Plated. Frontispiece.

HXPLANATION OF PLATE J.

Fic. 1..—Egg-mass of Rice Grasshopper (Hieroglyphus banian, Fabr.).
The covering has been removed from the lower end to expose the
eggs. The spongy brownish yellow plug is shown above.

Fic. 2.— Nymph of first instar.

Fig. 3.—Nymph of second instar.

Hig. 4.—Nymph of third instar.

Fig. 5.—Nymph of fourth instar.

Fic. 6.—Nymph of fifth or sixth instar.

Fic. 7.—Female nymph of seventh instar.

Pia. 8.—Adult male grasshopper.

Fic. 9.—Nymph of fourth instar showing green color variation.
Fic. 10.

The hair-lines show the real lengths of the insects painted, the
figures being enlarged. Fig. 9 was evidently painted from a nymph
which was ready to assume the next higher stage of development, as it
is particularly large for a nymph of the fourth instar.

Adult female grasshopper laying eggs.

tha. he sis aq powell), wey mph
orld act ot bie ne odd iste pobre gued: bein gisittenas hale
¥ deiavroid yanoqs oIT .eyas

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29 yaiyelusypporzaciy alscted tubéee

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ENTOMOLOGICAL smnres—porzrry/fso, 1

/
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

MYSORE STATE

THE

imine ni Gain Oo EI Od PER,

(Hieroglyphus banian, Fabr.)

BY

eos lel Coa"0 © Die AON. MOA... “PRD:

Mycologist and Entomologist to the Government of Mysore

ASSISTED BY

Ko AOU NGEET, KAUN NAGUN, “MA:

Assistant Entomologist

BANGALORE:
PRINTED AT THE GOVERNMENT PRESS
1911 LoMTHS
‘Soe ‘
eae
he S

5 : .
- Ae am F

Hi" 2/ 7090) A en ee ee
vn a crea a

—

7

FOREWORD.

——_——_-

THis bulletin is the first of a series dealing with the
insect pests of Mysore. While the insect which forms
its subject is one that has been long known as a serious
pest in India, no accurate and complete account of its
life-history has, as yet, been published.

The present bulletin embodies results of observations
and experiments which have extended over about three
years. While I am to be held responsible for the facts
and conclusions that are given in the following pages,
the carrying out of experiments and observations in the
field has largely devolved upon my Assistant Mr. K. Kunhi
Kannan, under my direction.

The coloured plate has been prepared from paintings
made by M. Ranganayakalu, Artist of the Department,
while the photographs and the drawings from which the
other plates and most of the text-figures have been pre-
pared were made by me.

For the great care taken in the printing of text
and plates I wish to thank Mr. C. H. Yates, Superinten-
dent of the Government Press.

LESLIE C. COLEMAN.
BANGALORE,
June, 1911.

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CON HN aS:

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PAGE.
Previous publications on the subject iL
Distribution of the Rice Grasshopper 3
General life-history 6
Natural enemies of the Rice Grasshopper 26
The effect of climate upon the Rice Grasshopper 98
Experiments in the control of the Rice Grasshopper me 2)
The use of sprays and poisoned bait against the Rice Grasshopper 33
Bagging operations against the Rice Grasshopper 36
Summary of results 45
APPENDIX 46
Explanation of plates 51

jo

—

Mo oy

THE RICE GRASSHOPPER.
(Hieroglyphus banian, Fabr.)

THE Rice Grasshopper is an insect by no means new to
science. It was first described by Fabricius,’ as lone ago
as 1798, under the name of Gryllus Banian, with habi-
tat given simply as Hast India. The description of
Fabricius is incomplete and, in some respects, inaccurate,
so that the insect was redescribed by Serville’ in 1839 as
Acridium furcifer, with a note that this name is pos-
sibly synonymous with the Gryllus Banian of Fabricius :
he, however, adds: ‘Sa description est tellement concise,
qu'il est difficile de prononcer, il ne parle nides ailes ni des
antennes ; ne désigne pas la taille et dit que les jambes
postérieures sont verdatres.” Serville’s description, based
upon three specimens from Bombay, is very complete and
leaves no doubt whatever that he was dealing with the
Rice Grasshopper. He gives a figure of the posterior end
of the male and of an anal cercus.

The genus Hieroglyphus was established by Krauss
in 1877. Stal,‘ in his “ Systema Acrideodeorum,”’ lists the
Rice Grasshopper as H. furcifer, Serv., and Brunner de
Wattenwyl’ does the same in his “‘ Revision du Syteme des
Orthoptéres.” Kirby’, however, in his “‘ Catalogue of Orthop-
tera,’ recognises the priority of the name given by Fab-
ricius and lists the form as Hieroglyphus banian, Fabr.

This, as far as [ am aware, comprises the systematic
literature dealing with the insect, with the exception of a
paper by de Haan,’ which I have not had the opportunity of
consulting.

3

! Fabricius, Entomologica Systematica, Suppl. p. 194, 1798.

2 Serville, Hist. Nat. des Orthoptéres, p. 677, pl. 14, fig. 12, 1839.

° Krauss, Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Math-nat. Classe XXVI (1) p. 41, 1877.

+ Stal, Systema Acrideodeorum, Bihang Svensk. Akad. Hanudl. V (4) pp. 48 and 93
1878.

° Brunner de Wattenwyl, Revision des Orthoptéres, p. 154, 1893.

6 Kirby, Synouymic Catalogue of Orthoptera, Vol. III, p. 396, 1910.

7 De Haan, Temminck Verhandl. Orth. p. 155, n. 10, 1842,

R. G, B

bo

THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

Besides H. banian, two other species of this genus
are met with in India, but these other two (H. concolor,
Walk. and H. citrinolimbatus, Brunn.) appear to be re-
stricted to the northern part of the country and both differ
from H. banian in having no spine on the anal cercus.

The Rice Grasshopper has a very wide and general
distribution throughout India and has formed the subject
of a number of notes. The first note on it as a serious
pest of cultivated crops appeared in Indian Museum Notes,
Volume I, page 203, 1889-91, where it is recorded as hav-
ing been present at Raipur, C. P., in 1886 and 1889, at-
tacking paddy and millet in Kathiawar in 1889 and in
Guzerat. Hach succeeding volume of Indian Museum
Notes’ has one or more references to this insect as a pest
on sugar-cane, paddy, jowari, bajri, etc., from almost all
parts of India, from Madras Presidency north to Bengal
and west to Kathiawar.

An interesting account of observations, made by culti-
vators and landholders on this pest, appears in Indian
Museum Notes, Volume V, page 20, 1903. The report,
compiled by the Revenue Department of Kerowlee State,
among a number of inaccuracies, notes quite correctly the
erowth and moulting of the young insect and the weak
powers of flight of the adult. Lefroy,’in his “ Important
Insects Injurious to Indian Agriculture,” gives, as distri-
bution, Bengal, United Provinces, Central Provinces, My-
sore, Hyderabad, Bombay, Madras Presidency and Burma,
and, as food plants, grasses, rice, cane and small millets.
Lefroy also gives short notes on this pest in his “ Indian
Insect Pests’® and his ‘‘ Indian Insect Life,’’*? while he
also refers to it in his memoir on the Bombay Locust.’
In all four of these publications, he figures the insect ; in
“Tndian Insect Life,” he gives a not very satisfactory
coloured plate showing ege-mass, and young and adult
grasshoppers.

Shortly after the organisation of this office in 1908,
reports of damage done by the Rice Grasshopper were

1 Indian Museum Notes, Vol. I, p. 203, Vol. IT, p. 30, Vol. III, p. 29, Vol. IV, p. 29,
Vol. V, pp. 20 and 49, 1889-1903.

2 Lefroy, Important Insects Injurious to Indian Agriculture, Mem. Department of
Agriculture in India, Entomological Series, Vol. I, No. 2, p. 120, figures 3 and 4.

8 Lefroy, Indian Insect Pests, p. 120.

4 Lefroy, Indian Insect Life, p. 87, Pl. VII and Fig. 27, 1909.

° Lefroy, The Bombay Locust, Mem. Department of Agriculture in India, Entomo-
logical series, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 53,

DISTRIBUTION OF THE GRASSHOPPER 3

received from Anavyatti, Sorab Taluk, Shimoga District.
In 1909, the infected area was inspected thoroughly by the
junior author who reported as_ follows :—

“The infested part is a broad stretch of land occupying
an area of twelve square miles, of which about 3,400 acres
are in Mysore and the rest, separated by the Varada River,
in Dharwar District, Bombay Presidency. Save for small
patches of grazing lands or of sugar-cane here and there,
the whole area is under paddy cultivation.”

The raiyats reported that the pest had made its ap-
pearance in Mysore in a single village (Kubatur) two years
previously and had spread from there over the 3 400 acres
mentioned. Apparently it had spread from Dharwar into
Mysore.

In 1910, in addition to the area already mentioned
above, the following areas were reported as affected :—

Shikarpur Taluk—villages in the neighbourhood of
Siralkoppa.

Tarikere Taluk—villages near Lakvalli.

Yedatore Taluk—villages near Yedatore.

All of these areas were inspected. On the area near
Siralkoppa, grasshoppers were present in considerable
numbers and were doing some damage. In the other
localities, the damage was comparatively slight, though the
ralyats on infested lands in Yedatore Taluk estimated a
loss of ten per cent of the crop.

Tn addition to the above, stray specimens of this pest
have been obtained near Talaguppe, Sagar Taluk, and in
the suburbs of Mysore City. Careful search and enquiry
have been made in the western part of Kadur District and
the southern part of Shimoga District without revealing
it at all.

It is quite apparent from the above that the pest is
widespread in Mysore, but it is equally clear that large
areas of paddy lands, in all probability the majority of
them, are still quite free. Moreover it does not seem, as
yet, to have appeared in any of the important sugar-cane
crowing areas with the exception of Shikarpur Taluk. It
is clear, therefore, that the fullest information with regard
to this pest and with regard to methods of combating it
is necessary, not only in those districts where it has already
appeared, but also in all parts of the State where wet
cultivation is carried on to any considerable extent, so

R. G, B2

4 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

that, should the pest appear in any of these localities in
the future, prompt measures may be taken to keep it
under control.

As already noted, a number of different crops have
been reported as being attacked by the Rice Grasshopper,
but, as far as Mysore is concerned, it seems to have con-
fined itself entirely to paddy and sugar-cane, in addition
to grass. This is explained by the fact that, in the
areas from which it has, up to the present, been reported,
these are the only two crops grown. The damage done
to paddy is twofold. It feeds upon the leaves and also cuts
through the upper part of the stalk; as soon as the ears
have appeared, it does an amount of damage quite incom-
mensurate with the amount of food it actually consumes,
in that it eats through the paddy stalks and so causes the
ears themselves to fall. Ina badly attacked field, large
numbers of these lopped ears can be found lying on the
eround after the crop has been removed. It is this loss
that the raiyats feel most keenly, the equally real,
though less apparent, loss through eating of the leaves
being much less felt by them. The paddy grains them-
selves are, as far as we have observed, never eaten by the
orasshopper.

In the case of sugar-cane, the grasshopper confines
itself to the leaves; in badly infested patches of cane, the
stalks may be practically stripped of.leaves, mere shreds
being left here and there. It is needless to point out that
such a destruction of leaves in the early or middle stages
of growth is bound to have a very serious effect on the
crop. Damage tosugar-cane has, as yet, been but slight
and our observations on this pest have been practically
confined to it as it occurs on paddy.

Before entering upon a description of the Rice Grass-
hopper, it may be well to explain briefly the chief
external characters of grasshoppers in general. The
accompanying figure (Text-fig. 1) serves to illustrate their
external structure. The body of an insect is divided into
three regions, head, thorax and abdomen, which, in the
case of grasshoppers, can be readily made out even by a
casual examination.

Towards the upper part of the head, are to be found
a pair of slender antenne or feelers and a pair of large
eyes placed laterally. Below are the mouth parts, which

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 5

consist in the first place of an upper lip or labrum and a pair
of powerful jaws or mandibles, which work laterally instead
of up and down as is the case with our jaws. Behind the
jaws, comesa pair
of more slender
accessory jawsor Ne
maxille to each
of which is at- :
tached a small
feeler or palp.
The lower or pos-
terior part of the
mouth is bound-
ed by a lower lip &
or labium, to bi
which are also
attached feeler- /
like structures.
|

ANTENNA

*-OCELLUS

“NEVE

“CLYPEUS
_" MANOIBLE
“. LABRUM
““MAXILLARY® PALP
‘LABIAL PALP

if

PROTHORAK \
teal
Ouly the bases of the elytron and wing are shown.

Middle and hind-leys have also been cut short.

The thorax, or he re : 3
middle part of at 3a 5 :
the body, may be ig? ae 4
considered asthe 3 ok o
motor portion ot at ; zs
the insect. To : : Z
it are attached SS

above two pairs
of wings. Ina
state of rest
these wings are
laid back over
the posterior
part of the body
or abdomen ; the
posterior and
more delicate
pair are neatly
folded beneath
the leathery
anterior _— pair,
which are com-
monly called
wing-covers (e-
lytra). When in use, the wings are extended at right

TYMPANUM

ABDOMEN
FAN

RTCHIATA
Outline vt male of Rice Grasshopper to show the chief external features.

SUBGENITAL LAMINA

6 THE RICK GRASSHOPPER

angles to the body (see Plate II, Figs. 1 and 2). To the
lower portion of the thorax, are attached the three pairs
of jointed legs which are to be found in all insects. In the
case of grasshoppers, the first two pairs of legs are com-
paratively slight, while the posterior pair are greatly
enlarged and very strong. It is by means of this posterior
pair that the insect is able to Jump or hop so efficiently.

The abdomen, which consists of a series of distinct
segments or rings, possesses few features that it is neces-
sary to note. The posterior end, however, bears certain
structures which allow us readily to distinguish whether
the particular individual which we are examining is male
or female. In the case of the male, we find a single more
or less scoop-like plate, in the hollow of which are to be
found the organs of copulation. In the female, we find
instead an upper and a lower pair of horny valves or dig-
gers (ovipositors) which are capable of being spread apart
and drawn together. These form the apparatus by means
of which the female i is able to dig the hole in the eround i in
which she deposits her eggs. In both male and female, we
find above, at the posterior end, a pair of short horn-like
processes which may be called the posterior feelers (anal
cerci). Along each side of the body, on both abdomen and
thorax, is a series of small openings or breathing-pores
(stigmata) through which the animal breathes.

It must be further noted that, in the case of erass-
hoppers, the male is usually smaller ‘and slenderer than the
female and this is the case also with the insect under study
(see Plate II, Figs. 1 and 2).

The Rice Grasshopper may be quite easily recognised
if the accompanying coloured figures (Plate I) are consulted.
As will be seen there, the adult insect is ereen or vellow-
ish green incolor. The prothorax is marked above and
laterally with four somewhat irregular transverse brown
or black lines. The lower surface of the insect is brown-
ish black while the middle division (tibia) of the posterior
leg is blue. These features should be sufficient to make
the insect readily recognizable.

GENERAL LIFE HISTORY.

Like most insects and all grasshoppers, the Rice
Grasshopper hatches out from an egg. The eges are laid

FGG-LAYING 7

in masses in the ground during the months October to
December, in Mysore State. They remain in the ground
till the following June or July when they hatch, giving
rise to very small hoppers not more than one-fourth inch
in length. These commence feeding on the grass erowing
on the bunds. They grow quite rapidly and moult or
cast their skins at intervals of from ten to fifteen days, so
that, by the middle of September or first of October, full-
erown insects begin to be noticed and by the middle of
November the majority of the hoppers are full grown.
Ege-laying takes place again during the months October to
December and by the first of January most of the hoppers
are dead, only a few stragglers being left. From this it
will be seen that one-half the year or the dry season 1s
passed in the egg stage, while, during the other half, the
erasshopper is busy destroying vegetation.

The egg-laying.—As stated already, the egg-laying
takes place from October to December. In the case of an
individual female, it usually commences within about two
weeks after she has become full grown.

The egg-laying is done, almost without exception, i
the erassy bunds surrounding paddy fields or in the corner
mounds. It is the greatest exception to find egg-laying
in the fields themselves, only one such case having been
observed. This fact is of considerable importance for, were
the eggs laid in the fields, it is moderately certain that
they would fail to hatch, from the fact that, at the time
when hatching normally takes place, the fields are usually
flooded with water. It is a well-known fact that, among
erasshoppers in general, considerable care 1s exercised by
the females in selecting the places best suited for laying
egos, and the Rice Grasshopper 1s. no exception in this
respect.

The method of oviposition in grasshoppers, although
very frequently observed, has been rarely 1f ever exactly de-
scribed. The most exact account is that given by Riley’
for the Rocky Mountain locust—Melanoplus (Catop-
fenus) spretus. Riley ascertained the mode of OV1pOSsi-
tion “by repeatedly extricating and studying specimens
in every possible stage of oviposition.” He considered
that he was thereby able to “ascertain the exact method

1 Rep. Ins. Missouri IX, 1877, p. 86. Cited in 1st Annl. Rep. of the U.S. Entomo-
logical Commission, 1877, p. 223.

8 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

by which the egg-mass is formed.” It is, however, quite
conceivable that, by this method of study, he was not able
to obtain an exact picture of what took place beneath
the surface of the ground. In any case, there is no doubt
that, in the case of the Rice Grasshopper, oviposition does
not take place exactly as described by Riley for the Rocky
Mountain Locust.

In order to get as accurate information on the mode
of oviposition as possible, the following method was
adopted. Females, ready to lay eges, were placed ina glass
dish, in which a thin layer of earth (one-quarter to one-

half inch), close to the wall

) of the dish, was separated

il off by means of stiff card-

board. Only this thin layer
was exposed above, all the
rest of the soil being covered
by cardboard. The result
was that the grasshoppers
were forced to dig their

ofa py |. — holes and lay their eggs in
= aS ees pe the thin layer of soil close
eG. es vy oe to the glass. In many
SEP a, wy cases, the whole course of

py. NG the digging, the preparation
TEXT-FIG. 2. of the hole for the reception

Posterior end of female of Rice Grass- of the egos and the laving
hopper to show action in digging hole pre- ; 2S ; os 3
vious to egg-laying. The dotted outline Of the eggs themselves
shows the ovipositors closed, the rest of the could be observed through

figure shows them separated to shove the
soil outward. <A. Anal cercus. 3B. Dorsal the olass side ot the dish
te) we ‘ J

ovipositors. C. Ventral ovipositors. D. :
Fureula vulvalis. E. Ovipositors closed. and even photographs of

the process could be taken
(see Plate II, Fig. 4). Round breeding jars were used for
some of these observations, but the best results were ob-
tained by using a rectangular glass trough such as that
employed by analytical chemists.

The time required for the actual excavation will, of
course, vary with the hardness of the soil. In our obser-
vations, the excavation took about thirty minutes. It was
accomplished, as already described by Riley, by means of
the four horny valve-like ovipositors situated at the
posterior end of the body. The accompanying Text-fig. 2
indicates how these valves work. They are shoved into

MODE OF EGG-LAYING 8)

the soil in a closed position and then separated as shown
in the figure. Thus the soil is shoved outward and the
cavity made. As these valves work only in one plane, 1t
is clear that they could make an approximately round
hole, only if they could be rotated so as to press in all
directions, and this is what actually takes place. The
whole posterior end of the body is capable of twisting
laterally through 180°, so that the posterior pair of valves
come to lie anteriorly and vice versd. As soon as the
proper depth has been reached, the grasshopper proceeds
to enlarge the lower portion of the hole and make the
walls smooth and firm for the
reception of the egg-mass. ‘This
is done with great care by
means of pressure from the
extended valves, as much as
twenty minutes’ time being
occupied in this way.

When the egg-chamber has
been properly formed, the ege-
laying itself begins. It is sig-
nalled by a convulsive move-
ment of the valves and the
posterior part of the body, and
the appearance between the

valves of a clear fluid much TEXT-FIG. 3.
reseinbling white of egg in con- Posterior end of female of Rice

Grasshopper to show manner of exit

Sisuemewiw hich) as itis-expelled, | spare “Al wiret stage, in wwhioh cae
ismquiclave worked) / ups imto “a,) \sepeembelween dorsal aud wouira)
white froth by the movement Ey astiion | dorsal "ovioowtorea Wee
of the valves” Wihenwtas small Doves dows aud gracved the cae be:
amount of this frothy material

has been deposited on the bottom of the chamber, the con-
vulsive movements of the valves stop, the posterior pair
of valves separate from the anterior pair and the tip of
the egg appears in the space between them, just extending
beyond the tips of the valves themselves (see Text-fig. 3A).
The posterior pair of valves are then quickly brought for-
ward around the end of the egg and approximated to the
anterior. At this stage, the egg lies clasped between the
two posterior valves in the position figured by Riley in the
above-cited work (see also Text-fig. 3B). It is then forced
out into the frothy matter at the bottom of the egg-

10 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

chamber. Following the extrusion of the first egg, comes
another period of convulsive movement on the part of the
valves with the extrusion of more frothy material and these
two processes (egg-laying and formation and deposition
of frothy cement material) alternate until the oviposition
is completed.

The above description differs from the account given
by Riley, and it is interesting to quote his description for
comparison. He states: “The process has never been
accurately described by other writers and the general
impression is that eggs are extruded from between the
distended hooks or valves. If we could manage to watch
a female from the time the bottom of her hole is mois-
tened by the sebific fluid, we should see the valves all
brought together, when an egg would pass down the ovi-
duct alone the Panel side and, guided by a little finger-
like style, pass in between the horny valves (which | are
admirably constructed not only for ‘drilling but also for
holding and conducting the egg to its appropriate place)
and issue at their tips amid the mucus fluid already
spoken of.”

Tt appears highly probable that Riley overlooked the
first stage in the deposition of the ege, et the valves
are separated as described above, and this can be readily
understood, on the one hand, from the fact that this stage
is of very short duration and, on the other hand, from the
fact that Riley’s observations were made on grasshoppers
removed from their holes during oviposition. As a matter
of fact, the eges are at first partially extruded between
the two pairs of valves, so the earlier observations of
Burmeister and others are only partially incorrect.

The eggs are arranged with a certain degree of order
in the egg-mass, although the arrangement is by no means
perfectly regular. The accompanying figures (Plate I,
Fig. 1 and Plate II, Fig. 5) show its character. These
bear some resemblance to the figures given by Riley
for Melanoplus spretus, the arrangement being, however,
not so regular as that indicated in his figures which are,
doubtless, diagrammatic. When we come to consider the
orientation of the mass, however, we find conditions exactly
opposite to those figured by Riley. According to his
figures, the first eggs are deposited towards the anterior
side of the burrow, the succeeding ones being placed

TIME OCCUPIED IN EGG-LAYING ih

posterior to and above the first ones. In the case of the
Rice Grasshopper, just the opposite of this takes place.
The first eggs deposited are placed towards the back of
the ege-chamber, subsequent ones being shoved in
anterior to and above them (see Plate II, Fig. 4).

When we consider the fact that the ege is pushed
out between the upper pair of valves, which have a pos-
terior position when the grasshopper is in the act of
laying eges, it is very difficult for us to conceive how the
first egos laid could be pressed against the anterior side of
the burrow, as indicated in Riley’s figures. Careful obser-
vations made on the Rice Grasshopper, while in the act
of depositing eggs in the burrow, have shown conclusively
that only the upper or posterior pair of valves have to do:
with the arrangement of the eggs. We are, therefore,
constrained to doubt whether Riley’s figures represent
the actual facts of egg-laying in the case of Melanoplus
spretus, while it is quite certain that they do not represent
conditions with the Rice Grasshopper.

Another point of difference worthy of note, is the
direction of the burrow or hole. Riley figures it for the
Rocky Mountain Locust as curving obliquely forward,
while in the Rice Grasshopper, in all of the many cases
observed by us, the hole was practically straight and
slanted obliquely backwards. As pointed out above, the
arrangement of the eggs in the mass is the opposite of that
figured by Riley, the eges slanting backward and upward
instead of forward and upward.

The deposition of the eges occupied, in the cases
observed, about thirty minutes. We have, therefore, for the
whole process the following periods :—

Digging hole ee is 30 minutes
Forming egg-chamber ans 15—20 minutes

Depositing eggs... saA 30 minutes

Total one hour and 15—20 minutes

At times, the grasshopper remains in the hole for
a considerable period after the egg-laying is_ finished.
At other times, it leaves almost immediately. On the
whole, the above figures agree fairly well with observa-
tions made in the field as to the length of time required
for oviposition.

1g} THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

As is well known, female grasshoppers possess two
ovaries and it is an interesting point to ascertain whether,
during the act of oviposition, the eggs come alternately
from right and left ovary, or whether one ovary is emptied
first followed by the other. As far as we are aware, no
observations have been made on this point among grass-
hoppers, but Wheeler, in his studies on oviposition in the
cockroach Phyllodromia, has shown that there the eggs
come alternately from the two ovaries. In the case of
the Rice Grasshopper, the opposite of this seems to occur.
A female, killed during the act of oviposition after seven
eges had been laid, and dissected, showed that all the eges
had come from the left ovary, the right ovary being still
quite full. It seems probable, therefore, that in the case of
the Rice Grasshopper, one ovary is emptied of mature eges
before any pass down from the other.

The number of eges in an e@e-mass varies very great-
ly, and this is probably associated with the fact that the
female Hieroglyphus lays more than one mass. Although
no observations have been made on this point, it seems
hkely that the first one or two egg-masses laid contaim
more than those deposited later. The followi ing record of
observations gives an approximate idea of the number of
masses laid per individual and the number of eges per
mass.

1. Nine females in breeding cage with males. Copulation first
observed 14th October, 1910. First egg-mass found 29th October,
1910. By 17th January, 1911, all grasshoppers were dead. On 30th
January, 1911, soil was examined, and thirty-four egg-masses were
found. This, with an egg-mass previously removed, gives a total of
thirty-five egg-masses laid by nine females, or almost four egg-masses
per individual.

The lengths of these egg-masses were as follows :—

9—9 4 mm.’ ae ... 3 egg-masses
1LO— 102, oS) ”
113 9? a 9
1 ae 14 .
13 9 2 9
Wigs 5 2 a
LD? 945 3) a
Total eames

Number of eggs per mass was as follows :—
53, 45, 44 (2),.43, 42.41. 36, 35 (8),34, 32, 31, 30.28" (3), 26

1 One inch=25 mm.

NUMBER OF EGGS LAID ils:

(Qos. 29°(2). 20"(2), 19, 118° (2), 17 (2), 9) 7: In addition, one ‘was
simply froth, no eggs being present at all, and one mass was missed.
Average number of eggs per mass 29.

2. Seven females with males transferred to cage, 15th October,
1910. On 20th October, 1910, first egg-laying observed ; last egg-laying
observed 13th December, 1910. Suast female died 25th January, 1911.
Examination of soil on 31st January, 1911, revealed twenty-one egg-
masses or three per individual female. The measurements varied
between 8 mm. and 183 mm., the majority lying between 13 and
155 mm. The number of eggs per mass was as follows :—

59: (2) 54 (4) bo) (2), 50.2), 48; 47. (3), 45, (2), 44, 43, 36
Two masses were broken and so could not be counted.

Average number of eggs per mass 49.

In this case, the average 1s very much greater, as is
also the total number of eges laid per individual. In the
first case, we have about 105 eges per individual, while, in
the second case, there were about 150 laid per individual
and this notwithstanding the fact that there was a decided-
ly higher number of masses per individual in the first case
than in the second.

The ege-masses are very firm and tough. This is so
much so that it is very difficult to dissect out the eges
from them. In the above, the egg-masses were first boiled
in solution of caustic potash before the eggs were dis-
sected out.

The eges themselves are elongate elliptical, of a
yellowish colour and measure on the average 54 mm.
by 14 mm. in the case of alcohol specimens. ‘They are
so arranged in the mass that the head of the de-
veloping insect lies at the upper end. Thus when the
young grasshopper emerges from the egg, it is in the
position best suited to facilitate its escape to the surface
of the soil. At the lower end of the egg, is the small
opening in the shell or outer covering, the so-called
micropyle, through which the male cell enters to fertilise
the egg.

Hatching of the eggs.—The hatching of the eggs of
the Rice Grasshopper commences shortly after the begin-
ning of the south-west monsoon, or, in other words, about
the middle of June, and continues for about a month and a-
half. There may be considerable variation, however, as to
the time of commencement of hatching, and this is no
doubt connected with the rains. Thus, in 1909, young
erasshoppers in considerable numbers were foand in some
villages in the neighbourhood of Anavatti on the 15th

14 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

June. In 1910, the first emergence was observed at Ana-
vatti itself on the 8th July, Salle: ina neighbouring village,
they had begun hatching about ten days previously. In
1909, rain fell e arly in May, so that ploughing aca
began on the 8th of that month. In 1910, there wa
practically no rain in May and in June rain Bales in eee
able quantities first on the 22nd, while ploughing opera-
tions did not begin till the 7th July. While emergence is,
for the most part, completed within thirty or forty days,
there may be a few decidedly belated cases. Thus, we
have a record of one ege-mass which hatched as late as
the 24th August.

The actual process of hatching is that usual among
erasshoppers. In the egg-mass as normally situated, the
eggs are placed, as already stated, so that the head of the
embryo grasshopper is pointed upwards. By means of a
peculiar convulsive movement, accompanied. by a swelling
out of the body just behind the head, the shell is ruptured
and the young hopper, enclosed in a delicate membrane
(the amnion), makes its way out of the shell. From
here to the surface of the soil, the young hopper makes
its way normally by a series of worm-like movements.
The legs, which like the rest of the body are enclosed by
the amnion, are usually not at all used. Occasionally,
however, the young hopper extricates itself from the
amnion before reaching the surface (see Plate I], Fig. 3).
The original hole ee by the female at the time On ego-
laying has, in most cases, been quite obliterated but the
young hoppers are quite able to force their way up through
the one or two inches of earth lying between the ege-mass
and the surface.

As soon as the young hopper reaches the surface of
the soil, it proc eeds to divest itself of its membranous
covering. This is split open just at the back of the head
and, by: a series of contractive and expansive movements,
is worked eradually back over the body till it is finally
kicked or thrust off asa small whitish crumpled mass by the
hind legs. A mass of these small white pellets is to be
seen about the exit hole of each hatched egg-mass and a
count of them enables us to estimate, with a fair degree of
accuracy, the number of eggs that have hatched from the
mass. As already pointed out by Riley and others, one of
the chief functions of this membranous covering seems to

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRASSHOPPER 15

be to protect the delicate young hopper while it is forcing
its way up through the soil. The newly-hatched grass-
hopper is almost pure white in colour. The colour, however,
oradually changes so that within a few hours it has be-
come dark yellowish brown.

Development of the gr asshopper.—All insects during
their growth go through various stages or instars. This
is made necessary from the fact that the outer covering
of the body becomes very hard and inelastic. In this
condition, it does not allow the insect to increase in size
to any very marked extent. In order to allow for a
comparatively free increase in size, it 1s necessary that a
fresh, soft and elastic covering or skin should be formed
beneath the old one and that the old one should be shed.
This fresh covering, in its turn, becomes, in time, hard and
inelastic and has later to be replaced by another one
formed underneath it.

In the case of grasshoppers, this process of moulting
takes place at intervals during the whole period of growth
up to the time when the insect becomes full-grown.
The growing period is thus divided into a series of stages
or instars which are marked off from each other by the
various moults. The first stage or instar, therefore, extends
from the time the young grasshopper hatches to the time
When the hardened outer covering is shed for the first
time.

The newly-hatched Rice Grasshopper resembles, in
general appearance, the full-grown insect. We find jaws,
eyes and legs present very like those of the adult insect.
There is, however, as yet no signof wings. The colour and
markings on the body are also very different from those of
the full-grown insect, while the antennz are also distinct-
ly simpler in structure.

FIRST INSTAR. (PLATE 1, FIG. 2.)

The accompanying figure gives an accurate representation of the
imsect during this first instar after it has assumed its permanent colour.
Fhe following are the chief points to be noted :—

Length of body on hatching aoe .-» O—6 mm.
Length of antenne “Eee ea i
Number of segments or divisions i in antonnien , AS

The 8th segment shows signs of division.
The antenna is slightly club-shaped (clavate), the distal six

16 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

segments being dark brown, the proximal seven being paler in colour
Sensory pits on the distal six segments are very numerous, much more
so than on the rest of the antenna (see Plate II], Fig. 1a).

Colour.—The ground colour of the body is yellowish but the body
is so covered with reddish-brown spots and patches as to have a
general yellowish-brown appearance. On the middle of the back is a
bright greenish-yellow band about 4 mm. broad, extending from the head
to the posterior end of the body. ‘On each side of this, is a dark brown
longitudinal band of about the same extent and half the width. These
two bands serve to mark off the yellow band very distinctly from the
rest of the body. The legs are pale yellow with numerous reddish
spots. The main division of the hind leg (femur) has a reddish longi-
tudinal streak on its outer surface. °

The ventral surface of the body is dark brown in colour. The
whole surface of body and legs is clothed with rather fine short hairs,
those on the legs being somewhat longer.

SECOND INSTAR. (PLATE I, FIG.-3.)

Length on day of moulting ae eso

Length of antenne ... eeu eae 5
Number of segments in paren 13, but segments 3, 7 and 8
show distinct signs of division, so that 16 segments are visible.
In some cases segment 6 also shows signs of division (see
Plate III, Fig. 2a).

Colour.—Much as in previous instar, in general, however, paler.

THIRD INSTAR. (PLATE I, FIG. 4.)

Length on day of moulting bes Bete rel OI ral ies oat acl
Length of antenne , ee we 4A—— 455 ,,
Number of segments in antenne a 1920

Segments 4-7 of the previous instar have divided to form two. In
some cases, however, the division in segment 5 is faint or absent, in
which case only 19 segments are to be made out (see Plate III, Fig. i

Colour.—In general as in previous instar, but in a very few cases
observed the ground colour was markedly tinged with green.

FOURTH INSTAR. (PLATE I, FIG. 5.)

Length of body igs ware .. 14—15mm.
Length of antenne ... she Sot SO : :
Number of segments in antennze .. %1— 2

Colour. ~In this instar, the variation in colour between a
individuals becomes quite marked, so much so that a casual observer
would think that he was dealing with different species.

While already in the third instar some few specimens show signs
of a change toa greenish ground colour, this becomes quite pronounced
in the fourth instar. In fact, the insects become almost uniformly
green, the brown patches on the head and prothorax practically dis-
appearing. The red spots on face and legs are, however, for the most
part retained, The legs are distinctly pale green (see Plate 1, Pigeons

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES 17

A second colour variety is distinctly darker than the normal. The
two dorso-lateral bands bounding the median dorsal yellow one become
almost jet black, while the face assumes a similar colour. The anten-
nz are also much darker than normal. The normal colour type remains
much as in the previous instar.

We have, however, besides these three distinct colour types, prada-
tions. Both green and dark varieties are usually much fewer in number
than the normal yellowish-brown forms. It must be noted here that
all these different varieties can be found among young grasshoppers
which have hatched from a single egg-mass, so that there is no possi-
bility cf our having here distinct but closely-related species.

An important point in development has, up to the present, not been
noted and that is the formation of the wings, which become quite dis-
tinct in this instar. An examination of Plate I, Fig. 4 shows them in the
form of distinct out-growths (so called wing-buds) from the two posterior
divisions of the thorax (meso- and metathorax) above the points of ori-
gin of the middle and hind legs. These wing-buds begin to appear in
the third instar but are hardly distinct in that stage (see Plate IIT,
Figs. 3 and 4)

FIFTH INSTAR. (PLATE I, FIG. 6.)

Length of body... aa .. LdO—16'5 mm.
Length of antennz ry 7— 8 x
omnee of segments in pateane ... 24—95

Colour. ~The colour variations noted under the previous instar con-
tinue here and, in fact, persist up to the Jast moult, when the insects as-
sume the adult form and with it the fairly uniform colour of the adult
Rice Grasshopper.

The most interesting feature connected with this instar is the
appearance of two distinct stages in the formation of the wing-buds.
This may be illustrated by giving the record from a single rearing jar,
In this particular jar, there were, on the 25th August, fifteen young grass-
hoppers (nymphs), all of which had moulted for the fourth time, and
hence were in the fifth instar, between the 22nd and 25th August.
Eight of these--six females and two males—had_ wing-buds
very similar to thosealready described forthe fourth instar (see Plate ITT,
Fig. 5). The remaining seven—all males—showed the wing-buds in
a more advanced stage of development. The buds were folded upward
on the meso- and metathorax so that they almost touched the opposite
pair dorsally (see Plate IV, Fig. 1).

This interesting observation was later made on a large number of
developing Rice Grasshoppers and it was found that, regularly in this
instar, the nymphs split up into two divisions, (1) those*with wing-
buds still growing downward and (2) those in which the wing-buds
have been folded upward. It was found, further, that these two divi-
sions almost, but not quite, exactly coincide with the divisions into
female and male hoppers. In no ease has a female of the fifth instar
been observed with upturned wing-buds. On the other hand, while the
great majority of the males of this instar have their wing-buds folded
upward, a few (two out of nine in the record given above) are to be

R. G, C

18 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

found in the same stage as the females with their wing-buds still ex-
tending downward.

This is a fact of some impcrtanee and, as far as 1 am aware, has
never previously been noticed among grasshoppers. With it is
connected the fact that the males of the Rice Grasshopper almost in-
variably undergo one less moult, and therefere pass through one less
stage in development, than do the females,and this, in turn, accounts for
the interesting fact that, on the whole, the males assume the adult form
decidedly earlier in the season than the females do.

SIXTH INSTAR. (PLATE I, FIG. 7.)

Length of body... Sr ... 175—19 mm.
Length of antennze ore 8— 9 ,,
Number of segments in seria, ... 25— 26

Colowr.—Colour variations as in the previous instar.

Males of this instar show, with very few exceptions, a marked de-
velopment of the wing-buds (see Plate IV, Fig. 3) which have grown
backward to cover over the first and part of the second segment or
division of the abdomen (length of forewing 65 mm.). In the case
of all males of the sixth instar which have reached this stage of
development, this is the final instar. With the following moult the
adult form is reached. ‘

Females of the sixth instar have, as already noted, all the general
appearance of the males of the previous instar except, of course, that
they are larger and their antenn# are longer and contain more
segments. The wing-buds are folded upward for the first time (see
Plate IV, Fig. 2).

SEVENTH INSTAR.

In this stage are to be found, for the most part, females. In
rare cases, males are to be found which also pass through this stage.

Length of body hee fy. ... 275—30 mm.
Length of antenne . Bee Ue lea) 53
Number of sesments i in antenne ... 27—28

The wing-buds resemble in appearance those of the male in the
sixth instar but, of course, are longer corresponding with the greater
size of the individual (length of anterior wing 8 mm., see Plate IV, Fig. 4).

It is interesting to compare the length of females of this instar
with that of adult males of the same age and reared in the same jar,
These latter had a length of 26—27 mm. or almost the same
as that of the females. It seems fairly clear, therefore, that, in the case
of this species, the almost uniformly greater length of the females is to be
accounted for by the fact that they undergo a longer period of growth
and development represented very definitely by an additional instar.

In connection with measurements of length in developing and
adult grasshoppers of this as well as other species, it must be pointed
out that the length is subject to considerable variation and the above
figures must be taken as applying only to the grasshoppers actually under

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES 19

observation here. It is impossible to state definitely, from the length
of a young Rice Grasshopper, the instar to which it belongs. On the
other hand, the length of the antenne and the number of segments
they contain are much more constant and, by means of these two
factors, combined with an examination of the development of wing-
buds and external sex organs, it is a comparatively simple matter to
place the developing hopper in its proper instar, a matter of consider-
able importance in deciding, in any particular case, the time at which
the insect can best be combated.

The above account of the developmental stages has
been made somewhat full from the fact that they have
never been fully described before and also from the fact
that the imperfect accounts we have are inaccurate.
Lefroy,’ in his “Indian Insect Pests,” gives the following
short statement of the development :— “ They (the young
grasshoppers or nymphs) are at first dark-coloured with a
ereen dorsal stripe but later become green. . . . They un-
dergo the usual five moults and become full-grown in 8-10
weeks.” From this, one is led to expect to find half-grown
hoppers invariably green, whereas, in our experience, only
comparatively few are green during development, the
majority not assuming this color till they become adult.
The statement with regard to the number of moults is
also incorrect. All the individuals, numbering over a bun-
dred, of which we have kept a record, underwent at least
six moults, while the females invariably and the males
occasionally underwent an extra moult, making seven
moults in all. While our investigations have been made
in Southern India, it is still hardly likely that there should
be such a difference in the life-history of the msect in
different parts of India as would appear from these two
accounts.

In the above account of the development of the Rice
Grasshopper, no reference was made to the length of
time occupied by each instar. As a matter of fact, there
is a certain amount of variation in this respect, some in-
dividuals growing more rapidly than others. It may be
roughly stated, however, that each instar occupies from
ten to fifteen days. The accompanying table contains a
record of rearings carried out in the insectary in Bangalore,
and indicates the number of moults undergone and the
length of time which expired between each two moults. It
should again be noted that moults and instars do not

1 Loe. cit., page 120.
R. G, C2

20 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

coincide, but that the first moult follows the first and
precedes the second instar. In fact it is, as it were, the
boundary mark between the two stages. One rearing
record chosen from a large number kept during the
summer and autumn of 1910 is given on the next page.

This record may be considered as fairly typical
and representative. It will be noticed that, in this case,
the males of the fifth instar, without exception, had their
wing-buds turned upward and that all the males complet-
ed their development at the end of the sixth instar, and
this is the general rule. All the females, on the other
hand, had one more instar and one more moult in their
development. ‘The length of time occupied by each in-
star can be calculated, with a fair degree of accuracy, if we
suppose that the individual moulting first at the end of
one instar also moulted first at the end of the following
instar and, conversely, that the individual moulting last at
the end of one instar also moulted last at the end of the
following instar. If we go on this supposition, we get the
following results :—

Instar Duration in days
Ist + oF ais 8—9
Ind Ane <2 soe MQ
3rd aa ee soe = —— hs
Ath as oe .. LlO—11
5th me as ... 1O—16
6th ¢ oa Age ... 138—15
6th ¢ Ne oe ... 15—18
Tth ¢ aes 11—16

Total length of developmental period for males 66-78 days, for
females 77-82 days.

This is, of course, only an approximation ; one or two
individuals may have taken less time than that noted
while, in some cases, they have probably taken a day or so
more. On comparing these figures with those of our
other rearing records, we find them fairly representative.
The duration of the first instar is here rather shorter than
usual. In other cases, it has lasted from eleven to sixteen
days. With regard to the total length of the develop-
mental period, the following records, in addition to the
above, may be of interest :—

1 a. Record of 14 males :—
Hatched, 15- 6-10. First assumed adult form, 29-8-10.

Last assumed adult form, 21-9-10.
Length of developmental period 75-98 days,

31

TABLE OF REARINGS

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‘pap.10dea Jou 4[NOUT vUuQK) 5 “SUTQNOUL FNOIIA porp oABY OMT, 7
GI | T |OL 6 8 : |
T |OT 6 96 | Gt | T jOU 6 OT 13 | T {OL 8 S%
T OT 6 &@ T O62 G (O01 8 Fa] 16 | T (OL 8 FI |
I |OL 6 & T (OT 69 & OL 8 & T |OL 8 &T |
Oy te OOLG by |0O1 6 Go| 4 | T |OT 6 Ie LOW GES) eo sOlGr9 9 |OT 8 G G |OL 8 GI] 96; 6 jOL8!I
G jOl OTT T OL 6 06 T OL 6 FI y OL67 De OMGat & (OL 8 1% TE PONE te} 1G F jOL 4 1&
G OL 6 8 G |OT 6 ST G |OL 6 &T G 0166 6 |OL 8 Is G (OL 8 02 T (OT 8 OF SI |OT 4 O€| 8G | GS OT 4 1%
T OL 6 46 IT |OT 6 9T & |OU 6 IT G OL 6T & |OL 8 66 Fb \OL 8 6T G (0186 | L |Ol 4 66 9 |OL 4 0G | 8G \OT 4 GT
3 2 $ 9g? of
(ON)| 938 ae oe aye i ‘ON | 99% ue oN aye a ‘ON | 998q Dee ‘ON | 098 ea ON! aye ee ON ENG | Oe ‘ON | 99eq~—s| ‘ON| 89%
PMO IL qMow 439 eVMOW WE JNO UF zQOYW ple TNO W puz JMO 4ST poyoqye yy

IHAdOHSSVED AOI AO SONINVAY AO WIAVE

THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

we)
bo

1 6. Record of 9 females :—
Hatched, 15-6-10. First assumed adult form, 10-9-10.
Last assumed adult form, 28-9-10.
Length of developmental period 87—105 days.
2 a. Record of 6 males :—
Hatched, 25-6-10. First assumed adult form, 2-9-10.
Last assumed adult form, 26-9-10.
Length of developmental period 69-93 days.
2 6. Record of 3 females :—
Hatched, 25-6-10. First assumed adult form, 13-9-10.
Last assumed adult form, 27-9-10.
Length of developmental period 80—94 days.
3 a. Record of 4 males :—
Hatched, 18-7-10. First assumed adult form, 3-10-10.
Last assumed adult form, 12-10-10.
Length of developmental period 77—86 days.

3 b. Record of 4 females :-—
Hatched, 18-7-10. First assumed adult form, 14-10-10.
Last assumed adult form, 23-10-10.
Length of developmental period 88-97 days.

It is possible that the results above recorded slightly
exceed the normal as it frequently happens, in rearing
insects in captivity, that they do not develop so rapidly as
in the open. However, this does not seem to apply, to
any great extent, in the case of the Rice Grasshopper.
Careful observations made in the field, as well as measure-
ments of captured and reared specimens, indicate that the
development in captivity is normal and that development
in the open takes place as slowly as in captivity.

In this connection, a series of observations, made in
the field at the beginning of October, may be recorded
as illustrating the shorter developmental period in males.
Four sweeps with a bag were made along grassy bunds
in different places and, in each case, lite total catch was
examined with the following results :

First sweep— [1g adules x =
Total catch 34 = [16 nymphs = 3 A
Second sweep— ao laduite = (ised
; ; eee

Total catch 26 = 6 nymphs = all ?
Third sweep— Monauite gf a a
Total catch 71 = eee (4¢
tae = (18. <2

LENGTH OF DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD 93

Fourth sweep— | 76 adults tk ie
é ' Ga = | (29 6
Total of catch 177 [101 aR = ae ‘
Summary for the four sweeps.
Adults-—123 ¢ + 40 2 = 163 ... Percentage, Males 75°4
i Females 24'6
Nymphs—38 ¢ + 1072 = 140 ... Percentage, Males 262

N Females 74°8

The nymphs belonged, in the great majority of cases,
to the last instar. A few were in the second to the last
instar but no specimens belonging to earlier stages were
found.

The above figures furnish a fairly accurate picture of
the state of development at the beginning of October. In
November, practically no immature specimens were to be
found in the field.

In summing up the results of experiment and obser-
vations, we find that the males require from two to three
months for their development while the females need two
and a-half to three and a-half months, or approximately
half a month longer.

Still another feature which has not been noted in the
description of the instars is the development of the
posterior part of the abdomen and the external sexual
organs. While the general appearance of male and female
nymphs is practically the same up to the fifth instar, when,
as described, the males suddenly show a higher develop-
ment of the wing-buds, the sexes can be distinguished
from the day of hatching by means of an examination of
the posterior end of the abdomen.

Plate IV, Figs. 1-21 show in outline the gradual
stages in the development of the posterior end of the body.
Figs. 1-11 show the various stages in the female, while
Figs. 12-21 show the same stages in the male.

An examination of the figures illustrating the devel-
opment of the ovipositors shows that the upper pair
arises as a pair of outgrowths from the ventral region of
the ninth abdominal segment, while the lower pair arises
similarly from the eighth abdominal segment. In the first
instar, the upper pair have the shape of two approximately
equilateral triangles with their bases touching and attached

24 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

to the posterior border of the ninth abdominal segment,
while the lower pair are two minute protuberances resting
on the posterior border of the eighth segment (see Figs. 1
and 2).

In the second instar (Figs. 3 and 4) the lower pair has
greatly enlarged and taken on a triangular form, while the
upper pair shows only a comparatiy ely sheht crowth.

In the third instar (Figs. 5 and 6), the lower oviposit-
ors have grown backward so as to cover alarge part of the
ventral portion of the ninth segment. In the upper pair, a
very interesting change has taken place. From the inner

edgesof the two, a pair of lobes have been partially separat-
ed. The division is not, however, yet complete as the
dividing line or furrow does not yet reach the posterior
border of the ninth segment. An examination of the pre-
vious instar shows no sign of this division.

In the fourth to seventh instars, we find a gradual
growth backward of the two pairs of ovipositors till their
ends come to lie at the posterior end of the body (see
Figs. 7-11). At the same time, there is a gradual separation
of the interior lobes from the upper pair. These lobes come
to le beneath and between the upper pair of ov ace
and to form a forked structure (the furcula supravulvalis)
lying just above the female genital opening.

The development of the ovipositors in this fori, as
described, is probably representative for the whole group of
short-horned grasshoppers (Acridiide). It also appears
to bear a general similarity to the development of the
much more conspicuous ovipositors found in the group of
long-horned grasshoppers (Locustidee).’

In the sixth instar appears another structure which
also functions in the act of egg-laying—-the so-called egeg-
guide. ‘This is a minute, pointed, awl-shaped structure
which grows out from the posterior border of the eighth
abdominal segment between the lower pair of ovipositors
and which aids in directing the egg between the upper
pair of ovipositors. The appearance of the ovipositors in
the adult and their method of working has already been
explained and illustrated.

In the case of the male grasshopper, the development
of the external structures at the posterior end of the body

1[n this connection vide Dewitz, Uber Bau und Entw icklung des Stachels und der

Legescheide einiger Hymenopteren und der griinen Heuschrecke, “Zeitschr f. wiss Zool.
XXVI, 1874, pp. 74—200.

MICROPTEROUS FORM As)

is much more simple and consists simply in the gradual
erowth backward of the ventral portion of the tenth
abdominal segment. This can be readily followed in Plate
VE Pigs. 12- 21 and hardly requires any comment. As al-
ready noted, this ventral portion has, in theadult, the appear-
ance of a somewhat pointed scoop with the hollow portion
directed upward. In this hollow hes the organ of copulation
(the penis) covered over, in a state of rest, by a membrane,
which stretches from one edge of the scoop to the other.
At the time of copulation, this membrane is pushed back
and the penis 1s protruded above it (see Plate IV, Fig. 21).
The penis is provided with a series of quite complicated and
hard hooks and ridges, by means of which it becomes
attached to the posterior end of the female.

The general appearance of the adult Rice Grasshopper
has already been described and pictured, and it has already
been noted that the adults, both male and female,
possess wings, in general very similar to those of other
common species. Lefroy has recorded the presence of a
micropterous form, differing from the normal form in that
the wings are very short and stunted. He also figures
it and it appears quite certain from his figures that the
form belongs to the same species. Among all the hundreds
of specimens examined by us, we have never yet seen any
indication of wing reduction and we are led to believe that,
in Mysore, this must be of extremely rare occurrence, if it
occurs at all. We have, however, reared another species
of grasshopper quite distinct from H. banian, and clearly
belonging to a different genus, in which the wings appear
always to be very short in the adult. This species occurs
fairly commonly in association with the Rice Grasshopper
in wet grass lands at Anavatti, but even in its nymphal
stages there is hardly a possibility of confusing it with the
Rice Grasshopper.

Notwithstanding the fact that the wings of the Rice
Grasshopper are normally quite well developed, Lefroy’
states that it does not fly. He says “as the insect never
flies, wings are apparently useless.” This statement is
quite incorrect, as far, at least, as Mysore specimens are
concerned. In fact, the adult insects fly regularly when
disturbed. They do not, however, appear to be able to

1 Indian Insect Pests, p. 120,

26 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

fly far. Observations made in the field show that they
rarely fly more than twenty or thirty feet at a time, but
this is quite suflicient to make an attempt to catch them
in the winged state very difficult.

That this ability to fly is confined to those of the
species found in Mysore, is, of course, out of the question.
It has been observed before, as is indicated in the report
from the Revenue Department, Kerowlee State, already
cited! where the following occurs:—** Those who [sic] have
wings cannot fly more than forty or fifty feet at a time.”

While the Rice Grasshopper is quite well provided
with auditory organs of the type common to this group of
insects, there is, as far as we are aware, no record of their
imaking sounds. The ability to produce sounds is
apparently restricted to the males and appears to be
exercised only during the mating period. There are
no special organs for sound production, the sound produced
being of a simple and feeble character. It is produced as fol-
lows:—The distal end of the hind tibia is armed, on either
side, with two stout black spine-like processes, which are
especially prominent on the inner side. The adult male
grasshopper, in a position of rest on a grass or paddy stem,
commonly has the hind legs drawn upwards, with the tibia
quite close to the femur and near to the wing-covers. By a
convulsive, kicking movement, these spines are scraped
over the rough and veined outer surface of the wing-
covers, thereby producinga low rasping sound. ‘There are
no localised thickenings on the wing-covers, the ordinary
nervure thickenings providing the unevenness necessary for
the production of the sound.

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE RICE GRASSHOPPER.

For a pest so widespread as is the Rice Grasshopper,
the natural enemies appear to be few and uninportant.
During observations in the field extending at intervals
over two growing seasons, a careful search has been made
for enemies, without revealing any of prime importance.

In the egg stage, only one form has been discovered
which may possibly be an enemy. Thisis a blister beetle,

1 Indian Museum Notes, Vol. V, p. 2.

ENEMIES OF THE GRASSHOPPER 27

the coarctate stage (resting larval stage) of which was
found in fairly large numbers during ploughing operations
in June 1910. Although attempts to rear adult beetles
from these larve failed, it is very probable that they
belong to a species of Mylabris (or closely related genus)
adults of which were found later on grass and were caught
in the bags along with the hoppers. As the active
larve were not found, it is not certain that they feed upon
the eggs of the Rice Grasshopper. We know, however,
that grasshopper eges form the regular food of the larve
of some species of blister beetles. As far as we are aware,
no species of blister beetles have ever been reared in India,
but we have succeeded in rearing larve of the common
Mylabris pustulata up to the third instar by feeding them
upon the eggs of grasshoppers, and are, therefore, the more
ready to presume that the larvee found in the eround infest-
ed by the eges of the Rice Grasshopper had been using these
eZes as food.

Some few ege-masses exposed during ploughing
were found in which fungus growth had made its
appearance, however apparently too late to produce any
serious effect.

During the developmental stages, no insect enemies
were observed. Among the higher animals, three were
discovered feeding upon the orasshoppers. These were
a stall frog (Rana leptodactyla, Boulenger), a skink
(Mabuia beddomi, Boulenger) and a lizard (Sitana ponti-
certana, Cuv.). None of these, however, was present in
any considerable numbers. Fish, in the pools lying close
to the paddy fields, fed eagerly upon the hoppers when the
latter were driven on to the water. However, they can
hardly be considered as a check upon the spread of the
pest.

Of parasites living on or in the grasshoppers during
the nymphal and adult stages, only two can be mentioned.
One of these is a small reddish mite found occasionally on
grasshoppers collected in the field. Whether these actually
do any serious damage to the grasshoppers infested,
may be doubted. No difference in vitality between
infested and non-infested grasshoppers was perceptible

1 Since the above was written the active larve of a blister beetle have been found
ems upon the eggs of the Jola or Deccan Grasshopper (Colemania sphenarioides,
ol),

28 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

The other parasite is an internal one, one of the so-called
hairworms found, now and then, as a much-coiled whitish
thread-like body, especially in the thoracic cavity of
infested hoppers. This was identified as probably a
species of Gordius. Somewhat related species have been
recorded by Riley as attacking the Rocky Mountain
Locust.

Birds, which are by some considered as of great ser-
vice in keeping insect pests in check, seem to be of
comparatively sight importance in connection with the
present form. According to the raiyats’ report, during a
part of September, 1910, a flock of birds destroyed con-
siderable numbers of grasshoppers, but this could not be
verified nor could the species concerned be ascertained.
The common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) was observed
during the bagging operations on the bunds, but was not
seen to feed on the grasshoppers. Unfortunately, speci-
mens could not be obtained at the time, so an examina-
tion of the stomach could not be made.

The above discussion is clearly by no means complete.
It seems very probable that a number of enemies of the Rice
Grasshopper have not yet been observed. Still it seems
clear that it is quite useless to expect much assistance
from the enemies of this pest, whether imsect, reptile or
bird, wherever the attack is in any way severe.

THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON THE GRASSHOPPERS.

Whether the exposure of eges, on the one hand, to
drought and sun or, on the other hand, to excessive mois-
ture has any detrimental effect upon them or not, seems
to depend largely upon whether the egg-masses have been
broken up or have been preserved intact. Hggs removed
from the egg-mass and exposed to light and air collapse
very soon, especially if such exposure takes place during the
dry weather. On the other hand, intact egg-masses may
be exposed for months throughout the whole dry weather,
apparently without in any way injuring their powers of
hatching. Thus, egg-masses removed from the soil in the
month of December were kept exposed to the air until the
following June when they were buried in soil again.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON DEVELOPMENT 29

They all hatched out normally, although some of them
were very late in doing so.

Much the same thing happens when ege-masses are
exposed to excessive moisture. If they are intact, they
are able to withstand this for long periods. If, however,
the masses are broken they become rapidly injured by
moisture. In this connection, it should be noted that ege-
masses, as they approach the hatching time, swell out, due
to the growth of the embryos within the eggs. This may
lead to a loosening of the covering of the egg-mass so that
moisture may act more readily upon the eges.

The effect of climate on the growing and adult grass-
hoppers is more difficult to ascertain. It seems possible,
however, that very inoist weather may have an injurious
effect on them. There is no doubt that the pest was in
general less severe in 1910 than in 1909 in the neighbour-
hood of Anavatti, and the raiyats account for this by the
fact that the monsoon in 1910 was much more severe and
prolonged than that of 1909. On the other hand,
inspection revealed no dying off on the part of the
erasshoppers, nor was any trace of fungus disease
made out among them, something which commonly
attacks insects during abnormally moist seasons. It seems
very probable that the excessive moisture of the summer
of 1910 affected the hatching of the eggs, rather than the
development of the grasshoppers. On the whole, the Rice
Grasshopper appears to be a particularly vigorous insect,
upon which adverse physical conditions seem to have
comparatively little effect.

EXPERIMENTS IN THE CONTROL OF THE RICE
GRASSHOPPER.

Experiments in the control of the Rice Grasshopper
may be directed against either the eggs, the nymphs or
the adults. Of these, clearly measures for the destruction
of the eggs would be the most effective, could they be
satisfactorily carried out. Unfortunately, the fact that
the ege-masses are buried some two inches beneath the
surface of the ground, renders the task of collecting them
difficult, if not impracticable, It is true, we know where

30 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

and where not to expect to find egg-masses. Grassy
bunds, especially the narrower ones, and boundary demar-
cation mounds are favorite spots for egg-laying, while the
fields themselves remain practically free. Any search
made for ege-masses must, therefore, be directed to the
bunds and they can usually be found in considerable
numbers there. The work of digging for them in heay y
sod is, however, difficult and in or der to be really effective
would have to be carried out thoroughly over all the
infested bunds, something which it would be very difficult
to persuade the raiyats to do.

Another possible means of preventing the eges hatch-
ing suggested itself. It seemed quite possible that by
means of comparatively deep ploughing with improved
ploughs which would invert the soil containing the ege-
masses that these masses could be buried so deep as to
prevent, toa large extent, the escape of the young hoppers
to the surface of the soil at the time of hatching. On
the other hand, a shallow ploughing might result in the
exposure of a considerable number of egg-masses.

The fact that the eggs are, for the most part, laid in
bunds, which are frequently quite narrow, makes the work
of ploughing difficult. A first attempt was made in
December 1909, but it had to be abandoned. ‘There was
still a fair amount of moisture in the soil, but the local
bullocks proved too weak to draw the somewhat heavy
steel plough used. Two pairs of bullocks were tried on the
plough, but they still were unable to pull it through the sod.

In June, 1910, the experiment was again ‘tried, this
time witha lighter plough capable of going from four to six
inches deep and with a larger pair of bullocks from the
Experimental Farm. The work proved very difficult and
the plough did not average more than three inches in depth.
The inversion of the sod was also imperfect and had to be
completed by hand. The work was extremely slow, it
requiring about twenty hours’ labour to plough the bunds
surrounding and separating the plots in three acres of
paddy land. It must be noted, however, that some of
these bunds were quite wide, being six feet or over.

It is clear that this depth of ploughing could not bring
about the burial of the egg-masses. In fact, as the egg-
masses are laid up to two inches in depth it should rather
have tended to expose them. It was found, however, that

EXPERIMENTS IN PREVENTION OF EMERGENCE oe

only about fifteen per cent of the egg-masses were exposed.
The ploughing occurred about a week before emergence and
so had no appreciable effect upon the hatching of the CLES.
It is possible that, could ploughing be done a , month or so
earlier and couid it be accompanied by a breaking up of
the clods and an exposure of broken egg-masses, good
might be done. It seems doubtful whether the w ork could
be done sufficiently thoroughly to give results commensu-
rate with the labour expended.

Deep ploughing to bury the egg-masses has not, as
yet, been tested. However, experiments have been carried
out to ascertain through how many inches of soil the freshly-
hatched hoppers are able to work their way upward. The
different power of different species of grasshoppers i in this
respect is quite remarkable. Riley’ reports the results of
experiments on the power of emergence of newly- hatched
hoppers of the Rocky Mountain Locust, which show that
they do not usually make their way up through more than
two inches of soil, though they occasionally may do so.
A still weaker power has been observed by the senior
author for the Jola Grasshopper (Colemania sphenarioides,
Bol), the record of which will be published shortly.’

The results obtained in experiment: on the Rice
Grasshopper are quite different from those already men-
tioned. ‘Two series of experiments were carried out, which
show quite conclusively that freshly-hatched Rice Grass-
hoppers are able to tunnel their way up through at least
six inches of fairly well compacted soil.

In the first set of experiments, two ege-masses were
buried upright, at a depth of five and six inches respectively,
in two glass tubes filled with fairly compact but rather light
soil. In each case, all the eggs hatched, and all the
hoppers made their escape to the surface through a com-
mon somewhat tortuous tunnel, made in the soil close to
the wall of the tube. Plate II, Fig. 3 is reproduced from a
photograph of one of these tubes made during the
emergence. Only about half the burrow is visible, the
lower. part curving off out of sight to the right. T'wo
nymphs are to be. made out close “together in the burrow
and one of these has already shed the amnion.

1 Riley, loc. cit., p. 356.

2 Coleman, The Jola or Deccan Grasshopper, Mysore Agricultural Department,
Entomological Series, Bulletin No. 2, 1911, already published,

ty) THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

In the second series of experiments, four ege-masses,
removed from soil in June, 1910, were buried in light soil
in four separate tubes (a, 6, c, d) at depths of from three and
a-half to four inches. On 24th June, 1910, hoppers had
emerged from the mass in tube @ and had worked their
way to the surface through a tortuous tunnel made along
the glass. In tubes 6 and c¢, hatching had begun but
tunnelling to the surface had not commenced. In tube
d, hatching had not commenced.

Tubes b and d were now inverted and sunk in sand,
while tube ¢ was left erect. The object of the inversion
was as follows:—The masses had been placed in_ their
natural position in the tubes so that the head ends of the
egos were directed upward. By inverting the tubes the
position of the hatching grasshoppers was reversed. It
might then be supposed that the hatching hoppers would
in tunnelling t take the natural direction, which as they
were inverted would be downward, not upward. In this
way it was thought that the nymphs might continue
burrowing downward and so sink themselves deeper into
the soil instead of getting nearer the surface. This has a
practical bearing for, i in the case of ploughing with an
improved plough, the soil is inverted and large numbers of
the ege-masses thus come to lie with their upper ends
downward.

The results, however, did not agree with these theo-
retical considerations. It istrue that the young nymphs
continued burrowing downward in the two inverted tubes
until they had worked through to the ae of the tube.
Instead of remaining there, they tunnelled back upward
and continued burrowing in all directions through
the upper closed end of the tube for several days.
On the 30th June, or four days after hatching, twelve
nymphs were found still alive in the upper closed end of
tube d. On the following day, all the hoppers but one
in this tube were dead.

The above experiments indicate two things:—Firstly,
that the young hoppers are capable of living a compara-
tively long time in the soil after hatching; and secondly,
that, during that time, they are capable of burrowing
many inches in all directions. From this it will appear
clear that no practical results can be anticipated from

burying the egg-masses five or six inches in the soil by means

USE OF POISONS AGAINST THE GRASSHOPPER 39

of deep ploughing, even if the burying is accompanied by
an inversion of the egg-masses. Freshly-hatched nymphs
with burrowing powers and with powers of endurance such
as those exhibited by the Rice Grasshopper would certain-
ly be able to make their way to the surface, even if buried
at adepth greater than is at all practicable with an
improved plough.

THE USE OF SPRAYS AND POISONED BAIT AGAINST
THE RICE GRASSHOPPER.

The use of poison for combating grasshopper pests
has been frequently tried and, at times, with very marked
success. Perhaps the most signal success in this direc-
tion has been achieved against migratory grasshoppers
(so-called locusts) in South Africa, where, yearly, thoroughly
organised campaigns directed by a central committee save
immense sums of money to the farmers. The mixture
there used is one of arsenic or arsenite of soda (strong
poisons) with sugar or molasses and water. The usual
strength used is 1 1b. of arsenite of soda and 2 lbs. of rawsugar
or molasses to 16 gallons of water. This is commonly spray-
ed upon the grass in front of the advancing swarms of grass-
hoppers and has proved most efficient. Lefroy, in his
work in connection with the Bombay locust, investigated
the effect of insecticides (lead arsenate, jaggory and water;
sodium arsenite, jaggory and water; white arsenic with
caustic soda, jaggory and water) upon that insect. He
dipped fodder in the poisonous mixtures and fed it to
locusts in captivity. The weaker solution of lead arsenate
11b., jaggory 5lbs., and water 100 gallons, he found to kill
the locusts, while they refused to touch the other and
stronger mixtures. Lefroy also tried contact poisons such
as kerosene emulsion, and McDougal’s sheep dip sprayed
on to captive locusts with apparently satisfactory results.
He does not appear to have tried any of these measures
to any considerable extent in the field. They were,
however, tried in a practical way in the Central Provinces
during the campaign against the Bombay locust and
were not found satisfactory (vide Standen’s Report in
Lefroy’s Memoir on the Bombay Locust, Appendix B,
pages 85-86).

R, G, D

34 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

In most cases where poisonous sprays or baits have
been used successfully against grasshoppers, it has been
against the migratory forms which, at least during their
migrations when they are driven from their native haunts
by lack of food, are most omnivorous feeders, eating practi-
cally all vegetation in their path. It might, then, be anti-
cipated that they would take more kindly to poisoned bait
than such a comparatively dainty and specialised feeder
as the Rice Grasshopper.

Notwithstanding the comparative improbability of
success with poisoned baits, a few experiments were tried
during the summer of 1910. No experiments were tried
with kerosene emulsion or other contact poisons as it
seemed clear that the expense of such a method of combat-
ing this pest would be much too great.

In most of these poisoned baits, where they are success-
ful, the attraction to the grasshoppers lies in the sweeten-
ing substance—whether sugar, molasses or jaggory—that
is used. In our experiments, therefore, we varied the
strength of the jaggory more than we did that of the
poison as we wished, if possible, to attract the grasshoppers
to comparatively small quantities of bait. Spraying the
poison over large areas of bund was, in our opinion, out
of the question from a practical standpoint.

The following mixtures and solutions were prepared
and experimented with both in the field and in_breed-
ing cages :—

A. 1 Ib. lead arsenate, 5 lbs. of jaggory to 100 gallons of water
(this is the mixture found by Lefroy to give the best results
in the case of the Bombay locust).

1 lb. lead arsenate, 5 lbs. jaggory to 50 gallons water.

1 lb. lead arsenate, 10 lbs. jaggory to 50 gallons water.

1 lb. lead arsenate, 20 lbs. jaggory to 10 gallons water.

+ lb. white arsenic, 2 oz. caustic soda and 20 lbs. jaggory to
50 gallons water.

1 lb. white arsenic, 4 0z. caustic soda and 20 lbs. jaggory to
50 gallons water.

ma Hoae

1. Experiments with baits in the field.

Clumps of grass were removed with the earth, sprayed
with the various solutions (six clumps to each solution),
and spread along badly-infested bunds. These were left
for three days and were inspected each morning and
evening. Inno case, however, did the hoppers show any

SPRAYING ON THE BUNDS 35

disposition to feed on them; in fact, they appear to have
been left severely alone and no dead hoppers were to be
found on the treated bunds.

2. Spraying on the bunds.

For this experiment, a badly-infested grassy bund
about twenty feet wide was chosen and was divided up
into equal portions each about sixteen feet long. Each alter-
nate plot was left untreated while one plot was sprayed
with each of the six solutions mentioned above. The
spray did not spread well on the grass blades but it was
distributed as evenly as possible, about three gallons of
mixture being used for each plot. ‘The spraying was done
from two to six o’clock in the afternoon and no rain fell
during that day or the following night. On the following
day, a light shower fell in the evening. A careful inspection
was made at the end of the second day but not a single
poisoned hopper was found. On the plots sprayed with
solutions A to D, the grasshoppers were present in normal
numbers and the solution had had no effect on the grass.
On the plots sprayed with solutions EK and F, the grass was
badly scorched, most of it having turned brown. These two
plots were practically free from grasshoppers, but here, as
in the other,a very careful search revealed not a single dead
hopper. ‘They had evidently deserted the plots for other
portions of the bunds where the grass was still to their
taste.

The above two experiments show fairly conclusively
that poisoning baits or spraying with the above mixtures
is useless in combating this pest ; it seems very improbable
that any other combination of poison and sweetening
material would have yielded better results.

3. Haperiments with poisoned bart in breeding cages.

Finally, in order to ascertain if these poisons would
be effective in cases where the grasshoppers were com-
pelled to eat the poisoned bait or fast, 100 hoppers of the
fourth and fifth instars were placed in each of six large
field cages and were fed with grass upon which the various
solutions had been sprayed. ‘The number of deaths at the
end of two days was as follows :—

R. G. D2

36 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

Mixture used Hoppers dead
A Bee a 2 260
B ae ae ce OS
C se eae sot 220
D_ Ants had entered and destroyed the hoppers.
18 -.- LOO

Mixtures A, E and F had been quite effective. These
results indicate that the hoppers are fairly susceptible to
poison when they are compelled to eat it. The results
obtained in this experiment, however, when compared
with those of the previous two, show that it is unsafe to
apply the results from experiments on the effect of poison
in breeding-cages, to work in the field. Altogether we
may say that the apphcation of arsenical poisons with a
view to combating the Rice Grasshopper can, on the side
of efficiency alone, not at all be recommended. ‘This is
leaving out of consideration two important facts which
militate very much against the use of arsenical poisons in
the field. One of these is the heavy rainfall at this time
of the year which is likely to remove very much of the
poison from the grass and the other is the danger of poison-
ing cattle which might eat the grass treated.

BAGGING OPERATIONS AGAINST THE RICE GRASSHOPPER.

Grasshopper pests have always proved decidedly
difficult to combat. Their appearance over large areas
makes the application of stomach and contact poisons
costly and difficult. Asalready indicated, the destruction
of egg-masses is also commonly attended by great
difficulties. The result has been that mechanical con-
trivances for collecting these insects have been more
extensively used than against any other group. Many
such contrivances have been devised and a few of these
have proved very efficient in the countries in which they
are especially used. Among these may be mentioned the
so-called hopper-dozer used almost exclusively in the
United States on grass lands. It consists of a long
shallow pan on runners with a sheet of cloth or tin
stretched across its hinder border. In the pan is placed
kerosene, or tar. As thisis drawn through the grass, the
erasshoppers spring up in front of it, strike against the

BAGGING THE GRASSHOPPER aie

sheet behind, drop into the pan and are killed by the
kerosene.

Such a contrivance is fairly expensive and cannot be
worked satisfactorily on uneven ground or in crops that are
at all high. In India, the contrivance for catching grass-
hoppers which has found most general acceptance is in the
form of a broad bag of cheap cloth. Various different sizes
have been used and much diversity exists as to the amount
of framework used to support the bag. The size and pat-
tern to be used will depend largely upon the character of
the ground over which the bag is to be drawn.

In the case of the Rice Grasshopper, bagging is
possible at two distinct periods of the grasshoppers’
development. Firstly, it can be done shortly after the
hoppers have emerged and while they are still feeding
almost entirely upon the bunds; secondly, it can be
done after they have gone over on to the paddy. Where
sugar-cane is attacked, it is impossible to bag on the crop,
at least in Mysore,’ so in this case measures must be taken
before the hoppers have migrated from the grassy bunds.

For the Rice Grasshopper, Lefroy recommends a bag
or net 36 feet by 7 feet weighted at one side, having ropes
at the bottom and a bamboo to hold on the top.” Such a
bag, when open, would be at least 30 feet wide and would
require a number of coolies to draw it. It could, of course,
be used only on the paddy fields and would be a decidedly
awkward thing to handle. Our experience indicates that
the effectiveness of bagging operations depends very largely
upon the rapidity with which it is done. For this reason,
if for no other, a large bag is unsuitable. In the case of
the Rice Grasshopper, it seems also to be unnecessary for
the additional reason that bagging can be done most —
effectively on the grassy bunds, before the hoppers have
gone over on to the paddy. These bunds are usually
comparatively narrow, rarely reaching six feet, and a com-
paratively small and narrow bag is the most suitable.

Bagging was first attempted in November 1908,
therefore at a time when the grasshoppers were all adult
and were on the paddy. It was quite unsuccessful owing
to the power of flight of the adults. Practically no grass-
hoppers were caught.

1 Sugar-cane is usually planted from January to March and so is quite high by the
time the hoppers emerge.
__ 2This bag was first devised by Mr. Stewart Stockman, of the Central Provinces,
vide Report on the Department of Agriculture, C. P., for 1901-02, p. 12.

38 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

A second trial was made in June, 1909, just after the
hoppers had begun to emerge in numbers. The bags
worked this time very well and about a seer (one pint) of
grasshoppers was caught in each sweep over one hundred
yards of bund. The attachment of a frame to the bag was
found more of a hindrance than a help on the bunds, which
are frequently very uneven. The jumping power of the
hoppers, at this stage of their development, is very limited
and it was found that the mouth of the bag could be
reduced to one foot in height without diminishing the
effectiveness.

While many of the raiyats appreciated the usefulness
of this method of combating the pest, the usual lack
of co-operation rendered the few spasmodic attempts
made by individuals abortive. In the combating of per-
haps no other class of insect pest is the necessity of
co-operation so pronounced as it is in the case of grass-
hoppers. With their great powers of movement, they are
able quickly to change their feeding grounds. ‘The result
is, that if one ralyat succeeds in practically clearing his
land of the hoppers, they are quite certain to invade his
fields again from the surrounding areas, unless his neigh-
bours have co-operated with him and have cleared their
landat the same time. Individual effort is, thus, almost
certainly doomed to failure, where co-operation might have
been successful.

As it seemed hopeless to expect the raiyats to
co-operate on their own initiative, it was decided, in 1910,
to conduct a campaign, in several of the worst-affected
villages, under the direct supervision of the Department.
The help of the Amildar and other local authorities was
solicited and obtained for the purpose. 'The whole of the
paddy areas of six villages, Anavatti Nerlige, Mallapur,
Vitlapur, Kubatur and Hoshalli, forming a block of about
nine square miles in extent, was selected and the patels of
these villages were made responsible for the supply of the
men required for bagging. As full a record as possible
was kept of the area covered per day and the number of
hoppers collected.

The infestation in all these villages was much less
severe than in 1909, probably on account of the heavy
rains during the period of emergence of the hoppers. The
worst infested areas were the fields of Anavatti, Kubatur

CONSTRUCTION OF BAG 39

and Hoshalli; those of Nerlige were less infected, while
those of Mallapur and Vitlapur were comparatively lightly
attacked.

The bags used measured about seven feet in length
three to four feet in breadth and one and a-half to two and
a-half feet in height at the mouth (see Text-fig. 4). To each
side of the mouth of the bag, was attached a light
bamboo pole about three or four feet in height. The lower
end of this pole was flush with the bottom edge of the

a he ee

= $3 5
= — aad

TEXT-FIG, 4.
Bag used for catching the hoppers. A. Front view. B. Side view.

bag mouth, while the upper end projected above the
top of the bag and served as a convenient handle for
holding the bag without undue stooping. Hach bag was
worked by two men, one to each pole. In dragging the
bag along the bunds, care must be taken to keep the mouth
taut and to keep its lower edge close to the ground. This
is comparatively easy, from the fact that the lower edge of
the mouth has no pole attached and so can be readily ad-
justed to unevennesses of the ground. It is also important,

4O THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

in sweeping the bag over the ground, for the men
working it to move as fast as possible. Thereby larger
catches can be made and there is less danger of the escape
of those grasshoppers already caught in the bag. At the
end of each sweep, the grasshoppers are shaken into a
corner of the bag and crushed or emptied into a tin
containing water with a small quantity of kerosene on the
surface.

Two patterns of bags were used. In one type the
base of the bag was square (see Text-fig. 4), in the other
the bag was cut away about two feet back so as to come to
apoint. Thetwo types were about equally effective, the
second type offering a slight advantage in that the
grasshoppers were more readily shaken together in it than
in the first.

Anyone, who has had experience in organising a
campaign among raiyats, will appreciate the difficulties
and delays that are sure to occur in a first attempt in
this direction. Our experience in this regard was no
exception to the general rule. The result was that
operations could not be begun before the 1st of August,
when the hoppers had, for the most part, reached about
the third instar. The whole of the operations had thus
to be conducted during the height of the monsoon, when
the heavy rains and high winds made the work very difhi-
cult, while at the same time the results obtained were less
satisfactory.

The extremely wet weather prevailing during the
bagging operations introduced many difficulties. The
bags became almost immediately saturated with water
and so were heavy and did not open up readily. Moreover
the hoppers sought. to a large extent, the bases of the
clumps of grass for protection from the rain and were
more difficult to dislodge.

While the main campaign was conducted in August,
in the case of some of the villages the work was continued
into September. In some cases, the hoppers had already
transferred themselves to the paddy in large numbers
and in these cases bagging was done in the paddy
fields themselves. The following table shows the time
and labour expended, amount of land covered and results
obtained.

41

1910

RESULTS OF BAGGING IN

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43

1910

RESULTS OF BAGGING IN

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44 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

The results obtained in the two years 1909 and 1910
in the bagging of hoppers in different stages of growth on
the bunds, as well as on the crop, indicate that its effective-
ness is at its height soon after the emergence of the hoppers.
Weak, and with limited powers of jumping in the first and
second instars, they are then easily gathered into the bags
and no more than three sweeps were necessary to clear even
the worst infested bunds. The operations can then be
conducted, also, under more favorable weather conditions.
The only disadvantage in conducting operations so early is
that a second bagging may be necessary after an interval of
about ten days in order to catch the hoppers that have
hatched late. In the later stages of growth, the bags
can with difficulty be pressed down into the thick growth
of grass and the hoppers with their additional strength
are better able to evade the bags. In September, bagging
on the paddy itself was found more effective than that on
the bunds. The crop was not yet too high and was not
so thick as the grass and so allowed more satisfactory
work. Unfortunately, it was only occasionally that the
paddy was found badly infested, so that this course could
not be generally followed. The grasshoppers go over on
to the paddy usually decidedly later (October) after the
srass on the bunds has been cut. Under these circum-
stances, bagging on the paddy is practically useless. The
crop is high and the grasshoppers are for the most part
winged and can readily escape. Moreover the raiyats have
a distinct objection to having their crops bagged at this
time. There is a certain amount of danger of heads
being broken off by the bag and, in cases where individual
plants are trampled down, they do not recover. It will
be noticed from the above table that, in certain cases, hand-
nets were used. These are small cloth bags mounted on
a hoop or a ring made of cane or stout iron wire and _ fas-
tened to a bamboo handle. They were used in catching
hoppers on grass growing on the borders of tanks and
pools, where the water was so deep as to make the use of
the bag impossible. They were also useful in places,
such as survey mounds and bunds bordering hedges or
streams, where bags could not be worked. ‘They are
quite effective and form a useful supplement to the bags,
their disadvantage being the comparatively small area that
can be covered in a given time.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 45

Although the difficulties were many and the conditions
were unfavorable, the results leave no doubt that bagging
can be done effectively. The cost is comparatively small,
for each raiyat will be able to look after his land with the
help of his own family. As the infestation last year was
comparatively light, the numbers of grasshoppers caught
cannot be taken as a gauge of the effectiveness of bag-
ging. In Anavatti village, where bagging was carried on
most thoroughly, the hoppers were reduced to such small
numbers that practically no damage was done to the
crops, while in the other villages bagged, the losses this year
were slight. We are quite satisfied that a thorough bagging
on the bunds begun about the first or second week in
July followed by a second one also on the bunds after an
interval of ten or fifteen days, and, in badly infested areas,
a third one about the beginning of August, will prove an
effective check to the ravages of this pest.1. It is, however,
absolutely essential that all the raiyats in an infested vil-
lage co-operate ; otherwise, the efforts of those who do take
up the work will in all probability fail.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS.

1. The Rice Grasshopper while found widespread
over Mysore has, as yet, proved a serious pest only in a
few isolated localities. However, as it is capable of doing
immense damage to sugar-cane as well as to paddy when
it is present in large numbers, a knowledge of its life. history
and of means of combating it should be acquired by all
those interested in paddy and sugar-cane cultivation.

2. The grasshoppers hatch out about the middle of
June from masses of eggs laid the previous autumn.

3. The developing hoppers pass through six (males)
or seven (females) stages or instars in their develop-
ment. They take, in all, from two and a-half to three and
a-half months for growth.

4. The full-grown grasshoppers are provided with
wings and can fly short distances. They do not, however,
move from one locality to another by flight as do the
migratory species. Their spread is therefore likely to be
comparatively slow.

5. During aconsiderable portion of their development,

ee Appendix,

46 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

the grasshoppers remain, for the most part, feeding on
the grass bordering paddy fields. Later, in September
and October, they go over in large numbers on to the
paddy. This change seems, at least partially, due to the
fact that the grass is cut off by the raiyats. The most
apparent damage done to the paddy is in cutting through
the stem so that the ears fall to the ground.

6. Eggs are laid in October—December, chiefly in the
grassy bunds, very exceptionally in paddy fields themselves,
in masses at a depth up to two inches. A single female is
capable of laying as many as four masses and a total of
over a hundred eggs.

7. Ploughing the bunds either to expose or to bury
the egg-masses cannot, from our present knowledge, be
recommended. It is possible that shallow ploughing of
the bunds accompanied by breaking of clods about one
month before emergence may prove of value but this has
yet to be tested.

8. The natural enemies of the Rice Grasshopper
are few and unimportant. Climatic conditions do not
appear to affect the growing or adult grasshoppers appre-
ciably. The eggs, if exposed to the direct action of
drought or moisture by breaking the egg-masses, are killed.

9. The use of poisons for combating the Rice Grass-
hopper is ineffective and costly and cannot be recom-
mended.

10. The most efficient method of combating these
grasshoppers is by catching them in bags, as described
above, on the bunds soon after they emerge and _ before
they migrate to the paddy or sugar-cane.

During the printing of this bulletin, there has appear-
ed an article in the Agricultural Journal of India, Vol. VI,
part II, April 1911, page 147, by Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher,
Officiating Imperial Entomologist, dealing in a popular
way with this pest as it occurs in the United Provinces.
It appears that the pest in that part of India does most

DISCUSSION OF FLETCHER’S PAPER 47

damage to sugar-cane and it is with the pest as it occurs
upon that crop that the author chiefly deals. His short
description differs somewhat from the account given here.
For instance, he notes the occurrence of six instars but
makes no mention of a seventh instar in the females.

From his description, it appears that hatching, devel-
opment, and egg-laying occur through about the same
periods of the year as they do in Mysore.

As regards combative measures, his conclusions are
decidedly different from those reached in this bulletin.
This is, of course, partly due to the fact that he is dealing
with the pest chiefly as it occurs on sugar-cane, while this
bulletin deals with it as attacking paddy and also proba-
bly to the fact that conditions in the United Provinces are
different from those in Mysore. i ,

With regard to bagging, he states that it may be
done in the early stages, but, in his opinion, itis out of
the reach of the small cultivators on account of cost.
Almost immediately afterwards, he suggests, as the most
efficient method, the use of iron ploughs to plough up the
fields and expose the egg-masses after the crop (sugar-
cane) has been harvested in March. As a bag, such as
that used here, can be made for little over one rupee and
as an iron plough, such as could be used effectively in
ploughing dry sugar-cane land, would cost, at the very
least, Rs. 8 or 9, the force of his argument is lost.
Where egg-laying is done in the fields, such a course as
ploughing with an iron plough would, no doubt, be bene-
ficial, but just how beneficial it would be, would, as already
pointed out, depend upon how thoroughly the egg-masses
could be broken up. Where, as in the paddy fields of
Mysore, the eggs are laid almost exclusively in the bunds,
such a course cannot be recommended. ‘These measures,
I may say, have already been discussed in the Report of
the Cawnpore Agricultural Station for 1908-09, where it
is stated that the cattle of the infested district are not
capable of doing such work on dry land.

The author further suggests the encouragement of
insect-eating birds by the erection of resting-places for
them among the crops. This hardly appeals to me as a
practical measure, nor do I think it would appeal to the
raiyats as such. How the raiyat can, on the one hand,
manage to frighten off only the grain-eating birds from

48 THE RICE GRASSHOPPER

his paddy, etc., by means of the scarecrows and tins sus-
pended from poles which he so commonly employs, at least
in Mysore, and, on the other hand, can succeed in attract-
ing only insect-eating birds by the erection of resting-
places for them, seems difficult to answer. Further, a
fact that is very frequently overlooked, is that many birds
are decidedly promiscuous feeders, eating grain as well as
insects, and any good they may do by destroying insects
is likely to be counterbalanced by the damage they do to
the crops.

One thing seems perfectly clear, and that is that prac-
tical measures must be worked out with special reference
to the needs and conditions of each separate tract.
Measures may be quite successful in one Province or State
while they may be a failure in another. It is, therefore,
necessary to emphasize the point that, while the general
facts and conclusions of this bulletin will probably apply
to the whole of India, the recommendations as to com-
bative measures are intended to apply to conditions as
they at present exist in Mysore.

ASPeR BND EX

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EARLY BAGGING.

TO indicate that the recommendations given above as to early bagging
are well advised the following figures of this year’s work may be given.
These were received after the bulletin had been finally passed for the
press and so could not be included under the proper heading. They
are of course incomplete, containing only the results of preliminary
work. All the results of bagging during the summer of 1911 will be
published together at the close of the season.

I. CATCHES AT ANAVATTI ON 12TH JULY 1911.

Hm
oo
Dimensions of Description of ae | si ;
bunds bagged bunds 5 2 Time Remarks
Zo} oO
Mim
30 yds. x 2 ft. Level sco || eb || BIND 15 | Practically cleared.
20 yds. x 4 ft. Two survey marks 4 ' 1,000 15 Some stil! left.
and grass clump
44 yds. x 3 ft. Level Bbc 6 | 2,700 20 | Fairly cleared.
12 yds. x 6 ft. Level Pee 3 | 700 10 Do
40 yds. x 6 ft. Bund bordering | 6 | 7,100 30 | Fairly cleared. The
pool of water. hoppers disturbed by
the bagging had to be
driven back from the
water to the bund
after each sweep.
Total catch ve | 15,000

We get, then, as a result of an hour and a-half’s work with one
bag, a catch of 15,000 hoppers together with the clearing of extensive
areas of grass land surrounding paddy fields,

50

Il. CATCHES AT VILLAGES NEAR SIRALKOPPA ON THE
18TH Juny 1911.

n
Nim ees 3 5
pinengions of Pere aaS of FE: 2 Gatch Rouiatke
AS
=
35 yds. x 3 ft. . | Level 4 1st 2,400 | }
2nd 3,600 |
| 3rd €00 | + Fairly cleared in 20
| 4th 400 minutes. _
| Total 7,000 | J
12yds. x 3 ft. ... | Level 2| Ist A200" ve hee
| Qnd OT) ee
30 yds. x 6 ft. Sloping 3 9,000 | Fairly cleared.
30 yds. x 3 ft. 3
a ae . en All level st 36,000 | Caught in 40 minutes.
60 yds. x 3 ft. 2 j

Taking the first and the last of these records, we get a total catch
of 43,000 grasshoppers in about one hour with one bag together with
the practical clearing of 185 square yards of bund representing at least
two acres of paddy land and probably decidedly more.

A comparison of these figures with those given above in the body
of the text shows quite clearly that early bagging can be done both
more rapidly and _ effectively than later bagging and should be insisted
upon in any organised campaign against the pest as it occurs on paddy.

EXPLANATIONS 08 PLATS iY:

All drawings were made with the aid of the Abbe camera lucida

PLATE, LI.

Fia. 1—Male of Hieroglyphus banian with wings spread.

Fic. 2.—Female of Hieroglyphus banian with wings spread.

Fic. 3.—Nymphs emerging from in egg-mass buried six inches deep
in a glass tube.

Fic. 4.—Female of Hieroglyphus banian laying eggs close to side of
glass dish. Beneath can be seen the egg-mass close to the glass.

Fic. 5.—Two egg-masses of Hieroglyphus banian with the covering
removed to show the arrangement of the eggs. The posterior side
of the masses is facing outward in both cases.

PLATE ILL.

Fic. 1.—Thorax of nymph of first instar to show meso- and metatho-
racic lobes.

Fic. la.—Antenna of nymph of first instar.

Fic. 2.—Thorax of nymph of second instar.

Fic. 2a.—Antenna of nymph of second instar.

Fic. 3.—Thorax of nymph of third instar showing first sign of deve-
lopment of wing-buds.

Fig. 3a.—Antenna of nymph of third instar.

Fic. 4.—Thorax of nymph of fourth instar.

Fic. 4a.—Antenna of nymph of fourth instar.

Fig. 5.—Thorax of female nymph of fifth instar.

Fig. 6.—Antenna of female nymph of fifth instar,

PATE LV,

Fic. 1.—Thorax of male nymph of fifth instar to show upturned wing-
buds.

Fic. la.—Antenna of male of fifth instar.

Fia, 2.—Thorax of female nymph of sixth instar to show upturned
wing-buds.

Fic. 3.—Thorax of male nymph of sixth or last instar.

Fic. 3a.—Antenna of male nymph of sixth or last instar.

- Fic. 4.—Thorax of female nymph of seventh or last instar.

PLATE VY.

Fias. 1-11.—Development of posterior end of female Hieroglyphus
banian.

Fic. 1.—First instar from beneath.

FIG, 2. -- Do side,

52

Fic. 3.—Second instar from beneath.

Fig. 4.— Do side.
Fic. 5.—Third instar from beneath.
FIG. 6.— Do side.
Fic. 7.—Fifth instar from beneath.
Fic. 8.— ~Do side.
Fic. 9.—Sixth instar from beneath
Bie 0. Do side.

Fic. 11.—Adult from side.
Figs. 12-21.—Development of posterior end of male Hvzeroglyphus

Zanian.

Fic. 12.— First instar from beneath.
Fig. 13.— Do side.

FiaG. 14.—Second instar from beneath.
Fic. 15.— Do side.
Fie. 16.—Third instar from beneath.
Fie. 17.— Do side.

Fic. 18.—Fifth instar from beneath.
Fig. 19.— Do side.

Fic. 20.—Adult from above.
Fig. 21.—Adult from side with penis partially extruded.

Plate II

i

ee

a a
") ny 7 "
ee 5 a :
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oo 4
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t {
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7 :

Plate IY.

WM

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3 90