellow, it will be good enough, but if
the vines are being planted in a hard
clay or a light, sandy soil, it will pay
to haul rich woods soil for filling about
the roots. The filling should be packed
and tramped down firmly, and a slender,
5-foot stake set by the side of each
vine, the stakes being kept in the line
of the row, so as not to be in the way
of cultivation.

All the vines of each variety should be
planted together, and, as soon as the
planting is completed, or while it is in
progress, a complete record should be
made, showing the location of all the
vines of each variety.

Propagation
Originating Kew Varieties

Grapevines are propagated by seeds,
layers, and cuttings, and by grafting.
Propagation from seeds is employed only
for the purpose of originating new vari-
eties. Seedling grapevines may differ
widely from the parent stock, and from
each other, even when the seeds are
from a single cluster of grapes; they
require a long time to come into bear-
ing, and their fruit is usually inferior
to that of some of the established vari-
eties. Nevertheless, it is by the raising
of seedlings that all new varieties are
originated, and the man who grows a
hundred seedling vines feels amply re-
paid for all his labor and trouble if he
finds among them a single one which pro-
duces grapes of superior quality.

Although propagating grapevines from
seeds is rarely profitable, the work is of
intense interest, and it is the only means
by which new and better varieties can be
secured. As work of this kind belongs
to nurserymen and experimenters rather
than practical grape growers, a full
treatment of the methods is unnecessary
here.

Varieties for Shipping, for Wine, and for
Table Use

The better varieties for shipping, as
given by the same report, in order of
maturity, are Diamond, Moore Early,

Brighton, Ives, Delaware, Niagara, Con-
cord, Perkins and Diana.

Varieties recommended for wine are
Norton, Lenoir, Clinton, Concord, Ives,
Thomas, Missouri, Riesling, Catawba,
Delaware, Elvira, Warren and Noah.

The Georgia Experiment Station, in its
Bulletin No. 28, recommends the follow-
ing varieties, enumerated in the order
of their ripening:

For shipping: Moore Early, Delaware,
Ives, Niagara, Concord and Carman.

For table or local market: All the
varieties named above, with the addition
of Presly, Winchell (Green Mountain),
Bell, Brighton, Brilliant, Empire State
and Goethe.

For tvine: Goethe, Missouri, Riesling,
Elvira, Catawba, Herbemont, Delaware,
Scuppernong, Norton, Cynthiana, Cun-
ningham, Ives, Concord and Thomas.

Varieties of the Scuppernong family,
including Thomas, Flowers, Tenderpulp,
and others, should be planted in every
vineyard south of latitude 35 degrees, and
are especially valuable along the Gulf
coast from Texas to Florida. The vines
grow with very little care, and the fruit
ripens very late, after most other vari-
eties have disappeared.

Cuttings

When vines can be grown from cut-
tings, it is the simplest and easiest
method of propagation. Cuttings of the
Labrusca, Riparia, and some of the soft-
er-wooded Aestivalis classes, root very
easily. Cuttings should be made as soon
as convenient after the leaves drop in
the fall, and should be made from strong
and well-ripened wood of the present sea-
son's growth. Each cutting should have
at least three joints, and should be from
8 to 12 inches in length. The cut at
the lower end should be made just be-
low a joint, or the cutting should have
a short "heel" of old wood. The latter
form is the better, but of course only
one such cutting can be made from each
shoot.

The top of the cutting should be an
inch or two above the upper joint, and, as
a matter of convenience in handling and
planting, the cuttings should be of nearly

1100

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

equal length. They may be planted as
soon as made, or may be tied in bundles
and buried in well-drained soil until
spring. The making of cuttings may be
deferred until late in winter if neces-
sary, but they are much better if made
earlier. When made in the fall or early
winter they have time to become well
calloused, and so are more sure to form
roots and grow promptly as soon as the
soil becomes warm in the spring than
when made later in the season.

Cuttings should be planted in loose,
rich, and light soil as early in the spring
as the ground is in condition for work-
ing. Dig a V-shaped trench, making one
side straight and smooth, and a trifle
less than the length of the cuttings in
depth. Place the cuttings about two
inches apart, against the smooth side of
the trench, carefully press the lower end
of each firmly into the soil, and have the
top about even with the surface of the
ground. Fill the trench nearly half full
with fine soil and then tramp thoroughly,
throwing the whole weight of the body
on the heel so as to pack the soil very
closely about the lower ends of the cut-
tings. Then fill the trench full, tramp
again, and finish by drawing in loose
soil to leave the surface level. As much
of the success in growing cuttings de-
pends on having good soil packed very
closely about the lower ends, special care
should be taken in that part of the plant-
ing.

Cuttings may be planted more rapidly
and more easily by simply opening the
soil to the required depth with a spade,
and pushing them down into place and
then tramping the soil back against them,
but when planted in that manner it is
impossible to secure uniformly close con-
tact between the soil and the lower ends
of the cuttings, and success is much less
sure. When properly made and planted
in good soil, at least 90 per cent of the
cuttings of such varieties as the Concord
and Niagara will grow; but of some other
sorts, like Norton and Cynthiana, not
more than ten per cent can be expected
to make vines. The rows of cuttings
should be at least four feet apart so as
to give ample room for cultivation, and

by the end of the season the young vines
should have made a growth of from two
to four feet or even more. They will
then be ready for planting in the vine-
yard at any time after the first frost in
the fall, or they may remain in the
original rows until spring. This is the
most common method of propagation, and
fully 90 per cent of the vines sold by
nurserymen are raised in this way.

Layering

All varieties may be propagated by
layering, and many varieties, especially
those like Norton, Cynthiana, Scupper-
nong, and other hard-wooded sorts of the
Aestivalis and Rotundifolia classes, can
not be easily propagated by any other
means. Layering should be done either
in early spring or late in the summer,
the spring layering being the more eco-
nomical and making the better plants.
For spring layering a trench of two or
three inches in depth is dug, and a cane
of the last season's growth is laid into
it and fastened in place with a few wood-
en or wire pegs. When the young shoots
from this cane have made a growth of
from 6 to 12 inches, the trench should
be filled with fine soil, well tramped in,
and the shoots tied to stakes to keep
them out of the way of cultivation. When
treated in this way the canes laid in the
trench will usually make both shoots and
roots at each of the covered joints, and
so make as many new vines as there are
shoots. The trenches should be made
lengthwise of the rows, so they will be
out of the way, and in digging the young
vines should be separated by cutting the
canes just beyond the shoot nearest the
parent vine.

Layering may be done in midsummer
by bending down and covering shoots
of the present season's growth, but it is
not often possible to secure more than
one or two new vines from each shoot.
If the layering is done very late in the
season, it is safer to cut a tongue on one
side of the shoot which is buried, mak-
ing the tongue an inch or two in length
and about one-third the thickness of the
shoot, as roots will start more quickly
from such a cut surface than where the

GRAPES

1101

bark is unbroken. When treated in this
manner many varieties will make strong
roots by spring, even when the layering
is done as late as September or October.
Propagation by layering is more sure
than by cuttings, and it is often more
convenient and satisfactory when only a
few new vines are wanted. It has the
further advantage of being practicable
in summer when cuttings could not be
made to grow.

Plants grown from layers are not so
convenient for handling and planting as
are those grown from cuttings, but there
seems to be no difference in the growth
or productiveness of the matured vines.
Cultivation

Grapevines need no special cultivation
beyond that necessary to keep them free
from weeds, and all the cultivation given
should be very shallow, in order to avoid
injury to the roots. Ordinarily the first
working in the spring should be done
with a one-horse turning plow, beginning
in the middles and backfurrowing, so as
to throw the soil away from the vines.
The narrow strips left along the rows
should be cleaned off with a hoe, fertil-
izers should be scattered in the open
furrows on both sides of each vine, and
the ground plowed again, the soil be-
ing thrown toward the rows at the second
plowing, thus covering the fertilizer. For
the later workings there is nothing bet-
ter than an ordinary five-toothed culti-
vator and an occasional hoeing along the
line of the row. Cultivation should cease
when the growing fruit begins to weight
down the vines, but as soon as the crop
has been gathered the middles should be
run through with a cultivator and the
ground seeded with cow peas or crim-
son clover, both for their fertilizing ef-
fect and for the protection they afford
the ground during the winter.
Pruning

The training and pruning of grape-
vines is the most important item in their
management, and it is in this part of the
work that the greatest number of mis-
takes occur, although the principles in-
volved are really very simple and easily
learned by any one who will give them
a little thought and attention.

Definition of Terms

The terms commonly used in speaking
of the different parts of a vine are as
follows:

A shoot is a green or immature growth
less than one year old.

A cane is a matured shoot.

An arm is a cane two or more years of
age, and is a permanent part of the vine,
which is usually fastened to the trellis
in a horizontal position, and on which
the spurs and branches are produced.

A branch is a division of an arm or
shoot.

A spur is a cane which has been short-
ened to from one to three joints; if left
longer it is usually called a cane.

The stem is the permanent portion of
the vine below the arms or canes. Where
the stake or renewal system of training
is followed the stem may be only a few
inches in length, while in the canopy
system of training it reaches to the top
of the trellis.

Objects in Tiew

Most other fruiting plants do better
with very little pruning, as the object is
to secure the greatest possible amount
of fruit from each plant and to make
each plant grow as large as possible;
but with grapes the object is to secure
the greatest possible yield of fruit per
square rod or per acre, and not per plant.
While a single grapevine bears less fruit
when trained to a trellis and kept
pruned to a few feet iu length than when
allowed to grow at will over the tops of
trees, the yield of fruit in return for the
time, labor and expense is much greater
when the vines are restricted to a con-
venient size and are trained in a some-
what unnatural form; hence, in cultiva-
tion, extended growth of vine is sacrificed
to secure an increased yield of fruit.

The objects to be kept in view in prun-
ing are to keep each vine within its al-
lotted limits and make it assume the
form desired, to remove any useless parts
and so secure a more vigorous growth of
productive wood, and to remove an ex-
cess of fruit. It should always be kept
in mind that the fruit of the next sea-
son will be borne on shoots of this sea-
son which were produced on wood grown

1102

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

last season, and that it is usually desir-
able to remove as much of the old wood
as is possible and at the same time to
leave as much of the new wood as the
vine can support with a thrifty and fruit-
ful growth. As each bud on the spurs
will probably produce a new shoot, and
as each shoot will ordinarily produce
from two to six clusters of fruit, the
number of clusters being quite uniform
for each variety, the amount of fruit
which may be expected from each vine
can be estimated quite closely, and the
pruning should be done accordingly.
When too much bearing wood is left and
the amount of fruit produced is exces-
sive, both the clusters and the berries will
be smaller, and the vine may be so
weakened as to require several years to
recover a healthy growth. Too close
pruning should also be avoided, as it les-
sens the opportunity for fruit bearing,
and causes an excessive growth of coarse
and sappy vine. The after effects of too
close pruning are rarely harmful to the
vine, and there is far less danger in
pruning too closely than in permitting
the vine to grow at will or to produce
an excessive crop at the expense of its
future thrift. The natural tendency of a
vine is to make its most vigorous growth
from the buds farthest from the roots,
and, whatever method of pruning and
training may be adopted, the aim should
be to confine the growth very near the
root or main stem.

Time of Pruning'

In winter pruning, ordinary varieties
should have from one-half to three-
fourths of the entire vine cut away. This
work may be done at any time after the
leaves drop in the fall, and should be
done before the buds begin to swell in
the spring. Late pruning is better than
no pruning, but permits a great loss of
sap which would have been used in the
development of new growth if the work
had been done at the proper time.

Summer pruning is of great value
in giving the vine its desired form, in
removing an excess of fruit, in making
that which is left larger and of better
quality, and in making the next winter

pruning simpler, easier and more satis-
factory. This summer pruning should be-
gin by the removal of surplus shoots as
soon as the first growth starts in the
spring, so that the entire strength of
the vine may be used in the directions
where it is wanted, and should be repeat-
ed two or three times at intervals of a
week or ten days. In many vineyards
this is the only summer pruning given,
but the vines will bear more evenly, pro-
duce better fruit, and be longer lived if
any excess of fruit clusters is removed
as soon as they appear, and if the fruit-
bearing shoots are broken off so as to
leave only two or three joints beyond the
last cluster of fruit. All summer prun-
ing should be done so early in the sea-
son and so promptly that no tools are
needed for the work; it should all be
done while the new shoots are still so
young and tender that they are easily
broken off with the thumb and finger.
When the wood has become so firm that
it will not break easily it may as well
remain on the vine until the next winter.
Pruning late in summer, or the removal
of leaves so that the sun will hasten the
ripening of the fruit, is never profitable.
It costs time and strength for the vine
to develop leaves, but when they are
once fully grown they become feeders
instead of consumers, and every one
should be preserved.

As the system of pruning adopted must
depend on the style of trellis used, the
subject will be treated further in con-
nection with systems of training.

Gathering and Packing

For home use or for making wine,
grapes should not be picked until they
are fully ripe. Many varieties become
highly colored some days, or even weeks,
before they are fully matured; but they
are not really ripe and in the best con-
dition for use until the stem of the
bunch begins to shrivel or soften so that
it can be easily bent. Even for market,
the fruit should not be gathered until
very nearly matured, as it ripens but lit-
tle after being removed from the vine.
The unripe fruit may soften somewhat
on its way to market, but does not be-

GRAPES

1103

come sweeter or better flavored, and will
retain the excess of acid which disap-
pears when the grapes are ripened on the
vines.

Gathering grapes for market should be
done only in fair weather when the vines
and fruit are not wet with either dew or
rain. The stems should be cut with a
knife or scissors and the bunches should
be laid in shallow wooden trays or bas-
kets for carrying to the packing shed.
Baskets holding five, eight or ten pounds,
with covers fastened on by wire hooks,
are the best packages in which to ship,
as they are inexpensive, easily handled in
transportation, and convenient and tempt-
ing to purchasers. The fruit should be al-
lowed to lie a few hours so that the
stems will become slightly wilted; and
all diseased, unripe, or bruised berries
should be removed before packing begins.
The bunches should be placed in the bas-
kets with the stems downward and
packed snugly, the smaller bunches being
used to fill the spaces between the larger
ones. The top of the fruit should be
about half an inch above the top of the
basket and should be even and level. The
baskets should be so full that some pres-
sure will be needed to bring the cover
down into place, though the pressure
should not be so great as to crush the
grapes or break them from the stems.
A basket which is not packed closely
will never carry the fruit in good con-
dition; and, as the fruit is sold by
weight, close packing is economical. The
name of the variety, as well as the name
and address of the grower, should be
stenciled on the tops of the covers before
they are put in place. Mixed or inferior
fruit will seldom pay for shipping and
will never add to the good reputation of
the grower.

Nearly all of our grapes ripen in July
or August while the weather is still
warm and it is difficult to keep them
any great length of time without placing
them in cold storage, which is expensive.
They can be kept a short time by wrap-
ping each bunch in paper and putting
them in a cool place. Still better re-
sults will be secured by placing a layer
of cotton batting in the bottom of the

box, then a layer of fruit covered by
another layer of batting. Not more than
two layers of fruit should be placed in
a box, and the upper layer should have
a thick covering of cotton. Neither of
these methods will be found profitable
for market purposes, but will often be
desirable when a little fruit is to be kept
for some special purpose. There is con-
siderable difference in the keeping quali-
ties of different varieties, and, in general,
the late-ripening sorts will keep longer
after being gathered than will those
which ripen early in the season.
Influence of Nativity
As the character of every seedling is
determined by the ancestry and environ-
ment of the growing seed, it is only rea-
sonable to look for the best varieties for
cultivation in any given locality among
those springing from seeds which were
grown in the same or a similar region.
Among the native grapes there are cer-
tain species which succeed best in certain
localities, some being quite local, while
others are found widely distributed. The
same vital principle which governs the
range of the native species also controls
the range of the cultivated sorts, and
the best varieties for cultivation in any
locality will usually be found among the
descendants of those species which grow
wild in the same region. Among the
valuable hybrid varieties it is rare to
find a satisfactory one which is not, in
part at least, descended from the wild
native species of the locality. The Vini-
fera varieties, which are the common
sorts in Europe and in California, are
generally worthless in the Southern
states, and their hybrids, even those
having only a small percentage of the
foreign stock, usually show great li-
ability to disease.

The Labrusca is native to the north-
eastern part of the United States, and
there the varieties of that parentage,
like Concord, Moore Early, Catawba, and
others, are among the best; but farther
south, where the wild Labrusca is un-
known, they are less desirable. They be-
come less valuable the farther they are
removed from their place of origin, and,
in the extreme South, they are weak in

1104

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

growth, short-lived, and uneven in rip-
ening their fruit. While many of the
varieties which succeed well in the ex-
treme South are derived more or less from
Labrusca, nearly all have been derived
in part from some of the species native
to that region. In the Carolinas and
in the mountain region of Northern
Georgia and Alabama, many of the pure
Labrusca varieties do well, but farther
south and southwest they are generally
unsatisfactory, while those varieties de-
scended from Lincecumii or Bourquiana
blood are usually long-lived and prolific.
It is such a well-established fact that
much of the whole character and useful-
ness of a variety depends on its ancestry,
that many nurserymen now give the pedi-
gree of each variety in their catalogues,
a practice which is of great assistance to
the purchaser in making a selection suit-
ed to his particular locality.

Varieties for the South in General

The species which have been most pro-
lific of varieties suited to the Southern
climate and soils are Rotundifolia. Yul-
pina, Riparia, Bourquiana and Lince-
cummii, though a few good sorts have
been developed from Cordifolia, Aesti-
valis, Munsoniana, and others. A few
valuable varieties have been produced
from hybrids of various species with the
Vinifera or European grape, many of
them giving fruit of very high quality,
but the vines are usually short-lived, and
the clusters uneven and unattractive in
appearance.

No one variety of grape is suited to all
localities, nor does any one variety cover
all the needs of any locality. Few vari-
eties are in their prime of fruiting more
than ten days or two weeks, while the
time between the ripening of the earli-
est and the latest sorts is more than
two months. Every vineyard intended to
produce fruit for home use should con-
tain early, medium, and late ripening
varieties even when it consists of only
three vines. When a dozen or more vines
are planted the selection of varieties
should be such as will not only give a
succession in ripening, but fruit of differ-
ent flavors and qualities at each succes-

sive period. It requires no more room,
labor, or expense to plant and care for
a vineyard which will yield fruit con-
stantly during two months than for one
which matures all its fruit within two
weeks. Those who plant for shipping to
a distant market or for making wine will
usually find it better to grow only one
or two varieties, but for a local market
and for home use the larger the assort-
ment of good varieties the better.

The number of good varieties is now
so large and the characteristics of the
different kinds are so varied that it is
not difficult to secure sorts which will be
healthful, vigorous, and prolific on every
fertile soil, though, as already stated,
the choice of varieties should be govern-
ed by locality, soil, and the use to be
made of the fruit. The black waxy soils
of Texas, the sandy coast soils of Mis-
sissippi and Alabama, and the mountain
regions of Georgia and the Carolinas
need very different assortments to give
the best results.

S. M. Tracy, M. S.,

Farm Bulletin 118.

EffPORTANCE AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE SCUPPERNONG

F. C. Reimer

The Scuppernong was the first Ameri-
can or native grape to be brought into
cultivation. It has always been the most
important variety of this species and has
been more generally planted than all of
the other Muscadines combined. It be-
came popular as soon as introduced be-
cause of its great hardiness — growing and
bearing well under neglect, and produc-
ing an excellent table grape and wine.

The vine is a vigorous grower and at-
tains immense size, as is seen by Fig. 1,
which shows a Tyrrell county vine meas-
uring seven feet six inches around the
trunk. It is notably healthy, not being
seriously affected by either insects or
diseases, and is generally a regular and
heavy bearer when growing on suitable
soils. It is long-lived; some of the vines
now bearing good crops are more than
a hundred years old. One marked pecu-
liarity of the vine is the splitting-up of
the main trunk into several divisions.

GRAPES

1105

\f

Fi?. 1. Characteristic Old Scuppernong Trunk.
Circumference seven feet six incties. (F. C.
Reimer. North Carolina Experiment Station.)

when it becomes very old; also the pro-
duction of aerial roots when trained on
arbors. The vine can be quite readily
distinguished from the dark-fruited vari-
eties by the light-colored ends and nodes
of the young shoots, the whitish or light-
green tendrils and new growths of the
aerial roots.

The flowers are perfect, and appear
during June in North Carolina. Flowers
(and fruit) are borne on the new wood,
and not on the old wood, as some of our
popular writers have stated. The clus-
ters vary considerably in size, containing
from one to 25 berries, usually being
much larger on sandy than on clay soils.
The berries are round, large, often be-
coming an inch in diameter; the color
varies from pale green to golden russet;
skin thick but tender for a Muscadine.
The pulp is tender, juicy, with a sweet,
rich, characteristic aromatic flavor; and
the quality is very good, especially when
grown on sandy soils. The chief defects
of this grape are the readiness with
which the berries shatter from the clus-
ter when fully ripe, and the irregularity
of ripening of the berries even on the
same cluster. The ripening period covers

the entire month of September in North
Carolina.

The Scuppernong is distinctly a wine
grape. It makes a rich, light-colored
wine, which has no superior among sweet
wines. The large plantings in this state,
some of which cover from 100 to 600
acres, were made primarily for wine pro-
duction. A bushel of fruit will produce
from three to four gallons of wine.

It is also a good table grape when
used soon after gathering; but as the
skin is often broken in picking, where
the stem is attached, the fruit sours
readily during warm weather. It cannot
be shipped successfully except when
used for making wine.

This is distinctly a grape for sandy
soils, and should never be planted ex-
tensively on heavy clay. It is more pro-
ductive, and the clusters and berries are
larger, more juicy and of better quality
on sandy or sandy-loam soils than on
clay soils.

VAKIETIES OF GRAPES FOR TEXAS

There is no fruit which is so generally
grown in Texas as the grape. There is
no considerable area for which there may
not be selected a few kinds which are
suited to the soil and local conditions,
and hence produce abundantly. For the
eastern portion of the Coast District,
the Niagara does well almost universally.
It seems to be short-lived, hence a few
vines should be planted every few years
to keep up the vineyard. Black Spanish,
or Lenoir, and also Herbemont, do well
in this area. Concord fruit does well,
as a rule, but does not ripen its berries
evenly in the cluster.

In Eastern Texas the varieties named
for the east coast do well, and a long
list of others. For the southwest, or
semi-arid coast, from Rockport on south-
west and south, and for some miles to
the interior, most all the leading com-
mercial varieties of grapes do well. They
are also designated in our horticultural
literature as European varieties. The
southwest coast of the semi-arid belt is
well adapted for producing such varieties
as the Malaga, Flame Tokay, Black
Hamburg and a number of other leading

2—29

1106

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Pig. 2. Exceptionally Fine Cluster of Scuppernons Grapes.
(F. C. Reimer, North Carolina Experiment Station.)

kinds so popular in the markets Of
course, this southwestern belt of the
state must be understood as an irriga-
tion section. When grapes are well cul-
tivated and properly irrigated, they pro-
duce well and mature and develop as
high a flavor and color in this belt as in
California.

Thus far there is no trace of phylloxera
on grapes in this belt. The vineyardists
should be certain to get healthy vines
which are free from this pest. There
are resistent stocks upon which these
varieties can be grafted, and thus secure
immunity from this dreaded insect pest.
Once this pest gets a hold and is left to
breed and multiply, it will spread very
rapidly to other vines and other vine-
yards.

Central Texas, North Texas, the Red
River Belt, East Texas and Central East
Texas all are blessed with one or the
other of the leading varieties, succeed-
ing and producing luscious fruit most
bountifully. But in the whole territory
thus far mentioned, and for all kinds
of grapes noted as suited to the re-
spective areas, all require spraying to
secure best results. The leaves blight,
or have the spot disease, and in other
cases the fruit rots badly in the clusters.
The vines of these varieties should be
sprayed thoroughly with Bordeaux mix-
ture before the buds start in the spring,
then again .iust before the blooming peri-
iod and again just after the blooming peri-

od; the fourth treatment may be given
two weeks after the third, and again two
or three weeks after the fourth. Care
must be taken not to spray the berries
just a short period before they ripen.

But for an area in Texas which seems
especially well suited for grape culture,
the Panhandle and Llano Estacado terri-
tories certainly claim most careful and
serious attention. The Concord, Tri-
umph, Carman, Beacon and many others
of the same type do well. The plants
are specially vigorous, and even when
the first blooms are killed by a late frost
they often produce the second, or even
the third, crop of blossoms and mature
many splendid clusters of fruit. In no
area in Texas will the foliage remain as
healthy, bright and vigorous during try-
ing seasons as in this area. Hundreds of
small family vineyards have been exam-
ined in a season and but few neglected
vineyards have shown leaf blight of any
kind. In fact, no similar domain exists
in Texas for growing grapes successfully
with as little spraying. Texas should
produce more grapes. The soils and
climate should be more closely studied by
districts. Texas has within its vast miles
of areas soils so composed and so lo-
cated as to successfully and profitably
produce grapes of commercial value, pro-
vided the i)roper types and blood relation-
ships be kept in mind in choosing vari-
eties for any given locality.

John S. Kerr

GRAPES

1107

Varieties

Varieties of grapes recommendQd by
the American Pomological Society for
the various districts in the United
States: See page 192.

District Jfo. 1

Highly kecommended — Dessert and
Market: Diamond; Herbert; Lindley;
Moyer; Victor; Worden. Market: Cot-
tage; Moore Early; Niagara. Dessert:
Brighton; Lady; Winchell (Green Moun-
tain).

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Agawam; Barry; Delaware; Massasoit;
Merrimac; Murray; Salem; Vergennes;
Woodbury. Market: Concord; Hartford;
Wilder. Dessert: Duchess; Bumelan;
Nectar. Wine: Clinton.

District No. 2

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Agawam; Catawba; Delaware;
Diamond; Lindley; Massasoit; Salem;
Vergennes; Worden. Market: Concord;
Moore Early; Niagara. Dessert: Bright-
on; Winchell (Green Mountain).

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Barry; Herbert; Isabella; Merrimac;
Moyer; Victor. Market and Wine: Ives.
Market: Champion; Cottage; Hartford;
Perkins; Pocklington; Wilder; Woodruff.
Dessert: Diana; Duchess; Empire State;
Eumelan; Goethe; Hayes; lona; Jeffer-
son; Lady; Prentiss; Ulster. Wine:
Clinton.

Recommended for trial — Dessert and
Market: Murray; Woodbury. Dessert:
Nectar.

District ]Vo. 3

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Herbert; Worden. Market: Con-
cord; Cottage; Moore Early; Niagara.
Dessert: Lady; Nectar.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Agawam; Catawba; Diamond; Lindley;
Salem. Market and Wine: Ives. Mar-
ket: Champion; Hartford; Perkins; Wild-
er. Dessert: Brighton; Empire State;
Goethe; Prentiss; Ulster; Washington,
Lady; Winchell (Greeti Mountain).
Wine: Clinton.

Recommended for trial — Dessert and
Market: Brilliant.

District No. 4

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Brilliant; Delaware; Worden.
Dessert and Wine: Flowers. Market and
Wine: Ives. Market: Concord; Cottage;
Moore Early; Niagara. Dessert: Bright-
on. Wine: Norton Virginia; Scupper-
nong; Tenderpulp; Thomas.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Agawam; Barry; Carman; Catawba;
Herbert; Jaeger, Herman; Lindley;
Lutie; Massasoit; Merrimac; Muench;
Salem; Superb; Vergennes; Victor. Des-
sert and Wine: Eden; Herbemont. Mar-
ket: Champion; Hartford; Perkins;
Woodruff. Dessert: Berckmans; Duchess;
Elvira; Eumelan; Goethe; Hayes; James;
Jefferson; Lady; Olita; Triumph; Wash-
ington, Lady; Winchell (Green Moun-
tain). Wine: Clinton; Cynthiana; Noah.

Recommended for trial — Dessert:
Nectar.

District No. 5

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Carman; Delaware; Diamond;
Muench; Superb; Worden. Market:
Moore Early; Wilder. Dessert: Bright-
on; Empire State; James; Olita. Des-
sert and Wine: Eden; Flowers. Wine:
Cynthiana; Scuppernong; Tenderpulp;
Thomas.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Agawam; Barry; Brilliant; Catawba;
Herbert; Isabella; Lindley; Lutie; Mas-
sasoit; Salem; Vergennes, Market: Con-
cord; Cottage; Niagara; Perkins; Wood-
ruff. Dessert: Berckmans; Diana; Duch-
ess; Elvira; lona; Jefferson; Lady; Ul-
ster; Walter; Winchell (Green Moun-
tain). Dessert and Wine: Herbemont.
Market and Wine: Ives. Wine: Noah.

Recommended for trial — Dessert:
Eumelan. Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of.

District No. 6

Highly recommended — Dessert: James;
Memory; Mish.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Catawba; Diamond; Lenoir; Lindley;
Jaeger, Herman; Worden. Dessert and
Wine: Herbemont. Market and Wine:
Ives. Market: Niagara. Dessert: Jeffer-
son; Olita; Olivet Cadinet.

1108

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

District No. 7

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Bailey; Brilliant; Carman; Del-
aware; Diamond; Gold Coin; Laussel.
Dessert and Wine: Flowers; Herbemont.
Market and Wine: Ives. Market: Moore
Early; Niagara; Wilder. Dessert: James.
Wine: America; Cynthiana; Norton
Virginia; Scuppernong; Tenderpulp;
Thomas.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Beacon; Catawba; Dracut Amber; Jaeger,
Herman; Lenoir; Lindley; Muench;
Rommel; Vergennes; Worden. Market:
Champion; Concord; Cottage; Hartford;
Perkins; Pocklington. Dessert: Berck-
mans; Black Hamburg; Brighton; Cala-
brian; Empire State; Griesa, Piedmont;
Jefferson; Olita; Olivet Cadinet; Peru,
Rose of; Prince, Black; Triumph; Win-
chell (Green Mountain); Wylie. Wine:
Bell; Clinton; Fern Munson; Mission;
Missouri Riesling; Noah. Raisin: Alex-
andria, Muscat of.

District No. 8

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Delaware; Worden. Market:
Concord; Moore Early; Niagara; Pock-
lington; Woodruff. Dessert: Elvira;
Goethe.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Agawam; Barry; Carman; Catawba; Dia-
mond; Jaeger, Herman; Lindley; Merri-
mac. Dessert and Wine: Herbemont,
Market and Wine: Ives. Market: Cot-
tage; Hartford; Perkins. Dessert: Bright-
on, Empire State; Triumph; Washing-
ton, Lady; Winchell (Green Mountain).
Wine: Cynthiana; Missouri Riesling;
Norton, Virginia.

District No. 9

Highly recommended — Market: Janes-
ville. Dessert: Winchell (Green Moun-
tain ) .

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Delaware. Dessert: Empire State.

Recommended for trial — Dessert and
Market: Brilliant.

District No. 10

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Agawam; Delaware; Worden;

Bailey; Brilliant; Carman; Catawba.
Market: Concord; Moore Early; Wilder.
Raisin: Muscat of Alexandria; Thomp-
son (Seedless).

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Barry; Lindley; Salem; Beacon; Lenoir.
Market: Champion; Hartford; Niagara;
Pocklington. Dessert: Brighton; Eume-
lan; lona; Lady. Market and Wine: Ives.
Wine: America; Scuppernong; Herbe-
mont.

District No. 11

Highly recommended — Dessert: Flame
Tokay. Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of.

Recommended — Dessert: Black Ham-
burg; Malaga. Wine: Mission.

District No. 12

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Agawam; Delaware; Isabella;
Lindley; Salem; Worden. Market: Con-
cord; Moore Early; Niagara. Dessert:
Black Prince; Brighton; Duchess;
Goethe; Prentiss; " Sweetwater, White.
Wine: Mission; Zinfandel. Raisin: Alex-
andria, Muscat of.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Barry; Catawba; Diamond; Herbert;
Massasoit; Vergennes; Victor. Dessert
and Wine: Herbemont. Market and
Wine: Ives. Market: Champion; Cottage;
Hartford; Perkins; Pocklington; Wild-
er; Woodruff. Dessert: Berckmans;
Black Hamburg; Black Morocco; Corn-
ichon, Black; Diana; Elvira; Empire
State; Elvicand; Flame Tokay; Hayes;
lona; Lady; Olita; Peru, Rose of; Ul-
ster; Walter; Washington, Lady. Wine:
Clinton; Cythiana; Noah; Norton, Vir-
ginia. Raisin: Sultana.

District No. 13

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Diamond.

District No. U

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Delaware; Worden. Market:
Concord; Moore Early; Niagara. Des-
sert: Black Hamburg; Sweetwater, White.
Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Diamond; Isabella. Dessert and Raisin:

GRAPES

1109

Thompson Seedless. Market: Pockling-
ton. Dessert: Black Prince; Brighton;
Flame Tokay; Peru, Rose of. Wine: Zin-
fandel.

Recomjniexded for trial — Dessert and
Market: Agawam. Dessert: Emperor.
Market: Wilder.

District No. 15

Highly recommexded — Market: Con-
cord. Dessert: Stoeetivater, White.

Recommunued — Dessert a.i.l Aia-'c
Delaware; Diamond. Market: Moore
Early. Dessert: Black Hamburg. Wine:
Mission.

RECOMiiENDED FOR TRIAL — Dessert and
Market: Worden.

District No. 16

Highly recommended — Wine: Zinfan-
del.

Recommended — Dessert and Raisin:
Thompson Seedless. Dessert: Black
Hamburg; Cornichon, Black; Emperor;
Flame Tokay; Pierce; Peru, Rose of;
Sweetwater, White; Verdel. Wine: Ma-
taro; Mission; Riesling, Johannisburg.
Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of.

District No. 17

Highly recommended — Dessert : Flame
Tokay. Raisin: Alexandria, Muscat of.

Recommended — Dessert and Raisin:
Gordo Blanco (Muscatel) ; Thompson
Seedless. Dessert: Black Hamburg;
Black Morocco; Cornichon, Black; Mala-
ga; Palomino (Golden Chasselas) ; Peru,
Rose of; Sweetwater, White. Wine: Zin-
fandel. Raisin: Sultana.

Recommended for trial — Dessert: Em-
peror; Pierce.

District No. 18

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Raisin: Thompson Seedless. Raisin:
Alexandria, Muscat of. Wine: Mission.

Recommended — Dessert: Black Moroc-
co; Black Prince; Cornichon, Black;
Flame Tokay; Black Hamburg; Peru,
Rose of; Sweetwater, White. Dessert
and Raisin: Gordo Blanco (Muscatel).
Raisin: Sultana. Wine: Zinfandel.

Aven Nelson, secretary State Board of
Horticulture, Laramie, Wyoming, recom-
mends the following varieties for that
state :

Moore's Early; Brighton; Concord;
Beta and .Janesville.

Brighton.

Concord.

— Mawted Photo

1110

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

HOME MANUFACTURE AND USE OF
UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE

Unfermented grape juice has no doubt
been used ever since wine has been made
from the grape. The following practical
suggestions will enable housewives to put
up unfermented juice at the time of the
fruit harvest, and thus to utilize much
fruit that is now annually lost through
inability to preserve it in the fresh
state. In this form it is a pleasant,
wholesome drink and food well adapted
to home use. On some farms enough
such preventable waste occurs almost
every year to largely reduce the possible
profits, or even to cause failure to meet
the running expenses of the fai^m. By
preventing this waste an unprofitable
farm may often be made profitable.

Historical Notes

Galenius, the Greek physician and writ-
er, says (A. D. 131): "A good many
Asiatic wines were stored in bottles which
were hung in the corner of fireplaces,
where, by evaporation, they became dry."
This process was called "fumarium."

The Greeks had two kinds of wine,
"protoplon," or first juice of the grape
before pressing, and "denterion," or
pressed juice. The Romans called them
"vinum primarium" and "vinuvi second-
arium." Some of them drank the juice
before fermentation had started, and
called it "mustum." After the must or
juice had been through a heating pro-
cess (called "reduction" nowadays), they
called it "frutum," and when, after long
heating, it had been reduced to one-half
or one-third its original volume, they
called it "sapa." This was used by the
Romans on their bread and was equiv-
alent to what we now call grape syrup.

In Europe physicians often send their
patients to the wine-growing districts
during vintage time to take daily rations
of the fresh juice as it comes from the
crusher. This, however, restricts its use
to a brief season of the year and to the
immediate vicinity of the vineyards, or
to individuals who are yet strong enough
to undertake the journey. Of late years
repeated efforts have been made to pre-
vent the juice from fermenting and to

preserve it in vessels of such size and
shape as can be easily transported, thus
rendering its use possible at all times
of the year. Until recently its use has
been almost exclusively restricted to
juice for medicinal or sacramental pur-
poses. Unrestricted and general use has
been retarded through lack of knowledge
of the principles underlying the process
of manufacture. This lack of knowl-
edge and of the necessary skill in apply-
ing it has resulted in many failures, thus
rendering the production of a good ar-
ticle uncertain and expensive.

Composition of tlie Grape

The grape contains 12 to 28 per cent
of sugar, about 2 to 3 per cent of nitro-
genous substances, and some tartaric and
malic acids. The skins contain tannin,
cream of tartar, and coloring matter. The
seeds contain tannin, starchy matters
and fat. The stems contain tannin, di-
verse acids and mucilaginous matter.
The value of the juice made from any
grape is determined by the relative pro-
portion and composition of these vari-
ous parts.

Causes of Fermentation

It is well known that grapes and other
fruits when ripe have the invisible spores
of various fungi, yeasts (ferments), and
bacteria adhering to their skins and
stems. When dry these spores are inert,
but after the grapes are crushed and the
spores are immersed in the juice they
become active and begin to multiply. If
the juice is warm, the changes take place
rapidly; if, on the other hand, it is
cool, the change is slower. But in either
case, if left alone, the organisms in-
crease until the juice ferments. The
most favorable temperature for fermen-
tation is between 65 degrees Fahrenheit
and 88 degrees Fahrenheit. Cold checks,
but does not kill, the ferment. This
fermentation, now commonly called the
elliptic yeast, changes the sugar in the
grape to alcohol and carbonic-acid gas,
and is the leading factor in converting
must into wine. Hence it will be readi-
ly seen that to keep grape juice sweet
fermentation must be prevented, and to

GRAPES

im

be salable the product must be clear,
bright, and attractive.

Methods of Prereiitiiig Fernientotiou

Fermentation may be prevented in
either of two ways:

(1) By chemical methods, which con-
sist in the addition of germ poisons or
antiseptics, which either kill the germs
or prevent their growth. Of these the
principal ones used are salicylic, sul-
phurous, boracic, and benzoic acids, for-
malin, fluorides, and saccharin. As these
substances are generally regarded as
adulterants and injurious, their use is
not recommended.

(2) Mechanical means are sometimes
employed. The germs are either removed
by some mechanical means, such as fil-
tering or a centrifugal apparatus, or they
are destroyed by heat, electricity, etc.
Of these, heat has so far been found
the most practical.

When a liquid is heated to a suffi-
ciently high temperature all organisms in
it are killed. The degree of heat re-
quired, however, differs not only with the
particular kind of organism, but also
with the liquid in which they are held.
Time is also a factor. An organism may
not be killed, if heated to a high tempera-
ture and quickly cooled. If, however,
the temperature is kept at the same high
degree for some time, it will be killed.
It must also be borne in mind that fun-
gi, including yeasts, exist in the grow-
ing and the resting states, the latter
being much more resistant than the for-
mer. A characteristic of the fungi and
their spores is their great resistance to
heat when dry. In this state they can
be heated to 212 degrees Fahrenheit with-
out being killed. The spores of the com-
mon mold are even more resistant. This
should be well considered in sterilizing
bottles and corks, which should be
steamed to 240 degrees Fahrenheit for at
least fifteen minutes.

Practical tests so far made indicate
that grape .juice can be safely sterilized
at from 165 degrees Fahrenheit to 176
degrees Fahrenheit. At this temperature
the flavor is hardly changed, while at a
temperature much above 200 degrees Fahr-

enheit it is. This is an important point,
as the flavor and quality of the product
depend on it.

This bulletin being intended for the
farmer or the housewife only, the writer
refers such readers as desire to go into
the manufacture of grape juice in a
systematic manner for commercial pur-
poses to Bulletin 24, Bureau of Plant In-
dustry, Department of Agriculture, on
the same subject, this publication treat-
ing only of methods that can be applied
in every home.

Home Manufacture

Use only clean, sound, well-ripened
but not over-ripe grapes. If an ordinary
cider mill is at hand, it may be used for
crushing and pressing, or the grapes may
be crushed and pressed with the hands.
If a light-colored juice is desired, put
the crushed grapes in a cleanly washed
cloth sack and tie up. Then either hang
up securely and twist it or let two per-
sons take hold, one on each end of the
sack and twist until the greater part of
the juice is expressed. Then gradually
heat the juice in a double boiler or a
large stone jar in a pan of hot water, so
that the juice does not come in direct
contact with the fire, at a temperature of
180 degrees Fahrenheit to 200 degrees
Fahrenheit; never above 200 degrees Fahr-
enheit. It is best to use a thermometer,
but if there be none at hand heat the
juice until it steams, but do not allow it
to boil. Put it in a glass or enameled
vessel to settle for 24 hours; carefully
drain the juice from the sediment, and
run it through several thicknesses of
clean flannel, or a conic fllter made from
woolen cloth or felt may be used. This
filter is fixed to a hoop of iron, which
can be suspended wherever necessary.
After this fill into clean bottles. Do not
fill entirely, but leave room for the liquid
to expand when again heated. Fit a
thin board over the bottom of an ordin-
ary wash boiler, set the filled bottles
(ordinary glass fruit jars are just as
good) in it, fill in with water around the
bottles to within about an inch of the
tops, and gradually heat until it is about
to simmer. Then take the bottles out

1112

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

and cork on seal immediately. It is a
good idea to take the further precau-
tion of sealing the corks over with seal-
ing wax or paraffin to prevent mold
germs from entering through the corks.
Should it be desired to make a red juice,
heat the crushed grapes to not above
200 degrees Fahrenheit, strain through a
clean cloth or drip bag (no pressure
should be used), set away to cool and
settle, and proceed the same as with light-
colored juice. Many people do not even
go to the trouble of letting the juice set-
tle after straining it, but reheat and seal
it up immediately, simply setting the ves-
sels away in a cool place in an upright
position where they will be undisturbed.
The juice is thus allowed to settle, and
when wanted for use the clear juice is
simply taken off the sediment. Any per-
son familiar with the process of can-
ning fruit can also preserve grape juice,
for the principles involved are identical.

One of the leading defects so far found
in unfermented juice is that much of
it is not clear, a condition which very
much detracts from its otherwise attrac-
tive appearance and due to two causes
already alluded to. Either the final ster-
ilization in bottles has been at a higher
temperature than the preceding one, or
the juice has not been properly filtered
or has not been filtered at all. In other
cases the juice has been sterilized at such
a high temperature that it has a disagree-
able, scorched taste. It should be remem-
bered that attempts to sterilize at a tem-
perature above 195 degrees Fahrenheit are
dangerous, so far as the flavor of the fin-
ished product is concerned.

Another serious mistake is sometimes
made by putting the juice into bottles so
large that much of it becomes spoiled
before it is used after the bottles are
opened. Unfermented grape juice prop-
erly made and bottled will keep indef-
initely, if it is not exposed to the at-
mosphere or mold germs; but when a
bottle is once opened it should, like can-
ned goods, be used as soon as possible, to
keep it from spoiling.

Manufacture of Larger Quantities

Another method of making unferment-
ed grape juice, which is often resorted to

where a sufficiently large quantity is made
at one time, consists in this:

Take a clean keg or barrel (one that
has previously been made sweet). Lay
this upon a skid consisting of two scant-
lings or pieces of timber of perhaps 20
feet long, in such a manner as to make
a runway. Then take a sulphur match,
made by dipping strips of clean muslin
about 1 inch wide and 10 inches long
into melted brimstone, cool it and at-
tach it to a piece of wire fastened in
the lower end of a bung and bent over
at the end, so as to form a hook. Light
the match and by means of the wire sus-
pend it in the barrel, bung the barrel up
tight, and allow it to burn as long as it
will. Repeat this until fresh sulphur
matches will no longer burn in the bar-
rel.

Then take enough fresh grape juice to
fill the barrel one-third full, bung up
tight, and roll and agitate violently on
the skid for a few minutes. Then burn
more sulphur matches in it until no more
will burn; fill in more juice until the
barrel is about two-thirds full; agitate
and roll again. Repeat the burning pro-
cess as before, after which fill the bar-
rel completely with grape juice and roll.
The barrel should then be bunged tightly
and stored in a cool place with the bung
up, and so secured that the package can
not be shaken. In the course of a few
weeks the juice will have become clear
and can then be racked off and filled into
bottles or jars direct, sterilized, and cork-
ed or sealed up ready for use. By
this method, however, unless skillfully
handled, the juice is apt to have a slight
taste of the sulphur.

A Few Useful Appliances

An ordinary cider press is not expen-
sive; nevertheless the majority of farms
do not have one, and it frequently occurs
that a farm is located so far away from
any establishment dealing in such im-
plements that the fruit might spoil or
not be sufficiently valuable to justify the
purchase price and time lost and ex-
pense incurred in getting it. A very ef-
ficient lever press for this and similar
uses can be made by any farmer handy
with tools. The material can be found

GRAPES

1113

on almost any farm at any time. The
press consists of the following parts:

Two upright posts set deep and firmly
in the ground side by side and about 12
inches apart. (It is a good idea to attach
some deadmen to them in the ground to
prevent them pulling out too easily.) Be-
tween these posts the lever is hung by
means of a bolt, or the lever may be
hung to the side of a building, or a hole
notched into a tree large enough to ad-
mit the end of the lever and a bolt run
through that. At the other end of the
lever are two posts, so set that the lever
can be raised up between them by means
of block and tackle. The press itself con-
sists of two timbers on which the press
bottom rests, and on this bottom is the
press basket, consisting of the two sides
and two ends, and so constructed that
it can be easily taken apart and set up
again, being held together at the ends
by means of rods. The sides and ends
should be bored full of small holes from
three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter
to allow exit for the juice.

After the press is filled, the top (which
is made to fit in the inside of the bas-
ket) and cross blocks are put on and
the lever is then allowed to press down
on it. A press like this has the advan-
tage that it can be filled in the evening
and left to press until morning while the
farmer sleeps. The precaution, of course,
must be taken to set a tub large enough
to hold the juice under the press.

It is perhaps well to state that the
longer and heavier the lever the great-
er the pressure it exerts. Where it is
not convenient to make the lever very
long, weights are placed or hung on the
outer extremity of the lever to increase
the pressure. It will thus be seen that
with a little ingenuity a person can adapt
the press to suit his individual require-
ments.

For ordinary purposes a press basket
3 feet square and 2 feet high will be
found a very convenient size. This will
accommodate a ton of crushed grapes.

Composition of Unfermented Grape Juice

Herewith are given the component
parts of a California and a Concord un-

fermented grape juice, the former being
analyzed by the California Experiment
Station, the latter by the Bureau of
Chemistry, United States Department of
Agriculture :

Solid contents

Total acids (as tartaric)

Volatile acids

Grape Sugar

Free tartaric acids

Ash

Phosphoric acids

Cream of tartar

Concord

Cali-

fornia

Per cent

Per cent

20.37

20.60

.663

.53

.023

.03

18.54

19.15

.025

.07

.255

.19

.027

.04

.55

.59

This table is interesting in so far that
California unfermented grape juices are
made from Yiniferas or foreign varieties,
whereas the Concord is a Labruska or
one of our American sorts. The differ-
ence in taste and smell is even more pro-
nounced than the analysis would indi-
cate.

Flavor and Quality in Grape Juice

In the making of unfermented grape
juice a great deal of judgment can be dis-
played and many variations produced so
as to suit almost any taste by the care-
ful selection of the varieties of grapes
from which it is made. Prom the Mis-
sion grape, for instance, when fully ripe,
a juice would be obtained that would be
delicate and simply sweet, without any
other taste; from the Muscat we would
get that rich musky fiavor found in our
leading raisins; in the Concord that
sprightly foxy taste so well known; in
the Catawba or Isabella that fragrance
so peculiarly their own, and in the lona
a pleasing, mild, yet just pronounced
enough aroma and taste to strike the
right spot. Thus we might continue
along the list.

Equally as pronounced variations in
color can be had, as, for instance, almost
colorless, yellow, orange, light red, red,
and a deep purple.

The writer has often been asked what
kind of grapes should be used in making
unfermented grape juice, when, as a mat-

1114

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ter of fact, it can be made from any
grape; not only this, but unfermented
juice is made from other fruits as well,
for instance, apples, pears, cherries — and
berries of different kinds yield excellent
juices. It is really good judgment in
selecting the right varieties when plant-
ing for fruit production. That also de-
termines the quality of our unfermented
juice. For instance, the richer, sweeter,
and better in quality the fruit we use, the
richer, sweeter, and better will be our
unfermented juice. If, on the other
hand, the fruit is sour, green, and in-
sipid, the juice will be likewise. As
stated before, the intention of this bul-
letin is to show how to avoid some
wastes, and to increase income by utiliz-
ing those products of which there is a
surplus; and instead of, as is usually
done, letting them rot, convert them into
something that can be kept, used, and
disposed of at any time when desired, or
when fresh fruit is not available.

Uses of Unfermented Grape Juice

The uses are indeed many. It is used
in sickness, convalescence, and good
health; as a preventive, restorative, and
cure; by the young, by persons in the
prime of life, and by those in old age. It
is used in churches for sacramental pur-
poses; at soda fountains as a cool and
refreshing drink; in homes, at hotels, and
at restaurants as a food, as a beverage,
as a dessert, and in many other ways.
When people become accustomed to it
they rarely give it up. When properly
prepared, unfermented grape juice can
be made to please the eye by its color and
attractive appearance, the sense of smell
by its aroma or fragrance, the palate by
its pleasant flavor.

It is food and drink, refreshment and
nourishment, all in one. Not a by-prod-
uct, but made from fruit going to waste
— one of the blessings given us, that
some are too careless, others too ignor-
ant, to make use of.

Food Value of Unfermented Grape Jnice

The effects of unfermented grape juice
on the human system have been studied
for a number of years, especially at the
so-called grape cures so long in vogue

in Eui'ope. A smaller number of investi-
gations have been made in laboratories.

It is quite generally claimed that using
a reasonably large amount of unfer-
mented grape juice with an otherwise
suitable mixed diet is beneficial and that
digestion is improved, intestinal fer-
mentation diminished, and that gains
in body weight result. It should not be
forgotten that the abundant diet and
hygienic methods of living practiced at
the grape cures play an important part,
but even taking all this into account it
seems fair to conclude that some of the
good results can be directly attributed to
the unfermented grape juice.

Grape juice contains the same kinds of
nutrients as other foods. The percentage
of water is high, and thus it resembles
liquid foods more closely than solid foods.
It is sometimes compared with milk, the
most common liquid food. It contains
less water than milk, more carbohydrates,
and less protein, fat, and ash. Carbo-
hydrates, largely present in the form of
sugar, are the principal nutritive ingred-
ients. It is evident, therefore, that grape
juice is essentially an energy yielding
food, and may help the body to become
fatter, though it can not materially assist
in building nitrogenous tissue. Sugars in
moderate amounts are wholesome foods,
and grape juice offers such material in a
reasonably dilute as well as palatable
form. Undoubtedly the agreeable flavor
increases the appetite, a by no means un-
important consideration.

A FEW GOOD RECIPES

Grape Nectar

Take the juice of two lemons and one
orange, one pint of grape juice, one small
cup of sugar, and a pint of water. Serve
ice cold. If served from punch bowl,
sliced lemon and orange add to the ap-
pearance.

An Inyalid Drink

Put in the bottom of a wineglass two
tablespoonfuls of grape juice; add to
this the beaten white of one egg and a
little chopped ice; sprinkle sugar over
the top and serve. This is often served
in sanitariums.

GRAPES

1115

1116

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Grape Punch

Boil together one pound of sugar and
half a pint of water until it spins a
thread; take from the fire and when cool
add the juice of six lemons and a quart
of grape juice. Stand aside overnight.
Serve with plain water, apollinaris, or
soda water.

Grape Sherbet

For eight persons mix one pint of grape
juice (unfermented), juice of lemon, and
one heaping tablespoonful of gelatine,
dissolved in boiling water; freeze quick-
ly; add beaten white of one egg just be-
fore finish.

Grape Ice Cream

One quart of unfermented grape juice,
one quart of cream, one pound of sugar,
and the juice of one lemon.

Syllabub

One quart of fresh cream, whites of
four eggs, one glass of grape juice, two

small cups of powdered sugar; whip half
the sugar with the cream, the balance
with the eggs; mix well; add grape juice
and pour over sweetened strawberries
and pineapples, or oranges and bananas.
Serve cold.

Bohemian Cream

One pint thick cream, one pint grape
juice jelly; stir together; put in cups and
set on ice. Serve with lady fingers.

Besides the recipes just given many
more are enumerated, such as grape ice,
grape lemonade, grape water ice, grape
juice and egg, baked bananas, snow pud-
ding, grape gelatine, junket and grape
jelly, tutti-frutti jelly, grape float, grape
jelly, grape juice plain, grape soda water,
and scores of others.

Geobqe C. Hussman,

Expert in charge of Viticultural Investigations,
Bureau of Plant Industry, United States De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Grapes in the United States

Number of bearing grape vines in the United States according to the census
of 1910.

California, 144,097,670.
New York, 31,802,097.
Michigan, 11,013,576.
Ohio, 8,326,800.
Pennsylvania, 5,271,261.
Missouri, 3,026,526.
Kansas, 2,889,845.
Oklahoma, 2,388,213.
Illinois, 2,170,340.
Iowa, 1,983,465.
New Jersey, 1,603,282.
Nebraska, 1,221,736.
Indiana, 1,049,232.
Arkansas, 805,921.
Texas, 712,201.
Kentucky, 605,002.
Virginia, 424,601.
Oregon, 381,302.
Tennessee, 338,758.
Washington, 322,007.
Alabama, 287,431.
West Virginia, 284,074.
Georgia, 277,658.
Delaware, 260,936.

Colorado, 254,292.
New Mexico, 250,076.
Utah, 204,445.
Wisconsin, 148,348.
Maryland, 138,801.
Arizona, 131,579.
Connecticut, 107,054.
South Carolina, 79,708.
Mississippi, 77,012.
Idaho, 68,269.
Minnesota, 61,916.
Massachusetts, 58,277.
South Dakota, 38,647.
Louisiana, 31,041.
Florida, 20,962.
Maine, 9,731.
Vermont, 9,318.
Rhode Island, 7,662.
North Carolina, 1,955.
Montana, 986.
New Hampshire, 759.
North Dakota, 379.
Wyoming, 74.
Nevada, 2.

GRAPES
Production and Value of Grape Vines in tlie United States

1117

Number of

Number of

Production (pounds)

Value

Division

Vines of
bearing age

Vines not of
bearing age

or State

1910

1910

1909

1899

1909

1899*

U. S....

223,701,522

69,928,644

2,571,065,205

1,300,984,097

$22,027,961

$14,090,234

Geog. Divs..

New Eng..

207,844

92,370

3,413,161

4,324,300

$ 108.348

$ 112,614

Mid. Atl..

38,676,641

12,613,556

293,527,780

299,058,493

4,945,342

3,484,987

E. N. C...

22,708,296

2,825,671

194,730,671

159,936,481

3,129,363

2,244,659

W. N. C.

9,222,514

1,740,265

41,088,852

40,735,442

1,156,625

870,382

S. Atl....

1,903,341

543,306

32,439,760

34,579,571

909,900

721,124

E. S. C...

1,308,203

265,641

8,143,715

14.817,562

348,397

356,687

W. S. C...

3,937,376

943,918

8,265,667

14,228,318

304,454

371,965

Mountain.

936,328

537,267

4,858,195

5,286,730

128,532

115,206

Pacific

144,800,979

40,366,650

1,984,597,404

728,017,200

10,997,000

5,812,610

*Includes value of wine, grape juice, raisins, etc.

Area of Vineyards and Production of Wine in Specified Countries, 1912-1911

(From a report of the International Institute of Agriculture)

Country

Area

1912

1911

Production (wine)

1912

1911

bpam

France

Italy

Luxemburg.
Roimiania. .
Switzerland

Acres

3,123,356

4,148,663

11,008,305

3,830

174,030

58,563

Acres

3,187,533

4,156,501

11,063,161

3,618

176,523

58,563

Gallons

369,838,000

1,567,559,288

1,162,348,000

1,074,379

33,021,250

23,854,551

Gallons

389,572,846

1,185,740,254

1,126,793,360

3,614,797

26,243,625

22,580,459

-Crop Reporter, January, 1913.

1118

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

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GRAPES

1119

Thompson Seedless Grape used for Seedless Raisin.

1120

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

FORMULA FOR CARLOAD GRAPE
LOADING

The measurements of a grape crate
packed and ready for shipment are as
follows:

Length, Outside 171/2 inches

Width, " 161/2

Depth, " 6

The inside measurements of a Pacific
Fruit Express refrigerator car are as
follows:

Length 33 ft. 2% in.

Width 8 ft. 2% in.

Height 7 ft. 5 3/16 in.

The carload minimum weight on grapes
from California to Eastern points is 26,-
000 lbs.

The standard formula for loading gen-
erally used is to load 945 crates per car
in tiers of five crates wide and nine
crates high across the width of the car.

as per diagram No. 1, and 21 tiers length-
wise of the car with 11 tiers on one side
and 10 tiers on the other side of the
doorway, as per diagram No. 2.

The crates are loaded lengthwise with
the end showing marks or labels towards
the doorway, and each tier is braced by
means of car strips % inch thick, 1 inch
wide and 8 feet long, as follows:

Two car strips are first placed 15 V^
inches apart across the car floor with
end of one of the strips against each side
of the car and crates are then placed on
top of the strips with an additional set
of strips used between every third row
and on top, making four sets of strips to
each tier as indicated by heavy lines in
diagram No. 1. Each set of strips is se-
curely nailed to the end of the crates ex-
cept the strips on the car floor which
are held in place by the weight of the
tier. These strips keep the crates in

ID i A p a^m T^ /

(2*r Spi-<:^ Clbovt Load
J^ti^hi c{ Load if' \

'ih

d
<-

a

l

i

i-

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"' ^^i/"

GRAPE DISEASES

1121

•Bf'^ ^/f

: '■r''^'^

3':l"

_ 3 3' s.y4

ri'W

03

/o Cra!!es _

V

1 "

; -5' 5"

place and each tier throughout the car
is braced in the same manner.

After load is completed the space left
in the doorway for bracing measures
2 feet 7% inches and is braced by means
of gate braces constructed of 2x4-inch
material, as follows:

Each gate consists of two uprights 5
feet 4 inches long and four cross pieces,
about 2 feet 4 inches long, built in be-
tween each row, making five gates in the
center bracing as indicated by heavy lines
in diagram No. 2. The uprights are first
put in and cross pieces cut from % inch
to 1 inch longer than the exact measure-
ment and wedged in so as to take up
any slack and keep the load from shift-
ing. Cross pieces are first put in between
the uprights on the car floor and securely
toenailed to the car floor and the up-
rights with additional cross pieces about
14 inches apart and securely nailed to
the uprights. After all the gates have
been completed car strips are nailed to
the uprights on each side of the brace,
on top of the lower cross piece and un-
der each of the other cross pieces, there-
by preventing gates from shifting side-
ways and making a solid load.

H. E. Cole

GRAPE DISEASES

Anaheim Diseases. See Miscellaneous
Diseases, this section.

Anthracnose

Sphaceloma ampelinum De By.

Anthracnose has also been called
"bird's-eye rot," on account of the pecul-
iar spots it produces upon affected grapes.
Like most of the other diseases of the
grape, it attacks the leaves and shoots as
well as the fruit. On the leaves it at
first appears as minute, irregular, dark
brown, slightly sunken spots, having a
darker margin. These spots usually be-
come lighter colored when old, and fre-
quently crack or fall out, leaving irregu-
lar holes in the leaves. This disease
presents much the same appearance on
the shoots as on the leaves, though the
spots are frequently larger and more
sunken. They also tend to run together
and form irregular patches.

The disease is most characteristic and
conspicuous upon the fruit. The spots
are usually brown at first and surround-
ed by a narrow, dark purplish margin;
they increase in size and gradually be-
come grayish white and somewhat sunk-
en. Frequently two or more spots unite
and cover a considerable part of the ber-
ry. The fruit becomes hard and more
or less wrinkled. If only a small part

2—30

1122

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

of the berry is affected it may continue
to grow, causing the diseased area to
rupture and the seeds to become ex-
posed. The bursting of the berries and
the exposure of the seeds may, however,
be produced by other causes, such as the
powdery mildew and certain physiologi-
cal disturbances.

On the diseased areas the minute
spores or germs of the fungus are fre-
quently produced in immense numbers.
The fine, thread-like filaments which
constitute the vegetative part of the
parasite live during the winter in the
tissues of the vines and are ready for
active growth in the spring.

The anthracnose is quite widely dis-
tributed in this country, but fortunately
has not caused any great general loss.
Its eradication is difficult, however, once
it is well established.

Treatment

Diseased shoots should be cut and
burned. The spraying program for black
rot will usually control this disease, in
connection with the cutting out of af-
fected shoots, except where unusually
severe, in which case the sulphate of iron
solution is used in the following formula:

Sulphate of iron, 110 pounds; sul-
phuric acid, 1 quart; hot water, 26 gal-
lons.

First pour the acid upon the sulphate
of iron, then add the water. Care should
be used in handling, as the preparation
will injure skin and clothing. Apply
thoroughly just before the buds begin to
swell in the spring.

Reference

United States Department of Agricul-
ture Farmers' Bulletin 284.

Bitter Rot

Melanconium fuligineum
Resembles ripe rot. Is restricted to the
Southern states.
The black rot treatment will control it.

Black Knot

Bacterium tumefaciens
*This is one of the commonest and most
widely distributed diseases of the vine.
It consists of peculiar growths, or swell-

* California Experiment Station Bulletin 197.

ings, usually near the surface of the
ground on the upper parts of the roots
or the lower part of the trunk. It often
occurs, also, on all parts of the trunk
and branches, but only rarely on the
canes.

As a rule it does little damage unless
it occurs on young vines, or attacks old
vines very severely.

In some cases where the knots occur
on a branch or arm they could be re-
moved and the vine might recover per-
fectly.

It is not uncommon to find vines with
large masses of knots on all sides of the
trunk and on all the arms, which yet
make a vigorous growth and produce
good crops. When the knots extend all
around the trunk of an old vine, how-
ever, it may be girdled, and, while it
seldom dies, it may become weak and
worthless.

The knots appear only on vines grow-
ing in moist places, and especially in
sandy soil in the hotter regions.

It is now known to be due to an in-
fection by the crown-gall organism. Bac-
terium tumefaciens.

Anything which causes a vine to grow
vigorously late in the season and pre-
vents the proper ripening of the wood,
renders it susceptible to the disease.

In accordance with these ideas, the
remedies advocated aim at causing the
vine to ripen its wood early and com-
pletely. These remedies are drainage
of the soil, fertilization with phosphatic
manures, longer pruning, raising the
trunk of the vine, and removal of the
knots. Swabbing with lime, sulfate of
iron, and other antiseptics has proven
useless.

See Crown Gall under Apple Diseases.

Black Rot

Gvdgnardia MdwelUi (Ell.) V. & R.

Black rot is the most generally dis-
tributed and destructive fungous disease
of the grape in the region east of the
Rocky mountains. It gains entrance to
the plant by means of minute germs
called spores. These are borne in small
black spore cases, and can not be seen
with the naked eye. They are distributed

GRAPE DISEASES

1123

chiefly by the wind and rain. When
these spores come in contact with the
young and tender parts of the vine, un-
der favorable conditions, they germinate
and produce a slender tube, which pene-
trates the tissue and may destroy it

This disease attacks the leaves and
shoots, as well as the fruit. It usually
makes its first appearance on the leaves
and young shoots, producing reddish-
brown dead spots. The fruit may be at-
tacked when young, but usually the dis-
ease does not attract attention until the
berries are half grown or more. Brown
or blackish spots first appear; these
spread and soon affect the whole berry,
which becomes black and shriveled. These
diseased berries remain attached to the
vine, and their surfaces become covered
with minute black pustules, which con-
tain the summer spores of the fungus.
During the winter and spring another
form, called the winter, or resting spore,
is produced upon these old, shriveled
berries. These spores help to carry the
disease over from one season to another.
This fact would indicate the desirabil-
ity of destroying, by burning, all diseased
fruit, as well as leaves and prunings, as
early in the spring as possible.

Treatment

This disease can be effectually con-
trolled by thorough spraying with Bor-
deaux mixture (4-3-50 formula). Five
or six applications are usually necessary
during the season, the first being made
when the shoots are eight inches long.
For the last one or two applications,
some fungicide which does not stain the
fruit should be used. Neutral copper
acetate, one pound to 50 gallons of water,
has been found the best non-staining
preparation. The spray should be put
on by nozzles giving a fine spray and di-
rected by hand so as to cover all leaves
and fruit.

Eeferences

Farmers' Bulletin 284.

Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 155.

Cornell Bulletin 253.

Cornell Bulletin 266.

Cornell Bulletin 293.

Colure or Dropping

The raisin grape, Muscat of Alexan-
dria, is subject to a blossom drop without
setting of fruit.

Failure of the blossoms to pollinate
properly is assigned as the cause.

The remedy is to plant occasional rows
of other varieties such as Palomino, Per-
runo, Beba and Berger.

Reference

California Experiment Station Bulletin
197.

Bkown Rot. See Doivny Mildexo, this
section.

California Vine Disease. See Mis-
cellaneous Diseases, this section.

Downy Mildew

Plasmopara viticola
(B. & C.) Berl. & De Toni

Downy mildew in certain seasons and
in northern localities east of the Rockies
sometimes causes more loss than black
rot and is a close rival for first place
among the fungous enemies of the grape.
It attacks all the tender growing parts
of the vine. Usually it is at first most
noticeable on the foliage, producing
greenish-yellow, irregular spots upon the
upper surface, which become reddish
brown. At the same time there appears
on the under surface of the leaf a thin,
loose, white, downy growth, suggestive of
hoar frost. This growth consists of the
fertile fungous filaments bearing the sum-
mer spores, which under favorable con-
ditions are distributed by the wind and
water to the berries and other parts,
where they germinate, penetrate the tis-
sues, and continue their destructive work.
The young shoots are also frequently at-
tacked and killed.

The fruit, if attacked when young or
only partly grown, shows first a brown-
ish spot, and later becomes covered with
the gray, downy growth of the fungus.
This form of the disease is sometimes
called "gray rot" by vineyardists. When
the berries escape the disease until they
are half grown or more it appears as a
brownish or brownish-purple spot which
spreads and soon involves the whole ber-
ry. The affected fruit becomes soft and
wrinkled and falls to the ground when

1124

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

disturbed. This stage of the disease is
sometimes called "brown rot."

Besides the summer spores mentioned,
there is also produced within the dis-
eased tissues another form of reproduc-
tive body, sometimes called a winter, or
resting spore. These spores are produced
in much smaller numbers than the sum-
mer spores and are provided with a
rather thick, dark-colored outer covering
apparently intended for their protection
during the winter.

This disease, like the black rot and
many others, develops most rapidly and
does most injury during hot, wet weather.

Treatment

It is desirable to destroy as many as
possible of the diseased leaves, shoots,
and berries, which may contain the
winter spores. Thorough spraying, as
recommended for the black rot, will ef-
fectually control this disease.

References

United States Department of Agricul-
ture Farmers' Bulletin 284.

Connecticut Experiment Station Bul-
letin 56.

Little Leaf. See Miscellaneous Dis-
eases, this section.

Powdery Mildew

Uncimila spiralis
The only important fungous disease
that is of special interest to grape grow-
ers in the Northwest at the present time
is the disease known as the powdery
mildew. This is most serious on the
European varieties and consequently is of
special interest in California and those
sections where these varieties are grown.

Symptoms

The disease may attack any herbace-
ous part of the vine. On the leaves the
fungus appears in the form of white or
greenish-white patches of mildew. These
may run together till the greater part
of the leaf is covered. The fungus may
also attack the young canes, beginning
at the base in the form of small patches;
or in severe cases the whole surface may
be covered. The green or white mildew
is easily rubbed off, leaving on the canes
brownish spots which soon turn black.

If severely attacked the canes fail to
grow or mature properly. When the dis-
ease attacks the blossoms they fail to
set. If the young fruit is attacked when
quite small the berries may drop off. If
attacked when half grown they develop
irregularly and the affected parts become
hardened, the ripe berries becoming ir-
regular in form. If severely affected they
may crack, thus becoming useless for
table or market use. If this cracking is
early they may still be used for wine,
though in moist seasons they may be at-
tacked by various molds. The berries
are usually not attacked after they be-
gin to ripen. When only slightly af-
fected the berries may ripen without
cracking, but are disfigured by spots or
blotches which reduce their value for
market purposes.

Cause

The cause is a fungus known technical-
ly as Uncinula spiralis. This, like all
fungi commonly known as powdery mil-
dews, grows more or less superficially on
the surface of the affected parts. The
fine thread-like mycelium is largely ex-
ternal, sending short feeding branches
into the epidermal cells of the host.
From this superficial mycelium erect
branches are formed which break down
into short cells or spores. When abun-
dant these give the spots the powdery
appearance that accounts for the popu-
lar name of this and other related forms.
These spores are spread by the wind and
thus may come to rest on a healthy part
of a vine. They germinate by putting
out a thread of mycelium which branches
and attaches itself to the surface of the
host and grows into a fungous plant
which, when it has reached its full de-
velopment, produces spores in countless
numbers like that from which it grew.
This stage, which is known as the sum-
mer spore stage, serves to spread the
fungus rapidly.

Later in the season another form of
the fungus, sometimes spoken of as the
winter or resting stage, is produced. This
form gives rise to spores borne in tiny
sacks in receptacles which protect them
until spring, when they are set free.

It is from the germination of these

GRAPE DISEASES

1125

spores on the vines that the first new
infections of the summer spore stage
start in the spring.

Treatment

Where this disease is serious enough
to cause any amount of loss the vines
must be protected by some fungicide. It
has been found that the best method
is to dust the plants with dry sulphur.
The fungicidal value of dry sulphur rests
largely in the vapors which are given
off during hot weather (above 75 de-
grees). Below this temperature the fun-
gus does not grow well. If the vines
are covered with a sulphur dust and
the temperature rises above 75 degrees
F., the sulphur is volatilized and pre-
vents the growth of the fungus.

The vines may be dusted either when
dry or wet with dew. They should not,
however, be very wet. An application
should always be made when the blossoms
begin to open. In some sections this is suf-
ficient; in others, a previous application
when the vines are about six to eight
inches long should be made. Sometimes
three or four dustings are necessary. The
vines should be carefully watched and
when any signs of mildew are detected
an application of the sulphur dust should
be given to prevent its spread.

Any method of application by which
the herbaceous parts of the vine are
completely covered with a very fine coat-
ing of sulphur dust may be used. The
most efficient method is by the use of
some form of hand or knapsack duster,
several forms of which are good. The
best are of European manufacture.

Mr. A. H. Carson, Commissioner of the
Oregon State Board of Horticulture and
a prominent grape grower at Grants Pass,
in a letter dated Sept. 17, 1912, gives
the following information concerning his
experience in regard to the control of
powdery mildew under Oregon condi-
tions:

"For controlling the mildew, we use
the best brand of fine sublimed sulphur.
The first sulphuring is done when the
grapes first bloom. It is important to
sulphur at this time, as there is an in-
visible mildew that attacks the bloom,
and if sulphured at this time the grapes

will set much heavier than if not sul-
phured. The vines should again be sul-
phured when the grapes have formed
about the size of a BB shot. If the sea-
son is normal, not too much rain, it will
not be necessary to sulphur again until
the grapes begin to show color, then a
third sulphuring should be done.

"No grape grower need fear the mil-
dew if sulphur is used at the time of
growth as I have indicated above. Sul-
phuring the vines as I have indicated is
a sure preventive of the mildew, but,
should the mildew develop among any of
the vines before sulphuring, you cannot
stop it on the vines that it has developed
on, but you can prevent it spreading to
healthy vines. The best sulphuring ma-
chine I know of is the Torpille Vermorel,
made in France, H. C. Shaw Co., Stock-
ton, California, sole agents for the United
States. The machine costs $15 f. o. b.
Stockton. One man with this machine
can sulphur from 10 to 12 acres in 10
hours. For a small vineyard, sulphur
shaken on the vines from a gunny-sack
will give results."

H. S. Jackson

Crown Gall. See under Apple Diseases.

Red Leaf. See Miscellaneous Diseases,
this section.

Ripe Bot

Glomerella rufomaculans Berk.
Spauld. & von Schrenk
Ripe rot has also been called bitter
rot. The name bitter rot is, however,
applied to another fungous disease of
the grape. As the present name indi-
cates the disease usually appears on the
fruit when the latter is nearly mature,
and under favorable conditions continues
its development and destruction after
the grapes are picked. It also attacks the
leaves and stems, but is most noticeable
and injurious on the fruit. The first in-
dication of the disease is the appearance
of reddish-brown discolored spots which
spread and finally extend over the whole
fruit. The surface then becomes dotted
with dark, slightly elevated pustules, in
which the spores are borne. At this stage
of development this disease is not easily
distinguished from the early stages of
black rot and bitter rot. The berries do

1126

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

not shrivel up, however, as in the case
of the black rot, and usually are easily
detached from the bunch. The spores
mentioned are produced in large num-
bers and sei've to spread the disease.

The fungus causing this disease is
closely related to that which produces
the bitter rot of the apple.

It is difficult to determine how much
injury is done by this disease on ac-
count of the liability of confusing it
with other fungous troubles. It is quite
generally distributed, and may cause
more loss than is usually attributed to
it.

Treatment

Spraying as recommended for black
rot will largely prevent this disease. The
later applications are especially impor-
tant and should be very thorough.

Root Rot

The roots of the grape are known to
be attacked by several different fungi,
especially when the root system has be-
come weakened or injured by other
causes. Three forms of root rot are of
sufficient importance to be mentioned
here.

Tibrissea Hyprogaea

This fungus is usually associated with
insect Injury, caused either by Phylloxera
or by the grape root worm. It has been
found in New York, Pennsylvania, and
Missouri, and appears to hasten the death
of plants, especially those on which the
root worm has been at work.

Treatment

This root rot can be prevented only
by the destruction of the insects which
injure the root system and thus give
the fungus opportunity to gain a foot-
hold.

Ozonmm

There is a root rot of a more serious
nature prevalent in and chiefly restricted
to Texas and New Mexico. This is caused
by a fungus known as Ozoniiim, which
also attacks the roots of cotton and a
great variety of other plants. It is most
destructive in the black waxy, clay soils,
which are very poorly aerated. Plants
attacked die suddenly, the leaves and

fruit withering up in a day or two and
remaining on the vines.

Treatment

No remedy is known for this root rot
of the grape. Soil upon which other
plants have died with the same disease
should be carefully avoided in planting
vines.

Armillaria Mellea. For description
of this disease see Root Rot, under Ap-
ple Diseases.

References

U. S. Department of Agriculture Farm-
ers' Bulletin 284.

Duggar. Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Rougeot. See Miscellaneous Diseases,
this section.

Shelling

The shelling or dropping of grapes from
the bunches before maturity may be due
to various causes. In some localities in
New York and Pennsylvania this trouble
is rather serious. The cases which have
been studied have been found to be due
mostly to an imperfectly known fungous
disease, which appears to be induced
chiefly by improper pruning and train-
ing. Allowing the vines to produce too
heavy crops is also likely to increase this
trouble.

Stem Cankers

These are caused in many cases by
freezes which cause dead spots, which
become enlarged in healing.

Drain the soil and prevent late growth.

White Rot

Coniotherium diplodiella
The appearance of this disease is sim-
ilar to the later stage of the downy mil-
dew. Occurs in the Southwest and Ohio.
It may be controlled by the same means
as black rot.

MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES

There seem to be a number of troubles
of the grape, at present little understood,
which have attacked the vines in Cali-
fornia.

Anaheim disease, also called the Cali-
fornia Vine disease, was of the greatest
importance a number of years ago when
almost all the vineyards in Southern Cali-
fornia died from a mysterious trouble

GRAPE DISEASES

1127

which received this name. At present
vines are occasionally affected with some-
thing which might pass for the same
disease, but it is difficult or impossible
even for the experienced plant patholo-
gist, save, perhaps, one who was familiar
with the Anaheim disease at the time
of its first and greatest period of preva-
lence, to say just what is really Anaheim
disease and what is one of the various
troubles which have received other
names. We quote as follows from Cali-
fornia Experiment Station Bulletin 197:

Mysterious Dying' of Tines

Anaheim Disease

"The vine, like most plants, especially
fruit trees, which are cultivated on a
large scale, is subject to diseases of more
or less intensity whose cause is not
thoroughly understood. These diseases
are (1) caused by parasitic organisms
which have so far escaped detection, or
(2) what is usually known as 'physio-
logical.'

"Physiological diseases are presumably
due to some unfavorable conditions. For
example, chlorosis, or the failure of the
leaves to develop chlorophyll properly, is
due to an excess of soluble lime carbon-
ate in the soil, and is intensified by cold,
dampness and the susceptibility of the
variety.

"The most serious of these two classes
of diseases, which affects the vines, is
the Anaheim, or, as it is sometimes called,
the California Vine Disease. Notwith-
standing that it has been the subject
of continuous investigation for over 15
years its cause is still quite obscure.
Even the characterization and detection
of the disease are so uncertain that vine-
yards, which after several years of ob-
servation by the most experienced in-
vestigators have been pronounced infect-
ed, have later been declared free. This
has led to such a diversity of opinion
that while one expert claims that the
disease exists in every vineyard in the
state, another would have us believe that
no such disease exists at all, and that all
cases of dying vines can be ascribed to
one or other of the recognized vine dis-
eases.

"Neither of these extreme views seems
to explain completely the observed facts.
While many cases of supposed Anaheim
have proved to be nothing but Phyllox-
era, root rot, vine hopper, drought, etc.,
there still remains a large number of un-
explained cases.

"In some cases the symptoms are prac-
tically identical with those of some of
the 'physiological' diseases which affect
the vine in Europe. Typical cases of
Rougeot have been noted in Contra
Costa county, of Brunissure in San Joa-
quin, and of Folletage in Fresno, Kings,
and other counties. In Sonoma county
the disease of Red Leaf, which has some
analogy with Anaheim, has been studied
by Mr. O. Butler. An account of these
diseases may be found in Bulletin 168,
entitled 'Observations on Some Vine
Diseases in Sonoma County.'

"In a general way, as these troubles
are due to soil and climatic conditions
which weaken the vine, they are to be
combated by cultural methods which tend
to invigorate. Shorter pruning, thorough
cultivation, irrigation or drainage, and
fertilization will in most cases be effective
in curing vines which are not too far
gone.

"Many cases have been brought to the
attention of the station during the last
two years, in which vines which were
apparently healthy the previous year
have failed to bud out in the spring, or
budded out weakly and very late. The
cause, in most cases, seemed to be some
injury to the vines during the growing
season of the previous year. This cause
was in many cases the attacks of vine
hoppers. Black Prince vines growing in
Tokay vineyards have very often been
killed. This seems to be because the vine
hoppers, having a special fondness for
this variety, congregate in large numbers
on such isolated vines. Whenever the
hoppers are sufficiently abundant to cause
the dropping of the leaves in summer,
the vine fails to ripen its wood properly.
Without mature green leaves the buds
and canes do not receive the stores of
starch which they need for the new
growth in spring, and will either grow

1128

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

poorly the following year or fail to start
at all.

"When a new growth of leaves in
autumn follows summer defoliation by
hoppers, mildew, or other causes, the ef-
fect is even worse. The new shoots which
start exhaust what food reserves the
vine possesses, and the leaves are killed
by the early winter frosts before they
have been able to return the supplies they
have taken from the canes. Similar, but
less severe, effects have been observed
following a bad attack of mildew.

"This starvation of the canes and buds
may be brought about in another way,
namely, by the production of too large a
crop. It is often possible, by excessive-
ly long pruning, to cause a vine to pro-
duce an abnormally large crop of grapes.
The larger the crop the more material it
takes from the vine, and if too large,
the vine is unable to support it and at
the same time lay up reserve materials
in its canes and buds. In consequence,
an extra large crop is often followed by
weak growth in the spring, and a con-
sequent small crop the following autumn.
Vines of heavy bearing varieties may
even be killed in this way, by repeated
long pruning.

"This fact has been long recognized
by practical grape growers. Lately, Pro-
fessor L. Ravaz,* of the National School
of Agriculture at Montpellier, France,
has advanced the opinion that the death
of vines, as a consequence of overbear-
ing, is much commoner than is usually
supposed. This overbearing may occur
as a consequence of various conditions
other than long pruning. Some seasons
are peculiarly favorable to heavy crops.
Certain diseases and injuries induce tem-
porary heavy bearing. Whatever the
cause of abnormally heavy crops, Profes-
sor Ravaz believes that they may result
in the death of vines. This is the ex-
planation he gives of the death of large
numbers of vines in Southern France,
Algeria, and other countries, and he
ascribes our so-called Anaheim disease to
the same cause.

* "Influence de la surproduction sur la Vege-
tation de la Vigne," by L. Ravaz, Coulet et flls,
Montpellier, 1906.

"This is substantially the explanation
given of the dying of vines in Santa
Clara, in Bulletin 134, which was pub-
lished before the region was declared
infested by Anaheim disease. Whether
this explanation is suflScient is still doubt-
ful, though it is rendered probable by the
fact that healthy young vineyards are
now growing in Santa Clara, on the
same soil where vines have been killed
by Anaheim disease."

GRAPE PESTS

Achemon Sphinx or Hawk Moth

Pholus achemon Drury

Family Sphingidae

Philampelus achemon Drury

General Appearance

The adult moth is of a brownish-gray
color with light and dark variegations
and well defined dark brown spots. The
hind wings are rich pink with brown
border and dark spots. The body is red-
dish gray with two deep brown triangu-
lar spots on the thorax. The expanded
wings measure easily four inches across.
The larva or caterpillar is first green,
changing to reddish-brown as it grows
older. The dorsum is brown with from
six to eight whitish, oblique bars along
the sides. The pupae are rich brown.

Life History

The eggs are green and round. The
winters are passed in the chrysalis stage,
the adults emerging about the time the
foliage appears upon the grapevines.
The eggs are glued to the leaves and
hatch in a comparatively short time into
small green caterpillars. These are rav-
enous feeders, grow very rapidly and do
much damage to the foliage of the vines.
In about one month they are full grown
and go into the ground to pass the winter
in the pupal stage.

Food Plants

The caterpillars feed upon wild and
cultivated grapevines and the Virginia
creeper.

E. O. EssiG

Apple Leaf Hopper. See Apple Pests.
Black Scale. See Apricot Pests.
Blister Mite. See Pear Pests.

GRAPE PESTS

1129

California Grape Root Worm

*Adoxus obscurus Linn.

Family Chrysomelidae

General Appearance

The adult beetles are about three-six-
teenths of an inch long, jet black in
color and partially covered with fine
whitish hairs giving them a grayish cast.
The prothorax is noticeably narrower
than the rest of the body. The antennae
and legs are usually black, but are some-
times brown. The eggs are elongated,
yellowish-white and one-twenty-fifth of
an inch long. The full-grown larvae are
white with brown heads and about one-
fourth of an inch long. The heads are
usually curved in towards the ventral
surface of the body. The pupae are white
and about the same size as the fully de-
veloped larvae.

Life History

The eggs are laid early in the spring,
usually in clusters of from one to two
dozen, in cracks or crevices beneath the
bark upon the trunk of the vines, any-
where within six inches above the sur-
face of the ground. They hatch in from
eight to ten days and the young larvae
immediately seek the roots of the vines
underneath the ground and attack first
the small rootlets which are often en-

& Q

Fig. 1. Adoxus obscurus Linn.
(Original.)

tirely destroyed. The large roots are also
attacked and large patches of bark re-
moved. They continue to feed under-
ground until fall, when they are full
grown and remain dormant during the
winter, transforming into delicate pupae
in the spring and after about two weeks
emerge as adult insects. The larvae and

* The light-colored form has the wing covers,
tibiae and basal half of the antennae brown,
while the rest of the body is blaclj. This
species is known as Adoxus vitis Fourc, and
the life history and habits are almost iden-
tical with those of Adoxus obscurus Linn.

pupae are usually found within a radius
of fifteen inches from the trunks and at
a depth from two feet to less. The adults
appear about May to begin egg-laying and
disappear in June.

Food Plants

The larval forms work upon the roots
and the adults work upon the foliage and
fruit of practically all the commercial
varieties of grapes.

Control

Thorough cultivation, close to the bases
of the vines, will kill many of the larvae
and pupae. The adults may be kept in
check by repeated applications of arseni-
cal sprays. Jarring them into receptacles,
containing oil, is also recommended.

E. O. EssiG

Cottony Cushion or Fluted Scale

Icerya purchasi Mask.

General Appearance

The adults are distinguished by large,
white fluted cottony masses with distinct
red or yellow bodies, varying from one-
fourth to one-half inch in length and
three-fourths as wide. There are two
varieties, as follov/s: Icerya purchasi
var. crawii Ckll., of which the body
proper is yellow or light brown, and
Icerya purchasi var. maskelli Ckll., the
body of which is very dark brown or
almost black. The eggs and young are
bright cardinal red.

Life History

The large cottony masses are the egg-
sacs of the females, and may contain
from four hundred to a thousand eggs.
The males soon after hatching secrete
themselves in a white cocoon for trans-
formation, which requires nearly one
month. The females are matured in
from three to four months. There are
several broods during the summer, when
the scale increases enormously and may
do great damage.

Food Plants

All citrus trees, pomegranate, quince,
apple, peach, apricot, fig, walnut, locust,
willow, pepper, grape, rose, castor bean,
spearmint, rose geranium, purslane, am-
brosia, nettle, sweet-gum, white oak, flow-

1130

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ering almond, pecan, potato, nightshade,
Bermuda grass.

Control
Artificial control by sprays and fumiga-
tion are never practiced because of the
eflBciency of natural enemies. This is the
one case where nature controls perfectly
a serious pest.

Predaceous Enemies

The common Vedalia (Novius cardi-
nalis) and the Koebele's ladybird (Novius
koebelei) are the ladybird beetles which
keep the cottony cushion scale in com-
plete subjection. In many localities in
California the former is the most effi-
cient, but in some places, and especially
in Ventura county, the writer found the
latter doing most of the control work.

While these ladybirds are usually
present in limited numbers in most sec-
tions, yet at times they completely dis-
appear and the cottony cushion scale in-
creases so as to cause considerable dam-
age before the beetles can again be estab-
lished. It is always well to keep a close
watch of this pest, and if it appears
without being accompanied by the larvae
of the Vedalias, adults of the latter
should be obtained and liberated as soon
as possible.

True Parasites

There are two true parasites which
also prey upon this coccid: the hymen-
opterous enemy, Ophelosia crawfordi,
and the dipterous parasite, Cryptochaetum
(Lestophonus) iceryae Will. The latter
is often responsible for as much effective
work as are the Vedalias, though this
fact is not generally known.

E. O. EssiG

Cottony Maple Scale. See Apple Pests.
Cutworms. See Index.

Erinose*

Erinose is a disease of the vine char-
acterized by swellings on the upper sur-
face of the leaves, and corresponding de-
pressions on the lower surface. These
swellings, when numerous, cause consid-
erable deformation of the leaves, but not

♦Revised from Bulletin No. 136, by P. T.
Biolettl and E. H. Twight, by H. J. Quayle,
California Experiment Station.

the change of color to yellow or brown
which is characteristic of most fungous
diseases. Even very badly affected
leaves retain almost their normal green
color on the upper surface until late in
the season. The depressions on the under
side are coated with a thick felt-like cov-
ering, which, at first pure white, grad-
ually turns rusty and finally becomes
dark brown. Generally, the swellings
and corresponding depressions are iso-
lated and few in number on the affected
leaves, but in severe cases they are nu-
merous enough to become confluent and
the whole lower surface is then com-
pletely hidden by the felt-like covering.
Occasionally, indeed, the felt-like mate-
rial extends to the upper surface in nar-
row strips bordering the veins, and may
even be found on the petioles and flower
clusters.

Many have the impression that they are
attacked by a fungus, and, in fact, the
coating has a strong superficial resem-
blance to some fungous growths. A mi-
croscopic examination shows, however,
that it consists of a mass of hypertro-
phied hairs or abnormal outgrowths of
the epidermal cells of the leaf. They are
larger, more abundant, and more per-
sistent than the normal leaf-hairs of the
leaf, and differ also in being often
branched and usually unicellular. This
abnormal growth, in common with simi-
lar growths found on other plants, is
called an erineum, from a Greek word
meaning woolly. This is the derivation
of the word erinose, which means woolly
disease — a very appropriate name. The
erinea of leaves were formerly supposed
to be of fungous origin, but are now
known to be due to the attacks of minute
mites. The feeding of these mites exerts
a stimulating effect upon the epidermal
cells of the leaf, which causes them to
grow out into the abnormal hair-like pro-
cesses already described. The mite caus-
ing erinose of the vine is known as
Eriophyes vitis, and is related to the
mites causing a similar disease of the
walnut and the leaf blister of the pear,
both of which are very common.

The Eriophyes vitis is not a true in-
sect, but a mite or acarid belonging to

GRAPE PESTS

1131

the class of Arachnida to which belong
also spiders, scorpions, ticks, and our
common red spider so destructive to
fruit trees. These mites are extremely
minute, and only a practiced eye can per-
ceive them among the tangled mass of
erineum on the leaf, by the aid of an
ordinary hand magnifier, and then only
with great difficulty.

Amount of Injury

Erinose was formerly considered to be
a very serious disease of the vine, owing
to the fact that its effects were confused
with those of the powdery mildew. It is
only in very exceptional cases that it is,
alone, capable of doing serious injury to
the vine or its crop. All varieties of
vines are not equally attacked. Accord-
ing to Ravaz, certain American species
such as Berlandieri, Mustang, Cinerea,
Cordifolia, and Scuppernong are immune.
All varieties of Vinifera are susceptible,
but not equally. Of varieties cultivated
in California, Sauvignon, Sirah, Mar-
sanne, and Gamay Teinturier are said by
Ravaz to be little subject to attack; while
Aramon, Cinsaut, and Frontignan (Small
Muscatel) are very susceptible. The
worst cases so far observed in California
have been on Flame Tokay and Mission,
but it has been found also on other varie-
ties, among them Zinfandel and Muscat.

Methods of Treatment

Since sulphuring the vines for the treat-
ment of odium has become general in
France, there has been little trouble with
erinose. The mite seems as sensitive to
the fumes of sulphur as the red spider,
and several sulphurings during the late
spring and early summer are recom-
mended for the control of the mite. The
vineyards badly affected are usually those
in which little or no sulphuring has been
done, or those where the growth of foliage
has been so luxuriant as to prevent the
evaporation of the sulphur by the sun. In
the latter cases the vines are so strong
that they practically receive no harm from
the disease. Tests made on Tokay vines
indicate that the erinose can be easily
and readily controlled at any stage by
sulphuring. In severe cases a winter treat-
ment of the vine stumps is practiced in

France. This treatment consists in pour-
ing about one quart of boiling water over
the stump. For very large stumps a
somewhat greater amount of water is
used, and for smaller vines a proportion-
ate amount. This method is said to be
very efficacious, and with the portable
boiler constructed for the purpose two
men can treat from fifteen hundred to
two thousand vines per day. Cuttings
taken from affected vines for the purpose
of rooting or grafting may be thoroughly
disinfected by placing them in hot water
(122 degrees Fahrenheit) for ten min-
utes. If this is done carefully all the
mites and their eggs will be destroyed
without injury to the cuttings.

European Fruit Scale. See Apple Pests.

Frosted Scale. See Prune Pests.

Grape Berry Moth

Polychrosis viteana Clem.
The larva of the grape berry moth
infests the berry or fruit of the grape.
The first generation attacks and webs
together the grape clusters even before
the blossoms open or soon after the
grapes are set. Later-appearing larvae
bore into the green or ripening fruit and
produce a purplish spot much resembling
in appearance the injury due to the black-
rot fungus, with which it is frequently
confused. Within the fruit the larvae
feed on the pulp and seeds, passing from
one grape to another, and several of
these discolored and shriveling berries
will often be found more or less webbed
together with numerous particles of
larval excrement, and sticky with exud-
ing grape juice. Other insects attack the
fruit of the grape, such as the grape-seed
insect (Isosoma vitis Saunders), whose
larvae feed on the seeds, causing the ber-
ries to shrivel late in the summer, and
the grape curculio (Craponius inaegua
lis Say), whose injury closely resembles
that of the grape berry moth. But the
principal cause of wormy grapes through-
out the country is the larva of the species
under consideration. Until recently it
was thought that our grape berry moth
was introduced from Europe many years
ago, but this has been disproven. It is
very probable that the grape is the sole

1132

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

food of this species. This important fact
greatly simplifies the question of its con-
trol, for if the species had other food
plants vineyards would be reinfested
from outside sources despite thorough
treatments.

Distribution and DestructiTeness

The American grape berry moth oc-
curs from Canada south to the Gulf and
westward to California. It is very gen-
erally distributed over this area, and
wherever the grape is grown it is more
than likely to be found.

Description and Life History

The grape berry moth is small, the
wings expanding not quite one-half inch.
The general color is purplish brown.
Moths appear in the spring from hiber-
nating pupae, beginning about the time
the shoots of the grape are pushing out,
and continuing to emerge for some weeks.
The earlier-appearing individuals deposit
their eggs on the blossom clusters, while
those coming out after the blossoms are
shed oviposit on the clusters of young
grapes.

The minute scale-like eggs of the first
brood of moths are difficult to find, as at
this time they are relatively scarce, but
may be readily detected during summer
as a glistening or whitish spot on the
surface of the berries. The larvae of the
first generation feed upon the blossoms
and small berries, webbing them together
more or less and producing a more or
less ragged bunch of grapes, or the clus-
ter may be almost entirely destroyed.
Moths of the second and later generations
deposit their eggs on the developing
grape berries, and the resulting larvae
bore into these, feeding on the pulp and
seeds, the entrance point of the berry
being marked by a purplish spot, which
renders their detection quite easy. By
this time the insects will have increased
greatly in numbers, and the larvae will
be attacking almost exclusively the ber-
ries of the grape, for which reason their
work is much more conspicuous. Second-
brood larvae infest the grape during July
and August, the later-appearing indi-
viduals probably not developing to moths
but hibernating in the pupal condition.

Many of the earlier-appearing insects of
this brood appear to complete their life
cycle, and moths develop, giving rise to
a third generation of larvae.

Treatment
Poisons

The use of arsenical poisons against
the first brood of the grape berry moth
was recommended by Mr. Marlatt, of the
Bureau of Entomology, in 1895.* Since
this time the recommendation has been
amply justified in the experience of nu-
merous vineyardists, who, in connection
with the fight against the grape root
worm, found that their early sprayings
for this pest were also controlling the
grape berry moth. The first treatment
should be made just before the blossoms
are ready to open, and the second just
after the blossoms have fallen. A third
treatment in a week or ten days is also
advisable in badly infested vineyards. In
all these treatments special care should
be exercised to force the spray well
through the clusters of blossoms and
young fruit. It will be noted that the
second and third treatments for the
grape berry moth will coincide with the
first and second treatments for the grape
root worm, and the arsenicals recom-
mended for that insect will be equally
satisfactory for the grape berry moth.

A. L. QUAINTANCE,

Farmers' Bulletin 284.

Gfrape Blossom Midge

Contarinia johnsoni Sling.

Present in the Erie and Chautauqua
grape sections in New York.

It is a tiny fly, almost microscopic, and
yet seems capable of destroying a whole
crop. They emerge from the soil about
the time the buds of the early flowering
grapes are ready to open. The eggs are
laid in the opening flower bud and the
larvae so injure the flower that no berry
sets. Their presence is indicated by the
swelling and reddening of the bud. By
the last week in June the larvae have
entered the- ground, where they remain
in pupation until the following spring.

* Yearbook. United States Department of Ag-
riculture, 1895. p. 404.

GRAPE PESTS

1133

One or two early applications of a nico-
tine spray is the only remedy suggested.

Literature

New York (Geneva) Bulletin 331.

Grape Cane Borer

Amphicerus Mcaudatus Say.
The young shoots of the grape during
the spring months in some districts will
often be observed to suddenly break off
or droop and die, and if examination be
made a small hole will be found just
above the base of the withered shoot,
with a burrow leading from it a short
distance into the main stem. Within the
burrow will be found the culprit in the
form of a peculiar cylindrical brown
beetle about half an inch long. This
beetle has long been known as the apple
twig borer, from its habit of boring into
the smaller branches of the apple in the
manner described for the grape. It also
sometimes similarly attacks pear, peach,
plum, forest and shade trees and orna-
mental shrubs. To the grape, however,
it is especially destructive, and the name
"grape cane borer" is now given to it
as more appropriate. Much complaint of
this beetle is always received during the
winter and early spring. Frequently all
the new growth is killed, and in some
cases vines have been entirely destroyed.
It is extremely common in the states
bordering the Mississippi, from Iowa to
Arkansas, and also in Texas, often be-
coming, throughout this region, the most
important insect enemy of the vine. It
also occurs eastward to the coast, but
rarely causes much damage in its eastern
range.

It breeds in dying wood, such as large
prunings, diseased canes, and also in
dying or drying wood of most shade and
fruit trees. It has been found by the
writer breeding very abundantly in roots
of uprooted maples and in diseased tam-
arisk stems. In old, dry wood it will
not breed, so far as is known, nor in
vigorous live growth, but seems to need
the dying and partially drying conditions
mentioned. The insect has but one brood
yearly. The beetles mature for the most
part in fall, and generally remain in their
larval burrows until the following spring.

A few may leave the burrows in the fall
and construct others in the twigs of
apple or other plants in which to hiber-
nate. In the spring, however, they be-
gin their destructive work early, burrow-
ing into the axils of the grape and oc-
casionally also into other plants. This
is undoubtedly partly for food, but seems
largely malicious, for it certainly has
nothing to do with egg-laying, although
it may have some connection with the
marital relation. The eggs are laid chief-
ly in May, or as early as March or April
in its southern range, and the larvae
develop during summer, transforming to
pupae and beetles in the fall.

On the Pacific coast a closely allied
but somewhat larger species (Amphicerus
punctipennis Lee.) breeds in grape canes
and other plants, and probably has sim-
ilar burrowing habits in the adult stage.

Remedies

It will be apparent at once that to
limit the work of this insect it will be
necessary to promptly destroy all wood
in which it will breed. This means the
careful removal and burning of all dis-
eased wood and prunings at least by mid-
summer, thus destroying the material in
which the larvae are probably undergo-
ing their development. 'If precautions of
this sort are neglected and the beetle
appears in the vineyard in spring, the
only recourse is to cut out by hand
every affected part and destroy the
beetles. On warm days they may some-
times be collected in numbers while run-
ning about the vines.

C. L. Marlatt,
Washington, D. C.

Grape Ciirciilio

Craponius inaegualis Say
The grape curculio is one of the "snout
beetles" belonging in the same family
as the so-called plum curculio. The par-
ent beetle deposits her eggs in little cav-
ities which she eats into the grapes,
and the resulting larvae feed upon the
pulp and seeds, producing an injury quite
similar to that done by the grape berry
moth. The beetles cut small, rather
characteristic holes in the grape leaves
when feeding, and the berries often show

1134

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

a purplish coloration at the point punc-
tured in egg-laying. If infested berries
be examined it will be readily possible
to distinguish between the grape curculio
and the grape berry moth, since the grubs
of the former are whitish and quite desti-
tute of legs, whereas the larvae of the
berry moth have well developed legs, are
greenish in color, quite agile, and like-
ly to escape quickly upon being disturbed.

Distribution and DestnictiTeness

The grape curculio is a native species,
feeding originally on the wild grape, as
it does at the present time. It is dis-
tributed well over the United States east
of the Rocky mountains.

Life History and Habits

The insect passes the winter in the
adult or beetle stage, hiding under trash
in and near vineyards, especially border-
ing woods. About the time in the spring
that the grape is in bloom the beetles
come from their hibernation quarters
and for the first few days or a week are
quite sluggish, but gradually become
more active, feeding on the foliage of
the grape until the berries are about one-
fourth grown or of sufficient size to be
suitable for receiving the eggs. This
habit of feeding on the exposed portions
of the vines some three or four weeks be-
fore egg-laying permits of their ready
destruction by arsenical poisons. Late
in June, in the latitude of West Virginia,
the females begin depositing eggs in the
berries, excavating a cavity in which a
single egg is placed. About four to six
days, varying with the temperature, are
required for the eggs to hatch, and the
resulting larva burrows through the
pulp, reaching the seed in three or four
days, which is penetrated and the con-
tents devoured. In 12 to 15 days the
larva has become full grown and leaves
the berry by eating a hole to the out-
side, falls to the ground and at once
seeks a suitable place for pupation, as
under stones, lumps of earth, or just be-
low the surface of the soil. Here an
earthen cell is made and the larva trans-
forms to the pupa, the adult beetle emerg-
ing in the course of 18 or 19 days, at first

blackish in color with gray hairs, but
soon becoming the normal brown color.

The life cycle from egg to adult, as
stated by Brooks for a large series of
individuals, requires about 35 days. The
new generation of beetles feed upon the
foliage until fall, when they go into hi-
bernation, appearing the following spring,
as stated.

Treatment
Poisoning

The beetles feed freely upon the foli-
age of the grape in the spring for sev-
eral weeks before egg-laying begins and
continue feeding in the fall after egg-
laying ceases along with beetles of the
new generation, and it is thus an easy
matter to bring about their destruction
by arsenical sprays. The treatments ad-
vised for the grape berry moth and root
worm, with perhaps an additional treat-
ment two or three weeks later, will prac-
tically control the insect.

A. L. QUAINTANCE,

Farmers' Bulletin 284.

Grape Leaf Folder

Desmia funeralis Huber

This insect occurs in considerable num-
bers in some sections every year, but the
total injury is not usually very great.

They may be easily detected in a vine-
yard by the characteristic rolling of the
leaves. One edge is rolled up rather
tightly to about half way across the leaf,
making a tube less than the diameter
of a lead pencil, in which the larva lives.
The leaf is always rolled on the under
side. The insects feed by eating off the
free edge of the leaf in the interior of
the roll, so that they are always protect-
ed by the outer layers of the rolled por-
tion. The insect hibernates as a chrys-
alis, appearing and laying eggs upon the
vine in the spring. The larvae of the
first brood appear about the first of
June and by the twentieth of June they
change to pupae. The larva is a green-
ish-white caterpillar, about an inch long
when full grown. They wriggle out of
their nests very vigorously when dis-
turbed and drop to the ground. There
are two broods in a season.

This insect occurs, apparently, through-

GRAPE PESTS

1135

out the United States. It is veiT com-
mon in the Eastern and Middle Western
states, but there is a striking difference
in habits between the insect there and
what is considered the same species in
California. In the East, the leaf is sim-
ply folded over on the upper surface and
the edges sewed down by strands of silk.
There the larva feeds by eating off the
upper surface of the leaf, thus skeleton-
izing it. In California the leaf is very dis-
stinctly rolled, and instead of eating off
the upper surface it feeds on the free
edge.

The moth is nearly an inch across the
expanded wings, and is black with white
markings. There are two white spots on
each wing, those on the posterior wings
being larger, and in some specimens fus-
ing into a single large spot. There are
also two white bands across the abdomen,
one about the center and one near the
tip. The wings are also bordered with a
fringe of white, and the tarsi and apical
half of the antennae are white.

Control Measure

The only control measure which is
likely to prove effective is to spray with
an arsenical before the rolling of the leaf
is commenced, so that they may be
obliged to eat the poison, even though
they are within the rolled portion. If
they are not too abundant, hand picking
or simply crushing the folded portion of
the leaves will be the most practical.

H. J. QUAYLE,
California Experiment Station Bulletin 192.

GrapcTine Hoplia

*Hoplia calUpyge Lee.
Family Scarabaeidae
General Appearance
The adult beetles vary from five-six-
teenths to three-eighths of an inch in
length. The head and thorax are dark
brown, being the darkest portions of the
entire body. They are often covered with
fine golden pubescence, giving them a
mottled appearance. The wing covers or
elytra are brown — nearly as dark as the

* Another species, Hoplia sackenii Lee, also
occurs in the central and southern part of the
state and works upon the grapevine.

Hoplia piihicoUis Lee. Is lighter In color than
B. calHpyqe Lee. and occurs In the Sierra foot-
hills, but apparently is not a pest.

Fig. 1. The Grapevine Hoplia (Hoplia cal-
Upyge Lee), Showing Dorsal and Ventral
Aspects.

head and thorax or considerably lighter
in some species. They are also pubescent
and often appear white mottled, due to
the fact that the fine hair or powder is
removed in certain places. The entire
ventral surface, excepting the head, is
beautifully iridescent silvery green, as
are also the blunt posterior end of the ab-
domen, the coxae and femora of the legs.
The rest of the legs and antennae are
brown. The larvae are white grubs and
live in the soil.

Life History

The life history of this beetle has not
been worked out, but it probably re-
sembles that of the other chafers. The
glossy white eggs are laid in old pas-
tures. The grubs feed upon the plant
roots and grow very slowly, requiring
from one to two years to become full
grown. They remain in the larval or
pupal stage throughout the winter and
emerge as adult beetles early in the
spring and attack many kinds of vegeta-
tion.

Food Plants

The usual food appears to be the young
buds and older foliage of rose bushes.

1136

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

which often suffer greatly from the at-
tacks. As early as 1893 it has been
known to do considerable damage to the
buds and leaves of grape vines in Cali-
fornia. Occasionally large areas of vine-
yards are completely stripped. It also
feeds upon greasewood.

Control

The larval and pupal forms are found
in the soil, especially in unplowed past-
ures and places around fences, ditches,
etc. Thorough cultivation of these places
will not only kill the young then present,
but will keep the adults from laying
eggs there. Poison sprays applied when
the beetles begin to appear in consider-
able numbers and repeated every week
will aid materially in saving the buds and
foliage. Jarring the beetles into a suit-
able receptacle containing oil may also
prove effective, especially if only small
areas are badly infested.

E. O. EssiG

Grape Leaf Hopper

Typhlocyba comes Say.
General Appearance

The adult insects are very small,
scarcely more than one-eighth of an inch
long. During the summer they appear
light yellow with the wing covers or
elytra mottled with red. As the sea-
son advances the color becomes darker,
and in winter it is dark red; this change
is due to the increasing brightness of
the red markings, which are very faint
during the summer months. The young
appear very much like the adults, except-
ing that their wings are not fully develop-
ed and there are less of the red mark-
ings.

Life History

The eggs are bean-shaped and so small
as to be almost microscopic. They are
inserted just beneath the epidermis on
the underside of the grape leaves and
hatch in from 15 to 20 days. The young
nymphs begin at once to feed upon the
first-appearing foliage by extracting the
juices from the leaves with the sharp
beaks. There are two broods a year —
winter and summer. The adults of the
former hibernate and begin feeding upon
the first foliage in the spring. During

May they begin egg-laying, which gives
rise to the summer brood. This brood
grows very rapidly and lays eggs within
a few weeks, dying off in the fall. Their
eggs give rise to the coming winter brood.
Thus the destruction may begin in May
and end only when all of the leaves
have fallen.

Food Plants
The principal and practically the only
food during the summer months is the
foliage of the grape, but during the
winter many other plants are attacked,
such as grasses, clover, alfalfa, mustard,
ragweed and filaree.

Control

A spray containing .02 of one per
cent nicotine has proven to be the most
effective contact insecticide for this pest.
This must be applied when the nymphs
begin to appear about the first of June,
and great care taken to drench the un-
der sides of the leaves. High pressure
is necessary for good work.

Screen cages have been used very suc-
cessfully in many localities in the state.
Plowing and cultivating close to the vines
and practicing clean culture aid in re-
ducing the numbers.

Natural Enemies

So far no internal parasites of this pest
are known. The larvae of the California
green lacewing Chrysopa californica Coq.
devour the young nymphs. Ladybird
beetles also prey upon the young, but are
of little consequence in the matter of
control.

Grape Phylloxera

^Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon

General Appearance

The presence of this pest is usually
manifested by its work, which consists
in the formation of rough wart-like galls
upon the leaves and small knots upon the
roots. The lice producing the galls are
very small and orange-colored. White
eggs and the young are also to be found
within the galls, which are seldom found
in California. The root lice are about
one-twenty-fifth of an inch long and

* According to priority rules the scientific
name of this species should be Peritymbia
vitifoliae (Fitch).

GRAPE PESTS

1137

greenish-yellow in summer and a little
darker in winter.

Life Historj

During the months of July and August
some of the eggs laid by the females of
the root forms hatch into individuals
which acquire wings. These seek the
foliage of the vines and lay large eggs
which produce true females and small
eggs which produce males. These mate
and each female lays a single winter egg
upon the bark of the two-year-old wood.
In the spring this egg hatches into a
root form (or gall-making form) which
gives rise to the root forms in other
stages. These lay eggs which give rise
to the many summer generations of de-
vastating insects. In California the lat-
ter hibernate in the soil and may con-
tinue for at least four years without re-
verting to the sexual forms.

Food Plants

This insect feeds upon practically all
varieties of grape vines, but is most dam-
aging to the European varieties. Many
cultivated varieties and hybrids as well
as wild species are slightly attacked, but
not so as to greatly impair their growth.
These latter are known as resistant vines
and are important factors in the selection
of roots for vines set out in Phylloxera-
infested districts. While the leaves are
damaged to some degree, the main source
of injury is due to the attacks upon the
young and vigorous roots, which are com-
pletely destroyed. The roots of the so-
called "resistant stock" do not material-
ly suffer from such attacks.

Control

By far the most important method of
control is the use of resistant root stocks
upon which are grafted the desired vari-
eties. Of course care must be exercised
in selecting stock for the various vari-
eties and expert advice obtained before
making extensive selections or plantings.

Direct remedies for infestations are un-
satisfactory. Flooding the vineyards if
the water can be held for a month will
almost exterminate the pest, if done in
the winter, but such a method is imprac-
ticable in most of the grape-growing
sections of the state.

Carbon bisulfid is an efficient remedy in
loose sandy soil, but in such places the
pest is usually less abundant.

Natural Enemies

In the Eastern states many predaceous
insects feed upon the gall form, but as
this stage does not occur to any extent
in California there are practically no re-
sults from these or other natural checks.

E. O. EssiG

Grape Root Worm, or Grape Vine
FiDiA. Fidia viticida Walsh. See Cal-
ifornia Grape Root Worm.

Grape Scale

Aspidiotus (Diaspidiotus) uvae Comst.

This insect has a wide distribution
over the eastern part of the United
States and has proven of considerable im-
portance.

Infested vines have the appearance of
being covered with a "dingy white
scurf." The habits of this scale are
somewhat similar to those of the San
Jose scale, but the grape seems to be itj
only host of economic importance.

The female gives birth to living young,
35 to 50 during May and June. These are
active for about two days when they set-
tle down to a sedentary life under cover
of a waxy shield which they excrete.

Spray with lime-sulphur once, about
one week after the first appearance in
the spring. Later applications are neces-
sary sometimes.

Reference

Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt.
VII.

Grape Seed Clialcis

Evoxystoma vitis

In the latter part of the summer
grapes will sometimes shrivel and dry
up. Examination of the seeds will find
some of them missing and others en-
larged. The swollen seeds may be found
to contain a small white grub. This is
the grub of the grape seed chalcis,
which emerges, a wasp-like fly, some time
the following summer.

According to Gossard it prefers the
wild grapes.

Destruction of affected berries is all
that is needed.

2—31

1138

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Reference

Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 233.

GRASSHOPPERS

Valley Grasshopper

Edaleonotus enigma Scudd.
General Appearance
One of the smaller species, the adults
being about one-fourth of an inch long.
The general color is rich amber with red-
dish hue around the eyes. The dorsum
and carinae of the thorax are dark. The
tegmina are mottled with black and
dusky spots. The antennae and first two
pairs of legs are concolorous with the
body, while the femora of the hind legs
are richly marked with black and the
tibiae are pale blue. The young are
nearly of the same general color, with
the dark markings less pronounced.

Life History

The holes in which the eggs arc laid
are usually drilled in hard or compact
soil. The eggs are laid regularly and

Fig. 1. The Valley Grasshopper (Edaleonotus
enigma Scudd).

horizontally and cemented together, as
well as being surrounded with a liquid
cement which renders the mass water-
proof. The young hatch the following
spring as soon as it becomes warm, and
they begin to reach maturity early in
June. Pairing begins soon after and eggs
are deposited from August to October.
There are two forms of the adults, char-
acterized by long and short wings. The
species is very prolific and does much
damage. It is only occasionally migra-
tory.

Distribution
Throughout the lower San Joaquin val-
ley, especially in the Turlock region.

Food Plants

All forms of vegetation, including the
foliage of orchards and vineyards, un-

cultivated field crops, such as alfalfa,
clover, grain, etc., and cultivated crops,
such as vegetables, corn, potatoes, etc.,
are attacked.

Differential Grasshopper

Melanoplus differ entialis Thomas

General Appearance

This is one of the larger hoppers,
averaging one and five-eighths inches
from front to the tip of the tegmina or
wing covers. A very beautifully color-
ed insect when fully matured. The head,
thorax, abdomen and first two pairs of
legs are amber or rich brown, the sutures
being dark. The wing covers are brown-
ish gray — the true wings being trans-
parent. The hind femora are yellow with
black cross lines, while the tibiae and
tarsi are bright red, the former with
black spots near the outer base. The
spines and claws are black. The an-
tennae are reddish with dusky tips. The
nymphs are green.

Life History

Egg-laying begins about the middle of
the summer. The holes for the eggs are
drilled into the soil in bare and vacant
places, especially in alfalfa fields. Prom
60 to 80 eggs are laid by each female.
They are protected from winter rains
and freezes by an excretion of the female
which makes the capsule containing them
waterproof. They begin to hatch in the
warmer spring months, appearing early
in June, and keep up their destru:>tive
work until August. The young green
hoppers, as they mature, acquire wings
and assume a yellowish tint, thus causing
the belief that there are two distinct
species. The largest brood appears early
in the summer, and the greatest amount
of damage is done by the first of August.

Fig. 1. The Differential Grasshopper (Melan-
oplus' di ft erentialis Thomas).

GRAPE PESTS

1139

Distribution

Especially abundant in the San Joa-
quin valley, though the species has a
somewhat wider range throughout the
state. Outbreaks have been recorded at
Newman and Los Banos in past years.
This year it was especially abundant in
Madera county.

Food Plants

Practically all kinds of green vegeta-
tion, including most of the forage and
truck crops. Especially destructive to
alfalfa. Orchard trees and vineyards are
also attacked, some trees and vines be-
ing completely defoliated and many
killed.

Hopper Dozer

The use of the hopper dozer has be-
come an important factor in the control
of grasshoppers, especially in grain and
hay fields, in pastures and even in cul-
tivated crops. The hopper dozer is con-
structed as shown in Fig. 2. The back
and sides are made of thin sheet iron or
cloth and the pan at the bottom construct-
ed to hold about two inches of kerosene.
These dozers may be made any length
but a two-horse size is the most practic-
able. They are simply drawn across the
fields and capture the hoppers as the lat-
ter endeavor to escape their approach.

Fig. 2. Plan of a Very Good Hopper Dozer.
(After Urbahns.)

Though the hoppers may escape from
the kerosene bath, they are doomed.

The best time of operation is on warm
days if possible, early in the season be-
fore the hoppers have acquired wings.

A brief description of some of the most
common and destructive California spe-
cies follows.

E. O. EssiG

Greedy Scale. See Apple Pests.

Nematode Boot Gall

These tiny creatures belonging to the
order vermes cause irritation of the roots

of numerous plants including the grape.
On this plant they give rise to galls or
swellings somewhat similar to those pro-
duced by the phylloxera.

*Quayle says that "no satisfactory
remedy has yet been found for con-
trolling parasitic nematodes. In green-
houses the usual procedure is to sterilize
the soil, but this, obviously, is not ap-
plicable to a vineyard. However, if the
soil is known to be infested, disinfec-
tion is sometimes practiced before plant-
ing out young vines. This is done by an
application of carbon bisulfid to the soil.
Trap plants have also been used, these
being annuals that are pulled up before
the nematodes escape. In time it may be
found that resistant stock is the solu-
tion of the problem. In the bulletin al-
ready referred to it is stated that the
Isabella is slightly resistant, while Vitis
riparia has shown no nodules after the
first year. This fact is interesting as a
suggestion that both phylloxera and
nematodes may be controlled by the same
resistant."

Pear Thrips. See Pear Pests.

Red or Orange Scale

Chrysomphalus aurantii Mask.

General Appearance

Distinctly circular and fiat, the female
scales varying from one-sixteenth to one-
eighth of an inch in diameter. The scale
or shell is transparent, allowing the red
female body, which gives it a distinctly
red color, to show through. The male
scales are elongated, very much smaller
and gray or dark brown in color.

Life History

The young are born alive in great num-
bers. They are usually produced during
the warm summer months from June to
September, but in the milder sections
may continue to appear much longer.
Like other coccids the males are winged
and so small as to be scarcely observed.
The females settle on the trunks, limbs,
foliage and fruit, and cause great dam-
age. Trees may be entirely killed by
their attacks. It is one of the most seri-
ous pests known to citrus fruit culture.

* California Experiment Station Bulletin 192.

1140

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Distribution

Throughout the Southern citrus belt in
California.

Food Plants

All citrus trees, camphor, fig, olive,
rose, pear, plum, apple, quince, willow,
oak, grape, acacia, tea plant, wattle,
sago palm, nightshade, English walnut,
eucalyptus, passion vine, date palm, Cal-
ifornia fan palm, goldenrod, lignum-
vitae, fuschia, box elder, agave, cocoanut
and pistacia.

Control

Spraying is efficacious on deciduous
fruits with lime-sulphur (1-9), caustic
soda distillate water mechanical mixture
or distillate emulsion.

Natural Enemies

Various species of the ladybird beetles,
green and brown lacewings and several
internal parasites.

E. O. EssiG

Rose Chafer

Macrodactyliis subspinosus Fabr.

With the blooming of the grape, an
awiiward, long-legged, light-brown beetle
about one-third of an inch in length fre-
quently appears in enormous swarms, at
first devouring the blossoms, then the
leaves, reducing them frequently to mere
skeletons, and later attacking the young
fruit. By the end of July these unwel-
come visitors disappear as suddenly as
they come.

Though now distinctively a grape pest,
it was first known as an enemy of the
rose, whence its name, "rose-bug," or rose
chafer. It attacks also the blossoms of
all other fruit trees and of many orna-
mental trees and shrubs, and, in fact, in
periods of great abundance, stops at
nothing — garden vegetables, grasses, cer-
eals, or any green thing. At such times
plants appear a living mass of sprawling
beetles clustering on every leaf, blossom,
or fruit.

The rose chafer occurs from Canada
southward to Virginia and Tennessee and
westward to Colorado, but is particularly
destructive in the eastern and central
portions of its range, notably in New
Jersey, Delaware, and to a less extent in
New England and the Central states.

It passes its early stages in grass or
meadow land, especially if sandy, the lar-
vae feeding on the roots of grasses a few
inches below the surface of the ground
like the common white grub, which they
closely resemble except in size. The eggs
are laid in the ground in June and July,
and the larvae become full grown by
autumn and transform to pupae the fol-
lowing spring, from two to four weeks
prior to the emergence of the beetles.

Remedies

The rose chafer is a most difficult in-
sect to control or destroy, and the enorm-
ous swarms in which it sometimes ap-
pears make the killing of a few thousands
or even millions of little practical value.

Experiments conducted by the Bureau
of Plant Industry during the season of
1911 indicate that a very thorough applica-
tion of arsenate of lead when the beetles
first appear, just before the blossoms
open, will make a profitable crop possible
even in areas where the pest appears in
great numbers.

References

United States Department of Agricul-
ture Farmers' Bulletin 70.

Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 97.

Rose Snout Beetle. See Rose Pests
under Floriculture.

"SUnk Bugs"

There are several species varying in
color and size. Two of these, the green
stink bug and the bound tree bug, reach
a half inch in length. They are green
with a margin of red or yellow.

They puncture the berries, leaving a
nauseous odor.

Hand picking is all that is necessary.

Reference

Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 233.

Small Steel-Blue Grapevine Flea Beetle

Haltica carinata Germ.
Family CJirysomelidae
General Appearance
The adult beetles are less than one-
fourth of an inch long, metallic bluish
or purplish in color with antennae and
legs black. The last ventral segment of
the male has a deep elongated depres-
sion.

GRAPE PESTS— GREENS

1141

Life History

The adult beetles emerge from hiber-
nating quarters in the spring and deposit
their eggs upon the vines. These hatch
very soon and the young grubs begin
to feed upon the foliage, completely
skeletonizing the leaves. When full-
grown they drop to the ground and spin
a coccoon in the soil in which to pupate.
The adult beetles are very active, jump-
ing quickly when disturbed. They also
fly freely.

Food Plants

All stages of the pest are very de-
structive to the young and tender foli-
age of the grapevine — though they also
attack various vegetables and elms.

Control

Same as for the grape root worms
(Adoxus obscurus). Poisoned sprays are
especially recommended for the flea

^^^^^^- E. O. EssiG

White-Lined Sphinx. See Cantaloup

Pests.

White Peach Scale. See Peach Pests.

Wire Worms

Elatridae
The larvae of the click beetles. The
fact that they work in the soil makes con-
trol uncertain and difficult. Salty fer-
tilizers, such as Kainit or nitrate of soda
have been used with good effect as repel-
lants to wire worms. Clean cultivation
and the use of poisoned baits, such as
green alfalfa treated with strychnine
and placed under boards or buried in the
ground are effective; poisoned slices of
potatoes, carrots or other vegetables are
excellent baits. ^ ^ ^^^^^

Miscellaneous Insects

Quite a large number of insects which
make the vines one of their food plants
but never attaining any great impor-
tance, may be kept in subjection by prac-
ticing clean culture and cleaning the
vineyard of all refuse and burning it
as well as keeping down weeds and rub-
bish along fences and lanes.

Grape, Profits From. See Alabama.

Green Apple Aphis. See article on
ApMds.

Greens

The word "greens" is used to designate
the leaves and stems of certain varieties
of young plants used as food. These
plants were generally boiled, sometimes
with a piece of bacon, and when cooked
were eaten with salt and vinegar. Rather
a large list of plants is used in this
way, among them the following:

California Peppergrass; Cardoon, the
prickly artichoke, native of the Mediter-
rean region; Chard, a variety of white
beets, cultivated for its large leaves, leaf
stalks and midribs; Chervil, a garden
herb, native of Europe, of the parsley
family, the young leaves of which are
used for greens, soups and salads; Chic-
ory, a perennial herb of the aster family,
native of Europe and Asia, naturalized in
the United States, has a dandelion-like
root and heads of bright blue flowers;
Chinese Amaranth; Chinese Artichoke;
Chinese Cabbage; Chinese Mustard;
Chives, small perennial herb of the lily
family, allied to the leek and onion;
Corn-salad, called also lamb's lettuce;
Cress (see Index) ; Dandelion, a peren-
nial or a biennial herb of the aster family
with a large yellow flower, the leaves
sometimes used for food; Dock, of which
there are many varieties or species, but
it is the leaves of the yellow dock which
are used for food; Endive, of which
there are numerous varieties, forming
two groups, viz., the curled and nar-
row leaved, and the Batavian or broad
leaved (see index); Globe Artichoke;
Goosefoot, called also lamb's quarters,
pigweed; Ice Plant, a creeping plant of
the fig-marigold family; Kale, a variety
of headless cabbage, yielding curled and
wrinkled leaves; Lettuce; Malabar Night-
shade, a slender climbing plant of the
goosefoot family — care should be used
in nightshade, for some varieties are
poisonous; Mustard; Nasturtiums;

Orache, the garden orach or mountain
spinach; Parsley, much used in garnish-
ing dishes and flavoring soups; Pepper-
grass; Pigweed, a plant that belongs to
the goosefoot family and the variety used
for greens is sometimes called "lamb's
quarters;" Pokeweed, a stout, smooth,

1142

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

perennial herb with large tender leaves,
sometimes used as greens, but the root
is more or less poisonous, is purgative,
emetic and somewhat narcotic — the
leaves should be used when they are
young and tender; Sorrels, of which
there are several variet'es. having a sour,
acid, pleasant taste, used as pot herbs,
and in the making of pies; Spinach; Tur-
nip; Purslane, familiarly known as
"pusley," a prostrate fleshy annual of the
gardens and waste places of both the Old
and the New World, with thick and red-
dish-green leaves and stems.

Greer, Ralph C. See History of Or-
charding in Old Oregon under Apple.

Geese in the Orchards

It has been discovered that geese in an
orchard are useful because they devour
the waste fruits, generally full of worms
and hatcheries for another generation of
pests. This seems to have been first dis-
covered in Canada, where the wild geese
from the lakes and rivers entering the
orchards cleaned up the waste fruits,
and it was found that in these orchards
there were fewer pests than in the or-
chards of adjacent communities where
the geese did not enter. Later the ex-
periment of growing tame geese in the
orchards of Ohio and certain other sec-
tions was successful not only on account
of the work they did in the orchards, but
on account of the profit yielded in the
sale of feathers and meat. Geese are
easily grown and the young are not
nearly so tender and likely to die as
chickens. Besides, they yield good profits
and do less damage to trees than swine,
which are often used in the orchards for
the same purpose. However, in the irri-
gated sections they would, during the
season in which irrigation is practiced,
greatly interfere with the ditches, and
would from this viewpoint be objection-
able. In cases where they could be cared
for during the season of irrigation, or
where irrigation is not practiced, it seems
to the writer that they could be made
useful and profitable.

Granville Lowther

Grapefruit or Pomelo

The fruit of a tropical tree Citrus de-
cumana nearly allied to the orange. The
fruit, which resembles the orange in
shape, is externally pale yellow and
varies in size from the smaller grape-
fruit or pomelo of the size of a very
large orange to that of the pompelmoes,
which may be eight inches in diameter.

The tree is supposed to be a native of
Malay and the Polynesian islands, but is
generally cultivated throughout the
tropics. The leaves are like those of the
orange, but downy on the under surface,
as are also the young shoots. The flowers
are large and white and are succeeded
by very large globose-like fruits, pale in
color, but with more pungent flavor than
the orange.

The fruit is sometimes known as shad-
dock, after Captain Shaddock, who intro-
duced it into the West Indies, also "for-
bidden fruit."

It is recommended by the American
Pomological Society as adapted to the
following districts. (See page 192.)

For Culture of the Pomelo, see Or-
ange.

District No. 6

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Aurantium; Blood; Hart; Josse-
lyn; Mammoth; Pernambuco; Triumph;
Walters.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Royal.

Recommended fob trial — Dessert and
Market: Marsh Seedless.

District No. 17

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Marsh Seedless; Pernambuco; Triumph.

District No. 18

Highly recommended — Dessert and
Market: Marsh Seedless; Triumph.

Recommended — Dessert and Market:
Champion; Hart.

Guam

The island of Guam belongs to the
Ladrone group, east of the Philippines
and west of Hawaii. It is the largest in
the group and the only one with any

GUAM— GUAVA— HAZELNUT OR FILBERT

1143

considerable population. It was ceded to
the United States in 1898. The remainder
of the group belongs to Germany. It is
29 miles long and from three to ten miles
wide, and is said to have about 200 square
miles of territory.

On the east side it is high and precip-
itous, slopes off to a low plateau on the
north and is mountainous in the south.

It is estimated that about 1 per cent
of the soil is now in cultivation, and that
about 50 per cent, or one-half, is arable.
The island is heavily wooded and except
for a few clearings may be said to be
an almost impenetrable jungle. The tim-
ber is valuable for fine furniture, ship-
building and ornamental work.

The fruit industry of the island is un-
developed, although there are valuable
native fruits. The cocoanut is the finest
in the world, and pineapples, bread fruit,
sour sop, custard apples, bananas, melons
and other tropical fruits grow luxuri-

^* Granville Lowthee

Guava

The guava is a tropical fruit of an
American tree of the myrtle family.
There are two varieties, the red guava
and the white guava, by some regarded
as distinct species. One is called Pisi-
dium Guaiava pomiferum; the other
Pisidium Guaiava pyriferum.

The fruit of the first variety or species
mentioned resembles the apple, and the
second resembles the pear. The name
came from the Mexican guayaba. The
species which produces the bulk of the
guava fruit of commerce is a tree from
15 to 20 feet in height, with short-stalked
or ovate leaves inclined to be oblong,
strongly marked veins and covered with
a soft tomentum or down. The flowers
are borne on auxiliary stalks, and the
fruits vary much in size, shape and color,
numerous forms and varieties being
known and cultivated. The variety most
widely cultivated is the "white guava,"
whose fruits are pear shaped, about the
size of a hen's egg, covered with a thin
white or yellowish skin filled with soft
pulp of a yellowish color and having a
sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic taste.

The pulp of the apple-shaped variety,
sometimes called the red variety, is
darker in color and not so fine in flavor.
However, both kinds are used in the
making of guava jelly and guava cheese,
which are manufactured in the West In-
dies and exported to the different coun-
tries of Europe.

Guavas are not largely grown in the
United States, but experiments justify
their planting in the following districts.

(See page 192.)

District No. 17

Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen and
Market: Cattley (Strawberry). Kitchen
and Market: Chinese (Mexican).

District No. 18

Recommended — Dessert, Kitchen and
Market: Cattley (Strawberry). Kitchen
and Market: Chinese (Mexican).

Hawthorne: See Apple, History of.

Hazelnut or Filbert

This nut is a genus Gorylus of shrubs
and trees of the order Cupuliferae and
grows almost wholly in the Northern
hemisphere. The male flowers are long
and cylindrical, a spike shape some-
times designated as ament or catkin.
Hazels, alders, certain varieties of wil-
lows and poplars, have similar flowers.

m^^fg

Fig. 1. Native Hazelnut from the Upper
Wenas, Washington.

The nut is marked at its base with a
scar or cicatrix. The flowers on the stem
of the hazel are developed the year pre-
ceding their appearance; the male flow-
ers last over winter naked, the female
enclosed in a bud. In early spring the
male catkins elongate and produce an
abundance of dry pollen, while the female
flowers are distinguished from the leaf
buds only by their larger size and pro-
jecting red stigmas.

1144

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

The nut is enveloped at the base by a
sheath of succulent leaves or bracts.

The European hazelnut, Corylus avell-
ana, from cultivation has produced sev-
eral varieties, differing in size, sliape and
flavor of the nuts which are known gen-
erally as filberts. It is easily cultivated,
will grow almost anywhere, but seems to
grow best on a light and rather dry soil.
Perhaps the best nuts shipped into this
country come from Spain, where they
are carefully cultivated, and before ex-
port are baked in order to insure their
good keeping.

The American hazel, Corylus Ameri-
cana, is very like the European, but is a
smaller shrub. It has not been culti-
vated in America, but is native to most
parts of the Eastern United States.

Oil is obtained from hazelnuts that is
said to be nearly equal to that of al-
monds and is used by chemists and per-
fumers as a basis for their combines.

The wood is very hard and flexible and

is therefore much prized in Europe for
poles, fishing rods, hoops, handles, etc.

From the Oregon Agricultural College
Bulletin 111 we quote the following:

"While a great deal of interest is mani-
fested in regard to filbert growing, few
plantings have been made upon which
we can make careful observations. Un-
doubtedly there is a considerable area of
land adapted to this nut, as one finds
wild species growing prolifically through
Western Oregon. It is a question yet as
to the best soils to use. Some believe
that the clay loams will produce large
trees, but not heavy bearers, and there-
fore will not be as profitable for filberts
as other classes of soils. We find the nut
growing naturally on the deep moist
loams. Most authorities believe they
should be encouraged to grow as a tree
rather than as a bush. They should be
given good cultivation and care. The best
varieties are the French and Spanish,
such as Barcelona and DuChilly."

Granville Lowtheb

|/^M

Fig. 2.

Filberts Grown in Clarke County, Washington. 1,
grown by A. A. Quarnberg.

DuChilly ; 2, Barcelona. Nuts

HAZELNUT OR FILBERT

1145

Filberts in the Northwest

The filbert, or hazel, as it is often
called, is best suited of all nut-bearing
trees to garden culture. They are gen-
erally described as shrubs or low trees.
In "Nut Culture in the United States,"
published by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, it is stated:

"All are unisexual, having staminate
blossoms in catkins, developed in the
axils of the leaves, on the wood growth
of the previous year. The catkins are
visible as early as August of the previous
season, and in March and April scatter
the pollen freely. The pistilate blossoms
compose a star-like tuft of crimson stig-
mas projecting beyond the short, scaly
bud, the inner scales of which keep pace
with the growth of the enlarging pistils
so as to nearly or wholly enclose it at
maturity. The pistillate blossoms some-
times bloom later in the spring than the
staminate ones on the same bush, and in
such cases it is necessary to supply pollen
from other sources, at the proper time,
to secure crops of nuts."

In Oregon and Southwestern Washing-
ton the Barcelona blossom in January
and DuChilly in February.

A. A. Quarnberg, the nut expert of
Clarke county, Washington, says:

"The filbert is a commercial nut of
much promise in the Northwest, which
by climatic conditions is especially
adapted to its culture. The filberts con-
sumed in the United States must either
be produced in the Northwest or continue
to be imported from foreign countries, as
repeated efforts to raise them in Eastern
and Southern states have been so dis-
couraging that the business has now
practically been abandoned. There is,
therefore, a ready market for almost any
amount of filberts that may be grown in
this part of the country, and favorable
conditions for their culture is a valuable
asset and a resource worth developing.

"The industry is yet in its infancy, but
is expected to advance more rapidly now
that it is known that it can be made a
success. The filbert is not generally

known and appreciated as it deserves to
be; a good filbert is mild and has a fine
fiavor.

"As far as known the first experimental
filbert trees of European varieties were
planted in Clarke county in the spring
of 1894 by Nat. M. Norelius, Henry J.
Biddle and the writer. In the following
years others planted in small quantities,
but it remained for John E. Norelius in
1900 to set out enough trees, 300 in num-
ber, to be called an orchard, and which
at that time was the largest filbert or-
chard in the Northwest. Each year has
since added to the number of planted
trees so the time is not far distant when
filbert culture will be numbered among
the important industries of the country."

The soil and climate of Southwestern
Washington and the Willamette valley
have been demonstrated to be well
adapted to filbert raising, by growing the
largest and finest of European varieties
for a number of years.

Filberts as Fillers

The filbert is well adapted to be used
as a filler for walnut orchards, as it will
come into bearing early and will never
reach a height to interfere with the wal-
nut trees and may be easily removed
when the walnuts need all the space.
They are usually grown in tree form and
not as bushes when planted in commer-
cial orchards, and are usually planted
about 10 feet each way.

The thin, unfruitful twigs are removed
and the fruitful limbs shortened back
nearly to the female buds. Care should
be taken to leave sufficient male catkins
for an ample supply of pollen. The fruit
spurs are near the extremities of the last
year's growth, and nuts are more abund-
ant where light and air have ready ac-
cess. In the fifth or sixth year trees
should bear considerable fruit. Trees of
this age in England are reported to pro-
duce three to four pounds of nuts each.

Successful filbert orchards are grown
at Monmouth, Springfield, Eugene, Shaw,
Corvallis and other points in the Will-
amette valley.

1146

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

HAZELNUT PESTS

Hazelnut WeeTil

Balaninus obtusus Blanch.

♦Hazelnuts or filberts are injured in
much the same manner as are chestnuts
and pecans and by a similar weevil. (See
Chestnut Weevils.) In 1891 this weevil
was reported as badly damaging hazel-
nuts in Iowa.

The beetle differs from others which
attack edible nuts, exclusive of acorns,
by its shorter, more robust form and
shorter beak. It is about one-fourth of
an inch in length, and the beak does
not exceed half the length of the body.
The vestiture varies from gray to och-
reous, and the elytra are moderately mot-
tled.

This species occurs from Massachusetts
and New Hampshire westward to Minne-
sota and Texas. Injury has been noted
in Massachusetts, New York, Indiana,
Iowa and Minnesota.

Remedies

Since hazels are not cultivated in this
country to any extent, no remedy need
be employed other than gathering entire
crops and destroying isolated bushes
where it is unprofitable to gather the
nuts. It would be quite possible, owing
to the small size of the hazel plant, to
control this species by jarring, as for the
plum curculio.

Apple Leaf Hoffer. See Apple Pests.

Heading Tree in Nusery. See Nursery,
under Apple.

Hickory Nut

The hickory is a group of the walnut
family Juglans and belongs to the genus
Hicoria or Carya. It grows naturally in
North America, exclusively, where it is
found in several species and varieties.
The trees are large, growing sometimes
to 100 feet or more in height and two to
three feet in diameter. Its leaves are
pinnately divided and its flowers pistil-
late. The fruit is enclosed in a thick
shell with a tough green husk which
opens when ripe and permits the fruit
with its shell to easily drop out.

* Bureau of Entomology Circular 90

About ten species of hickory have been
tabulated by botanists, only five of which
have any commercial value. These may
be arranged as follows:

1. The shag bark, or white hickory,
Hickoria ovata, a species in which large
loose layers of bark form on the outside
of the tree containing an oily substance
which made it of value to the pioneers
in the kindling of fires, or in producing
a quick, intensive heat. The nuts of this
species are sweeter than those of any
other species, but on account of the hard
shell in which the kernel is encased it
has not become so popular as the pecan.

2. The black hickory, Hicoria laciniosa,
has a shag bark, but the shags are short-
er and narrower than the "shag bark,"
and for this reason it is called "shell-
bark." It also has larger leaves and
darker wood than the white hickory.

3. Hicoria abla is noted for the tough-
ness and hardness of its wood. It is
sometimes called "broom hickory" be-
cause the frontier settlers where it grew
cut the young saplings and made them
into brooms.

4. Hickoria glabra, or "pig nut," rep-
resents a species that grew along the
streams or in wet lands whose nuts were
elongated in form, bitter in taste and cov-
ered with a thin husk.

5. Hicoria pecan. For a description
of this species see Pecan. The other spe-
cies being of little commercial value are
not treated in this article.

HICKORY DISEASES

Leaf Spot

Marsonia juglandis (Lib.) Sacc.

According to Selby this disease is quite
general in Ohio, causing a premature
dying of the leaves.

Requires further study.

Root Rot

Several species of root rot similar to
those attacking the apple and other fruit
trees are responsible for the dying of
hickories.

Hickory Nut Pests. See Pecan Pests.

HORSERADISH

1147

Horseradish

Horseradish is known botanically as
Cochlearia amoracia. It is a perennial
plant of the natural order Cruciferae,
having a stout cylindrical root, from the
crown of which spring large radical
leaves on long stalks four to six inches
broad and about a foot in length. It is
indiginous to Eastern Europe and has
been grown for many centuries.

The root, which is the part used com-
mercially, is from a half inch to two
inches in diameter, and from one foot to
three feet in length. It has numerous
lateral branches which when started in
a field or garden make it very diifieult
to eradicate.

It is dried or grated and canned, or
in other ways preserved, and used as a
flavoring agent on meats, in vinegars,
etc. As a medicine, it is anti-scorbutic.

The following is from the Fruit-Grower
and Farmer, and is a good description of
the methods of production and hand-
ling:

"Horseradish requires a good soil, pre-
pared in about the same manner as for
corn. The plants withstand consider-
able drought and are practically frost-
proof. In fact, frost even adds to the
flavor of the horseradish. The crop is
propagated from root cuttings and from
10,000 to 15,000 are required to an acre.
The roots are planted 18 inches apart in
the row and about 3 feet between rows.
In planting it is important to be sure
to turn up the top end of the cutting,
otherwise the root will be crooked and
not so marketable. Set the roots in a
slightly slanting position and cover two
or three inches deep. Cultivate as often
during the summer as is needed to stimu-
late growth, keep down weeds and con-
serve the soil moisture.

"The best root cuttings are about the
size of a lead pencil and eight or nine
inches in length. As there is usually
very little taper to them, it is best to
cut the lower end slanting and the up-
per end square across, so as to distin-
guish which end to put down.

"The horseradish season lasts the year
through to some extent, but is most ac-

tive during the oyster season. Harvest-
ing begins about November 1st, although
earlier in some sections, and requires a
great deal of hand work. There is one
good feature, however, in that the crop
may be left in the soil without injury
from freezing, and be dug as needed.

"An extensive grower near St. Joseph,
Missouri, has two large storage caves,
each about 200 feet long, with a shaft in
the center leading to the outer air. The
roots are hauled and dumped in the shaft
and then scattered each way in the cave
below. Here they keep perfectly and
may be marketed at whatever time they
are wanted.

"The most profitable way to market
horseradish is for the grower to grind
the roots and pack the pulp in wide-
mouthed bottles. There are a number of
grinders or graters on the market for
this purpose. Some are operated by hand
and some by machine power, and either
kind can usually be obtained from the
local hardware man.

"The bottles usually used for packing
horseradish are of eight ounces capac-
ity, and of such size it will usually re-
quire about 6,000 to 8,000 to contain the
crop of one acre of horseradish roots.
The retail price of bottles this size is
about 10 cents each, or 80 cents a dozen
at wholesale.

"In preparing the roots for grinding,
they are at first washed and peeled. Af-
ter grinding, the pulp is mixed with
diluted malt vinegar at the rate of about
six gallons of vinegar to a bushel of
pulp. This quantity will about fill 18
dozen eight-ounce bottles. Malt vinegar
is considered very essential for packing
horseradish, as cider vinegar will turn
the product dark and makes it unsal-
able. As malt vinegar is generally too
sharp, it is customary to dilute it, using
three parts water to one part of malt
vinegar, where the vinegar is about 110
proof. More or less water may be re-
quired, according to the strength of the
vinegar. It is always best to go by the
taste of the packed product, rather than
by any specific recipe, as the important
thing is to maintain the piquancy of the
horseradish as the prominent character-

1148

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

istic, rather than the sharp acidity of
the vinegar.

"Horseradish mixed with vinegar, mus-
tard, spices and salt is a condiment that
has considerable favor in some markets.
It keeps longer than the horseradish
alone.

"After bottling, put in the corks, then
cover the top with sealing wax so as to
make the bottle air-tight. This aids in
keeping the contents white and piquant,
whereas, if the sealing wax is omitted,
there will be enough air filter through
the cork to darken the upper part of
the horseradish in a short time. If a
restaurant or hotel trade is to be sup-
plied, it will pay to furnish the horse-
radish in bulk or in quart or half-gallon,
screw-top jars. In larger cities this is
done with profit."

HORSERADISH DISEASES

Brown Spot

Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc.

Occurs in Europe and America upon
cabbage and horseradish, producing
brown spots with concentric markings.

This disease may be controlled by
thorough spraying with Bordeaux.

Reference

Duggar. Fungus Diseases of Plants.

Root Rot

Thielavia basicola (B. & Br.) Zopf.

This disease attacks a variety of plants
in addition to horseradish, among them
the lupines, tobacco, and the violet. The
distribution seems to be from Ohio
eastward in the United States and in
Europe.

The attack is especially severe in seed
beds. The roots fail to develop normal-
ly. The roots may be browned and rough-
ened on the outside, but the fungus pene-
trates to all parts of the interior of the
root.

It is thought that this disease is almost
constantly associated with an alkaline
soil. Thorough aeration and general
sanitary measures are required.

Reference

Duggar. Fungus Diseases of Plants.
White Rust. See Cabbage Diseases.

HORSERADISH PESTS

Cabbage Worm. See Cabbage Pests.
Harlequin Cabbage Bug. See Cabbage
Pests.

Western Army Worm. See Beet Pests.
Hop Aphis on Plum. See ApMds.

Horticulture

Horticulture is a department of the
science of agriculture. Agriculture is
the larger term and includes the growing
of cereals, grasses, farm products and
all kinds of vegetation useful to man-
kind. Horticulture is used in a restricted
sense, and is that department of agricul-
ture which treats of the growing of
fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental
plants. Horticulture may, therefore, be
divided into pomology or the growing of
fruits, olericulture or vegetable garden-
ing, floriculture or the raising of orna-
mental plants for their individual uses
or for their products, and landscape hor-
ticulture or the growing of plants for
their uses in the landscape. Practically,
horticulture will treat of the adaptations
of horticultural plants to certain varieties
of soil, climate, altitude and general en-
vironmental conditions.

Fruit Growing-
Why is fruit growing more difficult
than other branches of agriculture?

First: It is more difficult because the
fruit tree is more highly organized than
the grasses, the cereals, and the root
crops. The higher and more complex the
organization the greater the difficulty in
understanding it. Just as a machine
with a larger number of parts requires
more careful study than one less com-
plex, so the tree that is more highly
organized requires more careful culture
and handling.

Second: The fruit of the tree, which is
the part of value, is tenderer than the
valuable part of hay, corn, wheat, po-
tatoes, oats, and other farm products.
It must, therefore, be handled with great-
er care. In handling apples and peaches,
for instance, each one must be carefully
handled without bruising, while hay can
be handled with a fork, and potatoes,

HORTICULTURE— SECRETARIES OP HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES 1149

wheat, oats and corn with a shovel with-
out injury from rough usage.

Third: Fruits are consumed for the
most part raw or in their original form
and even the beauty and attractiveness
of the raw product makes a great dif-
ference in the price, while with products
grown for stock, such as hay, corn, etc.,
or products grown for human food where
the grinding or cooking destroys the
original forms, the uniformity of color
and shape is of less consequence.

Fourth: The fruit tree, being more
highly organized, is sensitive to favor-
able or unfavorable conditions of soil,
climate, winds, frosts, sunlight, and
humidity. For instance, a species of
grass will be less injured by heat or
cold, will be less affected by rain or sun-
light, than fruits; while spring frosts
come at a time when cereals, grasses and
root crops are not likely to be injured,
and at a time when the blossoms are
forming on the fruit tree and in danger
of destruction. It is, therefore, neces-
sary to select a site for the orchard where
the blossoms are not likely to be killed
by spring frosts. This makes wind cur-
rents, air drainage, elevation, and evap-
oration from large bodies of water factors
in the selection of orchard sites.

Fifth: The coloring of fruits is a
factor in their commercial value, while
in grasses, grains and root crops it is a
negligible quantity.

Sixth: The form of the fruit, even,
makes a difference in the value, while
picking, assorting and packing are arts
requiring great discrimination, rapidity
of motion, and a degree of intelligence not
so necessary in the handling of most
other farm products.

Seventh: The diseases of fruit trees,
insect pests, and their remedies present
a field for study, investigation and skill
that is equalled only by the study of
diseases and cures of the human family.
Tree pruning or surgery are subjects
related to the surgery and cure of dis-
eases in the animal kingdom.

Eighth: The marketing and shipping
of fruits are much more complex than

the same transactions with reference to
hay or grain. For instance, it is never
necessary to put hay in cold storage pre-
paratory to shipment or to precool it or
ship it in refrigerator cars. Neither is
it necessary to protect it from extreme
cold to prevent freezing. Hay can be
shipped in bales and grain in sacks,
while fruit must be shipped in barrels,
boxes or crates and handled with great
care.

Ninth: In the use of the by-products
of fruit, such as cider, vinegar, canned
goods, dried fruits, jellies, jams, butters,
etc., there are many subjects for study.

Upon the whole, horticulture will, in
the necessities of the case, be regarded as
a profession, and while the student will
be a worker in the field, he must also,
part of the time, pursue his studies in
the library and the laboratory; while he
will gain practical information by con-
tact with living things, he will interpret
them by the experience of the past and
through the information gained largely
from books, and by means of the appara-
tus of the scientific laboratory.

Granville Lowtheb

Horticultural Laws, Oregon and
Washington. See Laws.

List of Secretaries of Horticul-
tural Societies

American Nurserymen's Association — Geo. C.
Seager, Rochester, N. Y.

American Florists Association — W. N. Rudd.
Morgan Park, III.

American Pomologlcal Society — L. L. R. Taft,
Lansing, Mich., Treasurer.

American Civic Association — Clinton Rogers
Woodruff. Philadelphia. Pa.

American Apple Growers' Congress — T. C. Wil-
son, St. Louis, Mo.

American Rose Society — Benjamin Hammond,
Pishklll-on-Hudson. N. Y.

State Horticultural Societies

Arizona — R. H. Forbes. Tucson.
Alabama— P. F. Williams, Auburn.
Arkansas — Prof. Ernest Walker, Fayetteville.
British Columbia Fruit Growers' Association —

W. .1. Brandritb. Ladner, B. C.
California State Floral Society — Mrs. Henry

P. Tricon. San Francisco.
California — H. H. Llllienthal. San Francisco.
Colorado State Board of Horticulture — D. R.

Statler. Secretary, Capitol. Denver, Colo.
Colorado State Horticultural Society — Martha

A Shute. Denver, Colo.
Connecticut Pomologlcal Society — H. C. C.

Miles, Milford.
Connecticut — H. C. C. Miles, Milford.

1150

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Delaware, Peninsula Horticultural Society —

Wesley Webb, Dover, Del.
Florida — E. O. Painter, Jacksonville.
Georgia — J. B. Wright, Cairo.
Idaho State Horticultural Society — Frank h.

Pierce, Fayette, Idaho.
Illinois — W. B. Lloyd, Kinmundy.
Indiana — C. G. Woodbury, Lafayette.
Indiana — W. N. Yost. Meridian.
Iowa. — Wesley Greene, Davenport.
Kansas — ^Walter Wellhouse, Topeka.
Kentucky — W. R. Button, Bedford.
Louisiana — F. H. Burnette, Baton Rouge.
Maine — E. L. White, Bowdoinham.
Maryland — Prof. C. P. Close, College Park.
Massachusetts — William P. Rich, Boston.
Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association — 1<.

Howard Brown. Marlboro. Mass.
Michigan — Charles E. Bassett, Fennville.
Minnesota — A. W. Latham, Minneapolis.
Mississippi— H. E. Blakelee, Jackson.
Missouri — Dr. W. L. Howard, Columbia.
Montana — M. L. Dean, Missoula.
Nebraska — C. G. Marshall, Lincoln.
New Hampshire— B. S. Pickett, Durham.
New Jersey— Howard G. Taylor, Riverton.
New Mexico — J. D. Sena, Santa Fe.
New York — E. C. Gillett, Penn Yan.
Western New York Horticultural Society— Jolm

Hall, 204 Granite Building, Rochester, N. Y.
North Carolina— Prof. W. N. Hutt. West

North Dakota— O. O. Churchill. Agricultural

Northeastern Iowa Horticultural Society — Chas.

F. Gardner, Osage. Iowa. , „ • ^ w

Northwestern Iowa Horticultural Society — W.

B. Chapman. Washta, Iowa. „ t

Northwest Fruit Growers' Association — il. J.

Williamson. Portland. Ore.
Ohio — F. H. Ballou. Newark.
Oklahoma— J. B. Thoburn. Oklahoma City.
Oregon — Frank W. Power. Portland.
Oregon State Board of Horticulture— H. M.

Williamson. Portland, Ore. rr r. At

Oregon State Horticultural Society — H. C. At-

well. Secretary. Forest Grove. Ore.
Ontario Fruit Growers' Association — P. W.

Hodgetts. Toronto, Ont. , „ ■ *■ t>„<<.,.
Pomology and Fruit Growers' Society — Peter

Reid, Chateonguay Basin. P. Q-
Pennsylvania — Chester J. Tyson. Floradale.
Rhode Island— Arthur C. Miller. Providence.
Roval Horticultural Society— F. J Crittenden.

Esq.. F. L. S.. Vincent Square. Westminster,

S. W. England. „

South Dakota— Prof. N. E Hansen, Brookings.
Tennessee— Prof. Charles A. KefEer Knoxville.
Texas— Prof. E. J. Kyle. College Station.
Utah— J. Edward Taylor. Salt Lake City.
Vermont — M. B. Cummings. Burlington.
Virginia— Walter Whately. Crozet.
Washington— R. E. Trumbull. Wenatchee. ,
Western Horticultural Sorietv- P. W. Brodrick.

Agricultural College. Winnipeg. Man.
West Virginia — A. L. Dacy. Morgantown.
Wisconsin — F. Cranefleld. Madison.
Wyoming — Aven Nelson. Laramie.

Hotbeds. See Yegetable.

Huckleberry. See Blueberry.

Hudson's Bay Company. See History
of Orcharding in Old Oregon.

Humus. See Cover Crop, Apple Or-
chard.

Idaho

The altitude of Idaho varies from 738
feet at Lewiston, to 12,078 feet at Hynd-
man Peak, and its mean elevation is
about 4,500 feet.

The Snake river, which rises in the
Yellowstone National Park, is, with its
tributaries, the principal drainage sys-
tem of the state. A small portion drains
into Great Salt lake in Utah, and a
larger portion into the Pend d'Oreille,
Kootenai and Spokane rivers in the
north, which empty into the Columbia.
The Snake river is also a tributary of the
Columbia.

In the northern part of the state crops
are grown successfully without irriga-
tion and the hardier varieties of ap-
ples and small fruits succeed well. Gen-
erally the apple orchards of this region
are planted on lands where there is con-
siderable humus, and the water percolates
through the soil from the lands of high-
er elevation and furnish a system of sub-
irrigation so that surface irrigation is
unnecessary. In the southern part the
conditions are arid or semi-arid, the
rainfall varying from 9 to 17 inches, but
there are irrigating projects that bring
the Snake river into prominence as the
source from which a large agricultural
and horticultural region can be watered.
Perhaps the oldest fruit-growing districts
are the Boise, Payette and Weiser val-
leys. The soil is mostly a volcanic ash,
sometimes of immense depth, and when
well watered may be made very produc-
tive.

The largest crops grown in Idaho are
hay, wheat and potatoes. Next in im-
portance comes stock raising. The fruit
industry is not as large as in some of
the sister states west of the Rockies, but
there are large areas where this industry
can be made commercially profitable and
where it is rapidly growing into impor-
tance.

Granville Lowther

IDAHO

1151

Table Showing Idaho's Irrigated Lands

Compiled by Herbert Hale,

Assistant Commissioner of Immigration, Labor and Statistics, State of Idaho.

No. Acres No. Acres

County — Under Canal Actually Length of Cost of

Systems. Irrigated. CanaL Construction.

Ada 196,667 94,000 213 $ 1,207 000

Bannock 129,.360 70,964 417 37.'>..">0()

Bear Lake 41,744 31,624 194 76.100

Bingham 758,940 458,o20 1,938 3,01 2..532

Blaine 335,764 210,650 850 4,431 .430

Boise 41,349 22,lbl 268 1G«.650

Bonner 1,000 710 10 2.500

Canyon 128,905 92,090 1,241 3,003,930

Cassia 25,183 18.700 138 52 320

Custer 6,580 3,690 112 13..^50

Elmore 110,837 34,706 90 536,725

Fremont 523,864 236,985 1,435 1,432.240

Idaho 7,616 3,950 75 41 .550

Kootenai 8,060 6.620 29 226.000

Latah ....

Lemhi 31,025 21,169 120 71.063

Lincoln 33,041 12,595 270 136.fi68

Nez Perce 7,180 5.940 41 31 6..-.00

Oneida 156,176 93,285 634 1,000.71 2

Owyhee 126,000 6,514 102 168.000

Shoshone ....

Twin Falls 242,130 201.150 681 4.003.231

Washington 43,388 30,070 170 218.770

Total 2,954,608 1,656,593 9,021 $20,491,771

HORTICULTURE IN IDAHO

Commercial Orcharding

Fruit growing on a commercial scale
in Southern Idaho is confined chiefly to
the Boise, Payette and Weiser valleys.
The Snake river canon offers particular
advantages for the culture of peaches
and grapes. Council valley is one of the
newer fruit districts that promises well.
Other sections will no doubt grow fruits
commercially.

The majority of our new lands may
be planted to orchards without any previ-
ous cropping. Some soils, however,
should be thoroughly subdued by the
culture of alfalfa before planting. The
successful starting of an orchard requires
special attention to the essential things,
which are thorough preparation of the
land, the selection of good trees full of
vigor, careful planting, the use of water
in setting and proper topping of the
trees. Too much care cannot be exer-
cised in these operations.

Frequent cultivation of the orchard the
first year and later years, and the
application of water in such amounts
and at such times as the soil conditions
will demand are necessary for satisfac-
tory growth of the trees.

Irrigation should cease in time for the

maturing of the trees before the first
frosts occur in the fall.

When the orchard reaches the bearing
age it is necessary to seed to red clover
for the purpose of adding nitrogen and
humus, and improving the physical con-
dition of the soil. The clover is allowed
to remain two years, when it is plowed
up, and two years of clean cultivation
follow, after which the orchard is again
seeded to clover. The training and prun-
ing of the trees aims to produce trees
sufficiently strong in their main scaffold-
ing to support the loads of fruit, and as
low-headed as practicable to reduce the
cost of spraying, pruning and picking. In
pruning, due attention should be given
to the different requirements of different
fruits and even of different varieties, in
order that a regular fruiting habit be
induced and maintained.

Careful handling of the fruit, proper
grading and honest packing with attrac-
tive packages all make for a ready sale
and satisfactory prices. In the market-
ing there is a great advantage in co-
operation, and local fruit growers' asso-
ciations are a necessity.

Apples

The apple is the leading fruit, with the
prune second. The planting and care of

1152

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the orchard up to and including the fifth
year is about $125 per acre. The fifth
year the trees should yield a box to the
tree and may pay for the expense of that
year and a little more. From this year
on the yields will increase until the
tenth year, when they usually reach full
bearing and produce eight to ten boxes
per tree. A full-bearing orchard should
give a net profit per acre of from $150
to $400. The orchardist should always
average more than $100 profit per acre
per year and a profit of $500 to $600 per
acre is not uncommon. The leading vari-
eties are Jonathan, Rome Beauty and
Winesap.

Prunes
The Italian prune is the variety that
is grown commercially. It comes into
bearing the fifth year, or may bear a
little the fourth year. It costs about
$100 per acre to bring the prune or-
chard into bearing. Full bearing is
reached about the eighth year, when the
trees should produce 200 pounds, or
eight crates of fruit each, making ten
tons per acre, which should give a gross
income of $150 per acre, or a net profit
of about $110 per acre, assuming that
the prunes are sold on the trees. This
is a conservative statement, as under
favorable conditions the profits may ex-
ceed $200 per acre.

Peaches

Being somewhat more susceptible to
injury from frost, the peach has not as
wide an adaptability as apples, pears and
prunes. Its culture will therefore be
very largely confined to the favored loca-
tions such as the Snake River canyon and
certain foothill locations in the lower
valleys. Peaches should bear some fruit
the third year. The sixth year they
should give a net profit of from $200 to
$500 per acre. The Alexander, Early
Crawford, Elberta, Champion, Sulway
and Late Crawford are the leading va-
rieties grown.

Other Orchard Fruits

The culture of the pear is much like
the apple and the profits are about the
same. The best varieties are the Bart-

lett, Flemish Beauty and Anjou. Sour
cherries may be grown everywhere and
are a profitable crop, netting about as
much per acre as peaches. Sweet cher-
ries may be grown in the more favored
localities. Plums are grown everywhere
in family orchards and produce well.

Lewiston has, perhaps, the most favor-
able clim,ate for the production of the
less hardy fruits. Sweet cherries,
peaches and grapes are grown there on
a commercial scale.

Small Fruits

At Lewiston the European grapes are
grown quite extensively. It costs about
$165 per acre to bring vineyards into
bearing. The expense of producing a
crop is about $75 per acre, and the net
returns are about $350 to $400 per acre.
The varieties grown are Flame Tokay,
White Malaga, Raninnania and Black
Cornichon. In Southern Idaho the Euro-
pean sorts can be grown only in the
most favored locations, while the Ameri-
can grapes, such as Concord, Diana,
Worden, Niagara, Sweetwater, Moore's
Early and Brighton, may be grown suc-
cessfully all through Boise, Payette and
Weiser valleys and in the more protected
locations as far eastward as Twin Falls
and possibly farther. Gooseberries and
currants succeed well everywhere, but
they are as yet grown chiefiy for home
use. Black raspberries and dewberries
are grown commercially and are very
profitable. Strawberries easily net $200
to $400 per acre.

Horticultural Statistics

Two years ago the prophecy was made
that the planting in the succeeding two
years woud be greater than any previous
time in the history of the state, and the
results have more than fulfilled this
prophecy. The reports of the deputy
inspectors show that there has been about
20,000 acres increase in the orchard acre-
age of the state. In the main, this new
planting has been wisely and carefully
done. The lands selected usually have
been adapted to fruit culture and the
varieties have been wisely chosen.

IDAHO

1153

The shipments of fruit have also in-
creased rapidly. The crop of 1910 was
the largest in the history of the state.
The value of the fruit crop shipped out
of the state in 1910 is estimated at about
$2,500,000—2,000 cars of apples, with a
value of $1,750,000; 600 cars of prunes,
with a value $400,000; other tree fruits
and small fruits making up the remain-
der of the total of $2,500,000. With the
coming into bearing of thousands of acres
of young trees in all parts of the state,
the total fruit production will rapidly in-
crease.

Table Showing the Acreage of Commer-
cial Orchards in the Connties
Named

County Acres

Ada 8,000

Bannock 1.000

Bear Lake 1,000

Bingham 1.500

Blaine 1,000

Boise 1 ,000

Bonner 2,500

Canyon 9,000

Cassia 1,000

Custer 500

Elmore 2.000

Fremont 1 ,000

Idaho 6.500

Kootenai 3.000

Latah 1.500

Lemhi 500

Lincoln 4.000

Nez Perce 5.000

Oneida ] .000

Owvhee 1.000

Shoshone 1 .000

Twin Falls 4.000

Washington 4,000

Total 61,000

Elias Nelson

VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR IDAHO

Selection of Variety

Varieties that may be well adapted to
home uses may be decidedly lacking as
commercial sorts. Tender fruits are not
adapted to shipping to distant markets be-
cause they bruise easily, consequently
their keeping qualities are poor. Color
and size are essential in good market
apples, while these elements are not as
important as quality for home use. Nat-
urally then the selection of the kinds of
apples depends upon the use to which
the orchard is to be devoted, whether for
productive apples for home use or for
market purposes.

Kinds That Sell Best

An inquiry into the market will show
that the apples finding readiest sale at
highest prices are fairly large and
highly colored. No color seems to meet
the customer's fancy quite so well as a
clear bright red, although a few yellow
sorts of known quality are also in demand.
It does not necessarily follow that such
apples are sold in greatest quantities, but
it does mean that they should bring
large returns to the grower. Where
freight rates are high, as they are on
Western apples, this is an additional rea-
son necessitating high market prices for
this product. The people who have
money for the purchasing of fine fruit
are also endowed with an understanding
of the merits of the leading varieties,
and are quite particular in their demand
for certain kinds. As a general rule these
people have been accustomed to apples
all their lives, and this experience has
developed an acquaintance not only with
the merits of these varieties but also with
the season of the year when each kind is
at its prime. While they would not hes-
itate at paying a good round price for a
box of Jonathans at Christmas time they
would display considerable reluctance
when offered the same box a month later
even at a reduced price. The same is
true of other varieties. The point is
that in selecting varieties the orchardist
must taken a long look into the future
and weigh well the bearing which the
season of ripening and the present acre-
age now planted to a variety will have
upon the returns of the orchard he is
now planting. The aim of orchardists
should be to keep the market well sup-
plied with the best varieties for all sea-
sons, not to overstock the market at
one season and at another furnish an in-
sufficient supply.

Most Popular Varieties

At present the most popular varieties
of apples produced in Idaho and sell-
ing on the Eastern and European Mar-
kets are the Jonathan, Rome Beauty,
Winesap and Grimes. In the warm val-
leys under irrigation in Southern Idaho

-32

1154

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

and at the lower elevations in other
parts of the state, these varieties attain
the highest degree of perfection. With
the exception of the Winesap, which re-
quires a long season to mature, all are
adapted to the "Panhandle" section of
Northern Idaho. It is thought by some
that the Mcintosh Red and the Wagener
are better adapted to Northern Idaho
than the Rome Beauty. They are un-
doubtedly popular sorts and should be
planted where seasons are short and
where early maturing varieties are de-
sired. The proportion of each variety to
be planted deserves careful attention. In
the warm valleys it is perhaps best to
devote only one-third of the orchard to
early winter sorts, such as the Jonathan
and Grimes, with the other two-thirds
equally divided between Rome Beauty
and Winesaps, which are late winter va-
rieties. In sections where the growing
season is short and the early winter
varieties really become late winter sorts,
and the fall varieties such £s Wagener
and Mcintosh Red come into season in
early winter, the same ratio should be
maintained. It will be noted that only
a few varieties have been mentioned
and this has been done advisedly. The
most common mistake made by commer-
cial orchardists is in planting too many
varieties. Instead of confining their at-
tention to the best of a list of varieties
adapted to a locality, they plant of each
kind, so that when harvest time comes
they have more expense and trouble than
is necessary to handle the same quantity
of a few selected varieties.

For Home Use

The choice of apples for home use and
local market offers opportunity for per-
sonal preference to a large degree. Al-
most any of the varieties that have
proven themselves well adapted to home
use and local markets in other sections
of the United States can usually be
grown successfully in Idaho. If one
has developed a particular fondness for
special sorts those are the ones he should
plant, not only because their quality suits,
but because they are likely to get better

attention. However, for the sake of
those who may be unacquainted with
any varieties, the following list has been
prepared, classing them according to the
season of ripening: For early summer —
Early Harvest, Yellow Transparent, Red
June, Red Astrachan; for midsummer —
Oldenburg, Benoni, Sweet Bough, Che-
nango; for fall — Wealthy, Maiden Blush,
Jefferis, Gravenstein, Mother, Fall Pippin,
Mcintosh, Tompkins King; for early win-
ter— Jonathan, Grimes, Yellow Bellflower,
Delicious, and for late winter — Spitzen-
burg, Stayman Winesap, Aiken, Winter
Banana, Rhode Island Greening, York
Imperial, Roxbury Russet, Ben Davis.

J. R. Shinn,
Idaho Experiment Station, Better Fruit. Jan-
uary, 1912.

For additional information on Orchakd
Sites and Soils, see Selection of Site
under Apple Orchard.

Fis. 1. Map of Idaho. Showing Normal An-
nual Isotherms Based on the Records of
the United States Weather Bureau. The Iso-
thermal lines represented here indicate the
mean annual temperature of the territory
through which they pass.

IDAHO— ILLINOIS
Frost and Precipitation in Idaho

1155

No.

Frost

Precipitation

Station

Average Date of

Date of

First

Killing in

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

First

in

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

Annual
inches

Post Falls

Murray

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Sept. 17
Sept. 18
Oct. 2
Aug. 29
Sept. 26
Oct. 24
Aug. 29
Sept. 12
Oct. 20
Sept. 14
Oct. 11
Aug. 10
Sept. 7
Oct. 27

May 22
May 30
May 10
July 2
May 10
May 3
July 4
May 29
April 22
May 28
April 10
July 21
June 5
April 8

Aug. 29
Aug. 14
Sept. 6
Aug. 15
Sept. 7
Oct. 2
Aug. 5
Aug. 22
Sept. 26
Sept. 3
Sept. 26
Aug. 1
Aug. 22
Oct. 10

July 9
July 17
May 30

July 27
June 5
June 5
July 26
July 5
May 4
July 1
May 2
July 30
July 7
April 29

24.6
40 4

Moscow

23 6

Lake. . .

16 4

Payette

12 1

Boise

12 9

Soldier. .

13 2

Blackfoot

8 0

Garnet

6 3

American Falls. . . .

Pocatello

Chesterfield

Oakley

Lewiston. . .

12.4
9.8

10.8
8.0

14 68

•OBKAL ANiniAI, PRUCIPITAHOII

Based on thn Rut^onui

at tn*
U. 3. VEATH^ RimXAU

!:CALi: 07 !!RADSI — IlMOlM

I I Lmb than 10 Inche*
^^ 10 to 15 Inchas
15 to 20 lnctie»
?0 to S5 InoJioa
uore than 25 Inchoa

Fig. 2. Map of Idaho. Showing Normal An-
nual Precinitation Based on the Records of
the United States Weather Bureau.

Identifying Varieties, Method of.
Apple Nursery.

See

Illinois

There is more good farming land in
Illinois, in proportion to the area, than
in any other state in the Union, unless
it may be Iowa. From a horticultural
viewpoint, the principle productions for
commercial purposes are in the southern
part of the state, south of a line begin-
ning at St. Louis, Missouri, and extend-
ing to Vincennes, Indiana. Some author-
ities claim that the southern one-third
of the state should be included in the
area of commercial apple production and
this I grant is possible; but practically I
would include only about one-fourth of
the state, and that mainly the southern
counties. Even in this region the plant-
ing of new orchards is not as extensive
as 25 years ago. As I traveled through
from St. Louis to Evansville, Indiana, I
counted 83 orchards that seemed to be
more than small home orchards. Of that
number, I saw but one that was less than
three years old, and only two that looked
to be over three and under ten years old.
More than half of the family orchards
were old, the trees in an unhealthy con-
dition, and new trees are not being
planted to keep up the original number.

1156

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

This is true in other states as well as
in Illinois, and accounts in part for the
fact that the United States census shows
that in 1900 Illinois had 13,430,006 bear-
ing trees, while in 1910 they had 9,900,-
627, making a loss in 10 years of 3,529,379.

This loss is said to have occurred on
account of the injuries from scale, which
became widespread several years ago, and
which at that time they did not know
how to control. Since the discovery of
the lime-sulphur solution as a remedy
for scale, the best orchardists now spray
their trees and the orchards show every
sign of vigor, health and profitable
bearing.

The soil of this section is especially
adapted to apples, being a clay subsoil
and containing a considerable admixture
of lime and humus. The climate, too, is
good and all the natural conditions for
the profitable growing of commercial
fruit are present. In the southern one-
third of the state the rainfall will range
from 40 to 60 inches per annum.

The region is also adapted to the grow-
ing of peaches, plums, pears, grapes,
cherries, strawberries, blackberries, rasp-
berries, pecans, walnuts and vegetables,
but the apple is the principal commercial
crop. In the central and northern parts
we have not discovered that fruits are
grown extensively for commercial pur-
poses, except perhaps in Madison, Cal-
houn, Pike, Adams and Hancock counties,
along the Mississippi river, and in Jas-
per, and Fayette counties in the south-
central part of the state. The total land

area of Illinois is 56,000 square miles,
or 35,840,000 acres. Its extreme length
is 385 miles, its breadth 285 miles. Its
greatest elevation is 1,150 feet above the
sea, its mean elevation 550 feet. The
greater part of Illinois is level or rather
undulating prairies. There are a few
hills in the extreme northwest and bluffs
along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers.
Almost the whole state is arable and the
soil unusually productive. On account of
its level surface it is easy to build rail-
roads, and, having the second largest city
on the continent, there is a ready market
for its products.

Fruit Statistics of Illinois

The fruit trees and vines of Illinois,
according to the census of 1910, are: Bear-
ing apple trees, 9,900,627; peaches and
nectarines, 2,860,120; pears, 786,349;
plums and prunes, 600,087; cherries,
843,283; grapes, 2,170,340 vines; small
fruits, 11,723 acres; nuts, 85,428 trees.

The counties that produce the largest
number of apples are: Adams, 223,534
bearing trees; Calhoun, 348,888; Clay,
448,859; Fayette, 240,640; Hamilton, 226,-
042; Marion, 622,234; Pike, 227,296; Rich-
land. 388,125; Union, 203,496; Wayne,
278,942.

The county producing the largest
number of peaches is Marion with 177,-
474 bearing trees.

The county producing the largest num-
ber of pears is Marion with 103,638 bear-
ing trees.

Granville Lowther

Small Fruits— 1909 and 1899

The following table shows data with regard to small fruits on farms:

Number

of farms

reporting

1909

Acres

Quantity

(quarts)

1909

CROP

1909

1899

Value
1909

11,723

5,410

3,503

1,945

252

603

10

(I)

16,794

7,113

5,032

2,909

640

491

1

608

13,602,676

8,031,824

2,915,473

1,834,337

265,858

541,498

13,418

268

$1,109,747

10,311

14,138

8,156

3,635

8,131

166

1

613,917

237,058

191,401

21,863

44,238

1,248

22

'Less than 1 acre.

ILLINOIS

1157

Strawberries are bj^ far tbe most im-
portant of the small fruits grown in Ill-
inois, with blackberries and dewberries
and raspberries and loganberries ranking
second and third, respectively. The total
acreage of small fruits in 1909 was 11,723
and in 1899, 16,794, a decrease of 30.2 per
cent. The production in 1909 was 13,603,-
000 quarts as compared with 26,129,000
quarts in 1899, and the value $1,110,000,
as compared with $1,293,000.

Orchard Fruits, Grapes, Nuts, and Tropi-
cal Fruits— 1909 and 1899

The following table presents data with

regard to orchard fruits, grapes, nuts, and
tropical fruits. The acreage devoted to
these products was not ascertained. In
comparing one year with the other the
number of trees or vines of bearing age
is on the whole a better index of the
general changes or tendencies than the
quantity of product, but the data for the
censuses of 1910 and 1900 are not closely
comparable and the product is therefore
compared, although variations may be due
largely to temporarily favorable or un-
favorable climatic conditions.

Trees or Vines of
bearing age

Trees or Vines not of
bearing age

Product

CROP

1910

1910

1909

1899

Farms
reporting

Number

Farms
reporting

Number

Quantity!

Value

Quantity!

15,033,743

9,900,627

2,860,120

786,349

600,087

843,283

12,328

30,804

145

3,919,267

2,548,301

739,358

234,037

141,480

239,605

4,246

12,180

60

4,939,211

3,093,321

1,222,570

249,365

78,566

287,376

1,250

6,723

40

$3,857,743

2,111,866

999,516

202,965

80,384

453,474

1,457

8,037

44

9,767,211

Apples

Peaches and nectarines

Pears

160,215

114,165

68,556

69,352

104,808

4,996

7,560

17

60,631
34,411
25,593
18,468
30,137
1,514
2,547
1

9,178,150
66,805
133,745

Plums and prunes

157,941
204,279

Apricots

1,437

(2)

(')

324,854

75,818

2,170,340

11,469

287,734

16,582,785

426,468

20,009,400

Nuts, total

<85,428
772

28,330

44,159
253
678

10,805

435,666

1,045

8,223

24,698

17

1,315

223

4714,478
3,497
107,069
530,730
3,515
4,833
60,124

420,550

331

10,301

7,411

76

321

1,954

360,680

Persian or English walnuts ....

87

755

1,792

49

59

363

12

218

280

3

22

16

Pecans

Black walnuts

41,380

(2)

Butternuts

(2)

(2)

Unclassified

3319,300

Tropical Fruits, total

6271
124

6237
201

686
26

23

Figs

21

11

1,008

23

' Expressed in bushels for orchard fruits and pounds for grapes, nuts and figs.

2 Included with "unclassified."

s Consists of products not separately named by the enumerator, but grouped under the designation "all other."

4 Includes almonds, hazelnuts, Japanese walnuts, filberts, beechnuts, Siberian nuts and other nuts.

5 Includes Japanese persinunons.

The total quantity of orchard fruits
produced in 1909 was 4,939,000 bushels,
valued at $3,858,000. Apples contributed
about three-fifths of this quantity;
peaches and nectarines ranking next in
importance. The production of grapes in
1909 amounted to 16,583,000 pounds, val-
ued at $426,000, and that of nuts to 714,-
478 pounds, valued at $20,550.

The production of all orchard fruits to-
gether in 1909 was 49.4 per cent less in
quantity than in 1899, and the produc-

tion of grapes also declined. The value
of orchard fruits, however, increased
from $3,779,000 in 1899 to $3,858,000 in
1909, and that of grapes from $383,000 in
1899 to $426,000 in 1909. It should be
noted in this connection that the values
for 1899 include the value of more ad-
vanced products derived from orchard
fruits or grapes, such as cider, vinegar,
dried fruits, and the like, and may there-
fore involve some duplication, while the
values shown for 1909 relate only to the
products in their original condition.

1158

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE
Frost and Precipitation in Illinois

Station

Frost

Precipitation

Average Date of

First

Killing in

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

Date of

First
in

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

Annual
inches

Winnebago . .

Chicago

Galva

Ottawa

Peoria

Bloomington
Griggsville. .
Springfield . .

Philo...

Greenville . .

Olney

Tilden

Cairo

Oct.

Oct.

Oct.

Oct.

Oct.

Oct.

Oct.

Oct.

Sept.

Oct.

Oct.

Oct.

Oct.

2
16
12

7
19

7
19
16
24
15
16
16
27

May 2
May 1
April 29
April 23
April 12
April 27
April 19
April 20
May 3
April 14
April 20
April 7
Mar. 29

Sept. 18

Sept. 18

Sept. 29

Sept. 19

Sept. 29

Sept. 18

Sept. 29

Sept. 25

Sept. 14

Sept. 19

Sept. 30

Sept. 14

Sept. 30

June 6

June 8

May 31

May 21

May 11

June 6

May 23

May 22

June 6

May 6

May 14

May 1

April 19

32.6
33.4
33.2
36.7
34.7
36.1
37.0
37.4
36.0
39.5
38.8
37.1
41.6

Indiana

Indiana is a part of that great basin
called the Mississippi valley. Its extreme
length, north and south, is 276 miles;
extreme width, 177 miles. The surface
of the state is comparatively level; the
highest elevation is in Randolph county,
in the center of the eastern tier of coun-
ties, and is 1,285 feet above the sea; the
lowest is in the southwestern corner of
the state and is 315 feet above the sea.
The Ohio river bed at the southeastern
corner of the state is 436 feet, and Lake
Michigan at the northwestern corner is
585 feet. The northern portion of the
state is quite flat with a number of small
lakes, with a soil deposit of glacial forma-
tion, swamps, prairies, and in some parts
heavy timber. The southern portion is
hilly and bluffy along the streams. The
hills are not high and generally back of
the bluffs there are level plateaus. The
drainage system in the southern part is
toward the Ohio river; in the western
part it is toward the Wabash river, and
in the northern part toward Lakes Erie
and Michigan, except a small portion in
the northwestern part which drains into
Illinois.

The oldest geological formation is the
Hudson and Trenton limestone, of the

Silurian age, in the southeast. West of
this is the Niagara formation extending
across the state, and further west is the
Hamilton limestones and sandstones of
the Devonian age. The soil for the most
part is fertile. Originally the southern
portion, as far north as the town of Wa-
bash, was covered with very heavy for-
ests, mostly of hardwood. North of this
were prairies interspersed with sand
ridges and dotted with hundreds of small
lakes. This region is very productive of
melons, cucumbers, certain classes of veg-
etables, and small fruits, and from this
section a large amount of vegetable
products is shipped to Chicago and other
cities of the North. The richest lands
are alluvial flats along the streams and
where heavy vegetation has rotted on the
surface. In the northwest the tempera-
ture is modified by Lake Michigan, so that
it is often milder in winter in the lake
region than 75 miles further south.

In the northeast the climate and soil
are well adapted to the growing of apples,
pears, plums and cherries of the hardier
varieties, but this region is a little too
cold to risk commercial orchards of
peaches, pears, apricots and the tenderer
varieties of cherries and other fruits. The
soil is a sandy loam with a clay subsoil

INDIANA— LOSS BY INSECTS IN THE UNITED STATES

1159

originally covered with oak, hickory, wal-
nut, maple and most kinds of hardwood.

In the southern portion of the state
the soil, the climate and the contour of
the land are adapted to the growing of
fruits. The soil is for the most part a
whitish clay that shades off in places to
a dark red color. These soils are rich
in lime, iron and other constituents
that are adapted to fruits. The climate
is, on the average, 10 per cent warmer
than in the northern portion of the state.
This protects the tenderer fruits from in-
juries by winter freezes. The land sur-
face is uneven, and this gives a sufficient
air drainage so that fruits are protected
from frosts in early spring. There are
apple orchards in the eastern part of this
section ranging from 40,000 to 50,000

trees. The largest pear orchard is in
Washington county, 12,000 trees. Peaches
and other fruits of the tenderer varieties
are grown in abundance, and commercially
this portion of the state produces consid-
erable wealth in fruit.

According to the census of 1910 the
total number of bearing fruit trees in
Indiana was 10,050,759. Of these there
were: Apples, 5,764,821; peaches and nec-
tarines, 2,130,298; pears, 708,723; plums
and prunes, 566,988; cherries, 815,742;
quinces, 56,847; grapes, 1,049,232 vines;
nuts, 19,179 trees; small fruits, 5,919
acres. The counties producing the largest
number of bearing trees are Harrison,
194,321, and Washington, 112,000.

Granville Lowther

Frost and Precipitation in Indiana

Station

Frost

Average Date of

First _

Killing in

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

Date of

First

in

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

Precipitation

Annual
inches

South Bend.

Angola

Lafayette. . .

Marion

Farm Land.
Rockville. . .
Indianapolis
Connersville

Bevay

Princeton. . .
Marengo. . . .

Oct. 8

Oct. 14

Sept. 29

Oct. 2

Oct. 14

Oct. 8

Oct. 19

Oct. 3

Oct. 24

Oct. 21

Oct. 10

May 10
April 27
April 26
April 24
April 21
April 22
April 16
April 27
April 19
April 12
April 10

Sept. 20
Sept. 21
Sept. 14
Sept. 14
Sept. 26
Sept. 13
Sept. 21
Sept. 14
Sept. 27
Sept. 30
Sept. 24

May 31

May 21

May 29

May 22

May 21

May 15

May 21

May 21

May 15

May 14

May 4

34.5
38.7
37.9
37.0
38.5
37.8
41.9
38.2
43.1
39.4
57.6

The Annual Loss Caused by In-
sects in the United States

Orchards and small fruits suffer heavily
from insect pests. The methods of treat-
ment necessary to prevent these losses
are expensive. There are several hundred
insects which feed upon the roots, trunks,
foliage and fruit of the trees. Among
those which feed upon the apple are the
woolly aphis, San Jose scale, codling
moth, tent caterpillars, etc. It is a very

difficult matter to estimate the amount
of loss chargeable to these insects. It
is known that whatever affects the vigor
of the tree itself will lessen the pro-
ductiveness. It is, therefore, necessary
not only to keep the tree in vigorous
and healthful condition, but to destroy
the insects that feed upon it. Mr. C. D.
Simpson, special field agent of the Bureau
of Entomology of the United States, gave
some recent estimates of losses in the
several states as follows:

1160

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Product Value

Cereals $2,000,000.n00

Hay ri.".o, 0(10, (100

Cotton 600,000,000

Tobacco 53,000,000

Truck Crops 265,000,000

Sugars 50,000,000

Fruits 130,000,000

Farm Forests 110,000.000

Miscellaneous Crops 58,000,000

Animal Products 1,750,000,000

Total $5,551,000,000

Natural Forests and Forest Products

Produce in Storage

Grand Total

Percentage

Amount

of loss

of loss

10

$200,000,000

10

53.000.000

10

60.000.000

10

5.300,000

20

53.000,000

10

5,000.000

20

27,000,000

10

11,000,000

10

5.800,000

175.000,000

$595,100,000

100.000.000

100,000,000

$795,100,000

In 1889 Professor Forbes reached the
conclusion that the annual loss to crops
in the state of Illinois was $2,375,000.
It is estimated that in 1892 insects
caused a loss of $2,000,000 to the apple
crop of Nebraska. Professor Sligerland
estimates that in 1897 the insect taxed
the apple growers of New York $2,500,000.
In 1900 one-half of the crop of Idaho was
damaged, while in 1901, the loss was
even greater than that. Mr. McPherson
estimates that in Idaho the loss in 1902
was $250,000. In many sections of the
Pacific Northwest the loss in that year
was from 50 per cent to 75 per cent. The
American Agriculturist estimates that the
average apple crop for the five years
from 1898 to 1902 was 47,000,000 barrels.
This includes apples of first and second
quality.

It has been shown by careful observa-
tions in various apple-bearing states that
the codling moth may cause a loss of
from 20 per cent to 40 per cent of the
fruit which would otherwise be sound and
marketable. In computing the actual
monetary loss to the apple growers of
this country by the codling moth, we
prefer to take the lower estimate rather
than the higher. This 20 per cent de-
crease in merchantable apples would rep-
resent some 12,000,000 barrels, and at an
average profit of $1.00 per barrel indi-
cates a loss of $12,000,000, less the value
of this fruit for cider, vinegar or some
other use which brings in small returns.
The average price for cider apples will
not exceed 30 cents per barrel, which
would represent a reduction of $3,600,000,
leaving a net loss of $8,400,000. The loss
throughout the country In small orchards,

supplying local needs, undoubtedly aver-
ages much higher than in the large com-
mercial orchards which supply the bulk
of the fruit of the markets. The esti-
mate made by Mr. Simpson of the loss in
such home orchards is $3,000,000, which
added to our former figures gives a total
direct loss to the apple crop annually
from the codling moth of $11,400,000.

One would be perfectly justified in esti-
mating the actual loss in merchantable
apples at a much higher figure than 20
per cent, and an average might be as-
signed of 35 per cent to 40 per cent,
which would have very greatly increased
the apparent monetary loss. The apple
is a perishable fruit and must be con-
sumed within a limited period. It is not
like wheat and other cereals the standard
grades of which have fairly fixed values
and which may be kept indefinitely. The
cold storage system has very much ex-
tended the marketing period of apples,
but the attack by insects greatly reduces
the amount of fruit of actual cold stor-
age capacity, and the bulk of the crop
must find an immediate market. There-
fore, if the additional fruit which is now
rendered unsalable by the codling moth
should be thrown on the market, the ac-
tual price of apples would probably be
affected even more than the increased
supply would indicate. The increase in
our export apple trade, which is being ac-
tively encouraged by the Department of
Agriculture, and the development of cold
storage facilities for fruit, will undoubt-
edly increase the market for apples from
year to year. Nevertheless, one is war-
ranted in taking the lower estimate con-
sidered above in view of the probable

INSECTICIDES

1161

decrease in price which would result if
the codling moth damage did not mate-
rially reduce the crop every year.

The census of 1900 placed the number
of apple trees in the United States at
200,000,000. On the authority of Mr. Tay-
lor 165,000,000 of these were in bearing
condition and the cost of spraying and
other treatment for these will range be-
tween 5 cents and 10 cents per tree. As
an offset to untreated orchards the lower
estimate of costs may be taken, namely,
5 cents, which gives a charge for treat-
ment of $8,250,000. Combining the direct
shrinkage or loss and the cost of protec-
tion from still greater loss, gives a total
tax, chargeable to the codling moth, of
nearly $20,000,000. The insect losses to
other deciduous fruits are quite as heavy
as in the case of the apple, and especially
when the treatment for the San Jose
scale and other pests are considered, and
in the case of citrus fruits the cost of
treatment is much greater and the actual
losses are again heavy. We are war-
ranted, therefore, in placing the loss to
fruits from insect pests as high as 20 per
cent annually.

Granville Lowther

Insect Enemies. See Beneficial Insects,
Propagating and Distributing.

Insecticides

How Contact Insecticides Kill

It has long been known that certain
substances when brought in contact with
the outer surfaces of insects will pro-
duce death. Why they kill has not been
so well understood. In order to answer
this question Geo. D. Shafer, of the di-
vision of entomology of the University
of Michigan, undertook a series of elab-
orate experiments with results as re-
corded below.

The insecticides experimented with
were gasoline, kerosene, benzol, xylene,
turpentine, creosote, aniline oil, carbon
disulphide, chloroform, ether, pyro cresol,
special kreso-dip, creolin, chloronaphtho-
lium, crel oil, zenolium, to-bak-ine, py-
rethrum, hydrocyanic acid gas, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and hydrogen.

By "contact insecticide" is meant any

substance which kills by contact rather
than by being eaten, and the definition
is made to include gases and powders as
well as the liquid sprays.

The first part of the experiment was
undertaken to ascertain if the various
miscible oils such as kerosene and gaso-
line plugged the breathing apparatus of
the insect and so produced death by suf-
focation. It was found that the plugging
actually took place, but that suffocation
was not the cause of death; for it was
discovered that grasshoppers, beetles,
caterpillars and other insects would re-
gain their activities after having lain in
the water for several hours apparently
dead or in a closed vessel containing car-
bondioxide with all oxygen excluded. But
these same insects when subjected to
treatment with an insecticide would lose
all motion in a few minutes and never
thereafter recover. It was therefore con-
cluded that death was the result of some
other cause than mere suffocation. In
fact numerous experiments extending
back as far as 1670 show that insects
succumb from suffocation with difficulty.
Besides, an oil was found that as effectu-
ally plugged the trachea of insects as the
oils mentioned, but that when removed
from it they gradually recovered.

Experiments were then made which
showed that insects would die under the
influence of the vapor of gasoline as
readily as if dipped in the liquid itself,
showing that death was the result of some
influence of the gasoline rather than suf-
focation.

Tests were next made to ascertain if
the substances used actually passed into
the tissues of the insect body. This was
found to be true, but the absorption took
place in many cases only after consid-
erable time had elapsed, in some cases
long after death had taken place.

Careful observations were then made
to detect the effect upon heart action and
respiration. In many cases, though not
all, heart action was greatly increased,
sometimes to the point where it was no
longer possible to count the beats, then
they would suddenly fall below normal.
Respiration was irregular also.

1162

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

The next part of the experiment was a
series of very careful measurements to
determine the freedom of absorption of
oxygen, wliicli is essential to the life of
the insect while under the influence of
the insecticide. This part of the experi-
ment led to the conclusion that it is the
prevention of the proper absorption of
oxygen into the body tissues of the insect
that renders the kerosene, gasoline, car-
bon disulphide and similar insecticide so
poisonous.

"Lime-sulphur is a special rather than
a general contact insecticide." Its strong
persistent ability to take up large
amounts of oxygen and "its ability to
soften the wax about the margin of the
scale insect like the San Jose scale are
the important properties that make it
efficient as a scalecide."

Reference

Michigan Agricultural College Experi-
ment Station, Bulletin 11; Geo. D.
Shafer.

iNSECTicmES. See Sprays.

Iowa

Iowa is 310 miles east and west and
210 miles north and south. It is part of
the great Mississippi basin and is mostly
an undulating prairie, rising in swells
or small ridges like the waves of the sea
in the ordinary calm. Beginning with
the Mississippi river these elevations rise
gradually higher and higher to a divide
running diagonally from a height of 1,694
feet in the northwest to a slight elevation
in the southeast. There are now no
swamps, although in early times the state
was largely covered with swamps. There
are few natural forests, although in the
northwest there is a considerable area
that was at one time covered with trees.
There are skirts of timber along the
streams. Two-thirds of the state is
drained by streams leading to the Missis-
sippi river. The western drainage is to-
ward the Missouri river. The northern
part has a number of small lakes similar
to those of Minnesota, formed by the same
action or system of glacial deposits, some
of them surrounded by a natural wall of
loose stones, the water pure and clear.

The climate is a little severe, the mer-
cury occasionally dropping to 40 degrees
below zero. The average rainfall is about
31 inches. No less than flve separate
sheets of drift cover the state, giving a
variety of productive soils.

Iowa is not so well adapted to fruit-
growing as are some of the states further
south. Some of the very hardy varieties
may be grown successfully, but it lies in
a latitude where the mercury occasionally
drops to 40 degrees below zero, while the
climate is not modified by ocean or lake
breezes, and there are no sections shel-
tered by high elevations or mountain
ranges. However, hardy varieties of ap-
ples, sour cherries, currants, gooseberries,
strawberries, raspberries and blackber-
ries are successfully grown for home use
in all parts of the state. Commercial
orcharding is not extensively conducted.

The drainage systems for Iowa are the
Mississippi and Missouri rivers with their
tributaries. The principal fruit-growing
sections are counties bordering on the
Missouri river and on the Des Moines,
which drains into the Mississippi.

The principal apple producing counties
near the Missouri river are: Fremont,
159,959 bearing trees; Harrison, 130,898;
Mills, 242,466; Page, 145,895; Potawata-
mie, 259,113; Taylor, 112,585. The coun-
ties on the Des Moines river producing
the largest number of trees are: Mahas-
ka, 110,203; Polk, 145,895; Warren, 114,-
158.

The total number of bearing apple
trees in the state is estimated at 5,847,-
034; the total number of peaches and
nectarines, 1,090,749; plums and prunes,
1,155,041; cherries, 908,764; grapes,
1,983,465; strawberries, 2,917 acres; rasp-
berries and loganberries, 1,573 acres;
blackberries and dewberries, 2,279 acres;
nuts, 163,337 trees.

Gbanville Lowtheb

Apples Recommended for Commercial
Planting' in Northern Iowa

Oldenburg (Duchess), Patten (Patten
Greening), Wealthy, Northwestern
(Greening), Salome (Trial), Colorado Or-
ange (Trial).

IOWA

1163

For Home Use
Lowland (Lievland Raspberry), Olden-
burg (Duchess), Cliarlamoff, Patten (Pat-
ten Greening), Wealthy, Eastman, Long-
field, Northwestern, Delicious (Trial), Sa-
lome, Black Annette (Trial), Windsor,
Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Colorado
Orange.

Apples Recommended for Commercial
Planting in Southern Iowa

Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Delicious
(Trial), Stayman (Stay man Winesap),
Gano, Black Ben Davis and Ben Davis,
York Imperial (Trial).

For Home Use

Red June, Oldenburg (Duchess), Beno-
ni, Chenango, Dyer, Wealthy, Fameuse
(Snow), Roman Stem, Bailey Sweet,
Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Salome, Deli-
cious, Tolman Sweet, Stayman (Stayman
Winesap), Winesap, Ralls (Genet), Gano,
Black Ben Davis, Ben Davis, York Im-
perial.

The following fruits are suggested as
standard varieties for Iowa:

Apples

Duchess of Oldenburg, Wealthy for
northern drift, Jonathan for southern
loess.

Crabs

Hyslop, Florence, Martha, Virginia.

Plnms

De Soto, Wyant, Miner.

Cherries

Early Richmond, Montmorency.

Grapes

Moore's Early, Worden, Concord.

Raspberries

Older, Kansas.

Blackberries

Snyder, Ancient Briton.

Currants

Victoria, Red Dutch, White Grape.

Gooseberries

Downing.

Strawberries

Dunlap, Warfield.

While none of the varieties mentioned
are perfect, they have proven the most
satisfactory out of all the varieties tested

and can be safely used as a standard for
comparing other varieties.

Apples

For Northern Drift: Patten's Green-
ing, Longfield, Charlamoff, Salome, Ma-
linda, Northwestern Greening. Sweet ap-
ples— Tolman.

Fob Southern Loess: Benoni, Maiden's
Blush, Fameuse, Grimes Golden, Winesap,
Stayman, Genet, Roman Stem, Gano.
Sweet apples — Sweet June, Ramsdell's
Sweet, Paradise Winter Sweet. For des-
sert use — Early Joe, Fall Wine, Chenan-
go, Dyer, Rambo.

Pears

Kieffer, Seckel, Flemish Beauty, Bart-
lett.

Peaches

For Southern Loess: Champion, Cros-
by, Elberta, Triumph.

Grapes

For Southern Loess: Diamond, Ni-
agara, Agawam, Brighton.

Raspberries

For Southern Loess: Cuthbert, Turn-
er, Cumberland, Columbian.

Dewberries

Lucretia.

The above lists are suggested by the
Iowa State Horticultural Society.

The state society does not recommend
a list of fruits for planting in any dis-
trict; it recognizes the fact that each
grower can select varieties better adapted
to his locality than anyone else. The list
given is to assist those who have not
given much study to varieties. Where no
locality is mentioned the varieties named
are for general planting on all soils. The
northern part of the state is mostly cov-
ered with drift and the southern part
with loess. The soil, rainfall and eleva-
tion changes the temperature so that the
thermal zones do not correspond with de-
grees of latitude. As an example: Budd-
ed peaches seldom prove profitable when
planted north of the line showing a mean
annual temperature of 49 degrees, though
they may be grown much farther north.

For additional information on orchard
sites and soils, see Selection of Site un-
der Apple Orchard.

1164

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE
Frost and Precipitation in Iowa

Station

Charles City...

Larrabee

Alta

Hampton

Fayette

Elkader

Sioux City . . . .

Sac City

Iowa Falls

Grundy Center
Independence. ,

Dubuque

Carroll

Newton

Belle Plaine . . .

Amana

Cedar Rapids.
Iowa City. ...

Clinton

Davenport. ...

Atlantic

Greenfield ....
Des Moines. . .
Washington. . .

Corning

Clarinda

Corydon

Bonaparte ....
Keokuk

Frost

Average Date of

First

Killing in

Autumn

Sept. 5
Sept. 20
Sept. 26
Oct. 2
Sept. 18
Sept. 23
Sept. 23
Sept. 22
Sept. 22
Sept. 26
Sept. 26
Oct. 12
Sept. 22
Oct. 8
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Sept. 19
Oct. 9
Oct. 8
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.

Last

in
Spring

May
May
May
May
May
May
May

3
11

7
4
8
5
1

April 30
May
May
May
April
May-
April
May
April 23
April 19
April 23
April 28
April 22
May 11
April 29
April 28
April 23
April 26
April 19
April 28
April 20
April 11

Date of

First
in

Autumn

Sept. 12
Sept. 12
Sept. 12
Sept. 20
Sept. 11
Sept. 11
Sept. 13
Sept. 12
Sept. 12
Sept. 12
Sept. 12
Sept. 27
Sept. 12
Sept. 20
Sept. 20
Sept. 20
Sept. 20
Sept. 20
Sept. 13
Sept. 18
Sept. 2
Sept. 18
Sept. 12
Sept. 13
Sept. 12
Sept. 13
Sept. 18
Sept. 20
Sept. 18

Last

in
Spring

May 21

May 31

May 30

May 31

May 31

June 1

May 21

May 19

May 31

May 31

May 31

May 21

May 31

May 19

May 31

May 14

May 14

May 14

May 26

May 22

May 31

May 21

May 22

May 14

May 19

May 3

May 19

May 14

May 2

Precipitation

Annual
inches

29.8
30.4
30.7
33.2
32.7
31.2
25.5
31.1
29.8
34.0
27.4
35.0
32.4
33.6
34.5
31.2
37.1
32.3
32.9
32.9
32.4
31.7
32.4
28.7
31.3
33.1
35.3
33.3
35.1

Irrigation

History of Irrigation

Irrigation is the process of watering
land by ditches or other artificial means.

It is generally employed where the
rainfall is insufficient for the growing
crops, or where it comes at unseasonable
times. The sources of supply are snows
in the mountains, glaciers, lakes, rivers,
springs, underground waters obtained by
means of pumps, artesian wells, etc.

Ancient Irrigation

In ancient times the inhabitants of
Egypt along the Nile, and of Babylonia
along the Euphrates irrigated their lands
by means of crude systems for lifting
water from wells, rivers and ditches.

Professor James H. Breasted, of Chi-
cago University, a noted Egyptian arch-
aeologist, says: "The date of the earliest
irrigation in Egypt is not less than 3500
B. C, It is impossible to say how much
earlier, perhaps several centuries — may
be five or six, or even eight."

Professor D. D. Luckenbil, Babylonian
archaeologist, writes: "The earliest ref-
erence to the digging of canals for irri-
gation occurs in the inscriptions of Urni-
na of Lagash, who lived about 3000 B. C.
It is evident from inscriptions which
date from later times, but mention
events whose occurrence must be placed
before the date of Urnina, that irrigation
was known to the inhabitants of the
Tigris and Euphrates valleys centuries

IRRIGATION

1165

Old Waterwheel at Benton City, Washington.

— Oolville Photo

1166

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

before 3000 B. C. About 3500 B. C. would
certainly be conservative. There is an
ancient document called the 'Laws of
Hammurabi' which contains a section on
irrigation, and reads as follows:

" 'If any one is too lazy to keep his
dikes in order and fails to do so, and if
a breach is made in his dike and fields
are flooded with water, the man in whose
dike the breach was opened shall replace
the grain which he has destroyed. If he
is not able to replace the grain, he and
his property shall be sold and the people
whose grain the water carried off shall
share the proceeds.'

"If any one opens his irrigating canals
to let in water, but is careless and the
water floods the field of his neighbor, he
shall measure out grain to the latter in
proportion to the yield of the neighbor-
ing field." This document dates from
2340 B. C, and indicates that irrigation
was under the control of the government
at that date.

Sargon left a tablet about 3800 B. C.
which relates to the story of his boyhood
as follows: "I am Sargon the mighty
king. My mother, of noble race, cone ived
me and bore me in secret. She put me
in a basket of Sur and closed up the
openings with bitumen. She cast me into
the river. The river carried me along to
Akki, the irrigator. Akki, the irrigator,
took me up. Akki, the irrigator, reared
me up to boyhood. Akki, the irrigator,
made me a gardener." (McCurdy, His-
tory-Prophecy and the Monuments.)

It was doubtless the system of irriga-
tion in use in Babylonia to which the
plaintive song of the Hebrews referred
when they said: "By the rivers (irri-
gating ditches) of Babylon, there we sat
down, yea we wept when we remembered
Zion."

Early Irrigation in America
Irrigation was practiced in prehistoric
times by the town-building Pueblo In-
dian tribes inhabiting portions of New
Mexico and Arizona. The descendants of
these tribes still utilize some of the lands
which were tilled by irrigation at the
time when the Spaniards first came from
the south and practiced many of the

primitive customs of their ancestors. The
early missionaries of the Pacific coast
also used the same customs (learned from
these Indians), and in Southern Califor-
nia particularly are to be found the ruins
of substantial dams and headworks built
by Indian labor. The Mexicans, of mixed
Spanish and Indian origin, gradually ex-
tending their settlements from the south,
through necessity practiced irrigation.
There are said to be ditches in Arizona
and New Mexico, one of which is buried
50 feet beneath the present surface of the
soil.

The Mormons Irrigate
The first irrigation practiced in the
United States by English-speaking people
was by the Mormons near Salt Lake, in
Utah. Brigham Young, their leader, was
a man of vision, imagination and great
ability. Whether from necessity, or from
inventive genius, he succeeded in turn-
ing the waters of the little canyons and
streams onto the parched desert and
after a few years mastered the art of
modern irrigation.

Cary Act Projects

The early settlers in the arid regions
irrigated their land by means of small
ditches which could be constructed at
little expense. When it became necessary
to reclaim larger areas of desert the ex-
pense became too great for small co-opera-
tive enterprises and for the relief of this
condition the "Carey Act" was passed by
congress, which "provides that the fed-
eral government will grant, without
charge, to each of the states containing
desert lands 1,000,000 acres, or as much
thereof as the state shall cause to be re-
claimed, provided that such states shall
bind themselves to dispose of the same
in tracts of not to exceed 160 acres to
actual settlers." Under this act the state
does not reclaim the land, but avails
itself of the benefit of the law by means
of contracts made with construction com-
panies. "At the request of the state the
federal government segregates the tracts
desired. The state then makes a contract
with some company to construct the nec-
essary reservoirs and canals." When the
work is completed the land is patented

IRRIGATION

1167

to the state, and in turn patented to the
settler when he has complied with the
provisions of the law. The construction
company is paid a fixed sum for the wa-
ter, the enterprise is under the supervi-
sion of the state authorities and the water
users have charge of the canals for main-
tenance.

What Carey Act Lands Are and How
Title Is Obtained Tliereto

Under the operations of this act the
federal government turns over to the
states such land as they may desire to
procure for reclamation from time to
time.

"When this land is turned over to the
state for reclamation it enters into a
contract with some company to construct
an irrigation system and sell water
rights therein to the settlers at a price
fixed by the state contract and upon the
terms therein specified. Upon the mak-
ing of a contract the irrigation company
proceeds to construct the irrigation sys-
tem under the general supervision of the
state engineer and subject to his approval
and direction from time to time. When
the construction of the system is ad-
vanced to such a state that water can be
delivered or will shortly be delivered the
state opens the lands to settlement, sell-
ing the land at fifty cents per acre to all
entrymen who purchase water rights of
the irrigation company at the price fixed
in the state contract. Thus it will be
seen that the enterprise from its incep-
tion to the final turning over of the sys-
tem is subject to state inspection and
supervision — with a consequent assurance
not only as to the feasibility of the orig-
inal undertaking, but also as to the meth-
od by which the irrigation system is con-
structed and finally completed.

The procuring of title to these lands
is simple and comparatively inexpensive
and is free from the difficulties and long-
residence requirements of the homestead
and government reclamation laws.

Only thirty days' residence is required
before final proofs may be made. As soon
as an entry is made, the entryman can, if
he wishes, at once begin the improve-
ment of his land by doing his clearing,

plowing, etc., and if, when water is ready
for delivery, he has one-eighth of his
holding under cultivation (that is, seeded
and ready for irrigation), and then begins
actually irrigating that one-eighth, he
may at once give notice of intention to
make final proof, by publication in a
newspaper published in the county in
which the land is situated for four weeks
immediately preceding the date set for
making final proof, during all of which
time he must reside on the land, and if
married, he must establish his home with
his family. In this way, title can be se-
cured with only about thirty days' resi-
dence.

It will be seen from the foregoing that
the term of residence and the length of
time required for proving up is largely
optional with the settler. He may put
one-eighth of his land under cultivation
and have it ready for irrigation as soon
as water is delivered. He may then turn
the water onto this one-eighth and imme-
diately begin publishing his four weeks*
notice of intention to prove up and at the
expiration of that period may make final
proof, thus making his final proofs in
about thirty days. On the contrary, if he
does not care to make his final proofs at
once, he may continue cultivation and
residence and not prove up until the end
of the three years' period allowed by the
statute. Of course, the great advantage
of proving up in the shortest possible pe-
riod is that it relieves one of the neces-
sity of continued residence on the land
and enables him to perfect his title im-
mediately.

Questions Answered Regarding the
Carey Act

Land and water rights under the Carey
act are assignable both before and after
proof.

Married women can not file on lands
under the Carey act, but widows may.

One person may file for another under
power of attorney.

It is not necessary to visit the land
before filing.

Within one year after notification that
water is ready for delivery the settler
must cultivate one-sixteenth of the entry;

1168

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

he must then cultivate an additional one-
sixteenth the second year, and the third
year final proof must be made showing
one-eighth of the land under cultivation.
This is the maximum time allowed the
settlers. He may, as already stated, do
all his cultivating and complete his proofs
in about thirty days.

The Carey act, under which these lands
are entered, should not be confounded
with the United States reclamation act
or with the homestead laws. Under the
reclamation act the settler is required to
conform to the homestead laws of the
United States; to pay the cost of his
water right, and to actually reside upon
the land for five (5) years. None of these
requirements apply to Carey-act lands.
The homestead commutation clause does
not apply to lands taken under the recla-
mation act.

Under the Carey act the settler pays
the state 50 cents per acre for the land
in two equal instalments, contracts with
the irrigation company for a water right
for the land at the price per acre fixed by
the State Land Board, and after residing
upon the land for about thirty days, and
putting one-eighth of it in cultivation and
under irrigation, may make final proof
and entitle himself to receive his patent
for the same.

After the irrigation system is com-
pleted and approved by the state authori-
ties, it is turned over to the settlers for
operation. They thereafter own and op-
erate it for their own benefit and are thus
relieved of paying any profit on operation
to anyone. This is accomplished by the
organization of a settlers' operating com-
pany, the shares of which are transferred
to the settlers on a basis of one share
for each acre. This stock is issued to the
settlers at the time they make their en-
tries and execute their water contracts,
no additional charge therefor being
made.

After final proof the settler can mort-
gage the land and water right, subject to
the lien for deferred payments on his
water right. This is a great advantage
to the settler of moderate means, as he
can thus obtain any additional money

which he may require to cultivate his
land, make improvements, buy machinery,
etc., and thus he avoids the disadvan-
tages of the long period of residence re-
quired under the reclamation act, during
which time he has no title to the land,
and no right to mortgage it to secure
money for making improvements.

RECLAMATION BY THE UNITED
STATES GOVERNMENT

Reclamation Act

The reclamation act was made a law
by the signature of President Roosevelt
on June 17, 1902.

This act provides that all moneys re-
ceived from the sale and disposal of pub-
lic lands in Arizona, California, Colorado,
Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New
Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Ore-
gon, Nevada, South Dakota, Utah, Wash-
ington and Wyoming, beginning with the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, includ-
ing the surplus of fees and commissions
in excess of allowances to registers and
receivers, and excepting 5 per cent of
these amounts, which is set aside for
educational and other purposes, shall be
set aside and appropriated as a special
fund in the treasury of the United States,
to be known as the "reclamation fund,"
to be used in the examination and survey
for, and the construction and mainte-
nance of, irrigation works for the stor-
age, diversion and development of waters
for the reclamation of arid and semi-arid
lands in the said states and territories.

The lands so reclaimed are subject to
homestead entry, and there is absolutely
no charge for the land itself, but the
settler must pay to the United States, in
not more than ten annual instalments,
without interest, his proportion accord-
ing to the number of acres he owns, of
the amount expended by the United States
in reclaiming his land. The collection
of operation and maintenance charges is
not definitely provided for in the recla-
mation act; however, the authority of
the Secretary of the Interior to collect
such charges has been upheld by the de-
cision rendered in the Baker-Swigart
suit, which was in effect a test case on
this point.

IRRIGATION

1169

Aiuendnients

The amendments to the reclamation
act have been relatively simple; most of
them relate to work on the Indian reser-
vations, or to interstate or even interna-
tional complications. Probably the most
important is that of June 25, 1910, re-
lating to advances to the reclamation
fund. Under this amendment an ad-
vance or appropriation of $20,000,000 was
made, to complete the reclamation proj-
ects and such extensions as may be
deemed necessary for the successful op-
eration of the works, also to protect
water rights claimed by the United
States. Another and very necessary pro-
vision of this act of June 25, 1910, was
the repeal of section 9 of the original
reclamation act, which, by attempting to
limit expenditures, largely by state lines,
tended to lack of economy, and forced a
construction of works where the need
was not wholly established.

Purpose

The purpose of the reclamation act is
to provide for the reclamation by irriga-
tion of arid lands, the motive being one
which is fundamental to the growth and
maintenance of a democratic form of
government. It gives opportunities for
citizens to obtain homes on small farms
where they may support their families.
Under good irrigation it is possible to
practice intensive agriculture to the
highest degree, and thus produce the
most valuable crops.

Establishment of the Reclamation
Service

Immediately after the reclamation act
was approved, the Secretary of the In-
terior was advised by the Director of the
Geological Survey regarding the investi-
gations which had already been made by
the Geological Survey as to the extent
to which the arid region could be re-
claimed.

During many years preceding the pass-
age of the reclamation act the Geological
Survey had been preparing topographic
maps showing the possibilities of many
streams that could be used in irrigation,
and their catchment areas. Thus, when

the reclamation act became a law, there
were already employed in investigation
a considerable number of men experienced
in such work.

Under authority from the secretary,
these men were organized on July 2,
1902, into the sub-bureau known as Rec-
lamation Service, under the Geological
Survey. This organization was so con-
tinued until March of 1907, when the
service was separated from the survey
and made a separate bureau under the
Department of the Interior.

Indian Irrigration

Under an agreement made in IDOT, be-
tween the office of Indian Affairs and the
Reclamation Service, certain irrigation
work on Indian reservations, authorized
by Congress and provided for in appro-
priations under the control of the Indian
office, is being performed by the Recla-
mation Service. The cost of such work
is returned to the reclamation fund from
authorized Indian appropriations upon
statements rendered monthly.

Work Accomplished Under the Beclama*
tion Act

A summary prepared by the Reclama-
tion Service shows results to June, 1913,
in connection with the twenty-eight dif-
ferent projects upon which operations
have been carried on by the service in
the various states enumerated above, as
follows:

Present plans contemplate the ulti-
mate irrigation of 3,000,000 acres. Of
this acreage, water was available for
1,300,000 acres. Some 27,000 farms are
included in this area.

The service had at this time something
over 5,000,000 acre-feet of reservoir ca-
pacity available by the construction of
numerous storage dams. Eight thousand,
miles of canals and ditches had been
constructed.

Investment

The total net investment of the Recla-
mation Service to June 30, 1913, amount-
ed to $77,231,555.24.

UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

The standard measurement for water
in many sections of the country is known

2—33

1170

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

as the "miner's inch." This method
came from the custom followed by miners
in appropriating water for the separation
of gold from the sands and gravel. The
"miner's inch" as a unit of measurement
was well adapted to the mining industry,
but it seems not well adapted to the
conditions of agriculture. The "acre-
foot," or fraction thereof, as a unit of
measurement is better than the miner's
inch, because it conveys an idea of a
certain depth of water over a certain
area of land, as an acre. Almost every
one is familiar with the expressions in-
dicating inches in depth. For instance,
it is known that in the Yakima valley
there is on the average six inches of pre-
cipitation per annum, and that this
classifies the land as arid. They know,
too, that 15 to 20 inches classifies land
as semi-arid, and that 30 to 40 inches is
sufficient for the growing of corn and
general farming, but no one, unless he
has had special education in hydraulics,
knows the relations of a miner's inch to
any depth of water covering an acre of
land.

The United States Government makes
its reports of precipitation in terms of
inches. It also estimates the water de-
livered to the irrigators under its proj-
ects in the same way.

Different canal companies use different
units of measurement, so that it is diffi-
cult to express these units in the terms of
acre-feet, or the miner's inch. For in-
stance, in the Yakima valley, Washing-
ton, are the following ditches with the
following units of measurement: Naches
and Cowichie Ditch, one miner's inch per
acre; Yakima Valley Canal Co., one inch
per acre, measured over a wier. The
Selah Ditch Co. gives two-fifths inches
per acre, measured under six inches of
pressure. The Terrace Heights Company
gives one-third of an inch per acre,
measured through a meter. The Tieton,
a government project, gives two and
seventeen-one-hundredths acre-feet. The
Moxee Canal Co. gives one cubic foot per
second for 160 acres of land. The Wash-
ington Irrigation Company one cubic
foot per second for 160 acres. The Fow-

ler Ditch Co. one cubic foot per second
for 150 acres.

The difficulty is for the average per-
son to know what relations these differ-
ent standards sustain to each other, or
to the standard adopted by the govern-
ment.

The miner's inch is not a uniform
unit for all states. The court of Kittitas
county, Washington, has defined the
miner's inch as "the amount of water
which will constantly flow through an
opening one inch square through a plank
one inch thick in the side of a box in
which still water is maintained at a con-
stant depth of four inches above the top
of the opening." — Engineering News,
Nov. 7, 1907.

In California the measurement is
taken from center of the opening instead
of the top.

Generally throughout the Yakima val-
ley a miner's inch is defined as the flow
of water through an inch aperture under
six inches of pressure. In some cases
the aperture is made two inches wide
and one-half inch long instead of one
inch square, and this gives less water
than the inch square because there is
more friction surface. A continuous flow
of one miner's inch is commonly sup-
posed to be enough to irrigate two acres.
However, this depends on the character
of the soil and the character of the crop
grown.

It is necessary to distinguish between
the terms "miner's inch," "cubic inch"
and "acre inch," as it is to distinguish
between the terms "second foot," "cubic
foot" and "acre foot."

The cubic foot is a cube of one foot on
every side and contains 1,728 cubic
inches. It also contains seven and one-
half gallons.

The acre-foot is one foot deep over one
acre of land.

The second-foot is a cubic foot of water
discharging from a certain point in one
second of time.

The "acre-foot" is a measurement of
volume, while the term "second-foot" is
a statement of the rate of flow. A con-
tinuous flow of one second-foot for 24

IRRIGATION

1171

hours will cover one acre two feet deep,
equal to two acre-feet.

Approximate Estimate of Water

It requires an engineer with proper
instruments to obtain an accurate esti-
mate of the amount of water flowing in
a ditch, but an approximate estimate
may be made as follows: Secure the
cross section by measuring the depth in
a number of places at given distances
across the stream, adding them together
and dividing by the number of measure-
ments taken. This will give the average
depth, which should be multiplied by the
width of the stream at the surface. This
will give the number of square feet in
the cross-section of the stream. Then
measure off on the ditch bank any dis-
tance, say 20 feet parallel with the cur-
rent. Throw a stick into the center of
the stream where the water is running
at its greatest velocity and far enough
above the first measurement so that the
stick will have time to acquire the same
velocity as the stream before it reaches
the point of the first measurement. Take
the time in seconds required for the stick
to float the distance measured. This will
give the velocity of the mid-current.

Eighty-three per cent of this will give
the average mean velocity of the whole
stream. Multiplying the number of
square feet in the cross-section by the
velocity of the stream, in seconds, will
give the number of cubic feet per second
of time.

In the case of small ditches reduce all
measurements to inches. On account of
the filamentous or thread-like character
of water there is a tendency to compres-
sion as it passes through an orifice. After
the discharge it continues to converge
so that the section of the water after
leaving the orifice is smaller than the
orifice from which it discharges. This is
because the inertia of the water opposes
any change in direction, and the converg-
ence continues for a distance of about
half the diameter of the orifice.

Laterals

A lateral is a ditch taken from the
sides of the main ditch.

A sub-lateral is taken from the side
of a lateral.

In taking water from the main chan-
nel, leading it out in different direc-
tions over the lands, many laterals and

Fig. 1. Showing Method of Conducting Water Around a Low Spot at the Corner of an Orchard.

1172

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

sub-laterals and branches of sub-laterals the open ditch system is cheaper, never-

may be necessary in order to convey theless in the end it is more expensive,

water to the lands to be irrigated. When and that there is considerable loss on

it reaches the land, it is generally dis- account of evaporation and seepage. Just

charged at the highest point to be ir- how much this loss is, depends largely

rigated, and from there carried in pipes, upon the soil, amount of sunshine, wind,

or small ditches for distribution. and the intensity of heat.

The irrigation system if seen on a Measurements to Ascertain Loss

map would resemble somewhat a river ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ Colorado, California,

with its tributaries reversed. The tribu- ^tah, Washington and Wyoming, care-

taries of a stream flow from the higher ^^^ measurements have been made which

lands in rivulets creeks and streams indicate that the losses range from al-

into the main channel. The irrigation ^^^^ nothing in some of the best and

system flows from the main channel and ^^^^ favorably situated canals, to 50 per

branches into smaller ones as the water ^^^^ .^ ^^^^^^ ^^jl^ .^ p^^^^^ ^^jj^ p.p.

is conveyed to the lands to be irrigated, ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^j^^y^ practical, but where it

which lands must be lower than the in- ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ .^ .^ ^^^^^ especially in those

take of the canal, in order that there sections of the country where water is

may be a gravity flow. ^^^^^^ ,j,he economy which could be ef-

How to Conduct Water to Land fected by the use of piping in the dis-

What is the best method of conduct- tribution systems is illustrated by the

ing water to the lands? It is general- following table compiled by the pipe com-

ly conceded that while as an initial cost panies:

Canals carrying 100 cu. ft. per second, or more, loss per mile 1% to 5%

Canals carrying 50 to 100 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile 3% to 8%

Canals carrying 25 to 50 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile 7% to 14% -

Canals carrying 15 to 25 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile 10% to 18%

Canals carrying 5 to 15 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile 16% to 27%

Canals carrying 2 to 5 cu. ft. per second, loss per mile 20% to 40%

The preceding percentages of loss are
general averages and may vary in differ-
ent localities according to climatic and
soil conditions; but it will be noted that
the losses rise very rapidly as the volume
decreases. Hence the smaller the ditch
the greater the loss. The greatest econ-
omy is therefore secured in those cases
where the pipe would of necessity be
small, say from 4 to 12 inches in diam-
eter. These losses are wholly prevent-
able, and as water becomes more valu-
able and the cost of delivery greater, pre-
vention will pay. On many irrigated dis-
tricts the slope of the land is too great
for ditches unless stop-boxes or drop-
boxes are provided. In many cases lands

4-inch pipe :

Slope 1 in 20, discharges 0.6 sec. ft.

Slope 1 in 50, discharges 0.38 sec. ft.

6-inch pipe :

Slope 1 in 30, discharges 1.5 sec. ft.

Slope 1 in 60, discharges 1.0 sec. ft.

8-inch pipe :

Slope 1 in 40, discharges 2.8 sec. ft.

Slope 1 in 80, discharges 2.0 sec. ft.

10-irifh nine :
Slope 1 in 50, discharges 4.6 sec. ft.

Slope 1 in 100, discharges 3.2 sec. ft.

and crops below the ditch are damaged
by breaks due to washing where the
slope is too great.

Capacity of Pipes

It may be interesting to note the rela-
tive carrying capacity of several typical
sizes of ditches compared to those sizes
of wood pipe which, on various gradients
or slopes, will carry approximately the
same quantity of water as the ditches
given — the ditches being assumed to be
built on that gradient which will not in-
duce an excessive velocity. It should be
borne in mind that much greater veloc-
ities are permissible in pipes than in
ditches.

I Ditch requires 1.0 ft. bottom width

I Ditch requires 2.0 ft. bottom width

I Ditch requires 2.5 ft. bottom width

Ditch requires 3.0 ft. bottom width

IRRIGATION

llli

12-inch pipe :
Slope 1 in 75, discharges 6.3 sec. ft.
Slope 1 in 150. discharges 4.5 sec. ft.

16-inch pipe :
Slope 1 in 100, discharges 11.7 sec. ft.
Slope 1 in 250, discharges 7.25 sec. ft.

The gradient or slope of a pipe line
refers to the slope of a straight line
drawn between the intake of the pipe and
the center of the discharge end. This line
Is technically called the hydraulic grade
line. The pipe may be laid at any dis-
tance below this line, but never above
it.

There are many variables entering into
a determination of the actual duty of
water. In general terms, however, it may
be said that seldom will one second-foot
be required for 60 acres, more often 100
acres, and with economy where ordin-
ary crops of wheat and corn are grown
as many as 200 acres.

As heretofore suggested, the steeper
the grade the greater will be the amount
of water a given size of pipe will carry,
and hence a small pipe on a steeper grade
will often carry as much water as a
comparatively large ditch which always
must be built sufficiently high to dis-
charge onto the adjacent fields. This
means a loss of cultivated area, and of-
ten serious inconvenience to the irrigator.
With buried pipes carrying water under
pressure, these annoyances are avoided
entirely, and the water may be delivered
with facility upon any portion of the
field. If wood pipe be used gate valves
can be introduced with decided economy
and convenience. In addition to this,
they can always be closed when the neces-
sary water has been applied, and thus the
pipes can always be kept full, whence
economy and conservation. A full pipe
means a saturated pipe, and when the
wood of the pipe is saturated there can
be no rot. Experience has proven be-
beyond doubt that rot is prevented by
saturation.

Basis for Selling

It is always much more satisfactory
to sell water based on a price for the ac-
tual water used, rather than to sell it on
the basis of acres irrigated. The latter
method invites waste on the part of the
user, since it is but human nature for

I Ditch requires 3.5 ft. bottom width

) Ditch requires 5.0 ft. bottom width

) Ditch requires 4.0 ft. bottom width

the irrigator to draw on the water sup-
ply up to a point where he feels satis-
fied he is getting all he pays for. By the
other method he pays for exactly what he
gets. The temptation being removed, the
loss from this source is eliminated and
the irrigable area correspondingly in-
creased. In fact, some states, notably
Idaho, have a law requiring all charges
for water to be "based upon the quantity
delivered to consumers and not in any
case to depend upon the acres irrigated."
With a pipe system it is easy to deter-
mine the amount of water used.

SYSTEMS OF IRRIGATION

There are several systems of irriga-
tion, each having some merit, and per-
haps each one best under certain circum-
stances.

Flood

The first is the system of flooding
which is used in the rice fields with a
degree of success that justifies its con-
tinuance. Experience seems to have
proven that this system is the best for
the conditions under which rice is grown,
and perhaps no other system could be
adopted that would be so practical for the
growing of this crop.

Check

The second is the check system, which
makes the ditches in squares around the
trees and overflows the ground inside of
the squares or causes the water to per-
colate through the soil in the ditches.

Furrow System

The third is the small furrow system,
which makes small laterals about three
feet apart and allows the water to run
from the main lateral on the high point
of the land in small streams. From
these small ditches the water percolates
through the soil until the whole surface
soil is wet. It is presumed that when the
surface shows that the water has per-
colated until the dampness from each
stream meets in the center one and one-

1174

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 1. Furrow Method of Irrigation.

— Colvillc Photo

half feet from the ditch that it has perco-
lated also to a depth which is equivalent
to its lateral percolation. Then It is
turned onto another portion of the field
or orchard and as soon as the irrigated
portions are dry enough they are cul-
tivated while the water is still running,
and thus irrigation and cultivation in dif-
ferent parts of the orchard are being
carried on at the same time.

Under^oiind Method

Another method is underground ditches
into which the water is run and allowed
to saturate the soil at greater depth than
is possible with surface irrigation.

The most popular method at present
for most conditions is the small furrow
method of surface irrigation, although it

is conceded that the underground method
has many things to commend it, and
seems to be ideal when the conditions
of soil are right for its application.
Among the things urged in favor of un-
derground irrigation are the following:

First: Economy of water, because
there is less evaporation by this method
than where water is placed on the sur-
face.

Second: Economy in time, since there
is not the trouble of making surface
ditches five times a year or as many
times as the land is irrigated, and no
time is wasted in waiting for the ground
to dry for cultivation. The amount of
water taken up by the surface soil un-
der force of capillary attraction is not

IRRIGATION

1175

Fiff. 2. Check-Furrow System. Two Longi-
tudinal Furrows are Connected by Four Cross
Rills for Each Tree. By putting check dams
in the main furrows water can be held
around the tree until taken up by the soil.

sufficient to make the ground too wet for
cultivation.

Third: Placing the water below the
surface, at a depth of from 1 to 3 feet,
causes the roots to penetrate more deep-
ly, to break up a new substratum of
soil from which they extract food which
is equivalent to extending over a much
wider lateral surface, and therefore in-
creasing the life of the tree besides in-
creasing its rapidity of growth and bear-
ing capacity.

Fourth: In case of sub-irrigation from
other lands this underground system is
a drainage system as well as an irriga-
ting system.

Fifth: It tends to aerate the soil, for
a certain amount of air passes through
these underground ditches.

Sixth: In case there is lack of water,
this system will save enough above any
other system known to enable us to grow
cover crops which may be turned under
at the proper period and thus fertilize the
soil.

These reasons urged by some who ad-
vocate that system are not universally
accepted; for on the other hand it is
argued :

First: That while there is less evap-

oration, the loss by drainage is greater
often than by evaporation.

Second: While it is true that the tend-
ency of the root system is toward the
water, yet the feeding roots are natural-
ly near the surface, and the water should
be placed where they are.

Third: In case a surface coating of
manure is given, surface irrigation car-
ries the fertility downward to the roots,
whereas by the underground method, al-
kali and other injurious substances are
lifted to the surface by capillarity.

FACTORS DETERMIMNG DUTY OF
WATER

F. E. Jones

The method of applying water is an
important factor, for it has been found
that furrow irrigation saves more water
than the flooding method, and deep fur-
rows have an advantage over shallow ones.
Sub-irrigation is not practical, but re-
sults in a great saving of water over the
other methods of application.

The method of planting enters into the
amount of water required to mature the
crop, for if crops are planted thinly, less
water will be used; the amount of shade
produced by the plant affects the evap-
oration; and a cultivated crop will con-
serve more moisture than an uncultivated
one.

Kind of tillage. In order to be most
effective, cultivation must be promptly
done after the water has been applied,
for as much water is lost in the first 24
hours as is lost in the three days follow-
ing. On heavy soils it is necessary some-
times to wait two or three days.

The kind of ditches. Small, shallow
ditches result in a great percentage of
loss.

The skill of the irrigator. This is one
of the most important factors in deter-
mining amount of water used.

The amount and frequency of irriga-
tion is a factor in the duty of water, for
the land must be very level to make it
possible to use as little as two inches of
water at one irrigation. As a rule, a four
or five inch irrigation will thoroughly
wet a soil as far as the roots of ordin-
ary crops go. Heavier amounts neces-

1176

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Fig. 3.

Artesian Well Near Walla Walla, Washington. 579 feet deep with flow of 2,224
gallons per minute. 62 pounds pressure.

sary for meadow than for cultivated
crops.

Method of purchase. The best plan is
to practice rotation in the use of water,
and make the best use of the water while
it is on the farm. The highest duty is
obtained by this method rather than by
having a continuous stream during the
season.

Summary. A low duty of water is due

to excessive appropriation, bad conti-acts,
loss by seepage and careless irrigation.
The duty of water may be increased by
preventing seepage, draining the land,
providing for rotation in use, and charg-
ing for the quantity received.

Amount and Frequency of Irrigation

In irrigation practice it is important
that the irrigator know the amount of

IRRIGATION

1177

water necessary for the crop and the fre-
quency with which it should be applied.
The conditions which determine the
amount of water that should be applied
at a single irrigation are as follows:
(a) Amount —

1. The capacity of the soil and suh-
soil to store ivater. The question that
confronts the irrigator is what quantity
of water can be stored in the soil for the
proper growth of the plants. The range
for sandy soils will be between 5 per cent
and 15 per cent, the optimum being about
10 per cent. In clay loams it is safe to
say that it is impossible to store more
than 30 pounds (a half foot) in the first
four feet of a silt soil. If the amount of
water in the soil is not down to the wilt-
ing point of plants at the time of applica-
tion of water, the soil will not take up
the maximum amount.

The following table shows the lower
and upper limit of storage capacity of a
clay soil, and the available moisture for
use of plants in each foot of the soil:

Clay Loam Soil —

Available

Lower Lipper Moisture,

Depth Limit Limit Lbs.

First foot 17.01% 2.5.77% 6.92

Second foot ....10.86% 24..^% 4.11

Third foot 18..56% 24.03% 5.72

Fourth foot ....1.5.9% 22.29% 6.786

Total Douiuls per cubic foot 23.-54

2. The depth of the soil stratum pene-
trated by the roots of the particular crop.
If the roots of a crop penetrate deeply a
larger amount of water may be applied to
the soil without a large amount of it go-
ing beyond the reach of the roots. If the
roots grow to the water the plants will
not need to wait for the water to come
to the roots. Plants probably root deep-
er in arid soils and may be encouraged
to do so by cultivation of the soil about
six inches in depth. Plants have been
found to penetrate the soil with their
roots to depths as follows:

Apples 9 feet

Strawberry 22 Inches

Alfalfa. 174 days old .5 to 30 feet

3. The rate at lohich the soil below
the root zone may supply water by up-
ward capillarity to the roots. The neces-
sary moisture may be below the roots,
but will not travel up fast enough.

4. The extent to ivhich the soil and
subsoil may become dried out. If at the
time of irrigation the soil is very dry it
is capable of taking up a large amount of
water. The texture of the soil will also
have an effect on this factor.

(b) Frequency. This is one of the most
important questions that confronts the
practical irrigator. The conditions which
determine the frequency of irrigation
are:

1. The amount af available moisture
which may be stored in the soil. If the
difference between the upper and lower
limit is only a few per cent it will deter-
mine the amount of water stored at one
time.

2. The rate at which the moisture is
losf through the crop and through the
soil. As to the crop it sometimes is neces-
sary to irrigate to bring up the seed. A
young crop will make very little de-
mand on the water in the soil. A wheat
crop makes the heaviest demand on the
soil from the time it begins to head until
it reaches the dough stage.

3. The degree of saturation a particu-
lar crop will tolerate before it is injured
in quality and quantity. Irrigation will
nearly always check the growth of the
crop for a few days. The fewer the num-
ber of irrigations the smaller may be the
labor involved and the lower the cost. A
heavy soil will store water longer, usual-
ly, and will require fewer irrigations.

METHOD OF IRRIGATING WITHOUT
WASTE WATER

H. M. Gilbert

There is considerable alarm among
those inexperienced in irrigation over
the suits, court injunctions and threat-
ening notices sent out by various canal
companies. The accompanying illustra-
tions will suggest to the irrigator how
he can greatly lessen, and in many loca-
tions entirely stop, the running of waste
water from his land.

The solution to the whole proposition
of waste water is: level contour ditches
made with a two-horse plow at the lower
end of the irrigation rows.

These level contour ditches should be
sufficiently near together to irrigate the

1178

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

portion of orchard they cover. Ordinar-
ily they should cover 10 to 30 per cent
of the orchard, the larger proportion
being where the hillsides are steeper or
where the irrigator wants to irrigate hur-
riedly, and therefore has a large quanti-
ty of waste water to care for.

Head DrfcK

Head Ditch

if

Head Difch

Illustration No. 1 is for a field where the
general slope is in one direction with low
point in or near the middle of low side.
Heavy lines indicate large furrows made
with two-horse plow on contour levels.
These heavy lines represent practically
level ditches.

Illustration No. 2 is where the slope is
in two directions with low point at one
corner. Here again heavy lines indicate
large furrows made with two-horse plow.

To locate these level contour ditches
place an instrument at low point, then
take stakes numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., and
place them on the two boundary lines at
elevations six inches, one foot or two feet
apart, according to the steepness of the
field. Then turn the instrument up the
diagonal row and place another line of
stakes numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., on the same
levels as those on the boundary. By plac-
ing these stakes along the fence row or
under the trees they can be left through-
out the season. In this way the ditches
can be cultivated over and remade for
the next irrigation without the use of
any instrument or running of levels.

Illustration 2. ' > " i Lowroint

Illustration No. 3 shows a head ditch
running on a ridge diagonally through
the tract, feeding irrigation rows on
either side on different slopes. You will
note there are two low points on this
tract, requiring that there be two sets of
contour ditches. The level, however, is
set as in Illustrations Nos. 1 and 2, at
the lowest point, and the contour levels
ascertained in the same manner.

Illustration No. 4 shows two sorts of
home-made levels. Either of these will be
sufficiently accurate for running these
contour lines. Of course, a surveyor's

HeadDifcK

Illuitrotion'-S

Low FJ)(n+

IRRIGATION

1179

SIM

Cross WiKs

Pipe

J

II|ustrfltion*'4

level would be preferable, and an archi-
tect's level can be procured at a cost of
about $50.00. The agricultural papers
are also advertising a level for $15.00,
which would no doubt be sufficiently ac-
curate. In addition to this, any farmer
can take a pocket level or a carpenter's
level and with a little ingenuity locate
the necessary points sufficiently accurate.

The illustrations here given will not
meet the exact situation in many tracts,
but any irrigator can make it possible
to apply the plan to any tract.

The advantages of no waste water are:

1. Freedom from damage suits, court
injunctions and attorneys' fees.

2. The saving of water and using it
on your own land, better irrigation with
the same amount of water.

3. Saving soil fertility, not leaching
off the best elements and running them
off to the ocean.

4. No swampy spots and no drainage
necessary on your own land, for you will
not run any of your furrows to the low
points. In fact, by keeping up contour
furrows at low points, where they cross
ravine or swale, you can keep the water
out of low points.

Head Ditches

Proper arrangement of head ditches
will greatly assist. Where there is more
than two inches fall to the rod in your
head ditch, use board flumes made of 1%-
inch or 114 -inch fir, rough. I have used
such a flume for 13 years before it rotted
out. Bore holes one inch in diameter to
let out water for irrigation furrows.

Control size of opening by galvanized iron
slides to be obtained from hardware
stores at small cost, as they are made
from scraps. Level head ditches where
possible are the most economical and ef-
ficient.

SUMMARY OF USEFUL INFORMATION

The following summary of useful in-
formation has been gathered from vari-
ous sources:

Doubling the diameter of a pipe in-
creases its capacity four times.

Double riveting is from 16 to 20 per
cent stronger than single riveting.

A cubic foot of water contains seven
and one-half gallons, which is equal to
1,728 cubic inches.

To find the pressure in pounds per
square inch of a column of water, mul-
tiply the height of the column in feet by
.434.

The weight of a cubic foot of water at
32 degrees Fahrenheit is 62 14 pounds.

A gallon of water weighs eight and
one-third pounds.

To find the total pressure of water on
any surface multiply its area in square
feet by the vertical depth of its center
of gravity below the water surface in
feet, and the total by the weight of one
cubic foot of water.

The pressure of air at sea level is 14.73
pounds on each square inch of surface,
therefore a cubic inch of air will sus-
tain a column of water 34 feet high.

Factors Affecting the Flow of Water

There are certain factors affecting the
flow of water. One is that the smallest
inclination to either side, or any wind-
ing or changing of the direction of the
stream, affects the rapidity of the flow.
Any bend in a pipe that deviates from the
perpendicular will retard the velocity of
the flow of water.

The length of a vertical fall will affect
the force or momentum, because water,
like other bodies, gains momentum with
the distance it falls.

Another factor affecting flow, is the
friction of the sides. If weeds are al-
lowed to grow along the sides of a ditch;
if the sides are irregular in shape; if
there are obstructions of any kind; or in

1180

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the case of pipes, the material out of
which it is made determines in some de-
gree the amount of friction. Wood pipe
is supposed to have less friction than
cement pipe, and iron pipe less friction
than wood.

To find how much water will discharge
at a given point, multiply the velocity
by the cross section in square feet,
which gives the number of cubic feet
per second of time.

A second-foot of water on ordinary
soil will irrigate from 80 to 160 acres.

The water necessary to mature cer-
tain kinds of crops is estimated as fol-
lows:

Tomatoes, 24 inches in depth over the
ground, or two acre-feet. Potatoes, 17
inches; onions, 36 inches; strawberries,
27 inches.

Orchards of tree fruits are variously
estimated, depending on the climate,
soil, kinds of fruits and the age of the
trees. Young orchard trees can be grown
with less than half the water required
for old trees in full bearing.

One foot deep per acre is 43,560 cubic
feet, equal to the number of square feet
per acre.

IRRIGATION OF ORCHARDS

It is impossible to give any correct
rules for irrigation that will apply to all
cases. There are so many conditions of
soil, rainfall, seepage, climate and kinds
of crops that the orchardist must neces-
sarily learn from the experience of others
who have lived for a considerable time
in the community where the orchard is
located. However, the following may
be helpful in determining the amount of
water needed.

Varieties which mature their fruits
early require less water than those
which mature late. For this reason cher-
ries, early peaches, prunes and apricots,
require less water than late peaches,
pears and winter apples.

The non-deciduous fruits require more
water than those which drop their leaves
in autumn, not only because there is
little evaporation from the tree during
the winter, but because of climatic con-
ditions. There are, however, exceptions

to this rule, for the leaf and root sys-
tem of the olive are so constructed that
they will bear with less water than is
required for the peach.

More water is required for large than
for small trees, and the larger the tree,
other things being equal, the more water
required. Shallow rooting trees will gen-
erally require more frequent irrigation
than those of the deep rooting habit.

Trees with tap roots, such as apples
and pears, must be irrigated with special
reference to the supply of water for the
tap roots as well as the lateral roots.

In the fine volcanic-ash soils, in adobe,
or in scab soils that puddle or cement,
or harden when dry, or in any other way
tend to become impervious to the air,
there should be more than usual care to
see that the water goes below the roots,
and that the soil is sufficiently aerated.
This may be done by growing alfalfa,
or dynamiting the soil, or by digging
holes to considerable depth to let the
water down below the puddled section.

Where the water does not penetrate
about the roots of the trees, there will
be manifestations of disease such as die
back, yellows, rosette, etc. These may
also result from excess of water. Lack
of moisture may also prevent bearing the
following year, since it may prevent the
proper development of fruit buds.

Irrigate the Center

For a number of years the general
practice, in irrigating an orchard, was
to run the laterals about three feet apart
between the rows of trees with the lateral
nearest the tree not nearer than two and
one-half feet. This left the center of
the space in which the tree stood without
a lateral. The laterals on either side be-
ing two and one-half feet from the tree
row made a space of five feet occupied
by the tree row. This seems to be all
right for the lateral roots, which tend to
reach out toward the center, but it leaves
the tap roots often without water. In
making some experiments, we found that
when the center was watered by a small
lateral, made with a shovel, that this lat-
eral required much more water than
either one of the others. This suggested

IRRIGATION

1181

the idea tliat the water followed the tap
root to greater depth, and also that there
was considerable ground immediately
about the tree which had not been wet.

Alkali Between the Laterals

It is the experience of irrigators that
where there is alkali in the soil the pro-
cess of irrigation tends to wash it away
from the center of the ditch toward a
point about midway between the laterals.
It is not uncommon to see strips of white
alkali encrusted on the surface at regu-
lar distances apart, according to the dis-
tances of the laterals. As a result of
this, the method of neglecting to irrigate
the center of the space in which the trees
stand is one which drives the alkali to-
ward the tree. In soils where the al-
kali is strong enough so that it ap-
proaches the point of injury to the tree,
concentrating it at the center might in-
jure the bark and tender roots near the
surface. We had four specimens of soil
analyzed and found that there was much
more alkali in the surface soil near the
tree than a specimen of soil taken from
the center of the ditch, or than at one
foot depth below the surface.

We have been of the opinion that the
crust of alkali injured the bark of the
young growing tree and caused it to
crack, exposing the cambium and render-
ing it susceptible to the attacks of in-
sects. Our opinion was based upon the
number of instances where these condi-
tions of injury occurred in soils strong
in alkali, where this method of irriga-
tion was practiced. This opinion is not
sustained by the authorities and is ad-
vanced as one that is yet to be proven
by experiments.

We know that we are right in so far
as it concerns the irrigating of tomatoes
and other tender plants, but as to wheth-
er the bark of the young tree is suffi-
ciently resistant so that it would not be
injured by a strong encrustation of al-
kali in the soil about it, is a question
that can be determined better by expe-
rience in the orchards than by any other
method.

However, for other reasons, if not for
this, we would recommend irrigating the

center in which the trees stand, and
since the laterals cannot be made with a
plow or other instrument commonly used
for such purpose, we would take the more
laborious method of making them with a
shovel, and irrigate about the body of
the tree, thus killing a number of in-
sects that might work injury, letting the
water into the soil about the tap roots,
and driving the alkali away from the
tree.

Granville Lowthek

Cost of Pumping

One pumping plant, unique in its un-
usual sprinkling system, is thus described
by the owner, Mr. F. B. Allard:

"I have a pumping plant with which
I am watering 11,000 apple trees. I am
doing it in the following manner:

"I first pump it into a railroad water
tank, then I have one mile of four-inch
steam pipe connecting the tank with
every ten-acre tract with hydrants at
different places. On this main line of
pipe and 100 feet apart I have uprights
starting with one-inch pipe and reduc-
ing to three-quarters, 30 feet high, with
a whirling sprinkler on each of them,
which is forced to run by means of a
double-stroke force pump, which takes
the water out of the big tank and puts
it into the main pipe at 100 pounds
pressure, and this spray is carried on one
side by the breeze in the forenoon and
in the opposite direction in the after-
noon, wetting a strip of ground 300 feet
wide and one mile in length, or a strip
of ground equal to 40 acres, on which I
am raising alfalfa between the trees.

"From the bottom of the well to the
top of the tank it is 160 feet. My gaso-
line bill last year was $150, or 1.4 cents
per tree and 99 cents per acre. This
year it was $225 or 2.29 cents per tree,
and next year it will be about $300 or 2.73
cents per tree, and I figure that when the
trees have reached the age of six years
they will require about $500 worth of
distillate, or 4.54 cents per tree — figur-
ing that the price on the distillate re-
mains the same as at present.

"I am going to connect every tree with
the main line of pipe with a smaller

1182

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

pipe. Part of this is done now; then I
will be able to take care of the orchard
with about one-fourth the cost of doing
it the old-fashioned way."

Cost of Pumping from Well

The cost of installation and mainten-
ance of a pumping plant in the Moses
Coulee District, Washington, is thus re<
ported by Mr. H. G. Otis:

"My well is 397 1-3 feet deep. It is 224
feet from the surface of the ground to
the water. The well is 10 inches in-
side diameter and takes a casing 8%
inches. I have a 32-H.P. Fairbanks-
Morse oil-burning engine and a No. 30
Pomona pump head. The cylinder is 8
inches, double stroke. The casing is
275 feet, so that the cylinder is immersed
about 50 feet in the water. The well
furnishes all the water we can pump, of
a very excellent quality. The cost of
drilling the well was $6 per foot for the
first 300 feet and $6.50 for the 97 1-3 feet.
The cost of the engine and pump com-
plete is $3,100.

"We can run on three gallons of oil
per hour and the oil costs, laid down at
Quincy, IY2 cents per gallon. I pay my
engineer $2.00 per day and board and it
takes very little of his time in running

the plant. He can put in most of his
time attending to irrigating.

"The plant furnishes 310 gallons per
minute and we figure that this will fur-
nish water for 160 acres. I will have the
land well piped and try to economize as
much as possible. My well house is 18x42
with a concrete floor. The installing of
the plant cost about $200. The work is
very well done and on a solid concrete
base. We have installed 2,500 feet of
6-inch inside diameter concrete pipe with
bell-shape ends. We have 2-inch and 1-
inch outlets which we use in irrigating
trees or alfalfa. This pipe cost 20 cents
per foot F. O. B. Quincy. The freight on
the 2,500 feet was $80. We are now in-
stalling 3,600 feet of 6-inch and 5-inch
galvanized tin pipe which cost 15 cents
for the 6-inch and 12% cents for the 5-
inch F. O. B. Wenatchee. We like the
tin pipe a great deal the best.

"The cost of pumping is about $4 per
acre. I would suggest that on a large
scale the work could be done at less ex-
pense and would suggest that several
farmers go in together to put down a
large well and a large engine with elec-
tric motor and run the pump and all
other machinery on the farm by elec-
tricity. This I think is a far better way."

Fig. 4. Pumping Plant of Mr. F. B. AHard. Standpipe to left has a sprinkler at the top.

IRRIGATION

1183

Cost of Pumping Water for Irrigating

On the cost of pumping water for irrigating purposes, Elwood Mead of the Gov-
ernment Service made investigations which clearly set forth the cost of furnishing
water to land under various systems of pumping, as follows:

Summary of Data Concerning Cost and Duty of Wa{«r Under Sixty Pumping Plants

in Santa Clara Valley in 1904

No.

of

plant

Power

I Area
Discharge i watered

Amount
of water
raised
during
season

Depth

of
water
applied
during
season

Height
water
raised

Cost of

water

per

acre

Cost of

water

per

acre-foot

Cost of
raising 1
acre-foot
of water
1 foot
(i. e., per
foot-acre-
foot)

Total
cost of
water

for
season

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

Steam,
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do

Steam

Gas

Steam

Gas

do ....

Steam

Gas

Steam

do ....

Gas

Steam

do ....
Gas

do ....

Steam

Gas

do ....

Steam

Gas

do ....
Electric . . .
Steam

do ....

do ....

do ....

do ....

do ....

do ....

do ....

do ....

Gas

Steam

do ....
Steam

do ....

do ....

do ....
Gas

do ....

Steam

Gas

do ....

Steam

Gas

Steam

Gas

Steam

Gas

do ....
Steam

Totals or
averages .

Cu. ft.

per sec.

1.56

1.10

.76
2.34
2.34
2.55

.90
1.18
1.18

.72
1.42

.92
1.04

.98

.72
1.88

.45

.75
1.93

.53
1.23
1.32
1.34
1.01
2.83
1.29
1.29
2.56
2.07
2.07
2.11

.93

.92
2.53
1.30
1.55
2.17
1.22
1.29
1.31

.82
1.87

.81
2.23
1.22
2.13
1.87
1.17
1.23
1.86

.22
1.35
1.15
1.23
2.70

.13
1.75

.58

.71

.85

Acres

150

19

23.5
25
15
30
22
12.5
15
12
85

22.5
18
30
25
34
24
20
38
18
50
55
75
25
70
10.5
11
30
19
16
15
23
21
20
40.5
24
10
20
35
85
70
40
73
150
33
60
35
35
45
34
30
15

41.5
35

139H
14

43.5
21

24M
40

Acre-feet
315.4

35.6

13.4

38.7

14.5

31.6

11.6

14
9.7

14.4

54.7

17.8
5.1

54.1

14.3

21.2

10.8

16.6

70.6

17.4

26.5

74.5
107.9

19.4

70.2

49.4

46.5

39.7

44.2

24.5

31.3

28.8

16.6

48.2

21.9

22.4

23.6

13.6

26.8

36.4

33

45

29
158.5

57.6

60.6

36.2

28.9

72.6

55.4

14.6
9.4

27.6

38.6

202.3

2.3

45.6
9.5

20.6

67.2

2,272,1 I 2,568.4

Feet

2.10

1.87

.57

1.55

.97

1.05

.53

1.12

.65

1.20

.64

.79

.28

1.80

.57

.62

.45

.83

1.86

.97

.53

1.35

1.44

.78

1.00

4.70

4.23

1.32

2.33

1.53

2.09

1.25

.79

2.41

.54

.93

2.36

.68

.77

.43

.47

1.13

.40

1.06

1.75

1.01

1.03

.83

1.61

1.63

.49

.63

.66

1.10

1.45

.16

1.05

.45

.85

1.68

Feet
110

50
140

28

28

22

70

58

58

50

75

27

86

77

27

68

44

24
115

46

24
27.
19.
52
52
37
43
43
34
49
55
60
93
73
91
121
100
85
53
80
118
44
91
50
38
46
38
40
23
63
102
50
60
43
59
107
115
110

$10.50

10.37
5.83
5.96
3.73
3.77
3.59
5.60
3,20
8.33
3,80
2.58
2.17

11.40
3.00
2.44
1.83
5.55
7.16
6.89
3.34
5.96
3.33
1,44
2.53
8,95
8.09
3.30
4.21
2.81
5.67
7.30
4.86
5.75
4.52
3.75

21.80
3.65
6.83
2.56
3.11
9.18
3.07
2.47

11.42
2.58
3.14
3.34
6.24
5.09
2.93
2.13
4.17
6.83
3.76
1.00
6.14
3.81
4.79

12.12

S 4.99
5.54
10.22
3.85
3.86
3.58
6.81
5.00
4.95
6.94
5.90
3.26
7.65
6.32
5.24
3.92
4.07
6.69
3.85
7.13
6.30
4.40
2.32
1.86
2.52
1.90
1.91
2.49
1.81
1.84
2.72
5.83
6.15
2.39
8 36
4.02
9.24
5.37
8.92
5.99
6.61
8.15
7.72
2.33
6.54
2.56

6.03
3.40
6.27
6.19
2.59
6.09
5.86
8.42
5.63
7.22

1.045
.111
.073
.137
.138
.163
.097
.086
.085
.139
.079
.121
.089
.082
.194
.058
.093
.279
.034
.155
.072
.050
.096
.067
.129
.037
.037
.067
.042
.043
.080
.119
.112
.040
.090
.055
.101
.044
.090
.070
.125
.102
.065
.053
.072
.051
.080
.088
.102
.078
.262
.054
.061
.124
.043
.142
.099
.079
.049
.066

$1,575

197

137

149

56

113

79

70

48

100

323

58

39

342

75

83

44

111

272

124

167

328

250

36

177

94

89

99

80

45

85

168

102

115

183

90

218

73

239

218

218

367

224

370

377

155

110

117

281

173

88

32

173

239

524

14

267

80

116

485

1.13

4.96

4.38

11,261

See office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 838, "Irrigation and Drainage Investi-
gations."

1184

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Cost of Water Per Acre

C. J. Blanchard,

Statistician United States Reclamation

Service

1. The cost per acre of water rights
or of water for irrigation in the arid
region, under the present conditions of
construction, is far higher than is usual-
ly appreciated. During earlier decades,
before any considerable number of large
irrigation canals had been built, it was
a relatively simple and inexpensive mat-
ter for farmers to join together and build
small canals that could be enlarged as
the demand for water increased. All
such easily available opportunities, how-
ever, have been utilized and development
has proceeded to a point where on most
of the recent irrigation systems it has
been necessary to provide storage, thus
adding materially to the cost.

2. There has also been a notable in-
crease in the cost of labor and of ma-
terials used in construction. This con-
dition has been pointed out in various
hearings before Congress, notably in the
series before the Ways and Means Com-
mittee of the House of Representatives
at the time of the granting of the $20,-
000,000 loans. It is there shown, notably
in a statement submitted by Representa-
tive Mondell that one of the arguments
for increase of the reclamation fund was
in the fact that common labor had ad-
vanced from the time of the preparation
of the plans for works in 1903 and 1904
from 20 per cent to 50 per cent, and that
the efficiency of such labor had fallen
off in greater proportion. Costs were al-
so affected by the increased price of ma-
terials and equipment.

3. The following table gives in con-
densed form lists of some of the recently
constructed and proposed larger private
projects and Carey-act projects. These
figures, obtained from printed reports of
state engineers and public data show that
on over 90 modern irrigation systems
being built by private or corporate capi-
tal the cost per acre averages nearly $53.
This cost does not include the annual
cost for operation and maintenance.

4. The cost to the settler is increased
by the fact that payment is made on
most of these projects in instalments
bearing interest at 6 per cent or even
more. The total payments made for such
a water right with simple interest at 6
per cent would be about $70.50 per acre
on the basis of ten equal annual instal-
ments of the principal as compared to
$53 without interest.

COST OF PRIVATE IRRIGATION PROJECTS

Cost of
water
right

Name of Project Acreage charge

or Company in project per acre '
Colorado —

=Amlty Canal 80.000 $100

^Beaver Land & I. Co l'O.oOo 175

Catlln Canal !'."(, (too 100

Colorado Co-operative Co. 5,200 60

Denver Resv. & I. Co... 200,000 45

Bast Palisade I. Dist... 645 63

^Fort Lyon Canal 70,000 100

^Grand Valley Canal .... 40,000 60

Greely Poudre I. Co 125,000 45

Mesa Co. Irrigation Dist. 2,568 73

Orchard Mesa I. Dist. . . . 0.122 110

Otero Irrigation District 20.000 40

Palisade Irrigation Dist. 6,000 41

Paradox Valley I. Co. . . 30,000 45

=Pueblo-Rocky Ford I. Co. 100,000 150

sRedlands I. & P. Co 5,000 100

Routt Co. Dev. Co 39,000 45

S. Palisade Hghts I. Dist. 700 127
Montana —

Conrad Land & Water Co 40

Great Falls Land & L Co. 36,000 50

Nebraska —

"Belmont Capal & I. Dist. 20,000 25

Tristate Canal 60,000 42

Netv Mexico —

French Land & I. Co 40,000 50

Orepon —

Bonanza Project 20,000 39

Eagle Valley 21,700 80

sTurnlsh 6,000 60

Paradise 100,000 60

Willamette Valley 20,000 50

South Dakota —

Red Water I. Ass'n 4,000 40

Utah^-

Provo Reservoir 12,000 80

^Utah Lake Pumping 8,000 40

Washinqton —

Cascade Canal Co 10,000 50

Congdon Canal Co 4,200 121

Kennewick Canal 14.000 163

Lower Yakima I. Co 12,500 129

Selah-Moxee 7.000 86

SeKah Valley Dev. Co... 10,000 150

Union Gap I. Co 5,000 185

Washington I. Co 50,000 46

1 Engineers' estimates where project is pro-
posed or incomplete.

- Estimated at from $75 to $150 per acre.
Includes land.

2 Estimated at from $75 to $150 per acre.
■* Per miner's inch.

^ Includes land.

" Estimated at from $65 to $150 per acre.
' For river rights only. Purchaser of Path-
finder Reservoir water will increase this to $35.
* Estimated at from $50 to $70 per acre.
' Estimated at from $40 to $50 per acre.

IRRIGATION

1185

COST OF CAREY ACT PROJECTS

Name of Project Acreage

or Company in project
Colorado —
Gt. Northern I. & P. Co. 2,121
Colo. Realty & Sec. Co. 45,875

Toltec Canal Co 14,853

Colo. Ld. & Wat. Sup. Co. 16,278

Two-Butte I. & R. Co... 22,000

Valley Investment Co. . . 24,000
Idaho —
American Falls C.&P. Co. 57,242

Big Lost River I. Co 78,242

Birch Creek I. Co 20,000

Blackfoot N. Side I. Co. 22,280

Black Canyon I. Dist. . . 98,492

Blaine Co. I. Co 14,720

Boise City Carey Act

Project 151,000

Bruneau Irrigation Co. . . 40,000
Emmett Irrigation Dist. 5,800
Grandview Extension Ir-
rigation Co 1,000

Grassmere Irrigation Co.. 47,500
Hansen, C. V., Mackay

Project 3,456

Hegsted, Victor, Project. 3,410

High Line Pump. Co., Ltd 3,860

Houston Ditch Co., Ltd. 1,884

Idagon I. Co., Ltd 9,000

Idaho Irrigation Co., Ltd. 130,000

Keating Carey Land Co. 15,597

Kings Hill Ext. I. Co... 9,655

Kings Hill I. & P. Co. . . 13,359

Lemhi Irrigation Co. . . . 3,500
Little Lost River Land &

I. Co 20,000

Marysville Canal & Imp.

Co., Ltd 6,134

Owsley Carey L. & I. Co. 8,600

Owyhee L. & I. Co 29,535

Owyhee I. Co., Ltd 3,296

Pahsimerai Project 6,000

Portneuf-Marsh Valley I.

Co 11,914

Pratt I. Co., Ltd 4,674

Snake River I. Co., Ltd. 6,500
Thousand Springs L. & I.

Co 6,300

Twin Falls L. & W. Co.. 244,000
Twin Falls North Side

L. & W. Co 207,144

Twin Falls Oakley L. &

W. Co 45.000

Twin Falls Raft River I.

Co 99,668

Twin Falls. Salmon River

L. & Water Co 127,707

West End Twin Falls I.

Co 46.000

Montana —

"Billings L. & I. Co 27.000

Rig Timber Project 17,194

Valier Project 115,100

Oreqon —
Central Oregon I. Co. . . 139,204

Central Oregon I. Co 74.198

"Columljia Southern Co. . . 27,000

Deschutes Land Co 31,082

Deschutes Reclamation &

Irrigation Co 1,280

Desert Land Board 27.000

Portland Irrigation Co... 12,000

"Powder L. & I. Co 65,000

Utah —

"Mosida Pumping Plant.. 9,000
Wyominp —

Big Horn Co. I. Co 20,411

Boulder Canal 6,120

Burch Canal 35.S87

Carbon Co. L. & I. Co... 7.793

Cody & Salisbury Canal 77.199

Cody Canal 26,429

East Fork I. Co 4.901

2—34

Cost of
water
right
charge
per acre ^

$ 55
45
40
45
35
60

40
40
50

72
40

60
50

65
65

40
40
45
35
60
50
30
65
65
50

30

20
35
55
45
30

35
40
50

30
25

45

65

50

40

50

40
60
40

40
60
50
36

40

46
100

150

50
30
50
30

.^6
30

Cost of
water
right

Name of Project Acreage charge

or Company in project per acre »

Eden L. & I. Co 95,658 $ 30

Elk Canal 2,724 30

Fisher Ditch 320 10

Green River L. & I. Co.. 75,257 35

Hammitt Canal 6,295 60

Hanover Canal 10,682 50

Hawk Springs Project. . 12,238 50

Hubbard Canal 38,604 40

James Lake I. Co 14,554 35

La Prele Ditch & Reser-
voir Co 18,558 50

Lovell Irrigation Co. . . . 11,320 25

McDonald Canal 15,159 50

Medicine Wheel Canal Co. 22,385 30
North Laramie Canal Co. 4,133 50
North Platte Canal & Col-
onization Co 14,424 30

Big Horn Basin Dev. Co. 204,650 50

Paint Rock Canal 53,162 50

Platte Valley Canal 18,171 30

Rock Creek Irrigation Co. 11,696 45

Sahara Ditch Co 7,920 50

Sidon Canal and ext's . . 20,559 30

Tinsleep-Bonanza Canal. 16,486 40

Uinta Co. I. Co 26,000 35

Wheatland Industrial Co. 33,115 45

Wyoming L. & I. Co 4,526 50

^ Engineers' estimates where project is pro-
posed or incomplete.

" Estimated at from $20 to $60 per acre.

" Estimated at from 50 to $60 per acre.

" Estimated at from $75 to $200 per acre.

" Estimated at from $100 to $250 per acre,
mcluding land.

5. For comparison with the costs of
the foregoing private and Carey act
projects there is given in the following
table a partial list of the projects being
built under the terms of the Reclama-
tion act showing the total acreage in
them and the charges for water rights
for completed portions of such projects
as far as these have been fixed by public
announcement of the Secretary of the
Interior. These figures are seen to aver-
age a little over $41 per acre:

Cost

.„ . Approx. per acre

I^ro.iect acreage From To

A rizona-Califomia —

Yuma 131,000 $55 $66

Idaho —

Minidoka 118,700 22 30

Montana — ....

Sun River 216,346 30 36

Montana-North Dakota —

Lower Yellowstone.. 60,116 45

Nebraska —

North Platte 129,270 45 55

Nevada —

Truckee-Carson 206,000 22 30

New Mexico —

Carlsbad 20,277 32 45

Oreqon —

Umatilla 25,000 60 70

Klamath 72,000 30

South Dakota —

Belle Fourche 100,000 30 35

Washinpton —

Okanogan 9.900 65

Sunnyside 102,824 52

Tleton 34,613 93

Wpominp —

Shoshone 164,122 45 50

1186

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

6. It is interesting to note that the
average cost of water from the govern-
ment works is about $12 per acre less
than from the recent private works of
comparable size. The real difference is
still greater because of the fact that de-
ferred payments on government works do
not draw interest.

7. This difference is further accentu-
ated by the greater probability of the
water users under the government proj-
ects receiving an adequate water supply,
as this matter has been given more care-
ful consideration and deficiency guarded
against with greater care than in the
private investments. In fact it is known
that in a few cases at least there is not
water enough for the entire area of land
included in these private projects. Also
on the government works provision in
many cases has been made for drainage
such as has not been provided by the
private works and the water is, as a rule,
brought nearer to the land to be irri-
gated, still further reducing the cost to
the water user.

8. Summing up all of these advantages
— lower first cost, absence of interest,
more dependable water supply, and more
complete works — it would appear to be
fair to state that water from the govern-
ment projects is obtained at from half
to two-thirds the cost of that from pri-
vate works here listed, including those
built under the terms of the Carey act.

WINTER IRRIGATIOJf

In a general way lands in irrigated
districts are not irrigated in the late
autumn, winter or early spring. The
water is turned out of the irrigating
ditches in October or November and then
turned on again in March or April, de-
pending on the climate, the amount of
rainfall during the winter, the soil and
the kinds of crops grown. While the wa-
ter is out of the ditches is an opportune
time for repairs, cleaning the ditches and
other work for the irrigation of grounds
the following year. However, there are
conditions where irrigation would be
practicable in winter, and there are some
reasons why it is desirable. One reason
why it is desirable is that there is a

larger water supply in winter than in
summer, and this, in places where water
is scarce, is an important item.

Another reason is that there is less
evaporation in winter than in summer,
and this is another important item where
water is scarce, a larger per cent being
left to percolate through the soil.

A third reason is that in winter irri-
gation the land does not bake and need
cultivation as in summer.

A fourth reason is that there is suffi-
cient time for a deep, thorough wetting,
which in some soils is much needed.

A fifth reason is that an amount of
water which in summer would injure the
little root hairs will do little if any in-
jury in winter during the dormant pe-
riod of the tree.

A sixth reason is that heavy winter
irrigation will retard the blooming pe-
riod for a few days in spring and tend
to lessen the injury from frosts.

Winter irrigation to be of any consid-
erable value must be given when the
ground is not frozen.

It is not here argued that winter irri-
gation is to take the place of summer
irrigation, but that it might be made to
supplement it and, in some places, a good
irrigation in winter is all that would be
needed for a crop and the summer irri-
gation might be dispensed with alto-
gether. For instance, in a country where
there is approximately 25 inches of rain-
fall per annum a good deep irrigation
before the ground freezes in winter or
after it thaws in the spring would enable
the fruitgrower to develop a good crop
of apples, whereas that amount of rain-
fall is not sufficient in ordinary soils.
Granville Lowtheb

IRRIGATIOJf IN HUMID REGIONS

J. P. DUGGAR

The size of the crop is more dependent
upon the amount and distribution of the
rainfall than upon soil, fertilizer, or any
other factor. Man cannot entirely regu-
late the supply of moisture, but by means
of irrigation and drainage he can do
much to make the moisture conditions in
the soil such that crops will make their
largest growth. Irrigation and drainage

IRRIGATION

1187

must go together, at least on soil not
naturally well drained.

The unexampled prosperity of the West
and the fact that it grows larger crops
per acre than any other portion of the
Union is due chiefly to irrigation. The
practical question is: "Do we in a humid
climate need irrigation?" Fortunately we
do not need it every year. But there do
come years when we need it sorely. Two
diagrams were published in Bulletins
Nos. 11 and 134 of the Alabama Experi-
ment Station showing the rainfall at Au-
burn during the last ten years. From
these we see plainly that there have been
frequent periods during the growing sea-
son when for two or three weeks or longer
there has been no rain of consequence
and when crops suffered for want of
water.

It must be said that there will never
in the Mississippi states be a general need
for irrigation as a means of growing the
larger area of field crops. But the farm-
er working on an extensive scale can
utilize irrigation of small areas even for
his rather low-priced crops. Irrigation
is more advantageous to the man who
grows a crop selling at a high price per
acre than it is to the trucker and fruit-
grower. Many of the crops that he grows
need abundance of moisture not only in
order that large yields may be obtained,
but also that a large size of fruit or veg-
etables may be produced. Among farm
crops those that would most profit by
irrigation are the hay crops and, in the
South, sugar-cane.

If any one is inclined to question the
advantages of irrigation in humid cli-
mates, data given in the bulletins of the
Missouri, New Jersey and other experi-
ment stations will convince him of its
value.

Examples of increase due to irrigation
in the humid climate of Wisconsin:

Not Trri-

CroD — Irris'ated eatPd

Strawberries, qts. per acre S,406 6,867

Strawberries, qts. per acre 1,030 8,7.S2

Irish potatoes, bus. per acre 290 394

Irish potatoes, bus. per acre 212 334

Cabbage, tons per acre. . . 20 23
Corn, dry weight, entire

plant, tons 3.8 5.2

Corn, dry weight, entire

plant, tons 1.4 .5.3

Corn, dry weight, entire

plant, tons 4.1 5.2

Corn, dry weight, entire

plant, tons 3.4 4.3

There are those who can give their
own personal experience as to the value
of irrigation in the South.

I have long been a believer in the prac-
ticability of irrigation in the South, but
had been in much uncertainty as to the
character of soils adapted to irrigation
until I visited the irrigated valleys of
Colorado. After that I was prepared to
believe that irrigation, at least in that
climate, could be performed on any class
of soil. However, I would recommend as
best adapted to this purpose our rather
level or gently rolling loamy lands. Sandy
soils can also be irrigated, but the larger
the amount of sand in the subsoil the
greater the waste of water, and hence
the greater the cost of irrigation by the
more common method. To obviate this
loss, truckers working very light, sandy
soils have sometimes resorted to the
method of sprinkling, the chief objection
to which is the excessive cost of the
iron pipes and the labor of making each
application.

Perhaps the ideal soil for irrigation
is one in which the surface six or eight
inches is of a sandy loam or loamy nature
and the subsoil of a denser, more com-
pact texture, permitting a smaller amount
of waste by seepage. Even soils quite
stiff can be irrigated, but these, of course,
bake worse and need greater care in the
cultivation that must always follow ir-
rigation just as soon as the surface has
sufficiently dried. Cultivation, as soon
after irrigating as practicable, so as to
prevent the rapid loss through evapora-
tion of the water just applied, is neces-
sary.

Before considering methods of getting
water on the land it may be well to de-
vote a few words to the amount of water
necessary, since this will largely deter-
mine whether or not under given con-
ditions irrigation would be feasible or
profitable. We can count on requiring
at least enough water so that if spread
out it will cover the land to a depth of

1188

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

two inches, that is, two acre-inches. Fre-
quently the amount applied at one irriga-
tion will be three acre-inches or even
four acre-inches. Now to make one
acre-inch, that is to cover one acre of
land to a depth of one inch, requires
about 26,000 gallons of water. Hence,
more than fifty thousand gallons are re-
quired for a single irrigation. Whether
it will pay to lift this amount of water
will depend largely on the season and on
the value of the crop to be irrigated, and
partly too on the cost of getting the water
to the land and distributing it after it
reaches the field. In Egypt, where no
rain falls during the growing season, cot-
ton makes immense yields when irri-
gated only once in 20 days, and then to
a depth of about three and two-tenths
inches. Sugar-cane requires much more
water, and in the Hawaiian islands water
is applied as often as once a week. Prob-
ably the man who grows a patch of
sugar-cane on bottom land with the ex-
pectation of making a large yield through
the help of irrigation would be wise to
arrange to irrigate it every ten days dur-
ing periods of very dry weather and at
the period of maximum growth. He
would probably seldom have occasion to
apply the water more than four times
per season. For hay crops, such as al-
falfa, that afford several cuttings, it is
customary in arid regions to water once
for each cutting, that is, from three to
five times per season. Even with the
high-priced fruit crops of California the
limited supply of water there is restrict-
ing the total depth of water applied
throughout the season to about twelve
acre-inches. By reason of the scarcity
of water' these Californians often have
to pay to irrigation companies about
twelve dollars per acre for this amount
of water. In the sections where water
is abundant we can get it on the land
for a very small fraction of this cost.

ETOLUTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS
IN WATER

The primitive conception that water,
like air and sunshine, is one of the gifts
of nature which are free to all alike,
does not need to be questioned in sparsely

settled or uncivilized regions, but this
conception must give way when countries
become densely populated, or when spe-
cial industries, like agriculture by irri-
gation, make so large demands on streams
that there is not enough water for all.
Free water on Manhattan island is no
more a possibility than free forests, and
to talk of free water around Denver would
be like talking of free coal. Great cities
consume enormous quantities of water,
the rate of consumption seeming to grow
with advancing civilization. It requires
all the water of a large territory to meet
the needs of cities like New York, Boston
and Philadelphia. This consumption ne-
cessitates the absorption of streams and
the extinction of vested rights in those
streams. The common-law doctrine of
riparian rights is as unsuited to these
conditions as the old-time stagecoach is
to the demands of modern travel. Hence
new legal remedies must be devised. The
last legislature of New York passed two
important water laws, which illustrate
this. One created a city water commis-
sion to ascertain where New York City
can obtain a supply of pure, wholesome
water. The other created a state com-
mission whose consent must be obtained
before any city or town can take a water
supply by condemnation. This is state
ownership or control of public water sup-
plies far in advance of many arid states.
Even in England, with its rainy, foggy
climate and a soil requiring drainage be-
cause of surplus water, the long-estab-
lished riparian doctrine is having to give
way because of the increasing use of
water. To meet the enormous consump-
tion of London, surface and underground
streams are being diverted into pipe lines
and carried by means of pumps many
miles away from the original channels.
This is a violation of the common-law
doctrine, because under it the rights of
riparian lands were inalienable.

In densely populated countries like
Italy, Germany, Switzerland and France,
the water of streams is under private or
public control, notwithstanding the fact
that the climate of each of these coun-
tries is humid. In cities water is now

IRRIGATION

1189

used for a multitude of purposes which
had no place in the life of primitive peo-
ples. The inventions which led to the
use of steam as a motive power enor-
mously increased the consumption and
industrial importance of water. Improve-
ments in machinery to utilize differences
in level in the generation of power, and
the marvelous electrical inventions by
which this power is transmitted to re-
mote cities, have given to streams an
entirely new and hitherto unthought of
value. In nearly every industrial enter-
prise, great or small, water is an indis-
pensable factor. It feeds the steam boiler,
it cools the jackets of steel furnaces, it
is the solvent in most chemical processes,
and is turned to use and made an agent
in the creation of wealth in a multitude
of ways which need not be enumerated.

Moisture is necessary to plant growth,
and in arid lands this moisture is sup-
plied largely from streams. Hence in
such regions the right to use rivers in
irrigation is an indispensable requisite to
any large creation of wealth in lands.
As population increases and civilization
advances there is not only a more ex-
tensive but a more intensive use of wa-
ter. The higher the standard of living
and the greater the skill of artisans, the
greater is the number of needs of the
household and the larger the number of
uses to which water may be put. So ex-
tended have the demands for water be-
come in arid and in many humid sections
that the resources of individuals are en-
tirely inadequate to meet them, and great
corporations are formed for acquiring
water, constructing dams, building stor-
age works, canals, and pipe lines for the
conveyance and distribution of water for
different purposes. The future of New
York City was menaced a few years ago
by legislation which gave to a powerful
private corporation the exclusive right to
acquire water supplies needed or likely
to be needed by that city.

No field of engineering has made
greater advances within the past half
century than that connected with the
regulation and distribution of water.
These are shown in the lessening losses

from seepage and evaporation, in the les-
sened cost and increasing durability of
structures, and in the inventions and
devices for the accurate division and
measurement of water. A similar ad-
vance has been made with respect to the
utilization of water supplied from be-
neath the earth's surface. Large sums
of money are being expended in investi-
gations to determine the extent and loca-
tion of underground waters. Skilled en-
gineers are constantly making improve-
ments in the methods of boring wells,
building tunnels or galleries to intercept
underground streams, and in cheapening
and simplifying pumps and engines for
lifting water to the earth's surface. State
experiment stations and the Department
of Agriculture are studying how econ-
omy in the use of water in irrigation
may be promoted, and cities find waste
in domestic water supplies a serious evil.

There is nothing in farming where
rainfall is ample which corresponds to
the intensity of feeling which marks the
struggle for control of streams in arid
lands, or the anxiety which besets irri-
gators regarding the stability of their
water titles. The farmer who remains
serene of spirit when he sees his fields
burning for lack of water and knows that
his loss of crops is due to wasteful use
by others is a rare if not impossible
character.

Advancing civilization has done more
than augment the uses and value of wa-
ter; it has increased the evils and dan-
gers arising from water. The ice gorges
along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers
were a matter of small concern when
Indians were the only people concerned.
Now they often cost millions of dollars
and hazard many lives. Hence immense
sums of money are being expended to
protect commerce from their action. Ev-
ery reservoir, every diversion dam in a
stream, every artificial waterway adds
a new element of danger and insecurity
to the lives and property below and gives
ground for new laws and regulations with
respect to the management of water. The
swamps and marshes created through the
interruption of underground water sup-

1190

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

plies by impervious strata are a matter
of small concern in sparsely populated
regions, but in highly civilized countries
they seriously impair the value of lands
for agriculture and become a menace to
the health and prosperity of cities and

^°'^'^^- Elwood Mead,

Washington, D. C.
United States Bulletin 855.

WATER RIGHTS

DwiGHT S. Anderson
A water right may be defined as a
proprietary interest in the use of water
for the purpose of irrigation or the gen-
eration of power, which is enforceable at
law. For the purpose of this discussion,
this definition will be considered exclu-
sive of all features excepting those per-
taining to water for irrigation.

It may be said at the outset that the
quality and quantity, so to speak, of a
water right is of the last importance to
the owner of arid land. Too frequently
he is deceived by the quality of his water
right, ultimately proving to be inferior
to the quality of the water right of an-
other, so that his lands become deprived
of that amount of water necessary to
cultivation; or by the quantity, so to
speak, of his water right supplying him
with an inadequate amount. Both frailties
come to the same end: deprivation of
water and partial or complete ruin to the
farmer; but they reach the same end by
different means, for few Western streams
carry enough water throughout all the
season to supply all the land that may
be profitably irrigated, and, while it is
always true in the early days of a com-
munity that there is plenty of water for
all, as the years roll by and hundreds of
thousands of acres are added to the area
over which the stream is made to flow,
there comes a conflict between individ-
uals or groups of individuals springing
from shortage in the supply, and then
it is that the question of the water right
becomes vital to the preservation of
homes that have perhaps too thought-
lessly been built upon the desert sands.

A water right is usually evidenced by
a paper certificate of some sort showing a
membership in some co-operative water

users' association, or a share of stock
therein; or is quite frequently merely a
contract between the owner of the land
and a company organized to supply water,
by which the latter agrees to furnish to
the former a certain amount of water
each season, on the payment of a certain
price for maintenance. The first and the
most important thing for the prospective
purchaser of land with such a water right
to know is not so much the quantity of
water to which he is entitled by such
certificate or contract, as between him-
self and the company, but what right that
co-operative organization or that water
company has to the main supply, as
against other and adverse claims which
may arise in the future on the part of
other persons and companies.

It is quite obvious, in the event that
a claimant arises, alleging that his right
is superior to yours, or that of the com-
pany from whom you hold, that in the
event of the water being insufficient to
meet the requirements of both, your in-
terests will be in very great peril. It is
certain that you will stand in the place
of the company, and that your share of
water cannot be greater than your pro-
portion of the right of the company or
organization from whom you hold, de-
spite any allegations or representations
of that company which have been made
to you. If the water is not to be ob-
tained, or if a superior right extinguished
your right to the water, no amount of
warranties to supply a certain amount to
you can avail anything except to entitle
you to an action at law for your damages.
And few, if any, water companies are
financed on a basis to enable them to
make good to landowners the damages
sustained by the deprivation of water,
while, in the case of a co-operative com-
pany, the situation would likely be that
of the landowners suing themselves as
an organization for what they, as indi-
viduals, have lost.

Therefore the question of the kind and
quality of a water right is first a ques-
tion of fact, and second a question of
law. The question of fact should first be
determined, and then the question of law.

IRRIGATION

1191

A water right might be apparently suf-
ficient in law, yet wholly useless because
of some matter of fact, and conversely,
a water right may be evidenced by no
papers of any kind upon which an at-
torney could pass judgment as to its
sufficiency, and yet be perfect. As an
example of the former: A certain com-
pany, operated for the sale of lands, has
purchased thousands of acres of sage-
brush land in a section which is so high
above the nearest available water that it
is apparently beyond the possibility of
chance that they can deliver that water
to the land in question, yet they have an
appropriation from the river which is
good and sufficient for the irrigation of
all the land owned, provided the one
little obstacle of the law of gravitation
can be overcome. Another pumping proj-
ect has plenty of water but no pump,
and inasmuch as the lift from the water
to the land is a great one, and the com-
pany which promoted the project was
given to optimism, the land has been
sold at $200 an acre to people who, with-
out any question, have a good legal water
right, but who, nevertheless, will prob-
ably never get water from that company
for the reason that it is insolvent.

Again, many ranchers have no water
right at all so far as the possession of
any contract or stock in a water com-
pany is concerned, yet they have plenty
of water for all purposes, and doubtless
will always have plenty. They own arte-
sian wells, and irrigate their lands by
means of them. These wells, constructed
at a cost varying from $3,000 to $6,000,
have been bored on the land to be wa-
tered, and are sufficient for all needs. In
that section there has been no failure to
find artesian water, I am informed, at
any point where the farmer has been
sufficiently provided with funds and has
prosecuted the work with competent
drillers. It must be apparent that such
a water right as this is excellent, though
evidenced by no writing of any kind, be-
cause, as a matter of fact, the water is
the private and personal property of the
owner of the land, as it comes from the
ground, while water running in a nat-

ural stream, whether navigable or un-
navigable, is not the private and per-
sonal property of any person or persons.
It is not property in any sense until it
has been put to some use. The decisions
of the courts on this point are in accord
with the idea that running water in a
natural stream may be possessed only
usufructuarily; that is to say, there may
be a right to a use of it in certain per-
sons, but until it has been put to that
use it is the property of no man.

From this comes the principle, well
known to the law, that a right to water
and a right to land are two separate
rights. That is to say, the right to run-
ning water in a natural stream is not a
right like the right of way over a road
across or through a neighbor's farm. It
is clear that a water right is not a part
of the realty in the same sense that a
house built upon it is, although the courts
generally have held that the right of a
riparian owner in streams fiowing on or
by his land is such a right. By a riparian
owner is meant one through whose land,
or past whose land, a natural stream
runs. Yet, despite these decisions, it is
clear that the right is not so "inseparably
annexed to the soil" and "part and parcel
of it" that the right to water vests in
the whole piece of land in such a manner
that such land, when cut up and sold to
other owners, will carry with it a part
of the original riparian right to 'every
parcel, whether bordering on the stream
or not. The right to the use of the water
exists only so long as it is used by a
riparian owner, and it cannot be taken
by a riparian owner and conducted to a
distance for use on land which does not
touch or border upon the stream.

Therefore, in purchasing irrigated land,
it should be understood by the buyer that
in securing the title to the land itself he
does not necessarily secure a water right.
He may do so, depending on the facts
in the particular case, and, of course, he
does so when he buys land upon which
is situated a well that provides the water
for the land, or through which flows the
natural stream that irrigates the land;
or if the statute of the state has made

1192

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

such a provision on the point. But by
and in itself, a purchase of land is not
a purchase of any right to water for that
land, and any right to water which he
may get through such purchase will come
to him by other means than the mere
act of purchase.

It is in consequence of the vagueness of
the notions of most persons unfamiliar
with irrigation, concerning rights to wa-
ter, that the author has taken it upon
himself to write this series of popular
articles upon a subject which has been
so well covered by able writers upon the
law, that he comes to his subject feeling
that any attempt by him to do more than
paraphrase what has by them been writ-
ten would be presumptuous. The pur-
pose of this series is rather to state as
clearly as may be possible some of the
more obvious points of the law.

Mg. 5. Artesian Well of Mr. H. R. Lince,
Pomona. Washingrton. This well Is 400 feet
•deep. The pressure is 60 pounds per square
inch and delivers 2,250 gallons per minute
through an 8-inch pipe. The altitude is
1.250 feet. The well irrigates 500 acres 220
feet above the Yakima River.

DEFINITIONS OF "BENEFICIAL" AND
"ECONOMICAL" USE OF WATER

J'ublished by the Irrigation Age
Beneficial Use of Water

A water user with a vested right lim-
ited to beneficial use is entitled to that
■amount of water which will render him a
reasonable maximum amount of good
with a reasonably economic handling of
the water. Since he has acquired his
vested right from the laws of his state,
he is entitled to protection of that right
by the state; but it is his duty to the
state, and the state has the right to de-

mand of him, that he use every reason-
able method to reduce the amount of
water required to a minimum. This de-
mand requires the water user to make
reasonable preparation of the ground sur-
face for irrigation; to use good judgment
in selecting appropriate methods of ap-
plying the water to the ground; to pre-
pare reasonably efficient dikes, ditches
and structures to get the water over the
land in such a way as to reduce the un-
derground losses to a minimum to irri-
gate the ground with such a head and at
such intervals as to require a minimum
use of water for proper irrigation; to
cultivate the irrigated ground when prac-
ticable to prevent undue losses from evap-
oration; in some cases possibly to govern
the character of crops to be grown. It is
evident that the reasonable degree of per-
fection of each of these requirements will
vary with the locality and with different
and changing conditions in each locality,
so that the beneficial use of water is
variable.

Economical Use of Water

Since the water supply available for
irrigation in the Western states is ade-
quate for only a relatively small percent-
age of the entire irrigable acreage, the
fundamental standard of economical use
must be the financial results accomplished
per acre-foot of water applied rather than
the yield per acre irrigated. It therefore
becomes both necessary and desirable to
impress irrigators with the fact that in
general the largest net profits per acre-
foot of water applied are obtained, not
from using excessive quantities, but from
more careful use of relatively small quan-
tities. In developing a more economical
standard for the use of water, it should
not be presumed that established rights
can be limited to less water than they
would carry under the accepted rule of
beneficial use; yet by constantly bearing
in mind that the ideal ultimately neces-
sary must be the highest net profit per
unit of water applied, irrigators may
gradually be induced in many instances
to obtain for themselves those results, and
those undertaking the construction of
new projects may be induced to so design

JUNEBERRY— KALE, OR BROCCOLI— KANSAS

1193

their systems as to provide a liberal wa-
ter supply during the development period
with a view to ultimate development
based on economic use.

In the history of irrigation in this
country, there has been evident a gradual
but very definite evolution in the ideas of
what constitutes proper use of water.
While the use of water for irrigation was
at first a relatively unimportant one, its
importance now overshadows all other
uses, save that of domestic supply. In
the course of this evolution, the doctrine
of beneficial use has become established,
but in future development this doctrine
must in many cases merge into or be
supplemented by that of economic use.
The doctrine of beneficial use looks to
individual interest; that of economic use
to the general welfare of society as a
whole. So far as possible, water charges,
systems of distribution and regulations
should be so adjusted as to make the in-
terest of the individual water user coin-
cide with this public interest.

Irrigated Land, Preparation of. See
under Apple Orchard.

Juneberry

Avielanchier
The Juneberry belongs to a genus of
shrubs or small trees of the natural or-
der Rosaceae and is native to Europe,
Asia and America. There are but few
species, but these are so closely related
as to be sometimes mistaken for different
varieties of the same species. They have
alternate leaves, are deciduous and have
numerous racemes of white showy flow-
ers appearing early in the spring. The
spherical, red or dark purple berries ripen
in the summer and are edible. They are
ornamental, hardy, succeed in a great
variety of soils and climates, and are
easily propagated by means of suckers
or seeds.

Granville Lowther

Kale, or Broccoli

Kale, or broccoli, is a variety of cauli-
flower differing from the other in the
form and color of its inflorescence and in
its hardiness. It succeeds best in loamy

soil somewhat hard in texture, but the
ground can scarcely be too rich for au-
tumn kale. However, the winter and
spring varieties grown on too rich ground
are apt to become so succulent and tender
that the plants suffer from frost even in
sheltered situations, while plants less suc-
culent because grown on poorer soil may
all be saved. In the warm climates of
the South plants may stand out all win-
ter. Kale requires about the same treat-
ment as cabbage. The plants are used
for greens and salads.

Varieties

Tall green curled Scotch.
Dwarf German.
Curled dwarf green Scotch.
For Diseases and Pests of Kale, see
under Cabbage and Allied Plants.

Kansas

Kansas is a rolling prairie with occa-
sional bluffs along the streams and pla-
teaus that extend back and beyond them.
There are no mountains, no hills and no
marshes. The altitude on the east is 750
feet above the sea level and on the west
about 4,000 feet. The eastern part of the
state is adapted to the growing of corn,
wheat, oats, potatoes, vegetables and
fruits. The central portion is part of a
great wheat belt that begins in Canada
in the north and extends southward
through Nebraska, Kansas and Oklahoma.
The west is a semi-arid region and it is
only under the system known as dry
farming that wheat, kaffir corn, melons
and other products adapted to semi-arid
regions have been profitably grown. Al-
falfa in later years has been a very prof-
itable crop, especially when grown along
the streams where the roots go down to
the moist subsoil. The streams of Kan-
sas mostly originate in subterranean
sheets of water which come from the
Rocky Mountain region and percolate
through the vast deposits of sand and
gravel with which the soil of Kansas is
underlaid.

The soil in the east is a sandy loam
mixed with limestone and very fertile.
In the central and western portions there
is a deposit of sand which within the

1194

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

memory of persons now living has been
mixed with vegetable matter that each
year has rotted upon the surface, thus
changing the character of the surface
soil. The main body of the soil for a
great depth was formed as the result of
the erosion of the eastern slope of the
Rocky mountain range and is coarser on
the western border than in the central
portion of the state.

The climate is mild, the air clear and
pure, the sun hot in July and August but
the nights delightfully cool. The winters
with few exceptions are not severely cold,
although the winds are strong. Some-
times, however, the mercury drops sev-
eral degrees below zero.

In the eastern part of the state grapes,
plums, cherries, currants, raspberries and
blackberries grew wild at an early date.
In this portion of the state apples,
peaches, cherries, grapes and all kinds of
orchard fruits do well. There are, how-
ever, difficulties for the fruit grower, and
among them are the following conditions:

First: On the low lands along the
streams, where the roots of the trees
strike the sheet water, late spring frosts
often injure the bloom, so that while this
is an ideal location for the orchard from
the standpoint of the growing of trees
the probability of injury by frost makes
a profitable crop uncertain.

Second: On the hills where there is
drainage and freedom from frost there is

often not sufficient moisture to develop
a commercial crop of apples, pears or
peaches that could be sold profitably in
the markets in competition with fruits
grown in irrigated regions or where there
is more rainfall. In the central and east-
ern portions three or four days of hot
winds sometimes injure the fruits so that
they can not be sold commercially. These
hot winds are becoming less injurious as
the country is improved, as alfalfa in-
stead of sand or buffalo grass covers the
surface soil and as orchards and groves
spring up.

In the extreme western part of the
state sugar beets are extensively grown
along the streams where water is avail-
able for irrigation. Here land which was
once considered valueless, or nearly so,
is selling for high prices.

According to the census of 1910 the
number of bearing fruit trees of all kinds
in Kansas was 13,122,464. Of these, ap-
ples number 6,929,673; peaches and nec-
tarines, 1,356,438; pears, 292,383; plums
and prunes, 624,648; cherries, 661,267;
grapes, 2,889,845 vines; small fruits,
5,400 acres; nuts, 143,044 trees.

The counties having the largest num-
ber of bearing apple trees are: Atchison,
176,668; Cowley, 189,647; Doniphan, 237,-
851; Jefferson, 176,787; Leavenworth,
282,403; Lyon, 198,600; Reno, 295,001;
Sedgwick, 205,856; Shawnee, 209,152;
Washington, 153,044.

Granville Lowtheb

Production of Various Fruits in Kansas
Small Fruits— 1909 and 1899

The following table shows data with regard to small fruits on farms:

Number

of farms

reporting

1909

Acres

Quantity

(quarts)

1909

CROP

1909

1899

Value
1909

Small Fruits, total

5,400
1,719
2,682

713
98

188

5,824

2,304

2,044

957

134

212

1

172

5,477.274
2,119,048
2,535,918

616,035
67,005

138,772

$454,200

3,967
6,912
1,678
829
1,928

178,094

201,134

56,446

6,023

12,460

3

W

496

43

^Reported in small fractions.

KANSAS

1195

Blackberries and dewberries are tlie
most important of the small fruits raised
in Kansas, with strawberries ranking
next. The total acreage of small fruits in
1909 was 5,400 and in 1899, 5,824, a de-
crease of 7.3 per cent. The production in
1909 was 5,477,000 quarts, as compared
with 6,572,000 quarts in 1899, and the
value $454,000, as compared with $406,000.

Orchard Fruits, Grapes, Nuts and Trop-
ical Fruits— 1909 and 1899

The next table presents data with re-
gard to orchard fruits, grapes, nuts and
tropical fruits. The acreage devoted to
these products was not ascertained. In
comparing one year with the other, the
number of trees or vines of bearing age

is on the whole a better index of the gen-
eral changes or tendencies than the quan-
tity of product, but the data for the cen-
suses of 1910 and 1900 are not closely
comparable, and the product is therefore
compared, although variations may be due
largely to temporarily favorable or un-
favorable climatic conditions.

The total quantity of orchard fruits pro-
duced in 1909 was 1,448,000 bushels, val-
ued at $945,000. Apples contributed con-
siderably more than nine-tenths of this
quantity, cherries ranking next in import-
ance. The production of grapes in 1909
amounted to 6,318,000 pounds, valued at
$185,000, and that of nuts to 403,000
pounds, valued at about $8,000. Most of
the nuts were black walnuts.

Trees or Vines of
bearing age

Trees or Vines not of
bearing age

Product

CROP

1910

1910

1909

1899

Farms
reporting

Number

Farms
reporting

Number

Quantity!

Value

Quantityi

13,122,464

6,929,673

4,394,894

292,383

624,648

661,267

187,381

28,632

3,586

2,273,397

1,116,316

620,709

132,673

126,116

237,051

28,134

9,583

2,815

1,447,849

1,356,438

24,567

19,412

12,250

34,409

374

361

38

S944,631

807,865

23,418

21,543

14,001

76,734

512

513

45

3 513 686

Apples

Peaches and nectarines

Pears

104,920
93,378
46,966
42,405
65,708
29,219
4,728
35

36,271

25,397

16,622

12,715

21,959

5,186

1,364

18

3,214,407
137,489
21 978

57,520
60 511

4 236

(2) '

Mulberries

(2)

317,545

44,311

2,889,845

8,164

343 002

6,317,684

184,673

15,786,019

Nuts, total

4143,044

27,716

113,537

147

793

ni,715

2,797

8,619

19

6

M02,714

20,583

377,649

275

3,950

<7,625

1,462

6,033

19

107

310 830

466

1,874

14

29

76

267

6

2

47 530

(2)

(2)

(2)

'263,300

Tropical Fruits (Japanese
persimmons)

19

481

1

10

120

48

1 Expressed in bushels for orchard and tropical fruits and pounds for grapes and nuts.

2 Included with "unclassified."

' Consists of products not separately named by the enumerator, but grouped under the designation "all other."
* Includes almonds, butternuts, filberts, hazelnuts and other nuts.

The production of all orchard fruits to-
gether in 1909 was 58.8 per cent less than
in 1899, and the production of grapes also
declined materially. The total value of
orchard fruits declined from $1,729,000 in
1899 to $945,000 in 1909, and that of
grapes from $297,000 in 1899 to $185,000
in 1909. It should be noted in this con-
nection that the values for 1899 include
the value of more advanced products de-
rived from orchard fruits or grapes, such

as cider, vinegar, dried fruits, and the
like, and may therefore involve some du-
plication, while the values shown for 1909
relate only to the products in their
original condition.

The following table shows the quan-
tities of the more advanced products man-
ufactured by farmers from orchard fruits
and grapes. Values were not called for
on the schedule.

1196

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Farms reporting, 1909

Quantity produced

PRODUCT

Number

Per cent of
all farms

Unit

1909

1899

Cider

1,673

1,116

801

143

0.9
0.6
0.5
0.1

Gals

Gals

Gals

Lbs

128,616

56,620

26,625

5,500

491,337

249,827

117,452

205,820

Frost and Precipitation in Kansas

Station

Colby

Concordia

Atchison

Minneapolis

Agricultural Col

Topeka

Wallace

McPherson

Lebo

Garden City . . . .

Dodge

Mackville

Hutchinson

Wichita

Eureka Ranch . .

Viroqua

Eaglewood

Independence. . .
Columbus

Frost

Precipitation

Average

Date of

Date of

Annual

First

Last

First

Last

inches

Killing in

in

in

in

Autumn

Spring

Autumn

Spring

Oct. 1

May 3

Sept.

7

May 26

18.7

Oct. 14

April 24

Sept.

27

May 19

26.8

Oct. 18

April 13

Sept.

29

May 3

37.1

Oct. 10

May 1

Sept.

19

May 23

24.4

Oct. 13

April 23

Sept.

28

May 20

30.5

Oct. 13

April 8

Sept.

28

May 19

34.0

Sept. 29

April 27

Sept.

7

May 6

15.1

Oct. 20

April 19

Sept.

28

May 18

32.1

Oct. 20

April 12

Oct.

6

May 2

38.2

Oct. 4

May 2

Sept.

7

May 26

19.6

Oct. 15

April 17

Sept.

23

May 19

20.3

Oct. 3

May 1

Sept.

20

May 26

22.9

^ct. 15

April 10

Sept.

23

May 3

28.2

Oct. 18

April 8

Sept.

23

April 30

30.4

Sept. 30

May 5

Sept.

12

May 26

20.3

Oct. 22

April 17

Sept.

23

May 2

17.6

Oct. 19

April 13

Sept.

18

May 25

20.6

Oct. 26

April 11

Oct.

1

May 20

37.1

Oct. 25

April 6

Oct.

9

April 13

44.6

Kentucky

Kentucky is 458 miles from east to
west and varies from 40 to 171 miles
from north to south. The surface is
mainly a plateau averaging about 800
feet above the sea, gradually sloping to-
ward the northwest from the Cumberland
and Pine mountain ranges in the east,
which rise to a height of 2,000 to 3,500
feet. The Cumberland valley is one of
the most noted valleys in the eastern
states. It is fifteen miles wide, seventy-
five miles long and from 1,000 to 1,500
feet above sea level. It is a part of the
great blue-grass region underlaid by a
limestone formation which extends from
east to west across several states. This

district was at one time the bed of a vast
lake of the lower Silurian period on the
floor of which were laid several sede-
mentary deposits called upper Silurian,
devonian, sub-carboniferous and carbon-
iferous, from 3,000 to 5,000 feet deep. The
great Appalachian uplift raised this
formation some 5,000 feet, the surface
forming a dome in the center. Then the
process of washing, erosion and disinte-
gration began carrying these materials
toward the basins, valleys and plains.

There are about one thousand square
miles of deep alluvium soil in the river
bottoms of Kentucky. The blue-grass
region contains about ten thousand
square miles and is self-fertilized by the
decomposition of limestone and phos-

KENTUCKY

1197

phatic shale, so that farms one hundred
years old show but little sign of exhaus-
tion. Then there are swamps and bar-
rens where there is insufficient drainage
containing about fifteen hundred square
miles.

Although the soil of Kentucky is well
adapted to horticulture, its climate mild
and the physical conditions favorable, yet
horticultural industries have not been ex-
tensively followed. Since the war there
have been developed near Louisville and
Cincinnati large orchards and grape vine-
yards, and apples in various districts.
There is a fruit district in Kentucky
known as the Muldraugh hill, an eleva-
tion of low mountains extending in a
southeasterly direction from the Ohio
river in Meade county through Hardin,
Lane and Greene counties in which ap-
ples, peaches, pears and other fruits all
reach a high state of perfection. The
trees in this district are long-lived and
the fruit brings good prices in the mar-
kets.

In these regions it is possible to pro-
duce high-grade fruit, but statistics do
not show that there is the same intelli-
gent progress in fruit-growing as is mani-
fest in the growing of stock. It is true,
however, that fruits to which value is
added by deep coloring will be grown
more successfully, other things being
equal, in an arid atmosphere of hot sun-
shine during the day and of cool nights.

The number of bearing apple trees in
Kentucky in 1910 is reported to be
5,538,267; peaches and nectarines, 2,245,-
402; pears, 337,355; plums and prunes,
355,858; cherries, 212,118; grapes, 605,002
vines; small fruits, 4,387 acres; nuts, 21,-
339 trees.

The counties producing the largest
number of apples are: Breckenridge, 185,-
570; Greene, 109,439; Hardin, 164,387;
Hopkins, 124,278; Jefferson, 109,215;
Meade, 261,298; Pulaski, 146,890.

Gbanville Lowther

Frost and Precipitation in Eentncky

Station

Frost

Average Date of

Date of

First

Killing in

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

First

in

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

Precipitation

Annual
inches

Louisville

Shelbyville....

Lexington

Mount Sterling

Leitchfield

Eubank

Paducah

Erlington

Edmonton

Middlesboro. . .

Oct. 29

Oct. 8

Oct. 25

Oct. 9

Oct. 20

Oct. 10

Oct. 27

Oct. 17

Oct. 11

Oct. 13

April 6
April 14
April 12
April 23
April 12
April 25
Mar. 30
April 7
April 17
April 19

Sept. 24

Sept. 22

Sept. 30

Sept. 21

Sept. 30

Sept. 14

Sept. 30

Sept. 30

Sept. 14

Sept. 21

May 14

May 22

May 20

May 20

May 21

May 20

April 13

April 23

May 22

May 21

44.5
44.3
42.5
46.4
48.2
46.8
44.2
48.4
48.1
50.3

Keeping Oub Childben on the Fakm.
See under Farms.

Klikitat Peter. See History of Or-
charding in Old Oregon.

1198

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Kohlrabi

The kohlrabi, turnip cabbage, is a va-
riety of cabbage, Brassica oleracea, with
an edible turnip-shaped stem. Its pecu-
liarity is its swollen stem just above the
ground, which is used for the same pur-
pose and grown in the same general way
as the turnip. For summer use it is
more highly esteemed than the turnip
and it may be stored in winter.

The nature and habits of growth are so
similar to those of the turnip that they
need not be described at length, but it
may be said that they will succeed best

Kohlrabi

on new land rich in potash, and that they
require substantially the same general
treatment as turnips.

There are several varieties, some of
them small and used mostly for the table,
while others grow to large size and are
used for feeding stock.

For Diseases and Pests of Kohlrabi,
see under Cabbage, Turnips and Allied
Plants.

Kumquat

The kumquat is a small tree. Citrus
japonica, cultivated originally in China

and Japan but lately introduced into the
United States. The fruit is the color of
the orange, is acid in taste and about the
size and shape of the plum. The tree is
much hardier than most plants of the
orange tribe and succeeds well when
grafted on the wild species. Citrus trifo-
Uata. It is largely used by the Chinese
as a sweetmeat preserved in sugar, and
is exported in large quantities.

The American Pomological Society rec-
ommends the following for cultivation in
Florida:

Dessert, Kitchen and Market: Ma-
rumi ; Nagami.

Lady Apples, Packing Rules. See un-
der Apple Packing.

Laws — Horticultural

♦CANADIAN INSPECTION AND SALE

ACT
Part IX as Amended in 1907-8. (The
Fruit Marks Act and Fruit
Pacltages)
1. This act may be cited as the In-
spection and Sale Act, R. S., c. 99, s. 1.

Interpretation

319. In this Part, unless the context
otherwise requires:

(a) "Closed package" means a box
or barrel of which the contents cannot
be seen or inspected when such package
is closed.

(b) "Fruit" shall not include wild
fruit, nor cranberries, whether wild or
cultivated.

(c) "Culls" shall include fruit that
is either very small for the variety, or
immature, or the skin of which is broken
so as to expose the tissue beneath, or that
is so injured by insects, fdngi, abnormal
growths, or other causes, as to render it
unmerchantable.

Tlie Marliing of Fruit

320. Every person who, by himself or
through the agency of another person,
packs fruit in a closed package, intended
for sale, shall cause the package to be
marked in a plain and indelible manner

* Dairy and Cold Storage Commissioner's
Series, Bulletin No. 11, Department of Asricul-
ture, Ottawa, Canada.

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1199

in letters not less than half an inch in
length, before it is taken from the prem-
ises where it is packed —

(a) with the initials of his christian
names, and his full surname and address,
or, in the case of a firm or corporation,
with the firm or corporate name and ad-
dress ;

(b) with the name of the variety or
varieties; and,

(c) with a designation of the grade
of fruit, which shall include one of the
following four marks, viz.: Fancy, No.
1, No. 2, No. 3.

2. Such marks may be accompanied
by any other designation of grade or
brand, if that designation or brand is
not inconsistent with, or marked more
conspicuously than, the one of the said
four marks which is used on the said
package.

321. No person shall sell, offer, ex-
pose or have in his possession for sale,
any fruit packed, —

(a) in a closed package and intended
for sale unless such package is marked
as required by the provisions of this
Part;

(b) in a closed package, upon which
package is marked any designation which
represents such fruit as of, —

(i) Fancy quality, unless such fruit
consists of well-grown specimens of one
variety, sound, of uniform and of at
least normal size and of good color for
the variety, of normal shape, free from
worm holes, bruises, scab and other de-
fects, and properly packed;

(ii) No. 1 quality, unless such fruit
includes no culls and consists of well-
grown specimens of one variety, sound,
of not less than medium size and of good
color for the variety, of normal shape
and not less than 90 per cent free from
scab, worm holes, bruises and other de-
fects, and properly packed;

(iii) No. 2 quality, unless such fruit
includes no culls and consists of speci-
mens of not less than nearly medium
size for the variety, and not less than 80
per cent free from worm holes and such
other defects as cause material waste,
and properly packed;

(c) in any package in which the

faced or shown surface gives a false
representation of the contents of such
package; and it shall be considered a
false representation when more than 15
per cent of such fruit is substantially
smaller in size than, or inferior in grade
to, or different in variety from, the faced
or shown surface of such package.

Branding Falsely Marked and Falsely
Packed

322. Whenever any fruit in any pack-
age is found to be so packed that the
faced or shown surface gives a false
representation of the contents of the
package, any inspector charged with the
enforcement of this Part may mark the
words Falsely packed in a plain and in-
delible manner on the package.

2. Whenever any fruit packed in a
closed package is found to be falsely
marked, the said inspector may efface
such false marks, and mark the words
Falsely marked in a plain and indelible
manner on the package.

3. The inspector shall give notice, by
letter or telegram, to the packer whose
name is marked on the package, within
24 hours after he marks the words False-
ly packed or Falsely marked on the
package.

(Sections 323 and 324 were repealed
in 1907-8.)

Fruit Packages

325. All apples packed in Canada for
export for sale by the barrel in closed
barrels shall be packed in good and strong
barrels of seasoned wood having dimen-
sions not less than the following, name-
ly: 261/4 inches between the heads, in-
side measure, and a head diameter of 17
inches, and a middle diameter of I814
inches, representing as nearly as pos-
sible 96 quarts.

2. When apples, pears or quinces are
sold by the barrel, as a measure of capac-
ity, such barrel shall not be of lesser
dimensions than those specified in this
section.

3. When apples are packed in Canada
for export for sale by the box, they shall
be packed in good and strong boxes of
seasoned wood, the inside dimensions
of which shall not be less than 10 inches

1200

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

in depth, 11 inches in width and 20
inches in length, representing as nearly
as possible 2,200 cubic inches.

4. When apples are packed in boxes or
barrels having trays or fillers wherein
it is intended to have a separate com-
partment for each apple, the provisions
of this section as to boxes and barrels
shall not apply.

Berries, Etc.

326. Every box of berries or currants
offered for sale, and every berry box
manufactured and offered for sale, in
Canada, shall be plainly marked on the
side of the box, in black letters at least
half an inch square, with the word
"Short," unless it contains when level-
full as nearly exactly as practicable, —

(a) at least four-fifths of a quart; or,

(b) two-fifths of a quart.

(2) Every basket of fruit offered for
sale in Canada, unless stamped on the
side plainly in black letters, at least
three-quarters of an inch deep and wide,
with the word "Quart" in full, preceded
with the minimum number of quarts,
omitting fractions, which the basket
will hold when level-full, shall contain,
when level-full, one or other of the follow-
ing quantities:

(a) Fifteen quarts or more.

(b) Eleven quarts, and be 5% inches
deep perpendicularly, 18% inches in
length and 8 inches in width at the top
of the basket, 16% inches in length and
6% inches in width at the bottom of
the basket, as nearly exactly as practic-
able, all measurements to be inside of the
veneer proper and not to include the top
band.

(c) Six quarts, and be 4% inches
deep perpendicularly, 15% inches in
length and 7 inches in width at the top
of the basket, 13% inches in length and
5% inches in width at the bottom of the
basket, as nearly exactly as practicable,
all measurements to be inside of the
veneer proper and not to include the top
band: Provided, That the Governor in
Council may, by proclamation, exempt
any province from the operation of this
section.

(d) Two and two-fifths quarts, as
nearly exactly as practicable.

Inspector's Right to Examine

327. Any person charged with the en-
forcement of this Part may enter upon
any premises to make examination of any
packages of fruit suspected of being
falsely marked or packed in violation of
any of the provisions of this Part, wheth-
er such packages are on the premises of
the owner, or on other premises, or in
the possession of a railway or steamship
company.

Offences and Penalties

328. Every person who, by himself
or through the agency of any other per-
son, violates any of the provisions of
sections 320 and 321 of this Act, shall
be liable, for the first offence, to a fine
not exceeding $25 and not less than $10;
for the second offence, to a fine not ex-
ceeding $50 and not less than $25; and
for the third and each subsequent offence,
to a fine not exceeding $200 and not less
than $50, together, in all cases, with the
costs of prosecution; and in default of
payment of such fine and costs shall be
liable to imprisonment, with or without
hard labor, for a term not exceeding
one month, unless such fine and costs,
and the costs of enforcing them, are soon-
er paid.

2. Whenever any such violation is with
respect to a lot or shipment consisting
of 50 or more closed packages, there
may be imposed, in addition to any pen-
alty provided by this section, for the first
offence, 25 cents; for the second offence,
50 cents; and for the .third and each
subsequent offence, $1, for each closed
package in excess of 50 with respect to
which such violation is committed.

329. Every person who, not being an
inspector, wilfully alters, effaces, or ob-
literates, wholly or partially, or causes
to be altered, effaced, or obliterated, any
marks on any package which has un-
dergone inspection, shall incur a penalty
of $100 for the first offence, and $200 for
the second and each subsequent offence,
together, in all cases, with the costs of
prosecution; and in default of payment of
such fine and costs shall be liable to im-
prisonment, with or without hard labor,
for a term not exceeding one month, un-

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1201

less such fine and costs, and the costs
of enforcing them, are sooner paid.

330. Every person who violates any
of the provisions of sections 325 and 326
of this Act shall be liable, on summary
conviction, to a penalty of 25 cents for
each barrel of apples, or box of apples,
pears, quinces, berries, or currants, or
basket of fruit, or berry box, respecting
which such violation is committed, to-
gether with the costs of prosecution; and
in default of payment of such fine and
costs shall be liable to imprisonment,
with or without hard labor, for a term
not exceeding one month, unless such
fine and costs, and the costs of enforc-
ing them, are sooner paid.

(Section 331 was repealed in 1907-08.)

332. Every person who obstructs any
person charged with the enforcement of
this Part in entering any premises to
make examination of packages of fruit
as provided by this Part, or who refuses
to permit the making of any such exam-
ination, shall be liable to a penalty not
exceeding $500 and not less than $25, to-
gether with the costs of prosecution, and
in default of payment of such penalty
and costs, shall be liable to imprison-
ment, with or without hard labor, for a
term not exceeding six months, unless
such penalty and costs, and the costs of
enforcing the same, are sooner paid.

333. The person on whose behalf any
fruit is packed, sold, offered or had in
possession for sale, contrary to the provi-
sions of the foregoing sections of this
Part, shall be prima facie liable for the
violation of this Part.

333a. The Minister of Agriculture may
make appointments of inspectors and
other persons for the enforcement of this
Part.

333b. The Governor in Council may
make any such regulations as he con-
siders necessary in order to secure the
efficient enforcement and operation of this
Part, and may by such regulations pro-
vide for the imposition of penalties not
exceeding $30 on any person offending
against them; and the regulations so
made shall be in force from the date
of their publication in The Canada
Gazette, or from such other date as is

specified in the proclamation in that be-
half; and the violation of any such regu-
lation shall be deemed an offence against
this Part, and punishable as such.

Procedure

334. For the purposes of jurisdiction
under Part XV of the Criminal Code, in
any complaint, information or conviction
for a violation of any of the provisions
of this Part, the matter complained of
may be alleged and shall be held to have
arisen at the place where the fruit was
packed, sold, offered, exposed or had in
possession for sale.

335. No appeal shall lie from a con-
viction under this Part except to a su-
perior, county, circuit or district court,
or the court of the sessions of the peace,
having jurisdiction where the convic-
tion was had; and such appeal shall be
brought, notice of appeal in writing
given, recognizance entered into or de-
posit made, within 10 days after the date
of conviction.

2. The trial on any such appeal shall
be heard, had, adjudicated upon and decid-
ed, without the intervention of a jury,
at such time and place as the court or
judge hearing the trial appoints, and
within 30 days from the date of convic-
tion, unless the said court or judge ex-
tends the time for hearing and decision
beyond such 30 days.

3. In all respects not provided for in
this Part, the procedure under Part XV
of the Criminal Code shall, so far as
applicable, apply to all prosecutions
brought under this part.

Application of Fines

336. Any pecuniary penalty imposed
under this Part shall, when recovered,
be payable one-half to the informant or
complainant and the other half to His
Majesty.

Order in Council of September 14, 1901

PRIVY COUNCIL, CANADA.

At the Government House at Ottawa,

The 14th day of September, 1901.

Present:

His Excellency the Governor General in

Council.

Whereas by section 16 of the Act, 1

Edward VII, chapter 27, intituled, "An

-S.'i

1202

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Act to provide for the marking and in-
spection of packages containing fruit
for sale," it is provided as follows:

"16. The Governor in Council may
make such regulations as he considers
necessary in order to secure the efficient
enforcement and operation of this Act;
and may by such regulations impose pen-
alties not exceeding $50 on any person
offending against them; and the regula-
tions so made shall be in force from the
date of their publication in the Canada
Gazette, or from such other date as is
specified in the proclamation in that be-
half; and the violation of any such regu-
lation shall be deemed an offence against
this Act, and punishable as such."

Therefore His Excellency the Gover-
nor General in Council is pleased, in vir-
tue of the above cited provisions of the
said Act, to make the following regula-
tions, the same to come into force on the
date of their publication in The Canada
Gazette.

1. The Minister of Agriculture may
make appointments of inspectors and
other persons for the enforcement of the
Act.

2. Any inspector charged with the
enforcement of the Act may detain, for
the time necessary to complete his in-
spection, any shipment of fruit, in re-
spect of which he has reasonable grounds
for believing that the marking of the
package, or the packing of the fruit,
constitutes a violation of the Act; such
fruit shall at all times be at the risk
and charges of the owner thereof; and
any inspector detaining fruit shall give
the owner, where ascertained, notice that
such fruit is being detained, in storage
or otherwise, as the case may be.

3. The despatch of a prepaid telegram
or letter to the packer whose name is
marked on the package shall be consid-
ered due notice.

4. No person shall for himself or on
behalf of any other person, pack any
fruit for sale, contrary to the provisions
of the Act.

5. Any inspector or other person who
violates any of the regulations made un-
der the authority of the Act shall for each
offence, on summary conviction, be li-

able to a fine of not less than $5 and
not exceeding $50, together with the
costs of prosecution.

John J. McGee,
Clerk of the Privy Council.

GENERAL NOTES

(a) For Inspectors

Inspectors will not examine particular
lots of fruit at the request of buyers or
sellers. When not under specific direc-
tions, inspectors will use their discre-
tion as to where they can best employ
their time within the district assigned
them.

Inspectors will avoid anything which
would delay unnecessarily the movement
of fruit or which would interfere with
the interests of those concerned in the
fruit trade, except in so far as action
may be necessary to prevent violation
of the Act.

Packages which have been inspected
are to be closed by the inspector and left
in marketable order after examination,
unless the owner prefers to take charge
of such opened packages.

(b) For the Grower

If the grower sells his fruit unpacked,
the Act does not apply to him in any
particular.

If he sells his fruit in uncovered bar-
rels or boxes, the Act requires only that
the top of each package shall be no bet-
ter than the fruit throughout the pack-
age.

If the grower packs his own fruit he
accepts the responsibility of the packing,
as described in the following paragraph:

(<5) For the Packer (the Owner at the
Time of Packing)

Section 320 of the Act requires that
the person who owns the fruit when it
is packed in closed barrels or boxes must
mark plainly on each package:

1. His name and postoffice address.

2. The name of the variety of the
fruit.

3. The grade of the fruit, whether it
is "Fancy," "No. 1," "No. 2," or "No. 3."

If he marks the package "Fancy," the
fruit must be practically perfect, as de-
scribed in section 321 (b), (i).

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1203

On reading subsections (b), (ii) care-
fully, it will be seen that the packer
should aim in packing grade No. 1 to dis-
card every injured or defective fruit, and
not to deliberately include 10 per cent
of inferior specimens. This margin is
meant to make the work of grading
easier and more rapid than if absolute
perfection were exacted. Ten per cent
is presumed to be the margin within
which an honest packer can do rapid
work, using every endeavor to make each
specimen conform to the general stand-
ard for the grade.

Even the 20 per cent margin in grade
No. 2 must be composed of specimens
not less than nearly medium size, includ-
ing no culls.

The Act makes no restriction as to
the quality of fruit which is marked "No.
3."

The owner at the time of packing is
responsible if the face of each package
does not represent the contents as re-
quired by section 321, subsection (c).
Over-facing is an offense against the
Act, which is most severely dealt with
by the courts.

(d) For the Foreman of the Packing
Gang

Whether he is putting up his own
fruit or that of another person, the man
who does the packing is required, by sec-
tion 4 of the Order in Council printed
above, to pack the fruit in accordance
with the law. He should read the whole
Act carefully, but should give section
321 special attention. If he violates these
requirements, he is liable to the fine
specified in section 5 of the Order in
Council.

(e) For the Apple Operator

The apple operator for his own pro-
tection should see that his workmen are
familiar with the Inspection and Sale
Act, Part IX.

Section 4 of the Order in Council is a
special protection for the apple operator
against carlessness or fraudulent work
upon the part of his packers.

Where the apple operator buys apples
already packed, he should note particu-

larly that the fruit is marked as required
by section 320.

To avoid possible complications in case
of fraudulent packing, all contracts
should stipulate clearly whether the ap-
ples are purchased packed in barrels or
whether they are purchased to be packed
by the buyer.

Apples should not be bought or sold
with the stipulation, "subject to govern-
ment inspection." There is no such
thing as "government inspection," mean-
ing a "certificate" or "report" guaran-
teeing the quality of a particular lot of
fruit.

HORTICULTURAL LAWS OF OREGON

(Prom Lord's Oregon Laws.)

The State Board of Horticulture

Section 5470. Board of Horticulture

Constituted.

There is hereby created a board of
horticulture, to consist of six members,
who shall be appointed by a board con-
sisting of the Governor, Secretary of
State and State Treasurer. One member
of the said board of horticulture shall
represent the state at large and shall be
the president and executive officer of the
board and one member shall be appoint-
ed to represent each of the five districts
as hereby created, to-wit: (1) The first
district which shall comprise the coun-
ties of Multnomah, Clackamas, Yamhill,
Washington, Columbia, Clatsop and Tilla-
mook; (2) The second district which
shall comprise the counties of Marion,
Polk, Benton, Lincoln, Linn and Lane;
(3) The third district which shall com-
prise the counties of Douglas, Jackson,
Klamath, Josephine, Coos, Curry and
Lake; (4) The fourth district which shall
comprise the counties of Wasco, Sher-
man, Morrow, Gilliam and Crook; (5)
the fifth district which shall comprise
the counties of Umatilla, Union, Wal-
lowa, Baker, Malheur, Harney and Grant.
(L. 1889, p. 126, Sec. 1; L. 1891, p. 174,
Sec. 1; L. 1895, p. 33, Sec. 1; L. 1899, p.
55, Sec. 1; B. & C, Sec. 4176.)
Section 5471. Residence of Members —

Terms of Office — Duties of President.

The members shall reside in the dis-
tricts for which they are respectively ap-

1204

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

pointed. They shall be selected with ref-
erence to their knowledge of the practical
experience in horticulture and the in-
dustries connected therewith, and shall
be engaged in practical horticulture
during their incumbency of the oflBce of
commissioner. They shall hold office for
the term of four years, and until their
successors are appointed and have quali-
fied, unless removed by the appointing
board for failure to perform their duties.
It shall be the duty of the president to
visit, at least once a year, every district
and examine the orchards, nurseries and
work of the district commissioners, and
ascertain whether or not the law and
regulations of the board are being prop-
erly executed. He must personally in-
spect most of the orchards during the
fruit-growing season, see that the regula-
tions of the board regarding spraying are
being faithfully executed wherever in-
sects, pests, or diseases injurious to trees
or fruit are to be found. He must visit
the principal fruit shipping points dur-
ing the shipping season, inspect the fruit
shipped and prevent the shipment of in-
sect and pest-infected fruit. He shall
give notice through the public press one
week in advance of his visit to each
county, giving the time and place of his
visit, where he shall receive complaints
of fruit growers and distribute to them
printed and oral instructions regarding
destruction of pests and other informa-
tion, including proper methods of hand-
ling, packing and shipping fruits. It
shall also be his duty to visit, when
possible, if requested by an association
of a number of fruit growers, the meet-
ings of such associations of fruit growers
and aid them in the organization of prop-
er associations beneficial to the growing
and marketing of fruits. The president
shall preside at all the meetings of the
board, and may call special meetings
whenever an emergency may require it.
He shall make an annual report to the
appointing board of the general condi-
tion of the fruit interests of the state and
success of the commissioners in the work
of exterminating pests and executing the
law. (L. 1889, p. 126, Sec. 2; L. 1895,

p. 34, Sec. 2; L. 1899, p. 56, Sec. 2; B.
& C, Sec. 4177.)

Section 5472. Secretary of Board, His
Salary — Treasurer — Oath of Members.

Said board shall employ without their
number a secretary, who shall exercise
the powers and discharge the duties con-
ferred upon him by this act, and whose
compensation shall not exceed $100 per
month, to be paid in the same manner as
other state officers. Said board shall also
elect from their own number a treas-
urer. Before entering upon the dis-
charge of his duties each member of the
board shall make and subscribe an oath
to support the Constitution of the United
States and of the State of Oregon, and
to diligently, faithfully and impartially
discharge the duties of his office, which
said oaths shall be filed with the secre-
tary. The secretary shall make and sub-
scribe a like oath, which shall be filed
with the treasurer of the board. (L.
1899, p. 127, Sec. 3; L. 1895, p. 34, Sec.
3; B. & C, Sec. 4178; L. 1905, c. 222, p.
385, Sec. 6.)

Section 5473. Each Member May Ap-
point Deputies — Their Authority.
Each member of the State Board of
Horticulture shall have authority to ap-
point, whenever it shall seem to him ex-
pedient, a special deputy or deputies who
shall be empowered to discharge any and
all the duties prescribed for the mem-
bers of said board in Section 5487, but
the work and authority of said deputies
shall be confined to the districts of the
commissioners by whom they are respec-
tively appointed. (L. 1903, p. 251, Sec.
1.)
Section 5474. Compensation of Deputies.

Any deputy appointed under the au-
thority conferred by this act shall receive
as compensation for his services $2.00
per day for each day actually spent in
the performance of his duties as such
deputy, and all claims for compensation
of such deputies shall be audited and paid
in the same manner as claims of mem-
bers of the board of horticulture. (L.
1903, p. 251, Sec. 2.)

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1205

Section 5475. Expense, Hoiv Paid.

Any expense incurred under the pro-
visions of Section 5474 of this act shall
be paid out of the appropriation allowed
to the State Board of Horticulture. (L.
1903, p. 251, Sec. 3.)

Section 5476. Board May Receive Dona-
tions, etc., and Select Lecturers, Meet-
ings of.

The board may receive, manage, use
and hold donations and bequests of
money and property for promoting the ob-
jects of its formation. It shall meet on
the second Monday of April and October
in each year, and as much oftener as it
may deem expedient, for consultation on
and for the adoption of those measures
that will best promote the horticultural
industries of the state. It may, but with-
out expense to the state, select and ap-
point competent and qualified persons to
lecture in each of the districts named in
Section 5470, for the purpose of encour-
aging and improving practical horticul-
ture and of imparting instruction in the
best methods of treating the diseases of
fruits and fruit trees, cleansing orchards,
and exterminating orchard pests. (L.
1889, p. 127, Sec. 4; B. & C, Sec. 4179.)

Section 5477. Office of Board. Where
Held, When Open.

The office of the board shall be located
at such a place as a majority thereof
may determine. It shall be kept open to
the public, subject to the rules of the
board, every day excepting Sunday and
legal holidays, and shall be in charge of
the secretary during the absence of the
board. (L. 1889, p. 127, Sec. 5; B. & C.
Sec. 4180.)

Section 5478. Board May Make Quaran-
tine Regulations — Violation a Misde-
meanor.

For the purpose of preventing the in-
troduction into the state or spread of
contagious diseases, insects, pests, or fun-
gus growths among fruit or fruit trees,
and for the prevention, treatment, cure
and extirpation of fruit pests, and dis-
eases of fruit and fruit trees, and for the
disinfection of grafts, scions, orchard de-
bris, fruit boxes and packages, and other
material or transportable articles dan-

gerous to orchards, fruit or fruit trees,
said board may make regulations for the
quarantining, inspection, and disinfec-
tion thereof, which said regulations shall
be circulated by the board in printed
form among the fruit growers and fruit
dealers of the state; shall be published
at least four successive times in some
daily or weekly paper in each county in
the state before the same shall be in
force therein, and shall be posted in three
conspicuous places in each county in the
state, one of which shall be at the county
court house. Such regulations, when so
promulgated, shall be held to impart no-
tice of their contents to all persons within
the state, and shall be binding upon all
persons therein. A willful violation of
any quarantine or other regulation of
said board, necessary to prevent the in-
troduction into the state, or the ship-
ment, sale or distribution of any articles
so infected as to be dangerous to the fruit-
growing interest of the state, or the
spread of dangerous diseases among fruit
trees or orchards, shall be deemed a mis-
demeanor, and on conviction thereof shall
be punished by a fine of not less than
$5 nor more than $100 for each offense,
or by fine and imprisonment not less than
five nor more than thirty days. (L. 1889,
p. 127, Sec. 6; L. 1891, p. 175, Sec. 6; L.
1895, p. 34, Sec. 4; B. & C. Sec. 4181.)

Section 5479. Members to Visit Districts,
Inspect and Quarantine Orchards.

It shall be the duty of the several mem-
bers of the board, and of the secretary
under their direction, to visit their re-
spective districts, and to see that all regu-
lations of the board and all provisions of
law to prevent the introduction or spread
of fruit pests and diseases of trees or
plants injurious to the horticultural in-
terests of the state are enforced. Any
member of the board, or the secretary
thereof, shall forthwith, upon the com-
plaint of interested parties, inspect or-
chards, nurseries, and other places sus-
pected to be infested with fruit pests or
infected with contagious diseases inju-
rious to trees, plants or fruits. If, upon
report of any member or the secretary,
the board shall be of opinion that any

1206

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

locality, district, orchard or place is in-
fested with fruit pests or infected with
contagious diseases injurious to trees,
plants or fruits, and liable to spread to
other orchards or localities to their dam-
age or injury so as to be a public danger,
said board shall, by an order entered upon
its minutes, declare such place to be un-
der quarantine, and shall give notice
thereof by posting a notice in writing in
a conspicuous place upon the premises,
specifying with convenient certainty what
place or premises are under quarantine
regulations, and by delivering a copy of
such notice to the owner or person in
charge of the premises, if he may be
found thereon; and such place shall there-
after be subject to quarantine regulations
of the board, and violation thereof shall
be punishable as hereinbefore provided.
As soon as, in the opinion of any member
of the board, or the secretary thereof, the
danger from such quarantine locality
shall have ceased, he may suspend the
said quarantine, and shall immediately
report the fact to the board, who may con-
firm such action or may re-establish the
said quarantine, in which case it shall
not be again suspended but by action of
the board. (L. 1889, p. 128, Sec. 7; L.
1895, p. 35, Sec. 5; B. & C. Sec. 4182.)

Section 5480. May Appoint Quarantine
Guardians, Fix Salaries, Report Vio-
lations of Law.

The board, and, in case of necessity
during the recess of the board, the mem-
ber residing in the quarantined district,
or the secretary may appoint such quar-
antine guardians as may be needed to
carry out the provisions of this act, whose
duty it shall be to see that the regula-
tions of the board and the instructions
of the secretary are enforced and carried
out. They shall also report to the board
all infractions or violations of said regu-
lations or of the law in regard to quar-
antining, disinfection and destruction of
pests. The salary of quarantine guard-
ians shall be fixed by the board at not to
exceed $2.00 per day, and shall be paid
by the owners of orchards or other places
under quarantine, and they may main-
tain an action therefor before any justice

of the peace in any district in which any
quarantined locality is wholly or in part
located; but in no case shall they have
any claim upon the state for such ser-
vices. (L. 1889, p. 128, Sec. 8; L. 1891, p.
176, Sec. 2; L. 1895, p. 36, Sec. 6; B. & C.
Sec. 4183.)

Section 5481. Authority Conferred in
Last Two Sections, Exercised in Emer-
gencies.

The powers conferred in the two pre-
ceding sections of this act shall be exer-
cised only in great and imminent dan-
ger to the fruit interests of the state, and
with the utmost caution and regard for
the rights of individuals affected, con-
sistent with the safety and welfare of the
fruit interest of the whole state. (L.
1895, p. 36, Sec. 7; B. & C. Sec. 4184.)
Section 5482. County Inspector, When
County Court May Appoint — Qualifica-
tions.

Upon a petition of not less than twenty-
five residents and fruit growers of any
county in this state, the county court of
said county shall appoint a county in-
spector, whose duty it shall be to inspect
the apple and other fruit orchards of
said county, and to enforce the laws now
in force and that may be hereafter in
force in this state, applicable to the fruit
industry and to the growing, handling
and selling of fruit, fruit trees and other
nursery stock; Provided, That the inspec-
tor so to be appointed shall be recom-
mended and certified to be competent for
such position by the state district com-
missioner of the State Board of Horticul-
ture for the said county, and said county
inspector shall hold his office during the
pleasure of said county court. (L. 1905,
c. 222, p. 383, Sec. 1.)
Section 5483. District Commissioners to
Instruct and Supervise County Inspec-
tors.

It shall be the duty of the state district
commissioner to instruct and educate the
county inspectors as to the laws and quar-
antine regulations of this state, and the
rules and regulations of the State Board
of Horticulture. The county inspector
shall perform his duties under the gen-
eral supervision of the state district com-

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1207

missioner for said county, to whom he
shall make reports in the manner pre-
scribed by the State Board of Horticul-
ture. (L. 1905, c. 222, p. 384, Sec. 2.)
Section 5484. Compensation of County
Inspector, Report of Time and Ex-
penses.

Such county inspector shall be paid
for his services by the said county, a sum
not exceeding $3.00 per day, and shall
be reimbursed for his actual outlay for
team hire and railway fares for each
and every day actually employed in the
performance of his duties as herein pro-
vided, and the said county inspector shall
report monthly to the said state district
commissioner the time for which he is
entitled to pay during the month next pre-
ceding, and also a statement of his own
personal expenses while engaged in the
performance of his duty as such county
inspector during said month, and shall
also iile vouchers showing expenditures
for such personal expenses, and the said
state district commissioner shall certify
the same to the county court before such
compensation and personal expenses shall
be paid to said county inspector. (L.
1905, c. 222, p. 384, Sec. 3; L. 1907, c. 58,
p. 109, Sec. 3.)

Section 5485. Inspector of Adjacent Coun-
ty May Perform Duties When County
Fails to Appoint.

If any county for any reason fails to
appoint a county inspector as herein pro-
vided, then the inspector of any adjacent
county may perform such services, and
his compensation and the necessary ex-
penses incurred in the performance of his
duty shall be charged against the county
where the service is performed, as if he
had been appointed by the county court
of said county. (L. 1905, c. 222, p. 384,
Sec. 4.)

Section 5486. Appeals From County In-
spectors to District Commissioner.
The state district commissioner of hor-
ticulture shall hear and promptly decide
all appeals from the county inspectors in
his district, and his decision shall have
full force and effect until set aside by the
courts of the state. All appeals from
county inspectors to the district commis-

sioners shall be under the form and regu-
lations as prescribed by the State Board
of Horticulture. (L. 1905, c. 222, p. 384,
Sec. 5.)
Section 5487. Infested Trees Nuisance

— Proceedings Relating Thereto — Axi-

thority to Abate.

It shall be the duty of the several mem-
bers of the board and of the secretary
or the county inspectors under their di-
rection, whenever they shall deem it nec-
essary, to cause an inspection to be made
of any orchards, nurseries, trees, plants,
vegetables, vines, or any fruit packing
house, storeroom, salesroom, or any other
place within their district, and also of
any fruit trees or nursery stock shipped
from beyond the limits of this state, and
if found infected with any pests, diseases
or fungous growth injurious to fruits,
plants, trees, vegetables, or vines, or
with their eggs or larvae liable to spread
to other places or localities, or of such
nature as to be a public danger, they
shall notify the owner or owners or per-
sons in charge of or in possession of
such articles, things or places, that the
same are so infested; or in case such
fruit trees or nursery stock, although ap-
parently sound and not infested by any
pest, shall have been from an infested
district beyond the limits of this state,
they shall also so notify the owner or
owners or persons in charge of or in
possession of the same, and shall require
said persons to eradicate or destroy said
insects or pests or their eggs or larvae,
or such imported fruit trees or nursery
stock of infested districts without the
limits of the state, or to treat such con-
tagious diseases within a certain time to
be specified in said notice. Said notice
may be served upon the person or per-
sons, or any of them, owning, having
charge or having possession of such in-
fested place, article, or thing, by any
member of the board, or by the secretary
thereof, or by any person deputed by
said board for that purpose, or they may
be served in the same manner as a sum-
mons in an action at law. Such notice
shall contain directions for the applica-
tion of some treatment approved by the
commissioners for the eradication or de-

1208

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

struction of said pests, or the eggs or
larvae thereof, or the treatment of con-
tagious diseases or fungous growths.
Any and all such places, orchards, nurs-
eries, trees, plants, shrubs, vegetables,
vines, fruit or articles thus infested are
hereby declared to be a public nuisance;
and whenever any such nuisance shall
exist at any place in the state on the
property of any owner or owners upon
whom or upon the person in charge or
possession of whose property notice has
been served as aforesaid, and who shall
have failed or refused to abate the same
within the time specified in such notice,
or in the property of any non-resident or
any property not in the possession of
any person and the owner or owners of
which cannot be found by the resident
members of the board or the secretary
or county inspector after diligent search
within the district, it shall be the duty of
the board or the member thereof in whose
district the nuisance shall exist, or the
secretary or county inspector under his
or their directions, to cause such nuis-
ance to be at once abated by eradicat-
ing or destroying said insects or pests or
their eggs or larvae, or by treating or
disinfecting or destroying the infested or
diseased articles, or imported fruit trees
or nursery stock imported from an In-
fested district without the limits of this
state. The expense thereof shall be a
county charge and the county court shall
allow and pay the same out of the gen-
eral fund of the county. Any and all
sums so paid shall be and become a lien
on the property and premises from which
said nuisance shall have been removed
or abated, in pursuance of this act, and
may be recovered by a suit in equity
against such property or premises, which
suit to foreclose such liens shall be
brought in the circuit court of the coun-
ty where the premises are situate, by
the district attorney in the name and for
the benefit of the county making such
payment or payments. The proceedings
in such cases shall be governed by the
same rules, as far as may be applicable,
as suits to foreclose mechanics' liens, and
the property shall be sold under the or-

der of the court and the proceeds ap-
plied in like manner. The board is here-
by invested with the power to cause
such nuisances to be abated in a sum-
mary manner. (L. 1895, p. 37, Sec. 8;
B. & C. Sec. 4186; L. 1907, c. 58, p. 110,
Sec. 2.)

Section 5488. Duties of Secretary.

It shall be the duty of the secretary to
attend all meetings of the board, and to
preserve records of the proceedings, cor-
respondence, and actions of the board; to
collect books, pamphlets, periodicals, and
other documents containing valuable in-
formation relating to horticulture, and
to preserve the same; to collect statistics
and general information showing the ac-
tual condition and progress of horticul-
ture in this state and elsewhere; to cor-
respond with agricultural and horticul-
tural societies, colleges, and schools of
agriculture and horticulture, and such
other persons and bodies as may be di-
rected by the board, and prepare as re-
quired by the board reports for publica-
tion. (L. 1889, p. 129, Sec. 9; L. 1895,
p. 38, Sec. 9; B. & C, Sec. 4186.)

Section 5489. Biennial Report — Compen-
sation of Board Members.
The board shall biennially, in the
month of January, report to the legisla-
tive assembly a statement of its doings,
with a copy of the treasurer's reports
for the two years preceding the session
thereof. The members shall receive as
compensation their actual expenses while
engaged upon the work of the board or
the enforcement of the provisions of this
act, and shall be allowed $3.00 a day for
the time actually employed. (L. 1889,
p. 129, Sec. 11; L. 1895, p. 38, Sec. 11;
B. & C, Sec. 4187.)

Section 5490. Duties of Treasurer.

The treasurer shall receive all moneys
belonging to the board, and pay out the
same only for bills approved by it. and
shall render annually to the board a
statement in detail of all receipts and dis-
bursements. (L. 1889, p. 129, Sec. 12;
L. 1895, p. 39, Sec. 12; B. & C, Sec.
4188.)

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1209

Section 5491. Board to Report to Legis-
lature.

The said board shall report to the leg-
islative assembly, commencing in Janu-
ary, 1891, what, if any, legislation is
needed in aid of the horticultural and
fruit-growing interests of the state. (L.
1889, p. 130, Sec. 14; B. & C, Sec. 4189.)

Section 5495. All Primings and Cuttings

Required to be Burned.

It shall hereafter be unlawful for any
person, firm, or corporation owning or
operating any nursery, fruit orchard of
any kind, hopyards, flower gardens, or
ornamental trees to throw any cuttings
or prunings from any fruit trees, nurs-
ery stock, ornamental trees, or hop vines
into any public road, highway, lane, field,
or other inclosure, or into any water
course of any kind; but shall destroy
such cuttings or prunings with fire with-
in 30 days from the time such cuttings
or prunings are made. (L. 1899, p. 97,
Sec. 1; B. & C, Sec. 4190.)
Section 5496. Otoners of Nurseries. Etc.,

Required to Spray.

It shall hereafter be the duty of any
person, firm, or corporation owning or
operating any such nursery, fruit or-
chard, hopyard, flower garden, or orna-
mental trees, and knowing such to be in-
fected with any kind of insects, pests, or
disease, to immediately spray or destroy
the same in such manner as the fruit
commissioner for his district may direct.
(L. 1899, p. 97, Sec. 2; B. & C, Sec. 4191.)
Section 5497. Certificate of Purity to Go

tvith Packages of Spraying Material.

It shall be unlawful for any person,
firm, or corporation doing business in
the state of Oregon to sell Paris green,
arsenic, London purple, sulphur, or any
spray material or compound for spray-
ing purposes, in quantities exceeding one
pound, without providing with each pack-
age sold a certificate, duly signed by the
seller thereof, guaranteeing the quality
and per cent of purity of said materials.
(L. 1899, p. 98, Sec. 3; B. & C, Sec.
4192.)

Section 5489. Penalty Where Material
Does Not Conform to Certificate.
Any person, firm, or corporation selling

any of the above materials which do not
conform with the certificate furnished
therewith shall be deemed guilty of a
misdemeanor, and upon conviction there-
of shall be subject to a fine of not less
than $25 nor more than $100. (L. 1899,
p. 98, Sec. 4; B. & C, Sec. 4193.)

Section 5499. Unlawful to Import or Sell

Infested Fruit.

It shall be unlawful for any person,
firm, or corporation to import or sell any
infested or diseased fruit of any kind in
the state of Oregon. (L. 1899, p. 98, Sec.
5; B. & C, Sec. 4194.)

Section 5500. PacTcing, etc., or Deliver-
ing for Shipment Infected Fruit, etc.,
a Misdemeanor.

Every person who packs or prepares
for shipment to any point within the
state, or who delivers or causes to be de-
livered to any express agent or railroad
agent, or other person, or to any trans-
portation company or corporation, for
shipment to any point without the state,
any fruit or fruits, either fresh, cured
or dried, that is infected with insect pests
or diseases injurious to trees, shrubs,
plants, fruits, or vegetables, is guilty of
a misdemeanor. (L. 1899, p. 98, Sec. 6;
B. & C, Sec. 4195.)

Section 5501. Penalty for Violating Pro-
visions of Act.

Any person, firm, or corporation violat-
ing any of the provisions of this act
shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor,
and upon conviction thereof shall be
punished by a fine of not less than $25
nor more than $100. (L. 1899, p. 98, Sec.
7; B. & C, Sec. 4196.)

Section 5502. Commissioner of Horticul-
ture to Present Evidence, and District
Attorney to Prosecute.
It shall be the duty of the Commission-
er of the State Board of Horticulture of
the district in which a violation of this
act occurs to present the evidence of the
case to the district attorney, whose duty
it shall be to prosecute any person guilty
of a violation of this act, which prosecu-
tion may be brought in any of the jus-
tice courts of this state. (L. 1899, p. 98,
Sec. 8; B. & C, Sec. 4197.)

1210

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

(d) Of Packing and Labeling Fruit and
Nursery Stock

Section 5503. Green Fruit Packed lor

Market to Be Labeled.

Any person, firm, association or cor-
poration engaged in growing, selling or
packing green fruits of any kind within
the state of Oregon, shall be required,
upon packing any such fruit for market,
whether intended for sale within or with-
out the state of Oregon, to stamp, mark,
or label plainly on the outside of every
box or package of green fruit so packed,
the name and postofRce address of the
person, firm, association or corporation
packing the same: Provided further, That
when the grower of such fruit be other
than the packer of the same, the name
and postofRce address of such grower
shall also prominently appear upon such
box or package as the grower of such
fruit. (L. 1907, c. 11, p. 22, Sec. 1.)

Section 5504. False Representation as to
Place of Raising or Packing Fruit For-
Mdden.

It shall be unlawful for any dealer,
commission merchant, shipper or vendor,
by means of any false representations
whatever, either vei'bal, printed or writ-
ten, to represent or pretend that any
fruits mentioned in Section 5503 were
raised, produced or packed by any per-
son or corporation, or in any locality
other than by the person or corporation,
or \r\, the locality where the same were
in fact raised, produced or packed, as the
case may be. (L. 1907, c. 11, p. 22, Sec. 2.)

Section 5505. Possession of Fruit False-
ly Labeled — Evidence.
If any dealer, commission merchant,
shipper, vendor, or other person, shall
have in his possession any of such fruits
so falsely marked or labeled contrary to
the provisions of Section 5503, the pos-
session by such dealer, commission mer-
chant, shipper, vendor, or other person,
of any such fruits so falsely marked or
labeled shall be prima facie evidence
that such dealer, commission merchant,
shipper, vendor, or other person, has so
falsely marked or labeled such fruits. (L.
1907, c. 11, p. 22, Sec. 3.)

Section 5506. Penalty for Violation of

Act.

Any person violating any of the pro-
visions of this act shall be deemed guilty
of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction
thereof, shall be punished by a fine of
not less than $5, nor more than $500,
or by imprisonment in the county jail
not less than 10 nor more than 100 days,
or by both such fine and imprisonment,
at the discretion of the court. (L. 1907,
c. 11, p. 22, Sec. 4.)

Section 5507. Liability for False Repre-
sentation as to Variety of Nursery
Stock.

Any person selling nursery stock, or
young trees, and representing the same
to be of a variety different from what
said nursery stock of trees actually are,
shall be required to replace all such trees
with stock of the same grade and va-
riety as the original order, and shall be
required to make reasonable compensa-
tion to the purchaser for expenses and
loss of time due to such error having
been made. (L. 1907, c. 57, Sec. 109.)

HOETICULTURAL LAWS OF THE
STATE OF WASHINGTON, 1913

Chapter THI

Powers and Duties of Commissioner — (c)

Vice the State Commissioner of

Horticulture

Location of Office

Section 127. That section 3072 of Rem-
ington & Ballinger's Annotated Codes
and Statutes of Washington be, and the
same is hereby amended to read as fol-
lows: Sec. 3072. The State Commission-
er of Horticulture shall maintain an of-
fice at Tacoma, Washington, which of-
fice shall be kept open from 9 o'clock
a. m. to 12 o'clock m. and from 1 p. m.
to 5 p. m. daily except Sundays and
legal holidays. (Sec. 1, L. 1911, p. 513.)

Powers and Duties

Section 128. Said State Commissioner
of Horticulture shall have power, and it
shall be his duty:

(a) To exercise a general supervisory
and directory control over the horticul-
tural interests of the state;

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1211

(b) To enforce all laws relating to
horticulture and horticultural interests;

(c) Provide for the dissemination of
information to horticulturists upon sub-
jects pertaining to their interests and co-
operate with district horticultural in-
spectors in arranging for meetings, lec-
tures and institutes and the instruction
of horticulturists;

(d) Publish and distribute bulletins
and reports embodying information upon
horticultural subjects, the pests affect-
ing and the diseases of horticultural
plants and fruits, to horticulturists, hor-
ticultural societies, and others, as he
shall deem proper;

(e) Arrange for holding, fix the date
of and preside over the district horticul-
tural inspectors' institute to be held as
herein provided;

(f) Examine, upon request, specimens
of fruit, fruit trees, nursery stock and
other horticultural plants or products
submitted to him, and report to the ap-
plicant the result of such examination;

(g) Appoint district horticultural in-
spectors and prescribe rules and regula-
tions for the (their) guidance and in-
struct, advise, direct and supervise them
in all matters pertaining to their duties;

(h) Hear and decide appeals from the
orders and decisions of district horticul-
tural inspectors;

(i) Grant licenses to nurserymen,
tree dealers and their solicitors, agents
and salesmen, and suspend or revoke such
licenses as herein provided;

(j) Furnish to state inspectors lists
of licensed nurserymen and tree dealers
doing business in the state, and of agents
and salesmen of nursery stock in his and
adjoining districts;

(k) Approve the bonds of state horti-
cultural inspectors and of nurserymen
and tree dealers as herein provided; and,

(1) Perform such other duties as may
be prescribed by law. (Sec. 3075., R. &
B.)

Duties of District Inspectors

Section 129. District horticultural in-
spectors shall have power and it shall be
their duty:

(a) To enforce the provisions of all

laws relating to horticulture, within
their respective districts;

(b) To arrange for and hold institutes
and meetings of horticulturists for the
discussion of horticultural subjects and
the dissemination of information as to
horticultural questions, and for the dem-
onstration of methods of preventing the
diseases of or pests injurious to horticul-
tural plants and fruits, and of curing
and removing the same;

(c) To inspect orchards, nurseries,
nursery stock, fruit, horticultural prod-
ucts, supplies, packing houses, ware-
houses and other places where fruit is
packed, stored or shipped; also vines,
ornamental shrubs and bushes, as well as
other trees and property, for the purpose
of ascertaining whether the same are in-
fected with any disease or pests injuri-
ous to fruit trees or fruit, and of tak-
ing steps to disinfect the same and pre-
vent the spread thereof; and, for that
purpose, shall have free access to or-
chards, nurseries, packing houses, stor-
age houses and any other place at all
times;

(d) To require the disinfection of all
trees, ornamental shrubbery, orchards,
nurseries or nursery stock, fruit packing
houses or other places infected with any
pests, fungi or disease injurious to the
horticultural industry of the state of
Washington;

(e)) Inspect and examine orchards,
fruit, nursery stock and other horticul-
tural plants and products at the request
of the owner thereof for the existence of
any disease or pest thereof, and report
to the applicant the result of such in-
vestigation and prescribe proper remedies
therefor;

(f) Prevent the shipping and sale of
infected fruit, except for canning, pre-
serving or jellying or the making of
cider or manufacture of other by-products
within the state of Washington, and un-
der such rules and regulations as may be
established by the State Commissioner
of Horticulture, and the delivery, sale,
planting and shipping of infected nurs-
ery stock, trees, and other horticultural
products and supplies, by notifying the
owner thereof or the person having the

1212

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

same in charge, and requiring the prop-
er disinfection of the same;

(g) To disinfect, or cause to be dis-
infected, orchards, nursery stock, trees,
fruit and other horticultural products
and supplies, in case the owner or per-
son having the same in charge shall not
do so after notice; and, in case of trees,
fruits, etc., which cannot be properly
disinfected, to destroy the same, or cause
same to be destroyed;

(h) To sort and repack, or cause to be
sorted and repacked, infected fruit, if
the owner thereof or the person having
same in charge shall not do so after
notice;

(i) Prevent the introduction and
spread of diseases of or pests injurious to
fruit trees and horticultural plants, fruit
and other products, and to prescribe and
specify the means and methods to be
employed for the disinfection of trees,
fruit and horticultural products;

(j) To issue certificates of inspection
to nurserymen and tree dealers on stock
inspected; and,

(k) Furnish to the board of county
commissioners of each county wholly or
partially within their respective districts,
an estimate of expenses for each year.
(Law 1909.) (Sec. 2, L. 1911, p. 512.)

Dealers in Nursery Stock — Licenses

Section 130. No person, firm or cor-
poration shall engage in, continue in, or
carry on the business of selling or deal-
ing in nursery stock, fruit trees, orna-
mental shrubbery, or solicit purchasers of
nursery stock, fruit trees or ornamental
shrubbery within this state, or engage in
the business of importing into this state
for sale or distribution, nursery stock,
fruit trees or ornamental shrubbery,
either as owner thereof, or as agent of
such owner, without first obtaining a
license to carry on and conduct such
business in this state. (Sec. 3083, R.
& B.)

License Fee — Issuance of License

Section 131. The form of license shall
be prescribed by the State Commissioner
of Horticulture, and shall be issued by
him upon proper application therefor.
All licenses shall run for one year from

date of issue. The license fee shall be
$5 per annum for nurserymen and tree
dealers, and $1 per annum for agents,
salesmen or solicitors.

The State Commissioner of Horticul-
ture shall prescribe the form of applica-
tion for licenses, and no license shall be
issued until the license fee shall have
been paid and bond furnished as here-
in provided. All licenses shall be issued
in the name of the owner, solicitor, sales-
man or agent as the case may be, and
shall designate the business which may
be carried on thereunder, and no license
shall be assigned and transferred. Li-
censes to salesmen, agents or solicitors
shall show the name and location of
nursery or place of business of the nurs-
erymen or tree dealers for whom he acts,
and no license shall be granted to an
agent, salesman or solicitor unless the
party whom he represents shall have
taken out a license and furnished bond
as herein provided. (Sec. 3084, R. & B.)

Bond of Licensee

Section 132. Each licensed nursery-
man and tree dealer under provisions of
this chapter shall make, execute and de-
liver to the State Commissioner of Hor-
ticulture a bond running to the State
of "Washington in the sum of one thous-
and dollars ($1,000) with sureties to be
approved by said commissioner, condi-
tioned for the compliance by such licensee
with all of the laws of the state of Wash-
ington, relative to the sale, disposition,
delivery, inspection and disinfection of
nursery stock, fruit trees or horticul-
tural plants, dealt in, sold, handled or
delivered by such licensee; also that all
nursery stock, fruit trees or horticultural
plants sold or delivered by such licensee
shall be true to name and variety as
represented: Provided, No liability shall
attach by reason of stock being untrue
to name, unless at least 5 per cent of
any variety in any order shall so prove
untrue to name. (Sec. 3085, R. & B.)

Record of Licenses

Section 133. The State Commissioner
of Horticulture shall keep in his oflSce a
record of all licenses issued as herein
provided, which records shall show the

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1213

character of the license, the name of the
holder, the date of issuance, and the
date of expiration. The bonds taken
from tree dealers and nurserymen, as
herein provided, shall also be filed with
and held by said State Commissioner of
Horticulture. (Sec. 3086, R. & B.)

Suspension or Kerocation of License

Section 134. Upon report being made
to the Commissioner of Horticulture by
any horticultural inspector that any per-
son, firm or corporation holding a license
has not complied with, or is not comply-
ing with the laws of the state of Wash-
ington relative to such business, said
State Commissioner of Horticulture may
suspend the license of the person, firm or
corporation and shall investigate the
facts, and if it be ascertained that such
licensee has violated the laws of the state
relating to such business in any particu-
lar, such license shall be revoked. The
cancellation or revocation of any bond
furnished by any nurseryman or tree
dealer as herein provided, shall ipso
facto work a revocation of the license of
such person and all agents, solicitors and
salesmen employed by and representing
him. (Sec. 3087, R. & B.)

Action on Dealers' Bonds

Section 135. Any person or persons
suffering damage for any cause by reason
of the infection of nursery stock bought
by him or them, or by reason of receiv-
ing nursery stock, fruit trees or horti-
cultural plants not true to the name as
represented by the owner, solicitor, or
agent selling the same, shall have re-
course against the bond filed by the per-
son from whom such stock was pur-
chased for all damages sustained, which
damages may be recovered by suit in any
court of competent jurisdiction: Provid-
ed, No liability shall attach to bond un-
less at least 5 per cent of each variety
ordered shall prove untrue to name. (Sec.
3088, R. & B.)

Conducting Business Without License —
Penalty

Section 136. Any person, firm or cor-
poration who shall carry on or conduct
any business within this state for which
a license is required as herein provided,

and without first having procured said
license and furnished bond as herein pro-
vided, shall be deemed guilty of a mis-
demeanor, and upon conviction thereof in
any court of competent jurisdiction shall
be subject to a fine of not less than fifty
dollars ($50), nor more than one hundred
dollars ($100), together with the costs
of prosecution, and shall be committed to
the county jail until such fine and costs
are paid. (Sec. 3089, R. & B.)

False Eepresentation — Penalty

Section 137. Any person who shall
falsely represent that he is agent or
representative of any tree dealer, nurs-
eryman or dealer in fruit trees or horti-
cultural plants, or ornamental shrub-
bery, shall be deemed guilty of a mis-
demeanor, and upon conviction thereof
shall be fined in any sum of not less than
fifty dollars ($50), nor more than one
hundred dollars ($100), together with the
costs of prosecution, and shall be com-
mitted to the county jail until such fine
and costs are paid. (Sec. 3090, R. & B.)

Pests and Diseases — Disinfection —
Destruction of Infected Stock

Section 138. It shall be the duty of
each person within the state of Wash-
ington owning premises on which there
is or shall be growing or grown any
nursery stock, fruit trees, shade trees, or-
namental shrubbery or other horticul-
tural plants, or the owner of any nurs-
ery stock, fruit trees, shade trees, orna-
mental shrubbery or horticultural plants
situated upon premises leased or occupied
by him, or the owner of any nursery
stock, fruit trees, shade trees, ornamental
shrubbery or horticultural plants situ-
ated or being at any place within the
state of Washington, for the sale or de-
livery to any person, firm, or corpora-
tion to take, adopt, and use all methods
and means provided by law or prescribed
by the State Commissioner of Horticul-
ture for the prevention of pests or dis-
eases to which such nursery stock, fruit
trees, shade trees, ornamental shrubbery
or horticultural plants may be subject,
and keep the same in a healthful condi-
tion and free from disease and pests; and
in event it is found that such nursery

1214

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

stock, fruit trees, shade trees, orna-
mental shrubbery or horticultural plants
at any time are infected with any dis-
ease or pest to which the same may be
subject, to promptly take and use such
methods as may be prescribed by law or
by the State Commissioner of Horticul-
ture to disinfect the same, and in event
such nursery stock, fruit trees, shade
trees, ornamental shrubbery and horticul-
tural plants cannot be disinfected to
promptly destroy the same. (Sec. 3091,
R. & B.)

Commissioner to Specify Diseases and
Pests

Section 139. The diseases of and pests
injurious to nursery stock, fruit trees,
shade trees, ornamental shrubbery and
horticultural plants to be guarded against
and treated and disinfected for as in the
next preceding section provided shall in-
clude any and all such diseases or pests
as the State Commissioner of Horticul-
ture shall specify and describe in the
bulletins to be issued by him as injuri-
ous to the fruit and horticultural inter-
ests of the state. (Sec. 3092, R. & B.)

Directions for Disinfecting

Section 140. The State Commissioner
of Horticulture shall prescribe the rem-
edy for and the methods and means for
the disinfection of fruit trees, horticul-
tural plants, fruits and horticultural
products, and shall make such rules and
regulations relative thereto as he shall
deem proper, which prescription and rules
and regulations shall be promulgated by
him by means of bulletins to nursery-
men, fruit tree dealers, and their solici-
tors or salesmen, and to horticulturists
of the state of Washington, through the
district horticultural inspectors herein
provided for, and any person interested
shall be entitled to receive a copy of all
such prescriptions and rules and regula-
tions at any time, upon application for
the same. (Sec. 3093, R. & B.)

Inspectors May Enter Premises

Section 141. For the purpose of ascer-
taining whether any nursery stock, fruit
trees, shade trees, ornamental shrubbery,
or other horticultural plants are infect-

ed with any disease or pests to which
the same may be subject, the district
horticultural inspectors, within their re-
spective districts, shall be authorized to
enter upon any premises at any time for
the purpose of inspecting and examining
any nursery stock, fruit trees or horticul-
tural plants growing or stored thereon,
or being situate thereon. (Sec. 3094, R.
& B.)

Inspection of Stored Stocli

Section 142. Said district horticultural
inspectors shall also have the power,
within their respective districts and at
any time, to enter upon any premises
where fruit or horticultural products are
stored, or are being prepared or packed
for shipment, or offered for sale, or are
held for the purpose of delivery upon any
shipment or sale thereof, for the pur-
pose of inspecting said premises and such
fruit or products to ascertain whether
the same, or any part thereof, is infect-
ed with any of the diseases or pests de-
clared injurious by the State Commis-
sioner of Horticulture. (Sec. 3095, R. &
B.)

Stored Stock — Owner to Disinfect —
Destruction

Section 143. If, after inspection, as
provided in the two preceding sections,
the district horticultural inspector shall
ascertain that any nursery stock, fruit
trees, shade trees, ornamental shrub-
bery or horticultural plants, or any fruit
or horticultural products, or any place
where such fruit or horticultural prod-
ucts is kept for sale or is being prepared
for shipment or is stored, is infected with
any diseases or pests declared by the
State Commissioner of Horticulture to
be injurious to the horticultural indus-
tries of the state, said district horticul-
tural inspector shall notify the owner or
person having possession or charge of
such nursery stock, fruit trees, shade
trees, ornamental shrubbery, horticul-
tural plants, fruit, horticultural prod-
ucts or places of storage, sale or prep-
aration for market, in writing, re-
quiring the disinfection of any or all
thereof which is capable of disinfection,
and the destruction of such as is incap-

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1215

able of proper disinfection, subject to the
provisions hereof relative to the sale, dis-
position and use of infected fruit, and
shall fix the time in said notice within
which the same shall be so disinfected, or
destroyed, as the case may be, and such
owner or person having the same in
charge shall proceed to disinfect or de-
stroy such stock, trees or products, as
the case may be, in the manner required
by law and in the manner prescribed by
the State Commissioner of Horticulture,
and within the time specified in said no-
tice. (Sec. 3096, R. & B.)

Separation of Infected from Healthy
Stock

Section 144. In event of the infection
of stock, trees or products, as hereinbe-
fore specified, if a part only thereof is
affected so that it cannot be properly dis-
infected, the owner or person in charge
of the same shall have the privilege of
separating the same into one or more of
three classes, to-wit: Such as does not
need disinfection; such as can be proper-
ly disinfected; and such as cannot be
properly disinfected; and such owner or
person in charge shall destroy such stock,
trees or products as cannot be disinfect-
ed within the time specified in said no-
tice, except in case of fruit which may
be used or disposed of under the rules
and regulations prescribed by the State
Commissioner of Horticulture, as herein
provided, and shall proceed to disinfect
such as can properly be disinfected with-
in the time specified in said notice. (Sec.
3097, R. & B.)

Inspector May Disinfect at Cost of
Owner

Section 145. In the event of the fail-
ure of the owner or person in charge of
such stock, trees or products to separate
or disinfect or destroy the same, as in
the last preceding section provided, and
within the time specified in said notice,
the district horticulture inspector shall
have the right to enter upon the premises
and perform the acts herein provided for,
or cause the same to be performed, at
the expense of the owner or person so
having charge of such stock, trees, or
products, and shall have the right to de-

stroy all stock or products which are in-
fected so that they cannot be properly
disinfected. (Sec. 3098, R. & B.)

Recovery of Cost of Inspection — ^Lien

Section 146. In event of disinfection
of any orchard, fruit trees, ornamental
trees, shrubs, vines, horticultural plants,
or other plants, fruits, horticultural prod-
ucts or other property by the district
horticultural inspector, or any person
under his direction or orders, the costs
thereof shall be charged against the own-
er of such stock and the premises upon
which the same may be growing, for the
costs of such disinfection, or the destruc-
tion of the property which cannot be
properly disinfected, which charge may
be recovered in an action at law in the
name of the State of Washington upon
the relation of the district horticultural
inspector against the owner or person
having charge of such property, and shall
also constitute a lien against the said
property and the premises upon which
the same may be growing, which lien
may be enforced in any court of compe-
tent jurisdiction, and the bringing of an
action at law to recover costs shall not
be deemed to be, and shall not constitute,
a waiver of such right of lien. (Sec.
3099, R. & B.)

Penalty for Failure to Disinfect

Section 147. Any person failing to dis-
infect or destroy any nursery stock, shade
trees, ornamental shrubbery, fruit, horti-
cultural products, or disinfect the prem-
ises upon which the same may be situ-
ate, as herein provided, within the time
specified after notice from the district
horticultural inspector of the district
wherein the same is situated, shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and
upon conviction thereof shall be fined in
any sum not less than fifty dollars nor
more than two hundred and fifty dollars,
and shall be imprisoned in the county
jail until such fine is paid. (Sec. 3100,
R. & B.)

Notice of Shipment of Nursery Stock

Section 148. It shall be the duty of
each person, firm or corporation dealing
in nursery stock or horticultural plants,

1216

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

whether a resident of this state or of
some other state or county, to notify the
State Commissioner of Horticulture of
his, their or its intention to ship any
nursery stock, fruit trees or horticultural
plants from one point in this state to
another point in this state, or from any
point without the state to a point therein,
for sale or delivery or for planting or
propagation. A copy of such notice shall
also be mailed to the district horticul-
tural inspector of the district into which
such stock is to be shipped for sale or
delivery. Said notice shall be mailed not
later than the date of shipment, and the
same shall show the name and address
of both the consignor and consignee, a
descriptive invoice of the goods to be
shipped, specifying quantities and varie-
ties, and the name of the person or trans-
portation company from whom the con-
signee is to receive such goods. Said
notice shall also show whether such
stock, trees or horticultural plants have
been inspected and passed at the initial
point of shipment within this state by a
district horticultural inspector. (Sec.
3101, R. & B.)

Carrier IVot to Release Sbipraent Until
Inspected

Section 149. Upon the arrival of any
shipment of nursery stock, fruit trees or
horticultural plants at its destination, it
shall be the duty of the freight agent,
express agent or the agent of the persons
or transportation company having such
shipment in charge for delivery, unless
the same is accompanied by a certificate
of inspection and approval by a district
horticultural inspector showing that
same was inspected and passed at the
initial point of shipment within this
state, to notify the district horticultural
inspector of the district within which
delivery is to be made, of the receipt of
such shipment, giving the name of the
consignor and consignee and stating that
such shipment is ready for inspection
and delivery. Said notification may be
by telephone or telegraph, or by written
notice delivered personally to said inspec-
tor, or left with some person of suitable
age and discretion at his residence or

office, or by mail addressed to said in-
spector at his place of residence; and the
person having such stock in charge for
delivery shall not deliver or turn over
such shipment until the same shall have
been inspected by said district horticul-
tural inspector: Provided, however, Such
agent shall not be required to hold such
goods more than seventy-two hours after
notifying said district horticultural in-
spector as aforesaid, except in case the
notice is given by mail, in which event
such goods be held for such period be-
yond said seventy-two hours as is ordi-
narily required from said point of de-
livery to the address of said inspector:
And provided further. No inspection at
point of delivery shall be necessary if
shipment is accompanied by the certifi-
cate of a district horticultural inspector
showing inspection and approval at ini-
tial point of shipment in the state as
aforesaid, unless the person having same
for delivery be notified by inspector of
district where delivery is to be made, to
hold for inspection by him: And pro-
vided further. That any nurseryman or
tree dealer within the state may demand
the services of an inspector during ship-
ping season by paying four dollars per
day for his services. (Sec. 3102, R. & B.)

Transportation Chargres Paid Before

Inspection — Remedy for Injnry

by Inspector

Section 150. No inspection of goods
as provided in the last preceding section
shall be made until all transportation
charges thereon have been paid: Pro-
vided, however. The agent of any person
or transportation company having such
goods in charge for delivery may waive,
in writing, the payment of such trans-
portation charges prior to inspection:
Provided further. The district horticul-
tural inspector shall have privilege, at
his option, to inspect said goods before
payment of transportation charges, but
in the event of any stock suffering dam-
age by such second inspection or expo-
sure, the owner thereof may have re-
course against the bond of said inspector,
if shipments shall have been accompanied
by a copy of former inspector's certificate.

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1217

unless it is proven tliat the shipment
contains stoclt not previously inspected.
(Sec. 3103, R. & B.)

Inspection of Shipments — Entry — Jfotioe
to Disinfect or Destroy

Section 151. The district horticultural
inspector shall have the right to enter
upon any premises where nursery stock,
fruit trees or horticultural plants are
held or stored, when same have been
shipped or sent to any point within his
district for the purpose of sale or de-
livery, and to inspect such stock, trees
and plants for the purpose of sale or
delivery, and to inspect such stock, trees
and plants for the purpose of ascertaining
whether the same are infected with any
of the diseases or pests to which the same
may be subject, hereinbefore described;
and, in event he shall find that such stock,
trees, or plants, or any thereof, are in-
fected with any such disease or pest, he
shall at once notify the person in charge
thereof, and having the same in his pos-
session, not to deliver the same nor per-
mit the same to be removed from his
possession until they are disinfected; and
he shall also notify the owner thereof or
the agent of the owner, or the shipper
thereof, that said stock is infected and
requiring such owner, or his agent, to
disinfect such part thereof as is capable
of proper disinfection, within five days
from the date of such notice, in the man-
ner required by law and prescribed in
the rules and regulations of the State
Commissioner of Horticulture; and it
shall be the duty of such owner or his
agent, or the shipper of such goods to
so disinfect or destroy such infected
property within five days. (Sec. 3104,
R. & B.)

Penalty

Section 152. Any person violating any
of the provisions of the last preceding
section hereof shall be deemed guilty of
a misdemeanor, and upon conviction
thereof, shall be fined in any sum not
less than $50 nor more than $200, to-
gether with costs of action, and shall be
committed to the county jail until such
fine and costs are paid. (Sec. 3105, R.
& B.)

Disinfection of Shipment by Inspector

Section 153. In event of the failure of
the said owner or his agent, or the ship-
per of such disinfected goods to properly
disinfect and destroy the same as re-
quired by the notice hereinbefore pro-
vided for, it shall be the duty of said
district horticultural inspector, and he
shall have power, to forthwith enter upon
premises where such stock, trees or plants
are situated and to properly disinfect or
cause to be disinfected such part thereof
as is capable of disinfection and to de-
stroy such part thereof as is not capable
of disinfection. (Sec. 3106, R. & B.)

Cost of Disinfecting Shipment — Charge
Against Owner

Section 154. In case of disinfection
and destruction of infected stock by the
district horticultural inspector, as in the
last preceding section provided, the cost
thereof shall be paid by the owner of
said stock or his agent or the shipper of
said stock, and such charge shall be a
lien upon said property, and the enforce-
ment of such charges may be had in the
same manner as provided for the enforce-
ment of charges for inspection and disin-
fection of nursery stock and orchards as
hereinbefore provided. (Sec. 3107, R.
& B.)

Importation of Infected Stock — Penalty

Section 155. Any person or persons
who shall willfully and intentionally
bring into this state, or offer for sale or
distribution whether gratuitous or for
profit, within this state, any nursery
stock, fruit trees or horticultural plants
infected with any of the diseases or pests
injurious to the same, shall be deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon con-
viction thereof shall be punished by a
fine in any sum not exceeding one hun-
dred dollars ($100), together with the
costs of the action, and shall stand com-
mitted to jail until said fine and costs
are paid. (Sec. 3108, R. & B.)

Damages by Reason of Infected Stock —
Action on Bond

Section 156. Any person who shall
suffer damage by reason of having pur-
chased any nursery stock, fruit trees or

2—36

1218

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

horticultural plants delivered within this
state, or shipped from a point within or
without this state for delivery within this
state, by reason of such stock, fruit trees
or plants being infected with any disease
or pest injurious to the same, or by rea-
son of the destruction of such stock,
trees or plants after inspection thereof as
herein provided, shall have a recourse
upon the bond of the tree dealer or nur-
seryman furnishing such stock, which
damages may be recovered in any court
of competent jurisdiction of this state, at
the suit of such injured party: Providing,
No damages shall be recovered on account
of infection of stock after the same has
been inspected and passed. (Sec. 3109,
R. & B.)

"Infection" Defined
Section 157. The term "infection" as
used in this chapter shall mean the find-
ing of any nursery stock, fruit trees, or
horticultural products or supplies used in
connection with horticultural products, to
be affected by any one of the species of
infection and disease or pest specified
and described by the State Commissioner
of Horticulture, as provided in section
3092. (Sec. 3110, R. & B.)

Inspectors — Qnalifications for Service

Section 158. Every candidate for ap-
pointment to any position in the service
of the Department of the Commissioner of
Horticulture, unless he be a graduate of
an agricultural college or similar insti-
tution in a department of agriculture and
horticulture, shall be required to pass as
(an) examination satisfactory to the
Commissioner of Horticulture. (Sec.
3113, R. & B.)

Trees Sprayed Annually

Section 159. All fruit trees one year
old or over shall be sprayed annually
during the dormant season, in a careful
and thorough manner by the owner
thereof, or the lessee in charge of the
property, with a lime and sulphur solu-
tion of the formula as prescribed by the
State Commissioner of Horticulture:
Provided, They are infected. (Sec. 3115,
R. & B.)

Shipments Labeled

Section 160. Any fruit grown in the
state of Washington and offered for sale
or shipment in closed packages, shall be
marked on the outside on the box or
package with the name of the variety, or
if the variety is unknown, shall be
marked "variety unknown" and show the
location where grown and the name of
the grower or owner, and all boxes or
packages of apples, pears and peaches
shall be marked with the number in each
package or the tiers packed; and the
name of no other place or locality shall
appear on any box or package of such
fruit, except the address of the place to
which it is shipped, in case of shipment.
(Sec. 3116, R. & B.)

Proceedings of State Horticultural
Association

Section 161. The secretary of the State
Horticultural Association shall within
thirty days after the regular annual ses-
sion of the association deliver the minutes
and proceedings of said session to the
State Commissioner of Horticulture, who
shall edit and cause the same to be pub-
lished in connection with such official
information as may be available for their
purpose in the office of the Commissioner
of Horticulture. An appropriation shall
be made by the Legislature to cover the
cost of such publication and the public
distribution of the same. (Sec. 3117,
R. & B.)

District Inspectors May Be Transferred

Section 162. The State Commissioner
of Horticulture shall have the power to
temporarily transfer district horticulture
inspectors or their assistants from one
district to another, as he may deem nec-
essary to the performance of his duties.
(Last paragraph Sec. 3, Chap. 112, L.
1911, page 515.)

Records Open to Public

Section 163. All records, reports, data
and information kept and compiled by
the State Commissioner of Horticulture
shall be kept in his office and shall be
a public record, open to the inspection
of any person interested, during the reg-

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1219

ular office hours of each business day.
(Sec. 3119, R. & B.)

Oaths and Bonds — Filed Where

Section 164. All oaths and bonds pro-
vided for herein shall be filed with the
State Commissioner of Horticulture, ex-
cept the oath and bond of said Commis-
sioner, and his deputy, which shall be
filed with the Secretary of State. (Sec.
3120, R. & B.)

Sales — ^Duplicate Orders

Section 165. All nurserymen and deal-
ers in fruit trees or horticultural plants,
and all salesmen, solicitors and agents
for such, shall give to any person order-
ing any fruit trees or horticultural plants
from or through them, a duplicate copy
of such order, which shall show:

(a) The name and location of the
nursery where such stock is grown;

(b) The name of the nurseryman,
dealer, solicitor, salesman or agent taking
such order;

(c) The date of the order and date
when delivery to be made; and,

(d) The number, name and price of
each variety of trees or plants ordered.
(Sec. 3122, R. & B.)

Fraudulent Sale of Fruit or Ornamental
Trees

Section 166. Any person or persons
who shall misrepresent, deceive or de-
fraud any person or persons in the sale
of any fruit, shade or ornamental tree
or trees, or any vine, shrub, plant, bulb
or root, by substituting inferior or differ-
ent varieties, or who shall falsely repre-
sent the name, age or class of any such
fruit, shade or ornamental tree or trees,
or any vine, shrub, plant, bulb, root, gar-
den or field seeds, shall be guilty of a
misdemeanor, and on conviction be fined
not less than $10 nor more than $200, or
by imprisonment in the county jail not
less than 30 days nor more than six
months, or by both such fine and impris-
onment, and shall be liable to the party
or parties damaged or injured thereby in
treble the amount of all damages sus-
tained, to be recovered in any court hav-
ing jurisdiction thereof. (Sec. 3123,
R. & B.)

Sales — Misrepresentation — Penalty

Section 167. Any nurseryman, tree
dealer, salesman, solicitor or agent falsely
representing or stating that nursery
stock, fruit trees or horticultural plants
for which an order is taken are or have
been grown in, or are to come from, a
certain nursery or locality when in fact
the stock, trees, or plants actually deliv-
ered are or have been grown in, or come
from another nursery or locality, shall
be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and,
upon conviction thereof shall be fined in
any sum not less than $50 nor more than
$200, and shall be committed to the coun-
ty jail until such fines and costs are
paid. (Sec. 3124, R. & B.)

Certificate of Inspection

Section 168. The several district hor-
ticultural inspectors shall, upon the in-
spection of any nursery stock, trees or
plants, issue and deliver to the owner or
person in charge thereof a certificate of
inspection, over his signature, showing
date of inspection, and condition of such
stock, trees or plants. (Sec. 3125, R. & B.)

Misuse of Certificate — Penalty

Section 169. Any person to whom a
certificate of inspection shall have been
issued, showing approval of the stock,
property or material so inspected, who
shall substitute for such work, property
or material so inspected and approved,
any other stock, property or material not
covered by said certificate, and ship, sell
or dispose of the same under said certifi-
cate of inspection, shall be deemed guilty
of a misdemeanor, and, upon conviction
thereof, shall be fined in any sum not
less than one hundred dollars ($100) nor
more than five hundred dollars ($500),
together with the costs of action, and
shall be committed to the county jail un-
til such fine and costs are paid. (Sec.
3126, R. & B.)

Shipments of Foreign Stock— Costs of
Inspection — Payment

Section 170. In the event of the ship-
ment into the state of Washington from
a point without said state, of any nursery
stock, fruit trees, horticultural plants,
shade trees, ornamental shrubbery, bushes

1220

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

or vines, by any person, firm or corpora-
tion not licensed as herein provided, the
purchaser or the person receiving ship-
ment of such trees, stocks, plants, orna-
mental shrubbery or vines, shall have
the same inspected in the same manner
as is required upon the delivery of stock
sold and delivered by licensed nursery-
men or tree dealers, and shall pay as in-
spector's fee 10 per cent of the invoice
price, the minimum fee to be 50 cents:
Provided, That nurserymen or tree deal-
ers, licensed under the provisions of this
act to do business in this state, shall not
be required to pay the inspector's fees
provided for in this section. (Sec. 3127,
R. & B.)

Hindering Inspector — ^Penalty

Section 171. Any person offering any
hindrance to the carrying out of this act
or in any manner preventing or hinder-
ing any inspection herein provided for
shall upon conviction be fined not less
than twenty-five dollars ($25) nor more
than two hundred dollars ($200), together
with costs, and shall be committed to the
county jail until such fine and costs are
paid. (Sec. 3134, R. & B.)

Sale of Adulterated Compound for
Spraying

Section 172. It shall hereafter be un-
lawful for any person, firm or corpora-
tion, doing business in the state of Wash-
ington, to sell or offer for sale adulterated
or low-grade Paris green, arsenic, London
purple, sulphur or any spray material
or compound for spraying purposes. (Sec.
3135, R. & B.)

Per Cent of Certain Ingredients

Section 173. For the purposes of this
act Paris green shall contain not less
than 50 per cent of arsenic trioxide in
combination, and not more than 4 per
cent of water; soluble arsenic trioxide
and commercial arsenic shall contain not
less than ninety-six (96) per cent of ar-
senic trioxide. (Sec. 3136, R. & B.)

Penalty — ^Disposition of Fines

Section 174. Any person, firm or cor-
poration violating any of the provisions
of this act shall be deemed guilty of a
misdemeanor, and upon conviction there-

of shall be punished by a fine of not less
than $25 nor more than $100. All fines
imposed for violation of the provisions
of this act shall be paid to the treasurer
of the county wherein the violation was
committed, and placed to the general fund
of such county. (Sec. 3137, R. & B.)

Enforcement of Act — Who Charged With

Section 175. The State Commissioner
of Horticulture and the county fruit in-
spectors under his supervision be charged
with the enforcement of this act, with the
assistance of the prosecuting attorney.
(Sec. 3138, R. & B.)

Analysis of Spraying Compounds — Duty
of State Chemist

Section 176. It shall t>e the duty of
the chemist of the State Agricultural Ex-
periment Station to correctly analyze,
without extra compensation and without
extra charge to the state, other than the
necessary expenses, all substances and
compounds used or offered for sale for
spraying trees and plants, that the State
Commissioner of Horticulture may send
for analysis, and report to him without
unnecessary delay the result of any an-
alysis so made; any such chemist shall
assist him in prosecuting violations of the
law by giving testimony, expert or other-
wise. (Sec. 3139, R. & B.)

Reference originally made in the statutes to
othiers as executive or enforcing officers now
apply solely to the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture or his authorized representative.

Chapter IX

Powers and Duties of Commissioner —

(c) Vice the State Commissioner of

Horticulture — Commission

Merchants

Farm Produce — License from Commis-
sioner of Horticulture — Bond

Section 177. It shall be unlawful for
any person, firm or corporation to engage
in the business of selling farm, dairy, or-
chard or garden produce on commission,
or to receive or solicit consignments of
such produce on commission in the state
of Washington without first obtaining a
license from the Commissioner of Horti-

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1221

culture to conduct and carry on the busi-
ness of such commission merchant and
giving a bond to the state of Washington,
executed by a surety company authorized
to do business in this state, the form of
said bond to be approved by the Attorney
General, for the benefit of persons in-
trusting such commission merchant with
consignments of produce to be sold on
commission, in the sum of three thousand
dollars, said bond to be conditioned for
the faithful performance of his duties as
such commission merchant. (Sec. 7024,
R. & B.)

License — Procedure to Obtain

Section 178. Any person, firm, or cor-
poration desiring to carry on the busi-
ness of such commission merchant in this
state shall make application in writing
under oath to the Commissioner of Horti-
culture, giving his full name if an in-
dividual, the full name of all the partners
if a partnership, and the date of incor-
poration, the names of the officers, direc-
tors and stockholders, and the state
where incorporated, and the amount of
capital stock actually paid in, if a cor-
poration, stating the name of the city or
town where he intends to carry on such
business, giving the street and number of
building if practicable, and the character
of produce for which a license to sell on
commission is wanted. The applicant
shall also deliver to the Commissioner of
Horticulture the State Treasurer's receipt
for the sum of $10, together with the
bond mentioned in section 7024. Upon
approval of said bond by Commissioner
of Horticulture, it shall be the duty of
the Commissioner of Horticulture to de-
liver to such applicant a license to carry
on the business of a commission merchant
until the thirty-first day of December of
the year in which such license is issued.
All bonds given under the provisions of
this chapter, after their approval, shall
be filed in the office of the Secretary of
State: Provided, That all statements
made under the provisions of this act
shall be for the exclusive information of
the Commissioner of Horticulture, and no
other person or persons shall be permit-
ted to see or examine the same unless

the same shall be required for use in
court, and in such case the Commissioner
shall provide the same. (Sec. 7025, R.
& B.)

Eequirements as to Keeping of Books —
Access to Books

Section 179. Every person, firm or cor-
poration carrying on the business of a
commission merchant under the provi-
sions of this chapter shall keep an ac-
curate and complete set of books, in which
shall be truly recorded the amount and
character of every consignment received
by said person, firm or corporation, from
any resident of the state of Washington,
with the date of receipt, the name of the
consignor and the condition of the ship-
ment, when received, and when the same
or any part thereof shall be sold. The
name of the person, firm or corporation
to whom sold, together with the amount
and date of sale, shall be entered. The
books of any such commission merchant
shall at all times be open and subject to
the inspection of the commissioner or
the county fruit inspector or any of his
deputies or to any consignor as to any
entry concerning shipments made by him.
(Sec. 7026, R. & B.)

Notice to Consignor of Receipt of
Produce

Section 180. Any commission mer-
chant who shall receive from any person,
farm, dairy, orchard or garden products
to sell on commission, shall immediately
send to the consignor or consignors a
statement in writing, showing what prop-
erty has been received, and the condition
thereof. If any such produce is received
in a damaged condition and is unfit for
sale, or if the markets are overstocked, it
shall be the duty of such commission
merchant to notify the State Horticul-
tural Commissioner, or county fruit in-
spector, and take from him a certificate
that said produce is not salable and that
it is necessary to destroy the same. Said
certificate shall be made in duplicate and
one copy thereof shall be transmitted to
the consignor. (Sec. 7027, R. & B.)

Statement, After Sale, to Consignor

Section 181. Whenever any commis-
sion merchant sells all or a portion of

1222

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

any produce consigned to him to be sold
on commission, he shall, within two days
thereafter, render a true statement to
the consignor, showing what portion of
such consignment has been sold, the price
received therefor, the date of sale, the
name and address of the purchaser, if re-
quested to do so in writing, and also all
charges and expenses paid or incurred
on account of such consignment. If any
produce be sold for less than the market
price that fact shall be noted on such
statement, and the reason therefor shall
be stated. (Sec. 7028, R. & B.)

Payment Within Ten Days — Maximum
Rates

Section 182. It shall also be the duty
of every person, firm or corporation car-
rying on the business of selling farm,
dairy, orchard or garden produce on com-
mission to pay to the consignor, within
ten days after said sale, the full amount
of money due upon the sale of any con-
signment of produce, after deducting
therefrom the amount paid for trans-
portation and drayage, if any, and the
commission, which in no event shall ex-
ceed 10 per cent of the selling price, un-
less otherwise specified in writing. (Sec.
7029, R. & B.)

Complaints to Commissioner — ReTOcation
of License

Section 183. Whenever any consignor,
who has consigned farm, dairy, orchard
or garden produce, to any commission
merchant, shall have after demand re-
ceived no remittance for the same or re-
port of the sale thereof, or if in any case
after report is made he is dissatisfied
with the sale or the report thereof, he
may make a verified complaint in writing
to the Commissioner of Horticulture, who
shall upon receipt of the same investi-
gate the sale or sales complained of, and
if upon such investigation it appears
that the said commission merchant has
failed or neglected to account for such
consignment or any part thereof, or has
failed or neglected to make a true and
complete report thereof, it shall be the
duty of the Commissioner of Horticul-
ture to revoke the license of such com-
mission merchant. Such investigation

may be made by the county fruit inspec-
tor if the commissioner shall so direct.
(Sec. 7030, R. & B.)

Action on Bond

Section 184. If any commission mer-
chant shall make any sale of the produce
mentioned upon commission and shall fail
or neglect to pay the amount received
upon such sale as hereinbefore provided,
the owner or consignor of such produce
may bring an action on the bond given
by such commission merchant under the
provisions of this chapter and recovery
may be had against said commission mer-
chant and the sureties on said bond for
the amount due such owner or consignor;
and in such action the court may allow
a reasonable attorney's fee: Provided,
If such commission merchant has failed
or neglected to account for consignments
of produce made to him by two or more
consignors and the amount of said bond
is not sufficient to pay the amount due
all the consignors, they shall be entitled
to receive from the proceeds of such
bond a pro rata share in proportion to
the amount due each of such consignors.
(Sec. 7031, R. & B.)

Combinations, Pools, etc., Prohibited

Section 185. It shall be unlawful for
any persons engaged in the business of
commission merchants to enter into any
combination, conspiracy or pool for the
purpose of artificially raising or depress-
ing the market price of any farm, dairy,
orchard or garden produce, or of exclud-
ing from the market the produce of any
particular locality grown or manufac-
tured by any person within the state of
Washington. (Sec. 7032, R. & B.)

Commission Merchant Defined

Section 186. For the purpose of this
chapter a commission merchant is defined
and declared to be any person, firm or
corporation whose principal business is
the sale of farm, dairy, orchard or garden
produce on account of the shipper or con-
signor. (Sec. 7033, R. & B.)

Penalty for Tiolation of Act

Section 187. Any person, persons or
corporation engaged in selling any prop-
erty as herein specified who fails or neg-

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1223

lects to comply with any of the provi-
sions of this chapter sliall be guilty of
a misdemeanor, and upon conviction
thereof shall be punished by a fine of not
less than $25 nor more than $500. (Sec.
7034, R. & B.)

EeTOcation of License

Section 188. The Commissioner of
Horticulture shall revoke any license is-
sued under the provisions of this chapter
whenever the person, firm or corporation
holding the same shall be convicted of
any violation of this chapter. (Sec. 7035,
R. & B.)

Reference origrinally made in the statutes to
others as executive or enforcing officers now
apply solely to the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture or his authorized representative.

"ENSECTICEDE ACT"

By Act of Congress, 1910

An Act For preventing the manufac-
ture, sale, or transportation of adulter-
ated or misbranded Paris greens, lead
arsenates, and other insecticides, and al-
so fungicides, and for regulating traffic
therein, and for other purposes.

It shall be unlawful for any person
to manufacture within any territory or
the District of Columbia any insecticide,
Paris green, lead arsenate, or fungicide
which is adulterated or misbranded. Vio-
lation is a misdemeanor punishable by
fine of not to exceed $200 or imprison-
ment for not more than one year, or both
fine and imprisonment.

Section 2. Introduction into or from
any state or territory or the District of
Columbia, or into or from any foreign
country, of any insecticide, or fungicide
which is adulterated or misbranded, is
prohibited and declared a misdemeanor
punishable as above. Provided, That no
article shall be deemed misbranded or
aulterated when intended for export to
any foreign country and prepared or
packed according to the specifications or
directions of the foreign purchaser; but
if said article shall be in fact sold or
offered for sale for domestic use or con-
sumption, then this proviso shall not

exempt said article from the operation of
any of the other provisions of this Act.

Section 3. The Secretary of the Treas-
ury, the Secretary of Agriculture, and
the Secretary of Commerce and Labor
shall make uniform rules and regula-
tions for carrying out the provisions of
this Act.

Section 4. The examination of speci-
mens of insecticides, Paris greens, lead
arsenates, and fungicides shall be made
in the Department of Agriculture, by
such existing bureau or bureaus as may
be directed by the secretary.

Section 5. It shall be the duty of each
district attorney to whom the proper of-
ficer shall present satisfactory evidence
of any such violation, to cause appropri-
ate proceedings to be commenced and
prosecuted in the proper courts of the
United States, without delay, for the en-
forcement of the penalties as in such
case herein provided.

Section 6. Defines the terms "Insect-
icide," "Paris green," etc.

Section 7. That for the purpose of this
Act an article shall be deemed to be
adulterated —

In the case of Paris green: First, if
it does not contain at least 50 per centum
of arsenious oxide; second, if it contains
arsenic in water-soluble forms equivalent
to more than 3% per centum of arseni-
ous oxide; third, if any substance has
been mixed and packed with it so as to
reduce or lower or injuriously affect its
quality or strength.

In case of lead arsenate: First, if it
contains more than 50 per centum of
water; second, if it contains total ar-
senic equivalent to less than 12% per
centum of arsenic oxide (As^O^) ; third,
if it contains arsenic in water-soluble
forms equivalent to more than .75 per
centum of arsenic oxide (As^ O'^) ; fourth,
if any substances have been mixed and
packed with it so as to reduce, lower, or
injuriously affect its quality or strength:
Provided, however, That extra water may
be added to lead arsenate (as described
in this paragraph) if the resulting mix-
ture is labeled lead arsenate and water,
the percentage of extra water being
plainly and correctly stated on the label.

1224

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

In the case of insecticides or fungicides,
other than Paris green and lead arsenate:
First, if its strength or purity fall below
the professed standard or quality un-
der which it is sold; second, if any sub-
stance has been substituted; third, if any
valuable constituent of the article has
been abstracted; fourth, if it is intend-
ed for use on vegetation and shall con-
tain any substance which shall be injur-
ious to such vegetation when used.

Section 8. That the term "misbrand-
ed" as used herein shall apply to all ar-
ticles herein included, the package or
label of which shall bear any statement
which shall be false or misleading in
any particular.

That for the purpose of this Act an
article shall be deemed to be misbrand-
ed—

In the case of insecticides, Paris greens,
lead arsenates, and fungicides: First,
if it be an imitation; second, if it be
labeled or branded so as to deceive or
mislead; third, if in package form, and
the contents are stated in terms of weight
or measure, they are not plainly and cor-
rectly stated on the outside of the pack-
age.

In the case of insecticides (other than
Paris greens and lead arsenates) and fun-
gicides: First, if it contains arsenic and
the total amount of arsenic is not stated
on the label; second, if it consists par-
tially or completely of an inert sub-
stance and does not have the names and
percentage amounts of each and every
one of such inert ingredients plainly and
correctly stated on the label.

Section 9. That no dealer shall be
prosecuted under the provisions of this
Act when he can establish a guaranty
signed by the wholesaler, jobber, manu-
facturer, or other party from whom he
purchased such articles to the effect that
the same is not adulterated or misbrand-
ed.

Section 10. That any insecticide, Paris
green, lead arsenate, or fungicide that is
adulterated or misbranded and is being
transported or held, shall be liable to be
proceeded against in any district court
of the United States within the district
wherein the same is found and seized

for confiscation by a process of libel for
condemnation.

And if such article is condemned as
being adultei'ated or misbranded, the
same shall be disposed of by destruction
or sale as the said court may direct.

Section 11. Provides for examination
of samples of imported articles, for their
destruction, exportation or bonding.

Section 12. Defines "Territory" and
"Person."

Section 13. That this Act shall be
known and referred to as "The Insecti-
cide Act of 1910."

Section 14. That this Act shall be in
force and effect from and after the first
day of January, nineteen hundred and
eleven.

Approved, April 26, 1910.

ijvspection, certification and
transportation of nursery

STOCK

A brief synopsis of the laws and regu-
lations of the United States, the several
states and Canada, relative to the in-
spection, certification and transportation
of nursery stock:

Alabama

A signed copy of the inspection certif-
icate issued to the applicant must be
filed with the State Horticulturist and
money sent to pay for the license and
tags needed. A tag must be placed on
each order delivered. One tag on box
does not cover individual orders there-
in. No one is allowed to receive a pack-
age of nursery stock unless a tag is at-
tached.

Every nursery or nurseries, dealer or
dealers in Alabama, and all outside of
state nursery or nurseries doing busi-
ness in Alabama, shall be required to
take out a license before a certificate of
inspection is granted. The license shall
be of two kinds: one regular nursery-
man and dealer's license and an agent's
license, the agent's license to be obtained
only through the principal, who must
hold a regular nurseryman's or dealer's
license. The license fee for each nursery-
man's or dealer's license shall be $10.
The fee for each agent's license shall
be $1. All license fees to be paid be-

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1225

fore the license is granted. This rule
to take effect on July 15, 1913.

Address all communications to State
Horticulturist, Auburn, Ala.

Arizona

Dr. A. W. Morrill, State Entomologist
of Arizona, Arizona Commission of
Agriculture and Horticulture, Phoenix,
Ariz.

Arkansas

Shipments of nursery stock into the
state must be accompanied by a copy of
the valid certificate of inspection, a copy
of the valid permit issued to the nursery-
man by the state entomologist of this
state, and must bear the name and ad-
dress of the consignor and consignee
with a statement of the contents of the
shipment; all shipments not so labeled
or tagged must be refused for shipment
by the carrier. Carriers bringing into the
state shipments of nursery stock which
originated in foreign countries or for-
eign possessions of the United States
must notify the state entomologist in
writing and must hold such stock at any
place designated by him until the same
has been duly inspected and released.

Nurserymen located out of the state
may secure permits by filing with the
state entomologist a copy of their certif-
icate. Geo. G. Becker, Acting State En-
tomologist, Fayetteville, Ark.

California

Shipments of nursery stock into Cali-
fornia are held by the transportation
companies until inspected by state quar-
antine guardians. All packages must be
marked with the name and address of
the shipper, name of the consignor and
name of the place where the stock is
grown. All nursery stock infested with
pests not existing in California will be
immediately sent out of the state or de-
stroyed at the option of the owner and
at his expense. Peach, apricot and al-
mond trees coming from districts where
yellow and rosette are known to exist
shall be refused entry and shall be de-
stroyed or returned to the shipper. No-
tices of shipment of nursery stock to
California should be sent to the horticul-
tural quarantine officer, room 11, Perry

building, San Francisco, Cal., and to the
state quarantine guardians at the point
of destination. Frederick Maskew, Chief
Deputy Quarantine Officer, Room 11, Fer-
ry Building, San Francisco, Cal.

Colorado

The state entomologist has general
supervision of the inspection of nurseries
and orchards to prevent the introduction
and spread of injurious insects and plant
diseases. County horticultural inspectors
in fruit-growing counties of the state are
appointed by the county commissioners.
All nursery stock coming into the state
must bear certificates of inspection and
fumigation, and on arrival in counties
that have inspectors is turned over to
them and released to consignee if it
passes inspection. C. P. Gillette, State
Entomologist, Fort Collins, Colo.

Connecticut

All nursery stock shipped into this
state shall bear on each package a certif-
icate that the contents of said package
have been inspected by a state or gov-
ernment officer and that said contents ap-
pear free from all dangerous insects and
diseases. If nursery stock is brought in-
to the state without such a certificate, the
express, freight, or other transportation
company or person shall, before deliver-
ing shipment to consignee, notify the state
entomologist of the facts, giving name and
address of consignee, origin of shipment,
and approximate number of cars, boxes,
or packages, and probable date of the de-
livery to the consignee. The state en-
tomologist may cause the inspection and
if infested the treatment of the stock.
No person, firm, or corporation shall un-
pack any woody field-grown nursery or
florists' stock brought into this state from
foreign countries except in the presence
of an inspector, unless given permission
to do so by said state entomologist or one
of his deputies. If such stock is found
infested with any dangerous pests the
state entomologist may at his discretion
order it treated. Any person violating
any of the provisions of this act shall be
fined not more than $50. Dr. W. E.
Britton, State Entomologist, New Haven,
Conn.

1226

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL, HORTICULTURE

Delaware

Shipments of nursery stock into the
state must bear a certificate of inspec-
tion and also a certificate stating that
the stock has been properly fumigated.
All nursery stock not accompanied by
proper certificates may be held by the
transportation companies until it can be
inspected. Wesley Webb, Secretary, State
Board of Agriculture, Dover, Del.

Florida

All shipments inio the state shall have
attached to each package a certificate
stating that the contents have been strip-
ped of foliage and fumigated as per rules
and regulations. All persons selling nurs-
ery stock without the state shall pay a
fee of $5 per annum and register with
the inspector of nursery stock, file a cer-
tificate of inspection and receive permis-
sion to sell nursery stock in the state. It
is declared unlawful to knowingly sell or
transport any infested or infected nurs-
ery stock in the state. Rules and regula-
tions may be obtained by addressing E.
W. Berger, Inspector of Nursery Stock,
Gainesville, Fla.

Georgia

Nurseries are inspected annually. A
signed duplicate of inspection certificate,
together with a statement by the nursery-
men that all stock intended for Georgia
will be fumigated in accordance with di-
rections furnished them, must be filed in
the ofl!ice of the state entomologist. Of-
ficial tags of the Georgia State Board of
Entomology will be furnished by the
state entomologist at the following price:
One hundred tags, 60 cents, postpaid; 200
tags, 85 cents, postpaid; 300 tags, $1.10,
postpaid; 500 tags, $1.35, sent by express,
collect; 1,000 tags, $2, sent by express,
collect. Each shipment of nursery stock
into the state of Georgia must bear the
official tag of the Georgia State Board of
Entomology and also a duplicate certif-
icate of inspection of the state from
which the shipment is made. E. L.
Worsham, State Entomologist, Atlanta,
Ga.

Idaho

No person, firm or corporation shall
import or sell nursery stock without

first applying to the State Board of Hor-
ticultural Inspection and filing a bond in
the sum of $5,000 and securing annual
license upon payment of $10. Shipments
into the state should bear a copy of an
official certificate of fumigation emanat-
ing from the place where the stock was
grown. All shipments into the state must
bear a label showing the name of the
shipper, the locality where grown and va-
riety of nursery stock. All nursery stock,
fruit trees or horticultural plants sold or
delivered by principal or agents shall be
true to name and variety as represented.
All nursery stock shipped into this state,
whether bearing certificate of inspection
or not, must be inspected again upon
its arrival, the consignee paying for such
inspection. Every nursery firm doing
business in this state must pay annually
$1 additional for each agent who repre-
sents them. J. U. McPherson, State Hor-
ticultural Inspector, Boise, Idaho.

Illinois

State nurseries are inspected and cer-
tified not later than October 1. An in-
spection certificate shall be valid for one
year from date of inspection. The state
entomologist is authorized to revoke a
certificate if he finds it is being used in
violation of the law. He is also required
to furnish all Illinois nurserymen with a
list of state and government inspectors
whose certificates may be received as
equally valid as his own, and the nur-
seryman receiving stock under such cer-
tificates is authorized to substitute for
them the Illinois certificate of inspection.
Each dealer in nursery stock who has no
nursery of his own and each agent for
a nursery located outside of Illinois is
required to furnish to the state entomol-
ogist annually a sworn statement, show-
ing that the stock in which he deals has
been duly inspected, and to submit for ap-
proval a copy of the certificate of inspec-
tion. Nursery stock shipped into the state
must bear a certificate of inspection at-
tached to each car, box, bale, bundle or
package. Dr. S. A. Forbes, State En-
tomologist; P. A. Glenn, Chief Inspector,
Urbana, 111.

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1227

Indiana

All nurseries are inspected between
June 1 and October 1 and at such other
times as the head of the inspection de-
partment may consider advisable. Stock
sent into or within the state must be
plainly labeled with the name of the con-
signor and the consignee and must bear
a certificate signed by a state or govern-
ment official showing that the inclosed
stock has been inspected and found free
from injurious insects and plant diseases.
All foreign-grown stock must be inspect-
ed upon arrival at its destination in In-
diana. C. H. Baldwin, State Entomolog-
ist, Indianapolis, Ind.

Iowa

State nurseries are inspected at own-
er's request or if supposed to be infest-
ed with dangerously injurious insects or
plant disease, and nurserymen are pro-
hibited from selling or shipping without
inspection. Shipments into the state must
be accompanied by a certificate of appar-
ent freedom from injurious insects or
plant diseases. A copy of inspection cer-
tificate must be filed with and approved
by the state entomologist. Prof. H. E.
Summers, State Entomologist, Ames, la.

Kansas

Nurseries are inspected annually be-
tween June 15 and November 1. Certif-
icates are valid until the first day of the
following June. No nursery stock shall
be brought into the state nor offered for
sale within the state without having been
properly inspected as shown by an accom-
panying certificate. State Entomological
Commission, Topeka, Kan. Prof. Geo. A.
Dean. Entomologist, Manhattan, Kan.
Prof. S. J. Hunter, Entomologist, Law-
rence, Kan.

Kentucky

Nurseries are inspected annually.
Every package of nursery stock shipped
into the state must have a copy of a cer-
tificate of inspection attached and bear
on the label a list of the contents.
Duplicate certificates of inspection may
be filed with the state entomologist. Prof.
H. Garman, State Entomologist, Lexing-
ton, Ky.

Louisiana

Nursery inspection is under the con-
trol of the State Board of Agriculture
and Immigration. The entomologist of
the experiment station will have charge
of the work, so all communications con-
cerning nursery inspection should be ad-
dressed to him.

The regulations of the board require
every box, bundle, bale or package of
nursery stock shipped into the state to
be plainly labeled with a copy of a valid
and unexpired certificate of inspection,
and nurserymen shipping stock into this
state must file a copy of their certificate
with the board. J. B. Garrett, Entomo-
logist, State Board of Agriculture and
Immigration, Baton Rouge, La.

Maine

Nurseries within the state are inspect-
ed annually. All nursery stock shipped
into the state shall bear on each box or
package a certificate that the contents
have been inspected. The state horticul-
turist has power to inspect all stock ship-
ped into the state at point of destination,
whether under certificate or not, and if
found infested with any injurious insects
or plant diseases he shall cause it to be
destroyed or returned to the consignor.
Agents or other parties, excepting grow-
ers, who sell or deal in nursery stock, or
solicit purchasers of nursery stock, shall
make application for an agent's license
and shall file with the state horticultur-
ist name and location of nursery and
place of business of the nurserymen or
tree dealers whom they represent or
from whom they purchase their stock.
Such application shall be accompanied
by a fee of $5. A. K. Gardner, State
Horticulturist, Augusta, Me.

Maryland

Nurseries are inspected at least once
in six months. All nursery stock subject
to attack of insect pests must be fumi-
gated. Shipments into the state must be
labeled with the name of consignor and
consignee and each package bear a certif-
icate of inspection. Duplicate certificates
should be filed with the state entomol-
ogist. Dr. T. B. Symons, State Entomol-

1228

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ogist, Prof. J. B. S. Norton, State Path-
ologist, College Park, Md.

Massachusetts

Nurseries in the state are inspected an-
nually. Agents or other persons, except-
ing growers, who desire to sell nursery
stock in the state, shall make applica-
tion to and receive from the state nurs-
ery inspector an agent's license, and shall
file with the state nursery inspector
names and addresses of all persons or
nurseries from whom they purchase
stock. It shall be unlawful for any per-
son, firm or corporation to sell, deliver
or ship within the state any nursery stock
unless such person, firm or corporation
holds a grower's certificate or an agent's
license, and a copy of such certificate or
license must accompany each car, box
or package delivered or shipped.

The state nursery inspector shall have
power to inspect at its point of destina-
tion all nursery stock coming into the
state, and should such stock be found
to be infested with injurious insects or
plant diseases he may cause it to be de-
stroyed, treated or returned to the con-
signor at the consignor's expense. Dr.
H. T. Fernald, State Nursery Inspector,
Amherst, Mass.

Michigan

Nurseries are subject to inspection; in-
fested trees must be destroyed and the
remainder of the stock within a half
mile must be fumigated. Shipments in-
to the state must bear on every package,
plainly labeled, the name of the consign-
or and consignee, statement of contents
and a certificate showing that the con-
tents have been inspected by a state or
government officer, and if of species sub-
ject to the attack of San Jose scale must
be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas.
Certificates of fumigation must also be
attached, together with a certificate of
inspection. This applies to individual
orders when several are contained in the
same shipment. All nurserymen, wheth-
er residents of Michigan or other states,
who wish to grow or sell stock within the
state must apply to the state inspector
of nurseries on or before August 1 of
each year for a license, for which the

fee is $5. A bond for $1,000 must also be
filed. Certificates of inspection must be
filed with the state inspector of nurs-
eries before any stock is shipped into
the state. Prof. L. R. Taft, State In-
spector of Nurseries, East Lansing,
Mich.

Minnesota

Inspection, annual compulsory. In-
spection may be oftener if it seems de-
sirable.

Shipments into the state must be ac-
companied by a certificate of inspection.

Carrying companies accepting stock not
so tagged are responsible and liable to
prosecution.

Dealers in other states sending stock
into Minnesota for sale must file a copy
of their certificates with the state en-
tomologist. Professor F. S. Washburn,
State Entomologist, St. Anthony Park,
Minn.

Mississippi

Every nursery in the state must be in-
spected before November 1 of each year,
and every bundle, bale or package of
stock sold or transported must be ac-
companied by a copy of the certificate of
inspection attached in a conspicuous
place. Every person or firm from other
states wishing to ship nursery stock in-
to Mississippi must file with the entomol-
ogist a copy of their certificate, which
shall state that the nursery is properly
equipped for fumigating all nursery
stock. A copy of the certificate shall be
attached to every bundle, bale or pack-
age of nursery stock delivered within
the state. Every nurseryman must state
that all nursery stock shipped into this
state will be fumigated with hydrocyanic
acid gas. R. W. Harned, Entomologist,
Agricultural College, Miss.

Missouri

Nurseries are inspected annually. Each
nursery outside of Missouri shipping
stock into Missouri must apply at the
ofl[ice of the chief inspector for a permit,
which will be issued upon filing the
necessary papers and copj'- of their nurs-
ery inspection certificate. No fee is
charged for the permit. All agents or
salesmen for outside nurseries must ap-

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1229

ply for an agent's permit. Every pack-
age of nursery stock shipped into the
state must be clearly labeled with the
name of the consignor, consignee, state-
ment of contents and a certificate show-
ing that the stock therein contained has
been inspected where grown by a duly
authorized inspector and found to be ap-
parently free from dangerously injuri-
ous insect pests and plant diseases.
Transportation companies are not per-
mitted to deliver nursery stock unless so
labeled. Leonard Haseman, Entomol-
ogist and Chief Inspector, University of
Missouri, Columbia, Mo.

Montana

All stock brought into the state must
be unpacked, Inspected, and fumigated if
necessary, at one of the designated quar-
antine stations, viz.: Glendive, Miles
City, Billings, Bozeman, Lewistown, Hel-
ena, Great Falls, Missoula, Victor, Como,
Darby, Plains, Mondak, Glasgow, Havre,
Kalispell and Eureka. Nursery stock
may be inspected and fumigated at other
points of delivery on payment of all costs.
To sell or deliver nursery stock it is
necessary to first obtain a license by
paying a fee of $25 and by filing with the
state horticulturist a bond in the sum of
$1,000 annually. All correspondence and
notice of shipment, including an invoice
of stock, must be sent to M. L. Dean,
State Horticulturist, Missoula, Mont.

Nebraska

All nursery stock shipped into the state
shall be labeled with the names of con-
signor and consignee and a certificate
showing inspection since July first pre-
ceding. Prof. Lawrence Bruner or Prof.
Myron H. Swenk, Assistant State En-
tomologist, University of Nebraska, Lin-
coln, Neb.

Nevada

Nursery stock shipped from other
states shall bear on the outside of each
car, bale or package a label giving the
names of the consignor and consignee,
together with a copy of an inspection
certificate of recent date. Such certif-
icate of inspection must bear the signa-
ture of a qualified person in authority in
the state in which such nursery stock

was grown. No transportation company
shall deliver any nursery stock lacking
such official certificate of inspection. J.
E. Stubbs, President State University,
Reno, Nev.

New Hampshire

Nurseries are inspected at least once
each year. Shipments into the state must
be accompanied by a certificate of inspec-
tion or, in lieu thereof, an affidavit show-
ing that the stock has been fumigated
with hydrocyanic acid gas, using not
less than 2/10 of 1 gram of cyanide of
potassium per cubic foot of space, in an
air-tight compartment for not less than
40 minutes. A copy of the certificate of
inspection or a copy of the aflSdavit must
be attached to each car, box or package
shipped into the state. Commissioner of
Agriculture, Durham, N. H.

New Jersey

The law requires the inspection of all
nurseries at least once in each year. Ship-
ments into the state must be accom-
panied by a certificate of inspection, or
copy thereof, attached to each car or par-
cel, together wth a statement from the
shipper that the stock herein is a part of
the stock inspected, and stating whether
such stock has been fumigated with hy-
drocyanic gas or not. It shall be the
duty of all carriers to refuse for trans-
portation within the state all stock not
accompanied by a certificate of inspec-
tion.

All stock coming into +' j tate may
be detained for examinat i wherever
found, by the state entomc ^?',. or the
state plant pathologist, and und to

be infested with any insects i :. nt dis-
eases, injurious or liable to ': 'e so,
will be destroyed. Dr. T. J .. dlee.
State Entomologist, New Brun. *»!c^ N.
J., State Plant Pathologist, NeA """ "ns-
wick, N. J.

New Mexico

No law relative to transportati of
nursery stock. The Territorial Legisla-
ture of 1903 provided for county boards
of horticultural commissioners which
were given authority to control orchard
pests. Prof. Fabian Garcia, Horticul-

1230

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

turist, Agricultural Experiment Station,
State College, N. M.

New York

All nursery stock shipped from any
point in the state of New York must
have attached a copy of a certificate of
inspection issued by the State Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

All transportation companies bring-
ing nursery stock into this state shall im-
mediately notify the Commissioner of Ag-
riculture and give name of consignor and
consignee and the points of shipment and
destination of each consignment.

Importers of IViirsery Stock and Custom-
House Brokers

All custom-house brokers bringing in-
to this state any nursery stock shall file
their names with the Commissioner of
Agriculture.

Custom-house brokers importing or
bringing nursery stock into the state
shall immediately, upon receiving con-
signments, notify the Commissioner of
Agriculture.

(Blanks will be furnished for this pur-
pose.)

All dealers in nursery stock must, if
they have no growing nursery stock in
this state, file with the Commissioner of
Agriculture their name and address.
No stock shall be sold, shipped or deliv-
ered unless accompanied by a copy of a
certificate signed by the Commissioner of
Agriculture. When all such stock is col-
lected an inspection will be made and
proper certificates provided by this de-
partment to permit shipping.

All growing nursery stock in the state
will be inspected annually or oftener if
necessary; if found free from injurious
insects or fungous disease there will be
issued to the owner a certificate of in-
spection, which certificate will expire
September 1.

Every car, box, bundle or package
must have attached an exact copy of said
certificate before shipment or delivery.

All nursery stock found growing with-
in one-half mile of areas infested with
San Jose scale must be properly fumi-
gated.

No nursery stock received from points

within the state of New York shall be
sold or delivered unless it bears a valid
certificate of inspection on arrival.

Any nursery stock brought into the
state must remain packed and unopened
until permission is given by the Com-
missioner of Agriculture. To facilitate
rapid inspection, receivers of nursery
stock should notify the department office
at Albany or an authorized inspector of
the receipt or expected receipt of con-
signments, giving the name and address
of consignor and dates.

North Carolina

Every shipment of nursery stock into
this state must be accompanied by a
valid copy of a certificate of inspection.
Every person, firm or corporation desir-
ing to ship nursery stock into this state
must file a copy of their certificate with
the entomologist. It will be of advan-
tage to the nurserymen if they attach a
guarantee of fumigation to the ship-
ment. A copy of regulations will be sent
on application. Franklin Sherman, Jr.,
Entomologist State Department of Agri-
culture, Raleigh, N. C.

North Dakota

The director of the experiment station
is authorized to cause inspection and
prescribe treatment of diseased nursery
stock. Shipments into the state must
bear a certificate of inspection. Every
person who employs agents or salesmen
or who solicits for the the sale of nurs-
ery stock must obtain a license upon the
payment of $10 and upon filing a certif-
icate of inspection and a $500 bond. Said
license will permit holder to do business
in the state a year. Director North
Dakota Experiment Station, Agricultural
College, N. D.

Ohio

Shipment of nursery stock entering
the state must bear the name of the con-
signor and consignee and be accompanied
by an official certificate of inspection or
fumigation. Agents are required to pay
a license fee of $1 and dealers a license
fee of $5. also to file sworn statements
that the stock which they sell or deliver
has been officially inspected and was re-
ceived by them accompanied with a valid

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1231

certificate of inspection or fumigation.
N. E. Shaw, Chief Inspector, Ohio De-
partment of Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio.

Oklahoma

Nurseries are inspected annually. No
nursery stock shall be brought into the
state without having been previously
properly inspected as shown by an ac-
companying certificate. Benjamin Hen-
nessy. Secretary, State Entomological
Commission, Oklahoma City, Okla.

Oregon

The State Board of Horticulture has
charge of inspection within the state.
All nursery stock brought into the state
must be inspected at station of delivery
before delivery to consignee. If found
infected or infested, nursery stock must
be returned to consignor or destroyed.
Peach pits, peach trees and scions and
other trees on peach roots grown in or
coming from districts where peach yel-
lows, little peach rosette, or either of
them, are known to exist are prohibited
entry. Every carload and case contain-
ing nursery stock, trees, plants, etc.,
must have plainly marked thereon in a
conspicuous place and manner the name
and address of the consignor, the name
and address of the consignee, the name
of the country, state or territory where
contents were grown; and must show that
it contains nursery stock, seedlings or
seeds. Address State Board of Horticul-
ture, Portland, Ore.

Pennsylvania

Nurseries must be inspected at least
once a year, and no nurseryman, agent,
dealer or broker can legally sell or ship
stock without a certificate of inspection.
Certificates of fumigation are required
to accompany shipments from other
states, and the word "fumigated" print-
ed or stenciled on or accompanying the
certificate of inspection will not be ac-
cepted unless it is apparent that such
word is a part of the certificate granted
by a state inspection officer.

Nurserymen from other states are re-
quired to file affidavits that all nursery
stock of kinds subject to infestation by
San Jose scale will be properly fumi-
gated before shipment into the state.

Blanks furnished upon application. Deal-
ers in nursery stock are granted certif-
icates upon application and the filing of
a statement that they will buy nursery
stock only from nurserymen or growers
holding valid certificates of inspection.

Transportation companies are required
to reject all stock entering the state un-
less certificates of inspection and fumi-
gation are attached. Prof. H. A. Sur-
face, Economic Zoologist; Enos B. Engle,
Chief Nursery Inspector, Harrisburg, Pa.

Bbode Island

The Inspection Law has been revised
during the past year and now provides
that the State Board of Agriculture shall
appoint a state entomologist whose duties
it shall be to inspect nurseries and or-
chards and to grant an annual certificate
for sale of nursery stock. All nursery
stock shipped into the state must bear
on each package a certificate that the
contents have been inspected by an au-
thorized inspection officer. The state en-
tomologist is, furthermore, authorized to
inspect any nursery stock which comes
into the state, even when sent in under
an official certificate, if he deems it ad-
visable, and shall order its return to
the consignor if any injurious insects or
plant diseases are found therein.

An affidavit of fumigation is no long-
er accepted in lieu of official inspection.

Agents who have no nursery, and who
wish to sell nursery stock within the
state, must apply to the state entomol-
ogist for an agent's license and must
state where they propose to purchase
their stock to be sold. A. E. Stene, State
Entomologist, Kingston, R. I.

South Carolina

Stock coming from other states, prov-
inces or foreign countries and consigned
to points within this state must have at-
tached to every bundle or package an
interstate tag or permit issued by the
South Carolina Crop Pest Commission.
This interstate tag or permit can be is-
sued only after the certificate of inspec-
tion of the state, country or province
where shipment originated has been ap-
proved by the South Carolina State Crop
Pest Commission and filed in the office of

1232

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the entomologist or pathologist of the
said commission. It is further required
that the fumigation certificate of the
South Carolina State Crop Pest Commis-
sion be properly filled out and filed in
the office of the entomologist or path-
ologist of the commission before the in-
terstate tag or permit can be issued, un-
less the official inspection certificate in-
cludes a statement that the nursery is
properly equipped for fumigating. Prof.
A. F. Conradi, State Entomologist; Prof.
H. W. Barre, State Pathologist, Clemson
College, S. C.

South Dakota

All nursery stock shipped into the
state must be accompanied by a certif-
icate of inspection issued by the state
entomologist of the state from which it
was shipped. Any person, firm or cor-
poration owning a nursery which sells
stock to be delivered in this state must
certify where the stock was grown and
attach this statement to all shipments.
Prof. H. C. Severin, State College of Ag-
riculture, Brookings, S. D.

Tennessee

Nurseries are inspected annually or often-
er if necessary. Any person, firm or corpor-
ation without the state, desiring to do
business within the state, shall file with
the state entomologist and plant path-
ologist a copy of his certificate of in-
spection issued and signed by proper of-
ficial of his state, as well as an agreement
to fumigate properly all stock shipped
into the state. Every shipment must be
accompanied by a copy of said certificate
of inspection and a fumigation tag. Every
individual sale or bill of trees shall bear
a copy of certificate. Failure to comply
with the requirements subject stock to
confiscation. Prof. G. M. Bentley, State
Entomologist and Plant Pathologist,
Knoxville, Tenn.

Texas
Nurseries and greenhouses are inspect-
ed annually. All shipments of nursery
stock originating outside the state must
bear shipping tags showing copy of cer-
tificate of inspection from the state in-
spector of the state in which the ship-
ment originates, but in addition thereto

they must have a tag attached showing
copy of permit from Texas. No nursery
stock shall be shipped into the state
without first filing with the commissioner
of agriculture a certified copy of a cer-
tificate of inspection from the state in-
spector of the state in which the ship-
ment originates. A fee of $5 is required
for issuance of permit to ship into the
state. Agents or dealers operating in
Texas for nurserymen outside of the
state must procure proper agents, cre-
dentials from their nurseries, on an ap-
proved form. Sam. H. Dixon, Chief In-
spector, Houston, Tex.
Utah

No person shall engage in the busi-
ness of selling or importing nursery
stock without having first obtained a
license to do business in the state. Any
person may obtain a license from the
State Horticultural Commission upon
the payment of a fee of $2 50 annually
and by filing with the State Horticultural
Commission a bond in the sum of $500.
Each salesman or agent must hold a
certificate giving his name and the name
and address of the persons he repre-
sents, together with the license num-
ber of his principal. A copy of the cer-
tificate of inspection must be attached to
each shipment. All nursery stock will be
quarantined on arrival, and, if deemed
necessary, disinfected or destroyed at the
cost of the owner. J. Edward Taylor,
State Horticultural Inspector, Salt Lake
City, Utah.

Vermont

Nurseries are inspected annually. Nurs-
ery stock shipped into the state shall be
accompanied by a certificate of inspec-
tion and the name and postoffice address
of the consignor and consignee. M. B.
Cummings, State Nursery Inspector, Bur-
lington, Vt.

Yirginia

Before selling nursery stock, it is nec-
essary to procure from the auditor of
public accounts, Richmond, Virginia, a
certificate of registration, for which the
fee is $20 for principals; duplicates for
agents' use free. Send certified check or
draft for $20 drawn or indorsed payable
to the Treasurer of Virginia. (Personal

LAWS— HORTICULTURAL

1233

checks will not be accepted.) Duplicate
of certificate of nursery inspection must
be filed with the state entomologist, who
will furnish tags at cost, and one tag must
be attached to each package of stock to
be sold in the state. W. J. Price, Acting
State Entomologist, Blacksburg. Va.
Washington
No person, firm or corporation shall
engage or continue in the business of
selling as agent, solicitor or otherwise
within the state or importing nursery
stock without first having obtained a
license. Nursery license fee is $5 per
year; nursery agent's license fee is $1
per year; nursery bond is $1,000, to be re-
newed annually. Every person, firm or
corporation licensed to do business in
this state must notify the Commissioner
of Agriculture of his intention to ship
nursery stock, giving the names and ad-
dresses of the persons, firms or corpora-
tions to whom the shipments are made.
A copy of the notice shall also be sent
the inspector of the district in which the
point of destination is located. For full
information address F. A. Huntley, Com-
missioner Horticulture, Olympia, Wash.

West Virginia

The State Crop Pest Commission has
power to provide quarantine regulations
concerning the transportation and sale of
nursery stock. No person or corporation,
either for himself or as agent for an-
other, shall offer for sale, sell or deliver
nursery stock unless he shall have first
procured from the state auditor a cer-
tificate of registration, the annual fee for
which is $5. All nursery stock entering
the state must be accompanied by a cer-
tificate of inspection and also by an of-
ficial permit tag obtained from the state
entomologist. Duplicate certificates of
inspection should be filed. W. E. Rum-
sey, State Entomologist, Morgantown, W.
Va.

Wisconsin

All persons, firms or corporations ship-
ping nursery stock into the state are re-
quired to file a duplicate certificate of in-
spection, and secure a state license at the
cost of $.5, if selling at retail or through
agents. Each shipment must bear certif-

icate tags which shall be attached to each
package, box or carload lot. Transporta-
tion companies are forbidden to deliver
nursery stock unless accompanied by
valid certificate tags. All agents selling
nursery stock within the state must be
supplied with an agent's duplicate license
at the cost of $1, which shall bear
the same number and date as that of
the principal. Wilful misrepresentation
of quality or variety of stock offered for
sale shall constitute a punishable mis-
demeanor. Professor J. G. Sanders, En-
tomologist and Chief Nursery Inspector,
College of Agriculture, Madison, Wis.

Wyoming

Any person or firm wishing to do busi-
ness in this state must first obtain a li-
cense Licenses are issued on application
for a period terminating on July 1 of the
next succeeding inspection year (approx-
imately two years). All applications
must be accompanied by the license fee
of $25, a bond in the sum of $500, con-
ditioned that the principal will faithfully
obey the law of the state, and by a cer-
tified certificate of inspection from an
authorized inspector in the state from
which shipments are to be made. On re-
ceipt of these the secretary of the state
board issues authorized shipping tags at
cost. Nursery stock may not enter the
state and transportation companies may
not deliver unless such tag be attached
to each and every box, bundle or bale.
Before making shipments secure copy of
the law from the secretary of the State
Board of Horticulture, Professor Aven
Nelson, Laramie, Wyo.

Canada

No nursery stock shall be imported
that is infested with any of the follow-
ing insect pests or diseases: San Jose
scale, brown-tail moth, gypsy moth, wool-
ly aphis. West India peach scale, potato
canker, gooseberry mildew, internal and
external parasitic diseases of potato,
branch canker and blister rust of white
pine. Nursery stock shall be imported
only through the ports and during the
periods mentioned:

Vancouver, B. C, from October 1 to
May 1; Niagara Falls, Ont., from October

-37

1234

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

1 to May 15; Winnipeg, Man., and St.
John, N. B., from March 15 to May 15,
and from October 7 to December 7;
Windsor, Ont., and St. Johns, Que., from
March 15 to May 15, and from Septem-
ber 26 to December 7.

Importations by mail shall be subject-
ed to the same regulations. The port by
which it is intended that the nursery
stock shall enter shall be clearly stated
on each package, and notice of shipment
must be sent to the Dominion Entomol-
ogist, Ottawa. European nursery stock
and certain other classes of vegetation
may in the case of certain ports be al-
lowed to proceed and shall be inspected
at point of destination, but must not be
unpacked except in the presence of the
inspector. Copies of the regulations gov-
erning the importation of nursery stock
into Canada may be obtained from Dr. C.
Gorden Hewitt, Dominion Entomologist,
Ottawa, Canada, to whom all inquiries
should be addressed.

(Regulations for shipment of nursery
stock into Canada are to be revised about
October 1, 1913.)

Legumes. See Apple Orchard Cover
Crops.

LEGUMiNors Cover Crops, Value of.
See Soils.

Lemon

The lemon is the fruit of the tropical
or sub-tropical tree Citrus Limonum or
Citrus medica, variety Limonum, of the
orange family. The fruit is ellipsoidal
with a protruding point at each end, the
color is bright yellow, the rind is thick
and the pulp and juice very acid.

The wild stock of the lemon tree seems
to have been brought from the valleys of
Kumaon and Sikkim in the northwest
provinces of India. It was probably un-
known to the Greeks and Romans in their
days of power, and is supposed to have
been introduced by the Arabs into Spain
between the 12th and 13th centuries.

As a cultivated plant the lemon is now
grown in almost all the tropical and sub-
tropical countries of the world. In the
United States it is chiefly grown in Flori-
da and California, but it is grown to a

limited extent in all of the Gulf states
and in some of the southwestern states.
Like the apple and the pear, the lemon
varies considerably under cultivation.

Varieties

"Risso and Poiteau enumerate 47 va-
rieties of this fruit, although they main-
tain as distinct the sweet lime, with
eight varieties, and the sweet lemon, with
12 varieties.

"The lemon is more delicate than the
orange, although it grows under practi-
cally the same conditions and requires
similar treatment." — Encyclopedia Brit-
annica.

The lemon tree is exceedingly fruitful
and ripens its fruits during every month
of the year, but the principal crop is har-
vested about the end of the year. The
fruit is picked while green and packed in
boxes preparatory to shipping, each lem-
on being wrapped in paper in much the
same manner as oranges, or "Western
boxed apples."

The culls, consisting of unsound, un-
ripe or malformed fruit, are used for the
manufacture of essential oils and juice.
Lemon juice is often used for medicinal
purposes, as a tonic to counteract ma-
laria, or as a cure for scurvy and other
diseases. A concentrated lemon juice gen-
erally known as citric acid is much used
by physicians. Also the oil of lemons,
which is obtained by pressing the rind,
is used in medicines.

Since the lemon is so nearly in its hab-
its like the orange we refer the reader to
the article on orange for a fuller discus-
sion of the subject. See Orange.

The varieties recommended for the va-
rious districts by the American Pomologi-
cal Society are as follows:

For Map of Districts, see page 192.

District No. 6

Highly recommended: Belair; Eure-
ka; Sicily; Villafranca.
Recommended: Genoa.

District No. 18

Recommended: Eureka; Lisbon; Sici-
bon; Villafranca.

Recommended: Genoa.

LEMON DISEASES

1235

District ISo. 17

Recommended: Eureka; Lisbon; Sici-
ly; Villafranca.

LEMON DISEASES

Blue and Green Mold

Penicillium italictim and P. digitatum.
See Orange

Twig Blight

Sclerotinia libertiana
The twigs die back from the tip in
moist weather, showing to some extent a
white moldy fungus upon the surface in
which may be imbedded small, hard,
seed-like bodies or sclerotia, at first white
but finally becoming black. A mass of
gum exudes at this point. This fungus,
which is the same as that causing the
cottony mold, occasionally infects the
tree itself, both with lemons and other
citrus trees, with the effect just described.
The infection comes from spores pro-
duced by the growth of the fungus upon
the green manure crop. Not serious.

Brown Rot

Pythiacystis citrophthora
A very virulent form of decay, spread-
ing rapidly through the boxes from fruit
to fruit. Affected specimens show a
brown, rather dry decay of the rind upon
which a delicate, scanty white mold de-
velops when considerable moisture is
present. Fruit out in the open shows no
mold on the surface. Affected fruit has
a peculiar odor which is very character-
istic. Mostly seen in lemons held in stor-
age for curing. In wet weather this de-
cay often appears on the fruit while still
on the tree, but it is mostly confined to
that within two feet of the ground. The
disease affects all kinds of citrus fruit in
this manner.

The fungus which causes this trouble
is primarily a soil inhabitant, living nat-
urally in the ground beneath the trees
where its spores are produced.

Orchard infection is prevented by keep-
ing the trees pruned up somewhat from
the ground, cultivating the soil under the
trees in summer and covering it in win-
ter with straw or a green cover crop.
Spraying the ground under the trees in

winter with thick Bordeaux mixture is
also helpful. The worst infection, that
of lemons in storage, is contracted in the
tank of the washing machine where the
water becomes extremely infectious from
the presence of spores brought in with
the orchard soil and dust. This is easily
controlled by disinfection of the wash
water with copper sulphate.

Literature

Bulletins 190, 218, California Experi-
ment Station.

Cottony Mold— White Rot

Sclerotinia libertiana
Causes decay of the fruit in the curing
house with the production of an abund-
ant white mold spreading over the lem-
ons. In this mold are found irregularly-
shaped, black, seed-like bodies called scle-
rotia, from which another stage of the
fungus develops. The same fungus also
develops in the orchard soil during the
rainy season and often becomes very
abundant upon green-manure crops or
other vegetation growing about the lem-
on trees, particularly upon the vetch. The
sclerotia develop upon green-manure
crops or directly upon the soil, the latter
during the rainy season, and out of them
grow little funnel-shaped toadstool-like
bodies which give off the spores of the
fungus.

Infection occurs in wounds in the pres-
ence of moisture, generally from the
washing water and usually at the stem
end.

Washing in bluestone solution of the
same strength used for brown rot does
not kill the spores.

In regard to the control of this trouble,
we may say that the cottony mold has
had a very marked prevalence since th6
use of vetch as an orchard cover crop
became so general.

There is much ground for believing
that these facts are related to one an-
other, cottony mold having become more
abundant on account of the opportunity
given for its development in the orchard
by the presence of the vetch plant, upon
which it develops particularly well.

1236

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Literature

Bulletins 190, 218, California Experi-
ment Station.

Gray Mold
Botrytis vulgaris

This produces a dark-colored decay of
the rind, on which a dirty gray mold de-
velops. The fungus is able to develop
at low temperatures close to the freezing
point, and sometimes causes considerable
loss in fruit held in cold storage. Not
ordinarily very serious.

Lemon Giummosis

Characterized by the exudation of gum
from the trunk of the tree just above the
point of budding. The tree appears yel-
low and dies when badly affected. Oc-
curs on poorly drained, heavy soil, espe-
cially if the point of budding is deeply
covered with earth, and where the soil
about the trunk is undisturbed by culti-
vation. This trouble is more common on
lemons than on oranges.

In order to successfully control gum
diseases in orchard trees, soil conditions
must first of all be improved by securing
drainage, removing soil from about the
bud and thoroughly cultivating or dig-
ging about the tree. Water must not be
allowed to stand about the trunk or the
soil remain continually saturated. After
thus improving conditions, the tree itself
may be treated by taking out narrow
slits of bark on several sides of the trunk,
extending from the ground up to the
fork. These slits should pass through
the gummy portion and also the unaf-
fected bark. This will usually suffice to
effect a cure if taken in time and if soil
conditions are sufficiently improved.

Literature

Bulletins 200, 218, California Experi-
ment Station.

Red Rot

A curing-house trouble in which the
rind develops a rusty bronze color and
gradually dries down into a sunken con-
dition with a dark red or black color.

Cause unknown; apparently not a para-
site.

Peteca

This trouble shows itself in the form
of deep sunken pits in the rind of the

lemon after it has been in the curing
house for some time. The tissue at these
spots is found to be dried and shrunken
prematurely. The trouble is not serious,
save in its effect upon the appearance of
the fruit. Cause unknown.

Wltlier-Tip, "Tear Stain"

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

The effects of this disease consist in a
general way in a spotting of the fruit and
leaves and killing back of the twigs, and
an attack upon the young, newly-formed
fruit, causing it to drop. Wither-tip is a
trouble of quite common occurrence in
Florida and probably most other citrus-
growing regions. It has been known to
exist in California for some time, but
there has always been a question as to
how much this fungus is really parasitic
and how much it develops simply in a
secondary manner upon tissues injured
in other ways.

The most pronounced effect upon lem-
ons attributed to the wither-tip fungus
has been a slight spotting of the fruit,
the spots being quite numerous upon the
exposed side of the lemons while still
on the tree, each spot of small size and
reddish color. Such spotting has been
quite generally attributed to this fungus,
and yet it may be said that in numerous
efforts made to produce such an effect
by direct infection with the spores of the
wither-tip fungus, entire failure has al-
ways been the result.

The fungus commonly shows itself to
the eye in the form of numerous minute
black dots upon the surface of dead twig
tips or on dead spots on the leaf. In the
latter case, starting on spots killed by
fumigation, fire or other injuries, or pos-
sibly without preliminary injury on old,
nearly dead leaves, the spots slowly
spread in an oval form, with a yellow
band between the dead and green tissue
and the characteristic black dots (pycni-
clia) upon the surface of the dead por-
tion.

Another fungus, a species of Pleospora,
having a similar appearance and effect,
has also been found quite abundantly on
citrus trees in the northern part of the
state.

LEMON PESTS

1237

The wither-tip fungus is one of the
commonest inhabitants of our citrus
trees. Every dead twig, every fallen leaf,
every leaf or twig injured by fire or any
other cause, immediately becomes cov-
ered with a flourishing growth of this
fungus. Young lemons which fall to the
ground from any cause show the same
fungus upon them after a short time. It
has even been found that the most
healthy green leaves, if picked from the
tree and placed in a moist chamber, soon
become covered with this wither-tip fun-
gus. Trees suffering from gum disease,
gophers, drouth or any other influence
which causes them to lose their vitality
and begin to weaken and die back in the
branches, soon develop an abundance of
this organism. It is also likely that cit-
rus insects, like the red spider and any
other which punctures or injures the
fruit, may promote the development of
this fungus.

All in all, our conclusion has been that
it is extremely doubtful whether the
wither-tip fungus ever attacks sound, un-
injured, vigorous foliage, twigs or fruit,
or develops at all, save in a secondary
manner or following some other injury.

R. E. Smith,
California Experiment Station Bulletin 218.

LEMON PESTS

Chaff Scale

Parlatoria pergandii Comst

General Appearance

Small, circular, elongated, irregular
scales with first exuviae near the side.
Male scales are decidedly longer than
broad. The color is a light gray.

Life History

Quite a prolific species which does not
spread very rapidly. The breeding con-
tinues through the summer and fall
months and the broods overlap as in the
other armored scales. The trunk, large
and small limbs, foliage and fruits are
attacked.

Distribution

This species is limited to a few locali-
ties in California, having been imported
from Florida.

Food Plants

Orange, lemon, Japonica sp. All parts
of the plants and the fruits are attacked.

Control

Fumigation with full schedule No. 1.
This is not a very difficult pest to com-

^^*- E. O. EssiG

Citrus or Greenhouse Mealy Bug

Pseudococcus citri Risso

General Appearance

Small mealy-coated soft-bodied insects,
from one-fourth to three-eighths inches
long and two-thirds as wide. They are
specially characterized by a large amount
of white waxy secretion covering the
bodies. There are no perceptible wax
tails or appendages.

Life History

The eggs are deposited in loose cottony
masses by the females upon the food
plants, mostly during the late fall and
winter months. The young upon hatch-
ing move about very freely seeking suit-
able feeding places upon the tender fo-
liage or young fruit. The females con-
tinue to move at will throughout their
existence, but the young males soon spin
a small white cocoon in which to pupate.
Transformation requires but a short
time, the two-winged males emerging
when the females are about half grown.
After copulation the males die and the
females continue to develop for some
weeks or months before egg-laying be-
gins.

During the spring months the young
are to be found in great numbers, but
by summer they have so hidden them-
selves as to give the general impression
that the pest leaves the trees during
that period. In the fall the adults begin
to deposit the large masses of eggs which
make them more conspicuous. The en-
tire strength of the female is converted
into eggs, only the shriveled and dry skin
remaining after all have been deposited.

The insect naturally hibernates during
the winter in the egg state, but due to
the uneven hatching caused by the warm
weather in southern latitudes, practically
all stages of the young and the adult

1238

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

males and females may be also abundant
during the winter months.

Food Plants

Works on a great variety of plants in-
cluding the citri and cucurbits. The fruit
as well as all tender growing parts of
the plant are attacked.

Control

The control of this pest has been some-
what complicated and unsatisfactory, al-
though at the present time considerable
or complete success attends the efforts
of careful work. Without doubt the best
control measure is the application of a
carbolic acid emulsion spray, which
should be applied plentifully, from ten to
fifteen gallons to an average size tree,
and under a pressure of 200 pounds. We
have found that two angle "Bean Jumbo"
nozzles on a "Y" to each rod give best
results. Large-holed discs should be used
in the nozzles to insure a coarse driving
spray.

If the mealy bug is present in great
numbers it may be necessary to make
two, three or even four applications a
week or so apart.

During the winter, when there are large
numbers of egg-masses, or in the spring
when the young are hatching, is the best
time for applying the sprays.

Fumigation has often given excellent
killing results, but is not at all recom-
mended for this pest, unless some other
destructive scale insect, such as red, yel-
low, black or purple scale, is present and
needs that treatment. Experience has
shown that an excessive dose gives little
better result than the ordinary black-
scale dosage.

Silver Mite of the Lemon

Eriophyes oleivorus Ashm.

Phytoptus oleivorus Ashm.
General Appearance
The adult mites are so small as to be
invisible except with the aid of a lens.
They are light yellow in color, long and
pointed anteriorly with two pairs of legs
near the head. The eggs are exceedingly
small, circular and faintly yellow in col-
or. The presence of the mite is easily
told by the characteristic silvery chafing

of the skin of the lemon, due to the de-
struction of the oil cells. In Florida the
oranges are also chafed, causing a rus-
seting.

Life History

The eggs are deposited singly or in
small clusters on the leaves or fruit. They
hatch in less than a week in hot weather
but require twice as long in cold weather.
After several molts the mites become full
grown in from two to three weeks. The
young and adults feed upon the oil in
the succulent parts of citrus plants, which
is obtained by piercing the oil cells with
their beaks. The adults are capable of
rapid locomotion and move freely. They
breed from spring until late fall, giving
rise to many overlapping broods a year.

Food Plants

Works upon bark, foliage and fruits of
citrus trees. In California its attacks
are usually confined to the lemon.

Control

Same as for the citrus red spider. See
Apple Pests.

E. O. BssiG

Lettuce

Lettuce is a hardy annual, almost uni-
versally grown in American gardens, and
is highly esteemed as a salad plant. It
is generally grown out of doors from
seed planted early in the spring, or it
may be grown by a succession of plant-
ings at different times during the year.
It is not easily injured by early or late
frosts.

Samuel B. Green, in "Vegetable Gar-
dening," recommends the following:

Varieties

There are many varieties and each year
finds many additions to the list of those
offered by seedsmen. In the matter of
quality, those forming a head like the
cabbage have the preference. Varieties
that form only a bunch of leaves are
largely raised by market gardeners to
supply the common demand, since they
are more easily grown and are less liable
to injury in handling than the heading
varieties. Some of the most desirable
kinds are as follows:

LETTUCE

1239

White Tenuis Ball, or Boston Market

A very popular market variety adapted
for hotbed and early spring use only. It
forms a solid head of medium size but
quickly goes to seed in warm weather.

Hanson

Forms large solid heads and is a gen-
eral favorite; excellent for spring or sum-
mer use.

Black-Seeded Simpson

A popular forcing variety that stands
well without going to seed and does not
form a head but a mass of curled leaves.

Grand Rapids

A very desirable lettuce for forcing. It
resembles Black-Seeded Simpson, but is a
better shipping variety.

Black-Seeded Tennis Ball

A popular sort for forcing or early gar-
den culture. It forms large, solid heads
and is highly esteemed.

Salamander

A good heading sort for summer use.

Buttercup

Bright chrome yellow in color, very
beautiful; tender and desirable. A popu-
lar new sort.

Lettuce is now being extensively grown
in almost all the Northern and in some
Southern states in hotbeds and marketed
for winter use. Of late years this has
grown to be a considerable industry. In
this manner it is easily grown and the
principal question is how to keep it fresh
and crisp after taken from the hotbed
and before it reaches the consumer. To
secure this end the growing of lettuce in
pots is sometimes resorted to. R. L.
Watts, of the Tennessee Experiment Sta-
tion, suggests the following advantages of
pot culture:

Advantages of Pot Culture

1. The chief advantage is in making
it possible to retain the succulent condi-
tion of the lettuce until it reaches the
table.

2. Attractiveness of heads when of-
fered for sale increases prices fully one-
third on the Knoxville market.

3. The handsome appearance of curled
varieties is highly appreciated by those

who value lettuce for garnishing pur-
poses.

4. It enables grocerymen to keep a
constant supply of lettuce in a perfectly
fresh condition.

5. It enables the consumer to keep a
supply of lettuce to be used at will. This
is a very important element, for cut let-
tuce should be eaten before it withers,
and it is not possible by the usual method
of marketing to keep the heads in a fresh
condition more than a few hours.

6. A crop may be cut from the per-
manent bed every month when pot cul-
ture is practiced. With the usual meth-
ods a crop is cut from the same space
about every two months during winter
and spring.

7. Pots removed from the permanent
bed when the plants are ready for mar-
ket may be replaced at once by pots
from the sandbed — a great economy of
space.

The expense of pots and slight increase
of labor in marketing are the only dis-
advantages, but we believe the advantages
mentioned above overbalance the disad-
vantages and render pot culture desir-
able and profitable for gardeners depend-
ing upon local markets.

Size of Pots

It is not practicable to use pots smaller
than two inches. Those exceeding three
inches in size are too expensive and the
balls are too large for convenient mar-
keting.

Effect of Pots on Yield

The use of pots decreases the yield
about 15 per cent. Plants grown with
their roots thus confined are more com-
pact but weigh less at maturity than
plants set in open beds. Pot culture,
then, is a disadvantage when lettuce is
sold by weight or measure. The adop-
tion of the system means a slight sacri-
fice in quantity for quality.

Value of Sodium Nitrate in Pot Culture

The decrease in productiveness when
pot culture is employed is due to the
confined and crowded condition of the
roots. This difficulty can be almost en-
tirely overcome by the application of con-

1240

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

centrated commercial fertilizers at inter-
vals during growth, provided potash and
phosphoric acid are mixed in the soil
when the pots and benches are filled.
One application of sodium nitrate should
be made while the pots are plunged in
sand and two after they have been set
in the permanent bed. Dissolve 30 ounces
of nitrate in 25 gallons of cold water and
pour half a pint of the solution around
each plant. The effect upon the plants
is remarkable. Growth is not only has-
tened but the foliage becomes darker and
more healthy in appearance.

Yarieties for Forciiiff

A great many varieties of lettuce are
recommended for forcing purposes, but
fortunately it is not difficult to decide
upon a few that are entirely satisfactory
for culture throughout the country.

Of the headed varieties, Boston Market
leads. It is almost exclusively grown in
the large establishments near Boston and
New York. It makes a very solid, com-
pact head that generally commands re-
munerative prices. Boston Market and
other varieties of this class require very
sandy soils to secure the best results.

Grand Rapids is a favorite with many
growers. It is exceedingly hardy, up-
right and vigorous in growth and not
liable to rot. The curled leaves form a
beautiful head, rendering it especially
desirable for marketing in pots.

Curled Simpson and Black-Seeded
Simpson have been leading forcing varie-
ties for many years. They have been
used largely in hotbeds and cold frames.
The heads of both varieties are more
compact than those of Grand Rapids but
not so handsome. Black-Seeded Simpson
is larger than Curled Simpson and for
this reason is the more profitable when
grown to be sold by measure.

Adapted to Southern Conditions

Lettuce is an easy plant to grow and
can be had at a season when most veg-
etables are scarce. There is such a de-
mand for this plant that it is a luxury
on many tables. Many of the varieties
cannot stand the hot summer sun, but

when given a little protection they may
be successfully grown from September to
•June. The yield is influenced by the soil,
but with careful management inferior
soils may be changed to such a degree
as to grow a satisfactory crop. The best
soil for lettuce is a sandy loam, or loam
underlayed with a good porous clay sub-
soil and one that is well drained. With-
out a clay subsoil much of the plant food
will be leached out and lost. A deep
sandy soil is quicker, but it must be con-
stantly fed to produce good results, which
makes it a soil very expensive to operate
on. Care must be taken to select a soil
that will not become water-sogged after
a rain.

Lettuce is a quick-growing crop, and
requires a large quantity of humus in
the soil. Well-rotted barnyard manure
applied to the soil is one of the best
means of adding humus to it, but this
is not always available. A good compost
heap is another way of securing humus.
The cheapest substitute for manure is
the plowing under of leguminous crops.
Lettuce growers should have their soil
covered with a leguminous crop of some
kind, when the lettuce season is over.
Unless the grower is willing to give up
the time and necessary expense to bring
the lettuce soil up to the above require-
ments it will not pay to handle the crop.
Prepare the land by broadcasting stable
manure or well-rotted compost and then
plow it deeply. The land should then
be harrowed until the soil is in the best
possible condition. These preparations
should be completed at least ten days
before the time to set out the plants.
About one thousand pounds per acre of
the fertilizer given below should be ap-
plied to the soil and well incorporated
with it before the plants are set:

Acid Phosphate (16%) 39.5 lbs.

Cotton Seed Meal 286 lbs.

Nitrate of Soda 1 25 lbs.

Muriate of Potash 194 lbs.

Total 1.000 lbs.

This is a 7-4-10 goods.

The above should be used in addition
to manure. When the plants begin to
head apply about 150 pounds of nitrate
of soda per acre. An application of 75

LETTUCE DISEASES

1241

pounds per acre should be made in about
ten days.

Plants are ready for setting in about
six weeks from the time the seeds are
sown. If the weather is warm the seed
may be sown in the open, but in case cold
weather prevails the hotbeds or cold
frames should be used. The seed bed
should be made as carefully as possible,
the soil being thoroughly broken up and
finely pulverized with a good supply of
well-rotted manure worked into it. One
ounce of seed is enough for 2,000 plants
and five pounds for one acre. The seed
should be sown quite shallow in drills
eight inches apart in the cold frames,
firming the soil above them with a board.
When planting the seed in the open the
drills should be 18 inches apart. The
seed does not germinate readily in warm
weather, therefore it is better to shade
the seed bed in the middle of the day to
prevent it from drying.

When the plants are ready for trans-
planting weed out and destroy all dis-
eased and feeble plants, as weak plants
will not head. In transplanting avoid
setting the plants too deeply, for if the
base of the leaves is set in the soil the
plants are liable to rot off or will not
head. The plant should be set so that
the bottom leaves will come at a level
with the surface of the soil. As soon as
the frames are set the beds should be
well watered and shaded. When the
plants have recovered from the trans-
planting the shade should be removed.
The plants should be kept clean and fre-
quently cultivated, also well watered. The
early plants will not need protection, but
after November sash should be placed
over them at night. It is the practice of
many growers to use cloth instead of
sash. The cloth is cheaper from the
standpoint of the initial cost but will
cost more in the long run. The latter
will last two years while the sash will
last twenty or more if well cared for
during the summer. A better quality of
lettuce can be produced under glass and
the moisture conditions can be more
easily controlled.

There are two types of lettuce, namely.

those that head and those which do not.
The latter is preferred for the North Cen-
tral and Western markets, while the head-
ing varieties are preferred for Eastern
markets. Both kinds are valuable for
local markets and home use. The best
varieties in each class are given below.

Heading — Big Boston, Hanson, Giant
White.

Not Heading — Grand Rapids, Curl
Simpson.

Lettuce is packed in seven-eighths-
bushel hampers for shipment.

W. P. Williams

LETTUCE DISEASES

Bacterial Disease of Lettuce

The characteristic symptoms of this
disease are so well marked that it need
not be confused with any other lettuce
disease. The edge of the leaves first
turn brown, and later become dried and
blackened. Also the leaves become first
brown spotted, the spots afterwards turn-
ing black. Brown or black spots may be
found along the midrib.

When the lettuce begins to head, the
disease gets into the head and causes
what is known as black rot.

The conditions which seem to favor the
spread of the disease are warmth and
wet weather.

The infection does not always take
place in the field, but may be transmitted
from the seed bed.

Suggestions as to Treatment

This disease can be spread through the
field. Diseased plants should be taken
off the field and burned. Do not pull up
the diseased plants and put them in the
alleyways.

As moisture and warm weather supply
the conditions under which the disease
thrives best, the beds should be kept
thoroughly drained. Do not let the cov-
ers down at night unless you are sure
there will be frost, and raise them early
in the morning as soon as the atmos-
phere is warm enough. Be sure and
plant the seed bed where there were no
diseases the previous year. Do not set
out any plants from an infected seed bed.
O. F. Burgher,
Florida Experiment Station.

1242

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Damping Oft"

Corticium vagum
This trouble is caused by a soil fungus
frequently called Rhizoctonia and known
technically as Corticium vagum,. This
fungus, which is widespread, is capable
of causing damping-off diseases in many
different kinds of seedlings and plants.
In its attack on lettuce it may either
"damp off" the young seedlings at the sur-
face of the ground or, if it attacks older
plants, it may produce the rosette. This
condition is characterized by the failure
of the center leaves to grow.

Control

Either steam sterilization of the soil
or a treatment with formalin has been
found effective. In sterilizing with form-
alin, use a 5 per cent solution of the 40
per cent formaldehyde in water and
drench thoroughly. Allow soil to dry
before setting plants.

Downy Mildew

Bremia lactucae
This disease is caused by a fungus
which in its life history is similar to the
fungus causing the onion mildew. This
disease occurs, in general, only under
certain conditions favorable to the
growth of the fungus. It occurs in the
greenhouse or in forcing frames which
are kept too warm or moist and may
ordinarily be controlled by properly reg-
ulating these conditions.

Symptoms

It is recognized by yellow areas on the
upper surface of the leaf and by the white
downy growth of the fungus on the lower
surface.

Control

It is advisable to burn diseased leaves
or plants and water the beds in such a
way that the foliage is kept dry.

Drop

Sclerotinia libertiana
The fungus causing this disease occurs
on many different kinds of plants, and
since it is a common soil organism of a
type that is hard to control should be
carefully guarded against. The affected
plant shows no definite diseased spots.
It grows slowly, finally the stem and

lower leaves become watery and soon the
whole plant collapses and rapidly decays.

Control

It is claimed that the disease can be
eradicated from a bed in two years if all
diseased plants are removed and de-
stroyed as soon as they appear and the
place is immediately drenched with Bor-
deaux mixture or a solution of bluestone.
This is necessary in order to prevent the
sclerotia or resistant stage of the fungus
from maturing. In some cases it may be
easier to change or sterilize all of the soil
in the bed. The disease can be held in
check by the careful regulation of tem-
perature and water supply. A low night
temperature with constant day ventila-
tion is very essential.

Gray Mold

Botrytis cinerea
This disease is due to a common fungus
and is in all essentials like the drop.
After the plant has collapsed, a gray mold
appears and at this stage great numbers
of spores capable of spreading the dis-
ease are produced. The same control
measures apply as for drop.

Leaf Perforation

Marsonia perforans
This disease has recently been found
in greenhouses in several localities in
the Northwest, and as it has caused con-
siderable damage in Ohio, where it was
first discovered, it seems advisable for
the growers to be on the lookout in order
to hold it in check.

Symptoms

On the leaves this fungus causes spots
which die and drop out. On the midrib,
many sunken, elongated spots are pro-
duced. A plant once affected seldom ever
recovers and the new leaves are mis-
shapen and unsalable.

The spores of the fungus are often scat-
tered by watering or air currents. They
are produced in great numbers on the
spots of dead leaf tissue which fall out.

Control

It is claimed that Bordeaux mixture
can be used in the seed beds and on seed-
lings to keep the disease down, but if

LIME— LIME DISEASES AND PESTS

1243

infestation becomes serious, thorough
fumigation of tlie liouses and soil sterili-
zation will be profitable.

P. D. Bailey

Leaf Spot

Septoria consimilis E. & M.

The leaf-spot fungus is frequently upon
wild lettuce plants and occasionally upon
outdoor lettuce, especially in late seasons.
The small characteristic leaf spots are
not difficult to distinguish from anthrac-
nose. The remedies are confined to avoid-
ance.

Tip Burn

Tip burn of lettuce leaves is often
brought to notice. Usually it is asso-
ciated with unsatisfactory watering in
the greenhouse, or with extreme changes
to summer weather. The remedy consists
in the methods of watering employed.

Bibliography

1910. Stevens & Hall, Diseases of
Economic Plants.

1909. Duggar's Plant Diseases.

1910. Ohio Experiment Station, Bulle-
tin No. 214.

1911. North Carolina Technical Bulle-
tin 8.

Lettuce Culture in Alaska. See
Alaska.

Lime

The lime. Citrus meclica, is a small tree
of the orange family. Its fruit resembles
the lemon in appearance and character
but it is much smaller and is not so ex-
tensively cultivated because not so gen-
erally in demand.

There are two varieties, the sour lime,
var. acida, and the sweet lime, var. Limet-
ta. The juice of the lime is acid tonic
and considered a preventive of and rem-
edy for scurvy.

The sailors of the British navy are
sometimes called "lime juicers" because
the law requires that the crews be fur-
nished with a weekly allowance of lime
juice or lemons as a preventive of scurvy.

Varieties recommended for the districts
where grown:

(For Map of Districts, see page 192.)

District IVo. 6

Highly recommended — Dessert, Kitchen
and Market: Rangpur.

Recommended — Kitchen : Turan j.

District No. 17

Recommended — Mexican.

District No. 18

Recommended — Imperial; Mexican.

LIME DISEASES AND PESTS

For the most part the lime is attacked
by the same diseases and pests as attack
lemons and oranges, which see.

Diplacus Ceropiito

Ceroputo yxiccae Coq.

General Appearance

This insect is continually mistaken for
the regular mealy bugs belonging to the
genus Pseudococcus. It differs in having
a tooth on the inner surface of the claw,
and a row of spine-groups on each side.
The cottony covering is very dense and
arranged in broad segmental plates. The
males are nearly half an inch long, with
dark and orange-colored bodies, and long
anal filaments. The cocoons are elliptical
in shape, white in color and scattered
among the females.

Life History

The young are born alive and soon se-
crete wax enough to completely cover
them. The broods appear in the late
spring and early summer, and are espe-
cially abundant during the months of
April, May, June and July. The males
mature when the females are about two-
thirds grown; the life period of the fe-
males being from three to five months.
This species lives under the ground on
roots of black sage, Ramona stachyoides,
and above ground on other plants. As
an aerial form it does not appear until
late in the season. The adults in all
probability hibernate under ground in
winter.

Food Plants

Black sage, banana, orange, lime.

Natural Enemies

Coquillett bred an internal parasite
from specimens taken in Los Angeles
county. This he named Blastothrix yuc-
cae Coq. E. O. Essig

1244

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Liquid Manure Tank

Liquid manure tanks, which can be
built at a very small cost, have proved
their worth not only by improving the
sanitary conditions around the barns but
by benefiting the soil. The first one erect-
ed in Pierce county, Washington, cost
$100. The tank is built of concrete and
coarse gravel, the walls being 8 inches
thick. The tank may be built any length
to suit the dairyman. One of the most
successful ones in Tacoma is 65 feet long,
16 feet wide and 7 feet deep.

All of the urine and manure from the
dairy is run through pipe connections to
the tank together with about 60 per cent
of water. When opportunity comes to
put the liquid manure on the soil, it is
necessary to empty the water-tight tank
by means of a pump into a tank wagon
with low wheels. Or if the tank is built
on a side hill, a pump may not be neces-
sary. A perforated pipe is built on the
rear of the wagon, extending about 2
feet on either side of the wheels. The
perforations are about a half inch in
dameter, and the pipe is about 4 inches
in diameter. By means of a lever, the
driver can regulate the flow.

The concrete tanks ought to be con-
structed about 50 feet from the barn, and
if possible so situated that it would only
be necessary to drain the fluid from the
receptacle into the wagon.

By means of a screen any obstacle that
will tend to clog the perforations in the
pipe on the rear of the wagon may be
eliminated. It has been found that the
urine is just as valuable for fertilizer as
the manure, and the liquid fertilizer is
much easier to handle.

Dr. S. A. Rhoades,

Tacoma, Wash.

Loganberry

The loganberry is a hybrid originated
by crossing the Red Antwerp raspberry
with the Aughinbaugh blackberry. It
has come to be regarded as of consider-
able commercial importance and is re-
garded by many fruit growers as one of
the most profitable fruits.

LOGANBERRY CULTURE IN THE
WILLAMETTE VALLEY

Britt Aspinwall

Used b.v special permission of the Pacific
Horticultural Correspondence School, Port-
land, Oreffon. Copyrishted, all rights reserved.

Before going into the loganberry bus-
iness on a commercial basis it is import-
ant that that the following requisites be
observed :

(1) Selection of soil, (2) proper drain-
age, (3) right proportions for yard, (4)
camping facilities for pickers, (5) pro-
tection from frosts, (6) shipping facili-
ties, (7) wood, (8) good plants.

Selection of Soil

(1) I prefer a deep, rich, dark loam
soil; bottom land is usually richer than
upland, especially the silt soils near the
rivers, but as much of it has a gravelly
subsoil it is harder to keep the moisture
near the surface by cultivation than on
the upland prairie soil. Loganberries do
fairly well on the red hill land but not
so well as on black loam.

Proper Drainage

(2) Drainage is very important, as
loganberries will soon die out where the
water stands around the roots for sever-
al days at time. As the rows should run
north and south it is best to select land
that drains either to the north or south,
if surface drainage is used, so the water
will run off between the rows during the
winter. If there is not good surface
drainage, or if it drains to the east or
west, the land should be tiled.

Right Proportions for Yard

(3) This is a point that is many
times overlooked. I have seen loganber-
ries set out with the rows from 40 to
60 rods long, making it unhandy in every
way about picking and carrying out the
berries. We find that rows from 45 to 50
hills long are the most convenient in
picking, as it gives the pickers only a
short distance to carry the berries to the
ends of the rows. We always set them
out leaving a 16-foot road through the
middle, and rows of the above length on
each side of the road, so as to build the
packing sheds and evaporators in the
middle of the yard and work across the

LOGANBERRY— CULTURE IN THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY

1245

road so as to save as much turning as
possible with the teams.

Camping Facilities for Pickers

(4) This is important in every large
yard where pickers have to come and
camp. It is much easier to get pickers
to come where they have a good place to
camp in the shade, as the picking season
is during the hottest part of the year
when families are glad to get out of the
cities and camp out. Convenience to the
yard, good water and dry wood are all
important in getting and keeping pick-
ers.

Protection from Frosts

(5) The ordinary precautions observed
in selecting a site for an orchard should
be taken here. Where a yard is pro-
tected by trees it is less apt to freeze
during a hard winter or late spring than
in the open.

Shipping Facilities

(6) This is important, especially if
the berries are to be shipped fresh, as
hauling them over rough roads makes
them settle and bruises them so they will
spoil sooner; besides, it is considerable
expense to haul for several miles to a
shipping point. It is much more con-
venient to get pickers when near a sta-
tion, as they usually come a few at a
time for several days until the berries
get ripe enough to keep a full force busy
picking them.

Wood

(7) Wood on the place is important
if the berries are to be evaporated, as it
requires about a cord or a little more
for each ton of evaporated berries. It
is also necessary to have wood for camp-
ers to burn.

Good Plants

(8) It is almost impossible to make
a success of raising loganberries without
good plants to start with. It is important
that they have good roots and are set
out without becoming wilted or heated.
There are two kinds of plants sold, viz.:
eye or bud plants and tip plants, which
are obtained by burying only the tip
end of the vine, in the fall of the year.
These make a much stronger plant and
are the only kind that should be set out.

Transplants are young plants that are
nurseried out in the spring of the year
and have one year's growth; but I pre-
fer a good tip plant to anything else as
it is not stunted by being grown one
year in a row too crowded, and when once
started the roots are not disturbed. If
it is practicable the plants should be
dug with a little dirt on the roots and
set out as soon as possible. Where good
plants are not obtainable close enough
so they can be hauled they should be
packed in good condition so they will
neither heat nor dry out before arriving
at destination. Where shipment is made
for some distance transplants are pre-
ferred by some growers.

Preparation of Ground

For the best success the ground should
be plowed in the fall and again in the
spring and thoroughly worked up and
put in the best of condition. Do not
try to rush matters and work the ground
after the plants are set out, but get it
in good shape first. The fall plowing
should be from 10 inches to a foot deep
and in the spring about six or eight
inches deep. After it is all prepared in
good condition, mark both ways with a
marker, making the rows eight feet each
way and set out where they cross. This
is the fastest way, as one man can dig
holes with a shovel for about five to set
out, setting out in good condition about
six acres a day. Some use a wire for
lining up the rows, which is a good plan
on a small yard but is much slower.

In setting them out take a good shovel-
ful of dirt out and put the plant in,
spreading the roots out in good order and
packing the dirt in around them by hand,
so as to keep them from drying out. Af-
ter the plants are set out they should
be worked both ways during the first
summer once each week with a disc har-
row or spring-tooth, followed by a clod
masher when the weather is at all dry.

It is best never to try to raise anything
between the rows the first year, as it is
harder to cultivate during the summer,
and in harvesting the crop the vines are
usually injured to considerable extent;
besides scarcely any two crops need cul-

1246

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

tivating at exactly the same time. The
vines will not make much of a growth
until about the first of August, when they
will shoot out over the ground making
vines sometimes 20 to 30 feet long before
the first of October. As soon as the vines
begin to grow out in the way, so as to
bother with the cultivation, they should
be turned lengthwise of the rows and the
ground cultivated only one way. Then
is a good time to commence setting the
posts in the rows so as to get them all
in and the wires up before the first of
October, when it is best to train them up.

In setting the posts use good strong
posts, preferably cedar, seven feet long,
and set them not over 32 feet apart in
rows and two feet in the ground. This
makes a five-foot trellis. Three No. 12
galvanized wires, placing them 20 inches
apart with the last one on top of the
posts, are used. The end posts should
be anchored good, as there will be a
heavy strain on the wires when the
vines are loaded with ripening fruit or
during the winter if they get covered
with snow.

The cost per acre for setting out logan-
berries, figuring labor at $2.00 per day,
is as follows:

Cost of plowins (twice) and fitting land $ 6.00
Cost of setting 680 plants (each man

one acre) 2.00

About 180 cedar posts at 10c 18.00

.TOO pounds galvanized wire at 3c. . . . l.'i.OO

Digging h'^les and anchoring end posts .5.00

Hauling in and setting posts 3.00

Stretching wire and stapling 3 00

Dead men for anchoring and staples... 1.00

$.53.00

Of course this will be increased by an
advance in the price of posts, wire or
labor, or on the other hand decreased by
a decline of prices, but I think it is a
fair estimate of the average cost. The
cost of plants will vary in different years
and will also be governed as to whether
tips or yearling transplants are used.

Training tlie Vines

The first year the vines should be
trained upon the wires the latter part
of September or during October. In
training them up the first year a num-
ber of the shorter canes will have to be
tied to the wires to keep them up, but
after the first year they can be trained

without tying by wrapping them around
the wires. In training spread the vines
out covering as much space as possible
and avoid bunching them on the wires,
as it will bother in picking the berries
if the vines are bunched. The top wire
will carry most of the weight and we run
the vines out on this wire and the sec-
ond one, turning the ends down just
enough to hold them good unless more
plants are wanted, when they will have
to be trained with the tips down to the
ground so they can be covered in the
fall.

To secure plants from the vines train
them with the tips to the ground and
cover about three inches deep about the
first of October. They will take root in
the fall and make good strong plants for
setting out in March or April. They may
be covered by plowing a furrow to them,
if the tips are nearly even, or with
trowels.

Ciiltiration

After the vines are all trained up in
good order the land should be plowed,
throwing the dirt to the vines. Plow the
first two rounds with one horse on a vine-
yard plow and the last one should be
made with a team on a heavier plow.
Next to the vines it should be plowed
shallow so as to not injure the roots,
but the dead furrow in the center should
be quite deep so as to afford good drain-
age during the winter. Leave the ground
in this condition without harrowing un-
til spring. In the spring of the year as
soon as the land is in good condition to
work, plow it, throwing the dirt to the
center of the row. The last furrow
should be shallow and close to the rows
so as to save as much hoeing as possible.
Follow the plow with a harrow to keep
the ground from drying out, then hoe
out all the weeds in and between the
hills. This may be done either by hand
or with a horse hoe. The horse hoe is
more practicable in a large yard as it
saves considerable time and expense. Af-
ter hoeing follow up with a disc harrow,
throwing the dirt toward the vines, level-
ing it down. After this keep it worked
during the summer with a disc harrow
and spring-tooth harrow or something

LOGANBERRY CULTURE IN THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY

1247

similar once each week, followed each
time with a clod masher to keep a dust
mulch on the surface. They should be
worked up till about the middle of July
and the last time should be gone
through with a disc harrow to throw
the dirt up to the rows and between
the hills so as to keep them from drying
out.

Picking

Picking season will start in about the
20th of June, but it is sometimes a week
or ten days earlier or as much later.
It will last about six weeks. If the ber-
ries are to be shipped to the market
fresh they will have to be picked very
firm, but if they are to be evaporated
they must be left on the vines until
fully ripe as they will dry heavier and
make a better fruit if fully ripe.

It requires about five good pickers
for each acre. Everything should be
in readiness before picking starts,
plenty of wood and water for the pick-
ers, carrier for picking into, etc. A
good yard boss is also very important.
One who knows just how the berries
should be picked and can get along with
the pickers is the kind to have. He
must be able to get through the yard
several times a day. The rows should
all be numbered so the yard boss can
keep a book of just which row each
picker is on and know who is respon-
sible if any berries are skipped. If
they are to be shipped to the cannery
or to the market fresh, a good packing
shed should be provided in the center
of the yard so as to make it convenient
for the pickers to bring in the berries.

The cost of picking is about $20 per
ton of fresh fruit. Pickers are paid 5-6
of a cent per box for the first two weeks
of picking, 1 cent per box for the next
two weeks and 1% cents for the bal-
ance of the season. As the berries are
a little thinner at the last of the sea-
son than at the beginning this makes
an average price of about 1 cent per
box. This method of paying gives the
pickers who stay through the season
as good pay as though they received a
cent a box straight through, but those

who quit after picking a few days get
less pay for what they have done and
any that have to be engaged later in
the season get more pay as the berries
get thinner on the vines. Each picker
is numbered and has a ticket with a
place for the picker's number at the
top and figures running from one to
12 down through the center with the
grower at the bottom. The check men
punch out the number of boxes picked,
giving a new check with only one hole
punched each time. Three colors are used,
one for each price paid for picking.
Each color is also marked whether 5-6
of a cent, or 1 cent or ly^ cents per
box. The check man puts the picker's
number on each ticket with an indelible
pencil. We also number the carriers,
so we can at any time check against the
picker by keeping tab every few days
when dirty berries are found.

Pick in the common hallock, either
square or good tin tops, and use car-
riers to hold 12 of them. The carriers
should be as light as possible and have
tight bottoms. Use %-inch stuff for the
ends and i/i-inch for the sides and bot-
toms. If they are built with the end
pieces 5 inches high and the handles
about 914 inches high they will easily
stack up as well as when crated, which
is very important when they must be
piled on the platform of the dryer so as
to have enough to run through the night.
When evaporating the berries there
should be at least four carriers for each
picker, but when they are to be packed
and shipped fresh two will do, as they
are emptied much faster and none have
to be left for storing the berries for night
work. We use two-wheeled spring carts
with a bed large enough to pile 12 car-
riers on the bed and as many can be
piled on top as can be handled. The
check men take this cart up the road
through the center of the yard and load
on the berries as fast as brought to the
ends of the rows, giving checks for them;
when loaded they return to the evapora-
tor or packing shed and unload, loading
up with empties while the other one is
being loaded. This keeps the pickers
in the yard out of the way, and two men

1248

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

can handle the berries for 100 or 125
pickers in this way if everything is con-
venient. In large yards of 100 acres or
more the hauling could probably be done
better and cheaper with a flat-top spring
wagon or an auto truck.

A good average crop of loganberries,
taking it one year with another for sev-
eral years, is about four tons or a lit-
tle more of fresh fruit to the acre, al-
though with proper care on good land
they frequently yield as high as six or
seven tons.

Evaporation

There are several kinds of evaporators,
but I prefer either a stack or tunnel dry-
er. A good stack dryer with a good lift
is very good and will give good service,
but is more expensive than a tunnel dry-
er.

There are many different styles of tun-
nel dryers built, but unless one knows
just what kind he wants he should get
an experienced man to make the plans
and build it, as it is necessary to get
them about right to get the best results.
It requires about 30 trays 25x42 inches
to handle the berries from an acre of
land. The trays should be made of 4-
mesh galvanized gray cloth and be well
braced to keep them from sagging.
Three or 3M;-inesh cloth will do, but if
the finer mesh can be obtained it will
be more satisfactory. It requires from
20 to 30 hours to dry loganberries with
the heat at about 140 degrees. A man
who understands the business should be
in charge of the drying, as it is an easy
matter to spoil several dollars worth of
berries in a very few minutes' time. Af-
ter the berries are evaporated they
should be binned in a dark bin and
shoveled over each day till they do not
pack any more or they will pack and
mold.

It requires from 5 to 5% pounds of
fresh loganberries to make one pound
evaporated, depending largely on the con-
dition of the fruit when picked. If it is
a little green it will take more pounds
of fresh fruit than if fully ripe when
picked. The cost of evaporation is va-
riously estimated at from $30 to $75 per

ton of evaporated fruit. Of course it de-
pends largely on the size of the evapor-
ators and the amount of fruit handled,
but I believe the cost for evaporating in
a yard of 20 acres or more can be re-
duced to $40 per ton or lower by run-
ning a double 12-hour shift, using three
men in the day and two at night. It
would probably require a little extra
help some days during the busiest part
of the season and less help to wind up
with.

The daily output from a 20-acre yard
will average about 1,000 pounds of evap-
orated berries daily, of course running
considerably more during the heaviest
picking and less during the fore and lat-
ter parts of the season. It takes a lit-
tle over a cord of wood to the ton of
evaporated fruit, and the man in charge
of the drying for each shift will prob-
ably ask about $4.00 per day of 12 hours
and the other help can usually be had
for $2.00 or $2.50 per day. We run our
shifts from midnight till noon, except the
regular day help.

The cost of a good stack dryer for a
yard of 10 acres would be about $1,000,
depending, of course on the kind of build-
ing put up and cost of material, and a
tunnel dryer would be probably $200 less.
For an acreage of 15 acres or more I
would recommend a tunnel dryer, as the
cost is considerably less and the cost of
handling the fruit is also less. The cost
of a tunnel dryer for an acreage of 20
acres or more can be figured at about $50
for each acre of berries. A dryer with
10 34-foot tunnels should handle 50 acres
if the tunnels are built with a drop of
1% or 2 inches to the foot and with a
good draught.

Pruning Vines

As soon as the picking season is over
and the old vines are ripe they should
be cut off at the ground and pulled out,
throwing them between the rows where
they can be cut up by running over them
several times with a sharp disc harrow.
As soon as the old vines are out the new
ones should be trained up on the wires
ready for the next crop. If this is done
soon after picking it is much easier, as

LOGANBERRY CULTURE IN THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY

1249

the vines grow fast in the fall of the
year, and the sooner it is done the few-
er vines there are to handle. If the
vines are to be tipped they should be
trained down within about 12 or 14 inches
of the ground so they will grow about
the right length before tipping, but if
no more plants are wanted they should
be run out on the wires. As soon as
they are trained the old vines should
be cut up ready for the land to be plowed
after the first rains in September.

The cost of cutting out the old vines
and training up the new ones is about
$12 per acre each year if done the first
thing after picking. If they are left for
some time afterward the expense will be
considerably more owing to the extra
growth the new vines have taken on.
One of the most important things in
connection with loganberry culture is
the cutting out of the old vines. This
should be done as soon as possible after
the picking season is over, as they are
taking the strength out of the roots that
should go into the new vines for the

next year's crop, and if there is any dis-
ease in them it is spreading to the new
vines. If they are taken out early and
disked up in the rows I think there is
very little danger of any disease spread-
ing from them, and they make a good
fertilizer. Some growers have resorted
to spraying their vines for anthracnose,
but a close inquiry reveals the fact that
the new canes were left lying on the
ground during the winter, where they
are far more susceptible to disease than
when trained up on the trellis. The cost
of spraying is said to be about $1 per
acre when put on in good shape with a
power sprayer. As stated before, how-
ever, if the vines are cut out as soon as
possible after picking, and the new ones
trained upon the trellis so as to disc up
the old ones and plow them under, I
think there will be no need for spraying
for several years to come. Some growers
are also taking the old vines out and
burning them, but I think this is a
mistake and an unnecessary expense.
Most of the land in the Willamette

I>oganberry Field, Showing Method of Trellising.

— Courirsii Soutlurii I'ociflc Railroad Co.

1250

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

valley will raise loganberries if they
are properly handled, but unless they
are to be well cared for" they had bet-
ter not be set out at all, as a little
mismanagement in the work, such as not
setting them out when the ground is in
the best of condition, or working them
at the proper time, will result disas-
trously and it requires only a few days
to set them back a great deal. Unless
one has had experience he should get
some experienced man to handle his yard
the first year at least, if he goes into
the business very extensively. It re-
quires good judgment to grow loganber-
ries the same as it does to make a suc-
cess with an orchard, and as every sea-
son is different no one rule will work
every year.

There is at the present time a great
and growing demand for canned and
evaporated loganberries, besides for the
juice, and as the Willamette valley is the
most ideal place that can be found for
their culture it promises well to be one
of the leading horticultural industries
here in the future.

When loganberries are shipped to the
market fresh they seem to sell best in
the 24-box double crates. These cost
about 15 cents each, including crates and
hallocks. They should be packed with
care, being careful not to set the top
boxes on any of the berries in the low-
er ones so as to bruise them and make
them leak, as they will present a very
unsightly appearance when they arrive at
destination if bleeding much. In pack-
ing them it is not necessary to face them
as in strawberries, but see that the boxes
are well filled and put into the crate
properly.

Evaporated berries are packed in one-
pound paper boxes with 24 or 36 to the
case, and in bulk in 10, 25 and 50-pound
boxes. The trade apparently takes to
them better in bulk than in the one-
pound boxes. The cost of boxes, waxed
paper for lining, and labor in packing
in bulk is about $40 per ton for the
evaporated berries.

LOGANBERRY JUICE

C. I. Lewis,

T^sed by special permission of the Pacific
Horticultural Correspondence School, Port-
land. Oregon. Copyrighted, all rights reserved.
No phase of horticulture on the Pacific
coast has attracted so much comment,
and favorable comment, the past two
years, as the loganberry, and the rest of
the nation has been aroused to the true
merits of this berry. We are realizing
that we have a new food, so to speak.

The merits of the loganberry have been
realized largely from the fact that it
could be canned successfully, and made a
most excellent pie; that it could be easily
evaporated, and that it made a most ex-
cellent jelly. Not until recently, how-
ever, have we realized that probably the
greatest asset was its juice.

Loganberry juice is being pronounced
by experts wherever tried as superior to
grape juice. We know that a wonderful
business has been built up in the manu-
facture of grape juice. It would seem,
therefore, that a splendid opportunity is
presented to Pacific coast growers in the
manufacture of loganberry juice.

This beverage is very refreshing and
healthful, easy to manufacture, and easy
to keep. The organic acids of the logan-
berry seem to be very largely self-pre-
servative, much more so than those found
in any other berry. The manufacture of
loganberry juice is as yet in the experi-
mental stage. It is being manufactured
almost entirely for home use, there being
but a few firms who are attempting to
manufacture it commercially, and the
next few years should demonstrate to us
the proper technique to employ in the
manufacture of the juice.

Experiments will demonstrate the real
value of the loganberry as a commercial
asset.

In considering the loganberry juice I
would make three divisions: First, bev-
erages for home manufacture, or to be
sold in bottles for home consumption.
Second, a syrup for soda-fountain trade
in the East. Third, special concentrated
juices for the use of caterers.

All three of these fields are very large
and any one of them could be made to
use the juice from a large acreage.

LOGANBERRY DISEASES AND PESTS— LOUISIANA

1251

Home Manufacture of Juices

The simplest way to make loganberry
juice that we have ever tried is the fol-
lowing: Place just enough water in the
bottom of a kettle to cover the loganber-
ries. Heat nearly to the boiling point,
but do not allow to boil. Stir them oc-
casionally and crush them if possible.
After they become soft strain the mix-
ture through a cloth jelly bag. Allow the
mixture to drip thoroughly, putting the
juice back on the stove and adding one-
third sugar by measure. Again heat the
juice up to about 200 degrees and bottle.
Drive in the corks tight and cover with
paraffin. Such juice can probably be kept
indefinitely, as I have kept it at least two
years. This is a heavy juice and will need
to be greatly diluted before drinking.
From one-half inch to an inch of this
juice in the bottom of a glass of water is
a beverage of sufficient strength. In mak-
ing punches the addition of the juice of
four lemons to each gallon adds to the
quality.

Recipe No. 2. This is being used by a
grower in Southern Oregon. The juice
is made very largely as Recipe No. 1, ex-
cept that before final bottling the juice
is allowed to stand for about nine days,
when it slightly ferments and has the
snap of sweet cider after it begins to
work a little. Some people prefer a
beverage of this nature.

Recipe No. 3. This to put up the juice
absolutely without any cooking. To do
this a fruit press should be used to ex-
tract the juice. All bottles and utensils
used should be sterilized. This is not the
best process for the average person to
use as most of the juice will spoil.

Recipe No. 4. Heavy syrups. Caterers
who have made punches find that if in-
stead of adding one-third of the measure
of sugar, we add about eleven pounds of
sugar to each gallon of juice that a very
heavy syrup results; that the sugar tends
to set the flavor of the berry and that
this amount of sugar tends to result in
a better flavor than where a small amount
of sugar is used. It is claimed by some
that this preparation will keep without
cooking. When this is diluted it makes

a most excellent punch, especially where
the juice of about four lemons is added
to the gallon of the liquid.

Commercial Manufacture of Juices

The commercial manufacture of logan-
berry juice is in its infancy. Little in-
formation as to the amount of juice which
can be obtained from an acre is obtain-
able. One man has reported that he has
obtained 90 per cent juice. If this is so
the average yield of juice from an acre
would be tremendous. The commercial
manufacture of loganberry juice would
be very similar to that of apple cider and
grape juice. The machinery, etc., used
in making sweet apple juice, or carbon-
ated apple juice, would be applicable to
the manufacture of loganberry juice.

Of course you must use great care to
have all the buildings and all instruments
sterilized and to keep the juice in cold
storage after bottling. Probably a small
amount of cooking, sweetening and bot-
tling, much along the lines indicated in
Recipe No. 1 for home use, would be one
of the principal ways for utilizing logan-
berry juice. Those who like a carbonated
drink could very easily carbonate the
juice. For shipping east in all probability
the best line for us to experiment along
will be that of making heavy syrups, that
we can ship in barrels or kegs and have
the eastern people either bottle this for
the soda-fountain trade or for caterers.

For a method for holding berries for
soda-fountain trade, see Method of Hold-
ing Fresh Berries, under Storage.

LOGAJfBERRT DISEASES AND PESTS

The loganberry is attacked by much
the same list of diseases and pests as
the related raspberry and blackberry. The
diseases and pests of loganberry will be
found listed under the above plants.

Frosted Scale. See Apricot Pests.

Louisiana

Louisiana is one of the largest and one
of the most important of the Southern
states and has the most important sea-
board city of the South. It was said by
Napoleon Bonaparte that whoever held
New Orleans held the key to North Ameri-

1252

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ca. The Mississippi river, with its im-
mense volume of v?ater, flows in a wind-
ing way along the western border of
tlie state for a considerable distance,
then across the southeastern corner of
the state, leaving 37,000 square miles on
the west side of the river and 4,346 on
the east. This river flows through allu-
vial soils of low elevation, requiring the
protection of levees, of which there are
1,500 miles. The coast line of the delta
and eastward consists of lands little above
sea level, intersected by small tracts of
elevated prairies and low ridges covered
with live-oaks. North and westward the
land rises until in the northern part of
the state the hills attain a height of 500
feet.

The entire state was formerly an an-
cient gulf whose shores at one time
touched Cairo, 111., which has been grad-
ually filled in by the deposit brought
down by the Mississippi.

The climate is semi-tropical. In sum-
mer the mercury reaches 105 degrees. In
winter it seldom drops far below the
freezing point, but occasionally there are
heavy snows, and in the winter of 1895
the mercury fell to 9 degrees above zero.
This being 23 degrees belo\" freezing
point, great damage was done to the crops
and especially to the orange groves. This,
of course, was extreme and does not
occur once in a generation, but the mer-
cury often falls to the point of danger.
The prevailing winds are from the ocean
and Gulf, which for the most part fur-
nishes protection from the cold. The
rainfall varies from 40 to 60 inches, ac-
cording to the location.

Less than two-fifths of the land area
is under cultivation and the principal
crops are sugar-cane, cotton, corn and
rice. Judging by the ease with which
the fields could be irrigated from the
river beds that are higher than the sur-
rounding lands, it is possible that Louis-
iana may in the future produce enormous
quantities of rice. The sandy hills of the
uplands in the northern part of the state
will successfully grow apples, peaches,
pears, plums and cherries that are se-
lected with reference to a southern cli-

mate, but it is too far south to grow the
best-keeping varieties of apples and place
them on the market in competition with
those grown in the northern sections.
Further south in the central portion of
the state are the bluff-lands that produce
peaches, plums, berries and immense
quantities of vegetables. In the Gulf re-
gion lemons, oranges, persimmons, figs
and bananas are grown successfully. How-
ever, it should be borne in mind that
there is danger from what is called
northers, or cold waves. Hundreds of
acres are planted to strawberries in all
parts of the state and this fruit is ship-
ped in carload lots to the northern mar-
kets, where it brings very profitable re-
turns.

Soil

* The bluff soils of Louisiana are not
friendly to all fruits. Being tenacious
of moisture as well as highly fertile, some
of the soil tends to produce excessive
vegetation rather than heavy fruiting.

The fruits belonging to the more tem-
perate regions do not possess full hardi-
ness so far as Louisiana conditions are
concerned. They become weakened by
climatic influences and soon become a
prey to various insect and fungus at-
tacks.

Another serious drawback is the uncer-
tain character of the seasons. An open
winter may induce very early blooming
and subsequent frost will then kill the
fruit. Measures adopted in Northern
states for retarding the blooming period
are not applicable here.

Another source of trouble is the ten-
dency of some trees to overbear. This
no doubt is the most prominent cause
of the early death of some trees. The
only remedy for this is to thin the fruit
thoroughly and systematically, a thing
that very few people, outside the com-
mercial orchardists, ever practice.

To meet losses sustained, it is neces-
sary to plant some fruit trees every year,
so that as they bear and commence to
fail, new trees will come into bearing
and supply plenty of fruit.

♦Bulletin No. 112. Agricultural Experiment
Station. Baton Rouge, La.

MAINE

1253

Cultivation in the Station orchard lias
consisted in keeping the orchard as clean
as possible, and no fertilization has been
given except an occasional crop of peas.
Frequent use of the cultivator, and plow-
ing when necessary, has accomplished

this fairly well. In the rainy portion of
the summer it has been difficult to fol-
low, and it is probable that some injury
may have resulted by later cultivation,
which seemed to be necessary.

Gbanville Lowthee

Frost and Precipitation in Louisiana

Frost

Precipitation

Average Date of

Date of

Station

First

Killing in

Autumn

Last

in
Spring

First

in

Autumn

Last
in

Spring

Annual
inches

Shreveport

Monroe

Lake Providence

Alexandria

Melville

Baton Rouge

Amite

Lake Charles

New Ileria

New Orleans

Port Eads

Nov. 11
Nov. 7
Nov. 8
Nov. 8
Nov. 3
Nov. 21
Nov. 6
Nov. 28
Nov. 30
Dec. 15
Dec. 20

Mar. 4
Mar. 15
Mar. 14
Mar. 12
Mar. 12
Feb. 28
Mar. 16
Feb. 24
Feb. 24
Jan. 24
Jan. 26

Oct. 20
Oct. 10
Oct. 15
Oct. 19
Oct. 10
Oct. 27
Oct. 19
Nov. 4
Nov. 3
Nov. 11
Dec. 5

April 2
Mar. 29
Mar. 30
April 9
Mar. 29
Mar. 20
April 1
Mar. 29
Mar. 20
Mar. 27
Mar. 17

46.1
47.5
50.9
54.9
53.6
54.6
60.1
53.3
53.7
57.6
55.2

LuELLiNG, Hendersox. See History of
Orcharding in Old Oregon, under Apple.

Maine

The surface of the state of Maine is
gently rolling, forming a part of the
"New England Uplands." Above these
uplands rise isolated mountain peaks and
clusters of peaks from 3,000 to 5,200 feet
in height in contrast with numerous
river valleys, level uplands and lakes,
making a setting of beautiful scenery,
which, together with its cool climate,
invites many summer visitors with tents,
cottages and summer homes to many
parts of the state. The needs of this
summer population have given a new
impulse to market gardening and horti-
culture, especially of the varieties of
fruits adapted to the summer markets.

Geologists say that there was a period
of general uplift which caused the rivers
to cut below the general uplands and de-
veloped well-marked valleys for them-
selves. Then came the period of great

continental glaciation. The glacier or
ice sheet overran all Maine, irregularly
scouring out the bedrock to produce rock
basins, damming up many river valleys
with glacial deposits and completely dis-
arranging the drainage lines. This is
the origin of the numerous lakes in
Maine, the largest of which is Moosehead
lake of about 120 square miles, making
possible the production of fruits which
would otherwise be too tender for that
latitude.

The principal commercial fruit of
Maine is the apple, of which, according
to the census of 1910, there were 3,476,-
616 trees. The census of 1900 showed
4,184,781, showing a decrease in the num-
ber of trees of 708,165.

The counties producing the largest
number of bearing trees are: Oxford,
444,529; Kennebec, 409,593; Androscog-
gin, 376,746; Franklin, 374,464; Penob-
scot, 283,223; Cumberland, 269,658; Sum-
merset, 258,985; York, 237,242; Waldo,
206,251.

1254

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Of peaches and nectarines there are
reported for the state 5,102 trees, of
which York county has 3,068.

Of pears there are reported for the
state 46,683; plums and prunes, 43,561;
cherries, 2,403, and grapes, 9,731 vines.

The total number of acres of small
fruit is 1,260, distributed as follows:
Strawberries, 698; raspberries and logan-
berries, 127; blackberries and dewberries,
145; cranberries, 151.

Mr. G. M. Twitchell, president of the
Maine State Pomological Society, says:

"Maine is a natural apple-growing state
and trees spring up wild in every local-
ity. This being so, the first thought with
the future orchardist will be to avail
himself of the strength, vitality and en-
during power of selected native stock.
If this leads to the establishment of
nurseries in Maine, a long step will be
taken towards results now impossible.
Supplied as the farms through the fruit
section are so generally with bearing
trees, I am forced to the conviction that
before we urge further increase we should
emphasize better treatment of what we

have. The man who fails to care for
his old trees will never give proper at-
tention to a new orchard. The steady
increase of pests and diseases, brought
here largely on fruit stock, forces atten-
tion to the trees now standing and their
protection in every way possible. Be-
yond this there is call for an organized
movement to cut down and burn every
worthless tree or those so situated as
to be of no earning value. These har-
boring spots for all pests and disease
spores must be reduced to the utmost
that the cost of protection to growing
orchards may be minimized. It is de-
sired that this end be reached without
drastic legislation, but the protection
must in some way be insured. The de-
velopment of the industry outweighs the
wish of any individual and must be the
sole standard. The apple industry is
worth to Maine from two to three mil-
lion dollars yearly. If the trees now
standing and of bearing age were looked
after and protected from insect pests and
diseases, this total would be more than

doubled."

Granville Lowther

Production of Fruits in Maine
Small Fruits— 1909 and 1899

The following table shows data with regard to small fruits on farms.

Number

of farms

reporting

1909

Acres

Quantity

(quarts)

1909

CROP

1909

1899

Value
1909

Small Fruits total

1,260
698
145
127
80
59
151
(')

1,585

512

123

131

31

30

90

668

2,285,415
1,626,250
153,816
154,121
76,031
65,867
100,192
109,138

$233,124

3,464

1,464

1,051

1,076

824

536

103

168,847

15,931

20,657

6,986

5,881

7,957

6,865

'Acres reported in small fractions.

Strawberries are by far the most im-
portant of the small fruits grown in
Maine, with raspberries and loganberries
ranking next, closely followed by black-
berries and dewberries. The total acre-
age of small fruits in 1909 was 1,260, and
in 1899, 1,585, a decrease of 20.5 per cent.
The production in 1909 was 2,285,000
quarts, as compared with 1,705,000 quarts

in 1899, and the value $233,000, as com-
pared with $158,000.

Orchard Fruits, Grapes and Nuts —
1909 and 1899

The next table presents data with re-
gard to orchard fruits, grapes and nuts.
The acreage devoted to these products
was not ascertained. In comparing one

MAINE

1255

year v/ith the other the number of trees
or vines of bearing age is on the whole
a better index of the general changes of
tendencies than the quantity of product,
but the data for the censuses of 1910 and
1900 are not closely comparable and the
product is therefore compared, although
variations may be due largely to tem-
porarily favorable or unfavorable climatic
conditions.

The total quantity of orchard fruits
produced in 1909 was 3,694,000 bushels,
valued at $2,208,000. Apples contributed
over 98 per cent of this quantity, pears
and plums and prunes most of the re-
mainder. The production of grapes and
nuts was relatively unimportant.

The production of all orchard fruits
together in 1909 was 156.7 per cent great-
er in quantity than in 1899, but that of
grapes decreased. The value of orchard
fruits increased from $834,000 in 1899 to
$2,208,000 in 1909, while that of grapes
declined from $7,584 in 1899 to $6,954 in
1909. It should be noted in this connec-
tion that the values for 1899 include the
value of more advanced products derived
from orchard fruits or grapes, such as
cider, vinegar, dried fruits, and the like,
and may therefore involve some duplica-
tion, while the values shown for 1909
relate only to the products in their orig-
inal condition.

Trees or Vines of
bearing age

Trees or Vines not of

bearing age

1910

Product

CROP

1910

1909

1899

Farms
reporting

Number

Farms
reporting

Number

Quantity!

Value

Quantity'

Orchard Fruits, total

3,586,452

3,476,616

5,102

46,683

43,576

14,288

93

93

1

1,090,768

1,045,123

3,320

13,013

22,491

6,653

59

109

3,694,251

3,636,181

2,014

38,964

14,637

2,403

25

23

4

$2,207,748

2,121,816

3,205

43,524

31,954

7,164

38

43

4

1 438 919

42,976

683

10,857

7,065

3,165

48

48

1

17,362

320

3,170

3,614

1,271

25

46

1 421 773

Peaches and nectarines

1,895
11 200

Plums and pnines

2 282

Cherries

1 550

Apricots

'219

Mulberries

Unclassified

Grapes

2,880

9,731

510

1,944

231,529

6,954

275,800

Nuts, total

<815
231
30
192
211

1142
63
19

18
29

<12,922
1,600
2,975
1,280
6,295

4414
50
60
100
152

29,050

(2) n

(2) F^
(2) P7

329 050

32

5

24

38

6
2
5
5

Chestnuts

Butternuts

Unclassified

'Expressed in bushels for orchard fruits and pounds for grapes and nuts.

^Included with "unclassified."

' Consists of products not separately named by the enumerator, but grouped under the designation "all other."

* Includes almonds, pecans, filberts and hickory nuts.

The following table shows the quantities of the more advanced products manu-
factured by farmers from orchard fruits and grapes. Values were not called for on
the schedule.

Farms reporting, 1909

Quantity produced

PRODUCT

Number

Per cent of
all farms

Unit

1909

1899

Cider

9,549

2,884

54

267

15.9
4.8
0.1
0.4

Gals

Gals

Gals

Lbs

939,085

197,996

328

15.034

376,110

68,072

628

Vinegar

26,210

Manxjbes, Green. See Apple Orchards, Manures, Stable. See Apple Orchard,

Fertilization of. Fertilization of.

1256

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Marketing Fruits

Next to the growing of fruits the mar-
keting is the most important to the pro-
ducer. In fact, the manner of marketing
and the profits or losses consequent upon
it often determine whether any particu-
lar person or community of persons can
continue in the business of production.

Methods of Marketing

Tliere are several different methods of
marketing, among them tlie following:

1. Barter, a system under which the
producer exchanges his products for some
other commodity.

2. Huckstering, where the fruit is de-
livered by the producer direct to the con-
sumer.

3. Selling to buyers who pay cash, ex-
pecting to sell again at a profit.

4. Consignment to commission men
who handle the fruit on a commission
basis and sell at auction to the retail
trade, or to other merchants by any one
of a number of methods in use.

Selling agencies or associations of sell-
ers have lately endeavored to form con-
nections in all the fruit markets of the
world and handle the fruit on a com-
mission basis. The so-called "selling
agencies" are large organizations of com-
mission men with wider connections than
the commission merchant could have,
working as a mere individual or firm.

Stock companies composed of a large
number of stockholders who may or may
not be growers are frequently formed
representing capital necessary to finance
the business.

5. Co-operative marketing, where the
growers only are members of the organi-
■zation, and where the form is that of
pure co-operation. Stock is sold or a fee
•charged for membership in the associa-
tion and each member has one and only
■one vote, regardless of the amount of
fruit shipped through the association.

6. Direct to consumers through "Mar-
kets" established generally in the centers
of trade to which the fruit is shipped and
sold by the producers, the agents of the
producers or by the managers of the
market.

There are various modifications of the
methods and some sellers employ any or
all of them as circumstances dictate. A
brief description of the various methods
will be helpful in correctly understanding
the systems named, and in understanding
the value to the producer of a careful
study of market conditions and the de-
velopment of a good marketing system.

Barter

Money has come to be the universal
medium of exchange, so that the system
of barter of goods for goods has almost
if not entirely disappeared.

But in the beginning, and still in very
primitive societies, the natural division
of labor which results from differences in
age, sex and natural ability gave rise to
commodities which in the absence of
money were exchanged for each other
directly. Thus old men and boys could
make bows and arrows while the strong
men could hunt. The results of each
kind ot labor would be exchanged for each
other without the use of any medium.

On this simple basis the value of the
articles exchanged was easily measured
by balancing in the mind of each party
to the trade the strength of his want for
his own and the other man's goods.

The Idea of Value

While the elements of the above situa-
tion would be comparatively simple, the
idea of what determines value is, even in
such simple circumstances, not an easy
conception to grasp, since many factors
enter in to complicate it. Among the fac-
tors which go to determine value, we
may mention utility, or the usefulness
of a given article and labor or the cost
of production. The utility of a thing is
determined by the number and strength
of the wants which it supplies, i. e., by
how badly we want or need it.

But utility alone does not determine
the market value of a thing or the price
it will bring in exchange. As for example,
the usefulness of air does not give it a
market value, though manifestly we
could not live without it. However, if
there were only a limited amount of air
and some one had it for sale, it would

MARKETING FRUITS

1257

at once have a market value, and the
value or price of any given unit would
be determined, first, by how badly folks
wanted air, and, second, by how much
there was of air to supply the want; i. e.,
v/hen the amount is unlimited there is
no market value, but when the amount
is limited there is a market value, pro-
vided, of course, that the need of it still
exists.

One other factor which affects value
but in a more indirect way, is the cost
or labor which is necessary to produce
a thing. Manifestly, that which is hard
to get will be relatively scarce as com-
pared with that which costs little labor.
Therefore, the cost of a thing may affect
the supply and in this way affect its
value. The effect which labor may have
is always in proportion to the effect
which it may have on the supply.
Labor alone cannot determine the value
of a thing. For example, it might cost
an enormous amount of effort to produce
a barrel of air, and yet when produced
the merest child can see that it would
have no value whatever on the market,
simply because the quantity on hand was
already so enormous that every one could
have all he wanted for the breathing. Or
again, I may find a diamond. The labor
is nothing. The value is great, simply be-
cause the desire on the part of people
for diamonds is great, while the supply is
limited. Thus it appears that labor af-
fects value only when it has an infiuence
in affecting the supply in such a way as
to affect the value. It is true that in the
case of the staple commodities for which
there is a universal demand the labor
cost fixes the point below which price
does not ordinarily fall.

Hence, in order to have market value
we must always have cost, or whatever
goes to determine quantity or supply, bal-
anced by utility, or whatever goes to de-
termine the strength of our wants. The
balance of these two factors (utility and
labor, or want and cost) is, in the final
analysis, the cause of market value. The
so-called law of supply and demand is,
therefore, the final explanation of econo-

mic value and includes all factors which
enter into the problem.

The above conclusion is disputed in
some quarters but the disagreement
arises, like most disputes, out of misun-
derstanding of the use to which the terms
"value," "market," "supply" and "de-
mand" are put.

At the outset it should be understood
that the term "value" as here used ap-
plies to "exchange" or "market" values
only. "Value in exchange" is perhaps a
better term to use since it carries the
full notion along with it. If no exchange
can be made for goods then there is no
market, and no price or value can be
placed upon them. A "market" is simply
the point at which an exchange takes
place. Here again we should be careful
to avoid misconceptions. We do not mean
by the market for peaches, for example,
the particular warehouse where we un-
load our orchard wagon. The market
for peaches may be world-wide, in which
case the peach market embraces all the
varied conditions under which peaches
were being sold at a given time; never-
theless, though there may be 1,000 places
where peaches are selling, the market is
the ''exchange" and there can never be a
peach market where peaches are not sell-
ing or where there is no possibility for
an exchange to take place, either because
there are no peaches there or because no
one will or can buy them. Peaches have
no value or price where there is no mar-
ket for peaches.

By "supply" is meant "effective supply."
That is, supply which actually offers itself
for sale or which it is known will be
offered for sale at a given price. The
mere existence of a supply of peaches at
Wenatchee in the orchards does not affect
the price of peaches in New York unless
the supply gets to New York or is known
to be on the way. In other words, unless
in some form it is offered for sale in New
York. There is no market for Wenatchee
peaches in Mars. Consequently there is
no price set or value fixed upon We-
natchee peaches by the Martians.

In the same sense "demand" is not

1258

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

merely general desire for a thing. It is
"market demand." That is, demand
which is willing to purchase or make an
exchange for a given article. Demand
which never becomes effective in some
markets never affects the price or value
of a thing. That is to say, if there is no
market, if one man having money and an-
other having peaches cannot meet, either
personally or through some middleman or
agent, so as to make an exchange, there
is no market and no price, no value. A
desire for peaches in Mars does not affect
their price in Wenatchee for the reason
that this kind of demand is not effective.

The problem which faces the grower
of peaches in Wenatchee who knows of
the general desire of men for peaches
and who has on hand in his orchard a
supply of 10,000 boxes for which there is
no market, is not at all a problem of how
to account for value in general or of how
to account for the fact that he can get
nothing for his peaches in Wenatchee.
The simple fact is that there is no market,
no point at which the general desire of
men the world over for peaches and his
10,000 boxes can be brought together so
as to effect an exchange. Therefore there
is no price, no value.

His problem is rather how to create
a value for his peaches by first creating
a market. It is a problem in market
making, a problem in distribution, and
to this problem individuals and associa-
tions of distributors must address them-
selves.

As an example of the operation of this
law in the fruit-marketing business we
might take the case of apples and banan-
as. If it costs as much in labor to pro-
duce 10 apples as it costs to produce 15
bananas, from that viewpoint 10 apples
could be equitably exchanged for 15
bananas; but if the habits of the people
were such that consumers preferred
bananas to apples, then the case might
be reversed and 10 bananas might sell for
as much as 15 apples. In this latter case,
the profits in bananas would be much
greater than the profits in apples, because
the cost of producing bananas is one-
third less than the cost of producing ap-

ples. If the cost of producing bananas
and apples were equal and the demand
equal, the prices would be equal; but it
the cost of production were unequal or
the demand unequal, then the price would
be unequal.

The fact that cost of production in dif-
ferent localities may vary in comparison
with the demand gives rise to the natural
tendency for an industry to become local-
ized into those sections where the great-
est values can be produced with the least
labor. But tariff laws between the na-
tions or other artificial conditions may
greatly modify this tendency.

Money and Prices

The money market itself sometimes
fluctuates, depending on the supply of
money in proportion to the demand. In
cases of the financing of great enter-
prises, a period of great speculation or
of disturbances between nations, money
may be in great demand, and the prices
of other commodities proportionately af-
fected.

Cliaracterl sties of Markets

Wynard Hooper, financial editor of the
Times, London, writing for the Encyclo-
pedia Britannica, says: "The conditions
required in order that the operations of
a trading body may display the fully de-
veloped market features, whether for com-
modities or securities, are:

"1. A large number of parties dealing.

"2. A large amount of securities or
commodities to be dealt with.

"3. An organization by which all per-
sons interested in the commodity or se-
curity can rapidly communicate with one
another.

"4. Existence of and frequent publica-
tion of statistical and other information
as to the present and probable future
supply of the commodity or security.

"The changes which take place in prices
in any market, whether fully organized or
not, depend largely upon changes of
opinion between buyers and sellers. The
changes of opinion may be caused by er-
roneous as well as by correct informa-
tion. They may also be the result of
wrong inferences drawn from correct in-
formation. In markets for commodities

MARKETING FRUITS

1259

of the first importance, such as wheat,
cotton, corn and iron, the state of opinion
may vary much within a few hours. The
broad characteristics of markets of this
class are similar. There is a tendency
in all of them to show phenomena of an-
nual periodicity due partly to the sea-
sons, the activity of certain months being
in normal years greater in the case of
any given market than that of other
months. This tendency is always liable
to be interfered with by the special forces
at work in particular years, and the great
increase in the facilities for communica-
tion between dealers by telegraph and of
transportation of commodities between
widely distant points, which was one of
the marked features of the development
of the economic organism in all active
commercial countries during the last
thirty years of the nineteenth century,
have still further interfered with it. Nev-
ertheless, a tendency to annual periodicity
is still perceptible, especially in markets
for produce of the soil the supply of
which largely depends on meteorological
conditions of the areas where they are
grown on a scale to furnish an appre-
ciable proportion of the total produce.

"Periodicity of another kind, known as
'Cyclic,' and due to a different set of
causes, is believed to exist by many per-
sons competent to form a judgment."

The law of "cyclic" changes is ob-
served in the United States, with a good
deal of regularity, as a period of reces-
sion about every ten years and a period
of great financial depression about every
20 years. This has been true with slight
modification for more than 100 years.
Further, there are fluctuations in the
markets of annual crops, such as pota-
toes, more marked than in crops like
apples for instance, where it takes sev-
eral years to grow the trees. Yet in the
case of apples, peaches, pears and other
tree fruits, much depends on the tend-
ency to freezes, frosts, heavy rains at
blooming time and other climatic and
meteorological conditions.

Tendency to Equilibrium

"Notwithstanding all the uncertainties
named, there is a tendency toward

equilibrium," and, as Mr. Hooper further
remarks, "Disturbances may take place
through a change in: (1) Supply, or an
opinion as to the future probable sup-
ply; (2) demand, or opinion as to the fu-
ture probable demand; {?,) in both simul-
taneously, but such a change that demand
is increased or decreased more than the
supply, or vice versa."

However, every market is at every mo-
ment tending to an equilibrium between
the quantity of the commodities offered
and the quantity desired.

A moderate disturbance caused by any
of the changes named, or a combination
of them, will produce an immediate ef-
fect on the prices of commodities, which
again will tend to react on both the sup-
ply and the demand by altering the opin-
ions of buyers and sellers. If no further
change tending to disturb the markets
takes place, the market will gradually
settle down to a state of equilibrium.

It is the interest of buyers, as the mar-
keting season approaches, to create the
impression that there is an abundant
crop and that the supply will be large
in proportion to the demand. This is
sometimes done in order that the fruit
may be purchased at low prices. It is
the interest of the growers to create the
impression that fruit is scarce in order
that they may obtain high prices. There
should be some reliable agency for the
furnishing of information that is avail-
able to all, so that the question would
not be one of opinion alone, but of opin-
ion based on the facts. The government
monthly reports are available to all in
the "Crop Reporter," but the method of
gathering the information, compiling, and
getting it out to the farmers by mail
only once each month, often brings the
information too late for intelligent ac-
tion. There should be some means of
reporting similar to that of wheat, corn
and other standard products.

Future Delivery

A certain proportion of purchases are
paid for at the time of purchase, but an
increasing number of commoditieT are
purchased for future delivery. This is
on account of the tendency to large or-

1260

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

gauizations of buyers, who desire to sup-
ply all their customers at all seasons of
the year with whatever the market de-
mands. With the buyers' organization,
future delivery is a kind of Insurance
that the products can be supplied at a
given price. With the seller or seller's
organization, it is a promise to supply
it at a given price. The seller believes
he can furnish the fruits at that price
at a profit. The buyer knows, if the
goods are delivered according to contract,
that he can supply the market at a profit.
This would seem to be better for both the
seller and the buyer, but it has been sub-
ject to many abuses.

Market Corners

"Corners" often result from the con-
tract for "future delivery." They may
result from a mistaken judgment of a
number of persons as to the supply of
products. As a result, persons who have
made contracts for future delivery at
certain dates, are unable to fulfill them.
The fact that the market is oversold
soon becomes known and the persons
holding products who could supply the
demand raise the price against those
who are buying to fulfill their contracts.
If a dealer has undertaken to deliver 100
cars of fruit at a certain price and it
becomes known that fruit is much more
difficult to obtain than he calculated it
would be, and those who have the fruit
for sale know that he is compelled to de-
liver, they might compel him to pay two
prices in order to fill his contract. He
has contracted to deliver believing that
he could do so at a profit, but in the
case described he does so at a loss. There
are a few growers who will contract
ahead to deliver fruit at a fair profit.
Others will contract to deliver a certain
proportion of the crop at a fair prpfit
and hold the remainder of the crop for
speculation, taking their chances that it
will be higher than the average.

The Standard Dictionary defines "a cor-
ner" as follows:

"A corner is the result of the pur-
chase, or contract for the purchase, of a
commodity by a person or combination of
persons so as to command the market

and be able to fix the price of the com-
modity."

Selliiig to Buyers Who Pay Cash

Selling to buyers who pay cash for the
products is an old method and has a num-
ber of advantages. The producer re-
ceives his money early and so is enabled
to meet his obligations without borrow-
ing heavily. Some claim that in the long
run the grower who sells for cash at the
prevailing market price at harvest time
will, all things considered, come out
ahead of those who wait for an expect-
ed rise later. In a fruit-growing district
where a large volume of fruit must be
marketed, this method can only succeed
in the case of a few. To attempt to
force the whole output of a district upon
the market at once would be out of the
question both on account of the enorm-
ous capital required and because of the
disastrous effect on prices.

Another advantage to the grower is
that it closes the transaction without
further risk to him, compelling the buy-
er to assume the risk of unloading with
profit on future markets. It is vastly
superior to the consignment method, a
discussion of which follows.

The Consignment Method

Under this system fruits are consigned
to commission merchants who sell the
fruits on a percentage basis, at auc-
tion, to the retail trade, or to other com-
mission merchants as seems to them best.
This system is subject to many abuses
and temptations. I would as willingly
send my pocket-book to a man in
Chicago or New York whom I did not
know, or if I did know would not trust,
as to send him my fruit.

When he has possession of the fruit,
if he is dishonest, he might say that "It
arrived in bad condition," sell it for a
good price, send the consignor the price
of damaged fruit and keep the balance.
He might be a partner of a firm of retail
merchants and keep the fruit, reporting
it to be in bad condition and return
to the grower or shipper whatever he
pleased. He might do any one of a num-
ber of things which would be to his own
advantage and the disadvantage of the

MARKETING FRUITS

1261

grower, or he might be honest. There are
honest men in the business, but they
have to compete with men who are dis-
honest.

The consignment method has the dis-
advantage of the grower furnishing all
the fruit, running all the risks of trans-
portation, markets, the honesty or dis-
honesty of the person to whom it was
consigned, while the consignee runs no
risks, has no capital invested, and is often
financially irresponsible. There is a move-
ment now on foot which may result in re-
quiring the consignee to send to the con-
signor a certificate from the buyer stat-
ing to whom the fruit was sold, the price
paid, the date of sale and other important
items. "Consigned goods are supposed
to be the property of him by whom they
are consigned, to be disposed of by him
to whom they are consigned."

The system might also be improved by
requiring that persons acting as con-
signees for the public should give bond
for the honest and faithful perform-
ance of the duties of their position. With
honest and far-seeing men engaged in
this business, there is a business pride
in pleasing their customers, establishing
confidence and continuing in the busi-
ness, but the system furnishes unusual
inducements to irresponsible persons.

The legislature of the state of Wash-
ington, in 1912-13, passed laws designed
to protect the grower and consignor of
products, and to prevent fraud on the
part of commission merchants to whom
products are consigned.

The essential weakness of this method
of selling anything lies in its violation
of the axiom of trade "never part with
your property without a consideration."
By this method the producer virtually
gives away his product, almost his only
reliance being placed in the honesty of
those who handle it for him. It is argued
that the necessity on the part of the com-
mlsson man to return a fair price to his
client in order to retain his business, and
the "honor of the house," are sufficient
safeguards to the grower.

While indeed there is much to be said
on this side of the question, it has been
the sad experience of growers that the

"honor of the house" is a vain depend-
ence and that the only real safeguard is
a community of interest. This common
interest is not present. The commission
man is interested primarily in his com-
mission, not in the profits of the pro-
ducer.

The opportunities for taking advantage
of the trustful grower are numerous and
have in the past proven too great temp-
tations for the commission men. The or-
dinary grower has no means of tracing
his product and it is easy to return a
false report of "arrived in bad condition"
or other subterfuge to cover up a deal in
which the commission man has reaped a
big profit.

The current expression "As well trust
your pocket-book to a man you do not
know as consign your fruit to be mar-
keted away from home" gets at the es-
sential weakness of the system. The in-
jury to the business has reached almost
the stage of demoralization at times.
Yet it must be said that the steps by
which the consignment business grew up
are perfectly natural ones.

Selling Agencies

Lately there have grown up organiza-
tions known as "Selling Agencies." These
agencies, in so far as we can discern their
purposes and methods, are not much dif-
ferent from "Commission Merchants," in-
asmuch as they sell on commission. The
differences seem to be largely in the fact
that they are organized in a large way,
as fruit distributors or sales agents, are
therefore more responsible and are less
subject to temptations to dishonest deal-
ing. They cover a large territory, and
have good facilities for successful dis-
tribution.

They generally publish that they "Have
no capital stock and are prohibited from
engaging in the business for profit."
They have a "Central Organization,"
and subsidiary "District Organizations."

The management of the "Central Or-
ganization" is under the control of a
board of trustees, consisting of one rep-
resentative from each district organiza-
tion.

"The board of trustees elect all the of-

1262

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

fleers of the exchange." "The right of
recall is reserved by each district." "All
officers holding positions of trust are
bonded." "An annual open meeting is
held by the trustees, at which all inter-
ested growers are privileged to be pres-
ent and receive a general report of the
business."

Provisions are sometimes made "Where-
by upon questions of sufficient importance
the voting strength of the trustees is pro-
portionate to the relative shipping ton-
nage of their respective districts."

The principal functions of such an ex-
change are "The distribution and market-
ing of fruits, and the gathering and dis-
semination of market information."

The City Market

The Market is a place where traders
or producers are awaiting buyers, in
shops, stalls, booths, open spaces, or oth-
er convenient places for the accommoda-
tion of the general public. The idea is
to bring the producer and the consumer
as nearly together as possible.

Originally, the producer brought his
goods, rented space, or a stall, and sold
to the pruchaser direct. The purchaser,
in turn, bought at the market-place and
carried the goods purchased to his home.
In ancient times slaves did most of
the buying in the market-place. In later
times the system of the delivery of goods
has caused the managers of markets to
provide for the delivery of the articles
purchased to the homes of the pur-
chasers: but in turn, the use of the auto-
mobile has made it possible for persons
on pleasure trips to stop at the market
on the way home and purchase such
things as they choose, delivering them
without the added expense of the mar-
ket delivery.

The manager of the market now often
acts as selling agent, receiving the prod-
ucts on consignment, selling them at the
prevailing market price, and returning to
the producer the amount received, less
a commission and the cost of delivery to
the purchasers.

In most of the large cities of the
United States and in Europe there are
one or more market places. In some of

the cities of Europe a huge collection of
shops with various co-operative stores
may be seen as an evolution of the old
market system. The market has gen-
erally been considered the trading place
of the poor and middle classes where
they could purchase at less price than in
the ordinary mercantile establishments,
and where they could eliminate the cost
of delivery by delivering the goods them-
selves. At the same time, the producer
is supposed to get more for his goods in
this way than by the ordinary methods
of sale.

Stock Companies

Local organizations are often formed in
which the organization is financed by
the sale of stock. Sometimes this stock
is owned wholly by the fruit growers,
sometimes partly by the growers, and at
other times mostly by bankers, merchants
and others who believe the stock a good
investment, or who desire to help the in-
dustry as an asset to the town. Some of
these organizations have been very suc-
cessful from the stockholders' view-
point, in that good dividends have been
returned to the holder of stock. Some
of them have also been of benefit to the
grower as well as the stockholder.

In this kind of organization there seems
to be, inevitably, a conflict of interest
between the stockholder and the grow-
er. The grower naturally desires to
make as much out of his fruit as pos-
sible. But if he makes large proflts it
often happens that the stockholder makes
small profits. It mostly depends upon
the management and purposes of the or-
ganization. If the dominant purpose is
to make money for the growers, then it
cannot at the same time conserve the
interests of the stockholders. If the
dominant purpose is to make money for
the stockholders, then it must in the na-
ture of things buy the fruit for a small
price and sell at a higher price, and this
would not sufficiently conserve the in-
terest of the growers. In other words,
the growers and the stockholders are on
opposite sides of the market problem.

This is true if the stockholder and the
grower are one and the same; for then

MARKETING FRUITS

126?

the stockholder-grower is in competition
with himself. However, many of these
stock companies have been substantial-
ly mutualized by allowing the stock to
represent buildings, storage plants, ware-
houses, etc., and the selling agency a
mutual association in the interests of
growers.

State Marketing Agency

As usual, California takes the initia-
tive. California has passed through
years of struggle not common to the
Eastern states, and from experiences
growing out of her necessities, has evolv-
ed some lessons of value to all the world,
but more especially to all the Pacific
coast states. In the November (1913)
election, she voted on the question of a
"State Produce Exchange Market, for all
California Farm Products."

Thirty thousand signatures were neces-
sary in order to get the question on the
ballot. The signatures were obtained.

The proposed law called for the ap-
pointment by the governor of a commis-
sion of five, each to receive a salary of
$6,000 per year and devote his entire
time to state work. One of the five was
to go out of oflSce the first of 1915, two
the first of 1917, and two the first of
1919. The act was to give the commis-
sion an attorney at $4,000 per year, and
a secretary at $3,500 per year and such
other employees as were necessary to car-
ry on the work.

The bill called for an appropriation of
$200,000 to place the exchange on its
feet. It called for at least two offices, one
in Los Angeles and one in San Francisco.
It provided that the commission may sell
all agricultural, horticultural, dairy and
farm products on consignment, within or
without the state; that agencies and
packing houses may be established all
over the state; that a standard system
of packing be established and enforced;
that a bureau of information be estab-
lished; that supply and demand prob-
lems and other questions of interest to
the producers be investigated and bulle-
tins issued to them. It is to be supported
by fees collected from consignors, and is
to make settlement with the growers

once each month. This bill failed to pass
but has many earnest supporters and will
probably be presented again.

Marketing and Parcel Post

A new feature of marketing conditions
has arisen on account of the enactment
of the parcel post law, which places the
government as a carrier of parcels in
competition with the express companies.
In some instances, parcels have been
carried by the government from the place
of manufacture or production to the con-
sumer, thus eliminating the agent, mer-
chant, commission man or whoever form-
erly acted as distributor to the consum-
er. In other cases, the express com-
panies have reduced their rates in order
to meet the competition caused by the
parcel post acting as distributor.

In New York city, for instance, the
express companies have organized a class
of consumers to whom they agree to dis-
tribute farm products at much lower
prices than they would have to pay un-
der the ordinary methods of distribution.
At the same time, in carrying out that
plan, they can give to the farmers for
their products more than they had form-
erly received. One of the express com-
panies cited this instance, that the farm-
ers in the outlying districts were receivini?
50 cents per bushel for their apples. The
consumers were paying 15 cents a quart,
which is equal to $4.80 per bushel. This
left for carriers and distributors $4.30
per bushel. It made the price of apples
so low that farmers could not afford to
produce them, and the price to consum-
ers so high that few could afford to buy
them. The express companies figure that
they can pay to the farmer 75 cents per
bushel, which, as the lower grades of ap-
ples are produced in some of the sec-
tions of the East without much expense,
will leave to the producer a fair profit;
then they can be distributed by the com-
panies to the consumers at less than
half the usual cost, greatly reducing the
cost of living and increasing the profit
to the producer. The difficulty in such,
a method is largely with the farmers,
for the express companies complain that
they are not sufficiently organized so

1264

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

that they can be depended upon to fur-
nish the products regularly and in such
quantities as will supply the demand.

CO-OPERATIVE MARKETING

It is hardly possible to understand co-
operative marketing, without a brief his-
tory of co-operation. In all ages of
human history persons have combined
their interests in some degree for mutual
protection against adverse conditions. It
was not until the beginning of the 19th
century, however, that modern co-opera-
tive movements took shape.

The chief of these societies were those
organized under the teachings of F. M.
C. Fourier, a Frenchman, and Robert
Owen, an Englishman. Fourier's eco-
nomic theories were that up to a certain
degree "Bach should work for all and
all for each." In the production of
wealth, society should be divided into
"phalanxes, series, and groups." Bach
group was to have charge of one kind of
work, and each series one special branch
of that work.

In the distribution of products a cer-
tain minimum was to be assigned to
every member of the society, whether
capable of work or not, the remainder to
be shared in proportion to the labor per-
formed, the quality of the labor, and the
capital invested.

Robert Owen was the owner of large
cotton spinning mills at Lanark, Eng-
land. His theory was that "All men
are equal." He obtained the assistance
of certain benevolently inclined capital-
ists with whom it was arranged that af-
ter the capital invested should have re-
ceived five per cent per annum all the
profits should be laid aside for the educa-
tional, religious and moral Improvement
of the workers.

Owen made the town of Lanark a
model to be visited and studied by
philanthropists of all civilized lands. Of
it he wrote, "For 29 years we did with-
out magistrates or lawyers, without a
single legal punishment, without paupers,
without intemperance or religious ani-
mosities. We reduced the hours of labor,
well educated all the children, greatly
improved the condition of adults, paid

interest on capital, and cleared 300,000
pounds ($1,500,000)."

Out of the impetus given by the teach-
ings of Fourier and Owen have grown
the "Rochdale Societies," "Union Shops,"
and other organizations for the benefit
of wage workers, farmers and others.

Causes That Led to the Movement

Aneurin Williams, M. P., author of
"Twenty-Eight Years of Co-partnership,
Etc.," writes as follows in the Encyclo-
pedia Britannica:

"The end of the 18th century and the
beginning of the 19th were culminating
days of industrial revolution; when the
older organizations of society had given
way to the factory system, and the popu-
lation of the factory districts was suf-
fering a martyrdom, with ruin of body
and degradation of character from un-
bridled competition, long hours, women's
and children's labor, pauper apprentice-
ship, great fluctuations of trade and em-
ployment, dearness and adulteration of
provisions, the truck system and insani-
tary homes."

The English missionaries sent to India
about that period, when the power loom
was installed to take the place of hand
weavers, reported: "The bones of hand
weavers are scattered all along the high-
ways, for they have starved and their
friends are too poor to bury them."

Rochdale Pioneers

About 1844, 28 poor men at Rochdale,
Lancashire, England, got together a capi-
tal of 28 pounds, and opened a little
shop, which has in all essential particu-
lars been the model of most of the mod-
ern co-operative societies. They succeed-
ed in improving the position of work-
ingmen by enabling them to buy pure
provisions at less cost, unadulterated; to
save money, to pass from retail to whole-
sale trade, from distribution to manu-
facturing, ship owning and banking, and
to live with an object and ideal.

The principal difference between the
Rochdale plan and the Robert Owen plan
was in the method of dealing with the
profits. The Owen plan provided that
after five per cent on the investment was
paid, the profits should be kept for the

MARKETING FRUITS

1265

improvement of society or divided equit-
ably among the investors. The Roch-
dale system provided that after five per
cent on the invested capital was paid, all
profits should be allotted to the purchas-
ing members, in proportion to their pur-
chases until their purchases amounted to
five pounds. Thus each member found it
to his interest to purchase at his own
store and introduce new purchasers, be-
cause the profits on purchases by those
not members went to the holders of stock
or of membership certificates.

The modern co-operative societies also
do a banking business and lend money
to their members to buy cottages. It is
because small amounts are contributed
and owned by so many persons that in
the aggregate the wealth is great. The
management is democratic, each member
having one vote, and not, as in most
stock corporations, a voting power in
proportion to the stock owned.

Financing: a Co-operative Movement

It has been considered that the fruit
business is not as safe an industry on
which to advance money as the growing
of such products as wheat, corn, oats,
cotton, hay and other staple commodi-
ties, for which there is a constant de-
mand in something like fixed quantities.
While it is true that the staple crops
fluctuate more or less, yet if wheat for
instance, is high priced on account of a
shortage in the supply or for any other
reason, the tendency would be to sub-
stitute some other food such as corn,
potatoes, rye, etc., to supply the deficit
in wheat, and the tendency would be to-
ward an equilibrium. With fruit, it is
argued that there is less demand, that it
is not a staple like wheat, but is more of
a luxury, and that therefore the fluctua-
tions are greater. Further, the danger
from frosts and other climatic conditions
is greater to fruit than to other crops.
Therefore bankers hesitate to lend money
on fruit.

Bankers are not to blame for this be-
cause they are handling trust funds and
are hedged about with laws which if
violated would in case of panic imperil
them. In case, however, the fruit grow-

er can not get such accommodations as
he desires, it is possible for him to
finance himself.

How to Finance Himself

Suppose the farmer considers that he
is taking the risk because he owns the
fruit. He joins a strong co-operative
association and signs a contract to de-
liver his fruit to the association. Sup-
pose then that in the local community
there are 300 members of the association
and that they agree to start a small bank
of their own. This can be done in a
small way without much added expense
of office rent, clerk hire, or furniture.
Suppose the average deposit of the 300
members is $300 each. This would
make an aggregate amount of $90,000, on
deposit. The presumption is, that 25 per
cent of this amount must be kept on
hand for the use of depositors, but that
75 per cent may be used as working capi-
tal. This would leave $65,500 for work-
ing capital to be used by members of the
association.

The risk is not increased materially by
the farmers making their own deposits
in their own banks. They assume no
risks they would not assume in the ordi-
nary way of banking.

This plan is not new but has been tried
in many farming communities in the
United States and in Europe and found
to be practicable.

Graxville Lowther

The Fundamentals of Co-operation

H. C. At WELL
Forest Grove. Oregon
All co-operative undertakings involve
the same basic principles.

Organized co-operation may be limited
to a single community, or it may em-
brace several communities as units of a
wider co-operative system.

I. Confidence

There is one fundamental, however,
which is vital to success of any co-opera-
tive undertaking whether local or general.
No matter how narrow or how wide the
scope of your co-operative system, it will
fail if its members have not confidence in
one another. Lack of confidence has been

2— .-iO

1266

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the principal deterrent to co-operation
among farmers. Stockholders in any
other line of production elect their direc-
tors from among their own members, and
then go their way serenely confident that
their chosen representatives will conduct
their affairs with honesty of purpose, and
to the best of their ability. Why should
not farmers take the same sensible
course?

Slow growth of the co-operative idea
among farmers is largely due to their
isolated condition. Large farms and bad
roads make neighbors few, and inter-
change of ideas among them difficult.
These unfavorable conditions have always
been a feature of rural life. The result-
ing mental attitude has become an in-
herited trait.

Confidence is the chief corner stone of
co-operation. Without it the edifice can
not stand. Confidence is, however, the
outgrowth of acquaintance. Acquaint-
ance depends on opportunity for frequent
intei'course. If this opportunity be not
afforded, distrust instead of confidence
marks the dealings of man with man.
Distrust is fatal to successful co-opera-
tive effort. The smaller the area whose
growers attempt to co-operate, the easier
it is to promote that confidence which
acquaintance begets.

II. A Modest Beginning

The local association should not under-
take to do too much at the outset. Con-
struct your buildings and provide your
machinery with a view to future exten-
sion, rather than with the idea of afford-
ing present facilities for future needs. If
you contemplate a cannery equip your-
selves to handle at first only those fruits
and grades for which there is most ur-
gent need of outlet. When you have
proven yourselves, you can more safely
expand. If successful with your initial
venture, you will have won self-reliance
and credit. These mean capital.

III. A Strictly Co-operative Basis

Many types of local growers' organiza-
tions exist. Some are very democratic,
every member having an equal voice.
Others allow participation on basis of
acreage or of fruit output. Others are

pure stock companies, with or without
limitations upon number of shares any
member may hold. Some are organ-
ized for profit of stockholders. This will
most likely be true when a considerable
portion of stock is held by those who are
not fruit growers. Other associations are
composed entirely of growers, to whom is
prorated back whatever profit is earned
by the organization. If I were asked
which is the ideal form of local organ-
ization, I should answer, speaking of
course from the growers' standpoint — "an
association strictly co-operative and non-
profit sharing, each member contributing
capital and having a vote in proportion
to his acreage of bearing trees."

Onlj' such associations as transact bus-
iness of their members at cost can ex-
pect long to retain the confidence and
support of their members. Payment of
large dividends to non-fruit growing
members, or to those whose stock hold-
ings exceed the proportion of their bear-
ing acreage, is demoralizing. Such divi-
dends are earned at the expense of the
grower. Such arrangement defeats the
primary object of the association, which
is to reduce expenses of the grower to the
minimum.

It is, moreover, unnecessary to organ-
ize on a dividend basis. You don't need
to ask your banker, merchant and money
lender to become stockholders. Your
land and trees are sufficient basis for all
the capital you will require. Finance
your own undertakings. Let each mem-
ber advance, borrowing for the purpose
if he must, such proportion of the need-
ed capital as his bearing acreage is of the
total bearing acreage. The association is
then equipped and out of debt. It can
borrow, at low rates, any sum it may re-
quire for crop movement.

Not only is the strictly co-operative as-
sociation the ideal one, but it is desir-
able that all local associations embraced
in one central organization (of which I
shall speak later) be organized along
identical lines. This uniformity is found
in the different locals of the Yakima Val-
ley Fruit Growers' Association, in the
state of Washington. Their's is an ex-
ceedingly well thought out plan, compre-

MARKETING FRUITS

1267

hensive in detail and efficient in execu-
tion.

IV. ProTision for Off Grades and By-

products

Most local associations would and
should ship their best fruit in its fresh
condition. There are often times, how-
ever, when highest-grade fruit and most
efficient distributive machinery can not
overcome a dull market. Fruit growers
will also always have more or less off-
grade fruit. Happy is that local associa-
tion which is equipped to can, and evap-
orate, and make into jellies, juices, cider
and vinegar, the fruit for which it can
not otherwise find a profitable market.
Some of these by-products will make a
nice profit. Any of them will assist ma-
terially in paying expenses of the associa-
tion. These instrumentalities should not,
as a rule, be considered the main proposi-
tion. They should be regarded in the
light of insurance; insurance that you
won't have to throw away or give away
your product if fresh fruit prices are not
satisfactory; insurance that there will be
no waste of culls; insurance that the
local buyer will offer you a fair price,
because he knows that you have other
means for disposing of your fruit. If
most of your apples command a fancy
price, you can afford to let your apple-
canning machinery lie idle. If all your
prunes are wanted fresh, you can bank
the fires in your evaporator.

V. Control of Distribution by Contract

Holders

Safeguards should be adopted, and
made of uniform application, whereby
control of output and of marketing fa-
cilities shall remain in the hands of those
who produce the fruit marketed. Those
local stockholders who ship no fruit
should not be allowed to dictate through
what channels the growers' product shall
be marketed, after it passes from the
hands of the local association. Such
stockholder is, of course, entitled to a
reasonable return upon his stock, and to
a voice in local management and charges.
Beyond that he has no right. To give
him a share in control of ultimate dis-
tribution, at once takes the local associa-

tion out of the list of growers' organiza-
tions. It makes it possible for private
interests to secure local control and there-
by to direct distribution into channels an-
tagonistic to the grower.

To prevent this undesirable result,
every local association should embody in
its fundamental law the provision that
"in all matters pertaining to marketing
and affiliation, voting shall be restricted
to members holding marketing contracts."
Adoption of this provision should be in-
sisted on, before the local association is
permitted to participate in any co-opera-
tive central selling agency.

VI. Freedom of Officers From Connec-
tion With Competitors

Chiefly aimed at the same object is
my next fundamental, that provision
should be made that no officer or trustee
should be permitted to hold any office or
position in the employ of, or to be con-
nected with, or to own any stock in, any
competing organization or firm. Without
this wise and just provision, the associa-
tion might be put to great embarrassment,
and its plans perhaps nullified. Excep-
tion, of course, should be made where a
man holds stock in another growers' co-
operative association.

VII. A Self-Continuing Contract

Another fundamental of co-operation is
that every fruit-growing member of a lo-
cal association should be required upon
becoming a member to sign a self-contin-
uing contract. By this I mean a contract
whereby the grower agrees to turn over
to the local association all his fruit, grow-
ing and to be grown, during every year
continuously. The contract should not be
for the current year or for a limited
number of years. Opportunity should,
however, be given the grower to cancel
the contract in any year. Otherwise the
local association would be given an un-
reasonable power, and it would be dif-
ficult to get any fruit signed up. The
pivilege of withdrawing should, how-
ever, be confined to a short period, and
to such season of the year as will enable
the local directorate to know in advance
what they can depend on for the ensu-
ing year. The point is covered by the

1268

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

following clause in the growers' contract
provided for in the plan of the Yakima
Valley Fruit Growers' Association:

"Provided that the grower may cancel
this contract on March first of any year,
by giving notice in writing at least 20
days prior to said date."

This provision releases a grower from
necessity of turning in his fruit the next
year, if he is dissatisfied with results of
the previous year. The management, on
the other hand, know 20 days prior to
March first just how many acres they
will control for the ensuing year, and
can plan accordingly. This arrangement
adds to the efficiency and economy of
the local management. Without this pro-
vision the directors would not know, un-
til time for shipment, and in many cases
not till after shipping season had open-
ed, whose fruit they would have to
handle. Such a state of uncertainty is
not only embarrassing to the management,
but it renders it impossible for them
adequately to perform the most import-
ant function of their office. Every man-
ager of an association not having the
continuing contract will tell you that the
average grower will defer signing up his
crop as long as he can. California Fruit
Growers' Exchange, after much bitter ex-
perience along this line, adopted the con-
tinuing contract.

VIII. Penalty for Outside Selling

It is a lamentable fact that there is a
considerable element among fruit grow-
ers, as among other classes, who will not,
without compulsion, perform a contract,
when it is temporarily for their interest
to break it. Such men are not without
encouragement from outside influences,
whenever an opportunity is seen to em-
barrass co-operation.

To guard against occurrences of this
kind, the contract made by the local as-
sociation with its growers should contain
a clause imposing a penalty for selling
fruit outside the association. Without
such provision, the association would
have no solid foundation. It would be in
continual uncertainty as to how much
fruit it could control. It would be in
almost as weak a condition as without

the continuing contract. This penalty
should be sufficiently large to act as a
deterrent to outside selling. In Cali-
fornia the sum specified varies from 2.5
to 50 cents a package. Following may
serve as a guide in formulating a provi-
sion to cover this point:

"In consideration of the benefits con-
ferred on me by acceptance of this con-
tract for packing and marketing my fruit
in the Fairview Fruit Growers' Associa-
tion, I agree that, if at any time during
the life of this contract I shall fail to
deliver to said association all my fruit,
as hereinbefore agreed upon; or if I shall
dispose of all or any of it elsewhere, oth-
erwise than as herein agreed upon, I shall
forfeit and pay to said association, as
liquidated damages, an amount equal to
50 cents for every box or package of
fruit shipped or sold otherwise than as
stipulated in the contract; it being spe-
cially agreed that it is impracticable and
extremely difficult to fix the actual dam-
ages which would be thereby suffered by
said association."

It will be noted that I have included
in the foregoing form allusion to a con-
sideration, and have designated the pen-
alty as liquidated damages, both features
worth consideration. Too much care can
not be bestowed on the growers' con-
tract. It constitutes the basis of market-
ing operations.

IX. Maintenance of High Standards

In this connection I would say that a
good reputation is as essential to success
of an association as of an individual
shipper. Constant vigilance must be
maintained by the management, lest some
growers assume that the good work of
others will offset their own carelessness.

X. Pooling:

Pooling is a necessity incident to co-
operative marketing. It will, however, have
a tendency to lower the average grade,
unless watchfulness is exercised by those
in authority. As far as practicable the
fruit only of those growers who have
similar conditions should be pooled. Pool-
ing is a purely local issue. It should be
confined to fruit raised within a limited
area. It is not practicable to extend its

MARKETING FRUITS

1269

scope much beyond the limits of an in-
dividual association.

XL Co-operation iu Buying

The local association should aim not
only to sell its members' fruit but to
purchase their orchard supplies. Great
savings can be thus effected in the pur-
chase of many items. The association
can also manufacture some lines of
spray material, largely reducing the cost
thereof to members. The Eugene, Ore-
gon, association makes a superior lime-
sulphur, at exactly one-half the cost of
the boughten article. If the various
locals are combined in a central agency
the latter may purchase for all, in which
case a larger percentage may be saved,
on account of the larger quantities hand-
led. California Fruit Growers' Exchange,
through a subsidiary company, thus an-
nually saves to its growers several hun-
dred thousand dollars.

Benefits accruing to the grower from
exercise by the local association of its
purchasing function will often keep him
in the co-operative ranks, when he would
otherwise be inclined to cancel his mem-
bership.

XII. Service Only for Members

If one is not willing to assume the
burdens of membership in a local asso-
ciation, he should not expect to share in
its benefits, either in the sale of his
fruits or the purchase of supplies. To
allow him to do so on an equality with
members is an injustice to them. To
serve an outsider for profit opens the way
to discord, and introduces the element of
speculation, from which a co-operative or-
ganization should stand entirely aloof.
XIII. Clioice of Manager Not a Subject
for Economizing

A co-operative organization should econ-
omize in all matters except the hiring
of a manager. In that office, the man is
the first consideration, his compensation
a secondary matter. Success or failure
depends on the manager. The directors
can advise. They can not execute. The
executive head should be patient, tact-
ful, competent, aggressive. He should
receive a salary commensurate with his
ability.

XIV. A Central Selling Agency

Thus far we have discussed funda-
mentals of co-operation as applied to in-
dividual associations acting independent-
ly. We have treated them as unrelated
entities. We have strengthened the weak
parts. We have constructed a perfect
local machine; a machine that, a few
years ago, would adequately have per-
formed the functions of distribution. It
may yet suffice for the handling of many
products. However, as regards commodi-
ties produced in large quantities, and
over wide areas, the problem of distribu-
tion is too big for the local association.

The great problem confronting all pro-
ducers of material commodities is effi-
cient distribution. That distribution is
most efficient which brings producer and
consumer into closest relation, which
most thoroughly and evenly covers the
consumptive field. Evenness of distribu-
tion avoids gluts and fills the empty mar-
ket. Economy of distribution eliminates
superfluous media of exchange, and
avoids duplication of effort. It thereby
cheapens price to consumer and enlarges
consumptive demand — conditions which
make for cheap, rapid and widespread
distribution, by insuring economy and
even rewards of production, without in-
creasing burdens of the consumer. The
American people are awakening to this
fact, and also to the fact that, without
combination of distributive agencies,
evenness of supply and stability and rea-
sonableness of price are impossible. Pro-
moters of manufacturing and other cor-
porate enterprises have recognized the
same fact. They have been compelled to
unite with others similarly situated, to
eliminate wasteful methods of distribu-
tion. Their activities have been directed
toward evenness of supply; not over-
supply in one market and under supply
in another.

"Big Business" has come to stay, because
it answers an economic want. It is based
on co-operation. Co-operation and com-
bination are supplanting competition and
waste. The biggest of big businesses,
however, has made but slight progress to-
ward establishing itself on the basis of
co-operative centralized distribution. Ag-

1270

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

riculture, representing over 50 per cent
of the population of Canada and the
United States, is the one department of
production most in need of, and most
conspicuously lacking, efficient organiza-
tion along this line.

Fruit growers have made great prog-
ress in local organization, but as
before stated, the local association
is impotent before the problem of wide-
spread distribution. It matters not how
well the local is organized and managed,
how efficiently it is equipped, or how
thoroughly co-operative is its construc-
tion, efficiency of distribution can not
be attained through independent action
of a score or more of local associations,
each striving to overload the same mar-
kets, each duplicating the other's ex-
pense account. Only by centralizing their
distributive energies can they secure that
evenness and economy of distribution
necessary to secure best results. They
must unite in one central selling agency.
This is my fourteenth fundamental.

In advertising, also, the locals may pro-
fitably co-operate. In 1911 California
Fruit Growers' Exchange, a central sell-
ing agency, spent $50,000 in advertising
California "Sun-Kist" oranges. Results
were so satisfactory that they will this
year devote $100,000 to the same object.
Could any merely local organization af-
ford such expenditure? If it would com-
bine with the other local associations, its
individual share of such expense might
not be oppressive.

In 1911 the same California organ-
ization, through the subsidiary company
I have alluded to, was able, by levying
5 cents a box on fruit sold by it, to es-
tablish box factories, at a cost of some
$200,000, and thereby save 6 cents on the
cost of every box to be used by its mem-
bers during a term of several years.

These are two concrete examples of
what confidence and common sense may
accomplish, when applied to co-operative
endeavor through a central agency.
These facts came to my knowledge dur-
ing a recent trip to California, and may
be news to some of you. I might cite

other activities of the same organization,
all on the same scale, and all impossible
of performance, except through a strong
central agency.

Fundamentals Relating Specially to a
Central Agency

Assuming that a central selling agency
is necessary, if fruit growers are to reap
full benefit from efficient local organiza-
tion, I wish to mention some vital prin-
ciples specially relating to the central
agency. All the fundamentals I have dis-
cussed apply, for most part, to both local
and central organizations. There are,
however, three which apply only to a
central agency.

XV. Ao Capital Stock

The central exchange should have no
capital stock. By this I mean only a
nominal capital. California Fruit Grow-
ers' Exchange has, in the last six years,
sold nearly $70,000,000 worth of citrus
fruits, kept constantly employed some
100 high-salaried sales agents, and hand-
led several million dollars worth of fer-
tilizers, boxes and other orchard supplies.
Its capital, all that time has been not to
exceed $16,000. The local, not the cen-
tral, organization is where capital is
needed. Packing houses and storage
houses should be financed locally. Grow-
ers have the land and the credit to build
them. Fruit passing through the hands
of the central exchange can be easily
made to provide funds for any extraor-
dinary need of the central. Accumula-
tion of large capital at headquarters
would arouse distrust on part of grow-
ers. It would embarrass the central
agency in many ways. The latter should
not be burdened with large financial re-
sponsibilities. It should be free to de-
vote its entire energy to distributing, ad-
vertising and gathering market informa-
tion. California Fruit Growers' Ex-
change does not handle a cent of the
proceeds of fruit sold by it. The pro-
ceeds go direct from its sales agents to
the district associations into which the
various locals are grouped. Expenses of
the central are covered by requisition
made by it to the district associations.

MARKETING FRUITS

1271

XVI. District Organization

It will be found expedient to follow
the California plan, in matter of district
organization. There various locals are
grouped together, within convenient geo-
graphical lines. Each group constitutes
a district, with an organization com-
posed of representatives from each local
within the district.

The principal functions of the district
organization should be control of all mat-
ters within its boundaries, relating to in-
spection, picking, grading and packing
fruit; co-operative purchase of supplies;
choice of directors for the central ex-
change, and adjustment of any disputes
arising between central exchanges and
local associations.

XVII. A Council of Representatives

Provision should be made whereby,
upon questions of sufficient importance,
voting strength of the directors of the
central exchange could be proportionate
to the relative shipping tonnage of their
respective districts. This could be ac-
complished by providing an auxiliary
board, said board to be composed of one
representative chosen by each district or-
ganization, and to be known as the Coun-
cil of Representatives. This council
would be called together only when the
board of directors of the central exchange
should, upon request of two of its mem-
bers, demand the submission to said
council of any specific question before
the board. When called together, the vot-
ing strength of each member of said
council would be a number of votes
equal to the number of carloads of fruit
shipped by all growers then affiliating
under the district organization represent-
ed by him during the last preceding sea-
son. Any decision of said council would
be final and binding on the directorate of
the central exchange.

This plan is a feature of the Cali-
fornia system. It is interesting to note,
however, that, while it affords necessary
security to larger districts, if conditions
should require it, this council has not
been called into service during the last
six years.

>'eed for Improving System of
Distribution

I have thus outlined principles, the
application of which I regard as funda-
mental to successful co-operation. I ac-
knowledge my indebtedness for valuable
suggestions to the able and comprehen-
sive article on "Co-operation in Handling
and Marketing Fruit," written by Mr. G.
Harold Powell, and appearing in this
section. Several of them are advo-
cated in the report of the Committee of
Eleven, an organization working in
Washington and Oregon for the estab-
lishment of a central selling agency, and
of which 1 am a member. That there is
need of improvement in our system of
distribution can hardly be denied. In
face of the fact that increasing produc-
tion demands increased consumption,
high cost of living is curtailing con-
sumption. To meet necessities of con-
sumers, prices must be reduced. Shall
this be accomplished by reducing the
farmer's returns? Already he is receiv-
ing a reduced proportion of the retail
price, although his expenditures for liv-
ing and labor have increased. Evidently
consumers' cost can be lowered only by
reducing the aggregate of tolls for car-
riage, insurance, brokerage, commission
and retailing.

As aptly put in an editorial of the
Oregonian, "Middlemen bear the price
paid to producer and bull the price paid
by consumer."

I do not preach a crusade against mid-
dlemen. We should not expect or wish
entirely to eliminate them. They are
average citizens, and are making the most
of their opportunities, as the rest of us
are trying to do. We are. nevertheless,
justifiable in seeking to dispense with
their services, whenever possible, and
to hold their charges to a reasonable
basis, always. Our products pass through
too many hands before they reach
the consumer. This again means
waste — a waste that works against two
classes, the producer and the consumer.
As the Oregonian well puts it, "only
the middleman profits by the confusion."
There is little doubt that a central selling

1272

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

agency can establish more direct rela-
,tions with consumers, and maintain those
relations more steadily, than can an in-
dividual or a local association.

Co-operation With Consumers

The many consumers' leagues, spring-
ing up in the more densely populated dis-
tricts, afford our opportunity. Why
should not the producer and consumer co-
operate? They can, if they will both or-
ganize. Central selling agencies and cen-
tral purchasing agencies will be familiar
features of the near future. The mayor
of Indianapolis, with his 900 consumers,
has pointed the way. Of course, this
idea will be declared absurd on "com-
mercial row." The railroads said gov-
ernment regulation was impracticable and
unjust. Now they want more of it. The
trusts declared the Sherman Anti-Trust
Law a dead letter. Now they are making
haste to adjust themselves to its require-
ments. The hack driver decried the elec-
tric line from the steam railroad station.
Now he collects fares on the same elec-
tric line, and doesn't get his coat spat-
tered with mud. Changes of business
methods gradually work out their own
adjustments, without serious injury to
any class.

Other Examples of Widespread
Co-operation

California Fruit Growers' Exchange is
not the only successful example of co-
operative distribution on a large scale.
In Holland thousands of egg producers
market through central organizations.
Grain farmers of the Central West have
their central shipping association. Nu-
merous examples might be cited. Nearer
home, though not embracing so many dif-
ferent communities, is the Puyallup and
Sumner Fruit Growers' Association, in
the state of Washington. That organiza-
tion, under the conspicuously able man-
agement of Senator W. H. Paulhamus,
has long been an object lesson in success-
ful co-operation. Long after Senator Paul-
hamus' fame as a statesman shall have
faded from the public memory, he will
still be quoted as the man who made the
Puyallup valley worth $1,000 an acre,
through his efficient exploitation and

marketing of the lowly evergreen black-
berry.

Growth of Movement for Wider
Co-operation

In California the deciduous fruit in-
terests are seeking to organize on lines
of California Fruit Growers' Exchange.
It is no infant's task to merge all their
divergent interests. Happily, the bur-
den has fallen on J. W. Jeffrey, manager
of the Deciduous Fruit League of Sacra-
mento, and late Commissioner of Horti-
culture of that state. His 30 years' effi-
cient and valiant service for co-operation
is a guaranty that the cause will not lag
under his guidance.

Central Selling Agency for IVorthwest
Apples

In Washington and Oregon the
apple growers are feeling their way to-
ward one another. Three years ago, when
I began to agitate a growers' central sell-
ing agency for Northwest apples, I was
voted a dreamer. It was argued that if a
central selling agency could even be start-
ed it would quickly collapse before the
problem how to handle all the apples of
the Northwest in one pool, in view of the
mutual jealousies of various localities.
Of course, no idea of attempting such a
thing was contemplated by us. Other
equally unreal men of straw were set up
by those whose zeal to discover obstacles
in the pathway of co-operation overshad-
owed their fund of information.

In my judgment, organization of our
agricultural class, for a more compre-
hensive system of co-operative distribu-
tion, is one of the most important works
to which our public-spirited citizens can
address their efforts. There is great in-
terest, nowadays, in the problem how to
better social conditions of the farm, how
to get people back to the land. The
banker, the agricultural college and the
commercial club have joined to find a so-
lution. They hope to solve the problem
by popularizing agricultural education,
and teaching the farm.er how he may ex-
tract more from the soil. Leaders of the
propaganda overlook the fact that the
most potent organization to effect better
methods of farming, better methods of

MARKETING FRUITS— CO-OPERATION

1273

handling farm products, greater agricul-
tural prosperity, better rural citizenship
and social life, is a successful associa-
tion of farmers themselves, formed to se-
cure better distribution of their products.

In a community having such an asso-
ciation in successful operation, it is un-
necessary to raise the cry "back to the
land." Every one who can afford it gets
back, without waiting to have a pry ap-
plied to him. If some of our well-mean-
ing friends would devote a part of their
energies to urging upon farmers the nec-
essity and advantages of co-operative or-
ganization, instead of side-stepping the
question lest they disturb the equanim-
ity of local middlemen, they would be
reaching their object by the most direct
and effective means. If our enterprising
agricultural colleges would take up the
question of co-operation among farmers,
their students might return to the coun-
try with some sympathy for, and knowl-
edge of, the best means of upbuilding
their fathers' business and improving
its environment.

[Since the preparation of this article
the "North Pacific Fruit Distributors"
has been organized, making the largest
central selling agency in the Northwest.
—Ed.]

CO-OPERATION ly THE HAJfDLING
AND MARKETING OF FRUIT

The handling and marketing of crops
through co-operative associations is more
highly developed in fruit growing than
in any other agricultural industry in
America. These organizations are formed
to purchase the supplies used in the
production and marketing of the crops,
to standardize the harvesting, handling,
grading, and packing of the fruit, to sell
the fruit of the members as a unit under
whatever system of marketing is adopted,
to prevent disastrous competition by
bringing about an equitable distribution
throughout the country, and to handle the
fruit business in other ways collective-
ly rather than individually whenever it
can be done more economically and ef-
fectively. There are several hundred of
these associations among the fruit grow-
ers of the Western states and a number

that are successful among the fruit grow-
ers in the Central West and along the
Atlantic coast.

Co-operation in the West

Fruit growing is a highly specialized
industry in the Western states. The
growers there have often had extensive
business experience before engaging in
horticulture. The industry in the West
is confined to the valleys and foothills
or is more or less geographically local-
ized in other ways. Land values are
usually high in comparison with the
price of land in the East, cultural prac-
tices are more expensive and intensive,
the markets are thousands of miles dis-
tant, and the problems of production,
transportation, distribution, marketing,
and legislation are too complex for the
average individual grower to meet and
solve alone. Under these conditions co-
operative effort is a business necessity,
just as the consolidation of capital in
other industries is necessary for its own
preservation. The production, buying,
distribution, and selling of crops must
be accomplished by working together.
Things must be done in a large way if
the fruit grower is to deal on the same
level with the combinations of capital
with which his product comes in con-
tact at every step from the orchard to
the consumer. The Western fruit grow-
ers have therefore formed associations
of various kinds to work out the prob-
lems that confront them.

At the foundation of the semi-arid
western horticulture lies the necessity
for irrigation, and the irrigation systems,
which are largely owned and controlled
by the farmers, form a common tie which
binds them closely together and makes
co-operation in other things more easily
accomplished than is the case in the
humid fruit-growing sections of the East.
They may co-operate to protect the or-
chards from insect pests and diseases or
from frost, to pick the fruit, to prepare
it for shipment, and to direct its distribu-
tion, storage and marketing. They may
own outfits for spraying and fumigating,
packing houses that cost thousands of
dollars, and storage plants of large capac-

1274

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ity. They may develop a system of dis-
tribution and of market reporting which
keeps them in daily touch with the mar-
kets in every part of the United States
and Canada and with the general move-
ment of fruit in transit. They may ad-
vertise their products extensively and
through their organizations handle the
legislative and other public-policy ques-
tions that vitally affect the industry.

Co-operation in the East

In the central and eastern parts of the
country the growing of fruit is not usu-
ally specialized or localized. It is more
likely to be an incidental feature of the
general agriculture of a community. It
Is slowly developing into a specialized in-
dustry, especially in many sections of the
East and South, though it is still large-
ly in the hands of men whose only ex-
perience has been gained on the farm. In
the eastern half of the United States,
where irrigation is not required, the dif-
ficulties of production are more easily
overcome, competition among fruit buy-
ers is more or less keen, markets are
comparatively close at hand, and the
problems of transportation and of mar-
keting are not as acute as they are with
the Western fruit grower.

The need of co-operation has not faced
the Eastern fruit grower as squarely as
it has the grower in the West. Hence,
the co-operative movement has been of
slower development in the East, except
in such industries as grape growing in
Western New York and the citrus-fruit
industry in Florida, where the stability
of the capital invested has been threaten-
ed as a result of a haphazard system of
individual distribution or of local sell-
ing and marketing. Under these condi-
tions there have been formed virile or-
ganizations of growers for the distribu-
tion and marketing of the products, and
such organizations when properly di-
rected have been successful.

The Indiridualism of the Farmer

Co-operation among farmers is more
difficult to effect than the consolidation
of capital in other business enterprises.
The farmer is the most individualistic of
American citizens. It is not easy for him

to transact his business with his neigh-
bors. Independence in handling his af-
fairs is a tradition that has been his for
generations. He would rather conduct
his business man to man, as his fathers
have done before him, unless necessity
compels him to do otherwise. The co-
operative movements that have been or-
ganized among prosperous fruit growers
have usually failed. The social, the po-
litical, or the altruistic motives have not
been strong enough to hold a group of
money-making farmers together. The
only successful co-operative efforts until
recently have been those which have been
born of desperate necessity.

Co-operation must be effected when the
fruit industry is at low ebb to have the
virility to live in the face of the attacks
to which all such efforts are at first sub-
jected, but after the growers have learn-
ed the power of co-operation as a busi-
ness opportunity, their organizations be-
come permanent and exert a powerful in-
fluence in the development of a better
social life, and, through their participa-
tion in the progress and management of
rural affairs, in the development of a
better citizenship. No other agency is sa
powerful in bringing about better farm-
ing, better methods of handling the in-
dustry, a greater prosperity, and a better
community than a group of farmers wha
are successfully organized to protect and
develop their agricultural interests. The
American farmer is beginning to realize
that the powerful influence of consoli-
dated capital has been the source of the
tremendous industrial progress of the last
generation. He is beginning to take a
greater interest in the possibilities of
co-operative action when applied to his
own problems.

Fundamental Principles of Co-operation

There are many kinds of co-operative
associations among the fruit growers of
the United States. In a non-profit asso-
ciation, which represents the ideal type
of co-operation, the members usually
have an equal voice in its management
and share proportionately in its benefits
and risks. Such an organization is a
voluntary industrial democracy in which

MARKETING FRUITS— CO-OPERATION

1275

the fruit growers manage and control the
distribution and marketing of their own
products. Every member of the associa-
tion is a bona fide producer and his fruit
is handled exclusively by the association.
All of the operations are carried on at
cost, and after operating expenses, de-
preciation, and a reasonable interest on
the capital invested in the equipment of
the association are deducted, the profits
are distributed to the members in pro-
portion to the amount of business each
has transacted through the organization.
The powers of the association are
vested in a board of directors selected by
the growers, who manage and control its
affairs and business through officers or
agents appointed by it and subject to its
advice and direction.

The Organization of a Co-operative
Association

The first step in organizing a co-opera-
tive association is to incorporate it un-
der the laws of a state. This usually has
to be done under the laws that author-
ize the formation of stock or member-
ship corporations, as few of the states
have provided for the incorporation of
non-profit co-operative agricultural or
horticultural associations.

The association needs to be incorpor-
ated on broad lines. The articles of in-
corporation should set forth the purpose
for which the association is formed and
should provide for every activity in
which it may wish to engage. They
should define the principal place of busi-
ness, the life of the association, the num-
ber and power of the directors, the vot-
ing power and property rights of the
members, the amount of the capital
stock, and all other things of a general
nature that are needed to be included in
the incorporation of such a body.

A code of by-laws needs to be adopted
for the government and management of
a co-operative association. The by-laws
should define the method of exercising
the power of the corporation through
the board of directors and the officers ap-
pointed by it, the conditions surrounding
the admission of members, the dues or
stock to be paid by each, and the condi-

tions surrounding the same. They should
provide broad powers for the manager,
including the supervision of the harvest-
ing, grading, packing, distribution, and
sale of the fruit, or for such of these
operations as the association may wish to
perform. They should define the grades
to be adopted by the association for each
kind of fruit. They should contain a
provision by which the grower gives the
association the exclusive right to market
the fruit, with the possible exception of
the lowest grades, and to harvest, grade,
and pack the same. This includes the
selling of the fruit for the members
either as individuals or through pools of
fruit, a penalty to be collected by the as-
sociation for every package sold outside
of the association. These objects are at-
tained by the signature of the farmer
to the by-laws of the association, or the
association may require a special con-
tract to be executed with the co-operating
member.

The methods of providing money for
operating expenses, such as a fixed as-
sessment against every package of fruit
handled by the association, and the meth-
od of prorating the balance if the total
amount of the package assessment
amounts to more than the operating ex-
penses, and other things usually includ-
ed in such organizations should be set
forth in the by-laws.

Types of Co-operative Associations

The fruit growers' organizations vary
in form from joint-stock companies com-
posed of growers or dealers or of both,
who distribute their own products or the
products of others, to the simple non-
profit form of co-operative association
which purchases the supplies and distrib-
utes the products of its members at cost.
The voting power of the members in
the different associations varies from a
single vote for each member to a vote
proportional to the amount of stock
owned by each or to the acreage held by
each. His voting power may depend on
the probable crop production or the ac-
tual production of the preceding year.
The capital may be contributed in limit-
ed amount equally by each member in

1276

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

propoi-tion to the acreage held by each
or to the probable production of each
member, or unequally without reference
to either of these factors. It may be con-
tributed by business men who are not
fruit growers, but who desire to encour-
age the formation of associations; or the
capital stock may be subscribed as an in-
vestment, and a high rate of interest paid
on it before the profits are distributed to
the growers. Some of the associations
handle fruit on speculation or for non-
members at a specified rate per package.

All of these types of so-called co-opera-
tive associations and many others are in
operation with a greater or less degree
of success. The most virile and effective
from the standpoint of the producer are
those which are strictly co-operative, non-
profit in type, each member contributing
an equal amount of capital and having an
equal voice in its management or a vot-
ing power and capital contribution in
proportion to the acreage of bearing fruit
held by each. The association handles
the fruit of the members only, and the
fruit is under the control of the asso-
ciation from the tree to the market. The
objection urged against this form of or-
ganization is that the small grower has
an equal voice with the large grower in
fixing the policies of the association. The
objection to the voting power based on
acreage is that the exceptional grower
has no more infiuence than a poor grow-
er of equal acreage. There is equally
strong objection to the form of power
based on production, as the pro rata of
production may vary with the seasons.
All of these objections are discussed in
the following pages.

Causes of Failure in Co-operative
Associations

Not all of the co-operative associations
are successful. In fact, comparatively
few of them have been distinctly success-
ful, especially among the early associa-
tions formed before the citrus-fruit grow-
ers of California organized to distribute
their products and to protect the capital
invested in their industry. The citrus-
fruit organizations, most of which are
founded on the true co-operative, non-

profit basis, have had a far-reaching in-
fluence on the co-operative movement in
the United States.

The orange and lemon growers of Cal-
ifornia have the most powerful and suc-
cessful organizations to be found in any
agricultural industry in the United
States, if not in the world, one organ-
ization acting as an agent in distributing
$15,000,000 worth of fruit a year for its
6,000 members, organized into more than
a hundred associations on a non-profit
basis. This agency sends fruit to every
part of the United States and Canada
and to several foreign countries, main-
taining its own exclusive representatives
in all of the principal markets of Amer-
ica. Many of the co-operative associa-
tions organized in recent years have been
formed on the principles that underlie
the citrus-fruit associations, and these,
when wisely managed, have shown great
strength.

The Management of a Co-operative
Association

Several factors have contributed to the
downfall of fruit growers' associations.
Many of them have been formed by im-
practical, often unsuccessful, enthusiasts
with high motives, but with no business
experience and little standing in their
communities. Others have been formed
ahead of their time when the industry
was too successful for the members to be
held together. Many of them have been
managed by incompetent, low-salaried
men, not infrequently by those who have
been unsuccessful in business. The suc-
cessful handling of a co-operative associa-
tion requires a manager who is compe-
tent to assume the general direction of
the affairs and business of the associa-
tion. He must have a high order of
business ability, sterling integrity, un-
usual tact and judgment in handling men,
and unlimited energy. An association
under any other kind of management
is not a serious business undertaking.

It is more difficult to direct a co-oper-
ative association than a stock company
or corporation. In the latter the man-
ager is responsible to a board of direc-
tors, but the stockholders do not often

MARKETING FRUITS— CO-OPERATION

1277

take an active interest in the manage-
ment of its affairs. In the co-operative
association the manager is also subject
to the advice and control of the board
of directors, but the farmer who joins
with his neighbors in an association is
likely to take more than a passing in-
terest in the management of the associa-
tion. A manager who cannot hold the
interest and the confidence of the mem-
bers, who fails to develop a progressive,
constructive business policy, will fail in
handling a co-operative organization. Nor
can such an organization succeed if the
directors do not realize that it must have
a strong, competent, aggressive, well-paid
manager at its head. It is not too much
to say that no single factor has operated
against the success of the co-operative
associations as much as the incompetent
managers selected by the directors of
the associations to handle them. A board
of directors cannot manage a co-operative
agricultural association. The outcome of
the organization will be determined in
large degree by the character and abil-
ity of the manager.

The Payment of Dividends

Another factor that has operated
against the success of many so-called co-
operative associations has been the pay-
ment of high dividends on the capital
invested, the stock having been sub-
scribed unequally by a comparatively few
members. The organization in which the
business is not transacted at cost cannot
hold the confidence and support of its
members. The payment of one or two
high dividends on the capital stock before
the proceeds are distributed to the
growers has caused the downfall of many
associations that have been well organ-
ized in other respects. Another danger-
ous element has been the ambitious ef-
fort of new associations to buy and sell
fruit and supplies outside of the mem-
bership. The speculative element must be
rigidly excluded from co-operative asso-
ciations. The harvesting, grading, pack-
ing and handling of fruit not grown by
members invariably leads to a lowering
of the established standards of grading
and packing and to injury to the reputa-

tion and financial standing of the asso-
ciation.

Disloyalty of Members a Cause of
Failure

Many co-operative efforts fail through
the disloyalty of members when the asso-
ciation is subjected to the skillful, in-
sidious fire of those who oppose it. The
farmer is not used to having his business
attacked, and those who are interested
in disrupting the organization appeal di-
rectly to his pocketbook by attempting
to show that the association does not
realize as much for the fruit as the
farmer could realize outside the associa-
tion. They also persistently insinuate
that the association is grossly misman-
aged.

It is a favorite practice of the oppo-
nents of co-operative distribution and
selling to offer association members a
premium on their fruits. The apple
grower is tempted by a premium of 25 to
50 cents a barrel over the probable re-
turn of the association; the peach grower
by an advance of 10 to 20 cents a box or
basket, and the pear or small-fruit grower
by an equally attractive bonus. The man
with a small crop and a still smaller
capital often falls before this kind of
temptation, and if it is held out long
enough the association may be disrupted.
These devices are coming to be well un-
derstood and the fruit grower who joins
an association in good faith and sells out
for a small premium is in danger of los-
ing the respect and confidence of his
neighbors.

The Membership Contract

It is a fundamental necessity that the
members be held together by a contract
or a provision in the by-laws which gives
the association the exclusive right to
pick, pack, haul, grade, mark and sell the
fruit of its members, or to perform as
many of these operations as it may de-
cide to perform, or to supervise or regu-
late these operations under rules made
by the association. The contract should
be drawn for a term of three to five
years, giving the grower the privilege
of withdrawing by notice at the end of

1278

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

any fruit year, thereby making his con-
tinued connection with the association
voluntary. The contract should specify
a penalty to be assessed against every
package of fruit sold outside of the asso-
ciation, this penalty to equal not less
than 25 per cent of the value of the
fruit. Under any other plan an associa-
tion cannot build on a solid foundation.
It cannot foresee the probable volume of
business to be transacted, nor can it
provide the means to purchase the sup-
plies for handling the crop or reach that
degree of stability that is essential to the
success of a business undertaking. The
membership contract with the grower is
the foundation stone on which the busi-
ness of the association is reared and
without which its existence and stability
are problematical.

Co-operation in tlie Purchase of Supplies

In every co-operative association there
should be a division for the purchase, sale
or manufacture of supplies of every kind
used in the production, packing, handling,
shipping and marketing of the crop. The
association should be prepared to pur-
chase fertilizers, materials and equip-
ment for spraying and fumigation; the
facilities used in frost protection, prun-
ing or harvesting; orchard machinery, or
any other equipment on which a saving
can be made by co-operative purchasing.
It should be prepared to purchase the
supplies for fruit handling and market-
ing, such as box shocks or packages, pick-
ing boxes, nails, wrapping paper, and all
kinds of packing-house equipment.

The money needed to operate this pur-
chasing division may be raised by as-
sessment, by the individual notes of the
directors of the association, or in other
ways. The association should sell the
supplies to the members at a fair mar-
ket price, and at the end of the season
should prorate the surplus to the mem-
bers or invest it in the business, after
deducting the operating charges, deprecia-
tion and other necessary expenses, in-
cluding interest on the assets and capital
devoted to this supply division.

Co-operation in the Handling^ of Fruit

The condition in which fruit reaches
the consumer depends largely on the care
with which it is handled. The most
common rots of apples and pears, of small
fruits, and of citrus fruits are directly
related to the mechanical bruising of the
fruit, most of the diseases not having
the power of penetrating a healthy, un-
injured skin. The association must there-
fore provide rigid rules for picking. It
must either supervise the harvesting,
grading and packing of the fruit and pro-
vide for the most rigid inspection of
every lot before it is accepted by the
association for shipment, or else the har-
vesting, grading and packing must be
done by the association. In most of the
associations where the fruit is not packed
in central packing houses it is picked
and packed by the grower according to
the rules of the association, and inspected
by an employee of the association before
it is accepted for shipment.

This system works fairly well with the
small deciduous fruits, which have to be
handled quickly from the field to the
consumer. It is not a satisfactory sys-
tem to apply to the citrus fruits or to
the apple or pear crops. With these the
handling, grading and packing must be
standarized, and this can be done only
when the association controls all of the
handling operations or actually performs
them. Many apple associations establish
rules of grading and packing. The asso-
ciation grower picks and packs the fruit,
and the association accepts or rejects it by
inspecting the packages when delivered at
the railroad station, the association ware-
house or some other point. But experi-
ence has shown that the grower can
rarely be depended on to pick and pack
the fruit in the best manner. It requires
skilled labor, and fruit grading and pack-
ing is an art that is acquired by few in-
dividual fruit growers. An association,
therefore, that operates on this principle
seldom reaches the highest degree of suc-
cess, and is likely to fail outright. A
better plan is to have the grower pick
the fruit when directed to do so by the

MARKETING FRUITS— CO-OPERATION

1279

association. It is then graded and packed
according to the rules of the association
in the orchard or in the fruit house on
the farm by trained men in the employ
of the association. Under this plan the
grading and packing of the fruit of the
entire membership can be done with com-
parative uniformity. Even then the pack-
ages need to be inspected before they
are accepted by the association. Every
package rejected should be regraded and
repacked or placed in a low grade. This
system is in operation in several of
the most successful co-operative apple
growers' associations in the United
States.

Another plan is to grade and pack the
fruit at a central packing house owned
and controlled by the association. The
growers pick the fruit, haul it to the
packing house, and there it is graded and
packed by the association. This is the
plan that was formerly in general oper-
ation in the orange and lemon-growing
districts and is followed to a limited
extent at the present time. The objec-
tion to this plan is that no two growers
handle the fruit with equal care, and
the different lots of fruit therefore vary
in physical condition and in susceptibility
to decay. Under this system there is
a wide variation in the percentage of
decay that develops in the fruit of dif-
ferent members while in transit to mar-
ket. If the fruit is pooled, the grower
who handles his fruit carefully has to
share the losses that develop in the fruit
that has been carelessly handled.

The most satisfactory plan in the cit-
rus-fruit industry (and this may be ap-
plied to some other fruits) is to have
the association train gangs of laborers
who shall pick the fruit of all of the
members. The laborers should be paid
by the day, as contract or piecework
places a premium on rapid, careless work.
In this way the picking can be stan-
dardized, the quantity of fruit that passes
through the packing house can be con-
trolled, and the grading and packing can
be uniformly done.

This system has been generally adopted
in the citrus-fruit industry as a result

of the investigations of the Department
of Agriculture into the causes of decay
in oranges and lemons while in transit
from California to the East. This in-
vestigation showed that the decay was
the result of the improper handling of
the fruit in preparing it for shipment,
and that it could be controlled by plac-
ing the handling of the fruit entirely in
the hands of the associations. The same
laborers often fumigate the orchards of
the members for scale insects and spray
the trees wherever spraying is practiced.

The Central Packing House

The tendency in the co-operative move-
ment is toward a central packing house
where the fruit of the members is brought
together and is graded and packed for
shipment. In the small-fruit industry
this plan is hardly practicable. It is
sometimes successfully operated in the
deciduous-fruit and in the grape indus-
tries. There are about 200 of these as-
sociation packing houses in the citrus
industry in California, and the Florida
citrus growers are rapidly organizing
along these lines. A packing house is
erected by the association, usually along-
side the railroad, and is equipped with
the necessary appliances for fruit han-
dling and packing, the manager of the
packing house being usually the general
manager of the association. Precooling
and cold-storage plants, box-nailing and
labeling machinery, and other devices re-
quired in the industry, are to be found
in many of the association houses.

The Pooling of Fniit

There is a growing practice in the co-
operative associations to pool and sell
the fruit as a common commodity under
the brands of the association rather than
to sell the fruit of each grower sep-
arately. The pool is an arrangement by
which the similar grades of fruit of all
of the growers are united and sold to-
gether. At the end of a pool, which
may vary from a daily pool in the sum-
mer-fruit business to a monthly or semi-
monthly pool in the citrus-fruit busi-
ness or a season pool in the apple in-
dustry, the grower receives his pro rata

1280

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

of the proceeds based on the number of
pounds or packages of each grade that
he has contributed. In theory the grower
has the privilege of contributing to each
pool his pro rata of the fruit of the as-
sociation as a whole, the manager of
the association usually apportioning to
the growers their quota in accordance
with their respective acreage. The pool-
ing arrangement greatly simplifies the
practical business methods of the asso-
ciation.

The successful working of the pooling
system depends on having the handling,
grading and packing of the fruit under
the direction or control of the associa-
tion. It may but does not often succeed
where these operations are in the hands
of the grower. It depends, further, on
having a large proportion of the fruit
of the association of uniform grade.
There is considerable variation in the
average quality of different lots of fruit
in the same grade, even under the most
rigid system of grading. The fancy grade
of one grower may average better than
the fancy of another, though the fruit of
both is entitled to be graded fancy under
the established rules of the association.

No grower is willing to admit that he
does not raise the best fruit in his com-
munity, and where it happens that his
fruit falls below the average and he is
paid for a larger proportion of the lower
grades than his neighbor he may become
dissatisfied, when he will either drift
along and finally leave the association or
will adopt better cultural methods. In
some communities there is a friendly ri-
valry among the association members in
securing the largest proportion of the
higher grades of fruit. The grade of
fruit grown under similar conditions of
soil and location depends largely on the
cultural skill of the grower, and the pub-
licity that the association affords regard-
ing the results of grading the fruit of
different growers is a strong factor in
stimulating better cultural methods in a
community as a whole.

On the other hand, the pooling system
may not encourage the unusually skillful
grower to develop fruit of the highest

average grade. If he stands alone as a
skillful grower, he will not get the full
advantage of his extra-fine fruit in the
pool, as the practical effect of the pool
is to lower the price of extra-fine fruit
and to raise the price of fruit that can
barely enter a grade. An association
ought, therefore, to be composed of mem-
bers located similarly as to soil and
other physical conditions and having
similar cultural skill and, preferably,
similar acreage. Unless these fundamen-
tal conditions are carefully guarded, the
pooling system may tend to lower the
average grade of the fruit of a com-
munity because the grower, realizing that
the identity of his fruit is lost in the
pool, may grow careless in his cultural
practices and trust to the better fruit
of his more careful neighbors to raise
the average net returns of the grades
in which his fruit is pooled.

The Size of a Co-operative Association

In theory a large association can han-
dle a business more economically than
a small one. It is not usually practicable,
in the orange business for example, to
organize an association and build a pack-
ing house unless there are at least 150
cars of fruit to ship. The largest asso-
ciations do not often ship more than 750
cars, and only a few of these large asso-
ciations are highly successful, as they are
likely to become unwieldy and difficult
to hold together.

There is a wide difference in the char-
acter of the fruit grown on different soils
at different altitudes or with other dis-
similar physical conditions. The varia-
tion shows in the texture of the skin, in
its color and clearness, in the fiavor of
the fruit, and in those qualities which
give it style and attractiveness. There
is no system of grading by which the
fruit grown under different conditions
can be made uniform and similar. An
association should therefore include not
only those growers who are similarly
skillful, but also those whose fruit nat-
urally shows similar characteristics.

In a community in which the fruit is
somewhat variable it is a wiser policy
to organize several associations, each

MARKETING FRUITS— CO-OPERATION

1281

with its brands of fruit, than to attempt
to market all of the fruit under the same
brand through one organization. These
organizations may act independently in
the purchase of supplies and in the mar-
keting of the fruit, or they may federate
and form an agency to act for them in
the distribution and marketing of the
fruit, in the purchase of supplies, and
in promoting the co-operative movement
in other ways. It is only under this
method of organization that the co-oper-
ative association can reach its highest de-
velopment of better methods of fruit
growing and in rural development.

The Organization of tlie Citrus-Fruit
Industry of California

The citrus-fruit industry in California,
which has developed commercially since
1873, when the Washington navel orange,
originally grown in Brazil, was sent to
Riverside by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, represents an invest-
ment of 150 to 175 million dollars. The
annual shipments of oranges and lemons
have reached the enormous total of 40,-
000 to 50,000 carloads, with a value in
California estimated to vary from 20 to
30 million dollars. Between 125,000 and
150,000 acres have been planted to citrus
fruits, and from 100,000 to 150,000 people
depend on the industry for a livelihood.

The industry is localized largely in
Southern California, though it is extend-
ing rapidly in the interior valleys to the
north. No other horticultural industry in
the United States of equal extent is so
compactly located. None presents more
difficult problems or requires a more
skillful distribution and marketing of the
crop. Oranges and lemons are distributed
from California practically every day in
the year for distances of thousands of
miles to all of the important cities and
towns in the United States and Canada,
and some are exported to other countries.

When the industry was small no com-
plicated problems of distribution or mar-
keting faced the grower. The fruit was
sold for cash to buyers on the ground
or to brokers who represented distant
commission houses o^" other interests, or
it may have been sent direct to a com-

mission firm in some far-away city. As
the industry grew larger and there were
several thousand carloads of fruit to sell,
the grower began to realize that the sys-
tems of selling the fruit already in oper-
ation were inadequate to bring to him
the proportion of the returns which his
capital was earning and to which he con-
sidered himself entitled. Under the sys-
tem in operation there were frequent
gluts in a few of the markets and ap-
parently no effort among the buyers to
equalize the distribution of the fruit
geographically or throughout the year.
The buyers were said sometimes to have
fixed the maximum price which would
be paid the grower and to apportion the
citrus-fruit area into districts so as to
reduce competition among themselves.
The result was disastrous to the pro-
ducer and became so serious in the early
nineties as to threaten to wipe out the
capital invested in the industry.

About this time the growers began to
organize small associations for the pur-
pose of preparing the fruit for shipment,
and in order that it might be assembled
in quantity and sold for cash or shipped
as a unit. Mr. T. H. . B. Chamblin, of
Riverside, was the pioneer in organizing
the citrus-fruit growers of Southern Cali-
fornia. The Pachappa Fruit Association
was the first one formed, about 1888. A
number of these growers' associations
were soon formed, and in 1893 a plan
was outlined by Mr. Chamblin, and finally
adopted in principle, which federated a
number of the associations and provided
for the preparation of the fruit for mar-
ket by the local associations, for the
organization of district exchanges to be
made up of the local associations, which
were to receive orders for the fruit and
apportion them among the associations,
it being the intent at that time to ship
only such fruit as was sold before picking,
and the formation of an executive com-
mittee, made up of representatives from
the district exchanges, to market the
fruit.

Out of this federation grew the South-
ern California Fruit Exchange in 1895,
and later, in 1905, the California Fruit-

1282

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Growers' Exchange, which now handles
about 60 per cent of the citrus fruits
grown in California. There are many
other associations of growers not con-
nected with the exchange which are or-
ganized on the same general principles,
and these associations, together with the
exchange and a few large growers who
market their own fruit, handle about
85 per cent of the citrus-fruit crop.

In order that the principles which un-
derlie the largest co-operative fruit-mar-
keting organization in the United States
may be understood, a brief outline of the
exchange system follows:

The California Fruit-Growers' Ex-
change represents about 6,000 growers
who have organized themselves into 100
or more local associations. The associa-
tion usually owns its own packing house,
where the fruit of the members is as-
sembled, pooled and prepared for market
under brands adopted for the different
grades by the association. The associa-
tion usually picks the fruit of the mem-
bers.

The associations in the different re-
gions combine into one or more district
exchanges which represent the associa-
tion in the business operations common
to each and which sell the fruit in co-oper-
ation with the California Fruit-Growers'
Exchange through the district or local
agents of the latter or at auction, receiv-
ing the proceeds therefor through the
California Fruit-Growers' Exchange, an
Incorporated agency formed by a repre-
sentative of each of the sixteen district
exchanges, which acts as the selling
agent for these district exchanges. The
California Fruit-Growers' Exchange takes
the fruit of the district exchanges after
it is packed and with their advice places
it in the different markets, sells it
through its own exclusive agents to the
trade or by auction, and collects the pro-
ceeds and transmits them to the district
exchanges, which in turn pay the growers
through the local associations.

The central exchange, the district ex-
change, and the association all transact
business for the grower at actual cost.
The central exchange through its agents

is in daily touch with the markets of
America, thereby enabling it to distribute
its fruit intelligently. The local ex-
changes and the associations receive a
daily bulletin from the central exchange
which outlines the condition of all the
markets the preceding day, states the
selling price of all exchange cars, and
gives the growers such information as
will help them to pack and distribute
their fruit to the best advantage.

The limits of this article are too re-
stricted to permit more than a brief out-
line of the battle that the citrus-fruit
growers of California had to wage for
fifteen years before the co-operative prin-
ciple was on a firm foundation. At first
the growers were inexperienced in meet-
ing the attacks of those who were opposed
to co-operation among the producers. Pow-
erful financial interests of various kinds
were arrayed against them and were or-
ganized to oppose them. Vicious attacks
were made on the integrity of the officers.
The results obtained by the associations
were belittled, the growers' association
contract was assailed in the courts, and
the methods of marketing the fruit were
attacked. The most determined efforts
were made to show that the growers' or-
ganizations were illegally formed. Finally
the growers combined with the buyers at
one time to market the entire crop, but
this incongruous combination of pro-
ducers and dealers was dissolved at the
end of a year and a half.

The history of the citrus industry in
California is largely a record of the prog-
ress in the co-operative handling and dis-
tribution of the crop by the producer
and of his determination to receive an
equitable share of the value of the labor
expended in its production. The battle
has been won; the co-operative principle
is firmly fixed. It is the balance wheel
that gives stability to the industry and
to the relations that exist between it and
the agencies with which it transacts busi-
ness.

Fewer serious efforts are made now to
break down the co-operative principle
among the growers. New schemes of
fruit-marketing are proposed from time

MARKETING FRUITS— CO-OPERATION

1283

to time, the organizations are frequently-
attacked in tlie courts under one guise
or another, and other insidious move-
ments are started, all having in view the
possible splitting open of the co-operative
organizations and a return to the meth-
ods of marketing which would destroy
the systematic distribution and market-
ing now in operation and reinstate the
chaotic speculative methods that were
formerly in vogue. The co-operative
movement in the citrus industry is the
result of a slow, painful evolution, and
the grower does not appear to be deceived
by these efforts, no matter how ingeni-
ously and artfully they are conceived.

Selling the Fmit by Co-operative
Associations

The co-operative associations sell the
fruit in a variety of ways, the method
of sale depending on the character and
condition of the industry and the prac-
tices that have grown up around it. A
large proportion of the deciduous sum-
mer fruits is sold f. o. b. cars at the
point of production, subject to inspection
on arrival in market, or for cash f. o. b.
cars, or at auction. Some are consigned
to commission merchants. From 25 to
30 per cent of the citrus fruits of Cali-
fornia are sold at public auction in the
Eastern and Central Western markets,
and a large proportion of the Western
deciduous fruits is sold in this manner.
Among the apple associations it is a
common practice to send to the trade in
advance of the harvest a catalogue of the
probable number of boxes of the different
varieties and sizes of the higher grades
of fruit that the association has for sale,
and finally to sell the fruit to the highest
f. o. b. bidder. The lower grades are
consigned to commission firms, are sold
for cash, or are marketed in other ways.

Few of the organizations, except those
that transact a large business — like the
citrus-fruit growers of Florida and Cali-
fornia, the peach shippers of Georgia, and
the deciduous-fruit shippers of California
— have attempted to regulate the distribu-

tion of their products throughout the
country, nor have any serious attempts
been made to carry the distribution be-
yond the wholesale dealer, the broker, or
the auction companies. The co-operative
method has brought about large econo-
mies in the purchase of supplies, in the
cost of preparing the fruit for shipment,
and in the charges for distribution and
sale. It has improved the methods of
fruit packing and grading enormously.
It has sometimes doubled the net returns
to the individual grower for his product.
The difference in the price that the asso-
ciation receives for the fruit and that
which the consumer pays is often 100 per
cent or more higher than the original
selling price, and this contracts consump-
tion.

As long as the country is prosperous
and the present method of distribution
and sale does not cause a disastrous
over-supply in the principal markets, the
growers will be satisfied to continue the
methods now in operation. But as the
fruit business increases it will be neces-
sary for the growers' associations to de-
velop methods for increasing consump-
tion. This will be accomplished by a
more general distribution of their prod-
ucts, by the development of their asso-
ciations into marketing organizations, by
equalizing the distribution of the fruit
over a longer period through a greater
use of cold-storage warehouses, by stimu-
lating a greater interest in fruit con-
sumption through systematic advertising,
and by placing the fruit in the consumer's
hand at a cost nearer that which the
producer himself receives. As the Ameri-
can fruit business increases, the grower
may be expected to bring about as great
an improvement in the methods of dis-
tributing and selling his products to the
consumer as he has already accomplished
in the handling, grading, packing and
preparation of the fruit for market.

G. Harold Powell,
Pomologist and Acting Chief,
Bureau of Plant Industry.
(1910 Year-book)

1284

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

YAKIMA VALLEY FRUIT GROWERS'
ASSOCIATION

Feank E. Sickles,
General Manager.
The Yakima Valley Fruit Growers' As-
sociation was organized in the fall of
1910. It was the outgrowth of a wide-
spread feeling among the fruit growers
of the valley, who faced the fact that an
enormous acreage had been planted to
fruit trees which would soon come into
bearing, that only through co-operative
effort and organization could a solution
of the marketing problem be found and
the industry placed upon a permanent
business basis. Their purpose was ex-
pressed in the preamble of the articles
of incorporation which were filed Novem-
ber 7, 1910:

"We, the undersigned, realizing the
advantages to be gained by drawing more
closely together the fruit growers of the
Yakima valley and the advantages that
may be gained by co-operation and unity
of action among said growers, and for
the purposes of cementing the business
relations which should exist among the
fruit growers as a class, to the end that
they may all work together for their
mutual interests In securing the most
favorable markets for their products, and
in attaining the highest standard of qual-
ity of fruit shipped from the Yakima
valley, do hereby agree to form an asso-
ciation or corporation for mutual advan-
tage, and not for profit, and to that end
hereby make and subscribe and do hereby
adopt the following articles of incorpora-
tion, to-wit:"

The list of the first-year directors, with
their residences, shows that from the
first the organization was valley wide,
bringing together, perhaps for the first
time, into united and harmonious action,
men living "above the gap" and men
living "below the gap," phrases which will
be familiar to Yakima people. Following
is the list:

E. M. Sly, Kennewick; B. D. Thomp-
son, Granger; J. E. Shannon, Geo. E. C.
Johnson, North Yakima; John Dobie,
Lower Naches, and M. E. Olson, Parker.
The plan of organization which was

adopted and which we outline below, is
the work very largely of Mr. N. C. Rich-
ards of North Yakima, who has been
from the beginning general counsel for
the association; and its successful devel-
opment and application to practical busi-
ness has been the result in great measure
of the organizing skill, tireless energy
and unfailing faith of Mr. J. H. Robbins,
who until June, 1913, was general man-
ager. The association is generally recog-
nized as one of the most successful of
all co-operative organizations and has al-
ready served as a model for many other
such enterprises; a somewhat full ac-
count of its plan may be of value to fruit
growers everywhere.

The organization is incorporated under
the provisions of the so-called "Fraternal
Lodge Law" of the State of Washington;
and the fact is suggestive of the spirit,
purpose and method of the organization.
As a corporation it is therefore what is
known in some states as a "membership
corporation" as distinguished from a
"stock corporation."

No Capital Stock

The association has no capital stock.
The reasoning which controlled the ac-
tion of the organizers may be stated
somewhat as follows: Many of the evils
which have sprung from the tremendous
growth of modern corporations have had
their origin in the fact that there are
two distinct sets of interests and meas-
ures of values in every corporate con-
cern, the business itself and the stocks
based upon it; and the two are often by
no means identical; when the concern
grows large two distinct lines of enter-
prise spring up, the conduct of the cor-
porate business and the flotation and
manipulation of the stock. This segrega-
tion of interests attaching to stock from
those attaching to the business itself
they believed to be especially dangerous
in a growers' marketing organization, for
the peculiar conditions, relations, needs
and purposes of the business emphasize
the danger at every point. The growers'
only interest in the organization is to
secure through it the maximum of re-
turns at the minimum charge; the stock-

YAKIMA VALLEY FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION

1285

holders' only Interest is to do a maximum
of business at a maximum of profit —
which means a maximum charge to
growers, modified only by the necessity
of making the charge low enough to se-
cure the business. The stockholders' in-
terests and the shippers' interests are
not and cannot be made to be anything
other than essentially antagonistic. Ex-
perience has shown that it is practically
impossible to remedy this condition by
any system of stock control or limitation.
A right start may be made in a growers'
stock organization but the shifting
chances of time will soon bring in a con-
dition where combinations of stockhold-
ers can control the corporation against
the interests of the growers, and the very
common spectacle will be exhibited of
a growers' co-operative organization con-
trolled by non-growers. By making the
basis the man with his tonnage and not
dollars invested in stock all these diffi-
culties are avoided.

Jfon-Profit Making

The association cannot do business at
a profit. Under the terms of its charter
it must perform its services for the
grower at cost. Its charges for any sea-
son must be based upon the necessities
of the budget for that season, and if any
surplus remain at the close of the year,
it must be returned to the members. This
assures the growers a sales-service at
cost, removes the temptation to build up
a large surplus in the organization by
making excessive charges and makes it
impossible for the association to perform
services for non-members or to go into
a general mercantile business to the pos-
sible endangering of its legitimate pur-
poses.

Membership

Any person who is the owner or lessee
of lands set to any kind of merchantable
fruits is eligible to membership upon
complying with two conditions: 1st, sign-
ing a contract for the marketing of his
fruit, which will be referred to again
more in detail; and, 2nd, paying or bind-
ing himself to pay the membership fee.
A certificate is issued to each member
which is not transferable except to a

lessee or grantee of the land owned by
the member and described in his crop
contract. It can, therefore, at the option
of the member, "go with the land" or fol-
low him and attach to other land of
which he may become the owner or lessee.
If he sells to another member, the cer-
tificate may be turned into the associa-
tion and reissued to the next grower
applying for membership, the member-
ship fee to be turned over to the retiring
member. In case a member ceases to be
a grower, his certificate may be can-
celled.

The certificate entitles the member to
all the privileges of the association so
long as his crop contract continues in
force. Should he withhold his crop from
the association for any reason, he loses
his right to any and all privileges of the
association, but can afterwards renew his
contract and be restored to the enjoy-
ment of privileges upon the basis of the
same certificate and fee.

Membership Fee

Every member pays a membership fee
of $100. In what manner this is paid
rests entirely in the hands of the district
associations; it may be paid in cash, se-
cured by notes payable as suits the con-
ditions of the growers, or by making a
percentage deduction from the member's
crop returns; the plan is very flexible
and admits of adjustment to the peculiar
conditions of each district and individual.
These membership fees are usually de-
voted by the districts to providing local
warehouse facilities.

Crop Contract

This is a tripartite agreement between
the grower, his district association and
the association. By it the grower agrees
to market all his fruit grown on the land
described in the contract through the
association, and agrees to pay for market-
ing, loading and such selling charges and
commissions as may be necessary in or-
der to meet expenses. The contract is
perpetual and continues from year to
year unless cancelled by the grower on
March 1st of any year, after giving twen-
ty days' notice in writing of his inten-

1286

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

tion to cancel. It provides for liquidated
damages to be enforced against the grow-
er who violates his contract. The con-
tract also authorizes the association to
withhold from fruit returns all associa-
tion charges and all amounts due for
supplies furnished the member.

Federal Plan

The association is organized on the
federal plan first worked out so success-
fully by the California Fruit Growers'
Exchange. A somewhat close analogy
can be drawn between it and our Ameri-
can form of government, which begins
with the town or county, passes up into
the state and ends by federating the
states into one national government. In
the association, the units are the district
associations, which are all brought to-
gether and federated in this association,
commonly known as the "Central"; or,
since the organization of the North Pa-
cific Fruit Distributors, as the "Sub-cen-
tral." Again this association is federated
with the other districts of the Northwest
in the distributors, which thus becomes
the "Central."

The district associations are all sep-
arately incorporated under the "Lodge
Law" and are independent, self-governing
organizations, without capital stock, and
under the terms of their charters obliged
to do business only for their own mem-
bers and to do it without profit; they are
thus, like the sub-central, purely co-oper-
ative. It is the plan of the association to
strengthen and build up the district or-
ganizations into well-governed, business-
like bodies, independent and thoroughly
competent to care in the best possible
manner for local affairs. In pursuance
of this policy, the trained experts in
charge of sub-central's departments are
always at the service of the districts for
counsel and guidance, and responsibili-
ties are placed upon them wherever prac-
ticable. Community interests are cared
for — illustrated by the fact that the asso-
ciation does the district business through
the local bank authorized by the district.

Government

The growers hold their membership
immediately in the district associations.

naturally choosing the one whose ship-
ping facilities best serve their individual
purpose. The members elect the trustees,
each member having one vote which he
may cast either in person or by proxy;
the trustees elect the officers, appoint the
manager and of course constitute the
active governing body of the district.
The trustees elect from their number
two "representatives to sub-central."
These representatives from each district
constitute the board of trustees of the
association, in whose hands rests the en-
tire management of its affairs. These
trustees elect the usual officers and ap-
point the general manager, and other
necessary executive officers. As the
board of trustees is a large and some-
what expensive and unwieldy body, it
elects an executive committee of seven
members, consisting of the president and
six other trustees fairly representative of
the different divisions of the valley,
which meets at least every month and
constitutes the every-day business end
of the management so far as the growers
are concerned. The members of the ex-
ecutive committee receive their expenses
and a per diem of $5.

Functions of the District

All purely local affairs are cared for
by the districts; this includes warehous-
ing, consolidating less than carload ship-
ments by different members, and distribu-
tion of supplies. The districts may, and
many of them do, add to these necessary
things such other helpful activities as
they think wise under their local condi-
tions. Under their charters they are per-
mitted to undertake any co-operative en-
terprise for their communities that the
members wish. By this principle of home
rule local interest and pride is aroused
and the individual members are kept in
closer touch with their organization. The
settlement of all local issues is then left
to the local growers.

Functions of "Sub-central"

Broadly speaking, the sub-central re-
ceives the fruit when loaded and has
charge of shipping, marketing and col-
lecting; it consolidates less than carload
shipments from the districts; it buys all

YAKIMA VALLEY FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION

1287

supplies and distributes them to the dis-
tricts; it maintains an inspection depart-
ment to secure absolute uniformity in
grade and pack throughout the valley; it
takes care of all purely inter-district mat-
ters, and looks after the organization of
new districts; it distributes all returns
to the growers and makes the deductions
in payment of supply accounts.

Functions of "Central**

The North Pacific Fruit Distributors
are general sales agents for the associa-
tion and handle all carload shipments.

Supplies

Thus far the association has attempted
to handle no supplies for its members
except such as may be classed as strictly
orchard supplies, sprays, boxes, paper,
nails, etc. Contracts and purchases are
made by the sub-central and distributed
through the districts. Each district is
held responsible for all supplies fur-
nished through it to its members. Sup-
plies are sold to members at current re-
tail prices and charged to the district at
cost price plus a charge intended to cover
sub-central's expense in handling the
business. The balance of the difference
between cost and sales price thus passes
into the hands of the district, where it
may be disposed of as the members of
each district may direct. Pro rata deduc-
tions are made from the crop returns of
members in payment of their supply ac-
counts. For the two seasons of 1912 and
1913 the association handled $360,000
worth of supplies, paying for them at or
before maturity. The business methods
thus indicated and the large amounts pur-
chased make it possible for the associa-
tion to buy at very low prices.

Financing

In the inception of such a co-operative
enterprise, perhaps the most serious prob-
lem to solve is that of finance. Organiza-
tion and promotion work is costly; much
of the work each year must be done be-
fore the shipping season begins and until
that time no revenue is available. More-
over, at all times a working capital is
essential, and co-operative enterprises
have often found it difficult adequately

to meet this need. At the outset the
association met the difficulty in two
ways: First, the membership fee of
$100 was divided between the district
and the then central, thus furnishing to
central an immediate fund for initial
expenses. In April, 1912, this rule was
changed and since that date central has
received no part of the membership fee.
Second, in order to furnish the new or-
ganization with a basis for credit, each
early member gave his note to the asso-
ciation in an amount equal to $10 for
each acre planted to fruit. These notes,
known as "acreage notes," were given to
be used as collateral under conditions
laid down in the by-laws. In April, 1912,
the giving of these notes was discon-
tinued and in February of 1913 the asso-
ciation, having no further need of the
notes which had been already accumu-
lated, and which aggregated in amount
over $60,000, cancelled and returned
them to the makers. At the time these
changes in the financial plan were made,
a plan was adopted which makes provi-
sion for the financing of the association
in a far more permanent and satisfactory
way. Under this plan, a box deduction
is made from the returns of all fruit
shipped through the association; for ap-
ples and pears, 5 cents a box; for
peaches and prunes, li/4 cents a
box, and for other fruit propor-
tionate amounts; those deductions are
considered as a loan to the association
and are represented by notes, due three
years after date with 4 per cent inter-
est coupons attached. The first two sea-
sons' business has brought into this sur-
plus fund the sum of $85,000; this with
another year's accumulation will provide
a sufficient working capital, furnished by
and belonging to the growers in the exact
proportion in which they from year to
year make use of the privileges of the
association; in case they for any reason
sever their connection the capital con-
tributed by them is automatically re-
turned to them as the notes mature.

The current running expenses of the
association are met by the usual system
of charges upon fruit handled.

1288

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Pooling

In the first two seasons the association
had no general system of pooling. In
1913, a general pooling system was
adopted and now prevails. Soft fruits
are pooled by districts while for winter
apples there is one season's pool covering
all districts.

Warehousing

The association now operates twenty-
six warehouses, located in the different
districts, which afford large common
storage facilities. It has planned a series
of cold-storage plants to be owned and
operated by the association. The first unit
is located at North Yakima, and provides
cold storage for 120 cars, besides exten-
sive common storage and general ware-
house facilities for handling supplies and
fruit shipments. The second unit is now
nearing completion at Zillah; it will pro-
vide cold storage for 550 cars, ice-making
capacity of 10,000 tons annually, and car
pre-cooling trackage for 14 cars at a time.

Advances

Another serious problem which presents
itself to co-operative marketing organi-
zation is the financing of its growers.
Money is needed by the individual grower
to carry on preliminary orchard opera-
tions; more money is needed to harvest
the crop, and after it is delivered to the
warehouse it is often difficult for him
to wait for the return of his money from
the markets and the closing of pools. To
meet these needs the association has
gradually developed a three-fold system
of advances as follows:

(a) Advances for spraying, thinning,
general orchard labor and payment of
Avater assessments prior to delivery of
fruit. Application for these must be
-made at the district office; the orchard
must be inspected and the loan guaran-
teed by the district; a second inspection
is made by the association's field depart-
ment and the advance, if made, secured
by interest-bearing notes and crop mort-
gage.

(b) Advances on delivery of fruit.
These are made by the district managers
upon request as soon as each load is

delivered; the amount per box is fixed
by the sub-central office from time to
time. The purpose of these advances is
to provide the grower with money for
harvesting expenses. No interest is
charged.

(c) General advances made on the
basis of fruit delivered. Application is
made at the district office and forwarded
to sub-central office for action. These
advances also draw no interest.

Growth

The association was organized in the
fall of 1910. During the season of 1911
it shipped 300 cars and ended the year
with 328 members; in 1912 it shipped
2,020 cars and ended the year with 689
members; in 1913, a short-crop year, it
shipped 1,300 cars and ended the year
with 964 members; it now has 25 affili-
ated districts and the membership is well
past the one thousand mark.

NORTH PACIFIC FRUIT
DISTRIBUTORS

H. C. Sampson,
Secretary-Treasurer.

Introduction

Experience and observation convince
all intelligent persons that under present
conditions no great business or industry
can succeed without such organization
and such intelligent management and di-
rection as will result in the largest vol-
ume of business attainable at a minimum
of expense.

As soon as the growing of deciduous
fruits in the Pacific Northwest began to
assume large proportions, it became ap-
parent to the thoughtful persons inter-
ested in that industry that if our more
than two hundred million dollar invest-
ment was to be preserved and become the
great factor of our agricultural and com-
mercial world that was anticipated, some
means must be devised to bring the grow-
ers together into an organization for their
mutual protection, and to provide a meth-
od whereby the product could be stand-
ardized and so sold as to eliminate, so far
as possible, the element of waste in as-
sembling, and unnecessary cost in selling
and distribution; and whereby the con-

NORTH PACIFIC FRUIT DISTRIBUTORS

1289

sumer might receive liis fruit at a lower
price, wliich would increase consumption
and thus secure an outlet for our ever-
increasing tonnage.

From time to time, at different places
where fruit growers congregated, much
discussion and feeble attempts to bring
about the above results had been made.
But nothing tangible was accomplished
until at the Growers' Congress, held No-
vember 11 to 17, 1912, at Spokane, Wash-
ington, in connection with the Fifth Na-
tional Apple Show, in a meeting at which
were present hundreds of the best-known
growers and heads of growers' unions,
bankers, transportation men and others,
it was decided to call a convention of
delegates of the growers from the four
Northwestern states to meet at Spokane
December 16, 1912.

On this date over four hundred dele-
gates, representing all the fruit-growing
and producing districts in the Northwest-
ern states, met and decided to undertake
the organization of a central selling and
distributing agency, and a committee of
nine was appointed to outline a plan. This
committee recommended that the four
Northwestern states be divided into nine
sections, which would represent the prin-
cipal fruit-producing districts; that each
of these sections elect a representative,
and that such representatives organize
and direct a central selling organization.
The plan recommended by the committee
was unanimously adopted by the conven-
tion of delegates and the committee was
authorizerl to proceed with the perfection
of such an organization.

Acting under these instructions, the
committee on December 17, 1912, incor-
porated the North Pacific Fruit Distrib-
utors, a purely mutual corporation organ-
ized without capital stock under the non-
profit corporation laws of the state of
Washington, the members of the com-
mittee acting as incorporators and as a
temporary board of trustees.

On March 21 and 22, 1913, the incor-
porators and trustees held a meeting at
North Yakima, Washington. Present by
invitation of the trustees at this meeting
were many representative growers from

all of the Northwestern states. After two
days and two nights of most earnest dis-
cussion, a preliminary organization was
effected.

It was apparent that for the various
fruit districts of the Northwest to con-
tinue marketing their crops in sharp
competition with each other meant dis-
aster to the industry. Fortunately, most
of the principal growers and shippers
fully realized the situation and began
a diligent study of a practical plan for
overcoming the jealousies and prejudices
that existed in the different districts.
When the time came for permanent or-
ganization, the board of trustees, with the
assistance and guidance of general coun-
sel, adopted a code of underlying prin-
ciples for by-laws, which had stood the
test of the large California and Florida
citrus organizations, and which had
saved that industry from disaster in those
states. The details of that plan were
modified to meet the requirements and
after one season's experience it is fair to
state that the institution has assumed a
strong position in the fruit-growing and
fruit-marketing world.

Permanent Organization

At Hood River, Oregon, May 30 and 31.
1913, occurred the final organization and
actual affiliation of six sub-centrals, in-
cluding the Apple Growers' Association of
Hood River, Oregon; Yakima Valley Fruit
Growers' Association of North Yakima,
Washington; Walla Walla Fruit Distrib-
utors of Walla Walla, Washington; Idaho-
Oregon Fruit Growers' Association of
Payette, Idaho; Montana Fruit Distribu-
tors of Hamilton, Montana, and Spokane
Fruit Growers' Company of Spokane,
Washington.

The Central Idaho-Washington Fruit
Growers' Association of Garfield, Wash-
ington, completed affiliation on July 19,
1913, and the Wenatchee-North Central
Distributors of Wenatchee, Washington,
completed affiliation on July 19, 1913.

Tonnage and Results

From July 8, 1913, to August 30, 1914,
the distributors handled a total of 3,958
cars of fruit and 1,125 cars of potatoes,

1290

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

making a total of 5,083 carloads with a
total of 2,989,295 packages, exclusive of
potatoes and melons, aggregating a
realized price, net to the distributors, of
$3,069,953.51, without the loss of a single
penny through failure to collect.

Distribution of fruit covered 243 cities
in 38 states, 33 cities in six Canadian
provinces, and 179 carloads were exported
to 16 cities in 10 European countries.
Shipments were also made to South
America, South Africa, Australia and the
Philippines.

The average price realized per box for
apples for all varieties of all districts, all
grades and all sizes, was $1.26, f. o. b.
the shipping point.

Of total shipments of 3,958 cars of
fruit, 2,102 cars (54 per cent) started on
f. o. b. orders, 1,790 cars (45 per cent)
were started as tramp cars, but 3,284 cars
(83 per cent) were delivered on a f. o. b.
basis; 26 cars only were shipped on con-
signment and only 92 cars (2^2 per cent)
were finally delivered on consignment.
(Leading authorities of the Northwest es-
timate that heretofore at least 70 per cent
of our entire apple tonnage was con-
signed.) A majority of these, however,
were damaged cars or rejections that
could not be successfully delivered on
the basis shipped, and, to avoid unneces-
sary sacrifice, were turned over to re-
sponsible dealers for sale for our account.
Cars sold through auction numbered 299
(TV2 per cent).

System of Financing

The system of financing is worthy of
consideration. A grower or organization
that accepts a loan or advance from a
dealer or buyer virtually mortgages his
or its tonnage to that buyer and his
particular market, and therefore shuts
off all other buyers and all other terri-
tories from the sale of his fruit. Prices
may be far better in other territories and
possibly freight rates less, but the fruit
must go on to the man who lent the
money if the obligation exists. But if
(as with the growers with the North
Pacific Fruit Distributors) the money is
borrowed from the banks — the legitimate
institutions to borrow from — all buyers

and all territories are opened as a market
for the fruit.

During the past season a total of $551,-
000 was made available for advances
to the growers of our respective districts.
This was in part from funds on hand in
local or sub-central reserve funds; in part
through bank accommodations arranged
with local banks by the sub-centrals, and
in part through bank loans arranged for
by the central office. And what is most
gratifying to note is that over $400,000
additional was voluntarily offered by Spo-
kane banks upon growers' warehouse re-
ceipts. This, however, there was no oc-
casion to use.

No one fact stands out in bolder con-
trast with the past than does this tribute
paid to the distributors by the conserva-
tive bankers of the Northwest when they
so completely reversed former practice
and either lent or offered to lend nearly
one million dollars for advances upon a
product so perishable in nature that it
had been heretofore regarded by them
as an utterly impossible security. It is
interesting to note also that of the
amount borrowed, every dollar was re-
paid on or before maturity of the loan
and the greater part even before ma-
turity.

By the just and equitable plan of pool-
ing like varieties, grades, etc., of fruit
(of each separate district within itself),
there has been brought to the industry
such stability that fruit products under
the distributors' control are considered
a safe and acceptable collateral not pre-
viously regarded as possible under the
most favorable conditions.

Retail Price and Consumption

Never before throughout the Northwest
has been maintained anything like a uni-
form price for a given grade and variety
of fruit throughout the several producing
districts. Heretofore each district has
graded its fruits according to its own
notion and maintained its own individual
price. This encouraged middlemen to
speculate on prices and destroyed all pos-
sibility for anything like a uniform price
to the trade throughout the whole coun-
try. The selling methods this year have

NORTH PACIFIC FRUIT DISTRIBUTORS

1291

operated toward a more common under-
standing of price conditions and the elim-
ination of bargain liunters to the material
advantage of both the retail trade and
general consuming public.

Again, never before have the growers
of the Northwest themselves had such a
source of dependable information with
respect to prevailing prices and true
market conditions, common knowledge re-
specting which, from the standpoint of
growers, retailers and consumers, has had
a decidedly beneficial effect toward in-
creasing consumption.

Sales Policy

With the announcement last August of
the sales policy of the distributors there
was brought to the Northwestern boxed
apple business a stability and orderly
control wholly lacking and entirely ab-
sent during the speculative years of the
past. The announcement that the sea-
son's sale would begin upon a price basis
sufficiently moderate to attract the deal-
ers' investment early in the season
(thereby affording the trade, as prices
advanced, due and proper protection upon
their investments previously made), met
with a quick response and a hearty ap-
proval from the trade. They were quick
to observe that the growers under that
policy would eliminate much of the risk
heretofore attending early sales and that
the growers who controlled the product
in the first instance, instead of the pur-
chaser and speculator, thus became the
real regulators of the market. It re-
mained only to adhere strictly to the
policy outlined and to demonstrate good
intentions and good faith in efforts to
maintain a uniform price, coupled with a
steadfast refusal to undersell previous
quotations, to gain the trade's entire con-
fidence. This enabled the organization to
book and make advance sales of a sub-
stantial portion of the surplus and in a
most positive and material degree relieve
the accustomed harvest pressure and
avoid the usual declining markets at that
critical season of the year.

None previously had been sufficiently
bold to advocate low or moderate prices
at the opening of the season. The very

audacity of the proposal was both start-
ling to the growers and a pleasing inno-
vation to the trade. The trade, while
acknowledging the decided advantage that
would accrue alike to themselves, the
growers and consumers, were neverthe-
less skeptical regarding the ability to
reconcile the growers to even a moder-
ately low opening price and successfully
maintain such a policy. It is pleasing,
indeed, to note, however, that the grow-
ers quite generally were most favorably
impressed with the force of the proposi-
tion; and, with a greater degree of unan-
imity than would ordinarily be expected,
quite loyally supported the plan.

A steady market was maintained until
the middle of March, when distributors'
holdings were all disposed of and it re-
leased its steadying influence. Within a
very few days speculators realized that
the situation was in their hands and they
began cutting prices, and the apple mar-
ket was soon in a chaotic condition, where
it remained until the end of the season,
resulting in the loss of thousands of dol-
lars to the storage-apple holders.

Purpose

The purpose of the organization is to
get a larger economy in assembling, a
wider distribution, a lower price to the
consumer and therefore an increased con-
sumption; scientific advertising; and, in
short, to put the business on the same
basis as any other business stands in or-
der that the grower's business may be
managed in a business way and under the
control of the grower himself.

GoTernment

The four states of Oregon, Washington,
Idaho and Montana are roughly divided
geographically (and regardless of state
lines) into a number of "Sub-Central Dis-
tricts"— at present nine — which number
may be increased or decreased at any
time. Each sub-central district elects one
trustee to represent it on the central
"Board of Trustees." Each sub-central al-
so elects two members of the "Council of
Representatives." In these two bodies
rests the general control of the organiza-
tion.

1292

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Board of Tnistees

The Board of Trustees, with as many
members as there are districts, generally-
speaking are in control of the central's
affairs. Regular monthly meetings are
held, unless formally postponed, and spe-
cial meetings are held from time to time
as business demands. Each trustee has
equal voice and vote in these meetings
regardless of the tonnage he represents.
The board of trustees determines all pol-
icies, elects all officers, determines all
salaries, determines all changes, and all
increases or decreases in sub-central mem-
bership, and has general control of all
property and other interests of the com-
pany.

Council of Representatives

The Council of Representatives, with
twice as many members as there are dis-
tricts, meets only when called by the
trustees on the demand of two trustees or
on the demand of eight members of the
council itself, and then considers only
those special matters which are specified
in the call. The voting strength of each
member is on a tonnage basis, namely,
each member shall be entitled to one vote
for each 100 cars or major fraction there-
of marketed by his district through the
central. Action taken on any matter prop-
erly considered by the council is binding
on the board of trustees and all officers of
the corporation.

Modus Operandi

The North Pacific Fruit Distributors is
a large assembling, distributing and sell-
ing agency. In the orchards of Oregon,
Washington, Idaho and Montana, its ma-
chinery is the 6,000 growers, 94 local as-
sociations, and its nine sub-centrals. In
the markets its machinery is its central,
branch and district offices, and its more
than 100 exclusive agency connections
through which it covers every portion of
the civilized world. Through its North-
west growers, locals and sub-centrals it
makes a survey of the crop situation,
gathers the information of available ton-
nage of its various districts as to variety,
grade and sizes, tabulates this data in its
stock book at the central office, each week
checking in order to keep a correct up-

to-date record of the stock available.
From its salaried representatives it gath-
ers a knowledge of the crop and market
conditions throughout the entire world,
and this information through many thous-
and telegraphic and telephonic reports
keeps the central office thoroughly inform-
ed on matters concerning the world's
markets.

From this world-wide machinery the
central receives orders for fruit, which
orders it transmits through the sub-cen-
tral and local organizations to the grow-
er. These growers and locals assemble
and load their fruit, assemble the neces-
sary manifests and other data, and this
data through locals and sub-centrals by
telephone and telegraph finds its way to
the central. Many hundred copies of a
bulletin or "tramp sheet," plus many per-
sonal telegrams transmits daily the knowl-
edge and data of this fruit available to
the exclusive agency connections and to
possible customers in the markets of the
world. Back from these world's agencies
come the orders for fruit, some to be load-
ed to order and others for fruit already
loaded. These orders are then trans-
mitted through the sub-centrals and locals.
From the agency connections of the mar-
kets of the world comes the money for
the cars sold. All this via the central,
reaches the growers through the sub-cen-
tral and local associations.

From the growers, locals and sub-cen-
trals, come the reports of the condition
and nature of the fruit when loaded. And
as the cars pass through the cities where
the agents are established, and likewise
when they reach their destination, back to
the central from the world agencies come
similar reports of inspection with condi-
tion of fruit, and the central again is in
position to collect the necessary damages,
make necessary allowances and otherwise
intelligently handle the situation.

METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-
MARKETOG AGENCY

There are approximately 10,000 dealers
in fruits and vegetables in carload lots
in the United States and Canada, not to
mention those in foreign countries. Un-
der the most favorable conditions it is

METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY

1293

doubtful if more than 2 per cent have
ever been represented in person in any
one season at Northwestern shipping
points. Under less favorable conditions
the percentage drops to a minor fraction
of 1 per cent. It is on this minority
factor that the individual fruit grower or
shipper unaffiliated with any organized
sales agency depends for his market, while
he loses sight of the fact that 98 per cent
or more of the total buying power is lost
to him.

While the cash demand f. o. b. in any
comprehensive scheme of marketing is an
important and not-to-be-disregarded part
of the whole, it is equally true that any
system which does not provide means for
reaching the 98 per cent or more of the
trade who are the stay-at-homes or ab-
sent buyers is fatally weak and wholly
inadequate to meet industrial needs of a
business which is inherently competitive.

It is axiomatic that true value is the
pivot on which supply and demand bal-
ance. In order to secure maximum value
100 per cent of the demand must be em-
ployed; also, where the supply is increas-
ing from year to year, new demand must
be created at least to keep pace with the
additional supply if decline in values
would be prevented. If only 2 per cent or
less of the demand is employed there will
be many times when it will be found far
inadequate to absorb the supply at prices
profitable to the producer.

Having seen then that the absent buy-
ing class forms by far the most important
section of the market, it will be interest-
ing to note some of the machinery and
some of the many operations in the pro-
cess of a complete transaction between
the merchant, i. e., the Northwestern pro-
ducer, and his customer, i. e., the buyer in
a distant market.

When it is remembered that in the case
of Northwestern fruits the producer is
distant about 2,500 miles from the over-
age of his markets, the difficulties and
complications of the business can be
guessed, and will hereafter be illustrated.
For purposes of demonstration a typical
transaction has been selected, all docu-
ments photographed and reproduced as
under:

cr

ne«jr stx;- i

Figure 1

S., a fruit grower of the Wenatchee val-
ley, has a carload of Rome Beauties to
sell. He makes a manifest of the lot, and
mails it to his sales agency.

• rjt Ws'.ili off.i

. »K»,Tr btr. ?.s

MinaKjiau

Figure 2

Bearing in mind that maximum value
depends on the employment of maximum
demand, the idea is now to offer this car
to the whole trade, i. e., to everyone of

1294

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the 10,000 or so dealers, and to do it
practically simultaneously. This is pos-
sible under modern conditions only by
means of a resident sales organization.

The country is divided into zones, and
a resident salesman established at the
most important distributing center in
each. The aim is to restrict the size of
each of these zones to the extent of the
salesman's ability to cover all of the
trade therein daily, either in person or
by telephone. There are 103 district
agencies in this country and Canada and
three foreign agencies, in the case of the
particular sales agency in illustration.
Upon receipt of the manifest from S., the
sales department issues a bulletin repro-
ducing the manifest in detail, and further
describing the offering, where and by
whom grown, and price wanted. It is in-
teresting to note that in this case the
producer has set a price on the merchan-
dise which is less than its worth, and one
of the first items of service on the part
of his agency is to set the correct value on
the fruit, in this one action saving the
producer several times the amount of the
fee for the entire service. It is of course
well known that the producer is rarely
in position to estimate the correct value
of his merchandise, as he has not the de-
tailed information on which to base a
valuable judgment. A bulletin is mailed
to the entire list of district sales offices,
and by this means the entire buying pow-
er of the whole market is concentrated
on the offering. This means that the
maximum demand is being employed to
insure the desired maximum value.

Figure 3

Five days after the issue of the bulle-
tin the first results are seen in the shape
of a telegram from Cincinnati branch;
the salesman having canvassed his mar-
ket, one dealer was found who was will-
ing to buy the car at a price 50 cents per
box less than the price asked. In declin-
ing this offer a counter-offer is made, sub-
ject to confirmation, in order to test the
strength of the position. The sales man-
ager making this move knows that in a
few hours more there will be received
from other sections of the country in-

POSTAL TELCORAPH - COMMCRCIAI. CABLES

TELEGRAM

^ai««* *««• tint

'-

THE

NIGHT

WESTERN UNION

LETTER "*' ' 1

TELEaRAPH COMPANV>^

r

, „'^, "

AM^ MKInu TO tut. r«a «

"• — •

s
1

m

Figr. 3.

quiries or offers for this lot, if the de-
mand exists anywhere.

TME WESTCRN UWOW TEUBBmWI

Rcccivt o ot II IM ft. to. M. riiMl tiL -ar

^^3155^

•rf>r« •«••< aMU* toltar (OW «■■■!■ <«ltf .

THE WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH COHPAKfi '^l

rr«*«uitM.-.

tmatmtmm mar inoujo.

Pig. 4.

Figures 4 and 5

The next morning two other branches
are heard from: Pittsburgh, which offers

METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY

1295

TCUEORAPH COMPANY"

THE WKSTOM UWWW JWULOMPH COmPMH^-y

Fig. 5.

a somewhat better price than Cincinnati,
and Boston, which submits an order from
a well-known dealer at full asked price,
whereupon the Pittsburgh offer is de-
clined and the Boston order confirmed,
and the first stage of the transaction has
been completed. This is a perfect illustra-
tion of the system. Cincinnati, by means
of the salesmanship of the resident rep-
resentative, was made to offer all that the
condition of the market there warranted.
Pittsburgh was in somewhat better shape,
but the one market that could afford to
buy and use this car at the extreme value
was Boston, and by the operation of the
system this important fact was discovered
and capitalized.

I THE WESTERN UWIOM TB^atWtl QOIWi

■i3i>a ,

W

umrm . -M wH iiMnir-nn *n

tarn t*U tW •« Mm t*trm *mt teUjo fuoan loiin

itmrnUM^Af. WMtK.

.y

Fig. 6.

Figure 6

Here the grower is notified of the sale,
and instructed to begin loading, pending
receipt of detailed instructions by mail.
Under the old crude methods, the con-
firmation of sale would have been regard-
ed as about the closing step in the trans-
action, whereas, under the comprehensive
system nowadays employed, the process of
turning the fruit into money has there-
with only begun, and will not be complete
until the delivery is safely made and the
money actually paid over. The "usual
terms" in the fruit trade being "inspec-
tion and acceptance at destination," the
producer is practically obligated to as-
sume the risks of sound and satisfactory
delivery to the buyer; hence, modern mar-
keting service contemplates not merely
the negotiation of the sale but the safe-
guarding of the producers' interests
against all the hazards of transportation
to a distant market. In the perishable-
fruit trade a multitude of things can hap-
pen to a shipment between the time of its
sale f. o. b. and delivery to the buyer.
Hence, the latter part of the service,
while less spectacular than the negotia-
tion of the sale itself, is nevertheless
equally important or even more so. It
is likewise the most expensive part of
the service.

Figure 7

One of the greatest disadvantages of
the fruit business is the matter of rejec-
tions by the buyer. It is human nature
to blame the other fellow, but experience
shows that the seeds for most rejections
are sown by the seller himself at the time
of negotiating the sale. Frequently the
fruit is overdescribed by a too enthus-
iastic salesman, and the buyer given
grounds for justifiable rejection on the
basis of misrepresentation. The tempta-
tion to do this is so great that strictly
first-class fruit salesmen are harder to
find than salesmen in almost any other
business. Also, the fruit trade has been
developed very rapidly, and has far out-
stripped the methods for its conduct. It
has been customary to do the business
entirely on verbal understandings, where-
as, in other fields of merchandising, sales

1296

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

i

tt)rjtrrtim0i%'mm tmjn [soamu

I- ^ ■^"

'»%«_ ^■'■^ "■»•». ^*-

itajgtW

Fig. 7.

are usually confirmed in writing. Modern
sales agencies in the fruit trade are en-
deavoring to correct this defect, and in
this Illustration is shown the quadrupli-
cate order form which is executed as soon
as the sale has been confirmed by tele-
graph. In these are set down each and
every verbal understanding of whatever
nature. The grading rules under which
the fruit is to be packed and shipped are
indicated, and every possible precaution
is taken to remove all possibility of mis-
understanding, and therefore of justifiable
rejection. The original of this form is
filed by the sales agency and a duplicate
mailed to the shipper for his guidance in
making the shipment. There is a coupon
on his copy for him to date and sign and
mail back to the sales agency, which
forms a written acceptance and confirma-
tion of the sale for his account. The
triplicate is mailed to the buyer and the
quadruplicate to the district sales office
at point of destination. Thus, in one

operation, all four parties to the transac-
tion are notified in identical language,
and any exceptions may be noted and
filed in time to permit correction and
avoid dispute. While this system does
not entirely do away with rejections, it
to a very important extent minimizes
them.

Figure 8

Letter from sales department to grower,
transmitting the order, and giving cer-
tain instructions. The time being mid-
winter, with cold weather prevailing
along the route, extra precautions must
be taken to prevent the fruit from being
frozen in transit. At this juncture the
sales department has completed its serv-
ice for the time being and the transac-
tion is taken up by the traffic department
— an indispensable adjunct to any suc-
cessful marketing system. This depart-
ment, as all others, is manned by experts
in their line.

METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY 1297

t! j-i ■--.

il/Tih,'".,

er^y

:%jj'

It';

=^J

*\r"e*

't« »•«

...

'•■■

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"•"

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tb*M tr«

MHt:

1.0. t.! •»<

, .».

.^Ut,,:.

rj

ti Bocnt

leva* i» a

bM

it »r6:»et.

I or. jt>« ••» «t

" -^ »nilp^

...t.

lor jnai ir.

:Dts«'-loo,

j^ ,

:!'.: «£i.3C fo

tf Alt

<V* M»

B-

' a*:

■*" ■

Ian

2SSS»B

MK"

t)llJ--T

£

:■ '»'■-

'ts

^I

t;

">s ^

s

?-8

iS

Itt

Tl

a^B

lei •;

it»

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Fig. S.

Figure 10

Cold weather in the Rockies threatens
to delay the shipment.

S*Ma<w« ■»<(.»(■• ^»**iAB« Omu

SwujioieBsBjnrvJ^wnjura Ontfttnr

■.r« iKJt loaifti tii« car.

v9h tk* «ffUfM-. fria t&» la««r rig*
r ram. 4»t» fc-'-a tlfn :« »sl r*v^

!;*■» trul?.

::OT?Ki»jrx

^JTRUIt 33CCHASCS

fr,-^ tr: -

-■-,.. Tr. .' . LTr laMXC

th. 5£r ■

•■..:« tr.; antiiU* «.-i r.vc«

r.-.7'

v-7 3f tc« r«llroai r*fr«)i«ijt-

■ t:-..t ftrT»'»«. S*** ^'^^ •*> *? '*' *^

_-. trar.

;ra53i<;

Figure 9

The traffic department instructs the
grower in the steps to be taken in the
protection of his interests.

Figure 11

Further instructions by traflBc depart-
ment to grower, showing very low temper-
atures prevailing along the route over

2 — 41

1298

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Great Northern Railway Company.

■TIMIOHT

►^ *•

,».,..^,,

Fig. 12.

which car must pass, thereby emphasizing
the importance of the proper preparation
of the shipment to protect it from freez-
ing.

Figure 12
In the left of the picture, original rail-
road bill of lading, showing the proper
notations. On the right, the three in-
spection forms required by the sales
agency to be made out by the grower.
The top section is a weight report, to
avoid fi'eight overcharge by the carrier.
The middle section is an inspection report

of the railway equipment offered by the
railroad for transportation of the fruit.
It is very important that only equipment
in good order be accepted, and loaded;
doors tightly fitting, and drain pipes,
plugs, vents, etc., all in good worlting
order. Otherwise, damage may result
and claim difficult or impossible to collect,
owing to technicalities in the transporta-
tion laws. Finally, the bottom section
is used to record the quality, grade, con-
dition and pack of the fruit as well as of
the boxes in which it is packed.

Fig. 13.

METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY

1299

Figure 13

Manifest in triplicate, accompanying
the bill of lading to the head offices.
With the mailing of these documents,
properly executed, the growers' work and
responsibility cease, assuming the fruit
has been properly grown, graded and
packed, and loaded into the car.

Figure 14

Showing the front and back of the
card containing the full sales record of
the car. When the sales department com-
pletes the sale, the card is turned over,
the details of the sale written in, and the
card passed to the accounting department,
which then becomes responsible for the
collection of the invoice from the buyer,
and the issuing of a proper accounting to
the owner.

Figure 15

As soon as the bill of lading is received
a card is made out and on it is carried
the traffic record of the car from the
time it leaves shipping point until its safe
arrival and delivery to the buyer. The
routing of the car is first laid down, then
a list of principal divisions or passing
points is written in. Freight-train sched-
ules are consulted, and the dates are filled
in on which the car should pass each
point if on schedule time. In the paral-
lel column are filled in the dates on which
the car actually passes those points, this
information being furnished by the rail-
roads themselves by telegraph. This rail-
way record serves a number of very use-
ful and important purposes. Should the
car fall behind time the traffic depart-

_357 peahtstir.

II I.' l;< It

21 -^ ■J'.i '-'* 2:. 2fi 77 M ttt w -M

D.i?.J".3. adviEo
T..-.7.yirj:ev ^ :;3. 3s.,t ■■■-■.

t : •: 1 . f-Ai

41:

4'.5Z

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oS

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m AI. , I'UH'K

OHIOINAL S*LE

RESALE

RESALE

1/5 !l.S. Kinney 4 Co.

: .OIO.O

e*t«

•oworo

Soeton CK to i:i M. Trans fer-
li&ee. CMa-LsiUS-ws-BAM

""■"■°~

•OWTINA

CXat.NATlOM

«OU*lNO

AdTles ! BOBton Br. 1 $20.

.,.,..,.»„.

.„...,

""""■

Rone Bty

2.00

1.75;

!

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.™,..^. ft...... ..

....

'FOB

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1 ""

°'°"'°

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rrlre

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Fig. 14.

1300

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

1 2 3 4 S 8 7

to II 12 la 1< 15 1« n IS H 20 21 a 23 24 » 28 27 28 29 30 31

357 peshastln.Tn. I/18/I3 '. 7ent 'w^-. Stage,

i?S5Jl03'' lCBAQ-37317

B.^.P.S. adviaa'

l.'J.Zinney 4 Ce. Boston, llaee,

51f to umf°.Trf. : °"

0B^ci-i.s,aig:-73-B^

IU.LMW«*tC»

'/''ya\

0»M10«T

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jkufiitji

tu«i*4&lt*

JZ^/^.^

^ " _ „ OEP. ^ iifUuJttt

JjH^i^nL {M\

w

'/Z/i

.2/hiiiaJA,

t^

'■eudiif'/y %

liK-

fe

'#?^

7^W>u%u7t'

'aAiM

iujiniJ^

u^/-/'/Ajm^¥- -."/JL

' f'i /i.ni /r 'ic

■^3

/J

^3

.2^

^2,

2(r

Fig. 15.

ment warns the carrier and ofttimes
prevents loss and a claim, or, if warn-
ing does not suffice and the car is de-
layed or damaged, the record oft-
times enables claims successfully to be
prosecuted that might otherwise be de-
clined for lack of substantiation. Govern-
ment weather maps, received daily, are
checked up and temperatures at various
points entered on traffic cards, as shown
in the illustration.

Figure 16

On the left, invoice in triplicate;
original to the buyer, duplicate to district
sales office, triplicate on post binder, form-
ing automatic charge record. On the
right, (a) draft in triplicate; (b) deliv-
ery order; (c) inspection permit. The
draft is drawn on the buyer for the
amount of the invoice, payable on arrival
of the car. Attached to the draft is the
delivery order, without which the buyer
cannot get possession of the car, which is
billed to the sales agency itself with in-

structions to notify the buyer on arrival.
With the invoice sent by mail direct to
the buyer is enclosed the inspection per-
mit, so when the car arrives the buyer is
notified by the railroad, presents his in-
spection permit, examines the shipment,
and if as represented and in good order
goes to the bank, pays the draft, detaches
delivery order, presents it to the railway
company, and takes possession of the car.
In order to keep close tab on the collec-
tions the accounting department writeb
the draft in triplicate; the duplicate go-
ing on a post binder in numerical order,
and the triplicate is used as a "tickler
card." The traffic department having al-
ready figured out the date on which car
should arrive, the accounting department
allows a reasonable time for the clearance
of the funds, and sets a date on which
they should be reported by local bank, and
the "tickler card" is set under that date.
When it rolls around, if draft is not re-
ported paid, a tracer is started.

METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY 1301

Fig. 16.

Figures 17, 18 and 19

All show steps In the checking and trac-
ing of the car by the traffic department.

^bkm

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jiaasaK-/- -

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•i«ata« of Jut. 24t&. If thft mx MkM fo»4 tiM,
hmild ftrTlT« »t Ulan»«B»ll» to-al^M •« KitaSfkt, or

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k* Mill

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sonnmsTUS rKcir uoauios.

n»

the notice shown at the bottom is issued
to the owner. Nothing now remains but
the receipt of the money by the account-
ing department, and its payment to the
grower less the marketing fee.

Figure 21

On February 12 local bank reports credit
of proceeds of draft, whereupon account
of sales is issued to the owner, showing
the entire financial transaction in detail.
The amount of money reported by the
bank must, of course, correspond to the
gross amount shown in the accounting,
and by means of this and other checks
and balances it is very easy for the trans-
action to be audited and traced from its
inception to its conclusion.

FortlKBi, Qr«

Fiff. 17.

Figure 20

Showing the telegram received by the
sales department from its Boston branch,
reporting the safe arrival and acceptance
of the car by the purchaser, whereupon

CHlCAOO. BUftUMOTON * guiMCY

fortluU, Or*.

I nt of at Tnl OK tjM KDtk u4 t

nJrTOSt^*'

^''^;c^^^^^^--

Fig. 18.

1302

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

^'^1^^

^?S?ISiS

titfvm-

e«. >.». l«t, \9ii.

Xoiur 9ue »r Boa*

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at tM JOtli.

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tutttia

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80RTinB3TISa TRUIT tlQUJtCi

Fi?:. 19.

Figure 22

The modern voucher system of account-
ing is used. This illustration shows the
face, inside and endorsed back of the
voucher employed in payment of this
transaction.

- — MIGHT lETTEBBBAM

Fit;-. 20.

Figure 23

Arrival and inspection report issued by
destination branch. With the receipt and

filing of this document, the transaction is
complete.

The foregoing shows the necessary steps
in a normal transaction. When accident
of any kind befalls, and the fruit busi-
ness is full of accidents, the operations
are increased and complicated many fold.
In making sales the aim is always to
avoid what are called "pocket markets,"
that is, markets at some terminal from
whence cars cannot be diverted, on the
through rate of freight. There are very
few such markets, if the freight is ex-
pertly routed in the first place, and this
is another fine point taken advantage of
by the traffic department in the gi'owers'
interest.

Should cars be rejected, several alter-
natives offer: either an adjustment can
be negotiated with the original purchaser,
should he be disposed to be reasonable,
or, if the circumstances warrant, the car
can be resold to some other buyer and di-
verted on the through rate. In such a
■ case, practically the entire transaction is
duplicated. Cases have been known
where the same car has been sold five or
six times to as many different buyers. In
spite of all precautions there is a cer-
tain percentage of losses on account of
defective service by the transportation
companies, and such losses must be re-
covered by means of claims. The success-
ful prosecution of railway claims is a
fine art. Success depends largely upon
the proper fortification of the claim at
the time of its inception, and this is pos-
sible only under organized methods of
sale and traffic. One prominent sales
agency in the Northwest, whose methods
are here illustrated, has collected in loss
and damage claims for the benefit of its
members during the past four seasons
about $35,000. Under the old individual
system of marketing most of this money
was either lost by the growers through
default or in some cases claims were
collected and retained by the consignees
as their legitimate perquisite.

The genius of the traffic service, how-
ever, lies not so much in the collection
of claims as in the prevention of claims.
It is much better to deliver fruit to the
market in prime condition than to dam-

METHODS EMPLOYED BY A FRUIT-MARKETING AGENCY

1303

OATS SHI»*«D Jtlr. • 1^

JLiii22-

Fis?. 21.

age the market by forcing upon it dam-
aged fruit, even though the loss is re-
covered from the carrier. The organiza-
tion of the fruit industry of the North-
west has just begun. Mucli remains.
Only through thorough education of the
fruit growers as to the importance of
every single step in the preparation of
their product for sale to the absent buy-
er and transportation to markets thous-
ands of miles distant, and their close co-
operation with their sales agencies, will
the production and sale of Pacific North-
west fruit be brought to the point where
it may be said to be a science.

W. F. Gwix

Fif?. 22.

1304

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

57}17

ARRIVAL AND INSPECTION RSPOST

9 A.ii... '

SOStQQ.

i"ot. .4tti

T. 3

('onjition Unin I'ipc*
lint Ice (upplird

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KX(TL\N<)K

.__3. J. Shallow

Fig. 23.

ECONOMICS OF FRUIT
MERCHANDISING

It is characteristic of the wealt and
derelict to charge their failures to out-
side influences. Let not those upon
whose strength and sanity the welfare of
an industry depends, and who, in turn,
depend upon that industry, make this
mistake. The fact is that most of the
"ills that flesh is heir to" are from with-
in, not without. This is an axiom of
human activities as well as human life.

On this hypothesis nearly all of our own
particular economic ills can be attributed
to our sins of omission and commission,
and the few remaining ones, justly charge-
able to the other fellow, can be corrected
without the costly necessity of eleminat-
ing him.

Speculative Land Values

In the first place, there has been almost
from the beginning, both within and with-
out our ranks, reckless promotion of the
industry, and "Bull" speculation in its

ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING

1305

securities (land values) until there has
come the inevitable period of reaction and
readjustment, and the "morning after"
headache which follows a speculative de-
bauch.

Up to this time, it may conservatively
be said that our investments have main-
ly a speculative value; we are right now
at the period of our development when
these values must be shown to be in-
trinsic or else readjusted downward.
Their conversion from speculative to in-
trinsic character depends upon our abil-
ity to demonstrate a sustained average
earning power for a period of three to
five years, in correct proportion to the in-
vestment. In the most favored districts,
scientific management, applied to every
phase of the business from nui'sery stock
to consumer, is the only thing which can
accomplish this. In the less favored dis-
tricts, where production is less generous
and regular, where overhead charges are
necessarily higher, readjustment of values
seems inevitable, and in some cases re-
version of the land to more suitable crops.

Too Many and Inferior Varieties

Attendant upon this first evil, followed
closely a second and almost equally detri-
mental one, namely, the extensive plant-
ing of inferior varieties. These plantings
are now for the most part in bearing,
and the product is going into the markets
in violation of every economic law, and
at the peril of our cherished reputation.
For, it must be remembered, this reputa-
tion was originally founded on strictly
high-class varieties, and eternal vigilance
is the price of its maintenance. Some
idea of the extent to which this inferior
variety matter figures in our market prob-
lem is had from the following quotation
from a "Washington newspaper of recent
issue. It refers to the holdings of a
single association, of a single district
(and one of the best in the Northwest)
in a single storage center:

"There is now in storage in one of the
Eastern market centers 100,000 boxes
of association apples, of which the num-
ber of varieties is 79. Most of this fruit
is of inferior varieties, and should not be
grown here. We should reduce our vari-

eties to ten at most; not to exceed six
or eight, as a matter of fact."

The foregoing pronouncement is abso-
lutely correct. The aggregate of these in-
ferior varieties becomes appalling. The
future holds absolutely no hope for com-
mon varieties. It is worse than "ship-
ping coals to Newcastle" to ship them to
the East, where they can be produced at
far less cost, and of equally good and
sometimes better quality. The sooner we
in the Northwest eliminate them, the bet-
ter, for meanwhile they are a positive
detriment to our industry.

Weaknesses of Co-operative Marketing

The third count in our self-indictment
is voiced in the following quotation from
Report No. 98, United States Department
of Agriculture, on "Systems of Marketing
Farm Products":

"Certain weaknesses have appeared in
co-operative marketing as in co-operation
for other purposes. The business cannot
thrive under an incompetent manager;
the board of directors must not nag the
manager and require him to accomplish
results without the power to do so; de-
ficient capital is fatal, and credit in buy-
ing and selling is often so. A common
weakness of these associations is found
in desertions by members; instead of sell-
ing all their products through the asso-
ciations, they sell some of them through
other channels. If a competitor offers
to a member a higher price than he gets
through his association, he sells to the
competitor. Sometimes the business of
the association is too small, so that the
percentage of receipts that must be de-
voted to expenses is fatally high. A weak
spot in co-operation, frequently observed
years ago, was the fact that some of the
operators looked upon co-operation more
as a means of social reform than of
economic benefit. Social theories and en-
thusiasm are usually detrimental to suc-
cess."

Extravagance in administration on the
one hand, false economy on the other
hand, loose systems of finance, accounting
and warehouse administration, all contri-
bute to the leaks that, unless stopped,
are fatal to any business, as well as de-

1306

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

structive to the mutual confidence which
is the basis of co-operation.

The next point to be considered is the
amazing short-sightedneys of our in-
dustrial sales policy. We have done prac-
tically nothing to create and stimulate a
demand for our own products. We have
moved along the lines of least resistance.
We have had no very clear idea of how
our product reached the market and no
concern about what became of it when it
got there so long as the price of it was in
our pockets.

At last, stung by a touch of adversity
out of our erstwhile complacency, but still
without general understanding on the
part of our rank and file of the media
and processes of trade, and the laws of
merchandising, it is perhaps natural that
in the general confusion of the public
mind, and the general desire to fix the
responsibility for our misfortunes, we are
disposed to take a crack at every head
that shows itself — the middleman, the
railroad company, the sales agency, the
manager of the local association. Because
it is human nature to fear and distrust,
most, the things that we least understand,
those factors farthest from us come in
for the larger share of the blame. Where-
as, I repeat, nearly all of our trouble
comes from within, not without, and from
our misconception of our problem.

Jfatiire of the Problem

In the first place, ours is a manufac-
turing and merchandising problem, rath-
er than one of simple farming. There-
fore, we must employ the methods of the
manufacturer-merchant rather than those
of the farmer. We are manufacturing an
article of food, which we desire to place
in the hands of millions of consumers, all
over the world, taking in exchange their
money. Our problem is, then, the deliv-
ery of our products into the hands of
these millions of consumers in the most
economical manner, and the return of
the money to ourselves in the shortest
possible space of time, and with the least
possible cost of service. The processes by
which these things are done under mod-
ern conditions of civilization are always
complicated, but in our case are rendered

infinitely more so by, first, the perishable
nature of our merchandise, and, second,
the isolation of our plant from the mar-
kets. Our factory is 2,500 miles distant
from the average of our markets. What
is the solution of this problem?

In the writer's judgment, the solution
lies in intelligent, universal co-operation.
Co-operation is a word freely used, but,
unfortunately, not always understood,
and most often the user of it does not
think of co-operation as extending be-
yond himself and his neighbors. The
writer would have you think of it as ap-
plying all the way down the line, from
the producer, through the bankers, the
railroads, the wholesalers, the retailers,
right up to and including the ultimate
consumers of his merchandise. He would
also have you remember that education is
the companion of co-operation.

Co-operation Amongst Ourselves

This we are learning gradually to do,
though as yet we have gone but a little
way along the road.

Co-operation With Bankers

Fortunately, the bankers are being
roused to their responsibilities toward
the industry and an appeal made to their
intelligent self-interest. It is to be hoped
and confidently expected that soon they
v;ill accept their full share of that re-
sponsibility and help to work out a sys-
tem so safe and so conservative that they
can afford to lower their present almost
prohibitive rates of interest. In this con-
nection, consider the history of the larg-
est single fruit industry in the United
States — the United Fruit Company. This
company started out with $10,000,000 cap-
ital, and undertook to reorganize a busi-
ness that was vmprofitable and unsatisfac-
tory to all concerned. Their capital is now
$36,000,000. They have paid during the last
four years 25 per cent dividends on thirty
odd millions of capital and accumulated
profits of $16,000,000. Their securities
in the New England market, and in Bos-
ton on the stock exchange, are considered
so stable that the savings banks and the
conservative bankers and brokers recom-
mend them to widows and children as in-
vestments. This, too, in spite of the fact

ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING

1307

that the banana is so much more perish-
able than the apple that there is hardly
any comparison. They are, in fact, al-
most as perishable as strawberries. They
will chill at a temperature of 50; in fact,
55 is considered dangerous. They will
cook at a temperature of 65 to 70. So
that the problem of transporting bananas
from Central and South America in
steamers transshipping them under all
sorts of weather conditions at seaboard,
and forwarding them across the contin-
ent to Pacific coast cities, even to Alaska,
as well as to England and the continent
of Europe, is an exceedingly difficult and
complicated one.

Yet all these things have been worked
out successfully, and the company has,
through its own intelligent effort, made
the banana an article of household con-
sumption in every hamlet, town and city,
not only in this country but in Europe,
where, prior to the organization of the
company, American bananas were un-
known. During the early days of their
introduction in Europe, the company had
also to overcome the determined opposi-
tion of the dealers, who denounced them
as vegetables rather than fruit. So, the
point to be made is that the perishable
nature of the fruit business does not
indicate that under proper organization
it is a business of too great hazard
for the banks to figure on as closely
as they would on any other article of mer-
chandise.

Co-operation With the Railroads

The physical side of the industry
should be so organized that the trans-
portation risks of the railroads are re-
duced to almost a pig-iron basis, there-
by saving them tens of thousands of dol-
lars annually in loss and damage claims.
Growers should co-operate with them, and
they with the growers in the supply of
adequate storage facilities at shipping
point, whereby we not only serve our-
selves but also relieve them of the al-
most impossible task of supplying suffi-
cient refrigerator equipment to move our
whole crop in six weeks. Then can we
go to them for recognition in the way of
reduction in rates proportionate to the re-

duction in their risk and expense, and
with confidence in their reasonableness.

Co-operation With the Middlemen

Before denouncing them as parasites
and demanding their elimination, let us
first study them and examine into their
relations to ourselves and to the con-
sumers and see whether they are not men,
like ourselves, neither better nor worse
than we, and whether they are not per-
forming a useful service and doing it
better than we could ourselves, and there-
fore entitled to their place in the econ-
omic scheme of our organization. If,
after we have made a thorough study of
the subject, it appears that there are
superfluous middlemen, then the superflu-
ous has no justification for existence, and
should be eliminated. If we find that
abuses exist among the middlemen let
us by co-operation and education elim-
inate the abuses.

What is a middleman? The United
States Department of Agriculture (Re-
port No. 98) describes him thus:

"In addition to finding purchasers for
commodities on the market, securing
goods for persons intending to buy, at-
tending to transportation and storage and
making and transmitting collections of
money, the functions of a middleman may
include also the collection of small lots
to make a carload, shipload or other large
unit desired by a certain buyer or class
of buyers; and likewise the middleman
may serve to distribute a large consign-
ment among many purchasers. A carload
of berries is too much for an average re-
tail merchant to handle; it is generally
necessary to secure a number of such
buyers in order to dispose of a car of
such produce. On the other hand, the
trade in fruit, as in many other farm
products, is conducted over such a vast
extent of territory and in such large
quantities that it has become necessary
for most of the individual consignments
to be of considerable size. Freight rates
and conditions of freight service make it
almost necessary that shipments of most
farm products be made in car lots. Hence
the double service of collecting small con-
signments into carloads and of distribut-

1308

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ing carloads among many buyers has be-
come a necessary part of the present sys-
tem of distribution."

With reference to the "Elimination of
the Middleman," the government report
says:

"Co-operative marketing does not neces-
sarily, and in fact, often does not, elim-
inate any middleman in the process of
distribution. ... It often happens
that when the middleman is eliminated
by the association his services are per-
formed by the association itself. There
has been a transfer of service from one
to another, but no discontinuance of the
service."

Middleman an Economic Factor

From the foregoing, then, the logical
conclusion is that certain middlemen be-
tween producer and consumer are neces-
sary economic factors, and the point to
be determined is whether the middlemen
now existing are performing their func-
tion in the most economical manner, and
whether we, as producers, can perform
their functions at a lower cost to our-
selves than they can perform them for
us. That is really the first step in our
problem of distribution. The writer is
satisfied, from 12 years of active experi-
ence in the marketing of both manufac-
tured and raw products, that the elimina-
tion of the essential middleman is im-
practical and impossible, at the present
stage of social and economic development.
In his judgment, the essential middlemen
in the fruit trade, other than the associa-
tions and sales organizations of the pro-
ducers themselves, are the wholesale
fruit merchants and the retail fruit mer-
chants. For years, the question of the
elimination of the jobber has troubled
manufacturers of every sort of com-
modity; the brightest minds in the coun-
try have wrestled with the problem; mil-
lions of dollars have been spent in ex-
perimenting to that end, and in the vast
majority of cases it has been proven, to
the complete satisfaction of those con-
cerned, that the jobber has a clear title to
his economic existence, because of his
ability to perform his function, spread
as it is over a multitude of productions.

more cheaply than the manufacturers or
producers of those separate commodities
could perform it individually. There have
been a few producers who have found it
possible to eliminate the jobber economic-
ally; but there have been special rea-
sons for these exceptions. Everyone of
them have been based on a commodity
which is consumed in great quantities
by the masses, and which has an all-the-
year-round sale. Even with these condi-
tions in their favor, the elimination of
the jobber has involved the expenditure
of huge sums of money, for where the
jobber is eliminated, the producer must
replace his services; the building of ware-
houses in every city; the maintenance of
warehouse and office forces at every
point; the extension of credits to the re-
tail trade, which in itself is a giant un-
dertaking, the maintenance of delivery
equipment, etc. It is perfectly manifest
that no such undertaking is practical in
our case, for many reasons, but one is
enough, viz.: ours is a season commodity;
ours is a six-months' business, and the eco-
nomic waste involved in the attempt to
replace the jobbers' facilities by our own
would be unthinkable. If then, it ap-
pears impractical to eliminate the jobber,
let us see whether there are not abuses
in the exercise of his function.

Eeciprocal Relations

Most certainly, in many cases, there
are, but we ourselves have, unconsciously
perhaps, but certainly, contributed to the
growth of these very abuses. Therefore,
let us co-operate with the jobber in the
correction of these abuses. Once you con-
vince him that you are in earnest and
mean to give him a square deal he will
meet you more than half way. It is a
familiar complaint with us that the job-
ber exacts an abnormal profit and thereby
curtails the consumption of our fruit. The
facts are that the history of the fruit
trade for 10 years past shows that the
trade has lost money on their apple pur-
chases every other year, and made money
every other year. The trouble with us
is that if we think of him at all, it is
that he ought to contribute his services
every year at cost, or less. How many of

ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING

1309

us in the past, having sold our crop at a
satisfactory price and delivered our ap-
ples to the buyer, ever gave another
thought to our customer, or cared a rap
whether he made a profit or a loss?

Frequently, too, we ourselves have
robbed our customer of a profit on his
purchase by shipping to his competitor
in his home market other fruit to be
sold on consignment. It happens time
and again that we, consciously or uncon-
sciously, have misrepresented our product
in making sales, and on other occasions
have subjected our customers to loss by
dishonesty in the preparation of our prod-
uce. In other words, both by active and
passive means — by what we have done as
well as what we have left undone — we
have contributed to the abuses which we
are prone to lay solely at the door of our
neighbor, the middleman. The writer
does not wish to be misunderstood as
charging the growers, as a class, with
deliberate dishonesty. On the other hand
he believes that most of them are just as
honest as most of the middlemen, but he
does wish to emphasize that what is
needed is a system which will protect us
from our own dishonesty, and which will
protect the jobber from our dishonesty,
protect the jobber from his own dishon-
esty, and protect us from the jobber's dis-
honesty. System, education and co-oper-
ation alone can accomplish these things.
In the development of this system we
have been sadly lacking. And in this
omission we have injured ourselves far
more than anyone else has injured us.
The up-to-date manufacturer-merchant
studies the progress of his merchandise
all the way from his factory to its ulti-
mate consumer. He follows it long after
he has been paid for it by the jobber.
Right now the Department of Justice at
Washington is prosecuting a manufac-
turer of a well-advertised breakfast food
for making an agreement with retail gro-
cers under which they were forced to
take a reasonable profit, and were not
allowed to cut the price. Hundreds of
manufacturers in every line of merchan-
dise are finding that the tendency of the
trade is not to make an abnormal profit.

but, under stress of fierce competition,
to sell popular brands of merchandise at
cost or less than cost. Knowing that
sooner or later this will react upon him-
self, the manufacturer resorts to every
lawful means to maintain the selling
price of his commodity. And the writer
knows from experience that it is the most
difficult thing in the world to do. There-
fore, the matter of exorbitant profits is
an abuse which is comparatively easy to
correct, if we but choose to take a hand
in the game and play it according to the
well-known rules which are an open book
to all men of business experience.

Our "Specialty Line"

The first thing we need to do is to
recognize the perfectly self-evident fact
that what we are producing is a "specialty
line" rather than (in the trade sense) a
staple. The high level of our invest-
ments, the high cost of production, heavy
overhead expenses, high cost of trans-
portation, all contribute to the necessity
of producing an article which can be
sold at a price at which only the more
prosperous classes of the people can con-
sume. The distinguishing features of our
commodity are superior appearance and
attractiveness, and its package. These
are also distinguishing features of nearly
every manufactured, advertised specialty.
"White House Coffee," "Quaker Oats,"
"Cream of Wheat" are all advertised
brands — specialties — of staple bulk com-
modities. Shorn of the brand value, cre-
ated by advertising and careful packag-
ing, and sold in a paper bag, the same
merchandise would cost the consumer
about one-half of its actual price. Take
for example "Cream of Wheat." The con-
tents of this package consist of wheat
farina. Bulk wheat farina is quoted on
the Portland market today at $3.25 per
100 pounds wholesale; "Cream of Wheat,"
$5.50 per case of 36 packages, the net
weight of which is 1 pound 13 ounces, or
65 pounds net per case. Sixty-five pounds
of No. 1 wheat farina in bulk would cost
$2.11, or 38 per cent of the price charged
for the packaged, brand-copyrighted, ad-
vertised article. Cream of Wheat is man-
ufactured in the East; a local prepara-

1310

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

tion manufactured on the coast, and
packaged, is offered at $4 per case of
36 packages, against $5.50 for the Cream
of Wheat, but the Cream of Wheat sells
better than either the local packaged ar-
ticle or the bulk article, for the reason
that its manufacturers have convinced the
consumers, through advertising, that it is
better.

An almost perfect analogy exists be-
tween Cream of Wheat vs. • bulk farina
and Northwestern boxed apples vs. the
Eastern barreled (or bulk) product. Any
difference is in our favor. If the analogy
is real and not merely apparent it be-
hooves the producers of boxed apples to
study the elements of their merchandis-
ing problem and take instant steps to
modernize their selling system.

Value of Adyertising

For seven years the speaker was con-
nected with the sales and advertising de-
partments of the manufacturers of
"Force," the well-known breakfast food.
Those manufacturers appropriated $1,-
000,000 for advertising before they
turned out one single package from
their mills. The manufacturers of Cream
of Wheat probably did the same thing,
and what is more important and signifi-
cant, they maintain their advertising year
after year, for without it competition
would soon drive tlieir article out of the
markets. Compare this performance with
ours. The comparison isn't very credit-
able to us.

Suppose a company were organized
with $250,000,000 capital to manufacture
an article to compete with Cream of
Wheat and were to build a magnificent
factory, equip it with the most modern
machinery, turn out large quantities of
the manufactured product, induce the
wholesale grocery trade to buy a stock
of it and then stop right there. What
would happen? Why only one thing could
happen. The wholesaler would find the
article hard to sell, and would push other
articles of easier sale; the retailer would
be slow to take hold of a new article for
which there was no special demand from
their trade, and the manufacturer would
fail. That is just as certain as daylight.

But no manufacturer would do any such
thing. If he did, his bankers would have
a lunacy commission appointed for him.
What the manufacturer would do is to
appropriate a sum of money out of his
capital and devote it to the creation of
a demand for his article, through adver-
tising, and create that demand from the
ultimate consumer. He would naturally
depend on the merit of his article to
please, but he would continue his adver-
tising campaign year after year, as long
as he was in business, to defend his busi-
ness against competitors. Under these
conditions a whole new situation is cre-
ated. The retailer would find the con-
sumers calling for his brand, and would
have to buy a stock of it in self-protec-
tion, because if he didn't his competitor
across the street would. The wholesalers
likewise would send to the manufacturers
for a supply. But whether the retailers
and wholesalers did this gladly or not,
the point is they would do it. This ac-
complished, the manufacturer would own
a brand which would increase in value
every year, and which would be superior
to the fluctuations of the open market
for bulk commodities.

Where tlie Grower Failed

Now, who will say that the boxed-apple
producer of the Northwest is not in very
much the same ridiculous position of the
manufacturer mentioned in the first in-
stance? Ours is an investment of $250,-
000,000. We have provided a magnificent
plant and equipped it with the most mod-
ern devices; we have produced a spe-
cialty article of high merit, and have
packaged it conveniently. But, after un-
loading our product on the buyers at
prices which have fluctuated violently
from year to year, we have stopped —
dead; and thought our job was done. We
have expected the jobber and retailer to
push our product to the consumer, not
caring whether they made a profit or a
loss. In fact, any suggestion of profit
by any middleman has been rather offen-
sive to us. Yet, we have expected these
men to push our product, and thereby
displace barreled and bulk apples on
which the dealer, perhaps, has invested

ECONOMICS OP FRUIT MERCHANDISING

1311

his money, and on which lie can and does
make a satisfactory margin of profit.

Must Finance Our Own Selling and
Adyertising

We, as manufacturers, have got to fi-
nance our own selling and advertising
campaign. We ought to know by this
time that the dealers are not going to
do it for us. We have got to vitalize our
selling system and abandon the primi-
tive methods which work, perhaps, in the
sale of cheap bulk commodities but which
will not develop and maintain our trade
in markets which are right in the heart,
as it were, of the Eastern apple orchards.

The food manufacturer, even after ap-
propriating large sums for advertising,
does not expect his article to be sold with-
out active work on his part. So he sends
trained salesmen into the markets, not
primarily to sell the wholesaler for ship-
ment from the factory, but to work the
retail trade. The wholesaler is the last
link in the chain to consider, though an
Important one. The manufacturer's
salesman calls on every grocer in town
and takes orders for as many cases of
the commodity as the grocer is willing to
buy. These orders are assembled, taken
to the wholesalers, and the wholesaler's
order is taken for several times the
amount of the aggregate of the retail or-
ders. The retailers are sold at a fixed
price, which allows them a fair margin of
profit when sold at the advertised price
to the consumer. The jobber, in turn, is
allowed the customary jobbers' discount.
From first to last, the manufacturer,
whose business it is, takes the initiative
and assumes the expense. He can afford
to, as his campaign is going to enable him
to sell his product for a much higher
price than would otherwise be possible.
It is only by these necessary expenditures
that he can accomplish his object. Hav-
ing taken these steps, the town is ready
for the advertising, and not before, for
if the advertising were to be sprung pre-
maturely the consumers would call once
or twice for the article, would not find it
in the stores, and the campaign would
fail.

Value of a Brand

The foregoing is a plan which, in my
judgment, is perfectly practical, with cer-
tain modifications, to apply to our indus-
try. The course I would propose is to
select a brand with a catchy name, copy-
right it, and allow it to be used only by
strictly reliable packers, under a revo-
cable license, and only on a few high-
class varieties, and only on the extra-
fancy 150 size and larger of those varie-
ties. The brand would appear on the
wrappers and also on the box. On the
maintenance of the quality of this brand
would depend its success, so too many
precautions could not be taken to see
that every box bearing the brand is
strictly up to grade. The next move
would be to select one state in the Union
in which to make a thorough test of the
plan. Let us say Indiana, as that state
is not only rich and populous, but at the
same time one of the poorest consumers
of boxed apples in the Union, relatively.
Indianapolis is a rich, prosperous city of
253,650 inhabitants. Start, say, in In-
dianapolis, with the special brand of
Jonathans and Grimes Golden. I would
ship several carloads of the brand to In-
dianapolis, either placing them in storage
temporarily, or else timing their arrival
conveniently. The next step would be
to send one or two thoroughly trained,
experienced specialty salesmen there. I
could lay my hands on just the right
men in a moment. I would have a thor-
ough canvass of the retail grocery trade
made, and also the fruiterer trade. There
is about one grocery store to every 200 of
the population; fruiterers additional.
This would make 1,168 groceries alone in
Indianapolis. Not over one-quarter to
one-half of these would be good stores in
good parts of town. Say about 300 in all.
The "live wire" salesman can work about
25 grocers in a day if he has a quick-talk-
ing proposition, which this would be. In
two weeks' work one man could cover the
town pretty thoroughly. Have this sales-
man explain to the grocer the extraordi-
nary quality, appearance and merchant-
ability of the product; the convenience of
the package; the advantage of co-operat-

1312

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ing with the producers to work up a box
trade, which would avoid measuring,
bags, string, etc., and save him money all
around. Under which conditions he could
afford to handle the fruit at a reasonable
profit, especially as there would be no
waste or loss by decay. Any "live wire"
could make a friend and a co-operator of
that grocer. Without going further into
the argument, suffice to say that a "whirl-
wind campaign" could be made. Explain
to the grocer that on a certain morning
a full page "ad" will appear in the In-
dianapolis newspapers written by an ex-
pert, so as to command instant attention
by every housekeeper in town. And that
in that ad. a full list of the grocers and
fruiterers who can supply the fruit will
also appear. That is a good ad. for the
dealer. That advertisement will state the
price per box at which the consumer can
buy this brand by the box from the gro-
cer. That would be the first intelligent
step ever taken by Northwestern pro-
ducers to regulate the profits of the re-
tailer, and it would be doing it in a way
that would not make the retailer our
enemy for life, but would have his full
approval. Then take the order of the
retailer for five, ten, fifteen or twenty-five
boxes of the advertised brand for delivery
through his wholesale grocer or whole-
sale fruit merchant. Perhaps under this
system the wholesale grocers throughout
the country generally could be induced to
carry boxed apples, like the wholesale
grocers in Texas do now. If so, it would
be another big advantage gained, as the
wholesale grocers would not carry any
but the advertised brand. Then assemble
these orders on the various jobbers, de-
liver them, and get the jobbers' order for
a generous stock over and above what
we have sold for them. By taking the re-
tailers' orders at a fixed price, you can
then allow the jobbers a fair margin of
profit and no more; but this time you
have not only limited his profit, but you
have forced him to buy, and you have
done it all without making him your
enemy for life, but have made of him,
too, a co-operator. In conjunction with
this campaign, if the advertising appro-

priation permitted, it would be well to
have a couple of well-trained girl dem-
onstrators who could be dressed in cos-
tume to represent the Western girl; per-
haps in cow-girl costume. Merely walking
along the street would set the whole town
buzzing. Have them take baskets of
sample apples and go from house to house
in the better sections of the city, get in-
terviews with the housewives, leave a
little cook book filled with recipes and
also with some needed educational matter
on varieties, have her sample an apple of
the sort we are selling, and then take
her order on her nearest grocer for a
box or two. It would also be entirely
feasible to arrange with the Sperry &
Hutchinson syndicate or some other of
the trading-stamp or coupon exchanges,
to accept our copyrighted wrappers as
one coupon or a fractional coupon, inter-
changeable with United Cigar Stores cou-
pons, Sunny Monday soap and a host
of other premium coupons. This would
attach a premium feature to our brand,
and give us all the advantage of an or-
ganized premium department without
having actually to establish such a de-
partment. Any man whose wife saves
soap wrappers and pesters him for cigar
coupons knows how strong an appeal
they are to the children and women, and
to men as well. The desire to get some-
thing for nothing, being human, is just
as strong with the prosperous classes as
with the poor. If this plan were care-
fully worked out and properly executed
the result would almost inevitably be:
the thorough establishment on the mar-
kets so worked of the given brand and a
steady repeat business for carloads from
the wholesale dealers throughout the fall
season. Later on, when fall varieties
were exhausted, another ad. could be
run on intermediate mid-winter varieties;
later of the spring varieties. Another
most important feature of this campaign
would be the badly needed education of
the consumer, the retailer and the whole-
saler as to the correct rotation of varie-
ties, and in a short time we could abolish
such absurdities as Arkansas Blacks and
Ganos selling on the fruit stands in Octo-

ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING

1313

ber and November, to sicken and disgust
the consumer and kill the demand, while
Jonathans and Grimes Golden are being
ignorantly held in storage.

Educating the Consumer

So, by this plan, the consumer also will
have been educated by us, whose business
it is to educate him, and it will have been
done right. The effect would be lasting,
as we will have made a friend of the
consumer — a co-operator.

This is my idea of co-operation. Co-
operation that is intelligently construc-
tive, not destructive. Destroy the abuses
as we find them; yes. But let us be sure
we have found them first, or we may
destroy something that is inherently val-
uable, and only needs a little sympathetic
co-operation to contribute to our needs.

The progressive methods that I have
proposed will cost money, assuredly. But
spread out over a large volume of busi-
ness, with growers co-operating and sup-
porting, the per package cost would not
be high. Three cents per box would do
a very great deal; 5 cents per box would
do more, and in my judgment would re-
turn in increased profits many fold. Our
industry has reached a point where such
methods are not an extravagance, not a
luxury, but a necessity. We have got to
spend money to make money.

It may not be a violation of the pro-
prieties if I illustrate the principles
which I have sketched by referring to the
institution with which I am connected —
the Northwestern Fruit Exchange. Or-
ganized at the beginning of the shipping
season of 1910, the exchange has expend-
ed $150,000 in the development of a sys-
tem of merchandising, specifically adapted
to Northwestern fruits. We firmly be-
lieve in the principle of f. o. b. sale, for
many valid reasons. First, it is the ac-
cepted and proven system by a great ma-
jority of the successful fruit industrials.
The United Fruit Company sells 75.000
cars of bananas annually on a f. o. b.
basis strictly. The California Vegetable
Union, American Cranberry Exchange
and scores of others, the most successful
in their several fields, all operate on this
principle. We contend that the fruit is

worth more, f. o. b. shipping point, than
at any other point; worth more intrin-
sically; worth more as an article of mer-
chandise for the merchant wanting it for
immediate sale; worth a good deal more
to the merchant wanting it for storage
purposes. It would therefore seem that
the shipping point is the place where it
would be most desirable for the grower
to have his market established. At that
point we can absolutely guarantee, if we
are careful enough, that the fruit is
strictly first class. We cannot do that —
absolutely — 24 hours after it has left
shipping point, but we can say everything
good about it while it is at shipping point
that could possibly be said about the
fruit, and say it truthfully. Again, if
the market is established f. o. b. it means
the crop is a cash crop to the fruit grow-
ers. With interest rates ranging from
8 to 12 per cent, that in itself is a big
item. As a matter of fact, the exchange
made a record for the entire season of
1911 of an average of 24 days between
date of shipment and date of full pay-
ment for every car handled during the
season. Furthermore, during the season
of 1911 the exchange sold for one asso-
ciation that I could name nearly 75 per
cent of its entire output prior to the har-
vest of the fruit from the trees, and 99
per cent of the whole f. o. b. shipping
point.

Sales Department

Another very important feature of our
problem which shows the great need of
co-operation is in the operation of the
sales department. The exchange believes
that there is only one system which is
practical in a large sales operation of
perishable fruits, namely, resident sales-
men. The value of any commodity is
based on supply and demand. In order
to obtain maximum value, the sales man-
ager must have at his daily command the
whole demand of all the markets of the
world. Traveling salesmen as a main
system is expensive and impractical. I
know of one large producer who tried
that system, and he says it cost him
$200 per car to sell his fruit at unsatis-
factory prices. The trouble is that the

2 (2

1314

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

traveling salesman and the demand only
meet by accident. It takes one man 30
days to cover the state of Iowa through-
ly. When he is in Keokuk the demand
may be in Council Bluffs, and vice versa.
The average fruit dealer buys from hand
to mouth and does not anticipate his
wants very far ahead. Only a few of the
larger operators in the big cities do that.
That the principle of resident salesmen
is correct, it is only necessary to point
out that practically everyone of the large
successful organizations have adopted it;
the California Fruit Growers' Exchange,
the United Fruit Company, etc. In the
same government publication from which
I have already quoted, appears the fol-
lowing:

"The co-operative marketing associa-
tion keeps itself well informed with re-
gard to prices and market conditions in
all the markets in which it sells or can
sell its goods. This is done by means of
telegraphing. The prosperous marketing
association doing a large business at the
present time expends a large amount of
money in telegraphing. The annual ex-
pense of the Eastern Shore of Virginia
Produce Exchange for telegraphing is
about $25,000, and the annual expense of
the California Fruit Growers' Exchange,
which handles the principal portion of
the citrus crop of California, is $75,000.
The best success of the marketing asso-
ciation necessarily depends on a knowl-
edge of the best markets in which to sell
the products. The manager of the asso-
ciation must in effect be in every market
in which he sells and all the time."

Obviously, under a system of traveling
salesmen, this would be impossible. Do
not misunderstand me — traveling sales-
men are all right, as an auxiliary, but
not as a system.

Resident Salesmen

In the presence of the necessity of hav-
ing resident agents in all the markets,
the problem that confronted the exchange
(and it is the problem of the whole in-
dustry) was how to maintain, without
assistance, such a comprehensive and
costly system. The California Fruit
Growers' Exchange can do it, as they are
dealing in a commodity which is packed

and shipped from California every day
in the year. Their system of sales
branches costs them, so I have heard,
$25,000 per month, or $300,000 per year.
The United Fruit Company can maintain
52 branches of their own throughout the
year, and without assistance, as they, too,
have a product which is shipped the year
'round. But we in the Northwest are
dealing in a commodity which is har-
vested through a period of about 100
days, and marketed through a maximum
period of about six months. No matter,
then, what our total volume, we could
never afford to maintain a branch office
system without assistance, unless we
wish deliberately to adopt an economi-
cally wasteful method. For, with the
salesmen busy six months and idle six
months, there would be not only an un-
thinkable economic waste, but also de-
terioration in the men. No man can work
actively for six months and loaf the
other six months and be as good a sales-
man or business man at the end of his
six months' idleness as he was before.
Besides all this, the men would fall out
of touch with the trade and become rusty.
Had the exchange been unable to find a
solution to this question before it started
business, it would never have started. It
found the solution in operation. It found
there were other associations in other
parts of the United States producing
other and non-competitive fruits and
vegetables, whose commodities came into
the market at opposite or nearly opposite
seasons to ours, and who had the same
need for resident salesmen that we had,
and who had also the same economic
problem. And by intelligent combination
of these factors a tonnage was provided
that rotated all the year 'round, and the
service thus co-operatively established
was put in charge of specially trained su-
perintendents and has worked beautifully,
and at a cost vastly lower than any one
of the co-operating concerns could have
created it independently. At the present
time there are 123 branch sales offices in
the exchange system. Each of these
offices is responsible for a certain terri-
tory in its vicinity. Thus we aim and
come very near to being in contact every

ECONOMICS OF FRUIT MERCHANDISING

1315

day of our active season with every one
of the 10,000 carload buyers of fruit in
the United States and Canada.

Foreign Markets

Recognizing from the first the impor-
tance of developing the foreign markets
to their capacity, the exchange sent the
writer to Europe last summer to make
a personal study into the conditions and
establish such connections as were neces-
sary. As a result of that investigation
the exchange decided to establish its own
office in London under salaried manage-
ment, and was most fortunate in the op-
portunity of engaging as manager of the
office a fruit man of unusual training
and talents, trained in the business on
both sides of the water. An exclusive
agency was also established in Germany,
the exchange agents controlling the only
system of fruit branch houses in Europe.
These branches are in Duisberg, Cologne,
Essen, Frankfort, Mannheim, Leipsic,
Dresden, Munich, Berlin and Hamburg,
the headquarters being in Bremen. The
managing director of the agency, by spe-
cial arrangement, visited the Northwest
in August and September, making a care-
ful study of conditions here in order bet-
ter to fit him for the work.

Taine of Foreign Markets

However, I feel that there is danger of
overestimating the capacity and the ex-
tent of the foreign markets. In fact, I
think they are already being very gener-
ally overestimated. The fact is that the
capacity of Germany at the present stage
of her industrial development is not much
over 250,000 boxes of Northwestern apples
per annum, at profitable prices. More
than that amount is being shipped there
this season, but the results have been
that for the past few weeks at every sale
in Hamburg there have been from 20,000
to 30,000 boxes of apples offered and out
of each sale from one-third to one-half
left unsold for lack of a bid. It must be
remembered that by the time first cost,
transportation, duty, interior freight,
high taxes, etc., necessary to deliver a
box of our apples to the interior of Ger-
many, are added, the result is an article
of luxury, which only the rich man can

afford to buy. It is not for the man in
the street who earns from two marks to
four marks daily. Again, the great dif-
ference in the value of money must be
considered. Four marks, German, is about
$1, American, so that a box of ap-
ples which sells for $3 in Germany is the
German equivalent to about 12 marks.
But one mark (23.8) will buy in Ger-
many, in the necessaries of life, what $1
will buy in America. So that the man
who pays $3 for a box of apples, or 12
marks, is really exchanging, in terms of
the necessaries of life, not 12 marks but
$12. There are not many Americans who
could afford to pay $12 per box for ap-
ples. Nor are there many Germans. Per-
haps when freight rates are lower, and
as the condition of the working classes
in Germany improves, ways and means
may be found to increase the consump-
tion materially. The foregoing is also
true, to a large extent, of England as well
as Germany. And even more so of other
European countries, where money is even
cheaper than in Germany. Heavy duties
limit the introduction of our apples in
Russia; also in France. There is a small
business in Scandinavia, but the total
population is not great and the masses
are poor. All of these markets are easy
to congest, and under such conditions
they are far less elastic than American
markets of similar size, and are liable
to slump very violently and disastrously.

Outlet for Surplus

I do not wish to be understood, from
the foregoing, that I am not in favor of
developing the foreign markets. On the
other hand, the exchange has shown that
it does believe in so doing, in the most
practical way. But neither do I believe
in building castles out of thin air. The
foreign markets, in my judgment, will
prove to us, as they have to most other
American manufacturers, chiefiy valuable
as an outlet for our surplus, which we
can use to take the pressure off our
home markets. We shall have to make
our money in our home markets, and,
save in exceptional years, will have to
sell our goods in the foreign markets at
something under American parity. There

1316

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

are other parts of the world in which
markets may be developed besides Eu-
rope. There is South America, the mar-
kets of which have been partially de-
veloped, but which this year (1913) have
been glutted with Northwestern apples,
partially due to insufficient cold storage
accommodations which are necessary be-
cause of the infrequent steamer service.
Then there is South Africa, which ap-
pears to offer a market at certain seasons
of the year. Australia has been partially
developed, but the trade is limited on ac-
count of the insufficient and infrequent
steamship service. There is some market
in the Philippines and a small market in
the Orient. Of the exact conditions in
some of these markets very little reliable
information is available, and the exchange
is now considering the employment of a
foreign trade commissioner to cover the
markets of the globe and make a close
personal study not only of their present
capacities but of their possibilities. This
tentative plan of the exchange will be
put into effect in the near future with
the approval and support of its co-opera-
tive membership. Also with the approval
and support of its members it proposes
to put into practical working effect next
season its policies of advertising, exploita-
tion, education and co-operation all down
the line straight to the consumer.

W. F. GwiN,
Gen. Mngr. Northwestern Fruit Exchansre.

THE HANDLING OF DECIDUOUS
FRUITS ON THE PACIFIC COAST

Picking, Pacliing, Precooling, Etc.

The fruits classified under the general
term deciduous fruits are those produced
by trees which drop their leaves in win-
ter. They are called deciduous to distin-
guish them from citrus fruits, which are
borne on evergreen trees. The fruits
which come under this designation, and
which are shipped in a fresh state from
the Pacific coast, include apples, apricots,
cherries, peaches, pears, plums (includ-
ing prunes), nectarines, grapes, and the
small fruits, such as strawberries,* rasp-

* While the strawberry holds its leaves
through the winter, Its fruit is similar to the
deciduous fruits in its shipping requirements,
and it is therefore classed with them.

berries, and blackberries. The handling
problems included in this article refer to
the preparation of the fruit for shipment
and for marketing in the fresh condition,
although the greater part of the deciduous
fruits grown on the Pacific coast is mar-
keted not in a fresh condition, but as
canned and dried fruits of all kinds, in-
cluding prunes and raisins.

There has been an enormous growth
and development of the deciduous-fruit
industry on the Pacific coast. Up to 12
years ago most of this development had
been in California, where the fresh-fruit
shipments in 1909 equaled 15,280 carloads,
but recently the planting of deciduous-
fruit orchards in the states of Oregon,
"Washington, Idaho, Colorado, and Utah
has been made on a very large scale. The
development of these new districts and
the rapid increase in the production of
deciduous fruits have alarmed many of
the growers, especially in California, at
the possibility of overproduction, and the
advisability of adopting means to prevent
further planting, or at least to stop over-
development and the booming of new re-
gions by land speculators, has been seri-
ously discussed. Plans are being made to
increase the demand for and con-
sumption of these fruits by advertising
and by the development of new markets.
It is at last realized that too much atten-
tion has been given in the past to the
business of inducing people to plant fruit
trees and that not enough consideration
has been given to the selling of the crop'
and to finding a profitable market for the
fruit that is already on hand.

Transportation Problems

The problems connected with the trans-
portation of deciduous fruits from the Pa-
cific coast are essentially problems grow-
ing out of the necessity for wide distribu-
tion. Ever since the first carload of fresh
fruit was shipped from California, in 1869,
the bulk of each crop has had to be mar-
keted in the Eastern states. It is a re-
markable fact that this business, built up
on the far western edge of the continent,
has been and will for many years con-
tinue to be almost wholly dependent upon

HANDLING DECIDUOUS FRUITS ON PACIFIC COAST

1317

the Atlantic seaboard and adjacent states
for a market. The fruit has to be trans-
ported 3,000 miles, crossing lofty moun-
tain ranges and hundreds of miles of des-
ert, to the cities and centers of popula-
tion of the East and Central West. Great
engineering problems have had to be
solved in accomplishing this result. It is
stated that in crossing the continent a car
has actually to be lifted or raised a ver-
tical distance of more than two miles.
Upon the safety, efficiency and despatch
of the transportation facilities depends
the whole success of the fresh-fruit in-
dustry of the Pacific coast. The perish-
able nature of the product and the diffi-
culty in handling such an industry 3,000
miles from the center of consumption
have made it necessary to develop an
ample and efficient fruit-refrigerator-car
service, which is now admitted to be the
largest and best of its kind in the world.
The distance which the fruit has to be
transported and the expense and risk in-
volved necessarily require that the fruit
reach the market in the best possible con-
dition. This has enforced a degree of uni-
formity in grading and packing which, to-
gether with the high shipping qualities of
the Western fruits, is largely responsible
for the successful marketing of the Pa-
cific-coast product in competition with the
Eastern fruits produced near the markets,
but which, taken as a whole, are not as
attractively or uniformly packed. The
diffficulties and the expense of shipping
and marketing the Pacific-coast fruits to
some extent safeguard the grower against
the temptation that confronts the Eastern
grower with nearby markets and lower
freight rates, to attempt to market large
quantities of inferior, badly graded, and
poorly packed fruit.

It must not be assumed that no poor
packing is done and that no poor-grade
fruit is shipped from the Pacific coast. In
fact, much of the Western fruit has the
reputation of being poor in quality,
though often beautiful in color and fine
in appearance. This reputation has not
militated to any great extent against the
sale of Western fruit, owing to the fact
that the consumer has thus far bought

fruit products principally on appearance.
But as competition grows keener and as
high-grade fruit from nearby sections
comes to be more carefully and attractive-
ly packed so as to reach the market in
sound condition, fruit of poor quality will
suffer. The poor quality of some of the
Western fruit, especially the peaches,
apricots, plums, and other quick-ripen-
ing fruits, is the result of picking long
before the fruit reaches full maturity in
order to protect it against the ripening
which takes place during the transcon-
tinental trip. After fruit is picked the
ripening processes progress much more
rapidly than they do under the same con-
ditions of temperature while the fruit is
on the tree. Unless some means are em-
ployed to check this ripening as soon as
harvested the fruit is too far advanced,
even under the present method of re-
frigerator-car shipment, before it reaches
the market.

Handling, Packing and Marketing
The deciduous fruits are produced un-
der the most diverse conditions— in the
valleys, in the foothill and mountain dis-
tricts, under irrigation, and with natural
methods of tillage. Under such varying
and extreme conditions the product
varies in quality and appearance as well
as in season. It is owing to this divers-
ity in the conditions of production that
the problems of deciduous-fruit handling
and of marketing have not been system-
atized and organized as they have been
in the citrus-fruit industry. The citrus-
fruit industry is largely organized into
associations of growers. The fruit of the
different growers is uniformly graded and
packed in central packing houses owned
by the association, each packing house
having its own brands to designate the
different grades. The fruit is not shipped
under the name of the grower who pro-
duces it, as all of the fruit of the same
grade is pooled. Many of the associations
of growers also pick and haul the fruit
of the members to the packing house.
They have developed trained gangs of
pickers and other laborers who work un-
der efficient foremen, and they, more
than those engaged in any other agricul-

1318

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

tural industry in the country, have evolv-
ed methods to insure the careful and uni-
form handling of the product.

In the handling of deciduous fruits this
system does not prevail except in local
areas. There are few central packing
houses except in some of the grape dis-
tricts in California. The greater part of
the deciduous-fruit crop is packed in the
orchard v^^here it is grown, usually by the
grower, except in some of the apple and
other fruit districts in Oregon and Wash-
ington. While certain standards of grad-
ing and sizing are supposed to exist, they
fall far short of the uniformity prevail-
ing in the grades and brands of citrus
fruits. When packed in central packing
houses each grower's fruit may hold its
individuality until it is sold. The estab-
lishing and maintaining of uniform
grades and brands, except in the case of
growers having a large acreage, is impos-
sible under this system. It frequently
happens that a carload consists of fruit
from 25 to 50 growers, each packing and
handling in his own individual way. It
naturally follows that there is the widest
variation in the packing and grading, al-
though the shipping companies have
standards to which the grower must con-
form in a general way.

The one great object in growing fruit
is to sell it at a profit. Fruit growing is
a business and as such is dependent upon
business methods and principles quite as
much as the manufacture and sale of
boots and shoes, of steel implements, or
of other articles. The manufacturer real-
izes that the success of his business de-
pends upon the proper distribution and
sale of his products and he pays as much
attention to the selling as he does to
the manufacturing. It is the business
of the fruit growers, either for themselves
or through their agents, to study com-
mercial methods and principles and apply
them to their industry. With the estab-
lishment of better distribution and busi-
ness methods in marketing fruits, the
dangers from overproduction will largely
be avoided.

This means, first of all, the produc-
tion of first-class fruits, uniformly and

honestly graded and packed and delivered
to the consumer in sound and attractive
condition. This is the business of the
growers, and is the fundamental factor
upon which depends the success of the in-
dustry. Too often the growers have
ascribed the cause of their difficulties to
others — to the shippers, to the transporta-
tion companies, to commission merchants,
or even to the weather — losing sight of
the fact that with the exercise of a little
care and good judgment on their part
many of these difficulties would not exist.

The fruit growers of the Pacific coast
have mastered most of the problems re-
lating to the production of the fruit —
such as relate to the various orchard
practices of tilling, fertilizing, pruning,
thinning and spraying. It frequently hap-
pens that after a grower has used the ut-
most care in producing his crop he nulli-
fies all through the handling he gives it in
preparing it for market. It does not matter
how excellent his orchard practices are,
if his fruit does not reach the markets in
sound and attractive condition he may
find that he receives no more for his crop
than a more careless or slipshod neighbor,
and he is at a loss to understand why.

During the last eight years the Bureau
of Plant Industry has conducted investi-
gations of the factors which govern the
shipment and storage of fruits. It has
been shov/n by many experimental ship-
ments that there is a direct relation be-
tween the handling and the treatment in
all the various processes of preparing the
fruit for shipment and its behavior while
in transit or storage. This has to deal
with the picking, packing, hauling, and
cooling of the fruit.

Mechanical Injuries

It is generally recognized that fruit
must be handled with great care if it is
to be kept sound, but few have realized
until it has been demonstrated to them,
how easy it is to injure fruit in hand-
ling and how much injury is actually be-
ing done. In the investigations conduct-
ed by the Bureau of Plant Industry it
was not uncommon to find 10 or 15 per
cent of apples injured by rough handling

HANDLING DECIDUOUS FRUITS ON PACIFIC COAST

1319

in picking and pacliing. Frequently, also,
from 10 to 50 per cent of oranges were
found to be injured by the clippers in sev-
ering the fruit from the trees or in hand-
ling it in the packing houses. Again,
from 5 to 40 per cent of table grapes
were found to be cracked or broken more
or less severely at the pedicles.

The work of the Bureau of Plant In-
dustry has shown that the more common
kinds of molds which cause decay in tran-
sit and storage have not the power to
penetrate the unbroken, normal skin of
the fruit. It has been shown that molds
generally gain entrance through mechani-
cal bruises or abrasions of the skin made
in the handling of the fruit in prepar-
ing it for market. Some common forms
of such injuries are bruises and scratches
made in the picking of the fruit, in
squeezing it and dropping it roughly in-
to picking boxes, bags, baskets, or pails,
or in pouring it from the field bag or pail
into boxes. Hauling on springless wag-
ons (sleds are sometimes used) may seri-
ously bruise the fruit. Dirt, gravel, dried
branches, or twigs in the bottom of the
field boxes are also a frequent source of
injury. Injuries of these types are not
only difficult to detect but offer ideal con-
ditions for the starting of decay. Many
fruits are injured by scratches made by
the finger nails of pickers and packers.

In the case of soft fruits much bruising
results from excessive squeezing in pack-
ing. The tips of peaches are most deli-
cate and easily bruised or injured. In
examining peaches in shipping and stor-
age experiments tip injury is frequently
found to be the greatest source of decay.

Grapes are perhaps the most easily in-
jured of all fruits. An examination of
grape berries shows that from 90 to 95
per cent of the injuries consist of breaks
or cracks at the pedicle where the stem
joins the berry. Sometimes the bending
aside of a berry is sufficient to cause a
slight rupture or crack at that point and
all such berries are susceptible to decay
when they are packed. This indicates
the extreme care with which all hand-
ling of grapes must be done. Handling
must be reduced to a minimum and al-

ways, when practicable, the bunches
should be handled by the main stems, for
every time a bunch of grapes is lifted
there is danger of injury unless it is done
with the utmost care.

Grapes are often injured in placing
them in the baskets — by rough handling,
excessive squeezing or crowding, or twist-
ing and binding the long bunches to form
compact masses. It has been shown that
unbroken grape berries carefully handled
and laid in loosely do not decay under
normal conditions of shipment, and the
nearer the packing can be made to ap-
proach this ideal condition the less will
be the danger of injury and resulting de-
cay.

Very soft fruits like cherries or ber-
ries are very easily injured, especially
when these fruits are allowed to become
over-ripe. It is important to have the
picking operations keep pace with the
ripening of the fruit. This means going
over the cherry trees several times. Ber-
ry plantations at the height of the sea-
son must be gone over daily. The softer
or more susceptible the fruit is to in-
jury the more carefully must it be
handled throughout all the processes of
preparing it for shipment.

During the last two years the trans-
portation investigations of the Bureau of
Plant Industry have been extended to the
table-grape industry of California. Care-
ful observations on handling methods
have been made and extensive shipping
experiments have been carried on in or-
der to demonstrate the results of careful
handling in preparing the fruit for mar-
ket. The experiments consisted of ship-
ping a series of crates and boxes of grapes
packed under known conditions through
to New York, where the packages were
carefully inspected and the actual per-
centage of decay were determined. The
ordinary commercial pack was used in
comparison with the same fruit carefully
handled by the government investigators.
Records on 50 such shipments were ob-
tained during the shipping seasons of
1908 and 1909.

The records of shipments made in 1909
show an average of 1.2 per cent of decay

1320

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

in the carefully handled lots and 5.8 per
cent of decay in the commercial pack of
the same fruit. Moreover, this difference
was maintained after arrival in New
York. The grapes were held for a week
under open-market conditions, and de-
terminations of the decay were made
three, five and seven days after arrival.
The carefully handled lots were still in
merchantable condition five days after ar-
rival, with an average of 5.2 per cent of
decay, or less than the average decay
found in the commercial packs on the
day of arrival.

The decay in the commercial packs had
reached 15.8 per cent five days after be-
ing received, and they were far past a
marketable condition. The carefully
handled lots had a great advantage aside
from their better and sounder condition,
in that they were in fit shape to be re-
shipped from large centers to smaller
surrounding towns, thus allowing a much
wider distribution and extension of the
market. The importance of this fact can
best be appreciated when considered in
connection with the problems of overpro-
duction and the possibilities of increas-
ing the sale and use of the fruit. As
long as the commercial packs continue
to arrive at or near the limit of decay
commercially allowable, the possibilities
of reshipment are extremely limited and
the market for the fruit is cut down ac-
cordingly.

In the careful-handling experiments
with grapes and oranges nothing has
been attempted which can not be done
under commercial conditions. In the case
of citrus fruits the piecework system has
heen changed to the day-payment plan,
thus doing away with the tendency to
rapid and careless work. In the grape
industry no such radical change is neces-
sary, as the day-payment plan largely
prevails, but the pickers, packers, and all
those who handle the fruit must be im-
pressed with the necessity of doing their
several operations v/ith the utmost care.
The fault lies largely in requiring as
much and as rapid work to be done in a
day as possible. Nearly every grower
knows or believes that care is necessary,

but very few realize how much damage
is really due to requiring their help to
work at topmost speed in order to get
the work done as cheaply as possible. In
many instances growers are astounded
when informed of the amount of injury
which is done. In the hurry and anxiety
to get off as much as possible and
to hasten all operations, the bruises, the
scratches, and the punctures which re-
sult are too often overlooked.

Naturally it will cost more to handle
the fruit carefully. At first sight it seems
unreasonable to advocate spending more
money in preparing fruit for market dur-
ing seasons of low prices, but it has been
found to be good business policy to make
the increased expenditure. The saving
in the quantity of sound fruit gotten to
market will alone very nearly balance
the increased cost. Using the average
percentages of decay in the carefully
handled and the commercial packs of
grapes already noted, the saving in favor
of careful handling amounts to nearly
45 crates per car, or a full carload of
grapes for every 21 shipped, and this
does not take into consideration the in-
crease in market value and consequent
salability of the sounder fruit, the price
of fresh fruit being always depreciated
by the presence of decay.

What has been found to be true in the
grape industry applies with equal force
to all other branches of fruit growing.
Sound fruit of good quality, honestly and
uniformly graded and packed, is the
fundamental factor upon which the suc-
cess of the business depends.

Refrigeration

Another factor of prime importance in
the successful shipping of fresh fruits
long distances is quick and efficient re-
frigeration. The deciduous fruits are all
shipped during warm weather and must
be kept cool while in transit. The full
transcontinental trip requires usually
from 12 to 14 days, which may be com-
parable to a period of about two weeks
in cold storage.

As already stated, it has been found
that the ripening processes are hastened

HANDLING DECIDUOUS FRUITS ON PACIFIC COAST

1321

when the fruit is picked. The develop-
ment of molds also goes on at a rapid
rate while the fruit is warm. Reduc-
ing the temperature retards the ripen-
ing and prevents the development of the
molds. The length of time that the fruit
will remain in good condition depends
upon the promptness and the thorough-
ness with which it is cooled.

Careful records made of many decidu-
ous-fruit packages show that the tempera-
tures of the packed fruit during the great-
er part of the season are extremely high.
The range runs from 80 degrees to over
100 degrees F., and the average of all
temperature records made is between 90
degrees and 95 degrees F. At such
temperatures the fruit ripens very fast
and decay and deterioration are extreme-
ly rapid, especially if the fruit has been
roughly handled and injured to any great
extent.

Records made in refrigerator cars show
that the rate of cooling in the fruit
packages is very slow when the ice of
the car is depended upon both to reduce
the temperature and to hold it low. It
frequently happens that several days
elapse before the fruit is cooled sufficient-
ly to retard ripening and decay. This
is the main reason why the Pacific-coast
fruits are picked so long before they
have acquired full quality. When they
are not picked green, they become over-
ripe and soften before the ice of the car
has a chance to reduce the temperature
below the danger point.

Frequently a very distinct advantage
may be gained by allowing the fruit to
remain open over night and packing while
it is cool in the morning. More cooling
can usually be obtained in this way than
in one or two days in the refrigerator
cars after the fruit is packed, especially
where it is wrapped in paper. This is
particularly true for grapes, and many
growers and packers take advantage of
it. It has been asserted that before a
system of overnight cooling was adopted
it was impossible to ship peaches and
plums in sound condition from some of
the interior points of the San Joaquin
valley of California.

During the last eight years the Bureau
of Plant Industry has conducted investiga-
tions of different methods of quickly cool-
ing fruits before shipping. This prac-
tice, which has for its object reducing
the temperature as quickly as possible,
has been designated "precooling." Under
this system the ice of the refrigerator
car is not expected to cool the fruit, but
only to keep it cool during the trip across
the continent.

Precooling is usually done by mechani-
cal means after the fruit is packed, either
in a warehouse or a cold-storage plant be-
fore loading on the cars or after loading
by forcing large volumes of very cold air
through the cars, thus reducing the
temperature of the fruit much more rapid-
ly than can be done with ice alone. Pre-
cooling may also be done before packing,
and when this is practicable it is com-
paratively easy, because there is a chance
for the circulation of the air around the
fruit. The disadvantage of such a sys-
tem is that the packing has to be done in
cool rooms to avoid the condensation of
moisture on the cold fruit.

The best system of precooling, whether
in cars or in warehouses, has not yet been
definitely determined, although two of the
great transportation companies of the Pa-
cific coast are erecting mammoth plants to
precool in the cars all the fruit shipped
over their line. One great disadvantage
of this system is the delay which must
necessarily ensue in assembling the cars
from the different districts. Much of the
beneficial effect from precooling will be
lost unless the work is done as soon as
possible after the fruit is packed. A de-
lay of even 12 hours during warm weath-
er may very seriously affect the results.

Another disadvantage in car precooling
is the great difficulty or impossibility of
so distributing the air that every pack-
age will be reached. Under the best con-
ditions some of the packages will be cool-
ed very much more quickly than others,
depending upon the method of applying
the air.

Precooling in a warehouse or cool room
consists in placing the fruit in a refrig-
erated room, with sufficient piping to keep

1322

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

the room temperature well below the de-
sired point until all the packages are
thoroughly cooled. The packages may be
so stacked that a thorough circulation is
possible, resulting in greater uniformity
in the cooling than is the case in the
closely packed car.

One disadvantage of having the pre-
cooling done in warehouses is the expense
of building and maintaining the neces-
sary plants, and this must be borne by
the shipping companies, growers' asso-
ciations, or individual growers. Under
this system the expense and responsibil-
ity fall on the shipper, while under the
car-precooling system the transportation
companies bear the burden. However, the
transportation companies must require
that the fruit be delivered to them in
sound condition and fit for shipment, and
whether the placing of the packages in
proper condition for safe shipment should
include the reduction to a proper and
safe temperature is an open question.

The advantages of precooling in the
handling of deciduous fruits are mani-
fold. The first and most important of
these is the fact that, if precooled, the
fruit may be left on the trees to attain a
greater degree of maturity, thus assuring
a much better quality. It has been shown
that the soft fruits, like plums, peaches,
and apricots, may be allowed to remain
until they reach a hard-ripe condition
and may then be shipped long distances
without deterioration. In the case of
cherries and berries, precooling will en-
able the crop to be shipped greater dis-
tances, thus assuring wider market dis-
tribution and more satisfactory condition
on arrival.

Precooling is now recognized as one of
the important factors in the safe shipping
and handling of highly perishable prod-
ucts, and its use will be extended as its
advantages and application are better un-
derstood. It should never be used as a
means to overcome difficulties arising
from improper or rough handling. Used
as a means to insure safe shipment af-
ter the grower and packer have done
their share, precooling is both valuable
and legitimate. Used as a means to over-

come the effects of rough handling, pre-
cooling only retards decay and deteriora-
tion for a time, and the troubles develop
when the fruit warms up after arrival in
market.

A. V. Stubenbauch,

Expert in charge of Fruit Transportation and
Storage Investigations, Bureau of Plant
Industry. (1909 Year-book.)

EUROPE AS A MARKET FOR OUR
APPLES AlVD PEARS

Henry B. Miller
American Consul at Belfast, Ireland
Great Britain is not in a general way
an apple-growing country. Ireland is per-
haps the best apple-producing section of
the empire, but its production does not
exceed over 50,000 barrels. The apples
grown in Ireland are especially prized for
cooking purposes and there is no doubt
but that the production of cooking apples
will tend to increase, but it will be many
years before it will have any appreciable
effect upon the market. The Department
of Agriculture is endeavoring to encour-
age apple growing by establishing experi-
mental orchards and giving instruction
in horticulture in various districts.

The table given shows the importation
of apples into Great Britain for four
years, together with the countries of their
origin. A review of the apple importa-
tion into Great Britain for a period of
years prior to this schedule shows that
for a number of years the annual im-
portation amounted to between five and
six million dollars. In 1892 the imports
for some unknown reason nearly doubled
and reached about $10,000,000, and since
that time they have remained close to
that value, varying only slightly either
way, and for the last year of statistics,
1908, the total imports amounted to $10,-
398,500. It seems clear, therefore, that
there is little likelihood of any decrease
in this quantity of imports of apples into
Great Britain. There is a fair prospect,
under favorable conditions of industrial
prosperity, of this amount being consid-
erably increased.

The United States of America shares
in this market to the extent of something
over one-third, averaging for the past

EUROPE AS A MARKET FOR OUR APPLES AND PEARS

1323

four years $4,000,000 per annum. Canada
is now our strongest competitor, sharing
about equally with us in the amount of
exports. Belgium and France are the
next in trade, Australia and Tasmania
following. We are not competitors with
the Australian and Tasmanian apples, for
they come into the markets at a different
time of the year, mostly during May and
June, while our apples are almost entirely
fall and winter varieties.

The great bulk of apples in the mar-
kets of Great Britain are shipped in bar-
rels, and measured by the Pacific-coast
standard of quality and pack, are of a
very inferior grade. The consumption of
apples in Great Britain is, however,
largely for cooking purposes, and on this
account it consumes an enormous quanti-
ty of inferior and low-grade stock. The
bulk of these apples is bought by brok-
ers from the orchard, thrown into the
barrels in an indiscriminate and careless
way, and shipped without thought or care
for the reputation of the business. This
style and method of handling fruit, when
it is met by the superior skill and care
of growers and shippers of the North Pa-
cific coast, will be very readily discovered
in the trade. Scabby, wormy, scaly fruit
is the rule rather than the exception in
the apples shipped from the Atlantic
coast of the United States.

Commanding the apple trade of Great
Britain in the future depends on the
quality of the apple placed in the English
markets and the style of packing. The
class of trade to which the growers for
export can appeal, is the class that buy
the best goods and pay high prices. The
most serious obstacle at present standing
in the way is that American fruits, as a
rule, are not well packed and graded.
Also the cost of transportation has been
against us. With the building of the
Panama canal the cost of transportation
ought to be reduced, and with the educa-
tion of the producer the quality and pack-

ing of fruit will be of higher grade. A
little better understanding in relation to
the varieties for the market in future
plantings would be of great value. The
taste of the British apple consumers de-
mands a fruit filled with juice; a dry ap-
ple will never be popular there. Suffi-
cient acid to make it a good cooker is
also important.

The present cost of transporting a box
of apples to the European market from
the Pacific coast is 75 cents.

The great market for the apples of the
Northwest in Europe cannot well begin
until the completion of the Panama
canal. Considerable quantities of good
grade stock will find a market there from
now on, at a profitable rate, and ship-
ments ought to increase very materially
every year, but the market for the Pa-
cific-coast apples is not likely to reach
into the million dollar class until the
completion of the Panama canal. By that
time, however, shipments ought to reach
in the markets of Europe from three to
six million dollars per annum, and cost
of transportation should not be over 35
cents per box.

Apples are coming into the British mar-
ket in January and February from the
Pacific coast badly injured by freezing.
This, of course, will not occur in ship-
ments by steamer after the opening of
the canal.

The following are the leading varieties
of apples being imported into Great
Britain, with their selling value accord-
ing to the order in which they are men-
tioned:

Grimes Golden, Yellow Newtown Pip-
pin, King, Northern Spy, Jonathan, Rus-
set, Baldwin, Gano and Ben Davis.

There are many other kinds in the mai
kets, both in barrels and boxes, but it
is safe to take the above as all being
standard varieties. Kings, Jonathans and
the best of the Baldwins are marketed
before the first of the year.

L324

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE
Importation of Apples into the United Kingdom

FROM

1905

1906

1907

1908

Germany

Netherlands

Belgium

France

Portugal

Spain

United States of America

Other foreign countries

Channel Islands

Australia:

West Australia

South Australia (including north
territory)

Victoria

New South Wales

Queensland

Tasmania

Canada

Other British possessions

$ 19,385

141,105

121,800

276,440

220,165

122,760

4,684,340

1,020

61,445

139,770

122,175

1,000

I 70,390

64,480

126,395

80,585

228,395

17,780

4,342,190

1,040

52,810

300

117,715

106,990

1,355

894,590

3,519,750

320

666,505

2,889,910

535

$ 20,890

100,580

176,560

107,240

171,585

81,880

4,299,000

1,935

28,520

2,920

59,115

218,005

3,535

1,287,

4,604,370
2,400

; 7,695

118,220

475,265

365,420

212,440

5,165

3,649,215

1,935

24,950

2,295

264,115

140,555

6,970

25

1,114,530

4,007,780

1,440

Totals.

$10,352,965

,767,885

$11,156,635

$10,398,515

Importation of Apples into Germany

FROM

1907
Bushels

1908
Bushels

1909
Bushels

Belgium

France

Italy

Netherlands

Austria-Hungary

Switzerland

Servia

United States. . .
Australia

Totals

378,632

187,200

3,329,376

906,964

2,140,656

1,193,136

168,576

442,992

75,888

8,983,632

820,608
220,416
298,176
998,160
3,005,472
2,986,464

207,600
64,272

509,568

187,200

3,329,376

906,864

2,140,656

1,193,136

168,576

442,992

8,640,816

8,983,632

NOTE. — The figures for 1909 are for the first eleven months only.

The value of the importations of fresh
apples and pears into Germany has been
between $5,000,000 and $8,000,000 per an-
num for the past 10 years. The share of
the United States in this trade is com-
paratively small, but will increase with
the better methods of growing and pack-
ing, and the reduced cost of transporta-
tion.

Germany is making a creditable effort
in the production of apples, and the num-
ber of apple trees planted in the empire
is over 52,000,000.

German reports place the imports of
pears and quinces together in the follow-
ing table:

EUROPE AS A MARKET FOR OUR APPLES AND PEARS

1325

FROM

1907
Bushels

1908
Bushels

1909

Bushels

Belgium

France.

349,300
208,700
173,900
402,100
944,650
71,750

300,950

459,600

Italy.

181,550

158,100

432,450

60,600

278,950

Netherlands

Austria-Hungary

Switzerland . .

308,300

1,570,000

305,000

Totals

2,195,950

1,278,500

3,009,650

The average import price per 100 kilos
(220.4 pounds) in 1907 was 14.82 marks
($3.53); in 1908, 13.13 marks ($3.12); in
1909, 17.34 marks ($4.12). The average
import price in 1907 and 1908 was about

1% cents per pound, and in 1909 nearly 2
cents per pound.

From this table it seems that the
United States lias no part of consequence
in the pear trade.

Importation of Fears into the United King-dom

FROM

1905

1906

1907

1908

Germany

Netherlands

Belgium

France

United States of America
Other foreign countries . .

Channel Islands

Cape of Good Hope

Australia

Canada

Other British possessions

Totals

{ 59,080

138,975

221,455

1,019,205

471,490

6,650

19,240

6,440

44,560

51,965

25

5 117,830

89,895

327,630

1,736,055

437,010

4,280

52,595

20,395

23,765

51,905

10

5 87,425

199,865

611,715

1,190,270

132,210

11,570

30,845

35,365

75,240

18,540

10

$2,039,095

$2,861,370

9,390

64,415

422,430

1,415,310

470,185

5,465

29,570

56,100

23,290

83,455

10

$2,393,055 $2,579,620

Pears to the value of $2,500,000 are an-
nually imported into Great Britain. This
amount has been remarkably constant for
the past five years.

France has a little over half of this
trade, with Belgium usually second and
the United States third. A pear satisfac-
tory to the Christmas trade will have lit-
tle opposition in the British markets, be-
cause the French and Belgian pears are
difficult to keep so late, and as soon as
pears begin to soften the dealers do not
care to handle them. One of the finest
openings for fruit is this British market
for winter pears. Fruit commission
houses have been paying from 2 to 3
cents each for pears in 20-pound boxes of
from 40 to 50 pears each.

The following varieties are common
sellers:

B. Clargeau, Beurre Hardy, Doyenne du
Comice, B. de Anjou, Easter Beurre,
American Duchess, Beurre D'Arenberg,
Charles Ernest (this is an exceptional
favorite as a winter pear), B. Magnifique,
Glow Morceau (is a high-priced and popu-
lar winter pear), Josephine de Malines
(is one of the best winter pears). This
season the Kieffer has been a splendid
seller. Small pears, such as Winter Nelis,
however luscious, do not seem to answer
the demands of this market.

During the latter part of February this
year large consignments of Bartlett pears
came to the British markets from Cape
Town, South Africa, under the name of

1326

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

"Bon Chrelien," also known in the street
as "William pears." These pears were in-
troduced from France to England by a
man by the name of William, and there-
fore pass under his name here. The
same pear was introduced into America
by a Mr. Bartlett, and hence in the United
States is known as the Bartlett pear.
Thousands of boxes of these pears are
consigned into the British markets now,
and will continue to come until some time
in May.

They come in small, single-layer boxes
of 28 pears each, and sell here at $1 per
box from the commission houses. This

fruit comes by steamer a distance of over
6,000 miles, requiring about 20 days for
the trip from Cape Town to London.
Those that I have seen have been landed
in fine condition. The best opportunity
seems to be to produce something good
for the holiday season.

The Royal Horticultural Society of
Great Britain is to a large extent re-
sponsible for the development of horticul-
ture in South Africa. They are taking
great interest in the production of fruit
for the British markets in the various
British colonies, and the results of their
efforts are showing good returns in many
cases.

Importations of Apples and Pears into France

FROM

1907
Bushels

1908
Bushels

Germany

Austria-Hungary

Turkey

United States. . .

Canada

Other countries. .

Totals

5,930
10,080

2,275
82,875

1,245

2,340

103,740

19,765
790
695

21,250

I have been able to get very little infor-
mation concerning the French markets,
but from the above table you will observe
that so far as imported apples and pears
are concerned, the market for foreign
stock is not very great. My advices indi-
cate that no pears are imported into
France from the United States, and those
that are imported are of two varieties,
"Amorelle" and "Blanche."

Horticulture in France is a most pros-
pering industry, and besides growing
fruits for their own markets they are ex-
tensive exporters to various European
districts. In October, 1909, a Technical
Board of Horticulture was created and
attached to the Ministry of Agriculture.
The purpose of the board is to promote
horticultural development in Prance.

In the European markets, especially in
pears and the more delicate fruits,
France has a great advantage over the
United States, and in arranging for mar-

keting our fruits in this part of the world
care should be taken to avoid such plant-
ings for this trade as are likely to be
ruinous against the French product. A
special study should be made of the
French productions in order to get a thor-
ough understanding of this phase of the
subject. It is clear that any apple-grow-
ing section, in order to make a perma-
nent success, must establish and main-
tain a standard of fruit and pack that
will fix its reputation high and substan-
tial in the markets of the world.

A single ship from New York has
just brought into Liverpool over 30,000
bushels of apples, and this is only one of
several ships clearing every week car-
rying fruit during the season. The Brit-
ish markets consume between 10 and 12
million dollars worth of imported apples
each year, with an increasing tendency.

The parliament of Ontario, Canada, a
year ago passed an act providing for the

REDUCTION OF WASTE IN MARKETING

1327

grading, marking and inspection of ap-
ples, with penalty of a fine for falsely
marked packages. This has had a good
effect in improving the grading, and has
brought better returns in cash. The
formation of an association of Ontario
fruit growers and the establishment of
general packing houses, with uniform
packing guaranteed by the association,
has had a still better effect, and the as-
sociation products bring the highest
price in the market.

THE REDUCTION OF WASTE IN
MARKETING

Frank Andrews

Assistant Chief of Division of Production

and Distribution, U. S. Bureau of

Statistics

Of the items entering into the cost of
marketing fresh fruits and vegetables,
possibly one of the greatest is the loss due
to waste. Two important causes of this
waste are slowness of delivery to the buy-
er and the glutting of markets. Delay in
transportation may cause the produce to
decay or wilt, so that it may bring small,
if any, returns, or, even if it arrives in
good condition, it may be too late to be
sold at good prices. A loss in selling
price may be caused also by a faulty dis-
tribution of consignments, whereby some
markets are overstocked, while there is a
scarcity at others. These two causes of
waste are being overcome, to some degree
at least, by improved methods of distri-
bution, as used by shippers, and by bet-
ter transportation service.

It is the purpose of this article to show
the working of two general plans, whose
extended use dates back scarcely 10 or 15
years. One plan is used by shippers to
distribute consignments among cities and
towns in such manner as to avoid a glut:
the other scheme is employed by trans-
portation companies to move perishable
freight quickly, and at the same time to
be ready to change its destination on
short notice, even when it is on the way to
market.

The Carload as a Unit
A Saving in Money and Time

In farming on a large scale, the unit
of quantity for a shipment is regularly a
carload. The advantage of a car lot over
a smaller quantity is so great that the
smaller shipment competes at a disad-
vantage, except in near-by markets. Not
only are the freight rates for carloads
lower, but the time of transit is shorter
and the risk of injuring the produce in
transit is less. A car lot may be sent to
any one of a large number of cities and
towns, while the smaller shipment is lim-
ited, by the higher freight rates and by
delays in transit, to fewer markets.

Since car lot shipments form such a
large proportion of the total supply, con-
ditions which affect their marketing in-
fluence also the marketing of the smaller
lots of highly perishable fruits and veg-
etables. Home-grown produce is more apt
to bring good prices in the neighboring
city or town under conditions which tend
to reduce the danger of an oversupply
from distant regions. Hence, changes
affecting the movement of carloads, as dis-
cussed in this article, affect the entire
truck-growing industry.

There are a number of plans by which
small shippers join in making up a car-
load. This is regularly done by farmers'
co-operative associations. Country buyers
also gather prodice from various farmers,
arranging their )urchases so as to have
carloads for shipment. Of the other plans
for combining smaller lots in carloads,
two of the more noteworthy are the local
"pick-up" service of some railroads and
the system employed by some forwarding
agents.

Combining Small Lots

There are forwarding agents whose
business it is to collect small consign-
ments at various points in the Mississippi
Valley and to ship them to market. The
forwarding agent gathers enough produce
to make a full carload at a given station,
consigns it to himself at the destination,
and delivers the contents to various con-
signees. By this system a small ship-
ment by a producer is carried as prompt-

1328

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

ly as a full carload. The territory served
by these forwarders includes stations in
Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Illi-
nois, Michigan, and a few points in In-
diana. The forwarder, being responsible
to the shippers, makes it his business to
check the contents of the car as they are
taken out, to note their condition, and
to report to the shipper any irregular-
ities as to the condition or number of
packages. The car manifest of the for-
warder shows the names of the shippers
and of the consignees, the number and
contents of packages. The manifests that
happened to be in the office of one of these
forwarders one day in July, 1911, and
which were apparently not unusual, con-
tained each a long list of separate items;
the manifest for one car contained a list
of packages for no less than 32 different
consignees.

A so-called "pick-up" system is con-
ducted by different railroads for collect-
ing less-than-carload lots from various sta-
tions and combining them at transfer
points into full carloads. Small consign-
ments are collected from a number of sta-
tions and brought to a given point to be
combined into carloads. Among the typi-
cal transfer points for combining small
shipments into carloads are Canton, Miss.,
and Norfolk, Va.

The growth of freight and express serv-
ice on interurban trolley lines has made
it easier to market small shipments of
perishable fruits and vegetables prompt-
ly. The interurban electric lines gather
up small shipments and concentrate them
at forwarding points. Large quantities
of fruits and vegetables are thus handled
from points in Southwestern Michigan.
The produce is collected from such points
as Berrien Springs, Eau Claire, and Mill-
burg, and transferred to boats at St. Jo-
seph and Benton Harbor to be forwarded
thence to Chicago. This service is prompt;
fruit collected one day is on the Chicago
market early next morning. A similar
traffic is carried through Norfolk, where
railroad freight from truck-growing re-
gions is transferred to coastwise steamers
for New York and the North.

Freight Service

General Improvements in Railroad

Facilities

Progress in methods of hauling perish-
able fruits and vegetables is part of a gen-
eral betterment of railroad service. Im-
proved roadway, heavier rails, larger cars,
and more powerful engines, together with
more efficient handling of the traffic, all
help toward quicker and cheaper market-
ing of produce. Some of the features of
these improvements are shown in statis-
tics compiled by the Interstate Commerce
Commission.

Within the past 20 years the quantity of
freight moved has increased many fold.
During the year ending June 30, 1889, the
freight traffic on railroads of the United
States equaled about 69,000,000,000 ton-
miles; 20 years later this freight
amounted to 219,000,000,000 ton-miles.
This increased traffic is accounted for not
only by an extension of railroads, but by
an increase in the amount carried per
mile. The density of the traffic in 1909
was more than double that in 1899. To
move this freight the size of the trains was
increased as well as the number of loco-
motives. In 1889 there was an average of 10
and in 1909 between 14 and 15 locomotives
in the freight service for every 100 miles
of railroad, while the average number of
tons carried in a freight train more than
doubled.

Tracing a Car's Movements

The freight carried on many railroads
is divided into classes, based upon the
kind of service rendered. The highest
class of goods is given the quickest and
most regular service. A second class of
goods, and even a third or a fourth, may
also be moved in trains having regular
times for arrival and departure, but which
are slower than the "manifest," "red ball,"
or "vegetable express" trains. These
classes are distinct from the classes upon
which freight rates are based.

Fresh fruits and vegetables are usually
included in the list of commodities which
are given this best service. Trains car-
rying these perishable products are run
at greater rates of speed and with greater

REDUCTION OF WASTE IN MARKETING

1329

regularity than are ordinary freight
trains. Delays are reduced to a minimum,
and especial care is taken to have the
cars carrying these fruits and vegetables
move promptly along the way. "Where the
traffic justifies it, entire trains are made
up of such produce.

One feature of this service is the tele-
graphic report which is made of each car
as it passes each reporting station on its
route. These "passing" reports, however,
are made on some railroads for lower
classes of freight also.

Some of the principal parts of this sys-
tem were in use before 1885 on at least
one railroad. Cars were reported by tele-
graph on passing certain points, and their
movement was recorded in the central
office, not only in writing but by means
of pegs. Each car was represented by a
peg bearing the symbol of the car and in-
serted in a block which represented the
train. The route over which the cars
moved was represented by a board on
which vertical lines and spaces indicated
the various stations from which "passing"
reports were made. When a train was
reported to have passed a station, the
block representing the train was moved
past the place on the board that repre-
sented the station. The telegraphic re-
port mentioned each car in the train; cars
not so mentioned were accounted for, with
the reason for delay, or were the subject
of prompt inquiry from the central office.
This system is now in use on a number
of railroads. The information shown on
the board is kept also in written form,
and, on some railroads, it is summarized
in circulars, issued daily. The "board"
is convenient but not an essential part of
this sytem. Some railroads do not use a
board at all; they keep all their "pass-
ing" records on paper.

To facilitate telegraphing in some of
these "passing-report" systems, each car
may be given a symbol after the train is
made up. The symbol consists of a letter
or group of letters, which indicate the
station of origin, and a number to desig-
nate the car. The car is known by this
symbol until it reaches its destination
and the contents are delivered.

Bates of Speed

The average rate of speed over long
distances for carloads of perishable freight
depends largely upon the character of the
roadbed and the number of transfers from
one railroad to another. From Los An-
geles to Chicago and from Jacksonville,
Fla., to Chicago, the rate of speed aver-
ages about 13 miles an hour, including all
stops. One train was scheduled to run
from Los Angeles to Chicago in 173 hours
and 25 minutes, the average rate being
13.1 miles per hour. A vegetable express
run from Jacksonville to Chicago over
three or four different railroads covers
about 1,140 miles in 89% hours, the aver-
age rate being 12.7 miles per hour. By
another route the trip from Jacksonville
to Chicago is reported to be made in as
short a time as 84 hours. Over some
routes which do not traverse mountains
the average rate, including stops, is
about 16 miles per hour for long distances.
A certain train from New Orleans to Chi-
cago covers 930 miles in 57 hours and 20
minutes, the average rate being 16.2 miles
per hour; and on the Atlantic coast a
train carrying Florida produce northward
runs from Tampa, Fla., to Richmond. Va.,
in 54 hours and 15 minutes, making an
average of 15.8 miles per hour. After a
train is once made up and does not have
to stop so often to receive new cars the
rate of speed is naturally much higher.
Between Memphis and Chicago the aver-
age rate of speed for a certain train is 18
miles per hour, while the rate from New
Orleans to Memphis is 14 to 15 miles per
hour. From Tampa to New York the rate
for the distance south of Potomac Yard,
Virginia, is about 16, while the distance
between Potomac Yard and New York is
covered at an average rate of more than
18 miles per hour.

At the rates of speed mentioned in the
preceding paragraph, a train would run
from 312 to 432 miles in 24 hours. The
time taken to move cars from Potomac
Yard, Virginia, just south of Washington,
D. C, to New York, is about 12% hours;
to Boston from Potomac Yard, 36% to 40
hours; and to Montreal, 46% hours.
These figures include the time required

2—4.'?

1330

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

for icing and for transferring the cars
from one road to anottier. From Miami,
Fla., to New York the time is approxi-
mately 96 hours, and from Miami to Chi-
cago about 108 hours. It is thus possible
for fruit and vegetables grown in regions
as far away as Southern Florida to be
delivered to consumers in Chicago or
New York within five or six days from
the time of gathering.

Regularity of Service

While these fruit and vegetable trains,
as any others, may be late sometimes,
nevertheless their regularity is such that
transactions are reported to be made oft-
en, if not usually, with the expectation
that the produce involved will be deliv-
ered at about a certain time on a certain
day. For instance, a car of vegetables
from a South Atlantic shipping point may
be bought by a dealer, who expects the
car to reach Jersey City on a Friday night
in time to be ferried across North river
to a wholesale market in New York,
which opens at 1 a. m. Should this car
be delayed several hours the vegetables
would miss the Saturday morning market
and might be delayed two days in reach-
ing the retail merchants.

Two instances of delays will serve as
illustrations. A merchant in Philadel-
phia mentioned a consignment of straw-
berries which reached that city from
Florida six days late, and a Chicago deal-
er complained, about the same time, of
losing $500 on a car of strawberries that
reached him too late to take advantage of
a good market. Delays like these, it is
believed, are by no means as frequent
under present conditions of freight serv-
ice as in earlier times.

Extension of Demand and Supply
Number of Markets

Inquiries were made by the Bureau of
Statistics of this department in August,
1911, as to the different kinds of highly
perishable fruits 'and vegetables which
were received in car lots for local use
in cities having a population of not less
than 25,000. Of the 103 cities for which
reports were made, peaches were sold by
the carload in at least 87; watermelons.

in 86; cantaloupes, 77; bananas, 72;
strawberries, 71; tomatoes, 66; oranges,
65; grapes, 53; lemons, 39; pears, 32;
pineapples, 28; plums, 24; celery, 18;
cherries, 13; cucumbers, 11; green beans,
11; apricots, 11; and each of about 25
other commodities of this class were re-
ported to have car-lot markets in from
1 to 10 different cities. The reports on
which these figures are based are probably
incomplete to a greater or less degree;
some products are no doubt omitted which
should have been included. If it had
been possible to secure complete lists
of all such products for each of these
cities, the figures just given would prob-
ably have been larger. As they stand,
these incomplete figures show a wide
range of markets where car-lot shipments
of fresh fruits and vegetables may be
sold. The producer has many good out-
lets for his crops; if market conditions
in one place are not satisfactory, there
may be other places where fair prices
may be obtained. The cities which ab-
sorb these products by the carload in-
clude many whose population is less than
50,000. Of the 87 car-lot markets for
peaches in which returns were made in
this investigation, 30 were cities of less
than 50,000 inhabitants; 23 of these
smaller cities took cantaloupes by the
carload, 19 received grapes and straw-
berries, and 17 received tomatoes. Other
products of this class also found sale in
car lots among these smaller cities.

The number of car-lot markets for
fruits and vegetables has increased great-
ly during the past decade. This is in-
dicated by reports made by railroad
freight agents and produce dealers in
various cities as to the year in which
the first carloads of certain products
were received for local use. The products
for which the fullest reports were made
were peaches, strawberries, cantaloupes,
tomatoes, and grapes. Of the 42 mar-
kets which reported the year when the
first carload of peaches was received for
local use, 13 had become car-lot mar-
kets within the past decade; the mar-
kets whose first carload sale of straw-
berries was made since 1900 numbered

REDUCTION OP WASTE IN MARKETING

1331

15 out of a total of 35 reported; for can-
taloupes, 21 out of 40; tomatoes, 19 out
of 32; and for grapes the car-lot markets,
which were opened within the past 10
years, numbered 13 out of a total of 24
for which reports were received. Taking
account of the minor products of this
trade, as well as the five leading ones
just mentioned, the average rate of in-
crease in the number of car-lot markets
for highly perishable fruits and vegeta-
bles was over 40 per cent in the decade
beginning with 1901 as compared with
the ten years just before.

Wide Range of Sources of Supply

Many of the large markets, and smaller
ones also, receive their fresh fruits and
vegetables from regions which are far
apart. The examples given here refer
to large cities, but illustrate conditions
at many others. The sources of supply
of a given product in a market like Chi-
cago or New York may often be traced
by the price quotations in those markets
for perishable fruits and vegetables. It
is common in those, and in other mar-
kets as well, to mention the state or
locality where the products quoted were
produced. By tabulating quotations of
different commodities it is thus easy to
learn also the time when the produce
from a given locality is on a given mar-
ket. For the season of 1910 the quota-
tions of Florida tomatoes appeared in the
produce reports at Chicago, New York,
and Kansas City early in the winter and
continued to about the middle of June,
when Texas tomatoes began to appear.
These were followed, in the Chicago mar-
ket, by shipments from Mississippi, and
about the first week of July the produce
of more northern fields. Among the
states which contributed tomatoes to the
Chicago trade in 1910, besides Florida,
Mississippi, and Texas, were California,
Tennessee, Missouri, and, of course,
Illinois. New York's supply came also
from a large number of states, among
which were California, Florida, Texas,
Mississippi, Tennessee, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey,
Maryland, and Delaware, while some
were imported from Cuba.

The supplies of peaches, strawberries,
cantaloupes, string beans, and other
products were also drawn from a wide
range of territory. In 1910 there were
at the same time quoted in New York
City strawberries from Florida, Lou-
isiana, Virginia, Maryland, and the Caro-
linas, and while some of these southern
berries were still in the market, supplies
came in from New Jersey and New York.
The cantaloupes used in New York in
the latter part of June and the first of
July, 1910, were coming from Florida,
Georgia, and the Carolinas, and also from
Arizona and the Imperial Valley of Cali-
fornia. A few weeks later melons from
Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and New
Jersey met, on the same market, those
from New Mexico, Nevada, and Colorado.

In April and May of the same year the
asparagus sold in New York City was
grown some near the Pacific coast and
some in the regions along the Atlantic.
Peaches from Texas and other Western
states were included with those from
Eastern states in the receipts at New
York.

The sources of supply in a given mar-
ket are governed to some degree by
changing conditions of trade. Under
some conditions it would be profitable
for the produce of a certain state to com-
pete in a given city with produce from
states which are nearer that market,
but whose own crops are short. For
instance, when the Arkansas peach crop
is small, Georgia may be shipping to
points as far west as Denver, while if
the Arkansas yield is large, Georgia
peaches might get into few markets west
of Chicago.

Systematic Distribution
Finding a Market

A personal acquaintance between
buyer and seller is an important factor
in successful marketing. A truck gar-
dener who visits the different markets
occasionally and meets dealers there is in
a much better position to sell his produce
than if he consigned it to strangers; and,
further, the co-operative association hav-
ing representatives in important markets
throughout the season may be expected to

1332

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

sell on much better terms than the in-
dividual shipper who visits the market
only occasionally. Likewise, among mer-
chants, the man who keeps in touch with
other markets knows much better how
to distribute his excess supply, or send
orders to meet the demands of his cus-
tomers, than the dealer whose acquain-
tance is not so large.

The shipper or his representative
should know also the characteristics of
the various markets which may take his
produce. For instance, a certain town
will be able to use one full carload of
cherries, while for another town it would
be better to make up a mixed car con-
sisting of cherries and two or three other
kinds of fruit; or, again, in one city,
as New York, it is important for certain
produce to be delivered in time for the
night market, while at Chicago the ship-
ments will be on time for the regular
market if they reach the railroad ter-
minals or the steamboat wharves before
daybreak.

Reports of market conditions are given
regularly and with varying degrees of
accuracy in daily newspapers, trade and
agricultural journals, and in circulars is-
sued by dealers and organizations. In
addition to these sources of information,
some shippers and dealers receive spe-
cial reports, by mail or wire, from dif-
ferent markets.

Control of Produce in Transit

Information as to the location of a
given car in transit may usually be ob-
tained from the railroad company which
is hauling the car. But some large ship-
pers have a system of their own by
which they trace the movement of cars
in transit, in order to distribute them
among the different markets to the best
advantage. One organization in California
adopted this system of distributing ship-
ments: When a member shipped a car
of produce, he turned the bill of lading
over to the manager of the organzation
and allowed him to direct the movement
of the car to market. The object of
having one central authority select the
markets was to prevent sending an over-
supply to any one place. On receiving

the bill of lading, a record of the car
was made on a card in the office of the
organization and the card filed in its
proper place in a drawer. This drawer
was divided into several rows of com-
partments, opening upward; each row
had 31 compartments, and there was one
row for each principal market in the
United States. The 31 compartments rep-
resented each one day of a month. When
a card was filed its location was deter-
mined by the destination named in the
bill of lading and by the day of the month
on which the consignment was due at the
destination. For instance, a carload of
cherries shipped to New York from a
point in the Sacramento valley on May
27 would be represented by a card filed
in the New York row of the drawer and
in the compartment numbered 7, if the
consignment would be due in New York
on June 7. The arrangement of these
cards showed at a glance the intended
distribution of this association's ship-
ments among the different markets, and
when too many consignments of a given
kind of fruit were on the way to a given
market the grouping together of several
cards in one box served as a warning
that the destination of one or more cars
should be changed. This drawer showed
only such fruit as was shipped by this
association. News of other shipments and
of their probable time of arrival at des-
tination was secured, to some extent, by
the association. When it became known
that a certain market was about to re-
ceive an oversupply of a given fruit, one
or more of the shippers who had con-
signed to that market would be notified
by the association manager, so that they
might select another city to which to di-
vert their consignments. In case they
should refuse to make such a selection
the rules of the association gave the man-
ager the right to divert the shipments
himself.

The movement of a car in transit was
traced by the association by a system
similar to that used by some railroads.
Each car shipped east by the association
was reported by telegraph as it passed
certain points along the way.

REDUCTION OF WASTE IN MARKETING

1333

In a similar way other large shippers
keep in close touch with the progress of
a car on its way to market, at the same
time keeping informed as to the prices
and relative supplies in different cities
and towns.

For produce moving from the South
northward many of the principal points
of diversion are along the Ohio and Po-
tomac rivers, but the route of a car may
be changed at any one of a large number
of railroad junction points. Cairo, Louis-
ville, Cincinnati, and Potomac Yard (near
Washington) are important points from
which these shipments are distributed
among various destinations.

Between Eastern markets and producing
regions in the far West and Southwest
the chief points of diversion include Min-
nesota Transfer (between St. Paul and
Minneapolis), Council Bluffs, Chicago,
and St. Louis. Over one route from Cen-
tral California to the East the principal
points from which one leading shippers'
association receives "passing" reports are
Roseville and Truckee in California, Og-
den. Council Bluffs and Chicago. A Cin-
cinnati firm may receive notice of a Flor-
ida shipment when the car passes Jack-
sonville, Atlanta, and Chattanooga, and
another notice just before the arrival at
Cincinnati. On peaches shipped by this
fast-freight service to Northeastern mar-
kets from Tampa, a car's progress over
a certain route is reported from Jackson-
ville, Fla.; Savannah, Ga.; Columbia, S.
C; Hamlet and Raleigh, N. C; Rich-
mond and Potomac Yard, Va.

The service of diversion includes not
only changing the destination of a car
in transit, but forwarding it to a destin-
ation beyond the one originally named.
For instance, a car shipped to Cincin-
nati may be forwarded under certain con-
ditions to Indianapolis for unloading; or,
it is reported, a car consigned to a given
town may be partly unloaded there and
the remainder of the consignment sent
on to another town. This, however, costs
more in freight than would a direct ship-
ment of a full carload to one market.

How a Car Is Diverted

Conditions on one route will illustrate
how the system of reporting car move-
ments may be used by a patron of the rail-
road. Suppose a dealer in Chicago, on a
Thursday morning, wishes to know the
location of a carload of tomatoes which
were shipped to him the morning before
from Crystal Springs, Miss. He makes
the request of the railroad company's
agent in Chicago, giving the initial and
number of the car and the date and place
of shipment. On consulting the "pass-
ing" reports it is found that this car,
known in transit by the symbol "CS-4,"
passed Fulton, Ky., at 6 a. m. that day
(Thursday) and would be due at Cairo,
111., at 8:30 a. m., or, let it be assumed,
about an hour after the time the dealer
made inquiry. It would be due in Chica-
go Friday at 4:50 a. m. With this infor-
mation the dealer knows that, if he de-
sires to divert the car, he may select one
of a number of markets located north of
the Ohio river. He knows that there is
a large movement of tomatoes toward
Chicago and believes that the prices on
Friday will be better in some other places
than in Chicago on the day his produce
is due on the market. He has already
received news from some points. An as-
sociate in St. Louis may have telegraphed
the evening before that the supply al-
ready in that market, together with what
was due to arrive on Thursday, would
be about as much as could be sold at
fair prices; that, if more was received,
prices would probably be low. On the
other hand, a report from Indianapolis
may indicate good prices for Friday
morning, better ones than are promised
in Chicago for that day; so the Chicago
dealer orders the car to be diverted to
Indianapolis. He may wait until 3 p. m.
Thursday before reaching this decision,
so that he may hear from other markets.
Meanwhile the car has been moving north-
ward. The order for diversion is sent by
the superintendent of transportation to
the proper oflficial at Effingham, 111.,
where the car is due to arrive about 5:45
p. m., and where transfers are regularly

1334

ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

made for Indianapolis. It reaches that
city early Friday morning, about the time
it would have reached Chicago had there
been no diversion.

Distributing a Car Lot

Cities and towns which do not require a
full carload of a given product are often
supplied from neighboring car-lot mar-
kets. Small lots of perishable goods may
be forwarded in refrigerator cars devoted
to local service. For small consignments
of fruit and vegetables intended for
neighboring towns refrigerator cars are
run on regular schedules from Chicago
and other large cities, and each car is
assigned its own route. The service on
one railroad will illustrate this traffic.
This railroad sends out from Chicago,
every night except Sunday night, 11 trains
hauling such cars. One of these trains,
leaving Chicago at 9:45 p. m., takes cars
for 14 different routes; three of these
cars are run only two days of each week,
five of the cars are run on three days
of the week, and six cars are run on
six days. A car may be transferred from
one train to another, making one, two,
or more transfers before it reaches its
destination. From this train cars are
transferred at various points in Iowa; one
car is taken off at Cedar Rapids, another
at Marshalltown, still another at Ames, a
fourth at Tama, while at Eagle Grove
three cars are taken off and given to
three different trains. At Belle Plaine two
more trains are each given a car, and at
Mason City another transfer of a car is
made.

Interurban electric lines and steam-
boats help to distribute small lots of fresh
fruit and vegetables from car-lot markets.
In addition to the traffic on steam rail-
roads, large quantities of this kind of
produce are thus distributed from Cin-
cinnati by trolley lines and river boats,
while lake steamers assist in this work
at Chicago.

Shipments of less-than-carload lots of
this highly perishable produce are apt to

be more frequent in times of high prices.
Under some conditions less-than-carload
lots may be shipped all the way from
Chicago to St. Paul, or even to Omaha.
But, as has been said in the first part of
this article, the regular way of transport-
ing these fresh fruits and vegetables is by
carload lots, shipments in smaller quanti-
ties, except for short distances, being
chiefly to markets where a larger quan-
tity could not be sold.

Conclusion

The extension of better ways of distrib-
uting fresh fruits and vegetables among
the various markets and the improvement
in transportation service have done much
to reduce the waste in marketing, but
there is still room for improvement.
Sometimes a crop in a given region will
be too large to be marketed promptly.
There may be too few cars to carry the
produce, and it spoils while awaiting ship-
ment; or it may be loaded in cars and
started on its way, but the increased num-
ber of cars may be more than the rail-
road can handle promptly, and a conges-
tion of traffic may cause a delay of sev-
eral days on the way. Or, even with
quick and adequate freight service, the
produce may yet fail to be well marketed.
It is not always practicable for shippers
to determine beforehand the approximate
supply which a given city or town is
about to receive, or to judge how much
can be sold there at fair prices, and an
error in the shippers' judgment may re-
sult in glutting a market.

But in spite of occasional losses due
to car shortages, freight blockades, and
overstocked markets it is a widespread
opinion among shippers that there are
fewer losses on fresh fruits and vegetables
now than there were 10 or 15 years ago:
and the tendency of the present time is
to reduce still further the waste in mar-
keting.

Year-book. 1011.

Marketing Cantaloupes. See under
Cantaloup Culture.

COST OF HAULING TO MARKET

1335

Cost of Hauling Products to Shipping Points

Table 1 — Ayerage Cost of Hauling Products from Farms to Shipping Points— Totals

for States Represented

Number of
counties
reporting

Average

PRODUCT HAULED

Miles to

shipping

point

Days for
round
trip

Pounds
in one
load

Cost
per
load

Cost
per 100
pounds

Cost
per ton
per mile

114
226

22
8
981
555
110

51

99

761

7

316

14
798

19
569

18

78

5

113

152

1,051

41

9.6
8.8
9.0
8.2
7.4
11.8
10.7
10.4
11.6
8.3
5.2
7.9
11.7
7.3
8.1
8.2
7.5
8.4
8.0
9.8
9.8
9.4
39.8

0.9
.7
.8
.8
.6

1.0
.9
.7

1.1
.7
.7
.7

1.0
.6
.6
.7
.8
.7
.8
.8
.9
.8

5.6

2,300
3,970
3,172
2,438
2,696
1,702
1,654
3,409
2,181
2,786
3,393
b 1,941
3,665
2,772
1,363
2,679
2,407
2,625
2,410
2,248
1,852
3,323
4,869

S2.79
2.67
2.75
2.90
1.78
2.76
2.42
2.70
3.53
2.32
2.10
2.00
3.89
1.82
1.67
2.34
2.70
2.23
1.92
2.28
2.84
2.86

21.39

$0.12
.07
.09
.11
.07
.16
.15
.08
.16
.08
.06
b .10
.11
.07
.12
.09
.11
.08
.08
.10
.15
.09
.44

$0.25

.16

.20

.27

.19

.27

.28

Flaxseed

Fruit (other than apples)

Hay

.15
.28
.19

Hemp a

Hogs (live)

.23

b .25

.19

Oats

.19

Peanuts

.30

.22

Rice

Rye

Timothy seed C

Tobacco

Vegetables (other than potatoes)
Wheat

.29
.19
.20
.20
.31
.19

Wool

.22

a Kentucky only. b Average for si.\ states only. c Iowa only.

Apples

Apples were reported as a surplus crop
so generally by the correspondents in
this investigation that a fairly good basis
is afforded for finding average conditions
of hauling this fruit from farms in the
United States. Owing to the small num-
ber of returns from some states, the aver-
ages for the geographic divisions and for
the United States in Table 2 should be
used in comparison when the figures for
a single state are considered.

The high cost per 100 pounds for haul-

ing apples from farms in the South-Cen-
tral division is due largely to the small
loads taken, and in the Western division
the long time for the average round trip
makes the cost per 100 pounds twice the
average for the North and South At-
lantic and North-Central divisions.

It is to be noted in connection with
this product that it is the practice in
some sections for the farmers to sell
their apples on the trees, the buyer to
do all the picking and hauling. This,
however, does not invalidate the figures
as given in Table 2.

1336 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE

Table 2 — Arerage Cost of Hauling Apples from Farms to Shipping Points

Number of
counties
reporting

Average

Miles to

shipping

point

Days for
round
trip

Pounds
in one
load

Cost
per
load

Cost
per 100
pounds

Maine

New Hampshire

Vermont

Massachusetts

Connecticut

New York

New Jersey

Pennsylvania

Virginia

West Virginia

Ohio

Indiana

Illinois

Michigan

Missouri

Kentucky

Tennessee

Arkansas

Oregon

California

Geographic divisions
North Atlantic.
South Atlantic.
North Central. .
South Central..
Western

States represented . .

114

6.2
7.1
9.2
10.6
7.4
7.1
8.2

10.9
10.0

7.0
9.7
5.8
9.1
10.5

11.6
11.2
19.2

11.8
15.6

7.9
10.5

8.5
13.8
13.7

1.3
.5

.7
.6

.7

2,180
2,630
3,000
3,250
2,000
2,523
2,667
2,362

1.0
1.1

2,750
2,332

.7

1.2

.5

.7

1.0

2,170
2,283
2,367
2,538
2,108

1.0
2.0

1,600
1,556
1,700

1 9
1.7

2,583
4,500

.7

2,490

1.0

2,584

.8

2,267

12

1,617

1.8

3,558

2,300

$4.74
2.02

2.88
4.00

2.14
4.20
1.25
2,06
2.56

2.20
2.62
4.76

6 02
10.40

2.53
3.18
2.26
3.11
8.36

2.79

SO. 22
.08
.09
.08
.14
.09
.09
.12

.10
.12
.10
.19
.23

.12

Frank Andrews,
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 49.