12*

H3T&

By
ith Tuttle

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES

ROBERT ERNEST COWAN

Brooklyn, N. Y.

BROOKLYN ENGINEERS' CLUB.

ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

BY

ARTHUR S. TUTTLE.

BROOKLYN ENGINEERS' CLUB.

ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII

BY

\

ARTHUR S. ,TUTTLE.

BROOKLYN ENGINEERS' CLUB.

No. 43.

ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

BY ARTHUR S. TUTTLE, Mem. B. E. C.
PRESENTED NOVEMBER 13, 1902.

The Hawaiian Islands, comprising the territory of Hawaii, extend
iu a southeasterly direction from latitude 22° 15' N. and longitude
160° 30' W. to latitude 18° 55' N. and longitude 154° 50' W. Com-
mencing at the north, the principal islands of the group are Niihau,
Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, Kahoolawe, and Hawaii; there
are a few additional ones of insignificant size lying still further to
the north and west.

Owing to their position, the islands have a commercial and strategic
position by no means insignificant, lying as they do in the path of
almost every line of steamers crossing the Pacific. Statistics for the
year ending June 30th, 1901, show that 662 steamers, war vessels
and sailing vessels made the ports of Honolulu and Hilo, over 90%
of the number entering the former. The advantage to the United
States of ownership of these islands, in connection with the develop-
ment and control of our new possessions in the far East, is very great,
permitting of the maintenance here of a base of supplies and a naval
repair yard.

There are no incorporated cities on the islands, and the territorial
government is conducted entirely from Honolulu, this place having
been recognized as the capital since the days of Kamehameha I, the
first monarch of the group, whose reign began in 1795. Here is
clustered the greatest population, probably aggregating 45 000, Hilo,
on Hawaii, ranking second. A movement to establish city, town

TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HA. WAIL

133

and county organizations has recently been recommended by the
United States Senate Committee.

Recent statistics concerning the area, elevation, and population of
the islands show the following:

Islands.

AREA.

Highest
elevation.
Feet.

Population.

1900.

Square miles.

Acres.

Niihau

97
544
600
261
135
69
728
4 015

62 000
348 000
384 000
167 000
86 000
44 000
466 000
2 570 000

800
4 800
4030
4 9581
3 400 f
1 427
10 032
13 825

20 730
58 510
3 120

Oahu . . .

Molokai

Lanai

Kahoolawe
Mani

24 800
46 840

Hawaii

Total

6 449

4 127 000

154 000

The population is classified approximately as follows :

Race.

Male.

Female.

Total.

16 200

12 .°00

28 500

'- Hawaiians
cz Part Hawaiian

15 700
4 000

14 2(10
3 900

29 900
7 9uO

47 600

13 600

61 200

Chinese

22300
200

3 500
100

25 800
300

South Sea Islanders

300

100

400

Total

106 300

47 700

154 000

Since these statistics were collected there has been an importation
of Porto Kicans and Italians for work on the plantations; but, as
neither class of labor has proven satisfactory, it is not likely that they
will constitute a permanent part of the population. Of the Cau-
casians, probably 14 000 are Hawaiian born and largely of American
parentage, while about 2 500 more were born in this country.

Climate. — Since 1884 a daily record has been kept at the office of
the Weather Bureau in Honolulu, to show the rainfall, atmospheric
pressure, temperature, humidity, and direction and force of the wind.
In 1890 the systematic collection of records at various points through-
out the islands was begun, and the last reports indicate that the rain-

288258

134 TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

fall is recorded at eighty stations and that more or less complete
meteorological observations are being made regularly at 5 points, in
addition to the Honolulu station. Besides these records there are a
large number of others which are not reported, nearly every ranch
and plantation having at least one gauge in use. Kainfall on the
islands presents all of the phenomenon usually found on large land
surfaces, being low at the coast on the windward side, increasing
with the elevation towards the cool high summits in the interior, and
diminishing as the lee or southwestern coast is approached. Most of
the readings are taken at the lower elevations, which are usually the
populated sections, but a few are available for points well up on the
slopes, the highest being at 4 000 ft. elevation at Kilauea, Hawaii.
The records of normal rainfall show an annual range of from 8.5 ins.
at elevation 15 ft. above the sea, at Olowalu, on the leeward side of
Maui, to 190 ins. at elevation 1 250 ft. at Kaumana, on the windward
slope of Mauna Kea, Hawaii.

The maximum rainfall record for a year, of which the writer has
knowledge, occurred at Nahiku, Maui, and was 400 ins. The dry
season of 1901 in Hawaii marked a drought of unusual severity, and
was followed in December by a storm which seemed to center at
Laupahoehoe, on the north coast, where the precipitation aggregated
over 41 ins. during 28 hours, the measuring gauge having been
located at 500 ft. elevation; this was a purely local storm, but the
one of March, 1902, swept along the entire windward coast of Hawaii,
and registered the maximum at elevation 2 000 ft. at Paauilo, where
the rainfall for 8 days was 87.91 ins.

One of the most intense Hawaiian storms of record occurred on
March 18th, 1902, at Luakaha, back of Honolulu, elevation 850 ft. ;
here the precipitation was 12.7 ins. in 11 hours and 55 minutes, the
maximum rate noted having been 5.55 ins. in 55 minutes.

An analysis of the records along the westerly end of the north
coast of Hawaii shows that, during the months, May to October, the
rainfall is from 30% to 40% less than in the remaining six months,
and that there is an increase in rainfall with increase in elevation
above the sea, probably not averaging more than 3.5 ins. per annum
per 100 ft.

Within the limits of Honolulu, records are kept at no less than
8 points, located at elevations between 10 ft. and 80 ft. above tide; the

HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTER'S EXPERIMENT STATION AT HONOLULU.

OLD TRAM CAR LINE OF HONOLULU, RECENTLY LARGELY SUPPLANTED BY A MODEF
OVERHEAD TROLLEY.

TUTTLE— ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII. 135

longest of these dates back to 1874 without interruption. Although
separated by small distances, they show a variation in the average
annual record ranging from 22.94 to 39.53 ins.

In a recent article on " Meteorology in Hawaii," by Professor
Curtis J. Lyons, Territorial Meteorologist, it is stated that the mean
annual temperature at Honolulu is 74°, with an annual variation of
not more than £°, and that there is a probability that no point on the
coast has a temperature of more than 1° lower. The average monthly
variation at Honolulu is from 70° in January to 78° in July and
August, with an extreme monthly range of from 54° to 88° and a
daily range of from 50° to 90°. With increase in elevation on the
islands there is a fall in temperature, probably averaging 1° per 300
ft. The percentage of saturation or humidity at Honolulu averages
72 per cent.

This delightful climate is due to the position of the Islands with
reference to the return polar currents, the trade winds, which blow
over them, prevailing at the islands for about 270 days per year.

Applying the rule of decrease of temperature with increase in ele-
vation, it will be noted that temperatures below freezing might be
expected at the higher elevations on Maui and Hawaii, and on the
latter island snow caps can usually be seen on the crests of Mauna
Kea and Mauna Loa.

The Soil. — The geological structure of the islands is entirely of
basalt. The volcanic agency by which they were formed seems to
have first manifested itself at the northerly end of the group, where
the old craters are difficult of definition; the action has now ceased
at all of the islands except Hawaii, the largest and southernmost.
Here there are two volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kilauea, which are
periodically active; at the latter there is always more or less evidence
to show that the quiescent stage may be but a brief one. It is prob-
able that the seaward slopes from the craters were originally about
uniform, and ranged up to, perhaps, 1.5%, but the heavy rainfalls on
the summits have caused more erosion here than at the coast, cutting
away the surface and furrowing it with deep gulches, and, finally, as
on Oahu, reducing the junction of the opposite sides of the tops of
the craters to a ragged knife-edge or saw-tooth appearance.

The disintegrated material of the higher elevations is washed
downward and deposited on the lower slopes, producing here a deeper

136

TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

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TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

137

and richer soil and a less broken surface for development than does
the uplands.

The small streams which form on the mountain tops are usually
dissipated in the porous formation before they reach the sea, and the
larger ones have cut gulches with very steep sides and with depths
ranging up to over 2 500 ft. While the uplands have the advantage
of increased rainfall, they lack the evenness of surface, the desirably
higher temperature for growing crops, the richness of soil, and the
facilities for transportation and shipment of the lowlands.

If the surface were less porous, and stream flow were in surface
channels, irrigation could be readily and cheaply resorted to and the
conditions for agricultural development would be ideal. In most in-
stances the irrigation supplies are obtained from sub-surface sources
and from depths ranging up to 800 ft. below tide.

Owing to lesser age it would naturally be expected that there
would be a decrease in richness of the soil in the islands toward the
south, and as a matter of fact there are large tracts of undecomposed
bare lava rock on Maui and Hawaii.

The exports for the year ending June 30th, 1901, and their value,
were as follows:

Article.

Quantity.

Value.

Sugar

690 879 234 Ibs

$27 098 923 41

Hides and skin

1 364 100 "

76 994.66

Rice

549 475 "

22 527 00

Coffee

311 897 27

819 734 "

110 184 94

93 820 galls.

4 615 00

9 770.00

Fruit

7« 167 65

1 696 00

346 654 50

$28 054 430 48

The valuable forests of sandal wood, which first opened up the
island trade, were almost wholly cut off early in the century. The
table shows that the wealth of the island lies entirely in its agricul-
tural resources, and that the culture of sugar cane is the most im-
portant industry.

The Sugar Industry. — There are 55 sugar plantations on the islands,
each having areas under cultivation ranging in size from 300 to 12 000
acres, and probably aggregating between 175 000 and 200 000 acres.

138 TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

About one-half the area is approximately evenly divided between the
Islands of Kauai, Oahu and Maui, and the remaining half is on
Hawaii. Nine of the plantations are located on Kauai, 9 on Oahu, 11
on Maui, and 26 on Hawaii. Nine of the number are owned by indi-
viduals, and probably have a value of over $2 000 000; the remaining
46 are controlled by companies, and are capitalized for $113 490 500,
of which amount $68 394 500 has been paid in.

The stock investment in plantations in the various islands, not
including the value of those not incorporated, is as follows:

Kauai. : 810,125,000

Oahu 19,302,000

Maui 23,527,500

Hawaii 15,440,000

As plantations are developed, the acreage is increased from year to
year, until all of the adjoining land which is suitable for cane cultiva-
tion has been brought into requisition; some of the younger planta-
tions have prepared plans for immense additions, and in a few years
will probably be larger than any now existing.

The growing season for a crop of sugar cane in Hawaii has a dura-
tion of 18 months, and the planting season begins in July; a single
rattoon or second crop is usually raised from the same seed, and then
the land is left for a time to fallow.

By reason of more suitable temperature and richer soil the cane
thrives best near sea level, and most of the plantation lands are under
1 500 ft. in elevation, the highest reaching up to 2 800 ft. It has been
commonly assumed in Hawaii that a crop requires an irrigation water
supply at the rate of 1 000 000 galls, per 100 acres per day (correspond-
ing with a rainfall of 134 ins. per annum) during the period of maximum
growth, which is also coincident with the season of minimum rainfall;
this estimate is believed by the writer to be over- liberal and to include
a large percentage of leakage through ditches in a porous formation.
Practically all of the cane grown in Kauai, Oahu and Maui is irrigated
more or less abundantly, while in Hawaii irrigation is extensively
resorted to on only one plantation; on the latter island, the writer
is informed that a rainfall of 65 ins. well distributed through the year
is all that is required to produce a fair crop, although bv no means as
great as when irrigation is used. The lack of development of irriga-

TDTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII. 139

tion on this island is due partly to the fact that the rainfall in the
sugar belt is usually sufficient to produce the crop, and partly to
natural difficulties in the way of developing a water supply.

Such statistics as are available for 1901 indicate that the yield of
sugar during that year was about as follows:

Kauai 2.5 tons (2 000 Ibs.) per acre of cane land.

Oahu 3.3 "

Maui 2.7 "

Hawaii 1.75 "

Average for all islands. .2.3 " " " "

The minimum yield, it will be noted, is on the island where the
lands are unirrigated, and the maximum is on Oahu, where irrigation is
most extensively resorted to.

The same statistics also show that the acreage cared for per
laborer on each island was about as follows:

Kauai 4.7 acres of cane land per laborer.

Oahu 3.4 "

Maui 3.8 "

Hawaii 6.8 "

Average for all islands. 5 " " "

These figures also show that the force of laborers required follows
the same order as the tonnage of sugar produced. There is an irregu-
larity in the number of acres cared for per man and ranging from
about 3 to over 10, and also in the yield per annum at the various
plantations, some of the richer plantations yielding as high as 12 tons
per acre per crop, and especially favored fields giving even greater
returns. On the irrigated lands there should be and is a much greater
uniformity of yield than when dependence is placed entirely upon the
rainfall as on the Island of Hawaii, where the great length of the cane
belt, including areas so located as to have little relationship in the
rainfall, is responsible for an apparent greater uniformity of yield for
the entire island than is the case for the various plantations considered
independently.

During the years which have elapsed since the annexation of the
islands, there has been a growing scarcity of labor. In the early days
of the cane industry both Chinese and Japanese labor were freely

140 TUTTLE— ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

used, but, after the overthrow of the monarchy in 1893 and the appli-
cation for annexation to the United States, it was decided to shut out
the Chinese, fearing that an excessive population of this race might
prove an obstacle to the accomplishment of the desire.

Upon the admission of Hawaii as a territory, in 1898, the Japanese
contract labor system was terminated, with the result of freeing Asiatic
laborers from a legal obligation to perform work, and materially reduc-
ing the rate of immigration. This at once caused a shortage of labor
and a demand for increase in pay, both of which conditions were
aggravated by the development of new and large plantations which
followed the assurance of a stable government.

Assuming the area of the cane lands to be 200 000 acres and that
one laborer will care for 5l acres, it would appear that the present
total of 70 000 male Asiatics would be more than enough for the needs.
Allowance must be made, however, for the fact that the rice fields,
from which their chief food is obtained, must also be cultivated by
these men; that they are the general market gardeners; that, with
restraint removed, as it now is, and with cost of living for this class at
such alow figure that the wage of a day will provide support for several
succeeding idle ones, and that there is at present an undisputed
shortage in the labor supply, it is plain that capital is placed at a
serious disadvantage.

To the fact that these races have a realizing sense of their position
the writer can tesiify after an experience with them which covered
over six months, during which interval, and notwithstanding that the
wages paid were higher than the men had ever before received, there
were no less than three general strikes when he was informed that the
trade-union idea and spirit was just as strong and far more unreason-
able than here at home.

With all natural advantages for the chosen occupation of the islands
and practically all of the capital invested in it and dependent upon
its success, and with general conditions such that only Asiatic labor
can be successfully used, it would appear that we owe it to this new
dependency to open the doors to a sufficient amount of Chinese labor
to relieve what is rapidly becoming an "intolerable condition." Such
relief has been petitioned for in Congress, but from the present out-
look there does not seem to be any prospect of securing it at an early
date.

MAKIKI STREET, HONOLI'LU. RECENTLY MACADAMIZED.

TUTTLE— ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII. 141

The " prevailing rate " of wages for ten hours' labor per day, on the
plantations, ranges from about $17 to §20 per month, together with lodg-
ing, fuel and medical attendance. Skilled labor invariably commands
higher prices than in the States.

Excepting only a few of the smallest plantations and which are in
proximity to others and larger ones, each has its own mill, and the
manufactured raw sugar is shipped either to Honolulu or Hilo for for-
warding to the mainland. With but one exception, where the diffusion
process is used, the manufacture depends upon milling, the usual
equipment consisting of the nine roller mill.

The Ewa plantation, located on the southern slope of Oahu, and
only a short distance west of Honolulu, has undoubtedly reached the
most complete stage of development of any on the islands, and a
description of it, largely gathered from the Honolulu Evening Bulletin,
Industrial Edition, of November, 1901, and from the annual reports to
the stockholders, shows that it embodies practically all of the best
features of the Hawaiian plantations. The company was incorporated
in 1890, and has a paid-up capital of §500 000, and a bonded debt of
the same amount. The plantation comprises about 7 000 acres under
an approximate elevation of 200 ft. ; of this area probably 6 500 acres
is under cultivation, the output from which for the year ending Sep-
tember 30, 1902, was reported to be nearly 39 000 tons. By means of
several miles of excellent dirt roads all of the cane lands are easily acces-
sible for cultivation; the cane is hauled to the mill by a steam railroad,
the equipment comprising over 30 miles of permanent track, with a few
miles of portable track, six 25-ton locomotives, and 600 cane cars, each
having a capacity of 6 to 7 tons. The cars are unloaded at the mill by
machinery, and the cane is fed directly to the crushers. Machinery is
used for plough ing and is being introduced wherever possible elsewhere
to relieve the shortage in labor. The average annual rainfall at the
mill for the last ten years is 20 ins. , with an extreme range of from 8 ins.
to 31 ins. ; this plantation, therefore, depends wholly upon irrigation.
Six pumping stations are maintained for this purpose, having an ag-
gregate capacity of 67 000 000 galls, per day; the pumping engines are
of the Riedler and Blake types, and are in units which range from
2 000 000 to 12 000 000 galls, per day each; the lifts are from about 100
to 220 ft. The water supply is obtained from 56 driven wells, which
are about 12 ins. in diameter and reach to depths ranging from, say,

142 TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

400 ft. to 800 ft. below sea level. Coal is obtained from the Canadian
and Australian markets, costing about $7 per ton at this plantation,
those more remote being obliged to pay higher prices and up to over
$10 per ton.

The mill building has a steel frame covered with corrugated iron, and
the floor is of concrete finished with cement. The mill has a capacity
of 300 tons of sugar per day, and the equipment consists of settling
tanks to hold 24 000 galls., evaporators of 600 000 galls., vacuum pans
of 85-ton capacity, forty-five 30-in. to 40-in. centrifugals, and wooden
tanks to store 400 000 galls, of molasses.

The operation of sugar boiling is under the direction of a chemist,
who also makes analyses of the soils for the purpose of determining
the fertilizer requirement.

On plantations where an upland water supply is available, the cane
is sent to the mill through flumes built of a V-section> and laid on
grades of upwards of 1.5 per cent. A flow of about 1.5 cu. ft. per
second is required for this purpose.

Gravity cables are also used to some extent for cane transportation.

The Sugar Planters' Association maintains a station in Honolulu,
where experiments are conducted to determine the relative merits of
the various kinds of cane, duty of water, effect of saline water on cane
growth, methods of planting, and other matters of kindred nature;
here, also, fertilizers are analyzed to determine their conformity with
contract specifications.

For sugar-mill purposes bagasse is almost exclusively used for fuel,
and the supply seems to be just about sufficient for this use. The
high price of coal and the large quantities consumed for operating
pumping plants led to an investigation, in 1901, by Hon. Lorrin A.
Thurston, of the possible use of oil for this purpose, attention having
been attracted to the fact that coal was rapidly being supplanted in
the west by this fuel. From the information thus gathered it was esti-
mated that 4 bbls. (168 galls.) of 14° fuel oil was equivalent to 1
long ton of Australian coal, and that the former would cost $6 deliv-
ered, as contrasted with $10 for the latter. Following this report,
negotiations were begun leading to the adoption of this fuel, and
contracts for some of the plantations have been placed and the storage
tanks are being erected.

The following statistics concerning the production of sugar were,

TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII. 143

in part, furnished to the Sub-Committee of the Senate Committee on
Pacific Islands and Porto Bico, which visited the islands during Sep-
tember last, and in part have been taken from the report of Governor
Dole for the year ending June 30th, 1902.

Tons of sugar per
acre bar vested.

Average yield of unirrigated plantations, 1897-01, in-
clusive 3 .45

Average yield of irrigated plantations, 1897-01, inclusive. 5.82

Average yield of all plantations, 1897-01, inclusive 4.48

Average yield of all Oahu plantations, 1901 8 . 44

Average yield of Ewa plantation, Oahu, 1901 (highest

noted) 10.78

Average yield of Kohala plantation, Hawaii, 1901 (lowest

noted) 2.39

Average tons of cane per ton of sugar, Oahu plantations,

in 1901.. 8. 62 tons

Average cost of cultivation per ton of sugar, Ewa planta-
tion, for 1901 $24.28

Average cost of cultivation per acre, Ewa plantation, for

1901 265.01

Average cost of irrigation per acre, Ewa plantation, for

1901 35.72

Average cost of irrigation per ton of sugar, Ewa planta-
tion, for 1901 3.30

Average cost of production per ton, for Oahu plantation,

for 1901 41.13

Average cost of production per ton, for Hawaiian Sugar

Company, Kauai, for 1901 49.00+*

Average cost of production per ton, for Oahu Sugar Com-
pany, Oahu, for 1901 47.00+*

Average cost of production per ton, for Ewa plantation,

Oahu, for 1901 36.62 *

Average cost of production per ton, for Kahuku plantation,

Oahu, for 1901 45.00+*

Average cost of production per ton, for Haiku plantation,

Maui, for 1901 57 .00+*

* Cost at mill. Investments for permanent improvements and cost of marketing
not included.

144 TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

Tons of sugar per
acre harvested.

Average cost of production per ton, for Paia plantation,

Maui, for 1901 44.00+*

Average cost of production per ton, for Ookala plantation,

Hawaii, for 1901 38.47 *

Average cost of production per ton, for Onomea plantation,

Hawaii, for 1901 54.98 *

Average cost of production per ton, for Honokaa planta-
tion, Hawaii, for 1901 52 50 *

Average cost of production per ton, for Hawaiian Ag.

Company, Hawaii, for 1901 44 . 11 *

Average cost of production per ton, for Kohala Sugar Com-
pany, Hawaii, for 1901 64.00 *

Average cost of production per ton, for Hutchinson planta-
tion, Hawaii, for 1901 45 .00 *

Average cost of production per ton, f or Kilauea Sugar Com-
pany, Hawaii, for 1901 64 00 *

Average cost of marketing from Island of Hawaii, per

ton $12.50 to 815.00

The importance of these islands in the production of cane sugar is
exhibited in the following table, showing the tonnage raised by various
countries, for the year 1901-02:

Asia 859 130 tons.

Cuba 800 000 "

Hawaiian Islands 310 000 "

Africa 280 000 "

Louisiana 275 000 "

Brazil 215 000 "

British West Indies 165 000 ' <

United States (remainder) 163 126 "

Australia 161 500 "

Argentine Republic 115 000 "

Peru 105 000 "

Mexico 100 000 "

Porto Rico 100 000 "

British Guiana 95 000 "

Spain . . . 33 OOP "

* Cost at mill. Investments for permanent Improvements and cost of marketing
not included.

TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII. 145

From this it will be noted that Hawaii prodtices nearly 37% of the
cane sugar of the United States (including Porto Rico), andnearly 9%
of the cane sugar of the world.

Railroads.— A well-equipped railroad, having a length of 71 miles,
traverses the southern, western and northern coasts of Oahu, and an-
other is in use from Hilo, Hawaii, to the Puna plantation on the south,
with a branch to Olaa plantation on the road to Kilauea. The last-
mentioned road and branches, when complete, will have a length of
43 miles. There is also a short, narrow-gauge road along the extreme
north point of Hawaii for the transportation of sugar from the Kohala
mills to the Mahukona landing, and another similar road crosses
Maui.

While the old-fashioned tram road of Honolulu is still in operation
it has been largely superseded by a new trolley line, now operating on
over 20 miles of single track with 85-lb. rails. Open cars are used, of
a type which can be quickly changed into substantial closed ones,
affording perfect protection during the most inclement weather. Most
of the plantation-mill railroads are well built and maintained, but
their location is usually such that they can only be used for communi-
cation with the mill which each serves.

Telephones and Telegraph. — Telephones were introduced in Honolulu
and Hilo in 1882. They are in common use and have been installed
in the smallest hamlets, bringing all parts of each island within reach
of quick communication and at very reasonable rates, ranging, in
Oahu, from §42 to 890 per annum. For inter-island communication
the wireless telegraph system has been installed, with stations on Oahu,
Molokai, Lanai, Maui and Hawaii, the longest transmission being 78
miles between Keeaumoku, Lanai and Mahukona, Hawaii. The poles
used range from 125ft. to 175 ft. in height above the ocean. The
system has been put in successful use, but patent difficulties have
interfered with continuity of operation.

As is well known, the laying of the long-talked-of Pacific cable is
about to begin, which will bring not only these islands, but also the
Philippines, into closer touch with the rest of our country.

Municipal Engineering. — Honolulu and Hilo have a public water
supply and sewerage system, and electric-light service; seme of the
smaller settlements are provided with a portion of these conveniences.

The water supply of Honolulu is in part obtained from mountain

146 TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

streams and in part from deep wells; the former is a gravity supply,
and the surplus head is used for generating a portion of the power
used for street lighting. The total supply is about 8 000 000 galls,
per day, or about 175 galls, per capita per day. This use, it should
be noted, includes the irrigation of the extensive grounds which sur-
round the typical Honolulu home, and which are invariably well
s tocked with every variety of tropical plant.

The sewerage system of Honolulu is in every respect a modern one,
and was designed by Eudolph Bering, M. Am. Soc. C. E. ; at the begin-
ning of the present year the portion completed included nearly 40
miles of laterals and mains, ranging in size from 6 ins. to 36 ins. in di-
ameter. The entire flow is raised a few feet at the pumping station
located near the harbor, and the steel pipe outlet is intended to be car-
ried to a depth of 100 ft. of water, where the discharge will meet cur-
rents which will take it away from the shore, although work has been
temporarily suspended at a depth of 50 ft. Surface drainage is pro-
vided for by either open timber or concrete flumes.

In the district of Honolulu there are about 75 miles of roads, and
those of the most populous sections, together with the main driving
thoroughfares, have been macadamized. The earlier work consisted
simply of a surface coat of stone, but the specifications at present in
use require an 8-in. bed of 2£-in. stone, well compacted and covered
with a layer of screenings 1 in. in thickness. Blue stone is used
for curbing and cement for walks. Coral rock has been used for
some of the roads, but it has proven to be exceedingly difficult and
expensive to keep in repair. The harder volcanic rock is generally
used, the quarrying and crushing being done with a plant owned by
the Territory.

Timber, steel and concrete bridges occur frequently on the
Hawaiian roads, some of them being of a very substantial character,
and particularly so in the vicinity of Honolulu. The district of Hono-
lulu has a well-organized, paid fire department, with 3 stations and
an equipment comprising 1 first-class, 3 second-class, 1 third-class,
and 1 fourth-class fire engines, and a chemical engine, together with
other accessories in keeping, including a call system.

Docks and Harbors.— Honolulu is the only port on the islands where
extensive dock facilities have been provided. There are but three har-
bors of importance on the islands, Honolulu and Pearl Harbor, on

CONCRETE HIGHWAY BRIDGE, HONOLULU.

IUHAU LANDING ON THE NORTH COAST OF HAWAII. THIS is TYPICAL OF THE LANDI>
ALONG THE HAMAKUA COAST.

TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII. 147

Oahu, and Hilo on Hawaii. The latter is large, but lacks a breakwater,
which will doubtless be provided shortly and will render it safe. The
entrance to Pearl Harbor is barred by a coral reef, which is now being
removed by the United States War Department, so as to form an en-
trance; the completion of this work is to be followed by the establish-
ment of a large naval station, and it will open up a most commodious,
land-locked and safe deep-water harbor.

The coast line, where protected, is fringed with a bed of coral,
which extend sseaward for a long distance, leaving very shallow
water. Where it is exposed to the steady action of the waves driven
up by the prevailing trade winds, it has been eaten into with the forma-
tion of precipitous cliffs, dropping from heights of as great as 1 700 ft.
directly into deep water; here a vessel venturing too close incurs the
risk of being driven upon a rocky and uninviting coast. Communica-
tion between vessels and the shore is established either by whale boats
or by cables; where the former are used along a bold coast line, they
deliver their cargo into a bucket operated by a crane on the shore, and
after the same has been landed at the base of the cliffs it is elevated to
the plateau above by a cable railway built at an angle of, perhaps, 45°,
or even greater.

Industrial Plant*. — The largest undertaking of this character is the
Honolulu Iron Works, which was organized in 1853 and is capitalized
for $500 000. The buildings are modern in character, occupy a site
having an area of over 6 acres, and are equipped for building pumps,
boilers, steel pipe and sugar-mill machinery, and for repairing vessels.
The buildings include a machine shop, foundry, boiler shop, pattern
shop, blacksmith shop, and coppersmith shop. From 400 to 600 me-
chanics are usually employed.

Forestry. — The Hawaiian trees are of varieties quite unknown here,
and most of them are exceptionally hard. As already noted, it was the
shipment of valued woods that marked the first era in the history of
commerce with the islands, practically exhausting the sandalwood
supply, which was sold in China. Where not too arid, or lacking in
fertility, the lowlands along the coasts have been turned into sugar
cane, while the less rugged inland areas are largely used as sheep and
cattle ranches. The latter use, in particular, is largely responsible for
denuding large areas of what was formerly forest lands, as the cattle
break down the young trees, which would otherwise replace the old

148 TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII.

ones as they die off. The effect of the increasing loss of forest area is
shown in the drying up of what were formerly swampy areas and the
running dry of streams before considered as unfailing.

Water for irrigation purposes has a higher value on these islands
than anywhere else in the world, and the absolute dependence upon
it and the recognition of the relationship existing between dry season
run-off and the preservation of the forest area are awakening a great
deal of attention to the subject of forestry. It is the common idea on
the islands that the loss of woodland has resulted in a diminished rain-
fall, but an analysis of the rain records for many years fails to sustain
the belief.

Government Land Survey. — No reference to the engineering works
of Hawaii would be complete without including a reference to the
Government Land Survey. In the early days of the monarchy, title to
all of the lands was vested in the King, but in 1848 there was a
division into four parts, one part being assignedNto the Government,
another to the Crown, another to the Chiefs, and the remainder to the
common people, as kuleanas or homesteads. The Crown and Govern-
ment lands are now merged into one, and belong to the United States;
they comprise about 1 720 000 acres, or about 40,%* of the total
area, and of this nearly 75% is either high, forest, or rugged and
barren land. A part of the area is leased as cane land, but the
greater part of the cane is grown on land that was originally assigned
to the Chiefs.

In this division of property there was a manifest intention to give
each of the Chiefs every variety of land, for the grants thus made
were usually long, narrow strips extending from the sea to the sum-
mits in the center of the island; each such grant was called an
ahupuaa. The kuleanas were the little patches occupied by the
natives, where they raised taro for their sustenance. These lands
were usually well watered and include the richest of the Territory
This division was crudely fixed, and in verifying titles it soon became
necessary to call in the engineer. In 1870 a general survey was begun,
using the system followed by the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey, some of the instruments used by which bureau were loaned
to the Hawaiian Government. Since this date the work of the
Surveyor-General has been devoted to locating and triangulating the
various islands and mapping them in considerable detail, the work

TUTTLE — ENGINEERING NOTES ON HAWAII. 149

being so conducted as to make it extremely valuable to all landed
interests and the basis of all conveyances.

Surveying in these islands is sometimes attended with features which
are pleasant, and sometimes with privations and danger to life and limb.
In this work almost impassable gulches and dense jungles of swamp-
land were penetrated, continued observations were made at the highest
summits, where the intense cold was peculiarly trying after prolonged
residence in a tropical climate, and the volcano of Kilauea was
mapped under conditions far from inviting. There is given a modest
account of the method used to occupy the triangulation station at
Diamond Head, in a report of 1889, by Professor W. D. Alexander,
who was Surveyor-General from the inception of the work up to
within a recent time, in which he says that "the instruments were
carried up the precipice on the inner ' makai ' side of the crater in the
following manner: An iron stake was driven into the rock at the top
of the precipice, to which a pulley was attached with 40 fathoms of
whale line. Two men then drew up the instrument boxes, one at a
time, while two others climbed up with the boxes, and kept them from
touching the rocks anywhere during the ascent."

The results of this work are easily accessible to all to whom it is of
use, and that the skeleton work has been thoroughly done is evident
by the fact that it is difficult to find a locality which is not within easy
ivii/.'h of a permanent monument where azimuth, altitude, and co-ordi-
nates can be readily determined.

The work furthermore shows a conscientious care and accuracy
which could only have been achieved by a body of competent
men devoted both to the land of their adoption and to our own
profession.

AT

Ill III

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