St, Michael's College Scholastic's Liurary P Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2007 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.arcliive.org/details/epitomeofancientOOploeuoft I EPITOME OP ancie:n^t, medieval, akd modee:n^ history ■St. Michaers Oollegb Scholastic^ Libvary GAEL PLOETZ TRANSLATED AND EKIiABGED BT WILLIAM H. TILLINGHAST WITH ADDITIONS COVERING RECENT EVENTS BOSTON, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY m)t Ritcr?itJe pxm, Camt>citi0e COPYRIGHT 1883 AND 1905 BY WILLIAM HOPKINS TILLINGHAST ALL RIGHTS RESERVED TWENTY FIFTH IMPRESSION PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. In the present edition the record of events is brought down from the close of 1882, where it ceased in the original publication (1884), to the close of 1903. This continuation is mainly the work of Mr. David M. Matteson, to whom the editor is likewise indebted for the general supervision of the new issue. The genealogical tables have been brought down to date, and cross references inserted to connect the appendix with the sections of the earlier work. The index to the new material is at the end of the original one. The editor heartily thanks those readers who have notified him of errors in the book. All discovered errors have now been corrected, and it is hoped that any which have escaped detection will be made known by whoever may find them. June, 1905. TABLE OF CONTENTS. t*^^ Sections marked with an * have been added by the translator ; those marked with a t have been considerably enlarged or changed by the translator. PAGB Introduction. ix. t Divisions of universal history 1 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. A. EASTERN PEOPLES. HAMfric. 1- Egyptians •••2 Semitic. 2. Jews (Hebrews, Israelites) .... . . 7 3. Babylonians and Assyrians 12 4. Fhcenicians and Carthaginians 16 5. Ijydians. * Phrygians 20 Aryan. t 6. Indians 22 7. Bactrians, Medes, Persians ....... 24 Turanian. * 8. Parthiano 29 * 9. Chinese 30 * 10. Japanese 32 B. WESTERN PEOPLES. Aryans. * 1. Celts 34 a. CJontinental Celts. Gauls 34 b. Celts of the British Isles 36 Britain 36 Ireland 38 2. Grecian history 39 Geographical survej'^ of ancient Greece 39 * Religion of the Greeks 41 First Period (x— 1104). Mythical Period .... 43 Second Period (1104-500). To the beginning of the Persian Wars 47 Third Period (500-338). To the battle of Chgeronea . . 56 Fourth Period (338-146). Graeco - Macedonian or Hellenistic Period 73 iv Table of Contents. PAOB 3. Boxnan history . 81 Geographical survey of ancient Italy ... . . . 81 * Religion of the ancient Romans 84 Ethnographical sketch of Italy 85 First Period (x— 510). Mythical epoch of the kings . . 87 Second Period (510-264). To the beginning of the Punic Wars . 93 Third Period (264-146). Epoch of the Punic Wars . . 109 Fourth Period (146-31). Epoch of the Civil Wars . . .123 Fifth Period (31 b. C.-476 a. d.). The Roman emperors to the fall of the Western Empire 147 * 4. Teutons 162 * 5. Slavs and liithuanians 16S n. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. (375-843.) 1. Migrations of the Northern Tribes 170 * 2. Teutonic kingdoms in Britain (449-828) .... 17© 3. The Franks under the Merovingians .....' l&l 4. Mohammed and the Caliphate 182 5. The Franks under the Carolingians 183 * 6. New Persian empire of the Sassanidae 187 SECOND PERIOD. (843-1096.) 1. Italy and Germany (Carolingian, Saxon, Franconian or Salian em- perors) 19$ t 2. France (Carolingians and early Capetians) 201 t 3. England (West Saxon kings) 203 * 4. The North. Denmark 207 Sweden, Norway 208 5. Spanish Peninsula 209 6. The East. Eastern Empire 21 (» * India . 210 * China 211 * Japan 212 THIRD PERIOD. (1096-1270.) 1. Crusades 213 2. Germany and Italy 218 t 3. France 226 t 4. England 229 * 5. The North. Denmark 235 Sweden 237 Norway ........> 238 6. Spanish Peninsula 240 7. The Bast. Eastern Empire. The Mongols 240 » India. ♦ China 241 « Japan 242 Table of Contents, v PAGB FOURTH PERIOD. (1270-1492.) 1. Germany to Maximilian 1 244 Origin of the Swiss Confederacy 245 Leagues of the cities 249 t 2. Prance to Charles Vm 254 3. Italy 262 t 4. England to Henry VH 263 5. Spanish Peninsula 275 6. The North and East. Scandinavia. Russia . . . .276 Poland, Prussia, Hungary . . . 277 Turks, Mongols, Eastern Empire ) __„ * China. * Japan ) ' ' ^'^ m. MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. (1492-1648.) 1. Inventions, discoveries, and colonies 279 * 2. America. Discovery 280 a. English colonies : South Virginia 291 Plymouth Company .... 293 b. Dutch colonies 298 c. Swedish colonies . 298 d. New France and the Arctic region 299 3. Germany to the Thirty Years* War. Beformation . . 306 4. Thirty Years* War 308 1. Bohemian Period, 1618-1623 308 2. Danish " 1625-1629 310 3. Swedish '* 1630-1635 311 4. French " 1635-1648 314 t 5. Prance 318 6. Italy 326 7. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands .... 328 t The Netherlands 328 » 8. England and Scotland 333 9. The North and East 351 Sweden, Denmark and Norway, Poland, Russia . , . 352 Turks. * India 353 » China 354 * Japan 355 SECOND PERIOD. (1648-1789.) A. THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. * 1. America. British, Dutch, and Swedish colonies . . . 357 French settlements and discoveries .... 363 t 2. Prance under Louis XIV 365 3. Germany under Leopold 1 371 4. The North and East. Sweden 373 Denmark, Poland, Russia .... 374 vi TaUe of Contents. PAGS * 5. England . 375 * 6. India 389 * 7. China • . 390 B. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1. The 'War of the Spanish Succession 390 2. The Northern War 394 3. Germany to the Revolution of 1789 397 4. The Worth. Denmark (Norway), Sweden 409 Russia, Poland 410 5. Spain and Portugal 414 6. Italy. Savoy, Genoa, Venice 415 (Tuscan}', Papal States) Two Sicilies .... 416 * 7. America. British colonies 417 War of Independence 426 * 8. Great Britain 433 * 9. The East. India 442 The British in India 443 China 444 Japan 445 t 10. France to the Be volution Of 1789 445 THIRD PERIOD. (1789-1815.) First French Bevolution and Napoleonic Wars . . . 447 Causes of the Revolution 448 Constituent assembly 449 Legislative assembly 451 War of the First Coalition. National Convention . . . 452 Directory 457 War of the Second Coalition 460 The Consulate 461 First French Empire 465 War of the Third Coalition 467 (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia 468 Peninsula War 471 (Fifth) War with Austria 471 (Sixth) War with Russia 474 The War of Liberation 475 Congress of Vienna 482 The Hundred Days (War of 1815^ 483 FOURTH PERIOD. (1815— x.) 1. Inventiona. Steam Engines. Steam Navigation. Railroads. Tele- graph 485 I 2. Continental Europe 487 War of Grecian Independence ..*.... 488 Revolution in Belgium 489 Revolution in Poland 490 Bevolt of Mehemet All 491 Table of Contents. vii PAGE Civil war in Switzerland 492 Confusion in Germany; attempts at union .... 492 Revolt of the Hungarians 494 Crimean War 499 Kingdom of Italy 503 War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark .... 505 Austro-Prussian War 507 Austro-Italian War 510 North German Confederation ....... 511 Franco-German War 513 German Empire 519 Turco-Russian War 522 Congress of Berlin 524 t 3. Prance (1815-1882) 526 July Revolution of 1830 529 February Revolution of 1848. Second Republic ... 530 Second Empire ' . . 531 Third Republic 532 * 4. Great Britain 1(1783-1882) 535 The British in India (1785-1836) 541 Great Britain (1837-1882) 542 The British in India (1836-1882) 546 * 5. The United States of America 1(1789-1883) . . . .547 War of 1812 551 War with Mexico 554 The Civil War 557 * 6. China (1796-1882) 560 * 7. Japan (1787-1882) 562 Restoration of the Mikado 563 APPENDIX. (1883-x.) * 8. Great Britain 2 (1883— x) ........ 565 South African War . . . , . " . , . . 570 « 9. Continental Europe 2 (1883— x) ...... 573 Armenian Massacres 579 Creton Revolt and Turco-Greek War 581 Dreyfus Affair 582 * 10. United States 2 (1883— x) 586 Spanish War 590 Philippine Insurrection 592 » 11. Asia 2 (1883-x) 594 Chinese-Japanese War 595 Boxer Rising 597 Russo-Japanese Crisis 599 * Index 601 1 Contributed by Edward Channing, Ph. D. • Contributed in part by D. M. Matteson. INTRODUCTION. Prof. Dr. Carl Ploetz, well known in Germany as a veteran teacher, is the author of a number of educational works having a high reputation, among which none has better approved its usefulness than the " Epitome of Universal History." ^ ^e admitted excellence of the book renders an apology for its translation unnecessary, but an extract from the author's preface respecting the nature and purpose of the work may not be out of place. "The present 'Epitome,' which now appears in a seventh edition, enlarged and improved, is intended, in the first place, for use by the upper classes in higher educational institutions, as a guide or handbook m the historical class- room. The handy arrangement of the book and the elaborate index are in- tended to adapt it for private use, and to facilitate rapid acquisition of informa- tion concerning historical matters which have, for the moment, escaped the memory. " I have endeavored to give everywhere the assured results of recent histor- ical investigation, adding, as far as possible, references to my authorities. " The exposition of ancient history is based upon the works of Duncker, Curtius, Mommsen, and Peter. "Mediaeval history, which was treated somewhat too briefly in the earlier editions, has been made proportionately full since the fourth, and has been, moreover, enlarged, as has modern history, by the addition of a number of genealogical tables. "In modem history the treaties of peace have been brought into especial prominence, and the principal conditions of the great treaties, through which alone one can get an insight into the historical formation of the present system of European states, have been stated with all possible accuracy. " Recent history has been brought down to the present day. The purpose and the compass of the book alike permitted nothing more than a compressed narrative of facts, as far as possible, free from the expression of personal opin- ion. This limitation of itself excludes the possibility of offending, whether in a religious or a political sense. " All are probably now agreed that it is unadvisable for scholars to write out the lecture of the instructor in full, which, however, should not prevent them from taking notes here and there. No one denies the necessity of a guide as a basis for instruction ; but widely differing ideas prevail concerning the arrange- ment and extent of such a work. " The author of this 'Epitome,' who was for a number of years historical in- structor of the first and second classes in the French Gymnasium at Berlin, holds the opinion that even the best handbook can in no way take the place of an animated lecture, and that any guide which gives a connected narrative in 1 Auszug aus der alten, mittleren und neueren Geschichte von Elarl Ploetz. Siebente verbesserte und stark vermehrte Auflage, Berlin. A. G. Ploetz, 1880. The preparation of this edition was confided to Prof. Dr. O. Meltzer, author of Geschichte der Karthager, i. 1880. X Introdtiction. some detail necessarily detracts from the value of the teacher's lecture, if in th« hands of the pupils in the class-room. " I am persuaded that such a work should place before the pupil facts only, in the wider sense of the word, and these grouped in the most comprehensive man- ner. The task of animating these facts by oral exposition ought to be left to the instructor." The translator has enlarged the book in no small degree, with the hope of increasing its general usefulness, and of giving it especial value in this country. Under ancient history an attempt has been made to bring the ethnographical relations of the early peoples into prominence ; but believing that the uncertainty of our knowledge in this respect can hardly be dwelt upon too strongly, the translator has tried to speak guardedly. Even the Indo-European family is far from being satis- factorily understood; the details of the relationship of its constituent groups are not clear ; the theory of a primitive Asiatic home and a wave-like series of westward migrations is but one, though perhaps the best, among many speculations. Recent text-books have delighted us with minutely ramified tables of Indo-European relationships, show- ing, with close approximation, when each group left the parent stock, each tribe the common group ; this, though harmless as speculation, is dangerous if taken for knowledge.^ The speculations in regard to the early inhabitants of the British Isles should be received with like caution. Their provisional accept- ance, however, is so useful as to justify their insertion. The mythical history of England, Ireland, and Scandinavia has been deemed worthy to stand beside that of Greece and Rome. The undoubted historical value of many of these traditions and the part which they play in general literature will explain the presence of even the distinctly fabulous tales. The distinction between myth, a theoretical explanation of myths, and tolerably trustworthy history has been kept constantly in view. The history of certain countries, as China, Japan, Parthia and Per- sia imder the Sassanidae, which the stricter limits of the German work had caused the author to omit, has been added ; in the cases of India, the Scandinavian monarchies before 1387, and France, the meagre account in the original has undergone considerable amplifica- tion. The greatest changes, however, will be found in the history of Eng- 1 "We must content ourselves, for the present, with the recognition of a fundamental primitive community of Indo-European languages, and refrain from dividing these languages into groups (except in the case of the Indo-Ira- nian tongues). Especially is this true of the unity of the Greeks and Italians, so often taken for granted. " It cannot be said that this unity did not once exist, but neither can it be asserted that its existence is demonstrable. Whether or not the future Avill succeed in reaching more certain results remains to be seen ; until such results are reached historians will do well to refrain from making use of such groups of languages and of tribes as the Graeco-Italian and the Slavo-Ger- man." (B. Delbriick, Einleitung in dns Sprachstudium^ Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, 1880.) Not all philologists will agree upon this point, — upon what point do all philologists agree ? — and the archaeologists have something to say upon the matter; the words just quoted are, nevertheless, worthy of coneid- eration. Introduction. xi land and in that of America, which have been rewritten from the beginning with a fulhiess of detail proportional to that observed by the original in the history of Germany. In the additions notlung more than a compilation from reliable, but easily accessible, sources has been attempted. A few notes have been inserted and a few dates and facts interpolated in the text of the original, but these changes have been duly attributed to the transla- tor, either directly or by the use of brackets, where they seemed of sufficient importance. Absolute accuracy cannot be looked for in a work dealing with so vast a number of dates and covering so wide a range in time ; the translator, however, in the sections for which he is responsible, has endeavored to verify each date by reference to independent authori- ties. He will be grateful to all who will take the trouble to inform him of errors that have escaped his notice. That the proportion ob- served in the space allotted to different countries and epochs is open to criticism, the translator is well aware ; the fault is due in part to the plan adopted by him of sending the earlier portions of the book to press before the later were finished, in the vain hope of hastening its completion. Except in the case of the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, where much of the minute descriptive detail has been omitted, no attempt has been made to condense the original. Various circumstances have delayed the appearance of the book much beyond the time for which it was announced ; that it is at last ready is due to the kindness of Dr. Edward C banning, of Harvard College, who took upon himself the preparation of those sections which contain the history of Great Britain and her colonies from 1784 to 1883, and that of the United States from 1789 to 1883. The thanks of the translator are also due to Professor H. W. Torrey, of Harvard College, for the loan of material of which free use has been made for English history in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and for French history in the nineteenth century ; and to Mr. Justin Winsor, Librarian of the University, for the free use of books. To Dr. R. H. Labberton and to Messrs. E. Claxton & Co. of Phila- delphia, the translator is indebted for courteous permission to use certain genealogical tables in Dr. Labberton's exceedingly useful « Outlines of History." i The distinguishing feature of the " Epitome " is the arrangement whereby a brief connected narrative is accompanied by a clear, well- graduated chronology which emphasizes the sequence of events with- out breaking up the story or fatiguing the mind. An attempt has been made, by the use of italics and two sizes of black type, to mark and distinguish events according to their relative importance, and also to relieve the page ; while, with the latter object in view, the use of capitals has been as far as possible dispensed with, although the manner of printing the book has prevented consistency in this 1 Labbertcn, R. H., Outlines of History, with original tables, chronological, genealogical, and literarv. Thirteenth edition. Philadelphia, E. Claxton & Co., 1883. Text and Historical Atlas. The tables used are IL, III., XVI., which appear on pages 265, 256, 332, of the present work. xii Introduction. respect. Especial care has been devoted to the index, which has been made very full, in order that the book might serve as a historical dictionary, as well as a chronology. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. A GENERAL VIEW OF ITS PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS. X B. c. — 375 A. D. I. Ancient history, from the begin- ning of historical information to the commence- ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes. 375 — 1492. II. Mediaeval history, from the commence- ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes to the discovery of America. 1492 — X. Ill- Modern history, from the discovery of America to the present time. Ancient history, treated ethnographically, falls into two great divi- sions : A. Eastern peoples : Egyptians (Hamitic) ; Jews, Babylonians, As- syrians, Phcenicians, Lydians (Semitic) ; Hindus, Bac- trians, Medes, Persians (Aryan) ; Parthians, Chinese, Japanese (Turanian?). B. "Western Peoples: Celts, Britons, Greeks, Romans, Teutons (Aryan). Mediaeval history can be divided into four chronological periods: 375-843. 1. From the commencement of the migrations of the Teutonic Tribes to the Treaty of Verdun. 843-1096. 2. From the Treaty of Verdun to the beginning of the Crusades. 1096-1270. 3. The epoch of the Crusades. 1270-1492. 4. From the end of the Crusades to the discovery of America. Modem history can also be divided into four periods: 1492-1648. 1. From the discovery of America to the Peace of Westphalia. 1648-1789. 2. From the Peace of Westphalia to the outbreak of the first French Revolution. 1789-1815. 3. From the outbreak of the first French Revolution to the Congress of Vienna. 1815-x. 4. From the Congress of Vienna to the present time. 1 Ancient History. b. c. I. ANCIENT HISTORY. A. EASTERN PEOPLES. § 1. EGYPTIANS. Hamites. Geography : Egypt ^ (Kem, i. e. " black earth " in old Egyptian) is the valley of the Nile, which extends between two chains of low hiils for 550 miles, with a breadth, above the Delta, of but a few miles. It is divided into Upper Egypt (Philce, Elephantine, Thebes or Dios- polis, called by Homer iKar6fjL-Tv\os, the " hundred gated," a designa- tion which must refer to the entrances of temples and palaces, since the city had neither walls nor gates) and Lo-wer Egypt (Memphis; in the Delta, Tanis, Bubastis, Naucrdtis, Sais ; west of the Delta, Canopus, now Aboukir; on the east, Pelusium; the latter cities stand- ing on what were, in ancient times, the largest mouths of the Nile). These divisions were originally, in all probability, independent coun- tries. They are not to be confounded with the separate principali- ties which became numerous at a later time. This division was com- memorated in the royal title of the kings of the united countries, " lords of the upper and lower country," " lords of the two crow^ns." Religion : Worship of personified forces of Nature and symbolical animal worship. In Memphis especial reverence paid to Ptah, the highest of the gods, the first creator ; in his temple stood the sacred bull Apis (Egypt. Api), also closely connected with Osiris. Ra,^ wor- shipped particularly in On or Heliopolis, represented the transmitting and preserving power of the godhead embodied in the sun. Khem, was the god of generation and growth. Reverence was also paid to the goddess Ne'ith, whose worship at Sais was considered by the Greeks to be identical with that of Athena, to the goddess Bast or Pacht (at Bubastis), and to the goddess of Buto, on one of the mouths of the Nile. At Thebes, cult of Ammon (Amun), the god of heaven, later united with Ra to form a single divinity. In Upper Egypt worship was paid to Mentu, the rising sun; Turn or Atmu, the setting sun; Chnum or Kneph, god of the overflow, always represented with a ram's head and double horns, and later becoming miited with Ammon to form one divinity; and to the goddess Mut (i. e. "mother"). The educated classes recognized the various gods as personified attributes of the one Divinity. 1 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. 2 According; to Rosellini and Lopsius the title of Pharaoh is derived from this name, and means Son of the Sun. Ebers and Brugsch derive it from Pe-ra(o), the " great house." (Compare " Sublime Porte.") B. C. Egyptians. 3 Myth of OsHris, the creative force in Nature, who was killed and thrown into the sea by Set (Typhon), the destructive force in Nature (especially drought) ; sought after by his sorrowing consort Isis (the earth), he was avenged by their son Horos, who slew Set; restored to life, Osiris thenceforward ruled in the lower world (decay and resur- rection of the creative force in nature; immortality of the soul). Con- joined with Horos, the goddess Hathor, considered by the Greeks to be the same as Aphrodite. Highly developed moral code. Civilization : Fertility of the valley of the Nile maintained by the regular overflow of the Nile, beginning at the end of July and last- ing four months. Hieroglyphics, very early in conjunction with the hieratic, and after- wards the demotic, characters (syllabic and phonetic signs), which represented the language of daily life, the dialect of the common people. Embalming of the dead. (Mummies.) Avoidance of intercourse with foreign peoples and adoption of foreign customs. Strict regulation of the entire life by religious prescriptions. Castes : Priests, warriors, agricultural laborers, artisans, shepherds. These castes, however, were in no wise absolutely separated from one another. Form of Government: Despotic monarchy, with divine attributes, also in possession of the highest spiritual power. Strong influence of the priests, especially after the fourteenth century, but they never controlled the supreme power.^ The Pyramids are gigantic sepulchres of the kings. Over thirty still exist.2 The largest, at Gizeh, was originally 480 feet high, and still measures 450 feet. The Obelisks — of which one is now at Paris, several in Rome, one in London, and one in New York — are cut from single blocks of stone (monoliths), and were offerings to the sun-god Ra; the Sphinxes were symbols of the sun-god. Chronology: The Egyptians filled the space before Mena, the first of the liistoric line of kings, by the assumption of three dynas- ties of gods, demi-gods, and "the mysterious manes." The list of kings after Mena was given at length by the priest Manetho (about 250 B. c), in his history of Egypt. He arranged them in thirty dy- nasties, a division which is still used. To reconcile the names and dates given by Manetho with the records upon the monuments is a difficult matter, owing in part to the fact that several of the dynasties of Manetho probably reigned contemporaneously in different parts of Egypt, that it was the custom for a king to associate his son with himself during the latter part of his reign, and that the son after- wards reckoned his reign from the date of such association. Hence the systems of chronology, drawn up by Egyptologists, vary greatly. There are, in general, two schools: (1.) The long chronology, advo- cated on the continent, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary from 1 See Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 180. 2 Lepsius saw traces and remains of sixty-seven pyramids; Brugsch of Biore than seventy. 4 Ancient History. b. Oo 5702 (Boeckh) to 3623 (Bunsen). (2.) The short chronology, advo- cated in England, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary between 2700 and 2440. In the following pages the chronology of Lepsius is followed, with the exception of the date assigned to Mena, wliich Lepsius gives as 3892 b. c. These dates should be compared with the lists given by Brugsch ^ and by Rawlinson.^ Before 3000. The old empire of the Egyptians, in the lower val- ley of the Nile, founded according to Egyptian tradition by Mena^ (Menes). Capital : Memphis. 2800-2700 (?). The kings Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura (according to Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren, Mykerinos), the builders of the largest pyramids. IVth dynasty (Memphis) called the " Pyramid dynasty." About 2400. Removal of the centre of government of the empire to Thebes. Of the princes of this line the following deserve mention: Amenem- hat I. (2380-2371), who seems to have extended the power of Egypt up the Nile and over a part of Nubia ; Usurtasen I. (2371-2325) who continued the conquests of his predecessor, and erected obelisks; Ame- nemhat II.; Usurtasen II.; Usurtasen III.; Amenemhat III. (2221- 2179) constructed lake Meri- (i. e. "lake of inundations "), a large reservoir for regidating the water supply of the Nile, and built S. of this lake the so-called Labyrinth, a large palace for ceremonial acts and sacrifices. These six monarchs belong to the Xllth dynasty (of Thebes). About 2100. Egypt conquered by the Hy ksos, or Shepherd Kings. The Hyksos (derived from Hyk, king, and Schasu, shepherds, contracted into Sos) were wandermg tribes of Semitic descent. About 1800. Thebes revolted against the rule of the Hyksos. Native rulers maintained themselves in Upper Egypt. After a long contest the Shepherd kings were driven out of Egypt com- pletely under King Aahmes (Amosis), of Thebes (1684-1659).^ Their epoch covers the Xlllth to XVIIth dynasties. 1670 — 525. The new empire (capital at first Thebes), under Thutmes III. (Thutmosis, 1591-1565 ; XVIIIth dynasty) increased rapidly in power and extent. 1524^1488. Under Thutmes and his successors, especially Amen- hotep III. (Amenophis), successful expeditions against the Syrians (Ruthen) and against the Ethiopians in the south. 1 History of Egypt. Appendix. See also I. 37, and xxxii. note 1. 2 History of Egypt, or Manual of History, p. 61, and foil. 3 The royal nomenclature of the Egyptians is as picturesquely varied as their chronology. I have given first some form of the true Egyptian name, as found on the monuments, generally that adopted by Brugsch, and have followed it by the more common name, as given by Manetho, Herodotus, or the Jewish Scrip- tures, in parentheses. [Trans.] 4 Called bvlhe Greeks Mcsris (Moipos, Herod. I. 101), and erroneously inter- preted as a roj'al name. 5 Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 130, and foil. B. c. Egyptians. .1 Erection of magnificent palaces and temples at Thebes. (Ruins near the present villages of Camac^ LuxoTy and Medi- net-Abu; near the latter two sitting colossi, statues of Amen- hotepy one of which the Greeks called the musical Statue of Memnon.) 1438-1388. Similar success in war fell to the lot of Seti 1. (Sethos). Expeditions to Ethiopia, Arabia, and to the Euphrates. Tem- ple of Ammon on the left bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes. His son, 1388-1322. Ramessu II., the Great (Sestic-Ea, Ramses), was victorious in the early part of his reign, but could not long maintain his supremacy over Syria (XlXth dy- nasty). In spite of this a peculiar tradition transformed him into that mili- tary hero whom the Greeks knew as Sesostris (Herodotus, II. 102- 110), or Sesoosis (Diod. Sic. I. 53-58), and to whom they ascribed fabulous expeditions to Thrace and India. This tradition seems to have had its origin in the bombastic expressions common to the royal inscriptions of the Egjrptians, and in poetic exaltations of his earlier victories. In the Greek account we have besides a confusion of recol- lections of the glorious deeds of Thutmes and Amenholep, of Seti and Ramessu III. During his long reign he covered Egypt with magnificent buildings. Splendid palace known as " the House of Ramses," south of Camac; temple of Ammon, 400 miles above Syene. Commencement of a canal between the Red Sea and the Nile. Ramessu II. was probably the oppressor of the Hebrews. Under his successor, 1322-1302. Mineptah, i. e. " beloved of Ptah," occurred the exo- dus of the Hebrews from Egypt (see page 8).^ 1269-1244. Ramessu III. {Rhampsinitus, XXth dynasty). Successful resistance ofPered to the Libyan and Semitic tribes; expeditions as far as Phoenicia and Syria. (Story of the theft from the treasury, Herodotus, II. 121.) 1244-1091. Decay of the empire under the later kings of the name of Ramses. 1091. A new dynasty (XXI.) came to the throne with King Hirhor (Smendes). The seat of their power was Tanis, m the Delta, whence they are called Tanites. Loss of supremacy over Ethiopia, where the kingdom of Na- pata or Meroe was founded. 961-9W). Shashang I. (Sesonchis, ShisaJc), from Bubastis, founded a new dynasty (XXII.) .^ He undertook (949) a successful ex- pedition against Judcea. Jerusalem conquered and plundered. 1 It may have occurred under his successor of the same name ; the date of whose reign, as well as the reigns of the kings immediately preceding, would have to be placed several decades earlier, in agreement with Duncker and Maspero. 2 The opinion of Brugsch, History of Egypt, II. 198, that an Assyrian con- quest of Egypt occurred at this time, and that Shashang I. was the son of the conqueror, Nirarod, king of Assyria, has not found favor among Egyptologists. [Tkans.] 6 Ancient History. B. c. 730. The Ethiopians, under Shabak (Sabako), conquered Egypt, which they governed for fifty-eight years under three succes- sive kings. (XXVth dynasty.) 672. An expedition of the Assyrians, under Esarhaddou (p. 15), against Egypt. The king of the Assyrians and his son, Asshur- banipal (^Sardanapalus), put an end to the rule of the Ethi- opians (under Taharak or Tirhakah, the second successor of Shabak), and entrusted the government of Egypt to twenty governors, most of whom were natives. 653. One of these governors, Psamethik, in alliance witk Gyges, king of Lydia, with the help of Carians, Phoeni- cians, and lonians, made himself independent of Assyria, and sole ruler of Egypt (XXVIth dynasty, of Sdis). The tale of the twelve native princes (the Dodecarchy of Herod- otus and Diodorus), according to which Psammeticus defeated his eleven co-regents at Momemphis, is not historical. The number, 12, is derived from the twelve courts of columns in the Labyrinth, which, according to Herodotus and Diodorus, was built by the twelve princes, whereas this gigantic building had already been standing 1500 years (p. 4). 653-610. Psamethik I., king of Egypt, from the mouths of the Nile to Elephantine, above which place the Ethio- pians held the supremacy. (XXVIth dynasty.) New capital, Sals, in the Delta, where Psamethik built a magnifi- cent palace. Egypt opened to foreigners, who were favored in the army and settled at various points. Caste of Interpreters. Greek factory at Naucrdtis. Dissatisfaction among the military caste ; emi- grations upward along the Nile to Ethiopia. Psamethik carried on wars in Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine ; they were probably undertaken in the first instance to strengthen his frontier against a new attack by the Assyrians, which he dreaded. These wars led to no lastmg conquests. The son of Psamethik, 610-595. Neku (Necho), revived the plan of Ramses to unite the Nile and the Red Sea by a canal, but did not succeed in carrying it out. By his orders Africa was circumnavigated by Phoenician seamen. He undertook expeditions to Syria where he was at first successful, and defeated the king of Judah in the battle of Megiddo (609), but was afterwards defeated by the Babylonians in the 605. Battle of Carchemish. Loss of all his conquests in Asia. Neku's son, 595-589. Psamethik II. Expedition against Ethiopia without suc- cess. His son, 589-570. Hophra (Apries), fought without lasting success against Nebuchadnezzar, and sent help to the tribes of Libya against Cyrene. His defeated army revolted, and he was defeated at the head of Ionian and Carian mercenaries, captured and strangled. B. c. Jews. 7 570-526. Aahmes (Amasis), an Egyptian of low origin, ascended the throne. Encouragement of foreigners, especially of the Greeks, carried still farther; numerous Grecian temples erected in Naucrdtis. Friendship with Cyrene and Polycrates of Samos. Magnificent buildings, especially in Sals. The son of Amasis, 525. Psamethik III., defeated in the battle of Peiusium by Cambyses. Egypt a Persian province. § 2. JEWS (HEBREWS, ISRAELITES). Semitic. Geography. The land of the Jews is bounded N. by Codo-Syria; W. by Phoenicia, the Mediterranean, and the land of the Philistines; S. by Arabia PetrcBa; E. by the Arabian Desert. The name Canaan,^ i. e. " low land," was originally applied to the region along the coast, but was at an early date extended to the inland country. The names Canaanite and Phoenician have properly the same mean- ing; the first was the Semitic, the second the Grecian name for the inhabitants of the whole land before the Jewish conquest. Palestine was originally the name of the southern coast-land, which was so called after the Semitic tribe of the Philistines {Pelishtim) which had possession of it, but was transferred by Egyptians and Greeks to the land occupied by the Jews. In the Bible the country- is called " the promised land," i. e. the land promised by Jehovah to the children of Israel. The river Jordan^ which rises in the mountain range of Antilebanon and empties into the Dead Sea (Sodom, Gomorrah), runs through the middle of the country. After the Jewish conquest the country was divided into the twelve provinces of the twelve tribes ; after the death of Solomon into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel; at the time of Christ into four districts: 1. Judsea (Jerusalem, Hebr. Jerushala'im; Greek 'Upo|7?s, Pars. Khshayarsha). 480. War against Greece (p. 58). Xerxes and his eldest son mur- dered by Artabanus, captain of the body-guard. The second son of Xerxes, 465-424. Artaxerxes I. (Pers. Artachshatra), called MaKpSx^ip, Lcyrv- gimdnus, succeeded to the throne. 462-455. Second revolt of the Egyptians under Indros, assisted by B. C. Bactrians, Medes, Persians, 29 the Athenians, suppressed by the satrap Megabyzus (Amyr- tceus alone maintained himself about the mouths of the Nile). Wars with the Greeks (p. 63). Beginning of the internal de- cay of the Persian empire. Revolts of the satra.ps. Merce- nary troops. The son of Artaxerxes, 424. Xerxes II., after ruling one month and a half, was murdered, by his brother, Sogdianus, who after six and a half months, was murdered by his brother Ochus, who reigned under the name 424-405. Darius II., Nothus. He was under the influence of his wife Parysdtis. Tliird revolt of the Egyptians, who maintained their independence for sixty years (414-354). 405-362. Artaxerxes II., Mnemon. Revolt of his brother, the younger Cyrus, who, assisted by Grecian mercenaries, attacked the king in the neighborhood of Babylon. 401. Cyrus fell in the battle of Cuuaxa in personal combat with his brother. 400. Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, Xenophon (Anabasis). 362-338. Artaxerxes III. Revolt of the Phoenicians and Egyptians suppressed. Artaxerxes poisoned by his favorite, the Egyp- tian Bagoas, who placed on the throne the king's youngest son, 338-336. Arses, whom he likewise murdered, in order to put a great- grandson of Darius Nothus in his place. 336-330. Darius HI., Codomannus. Bagoas executed by poison. War with Alexander of Macedonia ; Darius murdered by the satrap Bessus while fleeing, after the battle of Gaugamela (331). 330. Destruction of the Persian Empire. See Grecian history, 4th period, p. 74, § 8. PARTHIANS.i Turanian f^ Geography: The Parthian empire extended from the Euphrates to the Indus, from the Caspian Sea and the Araxes to the Indian Ocean, covermg nearly the same ground, and having in the main the same divisions, as the Persian empire, of which it was, indeed, in many ways an avowed imitation. Parthia proper, the region between the Jaxartes, and the desert of Iran, the Caspian Sea and the province of Aria, was a satrapy of the Persian empire. About 250. The Parthians revolted under the lead of Arsaces, the chief of a tribe of the Daha; (Scythians). The revolt succeeding, 250(?)-247. Arsaces I. was raised to the throne. He was suc- ceeded by his brother Tiridates as 247-214. Arsaces H., who firmly established the independence of Parthia. His son, 214-196. Arsaces IH., successfully resisted Antiochus the Great. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius) and Arsaces V. (Phraates I.) accom- plished but little of importance. The son of the latter, 1 Kawlinson. 2 The use of this name must not be understood as implying belief in the racial unity of all the peoples to whom it is applied. It denotes merely the mass of .Asiatics who belonged neither to the Semitic nor to the Aryan family. 30 Ancient History. b. c.-a. o, 174-136. Mithridates I., founded the Empire of tlie Par- thians, extending his sway over Media, Suslana, PeV' sia, Babylonia, Bactria. Subject nations were permitted to retain their native kings in subjection to Parthia. The Parthian civilization was rude and of a low order. 136-127. Phraates II. {Arsaces VII.) repressed a revolt of Baby' Ionia, but fell fighting against the Turanians. The incursions of these nomadic tribes became more frequent under Artabanus (Arsaces VIII.), 127-124, who likewise fell m battle against them. They were, however, effectually checked by Mith- ridates II. {Arsaces IX.), 124-^7, who also extended the power of Parthia in other directions, until towards the close of his reign he was defeated by Tigranes of Armenia. Undei- Phraates III. {Arsaces XII.), 69-60, the Parthians first be- came embroiled with Bome, war with this power breaking out in 54. Under Orodes I. {Arsaces XIV.), 54-37, Expedition of Crassus (p. 140). Expedition of Antonius, 36, against Phraates IV. {Arsaces XV.). From 37 b. c. to 107 a. d. Parthia was ruled by a series of ten monarchs, whose reigns were mostly occupied with struggles for the succession. Vdo* geses I., 50-90 ; Armenia lost. An attempt made by 107-121 A. D. Chosroes {Arsaces XXV.) to recover Armenia brought about the successful Parthian expedition of Trajan, whose conquests were, however, abandoned as soon as made. Vologeses III. {Arsaces XXVII.), 149-192 A. d., became in- volv'tid in a war with M. Aurelius, which terminated in the complete submission of the Parthian. His successor, Vologeses IV., 192-213 A. D., lost northern Assyria to Rome. 215-226 A. D. Artabanus III. {Arsaces XXX.), last king of Par- thia. In his reign Parthia suffered severely at the liands of Caracalla, but, after his death and the defeat of Macrinus, had regained its former power, when the empire was brought to an end by the success of an insurrection of the Persians under Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, who defeated and slew the Parthian monarch. The Tatar empire was replaced by the Aryan king- dom of the Sassanidae, or the New Persian Empire (22fr- 652 A. D. (p. 187). § 9. CHINESE. Turanian. Geography: China in the broad sense, or the Chinese Empire, embracing Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet, as well as China proper, is bounded N. by Asiatic Russia, E. by the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea, and the Sea of China, S. and S. W. by the Sea of China, Cochin China, Burmah, W. by Kashmir and East Turkestan. China (land of the Seres among the ancients, Cathay in the Middle Age), comprises less than half of the Chinese empire, being about 1474 miles long by 1355 wide. Vast alluvial plain and delta in the N. E. Mountainous and hilly in south. Rivers : H-wang-ho ( Yellow River) ; Yang-tsze- Keang; Se-keang. Provinces: 1, Chih-li (or Pe-chih-Vi), with Peking^ B. c. Chinese, 31 the capital of the empire; 2, Keang-soo^ the most populous and best watered of the provinces, with the cities, Nan-king, Shang-hai; 3, Gan- hwuy; 4, Keang-se; 5, Che-keang, with the city Ning-po; 6, FuJi-keen, comprising the island of Formosa ( Taiwan) ; 7, Hoo-pih; 8, Hoo-nan; 9, Ho-nan; 10, Shan-tung with the Tai-shan mountain; 11, Skan-se; 12, Shen-se; 13, Kan-suh; 14, Sze-chuen; 15, Kwang-tung, with the cities. Canton, Macao, Hong-Kong (properly Hiang-kiang) ; 16, Ktvang- se; 17, Yun-nan; 18, Kwei-chow; 19, Shing-king. Religion: Uncertainty concerning the oldest religion of the Chi- nese. By some writers it is considered little higher than fetichisn\ while others see a monotheistic belief in the worship ^f Ti. Their religion embraced a worship of ancestors, of deified rulers, and of spirits generally, classed in antitheses of opposing qualities {gang and yin), heaven and earth, male and female, from whose interaction all created beings sprang. Ideas of future life indistinct, no system of rewards and punishments. System of offerings; never human sac- rifices. In the fifth century B. c. appeared the philosopher Con^ fucius (ICung-foo-tsze, 551-478), who taught no new theology, and did not remodel the old religion, but whose ethical code and personal influence secured for him an enthusiastic following. It was a revi- val, rather than a reformation, of the ancient faith. Enunciation of the Golden Rule.^ Contemporary with Confucius was Lao-tsze, the author of a system of ethical philosophy, Taoism, the " way or method of living which men should cultivate as the highest and purest devel- opment of their nature" (Legge). At a later time there grew up a system of gross and mystical superstition, which took the name of Taoism, deified Lao-tsze, and became one of the recognized religions of the empire. Buddhism introduced into China about A. d. 65, where it has degenerated into a low superstition, but still numbers many dev- otees and has deeply affected the older religions. Begging priests. Mohammedanism has also its adherents. The common religion of the lower classes is the old ancestor and spirit worship, complicated by the introduction of elements from all the sects above mentioned. No state religion; toleration of all faiths. Chronology. The Chinese regard themselves as aborigines. For- eign scholars derive them from wandering bands of Tatars, or from the peoples of Tibet and Farther India. It is probable that the first settlements were made in the valley of the Hwang-ho. The Chinese possess an intricate system of chronology which ear- lier writers trusted almost implicitly, but which modern scholars have severely criticised. The dates assigned before 800 b. c. are probably wholly untrustworthy. Chinese annalists place the creation between two and three millions of years before Confucius, and divide the inter- vening space into ten epochs. In the eighth of these are placed the fa- mous emperors Yew-chaou She (" nest builder "), Suy-jin She, the dis- coverer of fire, Fuhi, Chin-nung, inventor of the plough, and Yaou, who first drained the valley of Hwang-ho. These sovereigns are to be regarded as largely mvthical, as are the dynasties of Hia (2205-1766) and Shang (1766-1123). 1 liOgge, Eelirjions of China, 137-139. 82 Ancient History. b. c.-A. d 1123-255. Chow Dynasty. During the time of this dynasty we reach historic ground. Development of a feudal system. The imperial domain lay in the middle of the empire, whence the name applied to the empire, " Middle Kingdom." Un- der Sing-wang, birth of Confucius, 551 b. c. 255-206. Dynasty of Tsin, famous for the energetic monarch Che-ivang-te (246-210), who extended the empire to the sea, defeated the Mongols, built the Chinese Wall (1400 miles long, 15-30 feet high, 15-25 feet broad); 213, Ckd- wang-te ordered the destruction of many thousand historical and philosophical books. 206 B. C.-221 A. D. Dynasties of East and West Han. Brilliant period of Chinese history. The power of the feudal lords limited, the empire consolidated and strength- ened, and extended westward to Russian Turkestan, Conquest of northern Corea (109 A. d.). Annexation of Hainan. This period was succeeded by one of great confusion. 221-265 A. D. Epoch of the Three Kingdoms: Wd, in the north; Wu, in the east; and Shuh, in the west. Wuti, 265 A. d., re- united a large part of the empire and founded the dynasty of Tsin, but the country soon relapsed into a divided state, which continued until 590 A. D. Yang-Kian, prince of Sny, in the northern king- dom of Wei, extending his conquests southward, united the whole empire under his sceptre and founded the dynasty of Suy. § 10. JAPANESE. Turanian. Geography: The Japanese^ empire, Dai Nippon, is a chain of isl- ands which skirts the eastern coast of Asia opposite Corea, Man- churia, a-nd Amur. It comprises four large islands: Kiushiu; Shiko- Z-M;Hondo,2 or Honshiu, the principal island; Yezo; and some three thousand small islands.^ Nature of the country, rocky, mountainous, volcanic. Highest mountain, Fusiyama (12,000 ft.), in the centre of the east coast of Hondo. Kivers numerous but small; among the largest: Tone-gawa, Shinano-gawa, Kiod-gawa, Ti-gmva. Lake Biica in Hondo. Principal cities: Kioto, Yedo, or Tokio, Yokohama, Osaka. Religion: The most ancient religion of Japan bears the native name of Kami-no-michi, " the way of the gods," but is better known abroad by the Chinese term Shinto. It consisted of a theology which comprised the gods of heaven, the mikados, many deified mortals, ani- 1 Japan {Zipnngu in the Middle Ap^e) is a name given to the empire by foreifrners. It is probably of Chinese origin. 2 This is the name recently applied to the main island by the Japanese gov- ernment; previously the .lapanese had no name for this island. Nippon, the name frequently given it by foreigners, is tlie name of the whole empire. 3 Saghalin was given to Russia in 1875 in exchange for the Kurile islands. B. c.-A. D. Japanese. 33 mals, plants, and natural objects, and of a ritual for the worship of these deities. The chief command of the religion was implicit obedi- ence to the gods, especially to the mikado. It had no moral code. It was emphatically a state religion, and was often used as a political engine. In 552 A. d. Buddhism was introduced into Japan, where it spread rapidly. Development of a score or more of sects. (Among others Shin-shu, which teaches salvation by faith in Buddha.) Bud- dhism for a time overshadowed ihe older religion, but the present government has fully reinstated the Shinto faith. Chronology: The origin of the Japanese is uncertain. They in- vaded the islands from Asia, and conquered them from the savage Ainos, whom they found there. The present Japanese are certainly a mixed race, containing Turanian and Malay elements. While the mythical history of Japan comprises a dynasty of gods, followed by a dynasty of rulers descended from the sun-goddess, and who are sometimes assigned reigns of hundreds of thousands of years each, the earliest date of what is believed in Japan to be authentic history is 660 B. c; the dates are probably untrustworthy until much later. 660-585 B. c. Jimmu Tenno,^ the first Mikado,^ being the 5th in descent from the sun-goddess. He was leader of the invasion, and conquered Kiushiu, Shikoku, and a part of the main island. Jimmu is regarded by many foreign scholars as a mythical character. He was the founder of an unbroken dynasty, of which the reigning mikado, Mutsu-Hito, is the 122d (123d counting Jingu) sovereign. The lOtli mikado, Sujin (97-30 B. c.) introduced reforms, reorganized the administra- tion of the empire and generally advanced the civilization of the people. Intercourse opened with Corea. Succeeding em- perors continued the war with the native Ainos, who were pushed further and further to the north. Especially famous is the reign of the 12th mikado, 71-130 A. D. Keiko, whose more famous son, Yamato-Dake, " the warlike," conquered the great eastern plain, the KoantO. The 14th mikado, Chinai, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his wife the renowned 201-269 A. D. Jingu-Kogo, sometimes called the 15th mikado, al- though never formally crowned. She suppressed a rebellion in Kiushiu, and herself led an army to Corea, which she re- duced to submission. Diplomatic relations with China. Her son and successor, 270-310 A. D. Ojin, was a great warrior, and is still worshipped as 1 His true name was Knn-yamato-iware-hiko-no-milcoto. After the introduc- tion of Chinese characters, the long native names of gods and emperors were transcribed into the shorter Chinese equivalents. It also became customary for the mikados to receive after death a different name from that which they had borne while living. The first mikado received the name Jimmu, " spirit of war," to which was joined one of the official titles of the mikado, Tenno, " lord of heaven." 2 Mikado, the most general title of the emperors, is derived either from Mi, "honorable," and Kado, "gate" (compare " Sublime Porte," and "Pharaoh '' p. 1, note 3), or from Afika, "great," and to, " place." 3 34 Ancient History. b. c. the god of war. Introduction of Chinese literature and civil- ization, which at this date was far in advance of the Japanese. From this time to the sixth century the annals of Japan are marked by no great events. B. WESTERN PEOPLES. § 1. CELTS. Aryan. Celts, or Kelts, is the name given to that race which, at the dawn of authentic history, occupied the extreme west of Europe. They be- longed to the Indo-European family, and, if the Asiatic origin of that family be accepted,^ were the first branch to enter upon the wesstward migration. a. Continental Celts. Gauls. Geography : At the time of the Roman conquest (59 - 51 ), Gaul, or that part of Europe occupied by the Celts (KsAtoQ or Gauls (rdWoi), was divided among three great groups of tribes: Belgians, dwelling between the lower Rhine, the forest of Ardennes, the Mame, and Seine. This people have been claimed as Teutons, but the weight of evidence assigns them to the Celts.-^ Tribes : Remi, Suessiones, Nervii,^ Menapii. Gauls,* dwelling between the Seine, Mame, middle Rhine, Rhoyie, and Garonne. Tribes : In the valley of the Seine (Sequana): Parisii (with the city Lutetia Parisi- orum, now Paris), Senones ; in the valley of the Loire (Liger) : Namnetes, Turones, Carnutes, Boii, jEdui, Averni ; W. of the Seine : Treviri; in the valley of the Saone ^nd Rhone : Sequani, Allohroges. The Aquitanians, between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, were not €elts, but Iberians. In Switzerland: Helvetii, Vindelici. Religion : Soon after the conquest the theology of the Gauls was largely superseded and corrupted by the introduction of the Roman gods. Little is therefore known of the pure Celtic religion, whose nature has consequently become a favorite subject for dispute. It was a pantheism, which had its cycle of great gods, its local divin- ities, its deifications of forests, rivers, and fountains. Among the great gods are the following, with their Roman equivalents : Bormo, Grannus (^Apollo), with his companion the goddess Damona ; Segomo, Cannulas (^Mars), with the goddess Nemetonia; Belisama (^Minerva ?); Taramicus (Jupiter). Complicated and imposing ceremonial, con- ducted by the Druids, or priests, who were accorded at least equal honors with the nobles. They did not form an hereditary class, but were recruited from the people. Exemption from military service 1 See Introduction. 2 The Belgians are also claimed as non-Aryans, of the same race as the Aquitanians. 8 Dahn, Urrjesch. d. Germ. III. 26, note 9. ■* In spite of Caesar's statement that the Gauls were called Celts in their own language, the two names are not considered synonymous. It is probable that the Gailic tribes formed a division distinct from the Celtic tribes (using Celt in the narrow sense of inhabitant of Gaul). The attempt has even been made to draw the geographical boundary between them. B. c. Celts. 35 and taxes. Use of writing, with Greek alphabet. Exercise of juris- diction. Human sacrifices. Civilization : That the Celts of Gaul had reached quite an ad- vanced stage of civilization ^ is clear from the readiness with which they accepted the higher civilization of Rome, and from the fact that their social state as depicted by Caesar exhibits a degeneracy which was not seen again in northern Europe until the decay of the Neus- trian state under the Merowingiaus, in the fifth and sixth centuries a. d. Chronology: Before the conquest the history of the Celts of Gaul is the history of their collisions with the southern nations. The Celtic migration was slow, and large bodies were left behind at various points, as in Bohemia and throughout Germany, where many traces of Celtic occupation survived the Teutonic conquest. According to some writers the Celts immigrated in two bands, the Goidelic or Gadhelic Celts being the more northerly, and the Bry- ihonic or Cymric Celts the more southerly ; this is but a surmise. Not earlier than 2000. The Celts reached the western shores of Europe. Their principal settlements were made in central France. They here attained their highest culture, and from this point detachments went forth to conquer new lands. There were four principal emigrations. 1. To the British Isles. Date unknown. See p. 36. 2. To Spain, where they mingled with the Iberian inhabitants and formed the Celtiherians. Celts in Spain were known to Herodo- tus in the fifth century B. c. 3. To Northern Italy. The legendary history of Rome places this event in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or about 600 B. c. Tribe followed tribe mitil the whole of northern Italy was occupied (^Gallia Cisalpina). Tribes : Bituriges (Milan), Cenomani (Brescia and Verona), Boii (Bologna), *J)enones (coast between Rimini and Ancona). 390. Conquest of Rome by the Senones under their Brennus, i. e. military leader. 283. Extermination of the Senones by the Romans ; defeat of the Boii on the Vadimonian lake. 238. General league of Cisalpine Gauls against Rome. Defeat of the league at Telamon, 225. Capture of Milan by Scipio. Formation of Roman colonies at Placentia, Cremona, Mutina. In the second Punic War, Hannibal induced the Gauls to take up arms, but in the 193. Battle of Mutina, the last resistance of the Boii was broken and northern Italy was rapidly Romanized. 4. To Greece and Asia Minor. In 278 a band of Gauls under a Brennus ravaged Macedonia and Greece. After a futile attack upon Delphi, the survivors made their way by land to Asia Minor, where they settled in the interior, and gave their name to Galatia. 1 The stage of development in civilization attained b}- ancient peoples must be largely determined by the degree of complexity found in their social and political systems. In our day, when material comforts and conveniences form a so much larger part of the popular idea of civilization than they ever did before, it is well to remember this in judging the civilizations that are gone. 36 Ancient History. B. C. Of the Celts of Gaul little is known until the Roman conquest. Some time before this, it is probable, the pressure of the Teutonic migration had made itself felt in tha west, but the details of the conflicts are imknown. Celts and Teutons became here and there interspersed, but in general the Rhine was the boundary. About 125-121, the Romans conquered Southern Gaul and made it a province {Gallia Narhonensis). While the Celtic origin of the Cimbri may not be admitted without question, it is certain that Gallic tribes played a considerable part in that great invasion of Italy (113-101). 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar (p. 138), after which the history of Gaul belongs to that of Rome. b. Celts of the British Isles. BRITAIN. Geography : The island of Britain forms an irregular triangle, and is bounded E. by the German Ocean, S. by the Straits of Dover and the English Channel, W. by St. George's Channel, the Irish Sea, North Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean. It falls into three geographical divisions, corresponding somewhat to the later political divisions. I. The extreme north, beyond the deep indentations of the Frith oj Clyde and the Frith of Forth, is mountainous and barren, with numer- ous small lakes {Loch Ness, Loch Tay, Loch Lomond), and sharply cut coasts on the west. II. The southern and eastern portion : hilly in the N. and W. ; on the E. a broad plain, well watered and fertile. Eastern rivers : Humber (Ouse, Trent), Witham, Welland, Nen, Ouse, running tlirough a broad fen-land into the Wash, Thames. Western rivers : Severn, Mersey. Island of Wight. In early times the greater part of this plain, the modern England, was covered with forests, of which scanty traces remain. The Andredsiveald covered a large part of the counties of Surrey and Sussex ; north of the Thames a huge forest extended nearly to the Wash, of which Epping and Hain- ault forests formed a part. The fens about the Wash were much more extensive than now. III. The broad western promontory of Wales, mountainous with small rivers. Island of Anglesea. Religion and Civilization : The Celts of Britain were ruder than their brethren of Gaul, and never reached the same stage of civiliza- tion, but they seem to have resembled the continental Celts in cus- toms and religion. Druids. Bards. History, a. Mythical: Inordinate pride of ancestry, a fertile im- agination, and an acquaintance with Biblical and classical history en- abled the British bards and priestly historians to compose for their race a mythical past, unique in its extent, its detail, and its disregard of time and space. Gaul was colonized by Meschish, son of Japhet, son of Noah, about 1799 (Anno Mundi) under the name of Samotkes. Meschish ruled Gaul 109 years, when he conquered Britain in 1908 (a. m.) and reigned over both countries 47 years. He was followed by six sovereigns of his race, but on the accession of the seventli, Lucius, 2211 A. M., Britain was wrested from liis rule by Albion, a descendant of Ham. He and his successors reigned over Britain B. c.-A. D. Celts, 37 until 2896 a. m. or 1108 b. c, when the line of Japhet recovered the island in the person of Brute, great-grandson of ^neds of Troy. Brute built Troynouant, afterwards Lud's Towriy London. He was followed by his descendants, among whom we may mention Bladudy founder of Bath, Leir (841-791), Ferrex and Porrex (496^91), with whom his line expired. Britain for a time divided into five kingc doms, was finally reunited under Malmucius Dunwall, the son of Cloten king of Cornwall (441-^01), whose son Brennus left his island home to sack Rome, assault Delphi, and found the kingdom of Galatia.^ Among the successors of Malmucius were Coill (160-140). Pyrrhus (66-64), and Lvd (who in some mysterious manner began to reign in 69) Cassivelaunus (expedition of Caesar), Cymbeline (19 B. C.-16 A. D.), Caractacus, Vortigem (445-^155 (485) a. d.). Arthur (508-542). Finally the list merges in the historical line of the kings and princes of Wales. h. Probable. The Britons of historic times were Celts who came to the island from Gaul at two periods. The first invasion was very early, and the invaders were Celts of the Goidelic (Gadhelic) or northern branch. From the testimony of sepulchral monuments it is conjectured that the Celts found two races in Britain : a small, dark-haired race, perhaps of Iberian stock, and a large light-haired race of Scandinavian origin. The Goidelic Celts conquered without exterminating the previous inhabitants, and held the land many cen- turies, until a new invasion of continental Celts occurred. This time it was the Brythonic or Cymric Celts of the southern stock, who crossed the channel, probably not very long before the expedition of Caesar, and dispossessed their kinsmen of the southern and eastern portion of the island. Tribes : Cantii, the most civilized, Attrebatii, Belgce^ Damnonii, Silures, Trinobantes, Iceni, Brigantes, etc. The ancients received their first direct knowledge of Britain from Pytheas of Massilia, who landed on the island in the third century B. c. That the Phoenicians ever visited Britain is doubted by English scholars, who contend that they obtained their tin either from the rivers of Gaul, or from the Gallic tribes who imported it from Britain. With 55-54 B. c. The two expeditions of Caesar, the actual history of Britain begins. The effect of the invasions was transitory. 43 A. D. Claudius began the conquest of Britain in earnest, and his generals reduced the country south of the Avon and Severn. 58. Revolt of Boadicea, leader of the Iceni ; her defeat. 78-85. Agricola, under Vespasian and Domitian, carried the Roman arms far into Scotland and built a wall from the Frith of Forth to the Frith of Clyde as a defense against the wild tribes of the north. Henceforward Britannia formed a tolerably quiet part of the Roman empire. Roman fortresses, towns and villas covered its soil in profusion. 121. Hadrian built a wall from the Tyne to the Solway. In 1 Brennus killed himself after the repulse from Deiphi; his army settled in 9alatia. St. Michael's College Scholastic's Ll-.ary 38 Ancient History, b. c. 139. Antoninus strengthened the wall of Agricola. In 210 Severus added new defenses to that of Hadrian. 180. Legendary conversion of Lucius, king of the Trinobantes, to Christianity, after which the new religion spread through- out the country, a church was organized and bishoprics founded at Canterbury and York {?). With the decay of the empire its power in Britain declined. Troops were withdrawn to assist in defending the continental borders, or in supporting the claims of rival aspirants for the crown. Durmg the third century the attacks of the Picts and Scots in the north grew more and more severe, while the southern and eastern coasts suffered from the ravages of the Frank and Saxon pirates. Count of the Saxon Shore,^ the olficer in charge of the coast between the Wash and Southampton water, which was most exposed to these ravages. From 286-294 Britain was independent under Cerausius, who proclaimed himself emperor of Britain. 360. Scots from Ireland ravaged the western shores. 410. Honorius renounced the sovereignty of Britain. The with- drawal of the legions left Britain to her own resources. A period of civil dissension and exposure to foreign inroads fol- lowed, broken by the 411. " Alleluia Victory " of the Britons accompanied by St. Ger- manuSy over the Picts. Finally the king of the Damnonii, Vortigern (Guorthigen), either by usurpation or election, ob- tained the sovereignty over a large part of the island, and, as the story goes, invited the invasion of the Teutonic conquer- ors (p. 176). IRELAND. Geography : Lying W. of Britain, Ireland is bounded on the E. by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel ; on all other sides by the Atlantic Ocean. It is a low plain, fringed with hilly tracks upon the coast ; abounding in lakes (Lough Corrib, L. Mask, L. Erne, L. Neagh, Lakes of Killarney, L. Dearg, L. Ree^, and rivers {Boyne, Liffey, Barrow, Blackwater, Shannon). Religion and Civilization: In Ireland as in Britain we find Celtic inhabitants, Celtic religion, and Celtic culture, but both in a still more primitive form than in England ; so much so, indeed, that it may be, the Celts of Ireland were the best representatives of primitive Aryan civilization. Druids. Bards. History: Again the liistorian is confronted with a vast mass of very valuable tradition mingled with a great amount of priestly in- vention. The Irish historical books speak of five invasions of Ire- land. I. Partholan led a force from central Greece, which ruled 1 Comes Litnris Saxonici per Britnnninm. An attempt has been made (Lap- penberg, Kemble) to show that this name indicates the settlement of Saxons npontliis shore long before the Teutonic conquest. What people, it has been asked, Avould name a portion of their country after its worst enemies ? A ref- erence to our "Indian Frontier," by which is meant land held by the whites but molested by Indians, might dispel this objection. The argument from i'oinage is stronger, but on the whole the assumption does not seem to be proved. B. c. Greeks. 39 Ireland 300 years, and >:hen died of the plague, and were succeeded by II. Nemed, from Scythia, who also died of the plague. III. Fir- bolgs, who came under five chiefs and settled in various parts of the island. IV. The Tuatha De Danann, of the race of Nemed, who defeated and nearly exterminated the Firholgs. V. Milesians or Scots, who under Galam, son of Breogan, came from Spain, and conquering the Tuatha De' Danann, divided Ireland among the sons and other relatives of Galam. The ancestry of Galam goes back to Noah. The historical interpretation of these legends seems at present to be that Ireland at the commencement of the Christian era was occupied in the north by Goidelic Celts (Cruithni, Picts) ; in the east and centre by British and Belgic tribes (Cymric), and in the southwest (Munster) by a people of southern extraction (Ibe- rians ?). Between the numerous petty kingdoms thus established incessant war prevailed, with the details of which the legendary his- tory is filled. Tuathal (died 160 A. d.), a powerful king who reigned over Leinster and Meath, and warred with the rival kingdom or kingdoms in Munster, is probably historic. Irish Invasions of Brit- ain : Settlements in Wales, Devon, and Cornwall, and especially in the north. Ireland was never conquered, or even invaded, by the Romans, though Agricola had planned an Irish expedition. The Irish were converted to Christianity in the fifth century. Palladius, sent to Ireland, 431 a. d., died soon after. St. Patrick (Succath or Maun), took up the work and brought it to a successful conclusion. Establishment of numerous monasteries, which in the next cen- tury attained wide renown for the learning of their members. §2. GRECIAN HISTORY. Aryan. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT GREECE. See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. V and VI. The peninsula of Greece (Hellas, ^ 'EWds) bounded N. by Mace- donia and Illyria, and on all other sides by the sea (E. mare jEgceum, S. mare Myrtoum and mare Creticum, W. mare Ionium), is divided into four principal regions : Peloponnesus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Epirus. A. Peloponnesus (^ neXoir6uuri(ros, Island of Pelops), connected with the mainland by the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, washed on the N. by the waters of the Corinthian Gulf, is divided into nine dis- tricts : 1. Achaia, formerly inhabited by lonians, in twelve com- munities, or cantons. jEgium, capital of the confederacy, Patrce. 2. Elis or Eleia, in iEolic dialect, Vdlis, drained by the Alphms and Peneus. It is subdivided into Elis Proper, or Hollow Elis: Elis and its harbor Cyllene, Pisatis : Olympia, not a city but a temple of Zeus, in a walled grove ("AXtls), with places for games, altars, and va- rious buildings, and Triphylia. 3. Messenia : Pylos, the home of Nestor, opposite the island of Sphacteria, Messene, built in 369 b. c, the hill fortresses of Ithome and Ira. 4. Laconia (AaKcoviK-q), with the mountain range of Taygetus, ending in the promontory Tsenarus : Sparta (:S,TrdpT7i), on the right bank of the Eurotas ; north of Sparta, Sellasia ; on the coast Helos, and Gythium the harbor of Sparta, 40 Ancient History. b. c. 5. Argolis (rh ''Apycs, ri ^Apye(a) comprised many cantons, politically independent of one another : Argos, with its harbor Nauplia, on the gulf of Argolis y near by Tiryns, with Cyclopean walls, Hermioney TrcRzen, Epidaurus, on the Saronicus sinus; inland, Mycence with Cyclopean structures. The Lion Gate, the so-called Treasure House of Atreus. 6. Phliasia : Phlius. 7. Corinthia : Corinth, formerly Ephyra with its citadelJ. crocormfAt^. 8. Sicyonia: Sicyon (Sikuccv). 9. Arcadia, the mountainous region in the interior, with the ranges Cyllene and Erymanthus on the borders of Achaia; Mantinea, Tegea^ Megalopolis, the latter founded in 370. B. Central Greece,^ also divided into nine districts : 1. Megaris, since the Dorian conquest, belonging ethnographically and politi- cally to Peloponnesus: Megara, and its harbor Niscea. 2. Attica ('Attiktj) with the mountains Parnes, Brllissus (Pentelicus^, Hymettus, and the promontory of Sunium, the rivulets Cephissus and Ilissus. Athens {'AOrjvai) with the Acropolis (PropyloRa, Parthenon^ Erech-^ theion), the fortified harbor of Pirceus (Ueipaievs), connected with the city by the Long Walls (rh fiaKpa relxv ; tos (tk4\7}), the two unimportant harbors Munychm and Zea and the open bay of Phaleron, which served as a roadstead. Attic demes : Eleusis, Marathon, Decelea, Phyle, etc. 3. Boeotia, with Mts. Helicon, and Cithceron, Lake Copals, traversed by the Cephissus ; Thebes (kirTdtrv^os), with its citadel the Cadmea; Thespice ; Leuctra ; Platmce, which separated itself very early from the Boeotian league and allied itself with Athens ; Haliartus, Coronea, Orchomenos. On the coast; Aulis, Delium, and, not far distant, Tan- agra. 4. Phocis: At the base of Mt. Parnassus, Delphi (AeA^oO, with the oracle of the Pythian Apollo, Cr/ssa, with its harbor, Cirrha; Elatea. 5. Eastern Locris : {h.oKpo\ v^oi), for a time di- vided by a part of Phocis into the southern region of the Opuntian Locrians with the town Opus, and the northern of the Epicne- midian Locrians (i. e. they who dwell on the mountain of Cnemis) with the town Thronium. 6. Western Locris (AoKpoi kairipioi, called by the other Grecians Ao/cpol o^Shai, "the stinking"). Amphissa, Naupactus. 7. Doris (Aopfs), between the mountains CEta and Par^ nassus, the country of a small body of Dorians, who at the time of the Dorian invasion remained in the north, called from its four miim- portant villages, the Tetrapolis. 8. .Sltolia, Calydon, Pleuron, and Thermum (afterwards the place where the assembly met at the time of the iEtolian league). 9. Acarnania, with the promontory Actium; Stratus, near the river Achelous, ('AxeAi^os) which separates Acarna- nia from jEtolia. C. Thessaly, watered by the Peneus (valley of Tempe), with the mountain range of Pindus in the W. on the border of Epirus; in the S. Othrys; in the E. Pelion, Ossa; in the N. Olympus and the Camou- nian mountains.^ Five divisions from S. to N.: 1. Phthiotis, in the most southern part. Malls, on the Sinus Maliacus was the Pass of Thermopylae, i. e. " gate of the warm springs ; " Lamm. 2. Thessa- liotis, Pharsalus. 3. Pelasgiotis, Pherce, Crannon, Larissa on the 1 The expression Hellas propria first appears in the Roman period ; tho Greeks never used Hellas for the name of this particular part of the country. 2 But see Kiepert, LehrbSd. a. Geoyr., § 210, note 1. B. C. Greeks. 41 Peneus. 4. Hestiaeotis. 5. The eastern coast land, Magnesia, lolcos, on the Sinus Pagasceus, Demetrias. D. Epirus. In historic times inhabited by lUyrian tribes not of pure Grecian blood. Principal tribes: Molossians, in whose terri- tory was Ambracia, not far from the Ambracian gulf, and Dodona (oracle of Zeus); Thesprotians, PandosXa on the Achtrorij Chao uians. In Macedonia, which lay north from Thessaly, the following places are to be noted: Pydna, Pella, the royal residence since the reign of A:*chelaus (formerly jEgae or Edessa enjoyed this distinc- tion). On the penmsula Chalcidice: OlynthuSy PotidcBttj Staglrus. In Thrace: Amphipolis near the mouth of the Strymon, PhilippcE, Abdera, Perinthus (Heradea), Byzantium. In the Thracian Chersonese: Sestos, opposite Abydos in Asia Minor. Most important islands : In the ^gean sea : 1, Crete (KprjTT], kKaT6fnro\is) : Cnosus (Gnossus), and Gortyn (a) ; 2, Thera, a colony of Sparta, itself mother city of Cyrene in Africa (p. 49), Melos ; 3, the 12 Cyclades : Paros, Naxos, to the north the small De- los (Mt. Cynthus, sanctuary of Apollo), Cythnos, Ceos, AndroSy TenoSy etc. In the Saronic gulf: 4, uEgina (Atytvo); 5, Salamis. In the sea of Eubcea; 6, Eubcea with the promontory of Artemisium in the north, Chalets, Eretria. In the Thracian sea: 7, Lemnos; 8, Samo- thrace; 9, Thasos. On the coast of Asia Minor from N. to S. : 10, Tenedos, not far from Ilium or Troy, in the district of Troas; 11, Lesbos: Mitylene, Methymna; 12, Chios; 13, /Sawios opposite the prom- ontory of Mycale; 14, Cos; 15, Rhodes. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean the island of Cyprus, (KiTTpos), cities (originally Phoenician, afterwards Greek): Salamis {Schalem), Paphoc and Amathus, centre of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus Amathusia). In the Ionian sea from S. to N. : 1, Cythera, south of Laconia, with temple of Aphrodite; 2, Zacynthos; 3, Cephallenia, called by Homer Samos; 4, Ithaca; 5, Leucasj 6, Corcyra (KepKwpa), perhaps the Scheria of Homer. RELIGION OF THE GREEKS. ^ The religion of the early Greeks was a pantheistic nature-worship,, distinguished among others by the multiplicity of its deities, and their intricate gradation, as well as by the wealth of biographical detail which the imagination of the poets provided for them. The great gods, Olympic deities, were 12 in number. Male divinities : Zeus " the God," lord of the sky, and ruler of all other gods as well as of men; Poseidon, god of the sea; Apollo, probably originally the highest god of some local district, the divinity of wisdom, of healing, of music and poetry, but not until later the sun-god; Ares, god of war; HephcEstus, god of fire, and of work accomplished by the application of fire, set apart from the other gods by his lameness; Hermes, god of invention, commercial skill, cunning, bravery. Female divinities: Hera, con- 1 Rawlinson. Religions of the Ancient World. Also Grote, Hist, of Greece^ vol. I.; Curtius, Griech. Gesch. I. 543-60; 456-549 passim. 42 Ancient History. B. Co sort of Zeus; Athena, the maiden goddess sprung from the head of Zeus, the embodiment of wisdom and of housewifery; Artemis, god- dess of hunting, afterwards connected with the moon, as her brother Phcebus Apollo, with the sun ; Aphrodite, goddess of sensual love, prob- ably introduced from the East; Hestia, goddess of fire, especially of the hearth-fire ; Demeter, " earth-mother," presiding over agriculture. In the lower rank of gods may be mentioned: Dionysim, god of wine and drunkenness; Hades, god of the lower world, the Graces, the Muses, the Fates, the Furies, etc. The fields and forests, the ocean and the rivers were crowded with Nymphs and Hamadryads, Naiads and Nereids, while creatures of a lower order. Satyrs (among whom Pan rose to the level of a god of the second rank) and monsters {Cyclopes, Gorgons, Centaurs, etc.) abounded. Reverence was also paid to the heroes, ideal representations of fa- mous men, real or imaginary. Such were Cadmus (Thebes), Theseus (Athens), and Heracles, the mostly widely known of all (see p. 45). The gods were worshipped by invocation, and by sacrifices offered in accordance with a rigid ritual at altars which could be im- provised anywhere. There were, however, permanent altars for all divinities, in temples where the statue of the divinity was also en- shrined. These temples were frequently erected on lofty and com- manding sites, and upon their construction and decoration was lav- ished the highest skill in architecture and sculpture. Brilliant coloring was also employed upon the temples. Each family, tribe and race, each city, district and comitry had its recurring fes- tivals of special honor to the gods (Panathencea at Athens). Re- ligious festivals of all Greece: Olympian (Zeus) every fifth year, in July or August, at Olympia in Elis; Pythian (Apollo), every fifth (9th) year, at Delphi; Isthmian (Neptune), every five years on the Isthmus of Corinth; Nemean, every third year, at Nemea in Argolis. These festivals were the centre of Grecian national life. Amphyctio- nic Council, the most important of the Amphyctionics (p. 51), a reli- gious conference which met at Delphi, and represented the political side of the Pan-Hellenic religion. Consultation of oracles, for obtain- ing the counsel of the gods, especially at Delphi. Mysteries, or rites of secret religious societies, the most renowned at Eleusis. No hierarchy of priests ; yet those who had charge of the sacrifices, and more espe- cially of the oracles, often attained great influence. Ideas of future life vague and unsatisfactory. The more advanced minds among the Greeks undoubtedly attained to the idea of the es- sential oneness of divinity. GRECIAN HISTORY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR EPOCHS. X-1104 (?). I. Mythical period down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration. 1104 (?)-500. II. Formation of the Hellenic states. Period of con- stitutional struggles down to the Persian ivars. 500-338. III. Persian wars and internecine strife for the hegemony down to the loss of independence at the battle of Charonea. 338-146. IV. Grseco-Macedonian or Hellenistic period down to the subjugation of Greece by the Romans. Destruction of Corinth, B. c. Greelcs, 43 FIRST PERIOD. M3rthical time, down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration (x-1104?).! The Greeks,^ or as they called themselves the Hellenes ("EAATjves), belong to the Indo-European or Aryan family. The Greeks state that the original inhabitants of their country- were the Pelasgians. The meanmg of tliis name is much disputed. According to some scholars it denotes the band which afterwards divided mto the Italians and Hellenes. Another view regards the Pelasgians and Hellenes as the same people, but holds that the latter name is applied to those tribes wliich, " endowed with peculiar abil- ities and inspired with peculiar energy, distinguished themselves above the mass of a great people, while they extended their power within the same by force of arms," ^ so that their name became in historic times the one generally accepted. Others, again, regard the name Pelasgian as Semitic, and so applied originally to the Phoenician in- habitants of the coast, especially to the Minyce of Orchomenos, and afterwards erroneously transferred to the Illyrian aborigines of Epirus, Acadia, etc. Qodona, in Epirus, with the oracle of Zeus^ the god of the sky, was the oldest centre of the Pelasgian life and religion. Remains of Pelasgian buildings, called by the Greeks Cyclopean^ are found in Tiryns in Argolis, and in Orchomenos in Bceotia. Our earliest historical information shows the Hellenes divided into various tribes. Of these the Achaeans were most prominent during the heroic times, and their name was therefore used by Homer to denote the entire race. In historic times, on the contrary, the Dorians and lonians occupy the foreground; the other tribes are then classed together under the name 2Bo\ian, and the dialects which were neither Dorian nor Ionian are known as ^olian. The following mytliical genealogy seems to have been invented at a very late period, and to have originated at Delphi. Hellen (son of Deucalion) A. ^olus (i. e. the many-colored) Dorus Xuthus (i. e. the exUe) Ion Achseus. We have no authentic information about the manner of the Hel- lenic migration into Greece. According to one well-founded theory, a part of the immigrants, and among them the ancestors of the Do- rians, forced their way over the Hellespont into the mountainous region of northern Greece, where they established themselves as shepherds and tillers of the land. Other bands, among whom were the ancestors of the lonians, having descended from the highlands of Phry- - According to Duncker, Hist, of Antiq., TOO years later. 2 Grdken (Grsci, TpaiKoi) was the name given to the Greeks by the people of Italy; it was the name of a tribe in Epirus, or the Jllyrian name for the Hellenes m general. 8 Curtius, Griechische Geschic/ite, I. 29; Hist, of Greece, N. Y. 1876, 1. 41 14 Ancient History. b. c. gia, by way of the valleys, to the coast of Asia Minor, were there transformed into a race of seamen^ and gradually spread themselves over the islands of the Archipelago to the mainland of Greece.^ (The former formed the western, the latter, the eastern Greeks). Remembrance of the fact that western Greece received its civiliza- tion from the East gave rise, at a later period, to stories about un- authentic immigrations.^ Cecrops (K6»cpo»;/), according to the original story autochthonus king of Attica, and builder of the Cecropia (Acropolis of Athens), was afterwards, in consequence of that identification of Grecian and Egyptian mythology which is illustrated by the conception of Neithy goddess of Sais, as Pallas Athena (p. 2), falsely represented as an Egyptian immigrant from Sais. The truth seems to be that the cliffs by the Ilissus, which were called the Cecropia^ formed the first fortress of the inhabitants of the region, upon which their altars and sanctuaries found protec- tion, and around which the first beginnings of political life in Attica grouped themselves. Afterwards the Cecropia was per- sonified under the name Cecrops. According to the legend Cecrops was succeeded by Erichthonios, the latter by Erechtheus^ the two becoming soon imited into one person, in whom the Erechtheion, the temple of Poseidon Erechtheus, on the Acropolis, is personified. The legend makes Erechtheus the founder of the festival of Pan- athencea and conqueror of Eumolpus (i. e. sweet singer) of Eleusis, the centre of the worship of Demeter (story of her daughter Core, in the lower world Proserpina; the Eleusinian mysteries). Eleusis was united with Athens into one community. Erechtheus, according to the legend, was succeeded by (Eneus, the latter by j^geus, the father of Theseus, the national hero of the lonians (p. 45). A later legend tells how Danaus, brother of jEgt/ptus, came from Upper Egypt to Argos. He, too, with his fiifty daughters, the Dan- aides, who, with the exception of Hypermnestra, murdered their hus- bands, the sons of jEgyptus, and were for this crime condemned to fill the bottomless tub, belongs to the native mythology. The Dan- aides are the springs of Argos, which, in the summer time, exert themselves in vain to satisfy the soil ; the water which gushes from them being dried up in the chalky earth. According to the legend the descendants of Lynceus and Hypermnestra ruled in Argos. On the other hand the legend of the migration of the Pelopidae from Lydia to Greece seems to have a historical f oimdation. Pelops, son of king Tantalus, who ruled the country about the Sipylus, came to Elis in Peloponnesus. His sons Atreus and Thyestes, with the help of Achceans from Phthiotis, made themselves masters of Tiryns and Mycenoe, which had been founded by Perseus. Of the sons of Atreus, Agamemnon reigned over the whole of Argolis, while Menelaus became king of Sparta and Messina. The buildings and sculptures in Mycenae, which are ascribed to the Atridce, resemble Assyrian art, and Assyrian art could have come to Greece earliest by way of Lydia. 1 Curtius, I., Griech. Gesch., I. 29 sqq. ; ffist. of Greece, I. 41. 2 Cf. Duncker, Gesch. des Alth., III. (2 Auflage), 1 Kap. 4-6. Curtiua, Griech. Gesch., I. 58; Bist. of Greece, I. 73. B. c. Greeks. 45 Cadmus, the mythical founder of the Theban state, is the per- sonification of Phoenician colonization, or at least of that civilization which Hellas had received from Phcenicia (p. 18). The national heroes of Grecian legend. The myth of Heracles ('HpoKArjs, Hercules), son of Zeus and Alc- mena, grew up out of the union of various religious, historical, and ethical elements. Heracles was in the begimiing an actual divinity whom tradition, in the course of time, degraded to a demi-god. In him are united the Phoenician Melkart (p. 17) and Sandon, the sun- god of Asia Minor, and his heroic deeds are for the most part adapta- tions of the deeds ascribed to these two divinities. Heracles is at the same time the popular symbol brought by the Phoenicians to the eastern Greeks, and from them to the western Greeks, of the pioneer activity of the ancient settlements. A portion of the mass of legends connected with Heracles after his transformation into a Greek is ex- plained by later historical relations. The Dorians adopted him as their tribal hero. Their kings called themselves his descendants, Heraclidse ; from him they derived their rights to the Peloponnesus. Hence liis rights, in the legends, not only over Mycence, in opposition to Eurystheus, but also over other parts of the peninsula (Auglas in Elis, Tyndareus in Sparta). The poetry of a later time, regarding Heracles as an ethical conception, presented him as the model of heroism, moral force, and renunciation, especially of willing obedi- ence (the 12 labors at the behest of Eurystheus; the choice of Her- cules). Theseus (©Tjo-eus), son of jEgeus, the descendant of Cecrops, is the family hero of the lonians, and of the Athenians in particular. He cleared the road from Troezen, where, according to the legend, he was born, to Athens (especially the isthmus), of robbers (PeripketeSy Sinnis, Sciron, Damastes or Procrustes), so that the lonians of the Peloponnesus and of Attica thenceforward could assemble on the isthmus at the sacrifices to Poseidon. Theseus put to death the Minotaur in Crete, and rescued the Athenian youths and maidens sent as a sacrifice to him. He conquered at Marathon the wild bull which is said to have likewise come from Crete. He repulsed the Amazons who made an attack upon Athens for the purpose of avenging the rape of Antiope. These three myths express the historical fact of the liberation of Attica from the tribute which it owed to the Phoenicians of Crete and the smaller islands, who offered human sacrifices to their god Moloch. The origin of the story of the Amazons is to be found in the virgin servants of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, who, at the religious ceremonies, executed dances in armor. The legend, moreover, ascribes to Theseus the union of the inhabitants of Attica into one state, and the separation of the people into the three orders: Eupatridce (nobles), Geomori (peasants), and Demiurgi (artizans), whereas the arrangement of the four ancient classes (Phylre) : Geleontes (nobles), HoplUes (warriors), Argadeis (artizans), jEgicoreis (shepherds) was referred by the Athenians to the mythical tribal ancestor of the Ionian tribe. Ion (p. 43). 46 Ancient History. B. c. The Grecian legends adopted Minos (mIi^ws), also originally of Phoenician origin, and transformed him into a Hero of the Dorians who dwelt in Crete since 1000, and a wise legislator and suppressor of piracy. Advanced civilization existed in Crete before 1500. Concerted enterprises of the heroic time. Expedition of the Argonauts. The golden fleece. Phrixos, son of the king of the Minyae, Athamas of lolcos, in Thessaly„ whom his father was about to sacrifice to Zeus in order to obtain rain, fled with his sister Helle, on the ram with the golden fleece, who was given them by their mother Nephele. Helle during the journey fell into the sea, which is now called Hellespont (" sea of Helle "), near Abydos. Phrixos reached Colchis, on the Pontus Euxlnus, and king jEetes. The ram was sacrificed, the golden fleece preserved in a grove of the god Ares, guarded by a dragon. Jason, from lolcos, in- cited by his uncle Pelias, sailed in the ship Argo to Colchis at the head of a band of heroes consisting, according to the original myth, of Minyaj alone, but according to the later legends accompanied by Heracles, Theseus, Castor, Pollux, Orpheus, etc. They gained pos- session of the fleece by the aid of the enchantress Medea, daughter of JEetes. Return to lolcos. Pelias murdered at the instigation of Medea. According to a later continuation of the legend, flight of Jason and Medea to Corinth, where Jason fell in love with Glaucttf the daughter of the king. Medea poisoned Glauca, and killed her own children. Medea went to Athens and became the consort of JEgeus. This myth seems to have been originally purely symbolical. The golden ram, which Nephele, that is, the "cloud," sends, is a repre- sentation of the fertilizing power of rain-clouds. The cloud-ram de- parts to his home, the land of the sun-god. His fleece, a pledge of blessing, is brought back by Jason (the " healer," the " bringer of blessings "), with the help of the daughter of the son of the sun, Meies, who is learned in magic. This myth was afterwards expanded and localized in a manner which hints at the early voyages of the Pelasgic (p. 43) Minyae. The principal site of the wealth and power of the Minyse was Orchomenos in Bceotia; but the gulf of Pagdsce, on which lolcos is situated, is the scene of their early inter- course by sea. War of the Seven against Thebes. The story of (Edipus appears in its simplest form in Homer, and was expanded by the Attic tragic poets. C£dipus (olShovs), son of Jocasta, and Ldios king of Thebes, a great-grandson of Cadmus, is exposed, in infancy, in consequence of an oracle which prophesied injury to his parents. He was rescued and brought up by Polybos in Corinth. At Delphi he kills his father, without recognizing him, solves the riddle of the Sphinx (What creature is there which goes on 4, 2, and 3 feet ? Man, in childhood, in manhood, in old age), becomes king of Thebes, and marries his own mother. When his crime is made known to him, he puts out his eyes. His daughters Antigone and Ismene. Quarrels of his sons Eteocles ('EtcokA^s) and B. c. Greeks. 47 Polynlces (UoKwelicris). Polynices attacks Thebes with his allies : Adrastus, Tydem, Amphiardus, Capaneus, Hippomedon, Parthenopceus. The hostile brothers fall in personal contest; of the other princes all perish but Creon, the uncle of the brothers, who becomes king of Thebes. "War of the Epigoni. Ten years later, expedition of the Epigoni (sons of the Seren). Thebes captured and plundered. Thersanderj son of PolyniceSy made king of Thebes. 1193-1184. Trojan T^ar. Priam was king of Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor; his consort was Hecuba (Hecabe). Of his fifty sons the following appear in the legend : Hector (^EKTwp), whose wife is Andromache, and Paris (^Alexandros). The latter abducts Helena ('EAcVt?), wife of MenelduSy of Sparta. The noblest princes of Greece unite to bring her back. Agamemnon of Mycenae, brother of Menelaus, and leader of the Greeks; Sthenelus of Tiryns ; iVes^or of Pylos ; Achilles ('AxtAAetis), king of the Myrmidons from Phthia in Thessaly, son of Peleus and the Nereid Thetis; Patroclus; AJax (Afas), and Teucer, sons of Tela- mon of Salamis; the younger Ajoj:, son of Oileus, leader of the Locrians; Diomedes of Argos, son of Tydeus; Odysseus of Ithaca, son of Laertes; Idomeneus, of Crete, grandson of Minos, etc. Among the allies of the Trojans from Asia Minor are : Sarpedon and Glaucus, leaders of the Lycians, troops from Mysia, Moeonia (in Lydia), Paphlagonia, and Phrygia, also Thracians and Pceones from the other side of the strait. The historical kernel of this great Grecian legend is, perhaps, the fact of a military expedition of Grecian tribes against the Trojans and the conquest of Troy; everything else in the story is mythical. Perchance the ^olian colonization of historic times (p. 49) and the ensuing contests with the native population gave rise to the romance of the Trojan war, which tradition then removed to the time before the Dorian migration. The prehistoric existence of a powerful city in the neighborhood of Troy, and its name 'Tpoiv and "lAioy, is certain. Connected with the tale of the Trojan war, are the stories of the return of the Grecian princes. The murder of Agamemnon by his wife Clytemnestra and her paramour, and the vengeance of his children Orestes and Electra. Tlie ten years wandering of Odysseus and his many adventures (Polyphemus, Lastrygones, Circe, Calypso, the Phseacians, etc.). SECOND PERIOD. From the Thessalian and Dorian Migration to the beginning of the Persian -Wars, (1104 (?)-500.) Migration of the Thessalians from Epirus to the valley of the Peneus, thenceforward called Thessaly. Of the former inhabitants, kalians, part became serfs (irevetrTcu), part fled the country. A por- 48 Ancient History, e- c tion of the latter conquered Bceotia. The previous inhabitants of BoBotia, probably Pelasgians, as for instance the Minyse in Orchome- nos, and the Cadmeans in Thebes, were partly subdued, partly scat- tered in various settlements. Their name is henceforward un- known to history. The Dorians were likewise driven away by the Thessalians. They had inhabited the country about the Othrys and (Eta, and the small mountamous region where they maintained themselves after the in- vasion, and which was known as Doris. That portion of them which emigrated also took the southern way. Strengthened by iEtolian bands, they crossed to the Peloponnesus between Naupactus, where they constructed vessels, and the promontory of Rhion. This is the so-called 1104 (?).^ Dorian migration, or the conquest of Pelo- ponnesus by the Dorians and ^tolians, according to the story, under the leadership of the HeraclidaB {Teme- rnis, Cresphontes, Aristodemus, descendants of Heracles. The conquerors crossed the northern portion of the Peloponnesus without making a settlement, and turned towards the countries on the western coast. Tlie inhabitants of these regions, the Epei, being subdued, the ^tolians established themselves here, and founded a new commonwealth, called Elis. Out of the mixture of the ^tolians and Epei, sprang the new tribe of the Elei. The Dorians passed through southern Arcadia, probably up the valley of the Alpheus, and estab- lished themselves in the south and east of Peloponnesus. The native population, consisting of Achseans and ^oliaus, were in part expelled, in part placed in subjection; wliile in some regions they gave up certain territories to the new-comers by treaty. The last was the case in Laconia, where the native chiefs made treaties with the invaders and thereby received for a time recognition of their princely rights and support in their supremacy. So arose in Peloponnesus, one after another, but slowly and after much fighting and many revolutions, the following Dorian communi- ties: 1. Messenia {Cresphontes) ; 2. Sparta {Procles and Eurysthenes, sons of Aristodemus); 3. Argos {Temenus),at first the most powerful state, at the head of a league, to wliich Epidaurus and Trcezen, under their own rulers, belonged; 4. Phlius; 5. Sicyon; 6. Corinth, these tliree containing many of the old inliabitants, who lived among the new inhabitants under the same laws. Outside of Peloponnesus: 7. Megara; and 8. the island -ZGgina (Atyiya). The remains of the old population, the Achaeans, who were driven from their homes, expelled or subjugated the jEgialian lonians^ who inhabited the northern coast of Peloponnesus. The whole region was henceforward called Achiaia. 1068 (?), Codrus (K^Spos), the last king of Athens, fell a vol- untary sacrifice in battle against the Dorians. According to the legend, Codrus was the son of the Nestoriau Melanthus, who had fled from Pylos to Athens. 1 Sec p. 43, note 1- B. C. Greeks. 49 The immediate consequence of these migrations and conquests was the practice of colonization, on a great scale, which at first was car- ried on by the tribes which had been expelled from their homes, but in wliich the conquering Dorians soon took active part. The Pelasgic population, driven from Thessaly, settled partly on the peninsula Chalcidice, partly in Crete, and partly on the coast of Mysia ; the Minyce from lolcos, and Orchomenos occupied LemnoSf Imbros, Samothrace. More important were the 1000-900 (?) ^olian, Ionian, Dorian colonies which settled along the coast of Asia Minor and its islands. ^olian and Achaean colonies: Mitylene and Meihymna on the island of Lesbos; Cyme and Smyrna on tiie mainland of Asia Minor (^Smyrna afterwards became Ionian). The lonians, who were driven away by the Achseans, fled first to Attica, but finally founded along the coast of Lydia 12 cities with a common sanctuary at Panionium on Mycale, the most important of which were: Miletus, mother-city of more than 80 colonies, Ephesus, Phoccea (p. 26), Colophon, and occupied the islands of Samos and Chios. Dorian colonies, along the coast of Caria: Halicamassus and Cni- dus. Dorians and Achcean^ founded settlements in Crete, Rhodes, where they gradually drove out the Phoenicians, in Melos and in Thyra, whence in 631 the colony of Cyrene was sent out to the north coast of Africa. 1000 (?).^ Homer and liis successors (Homeridse). Hiad and Odyssey. Constitution of society and government. During the heroic period, and at the begimiing of historic times, we find everywhere a patriarchal monarchy, the hereditary property of families who derived their descent from the gods. In the historic times gradual formation in all states of a republican constitution, partly through the extinction, partly through the expulsion, of the old dynasties. Tliis republican constitution was at first aristocratic; later, in most states, democraticy frequently reaching the latter state through the intervening suprem- acy of a Tyrant (Tvpawos), a name applied to every one who attained supreme power in an illegal manner, and originally not conveying the idea of an arbitrary or cruel government. The democracy of antiquity was not, however, a form of govern- ment in wliieh the majority of the inhabitants, but in which the major- ity of the citizens, took part in the conduct of the commonwealth. In most of the Greek states, the majority of the population consisted, not of citizens, but of slaves.^ Democracies in the modem sense were almost unknown in ancient times. In Doric Sparta the population consisted of three classes, strictly distinct from one another: 1. Spartiatce (^irapTiaTai, comprising '6/j.oiot, 1 The Grecian statements concerning the epoch of Homer differ almost five hundred years from one another. ^ Cf. Becker, Chnricles (trans.), 361; and Schoemann, Antiquities oj Greece, I. 100 foil. 4 50 Ancient History. b. c. i. e. those having full rights, and vnofieiovts i- e. those of less means, who could not furnish the required contribution to the Syssites) di- vided into three Phylse, each composed of 10 Obse (u&ai); these were the Dorian conquerors, who occupied the fertile portions of the La- conian territory, the valley of the Eurotas, and the lowlands extending to the sea; 2. Lacedcemonians or Perioeci (jreploiKoi, i. e. they who dwell round about), descendants of those Achseans who had submitted to the conquerors by treaties. They were free, but payed dues, as trib- utary property-holders and small land-owners, and were without political rights, but were, however, bound to military service; 3. Helots (from etAcores, "prisoners"?), serfs of the state. They were divided among the Spartiatse by lot, and tilled their lands, pa;yang to their lords a fixed portion of the harvest. The number of the Periceci was almost four times that of the Spartiatce, while the number of the Helots was, perhaps, from 2 to 3 times as great as that of the Pe- ricEci. 820 (?)• Constitution and Laws of Lycurgus. Lycurgus (AvKodpyos), according to tradition of royal descent, and guardian of the young king Charilaus, arranged the relation of the three classes, as described above, according to settled principles. His code of laws was for the Spartiatae alone. The form of government was an aristocratic republic, in spite of the two hereditary kings (generals, high priests, judges). Both kings must be of the Heraclid race, one a member of the Agidce (from Agis, son of Eurystheus), the other of the Eurypontidm (from Eurypon, grandson of Procles; see p. 48). The Council of Elders (yepovala, 28 Gerontes, at least 60 years of age, elected for life) under the two kings as presiding officers had: 1. the previous discussion of everything that was to be laid before the popular assembly; 2. jurisdiction over capital crimes. The popular assembly {a\ia), consisting of all Spartiatae over thirty years of age, who had not lost their political rights, had no right of initiation, and decided without debate. At a later period the five Ephors, i. e. in- spectors (for the 5 wards) who had probably existed before Lycurgus, acquired great power (p. 56). Assignment of an hereditary landed estate to every Spartan family, which had lost its possessions since the conquest; equal division of the Helots, or slaves of the state, for the purpose of tilling these lands. No new division of all landed property.^ (Tradition makes Lycurgus divide the land into 9000 (4500 ?) lots for the Spartiatse, and 30,000 for the Perioeci.) Establishment of social unions or com- pulsory clubs {(TK7]val), whose members ate together, even in time of peace : Phiditia or Syssitia. Children were brought up in common, and the young men of the Spartan warrior-nobles dwelt together. The Crypteia (/cpuirre/a), an organized guard over the Helots by young Spartans. No actual hunting of the Helots.^ 776. First Olympiad, that is, the first year in which 1 Grote, Hist, of Greece (Boston, 1851), II. 393 foil. 2 Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, 1. 195. B. c. Greeks. 51 the name of the Olympian victor was recorded. (The first was Coroibus.) Olympian games (raised to greater importance since 820, by the par- ticipation of Sparta ?) ; Nernean games smce 573, in honor of Zeus, Istlmiean games (Poseidon, since 582), and Pythian games (Apollo, en- larged after 590). Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, founded, accordmg to tradition, at the command of the god, by Cretans (i. e. Dorians) from Cnosus. Amphictyonies, societies for common worship (per- formance of sacrifices), the most important of which was the Delphic. 734. Foundation of Syracuse ^ by the Corinthian Archias. 743-724. (?) First Messenian war. Aristodemus king of the Mes- senians. Defence of Ithome. Tliose Messenians that did not emigrate became tributary. A part of the land was confis- cated as conquered territory. 708. Foundation of Tarentum by the Spartan Phalanthus. 645-628. 2 Second Messenian war. Aristomenes. Defence of Ira (JE-'lpa), for nine years. The Athenian bard Tyrtseus accom- panied the Spartans. After the fall of Ira the greater part of the Messenians fled to Sicily ; Zancle, also, was occupied by them, but does not appear to have received the name Messana before the fifth century.^ The remaining Messenians became Helots. In Athens government of the nobles (Eupatridce) since the death of Codrus (1068 ?). The chief officers of state were the Archons, at first (1067-753) chosen for life, from the family of Codrus ex- clusively, afterwards (752-683) elected for ten years, the first four only being of the family of Codrus, the rest taken from the Eupa- tridce m general. From 682 on there were nine archons chosen every year, and serving only one year, taken from the Eupatridce alone, and chosen by them alone. These were: 1. Archon Eponymus (i. e. he from whom the year is named), the presiding officer. 2. Basileus, i. e. king of the sacrifices, high priest. 3. Polemarchus, at first leader of the army, afterwards, when the military command was entrusted to Strateges by turn, only superintendent of military affairs; the other six were Thesmothetce, judges, heads of the department of justice. Cir. 621. Laws of the Archon Draco. No alteration of the consti- tution, only reform of the criminal law, and the law relating to debts, introducing great severity, frequent use of the deatli penalty, and heavy fines. Hence later known as the " Law of Draco, written with blood." 624? Insurrection of Cylon, who, with the assistance of his father-in-law Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, seized the Acropo- lis. Cylon was driven into banishment by the Archon Megacles, of the family of the Alcmceonidce, and his followers were put to 1 Concerning the date of the foundation, see Holm, Gesch. Sicilien*, h 881 Bqq. 2 According to Duncker, Gesch. des Altherth., and Curtius, I. 240. Ac- cording to the older but very doubtful assumption, 685-668. 8 Holm, Gesck. Siciliens, I. 200. 52 Ancient History, b. c. death while clinging for protection to the altars. On account of this sacrilege the Archons for the year were banished. Re- ligious purification of Athens by Epimenides of Cnossus. Solon, of the family of the Nelidae, g-ained great influence by the recapture of Salamis, wliich had been taken by the Megarseans, and through his share in the 600-590. 1 First sacred war against Crisa and Cirrha^ whose in- habitants had robbed the temple of Apollo in Delphi. The Amphyctyonies destroyed both cities after a long contest ; the inhabitants were enslaved and their land consecrated to the Pythian Apollo. Growing dissatisfaction in Athens with the government of the nobility, and internal disorders. The citizens were divided into three parties: 1. The great land-owners of the plain (ol ck rod veSiov), the 2upatridce. 2. The peasants of the mountainous districts (Sm/cpiot), 3. The inhabitants of the coast (irapaAoi), a well-to-do middle class. 594. Solon, w^hile Archon Eponymus, being authorized by a special enactment to negotiate between the aristoc- racy and the people, proposed and carried out at first the Seisaohtheia (i. e. the removal of burdens), whereby debts secured by mortgage were reduced about 21 fo by the intro- duction of a new standard of coinage; the Attic or Euhcean talent ($1078.87) instead of the Aginetan talent ($1630.50) ; personal security for debts was abolished, and all money fines as yet unpaid were remitted. Anmesty for all who had been deprived of their political rights (^rt^iiot). Return of the Alcmseonidse. The Constitution and Laws of Solon were established for the citizens (iroXlrai) only. Excluded from all political rights were : 1. The metceci {/xeroiKoi, foreigners not citizens, but living in Athens under protection of the government), who were regarded in law as minors, and required to be represented by a patron (irpoa-rdT-ns) who was a citizen, in all legal transactions. 2. The slaves (Sov\oi). The two latter classes formed the great majority of the inhabitants. In her most prosperous days the citizens of Athens may be estimated at 90,000, the metceci at 45,000, tlie slaves at 360,000. So that in the period of most extreme democracy the sovereign people formed a small minority of the population. ^ Division of all citizens, for purposes o^ military service and the exercise of political rights, into classes, according to income received from property in land, no regard being paid to movable property of any kind. The unit of measure was the inedimnv^ (52J53 liter), for grain and vegetables; the metretes (39.39 liter), for wine and olive oil. The following four classes were formed: — 1. Pentakosiomedimni, men whose estates brought in a minimum of 500 medimni and metretes. 1 According to Curtius, Hist, of Greece, I. 281. The date formerly ao septed was 596-586. 2 Cf. Schoemann, Aniiq. of Greece, I. 348, 353. B. c. . Greeks. 53 2. Knights (linreTs), yield of estates 300-500 medimnl. 3. Zeugitce (i. e. they who work their land with one span of mules), yield of estates at least 150 medimni. 4. Thetes, comprising all who owned land yielding less than 150 mediimii, or possessed no land, but were either day laborers in the country, or artisans, sailors, tradesmen in the city. Taxation consisted in the duty of the citizens, as arranged in these four classes, to systematically supply ships, horses, and arms for mili- tary service. The members of the ^rst three classes served as hoplites (^TrAtTot), heavy armed foot-soldiers; members of the Jirst two classes served also in case of need as cavalry, furnishing their own horses, while members of the^rs^ class furnished ships for the fleet at their own expense, for which purpose they were enrolled in 48 naucrarise; the thetes were to be called upon to serve as light-armed foot, or upon the fleet, only to defend the country from invasion. There was no other regular taxation of citizens; state officials served without pay, and the other expenses of the commonwealth were covered by the yield of the mines, which were state property, by fines, by a poll- tax laid on the metoeci, and by the harbor dues. When extraordinary taxes were necessary, they were adjusted on the basis of the classes described above, the fourth class, however, being exempt. After the time of Solon, the nine archons were taken from the first class; every citizen had a vote in their election. The council (jSouA:^) of 400, formerly chosen from the Eupatridce alone, was henceforward open to all citizens of the Jirst three classes over thirty years old. The popular assembly (iKK\rjaria) consisted of all citizens over twenty years old. The Areopagus (from "Apeios vdyos,^ Hill of Ares, or Mars), the an- cient court which had jurisdiction over murder and arson, and a general supervision over the entire administration of the state, was, after this time, composed of archons who had retired from office. Legal mat- ters were adjusted by the heliasts (j}\icurrai, so called from the halls, 7]\iaia, where they sat), bodies having sometliing of the nature of both judge and jury, and consisting of citizens over thirty years old, chosen by the thesmothetae, out of a list of 6000 citizens which was formed by lot. Tliis tiviocratic constitution of Solon paved the way from aristocracy to democracy. In itself it was essentially conservative, since the larger landed estates were nearly all in the hands of the nobles. Solon also established a code of laws for regulating the entire civil life, wliich was not completed until later. Solon left Athens for ten years. Travels in eastern Asia, Crete, and Egypt. New party divisions in Athens. The nobles were led by Lycurgus; the middle class by the Alcmseonid Megacles; the poorer classes by Pisistrdtus, who, in spite of the opposition of Solon, who had returned to Athens and was now an old man, constantly gained new supporters, and finally made liimself master of the Acropolis. 1 The hill only was so called by the ancients. Tne court was known aa ^ iv 54 Ancient History. b. c. 560-627' Pisistratus (nctato-Tparog), tyrant of Athens. Emigration of Athenian nobles, under Miltiades the elder, to the Thracian Chersonese. Solon left Athens again and went to Asia Minor. Conversation with Croesus in Sardes (see p. 26). He died (559) at Soli, in Cyprus (?). Pisistratus ruled in Athens under the forms of the Solonian consti- tution, which he did not revoke. He managed that the people should always choose archons who suited him. Driven out by a coalition of the nobles and the moderates, 569, he returned five years later (55-1). A second time exiled in 552, he again regained his power after eleven years absence, and ruled without further interrup- tion from 541 to 527. New emigration of noble families, particu- larly that of the Alcmceonidce. Pisistratus conducted his government until his death, with mildness and wisdom, and bequeathed it to his son, 627-610. Hippias ('Itnrlas), under whom 619. PlatcEce seceded from the Boeotian League and entered into alliance with Athens. The Boeotians were defeated by the Athenians. Hippias conducted the government after the man- ner of his father, until his brother, Hipparchus, was murdered by Harmodius (^'ApfiSdios) and Aristogiton (^ApiaToyelTuv^ in 514. (See Thucydides, VI. 54-59, where he criticises the traditional tale of Harmodius and Aristogiton.) Hippias took a cruel revenge, was driven out of the city by the exiled nobles (Clis- thenes sit the head of the Alcmceonidce) in connection with a Spartan army under Cleomenes. He took refuge with Darius, king of Persia. 509. Reforms of Clisthenes (KXcto-^eVT/s), son of Mega- cles, grandson of Clisthenes, of Sicyon. Tliis was not only a change in the constitution, but a social reform as well. The constitution of Solon was not, however, repealed, but only further developed in a democratic manner, without as yet intro- ducing equal political rights of all citizens. The Solonian arrange- ment of classes for purposes of taxation remained; the archonsliip was as before restricted to the first class, and membership of the council to the first three classes. With the consent of the Delphic oracle, now indebted to the Alc- mseonidse, for the erection of a new temple, the four old Athenian tribes {(i>v\a[), Geleontes, Hoplites, Argddeis, jEgicoreis(p. 4S), which Solon had left in existence, were set aside, and there were substituted for them ten new tribes, which were political and religious unions. These new tribes did not form connected territorial divisions.^ Each tribe consisted of ten demes, or local communities, which, how- ever, were not contiguous, but were scattered about the country and interspersed with demes belonging to other tribes. In all there were 100 demes, later 174. This arrangement was designed to break up the local influence of the aristocracy, and put an end to the old patri- archal condition of things, whereby only nobles and large land-owners 1 Duncker, IV. 454; Schoemazm, Antiq. of Greece, I. 369. $. c. Greeks. 55 could hold the position of demarch (5^/topxos), the presiding officer of a commnnity. Henceforward every two denies formed a naucrary, which was ex- pected to fit out and man a trireme (a vessel with three banks of oars) ; whereas the old division of Attica, made in 682, into 48 nau- craries, had been based on the old politico-religious division into tribes and phratries. These phratnes {(pparpiai, 12), the subdivisions of the old tribes {s avTOKpaTwp tcSu 'EAA^i'a>»'). In other respects the Grecian cantons were to retain their autonomy; a congress {SiMr^ consumes Yggdrasil and the whole world in flames. Vidar, Vale, Hodur, Baldur, and the sons of Thor survive. A new earth and a new heaven are created. According to the belief of the Nortlimen, all good men and all who died in battle crossed over the bridge Bifroust (the rainbow) to Valhal, where they spent their days feasting and fighting, until Ragnarok when they passed to Girrde. Cowards and evil-doers were punished in Helheim, and after Ragnarok in Nojostrand.^ Civilization : It is probable that the Germans had not completed the transition from a pastoral to an agricultural people, when they arrived in central Europe. They were certainly in a low stage of civilization when they became known to the Romans, a stage not un- like that reached by the most advanced of the American Indians, the Iroquois. Cities were unknown to them ; they seem to have settled for the most part each individual apart, each tribe separated from the other by a broad strip of mark-land.^ Orders : 1. Nobles, who derived their descent from the gods, but wei-e entitled to no political privileged because of their nobility. 2. Freemen^ that is, land-owners, men born to arms, the work upon whose land was done by their bondmen; out of this class developed later the lower nobilitg. 3. Freedmen (lid, lassen), or half-freemen, renters bound to military service, but excluded from the ownership of land, from the popular assembly, and from the courts. 4. Servants or bondmen, in part serfs bound to the soil (glebcB adscripti), in part actual slaves. The latter two classes formed the majority of the population. Custom of comradeship {gasindi leudes), out of which the feudal system developed after the occupation of the Roman provinces and the division of land among the faithful (f deles}, and under the in- fluence of the Christian religion. Feudal superior (suzerain). Vas- sen, vassals, or men ; fief (feudum or benefcium), held on tenure of service, distinct from allodium, property in fee simple. 1 The relation of these myths to Christianit}'-, the extent to which they have heen influenced by acquaintance with the Scriptures, is a subject of active in- quiry, but nothinic can as yet be said to be definitely determined. See Bugge, Entstehung der Novdischen Gotter. 2 Whoever desires to become involved in that most hopeless of all historical questions, the social and political organization of the ancient Germans, is re- ferred to Waltz, Verfassungsgeschichte, where references will be found. B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 167 History : I. The date of the first arrival of Teutons iii Europe is wholly unknown. Pytheas of Massalia, who visited the amber coasts of the Baltic about 350 b. c, met with German tribes. From that time on only the bare introduction of the word German! in the Roman annals for 225 B. c. hints at any knowledge of the Teutons until the close of the second century B. c, when the tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones left their homes at the base of the Danish peninsula (driven from them by a flood?) and, after humiliating the Roman arms in Gaul, found their death on the fields of Aquae Sextise and Vercellse (102, 101, B. c, p. 127). The terrors of the invasion died away, but the Romans did not come again into contact with the Germans imtil Caesar's invasion of Gaul brought on a contest with the Suevian prince Ariovistus which ended in the latter's defeat (58 b. c). Sub- jugation of the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine. Caesar's two expeditions across the Rliine (58, 55, p. 139). Under Augustus, systematic attempt to subjugate Germania magna. Conquest of Rcetia and Noricum by Drusus (15), of Pannonia and Vindelicia. Expeditions of Drusus from the Rhine : 1. With the fleet on the Ems (12) ; 2. Against the Cherusci on the Weser, foun- dation of the citadel Aliso (11) ; 3. Along the Alain to the Werra and Elbe (9). Legend of the "white woman." Death of Drusus. His successor Tiberius, reduced all the tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe to submission and began the active construction of fortresses and colonies. The folly of Tiberius' successor. Varus, alienated the Germans and led to revolt. Under Arminiiis, one of the nobles of the Cherusci, three Roman legions were annihilated in the three days' battle in the Teutoburg Forest ^ (9 A. d. ?). Augustus gave up the hope of subjugating the Germans, and later emperors did not revive it. Expeditions of Germxinicus in revenge for the Teutoburg massacre, 14, 15, 16. Thenceforward the Romans were contented ^vith maintain- ing their borders against the free tribes, and with colonizing the land south of the Mam and the Danube. Line of fortifications from Aschaffenburg, on the Main, to Regensburg, on the Danube (Pfahl- graben, Teufelsmxiuer). Along this line Roman soldiers were settled on land for the rent of which they paid a tenth of the produce, hence agri decumates. Foundation of colonies : Curia Rcetorum (Chur) in Rfetia ; Juvenum (Salsburg) in Noricum ; Vindobonum (Vienna) in Pannonia ; Augusta Vinddicorum (Augsburg), Castra regina (Re- gensburg) in Vindelicia. Active intercourse between Rome and Ger- many. Germans served both as privates and as officers in the Roman army (so Arminius). Traffic in amber. Of the internal affairs of the free Germans we are but scantily informed. In the first century b. c. a portion of the Hermunduri, the Alarcomanni, had invaded Bohemia, driven out the Celtic Boii (wh<^ took refuge in Pannonia, where they were gradually exterminated by the Roman arms) and established a state which, under Marbo'J (Maroboduus), grew to formidable proportions. Intended expedi- tion of Tiberius against Marbod frustrated by the Pamionian revolt (8). Feuds between the German tribes fostered by the Romans. Arminius expelled Marbod from his kingdom, but was liimself mur- i The locality has not been satisfactorily made out. 168 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. dered under suspicion of aiming at supreme power. The Cherusci, Hermunduri and Bructeri were nearly exterminated in internecine strife. Revolt of the Batavians under Civilis (p. 151). War of Marcus Aurelius with the Marcomanni (p. 154). In process of time a change came over the political organization of the Germans. The multitude of small tribes disappeared and we find in their stead a smaller number of more extensive tribes. At the same time the Slavs began to press upon the eastern Germans and urge them westward. The Germans increased in power and popula- tion,-and became better and better trained in the arts of war and political intrigue as they came more and more into intimate connec- tion with Rome. The provincial armies were largely German ; Ger- man officers rose to high distinction and great influence in Rome- So Rome grew weaker and her foes stronger until at last the im- pulse of the invading Huns in the east set all the tribes in motion. II. Scandinavia: Northern annalists present an historical Odin, probably no less mythical than Odin the god. According to these tales (which, like some other mythical history, may have greater his- torical value than the present credits them with), Odin was the leader of the Asas who dwelt in Asia between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Attracted to the falling fortunes of Mithridates, he was driven from his kingdom by Pompeius. He conducted the Asas westward to Scandinavia where he subdued Denmark, Sweden and Norway, and gave these countries to his sons ; Denmark to Skjoldy Sweden to Yngave, Norway to Seeming. Odin ended his days in Sweden. The history of Scandinavia as far as ascertained belongs to the next period, and will be found on page 207. III. British Isles. For the history of the Teutonic invasion of England see p. 176. § 6. SLAVS AND LITHUANIANS. Aryan. These closely related peoples belong to the northern branch of the European Aryans, and their westward migration followed that of the Teutons. The Slavs were known to the late Roman geographers under the name Venedce (hence Wends) as inhabiting the region beyond the Vistula, which bore the general name of Sarmatia, from the nomadic Sarmatians who inhabited it, interspersed with the Slavs, from whom they differed in language and descent. In the fifth century A. d. the Slavs occupied the country between the Baltic and the Black Sea, between the Carpathians and the Don. They dwelt in the steppes of Russia as far north as Novgorod on the Volga, and their westerimiost limit lay between the Vistula and the Oder. In the sixth century the Slavs began to extend them- selves south and west, a movement which resulted in the permanent occupation of Bohemia and of the Balkan peninsula, while their settlement extended east to Tyrol. In 623 A. d. temporary formation of a 'Slavic monarchy of great extent under Samo in Bohemia, which endured thirty-five years. The conquests of the Slavs came to an end with the seventh century, and the separate kingdoms of Poland, Bohemia, Russia, were gradually formed. A. D. Slavs and Lithuanians. 169 Of the religion of the Slavs little is known with certainty, owing to the diversity of nomenclature among the various divisions of this wide-spread people, and to the lack of trustworthy authorities. Among the Slavs of the Baltic, who had a class of priests and built temples, occur the names Svatovit or Svantovit, god of light or of the air, with a temple at Arkona ; Triglath, the three-headed god, worshipped in Pomerania (Stettin) ; Radigost, Rugevit or Ranovit (in Rtigen), Jarovit, all gods of war ; Zcemeboh, " the black god," an evil deity. The Russians worshipped Khors, Volos, or Veles, god of the herds (St. Blaise) ; Koupalo, god of the harvest ; Jarglo, god of generation ; Stribog, god of the winds ; Lada, goddess of love and passion. The gods were worshipped by offerings of fruit and animals, seldom by human sacrifices. The Slavs were a pastoral and agricultural people. All inhab- itants of the same district were kinsmen, bearing a common name, liv- ing under the rule of an elected elder, and holding property in com- mon. A union of such districts formed a tribe ; a union of tribes formed a people. The Lithuanians play no part in history before the thirteenth century. In the wider sense the name includes the Letts and the ancient Prussians, who were known to the Romans as ^stui. In the narrower sense it is limited to the inhabitants of the region between the Memel and the Finnish Esthonians. 11. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN TRIBES TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN ^ (375-843). § 1. MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN PEOPLES. Habitations of the Germanic tribes in the fourth century a. d. Alani, whose German descent is, however, not certain, on the lower Volga ; East Goths in southern Russia ; West Goths in Dacia {eastern Hungary, Roumania); Vandals in Pannonia {southwestern Hungary); Suevi in Moravia, Bohemia, and Bavaria; Burgundians on the Neckar and the Rhine, with Worms as their capital (compare p. 164); Ala- manni (or Alemanni) on the Rhine, between the Main and the Alps,, partly along the Roman boundary wall {agri decumates) ; Ripuarian Franks on both sides of the lower Rhine (capital at Colonia A grip- ping) ; Salic Franks on the mouths of the Rhine (in Meergau, " dis- trict on the sea," the Meruwe, hence Merowingians ;) ^ Saxons from the Elbe almost to the Rhme ; Thuringians south of the Saxons ; Lan- gohards on the lower Elbe. The peoples which appear in the so-called migrations of the peoples were generally heterogeneous armed bands under the command of a leader or king chosen for his military prowess {Heerkonig). 375. Beginning of the migration of the Teutonio tribes. Period of migrations and invasions. The Huns, a Mongolian race, crossed the Volga. The Huns, joined by the Alani, whom they had defeated, fell upon the East Goths (king Ermanaric or Hermanric, of the family of the Amali), and, in union with these, upon the West Goths. That part of the West Gothic race which had remained heathen took refuge in the Carpathians ; the Christians,^ and those who 1 Assmann, Geschichte des Mittelalters. 2d edition, by E. Meyer. 2 According to other scholars the name was a patronymic. 8 A Gothic bishop (Theophilus) took part in the "^council of Nicaea (325), "Wulflla (Ulfilas), bishop of the West Goths (348-381), translator of the Bible; cf. Dahn, Die Kiiniye der Germanen, VL 41. A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 171 were just on the point of accepting Christianity (in the form of Arianism), were allotted habitations in Moesia by the em- peror Valens. Disputes with the Roman officials at the pas- sage of the Danube (Fridigem, leader of the West Goths) led to war, and the Goths advanced, ravaging as they went. 378. Battle of Adrianople. Valens defeated and slain. His successor, Theodosius, made peace with the West Goths, who, for pay and the gift of a dwelling-place, were to protect the frontiers of the Roman Empire as foederati. Alaric, leader of the West Goths, belonging to the family of the Balthi (i. e. " bold ") enraged at not receiving pay from Arcadius, laid waste Macedonia, Illyria, and Greece (395), and advanced into Pelo- ponnesus. Stilicho, magister utriusque militice of the Western Empire (p. 161), came to the assistance of the Eastern court. Landing with an army at Corinth he surrounded the West Goths, but allowed them to escape. Alaric went to Illyria, and compelled the court at Byzan- tium to recognize him as dux in lUyricum orientale. 401. Alaric's first invasion of Italy. After a victory at Aquileia he crossed the Po. Stilicho hastened from Rsetia to meet him. 402. Drawn battle at FoUentia. Alaric made another attempt to advance southward, but was compelled to return to lUyria by disease, hunger, and desertion. 404-406. German bands under Radagais invaded Italy, but wer« defeated by Stilicho at Fcesulce, and annihilated by continued fighting and by hunger. 406-409. Bands of Vandals, Suevi, and Alani left the regions along the Danube, crossed the Rhine, sustained great loss in contests with the Franks, and finally (409) invaded Spain. Foundation of Teutonic monarchies in Roman territory. The Salian Franks gradually occupied northern Gaul. The Burguudians settled (406-413) on the middle Rhine ( Worms). 408. Stilicho murdered by the command of the emperor Honorius (p. 161). Alaric's second invasion of Italy. He besieged Rome, but retired on receipt of a ransom. The court at Ravenna refusing to grant Alaric's request that the Goths should be assigned lands for a per- manent settlement in northern Italy, Alaric again advanced upon Rome, and forced the senate to appoint Attains, prefect of the city, emperor. Alaric besieged Honorius in Ravenna without success, quarrelled with Attains, whom he deposed, and advanced for the third time upon Rome. 410» Capture and sack of Rorae by Alaric. Alaric went to Lower Italy with the intention of crossing to Sicily, and thence to Africa, but died at the close of 410, at Cosenza, and was buried beneath the Busento. 410-415. Athaulf, brother of Alaric's wife, led the West Goths to Gaul, though whether in fiilfilment of a treaty with Honorius 172 MedicEval History. A. d, to resist the Romans, who had forced their way into the province, or of his own accord, is uncertain. He carried with him the sister of Honorius, who was detained as a hostage in the Gothic camp, and mar- ried her in Narbonne (414:). The proposed treaty with the imperial court was not, however, concluded. Athaulf, hard pressed by the im- perial general Constantius, went to Spain, conquered Barcelona, and was murdered (415). After the murder of his successor, Sigric, 415-419. Walja became king of the West Goths. He concluded a treaty with Honorius, and fought for Rome against Vandals, Alani, and Suevi. He received a grant of southern Gaul under Roman supremacy. Walja was the founder of the 415-507. West Gothic (Visigothic) kingdom of To- losa, with its capital at Tolosa (Toulouse), which soon became independent.^ 429. King Genseric (Geiseric) conducted the Vandals and a portion of the Alani to Africa, at the invitation, as the story goes,-^ of the Roman governor Bonifacius. The latter was slandered at court by Aetius, and accused of treason, but, making his peace with Placidia, the mother and guardian of the Emperor Valen- tinian III., he fought unsuccessfully against Genseric, who, after a short peace with the Romans (435), conquered Car- thage (439). 429-534. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. Capital, Carthage (S. Augustinus, bishop of Hippo Regius t430). 440. The Vandals, having created a great naval power, plundered the coasts of Sicily and lower Italy, by their fleets. 443. The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhone and on the Saone ; the Alamanni extended themselves over the Roman province of Germania superior (hence called Alsace), and also occupied a part of Switzerland, east of the Burgundian territory. 449. The Angles and Saxons, long known as pirates along the coasts of the German Ocean, and having . settlements on the coast of Flanders (litus Saxonicum ^), were called in by the Brit- ons, after the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain, to assist them in repelling the robber tribes of the north- ern mountains, the Picts and Scots. The Saxons and Angles crossed to Britain (according to tradition, the first bands were led by Hengist and Horsa), and founded in the course of time 8 states : Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia, Deira, Bernicia. The last two were later united to form NortJiumbria (north of the Humber); hence the number of states was then 7 (heptarchy). The Britons for the most part migrated to Wales, and to Ar-^ monca in Gaul, wliich was hence called Brelagne (Brittany). For the details of the settlements, see p. 176. 1 Cf. Dahn, Dit Konige der Germanen, Pt. V. ^ 2 This is denied by the more recent authorities. « See, however, p. 38. A. D. Migrations oj the Northern Peoples. 1 73 451. Attila (Etzel, « Scourge of God "), king of the Huns (in his train armed bands of Germanic peoples, whom he had sub- jected, East Goths, Gepidce, etc.), invaded and ravaged Gaul. He besieged Orleans in vaui. Battle on the Catalaunian fields (near Chcilons-sur-Marne: the battle-field itself t/as at Troyes). Attila defeated by Aetius, the Roman governor of the small district around Lutetia, which alone remained in possession of the Romans, and the West Goths (with the aid of auxiliaries from the Franks, BurgundianSj etc.). Theodoric I., king of the West Goths, fell in the battle. 452. Attila went to Italy, destroyed Aquileia. Venice founded by Italian fugitives. Rome saved by Bishop Leo (?). After the death of Attila (453) the monarchy of the Huns fell asunder. Not only the German tribes which had been subjugated by the Huns became free (the Gepidce were the first to shake ott' the yoke) ; the Slavic peoples also regained their liberty. During the following centuries these latter tribes extended themselves throughout the east- ern parts of Germany. 455. Rome, after the murder of Valentinian HI., by Maximus, plundered for 14 days by the Vandals, who had been called in by Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian. The Vandals controlled the entire northern coast of Africa as far as Gyrene, and the islands of the western Mediterranean. 476. Odovakar (Odoacer), leader of Herulian and other German bands in the pay of Rome, became ruler in Italy, after the deposition of the last emperor of the West (p. 162). There was no conquest of the western empire by Odovakar, but the line of Emperors in the West came to an end in consequence of domestic revolution, and thereby the last bond was broken which had united the provinces, long since occupied by the barbarians, who, however, had xisually nominally recognized the supremacy of the Imperator or Augustus in Ravenna. 486. Battle of Soissons. The Merowingian Chlodwig (Chlodowech, Clovis, 481-511), leader of the Salic Franks, defeated the Roman governor Syagrius, the successor of Aetius. Kingdom of the Franks in northern Gaul. Chlodwi^ by cruelty and deceit made himself sole ruler of all the Franks. 496. Victory of Chlodwig over the Alamanni (not at Tolbiacum or Ziilpich).! Conversion of Chlodwig and the Franks to Catholic Christianity. Chlodwig 'baptized by RemigiuSj 1 Assmann, I. 53. 174 Mediaeval History. A. D. bishop of Rheims (Mitis depone colla Slgamber, adora quod incendviti, incende quod adorasti). 493. Theodoric the Great (493-526), after having de- feated Odovakar, with whom he had been at war since 489, founded the 493-555. Kingdom of the East Goths (Ostrogoths) in Italy. Residence Ravenna, at times Verona, hence in the hero romances : Dietrich von Birn. Cassiodorus, historian. Boethins {de con solatione philosophies), and Syniuiachus, executed (525). 500. Chlodwig, king of the Franks, attacked tlie Burgundians, to revenge himself on Gundohad, the imcle of his wife Chlotilde, for the murder of her father, defeated them at Dij&n, and made them tributary to the Franks. 507. Chlodwig defeated the West Goths at Vouille^ or Voulon,i on the Clain, a branch of the Vieime, in the vicinity of Poitiers. The West Goths, assisted by the East Goths, defeated the Franks at Aries, and maintained their control of Septimania (the coast be- tween the Rhdne and Pyrenees). Theodoric the Great united a part of southern Gaul to the king- dom of the East Goths, and undertook the govermnent of that part which the West Goths retained, as well as of the Spanish possessions of that people, as the guardian of their king, his grandson Ama- laric, a minor (son of Alaric II.), and retained it till his death (526), which first severed the connection of the two Gothic kingdoms. 507 (526)-711. ^West Gothic (Visigothic) Kingdom in Spain, with its capital at Toledo. 626. After the death of Theodoric, his daughter Amalasuntha be- came regent in the East Gothic kingdom for her son Athalaric. The latter died yomig (534), and his mother associated with herself as co- regent her cousin Theodahad (Theodat), who murdered her, thereby causing 535-555. War between the East Goths and the Eastern Empire. 533-534. Belisarius, general of Justinian, Emperor of the East (527-565), destroyed the Vandal power in Africa. Decay of the kingdom of the Vandals after the death of Genseric (477). Hilderic deposed by Gelimer, whom Beli- sarius captured. Brilliant campaign of Belisarius against Vitiges, king of the 540. East Goths, whom he carried captive to Constantinople. Belisarius, after he had declined the Italian crown, offered him by the East Goths, was dispatched by Justinian against the Persians. During his absence the East Goths, under their new king Totila, reconquered the greater part of Italy. 1 Dahn, Die Kbnige d. Germ. V. 109. A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 175 544-549. Belisarius, sent again to Italy, fought with varying suc- cess, but with increasing fame, against Totila. He recaptured Rome. After Belisarius had been again recalled, Rome was a second time taken by Totila. 652. Narses, the successor of Belisarius, defeated Totila at Tagince or Busta Gallorum. Totila fell on the field. 553. The last king of the East Goths, Teja, fell in the battle of . Mons lactarius (near Vesuvius). 555. Narses destroyed the kingdom of the East Goths. Ex- archate. 568-774. Kingdom of the Langobards (Lombards) in Italy. Alboin. Alboin, with the help of the Avars (on the lower Danube), de- stroyed the kingdom of the Gepidce and married Rosamunda, the daughter of the king of the Gepidse. At the head of his Lango- bards, with the aid of Saxons and Slavs, he conquered Italy as far south as the Tiber. Capital of the kingdom of the Langobards, Pavia (Papia). The Langobards conquered almost the entire Ex- archate of the Byzantines, who retained only Venice, Ravenna, Naples, and Calabria. Rome (ducatus Romce) became gradually indepen- dent under its bishops. (Patrimonium Petri.) After Alboin had been murdered by Rosamund, because, as the story goes, he attempted, during a carouse, to force her to drink from her father's skull, his successor Cleph pushed his conquests to lower Italy, where independent Langobardian duchies, like Bene- ventum, were established. After an interregnum of ten years his son Authari was recognized as king. Through the influence of his wife, Theodelinde, a Bavarian princess, the conversion of the Lango- bards to Christianity was begun. Among the successors of Authari the following deserve mention : Rothari, in whose reign the famous code of laws of the Langobards appeared (644) ; Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, who violently usurped the throne and completed the conversion of the Langobards ; Liutprand (717-744), who made further additions to the code of the Langobards; and Aistulf (750-756), whose attempt to conquer Rome was frustrated by Pipin, king of the Franks (p. 184). 585. Kingdom of the Suevi in Spain united with that of the West Goths, who, like all the barbarians that had adopted Arianism, were converted to the Roman Catholic church (587). 690-604. Gregory I, (the Great), bishop of Rome. Beginning of the Papacy (Papa, Ilan-ira?, i. e. father, formerly the title of every Christian bishop, soon applied exclusively to the succes- sor of St. Peter). 176 Mediceval History. A. D. § 2. TEUTONIC KINGDOMS IN BRITAIN. From the first invasions to the supremacy of Ecgberht 449 (?)-828. Roman Britain. Political divisions: 1. Britannia prima, S. of the Thames and the Severn (Cantii, Regni, Belgge, Atrebates, Durotriges, Dumnonii). 2. Britannia secunda, Wales (Silures, Demetse, Ordovices). 3. Flavia Ccesariensis, between the Thames, Severn, and Humber (Trinobantes, Caytieuehlani, Iceni, Dobuni, Coritavi, Cornavii). 4. Maxima Ccesa- riensis, between the Humber and the Tyne (Parisii, Brigantes). 5. Valentia, between the Tyne and the Forth (Otadeni, Gadeiii, Selgovse, Novantse). Fortifications : In the N. wall of Agricola (81) or LoUius Urbi- cus, between the Friths of Forth and Clyde ; wall of Hadrian (122) between the Solway Frith and a point on the opposite coast near New- castle-on-Tyne (replaced in the third century by the wall of Severus). In the S. the strongholds Burgh Castle, Reculver, Richborough, Lym- ne, Pevensey, along the Saxon shore. (Compare the Cinque Ports.) Towns : Camulodunum (Colchester), Glevum (Gloucester), Lin- dum (Lincoln), Deva (Chester), Eburacum (York), Londinium (London). Roads : Watling Street from Kent to the Forth, Hermin Street from Sussex coast to Humber, Foss Way from Cornwall to Lincoln, Ikenild Street from Caistor to Dorchester. ^ The Teutonic Invaders. After the withdrawal of the Roman legions (about 410) the Brit- ons suffered severely from the ravages of the Scots (Irish) on the W. and the Picts (Gaels) on the N., which they resisted unaided for several decades. About the middle of the fifth century the Britons were overwhelmed from another quarter. Bands of Low Germans from the coast of Europe, west of the Baltic, whose piratical expedi- tions had long been the terror of southeastern Britain, began to set- tle in the island and conquer themselves homes and kingdoms. Tliat they came at first to aid the Britons against their other foes is not impossible ; but little faith, however, can be placed in the story of Vortigern and Rowena. The invaders came principally from three Teutonic tribes : Jutes, inhabiting the northern part of Denmark (Jutland) ; Angles or En- gle from modern Schleswig, south of the Jutes; Saxons, a more nu- merous people, living south of Schleswig along the Elbe and westward on the coast. Of the Jutes and Saxons only a portion emigrated; the Angles seem to have gone en masse. Religion : The new settlers were pagans, sharing the faith of the ^ G-"een. The ninrp usual but inmrreet routes assif^ned these roads are: WatUnqcKeni to Cardicc^'n Hay; Hermin. St. Davids to Southainpfon ; /Ws, Cornwall to Lincohi; J/cenild, St. Davids to Tynemouth. See Scarth, IJoniau Britain, p. 116. A. D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain. 177 continental Germans (p. 164). Each man was priest in his household, and political rulers exercised also priestly functions for the regions under their control. Civilization : The invaders were rude warriors, cultivators of the soU, but fond of the hunt and still more fond of war. They settled in villages, the dwellers in each village being kinsmen, who often gave their family name to the place of their abode. In each village all were united by a bond of mutual protection and responsibility. Around the house-lots and garden-plots, which were for the most part practi- cally private property, extended the common land, the " mark," com- prising tilled land, pasture and woodland, which also served to isolate one village from another. The people were divided into four orders: athel, nobles ; ceorl, free landowners ; laets, tenants owing service to their landlords ; slaves, generally captives taken in war. Whether either of the invading tribes were under kings at home is unknown ; their leaders during the invasion were war-chiefs, ealdormen, whose power was frequently prolonged and concentrated by the military ne- cessities of their new conditions, until it became royal and they took the title of king. Each village had its governor and its council, the latter composed of all freemen in the village ; each aggregate of vil- lages (the hundred) had its governor and council ; the aggregate of hundreds which made up the tribe had its king and its great council (loitan), which elected the king, generally out of some one noble fam- ily, and was consulted by him. The witan was in theory composed of all freemen in the tribe, but it soon became practically limited to the more wealthy and powerful among them. Each ealdorman, perhaps every man of note, had a personal following of companions (thegns), who had devoted themselves to his service and were supported by him. The development of monarchy caused a corresponding develop- ment of this institution. Powerful men were proud to be thegns of the king, and thus the number and power of the king's militaiy house- hold constantly increased. Jutes (Kent). 449 (?).! Landing of the chiefs Hengist and Horsa in Thanet (then an island). Gradual conquest of the country between the Thames and the Andredsweald (p. 36). East and West Kent. South Saxons (Sussex). 477. ^lle, a Saxon ealderman, with his sons Cymen, Wlencing, and Cissa, landed at Cissanceaster and conquered the region S. of the Andredsweald. 491. Stortn of Anderida. Massacre of the inhabitants. 1 The date is variously given, but 449 is the year most commonly accepted. 1 have followed throughout the conservative scholars. The ultra-skepticism which would limit our knowledge of the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain to what can be guessed from the condition of things there in the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries seems to me to be based on hypercriticism. 12 Mediceval History. A. d. West Saxons (Wessex). A more important settlement was that begun by the Saxons, under the ealdormen 495. Cerdic and Cynric, on the southern coast, W. of the Andreds- weald. The formation of the country directed their line of extension W. and N., thus bringing them mto contact with the great body of western Cymry. 617. Cerdic and Cynric assumed the royal title. At the beginning of the second decade of the sixth century the Saxon advance was so sternly checked that fifty years elapsed before it was again resumed. Battle of Mons Badonicus (520). The Cym- ric traditions of Arthur,^ king of the Silures, to whom this repulse of the pagan invaders is attributed, are probably founded in truth. yynric (534-556) conquered modern Berkshire. Cea-wlin (556- 691 [3]) raised Wessex to such power that later years entitled him the second Bretwalda of Britain (the first being JSlle). The meaning of this title is not clear. By the 577. Battle of Deorham Ceawlin extended his power to the Severn and separated the Cymry of Cornwall {Devraint) from those of West Wales. East Saxons (Essex). During the latter half of the fifth century Saxons settled north of the Thames. Sack of Camulodunwn. Establishment of a small kingdom under the shadow of the great forest which then reached to the Wash (Ercenwin, 527 ?). Middle Saxons (Middlesex). A small division of the East Saxons, dwelling about London. East Angles (^East Anglia). While the East Saxons were making their settlements, Angles were occupying the region to the N., between the sea, the great fens about the Wash (Uffa, 575 ?), and the forest. Norfolk, Suffolk. North Angles {Northumbria). Deira. Early in the sixth century settlements of Angles north of the Humber, Conquest of central Yorkshire. Bernicia. At the same time other Angles were settling along the Frith of Forth, where they may have found a Jutish colony already 647. established. Under Ida, " the flame bearer," as the Cymry called him, the Angles pushed their conquests to the Esk.^ Bernicia thus comprised the Lowlands of Scotland, a region which still contains the purest type of the Teutonic con- querors of Britain. Saxon and Gael. 1 The northern Cymry seem also to have had traditions of an Arthur. Later fugitives to Bretagne carried the memory of Arthur with them ; there his name was connected with the French legend of the Holy Grail, and woven into the romances which make up the Arthurian cycle. 2 The stubborn resistance of the Cymry here as' well as in the south has been attributed to Arthur. A. D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain, 179 Middle Angles (Mercia). Early in the sixth century scattered bands of Angles occupied the present counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, Leicester, Warwick, and Northampton. The small kingdoms and lordships thus founded (Lindesfaras, Gainas, Magescetas, Hwiccas) were at a later time united in the great kingdom of Mercia (Cridda, 582 ?). Thus Britain south of the Firth at the close of the third quarter of the sixth century was divided between Cymry and Teutons by a line drawn nearly N. and S. midway of the breadth of the land. Teuton and Celt, pagan and Christian, faced one another throughout the length of the island. As far as it went, the conquest was thorough. Not that the Cymry were exterminated ; many remained within the Saxon lines, and traces of Celtic, and of still older blood, are not in- frequent in the most Teutonic parts of England to-day. Though the subjugated Cymry, however, might retain their Celtic blood, in all else they were soon assimilated with the conquerors. Temporary halt in the work of conquest. Wars of the invaders among themselves. 588. Formation of the kingdom of Northumbria by the enforced union of Bernicia and Deira under .ZBthelric, king of Bemicia. 690-616. Supremacy of iEthelbert, king of Kent, afterwards called the third Bretwalda, over Essex, East Anglia, Middle Britain. His wife was the Catholic Christian princess Bertha, daughter of Charibert, king of the Franks. 597. Arrival of Augustine, legate of Pope Gregory the Great. Conversion of Kent. Quarrel between the British church and Augustine (date of Easter, form of the tonsure). Conversion of the East Saxons. Laws of iEthelbert. An attempt to convert the East Angles led to the revolt and About 610-617. Supremacy of Raedwald, of East Anglia, over Middle Britain. He was afterwards called the fourth Bret- walda. In the N. JSthelfrith of Northumbria defeated the Cymry of Strathclyde in the great 607. Battle of Chester, and extended his realm to the sea, cutting off Strathclyde from Wales, as Wales had been severed from Cornwall by the battle of Deorham (p. 178). ^thelfrith defeated and slain in the battle of the Idle by Rcedwald, who had taken up the claims of Eadwine, son of JElla, formerly king of Deira. 617-633. Supremacy of Eadwine of Northumbria, called the fifth Bretwalda. His overlordship was more comprehensive than that of any of his predecessors, since, after the conquest of Wessex (526), it included all Teutonic Britain except Kent. Conver- sion of Northumbria (627). . Revolt of the Mercians under Penda (627-655), who, in alliance with Cadwallon of Wales, de- feated Eadwine in the battle of Heathfield (633). Death of Ead- wine. 633-655. Supremacy of Penda of Mercia over Middle Britain, , ^ v> ,» Essex, and East Anglia. ^^ < 'sS^ ^^^ 180 MedicBval History. A. D. 635. Defeat of Cadwallon by Oswald of Bernicia, in the battle of the Hevenfeld. Conquest of Deira. 635-642. Supremacy of Oswald of Northumbria, afterwards called the sixth Bretwalda, over Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent. Conversion of Northumbria (where many people had rfelapsed mto paganism) by Irish (not Roman) missionaries. Conversion of Wes- sex. In the contest over East Anglia Oswald was defeated by Penda, and slam in the 642. Battle of the Maserfeld. Penda's sovereignty extended over Wessex, East Anglia, Deira. 655. Battle of the "Winwged. Penda defeated by Osiviu, brother of Oswald, and his successor in Bernicia, and slain. 655-659. Supremacy of Osw^iu of Northumbria, called the sev- enth Bretwalda, over all Teutonic Britain except Wessex, Kent, and Sussex. 669. Revolt of Mercia under Wulfhere. Henceforward the kings of Northumbria were sovereigns of merely local power. Rivalry between the Irish missionaries and Rome. A council con-i vened by Oswiu, decided in favor of Rome. Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury (609), undertook the organization of the English church. 688-726. Ine, king of "Wessex. Conquest of Kent (694). Wars with the Cymry of Cornwall (710). Laws of Ine, the oldest West Saxon code. Abdication of Ine (726). "Willibrod, missionary to the Frisians. Boniface (Winfrith), apostle of the Germans. Wilfrith, bishop of York. Cuthbert, of Lindisfarne. Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth. Caed- mon. Baeda (672-735) ; Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. 733-752. Supremacy of .Slthelbald of Mercia over all England S. of the Humber. 752. Battle of Burford (Oxfordshire). Defeat of iEthelbald of Mercia by the West Saxon, Cuthred. Henceforward Teutonic Britain remained divided between the three great kingdoms, Northumbria, Wessex, Mercia. 756. Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria by Eadberht. 755-794. Offa, king of Mercia. Conquest of Oxfordshire from Wessex (777 ?). Conquest of the Welsh kingdom of Powys, W. of the Severn. Offa's Dyke from the mouth of the Wye to that of the Dee. Friendship between Offa and Charles the Great. Laws of Offa. 789. First recorded landing of Northmen in Britain on the coast of Devonshire. 802-837. Ecgberht, king of Wessex, being elected to suc- ceed Beorhtric after thirteen years' exile spent in the kingdom of the West Franks. Cornwall made tributary. Defeat of Beornwulf oi Mercia, at the battle of Ellandune (825). Sub- mission of all England S. of the Thames, and of Essex Ecgberht overlord of Mercia and Northumbria (828). Subniis' Bion of Wales (828). A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Merowingians. 181 All England south of the Forth, with the possible exception of Strathclyde, united under Ecgberht. 834. The Northmen ravaged Sheppey. Ecgberht defeated by the Danes (825). 836. Battle of Hengestesdun. Victory of Ecgberht over Welsh and Danes. Death of Ecgberht (837). {Seep. 203.) § 3. THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE MEROWIN- GIANS. {Seep. 173.) 611. After the death of Chlodwig the frst division of the kingdom of the Franks. According to this division, which was not strictly territorial, the four sons of Chlodwig, Theoderic I. (Thierry, 511^33). CModomer (Chlodomir, 511-524), Chil- debert I. (511-.558), Chlotar I. (Clotaire, 511-561) ruled the kingdom from the four court-camps of Metz^ OrUanSy Paris and Soissons. 630-532. The kingdom of the Thuringians conquered by the eldest of the brothers (Theoderic). The two younger brothers sub- jugated the Burgundians. . The northern part of Thuringia, as far south as the Unstrut, fell to the Saxons, the allies of the Franks in the war. The southern part (to the Danube) became Frankish territory, but the name of Franco- nia was given to the region south of the Thuringian forest; the dis- trict between the Unstrut, the Thuringian forest, and the Saale con- tinued to be called Thuringia. Acquisition of Provence (536) and the supremacy over Swabia and Bavaria on the fall of the kingdom of the East Goths. 558-561. The whole Frankish kingdom again united under Chlo- tar L, who outlived his three brothers. After his death 561. A second division of the kingdom among the grandsons of Chlodwig, Guntram (561-593), Charibert I. (561-567), Sigi- bert I. (561-575), and Chilperic I. (561-584), into four, later (567) into three parts : Austrasia, with the capital at RheimSy and a population chiefly German ; Neustria, with the capital at Soissons ; Burgundy, with Orleans as capital ; in both of which later divisions the mass of the population was Romano- Celtic or Romance.^ Family divisions and wars full of horrors. Feud of Brunhilde {Brunichildis) of Austrasia, a daughter of Athanagild, kmg of the Visigoths, and Fredegunde {Fredegundis) of Neustria (f 597), slave, and afterwards wife, of Chilperic I. 613. Second union of the entire kingdom of the Franks under Chlotar II, of Neustria, great-grandson of Chlodwig. Brunhilde captured, tortured, and dragged to death by a wild horse. Origin of the power of the majores domus (Hausmeier, mayors of 1 Charibert rcrei\'ed*the territory around Paris, but after his early death this was equally divided among his brothers, and the triple division alone was hence* forth of importauce. [Trans.] 182 MedicBval History. a. d. the palace), who were at first superintendents of the royal household, afterwards leaders of the feudal retainers (leudes). The race of the Pipins (afterwards called Carolingians), of pure German blood,^ ac- quired an hereditary claim to the oftice of major domus, in Austrasia first, and afterv/ards in Neustria. 622-678. Third division of the kingdom of the Franks (interrupted, however, by several temporary unions) into the two parts into which it had meanwhile separated : 1. Austrasia (principally German), separated by the Schelde from 2. Neustria (Romance, northern France to the Loire, not reck- oning Bretagne which was independent) and Burgundy. The duchies of Aquitauia and Vasconia (Guyenne and Gascogne), between the Loire and the Pyrenees, were almost independent. {See p. 18S.) § 4. MOHAMMED (MAHOMET) AND THE CALIPHATE. 622. Mohammed's flight (Hegira) from Mecca to Medina. 16 July. Mohammed (i. e. he who is greatly praised), bom at Mecca, 571, of the family of Hashem, a merchant, husband of the wealthy Chadija, acquainted from his journeys with the Jewish and the Christian religions, proclaimed himself a prophet among the tribe of the Koreishites. Islam (i. e. a submission to the will of God conse- quent on belief). One God (Allah) and Mohammed his prophet. Moslems (the believers). Victories of Mohammed in Arabia (629) ; preparation for conquests in Syria. Mohammed died 632. Caliphs (i. e. successors) : 632-634. Ahu-heJcr, father-in-law of the prophet. Collection of the Koran (Qiiran), later enlarged by the transcription of an oral tradition, the Soona. Separation of the believers into Soonees, who recognized this addition, and Sheeah, who rejected it, and regarded Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, as his only right- ful successor. Wars with the Eastern Empire and the Persians. 63^^-644. Omar, founder of the Arabian supremacy in the East. He assumed the title of Emir-al-Mumenin (" Prince of the faithful"), which was afterwards borne by all the caliphs. Conquest of Syria (Damascus 635), Palestine, Phoenicia. De- struction of the empire of the Sassanidce (the New Persians) by the battle of Nehavend (641). Conquest of Egypt by Omar's general Amroo. Capture of Alexandria. 644-656. Othmann (Osman). Conquest of northern Africa. Cap- ture of Rhodes. Murder of Othman during an insurrection. 656-661. Ali, husband of Fatima, Mohammed's daughter, not uni- versally recognized. Muawwiyah proclaims himself caliph in Syria. After bloody civil wars and after the murder of Ali, the Sooneite 661-750. Ommiads obtamed the caliphate. 661-680. Muawwiyah /., great-grandson of Omeyyah. He trans- ferred the residence of the caliphs from Medina to Damascus* 1 Bonnell, Die Anfange des Karolingischen Hatises, 1866. A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Carolingians. 183 The caliphate was made hereditary. About 700 the governor Musa completed the conquest of Byzantine Africa as far as the Atlantic Ocean. The Berbers, who ac- cepted Islam, together with the inhabitants of Punic, Greek, and Roman descent, became amalgamated with the Arabians under the name of Moors. Tarik^ one of Musa's generals, crossed from northern Africa to Spain, and in the 711. Battle of Xeres de la Frontera (plains of the Guadal- quivir) destroyed the kingdom of the Visigoths. From this time on there coexisted in Spain: 1. the province of the caliphate, which became, at a later date (756), the separate caliphate of Cordova; 2. the Christian kingdom of Asturia, founded by Pelagius, afterwards the kingdom of Leon. The Arabians penetrated the passes in the country of the Basques and invaded Gaul. Here a limit was set to their conquests by the 732. Battle between Tours and Poitiers, where they were defeated by Charles Martel. Under the last of the Ommiads the caliphate reached its greatest extent, embracing southwestern Asia from the Gulf of Arabia and the Indus to the Mediterranean and the Caucasus^ the entire northern coast of Africa, a great part of the Spanish peninsula, and in southern France the county of Narhona, besides Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles. In the caliphate declining vigor; constant wars with the followers of Ali. Ahul Abbas, great-grandson of an uncle of the prophet, over- threw the last Ommiad caliph, Merioan II. 750-1258. Rule of the Abbasides. Residence at Bagdad. Treacherous murder of all the Ommiad princes (90). One only, Abd-er-Rahman, escaped to Spain, and founded there the 756. caliphate of Cordova. (^Seep.209.) §5. KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE CAROLINGIANS. {Seep. 182.) 687. Pipin of Heristal, major domus (mayor of the palace) of Austrasia, became by the victory of Testri (not far from St. Quentin) over the major domus of Soissons (Neustria) sole major domus of the whole kingdom of the Franks, and called himself in future dux et princeps Francorum. Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, defeated by the Arabian invaders, sought help from Charles, the son and successor of the major domus Pipin of Heristal. 732. Battle between Tours and Poitiers. Victory of 1 From him comes the name Gihel or Jebel-al-Tarik ( Gibraltar), i. e. moun- tain of Tarik, near which he landed- It would appear that the story of Tank's having been summoned by the Visigothic count Julian, is m^lhical.' Cf. Dahn. Kim. d. Germ. V. 227. 184 Mediaeval History. A. d. Charles Martel (major domus 714-741) over the Arabs. 751.^ With Pipin the Short (741-768), Charles Martel's son, the Carolingians became kings of the Franks. The last king of the Merowingian line (les rois faineants) y Childe- ric III., was deposed with the consent of Pope Zacharias and placed in a monastery. Pipin was raised upon the shield on the field of Mars at Soissons, as king of the Franks. In 754 Pope Stephen III., who had come to France to seek help, anointed Pipin and his sons Charles and Karlmann as kings of the Franks. For the future Pipin styled himself " king by the grace of God.'' In requital of this service Pipin drove back Aistud, king of the Langobards, who was threatening the Pope (p. 175). Gift of the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis {Ancona, Sinigaglia, Fano, Pesaro, Rimini) y the territory of Bologna and Ferrara, to the Pope, and thereby the first foundation of the Papal States. Pipin patricius of Rome, that city not being included in the gift to the Pope.^ Bonifacius (the Anglo-Saxon Benedictine monk Winfried, named Bonifacius by Pope Gregory II.), the apostle of the Germans (about 680-754). He preached Christianity in the country of the East Franks, in Thuringia, Hesse, and Friesland. Bishop since 722, archbishop since 732 without a settled bishopric, he brought all newly founded bishoprics and monasteries into strict dependence upon the Papal chair. In 742 Concilium Germanicum, recognition of the Pope as head of the Church. In 748 Bonifacius became the first archbishop of Mainz ; in 754 he was killed by the heathen Friesians. 768-814. Charles the Great {Charlemagne), since the death of his brother Karlmann (771), sole ruler. Karl- mann's sons took refuge with Desiderius, king of the Lango- bards, whose daughter Charles had married, but afterwards rejected. 773-774. Destruction of the kingdom of the Langobards. The Pope having refused to crown the sons of Karlmann, Desi- derius occupied the Pentapolis and threatened Rome. Charles came to the assistance of the Pope, ex officio, as patricius of Rome. Capture of Pavia after a six months' siege, during which Charles had visited Rome and renewed his alliance with the Pope. Desiderius placed in a monastery. Charles, king of Italy, by which is meant the kingdom of the Langobards, northern and central Italy. The larger part of southern Italy remained in the possession of the Eastern Empire. 772-804. War with the Saxons. The country of the Saxons was divided as follows. West- phalia, on the Sieg, Ruhr, and Lippe, and on both sides of the Em^ / 1 See the proof in G. Richter, Annalen d. deutschen Geschichte im Mitielal' ter, I. p. 216. 2 See, however, Oelsner, Jahrb. d. frank. Reichs unter Konig Pippin, Charj. IX. p. 129 foil. A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Carolingians. 185 Engern, on both sides of the Weser as far as the Leine ; Eastphalia, as far as the Elbe; Northalbingia, N. of the lower Elbe to the Eider. The Saxon war was resolved upon in the assembly (May-field) at Worms (772). 772. Capture of the Ereshurg^ destruction of the Irminsul. 11^, Capture of Sigiburg. Subjug^ation oJ the Saxons W. of the Elbe. The Saxons destroyed the Eresburg, but were subjugated anew, 776-777. First May-field in the land of the Saxons, at Paderborn. New insurrection of the Saxons upon receipt of the news of Charles's defeat in the Pyrenees, 778; subdued by the army of the east Franks and Alamanni. 779, Charles gained a victory at Bocholt on the Aa. 780, Submission of the Saxons ; acceptance of Christianity. After a new and general revolt headed by Widukind or Witte- kind, and a defeat of the Prankish army, Charles took the field in person with success. 782, Slaughter of 4500 Saxons on the Aller. 783, A new and terrible uprising, the result of this massacre. Charles victorious first at Detmold, then on the Hose. 785, After a two years' resistance Wittekind submitted and became a Christian. 778. Wars of Charles in Spain. Conquest of Saragossa. Return by RoncevauXj and defeat of the Prankish rearguard. Death of the hero Roland, margrave of the Breton coast, a pretended nephew of Charles, whose deeds are celebrated in a series of romances. The Spanish mark ^ was of later foundation, and was strengthened by Lud- wig, son of Charles (801). 788. Abolition of the duchy of the Bajuvariae (Bavarians), after the second revolt of duke Tassilo. Wars with the Northmen (the common name of the Germans of the Scandinavian north), and with the Slavs. Charles de- feated the Wiltzi and advanced to the Peene (789). 791-799. War with the Avars (who had aided Tassilo, duke of Ba- varia) conducted principally by Charles' son Pipin. 796. Storm of the King^s Ring (the chief camp of the Avars) between the Danube and the Theiss. The country between the Ems and the Raab was annexed to the Prankish empire and occupied by German colonists, especially by Bavarians. (Soon after, complete ruin of the kingdom of the Avars.^ 800. Charles revived the office of Emperor of the West. Pope Leo III., ill-treated by the relatives of his predecessor in an insurrection, and expelled from the city (799), sought Charles' camp at Paderborn. Restored by Charles to Rome, he crowned him emperor on Christmas-day, 800. 793-804. New revolts among the Saxons particularly in the N., led to a war with the Danes, with whom the Saxons had taken ref- uge. Gottfried, king of Denmark, invaded the Prankish mark; his ships harassed thp coasts' of the German Ocean. 1 Mark : a strip of land on the border of a country, where the militar}' power was especially well kept up, under a Markgraf (border-count), who was responsible for the safety of the border. — Trajts. 186 Mediaeval History. A. d. 808. The Danes, defeated by Charles, the eldest son of the emperor, retired beyond the Eider. 810. The emperor was obliged to take the field against Gottfried in person. The Danish king was murdered by his own servants. Peace with his successors. Saxony north of the Elbe remained a part of the Frankish kingdom. Boundaries of the kingdom : Ehro, Raaby Eider, Garigliano. The WenHs were again subjugated. Charles resided in Aachen in Austrasia (Aix-la-Chapelle) prin- cipally on account of its warm springs, or in the County Palatine on the Rhine, at Ingelheim, or in Nymwegen. Capitularii, imperial re- scripts. Assemblies composed of all men of rank, both churchmen and laymen (" in quo placito generalitas universorum maiorum, tam clericorum quam laicorum conveniebat "). Levy of troops (Heer- ban). Governors of counties (Gaugrafen), counts of the border dis- tricts (comites marchice, Markgrafen), imperial messengers (missi regis, Sendgrafen), who made periodical circuits in different parts of the empire, heard complaints and reported the same with other observa- tions and suggestions to the emperor. The Anglo-Saxon scholar Alcuin, the Langobard Paul, son of Warnefrid (Paulus Diaconus), called to the imperial court, where intellectual pursuits were favored and shared by the emperor. Schools for the education of the clergy, at Tours and Paris. Einhard (Eginhard), the favorite secretary of Charles (author of the Vita Caroli Imperatoris). Charles the Great became the centre of the most important series of romances of the Middle Age. 786-809. In the East Charles found a friend and admirer in Hax- ouu-al-Rashid, Caliph of Bagdad. His reign and that of his son Mamun cover the most fruitful period of science, art, and manufactures among the Arabs. The elder sons of Charles the Great, Charles and Pipin, dying before their father, he was succeeded by his yoimgest son, 814-840. Ludwig the Pious. (Louis le Debonnaire). Ludwig's nephew, Bernhard, Pipin's son, according to Charles' decree, khig of Italy under the supremacy of his uncle, re- belled against the latter, was defeated, captured, and killed. Ludwig had 4 sons : Lothar, Pipin, Ludwig, Charles the Bald (the latter by Judith, his second wife, of the noble Alamannian family of the Welfs). In 829 Ludwig substituted a new division of the empire, whereby his youngest son, Karl, received Alamannia and the royal title for the division made in 817, under which Lothar held the larger part of the empire and the imperial crown, Pipin had Aquitania, and Ludwig, Bavaria. The three elder sons at once revolted, and civil war broke out. On the Field of Lies, near Colmar in Alsace, Ludwig, the father, was deserted by his troops (833). He was taken piisoner (public penance in the church at Soissons), but soon released by his repentant son Ludwig, and replaced upon the throne (834). Pipin died in 838, and his share of the empire was divided between Lothar and Charles, which caused a new rebellion on the part of Ludwig. In 840 Ludwig the Pious died on an island in the Rhine, near Ingelheim. Ludwig and Charles in alliance defeated Lothar at Fontanetum (Fon^ tenaille or Fontenay ?) in 841. Bi-lingual oath of Strassburg (842). A. D. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 187 843. Treaty of Verdun. Division of the empire among Aug. the brothers as follows : 1. Lothar : Centre of the Frankish lands, i. e. Austrasia, Fries- land, the Alamannian lands on the left bank of the Rhine, the greater part of Burgundy, Provence, a part of Languedoc; in general, a region bounded by the Schelde, Meuse, Saone, Rhone, in the west, by the Rhine and Alps in the east, and Frankish Italy. 2. Ludwig the Grerman : The eastern part of the Frankish lands, i. e. all those parts of the empire lying on the right bank of the Rhine, except Friesland ; the diocese of Mainz, Worms, and Speier on the left bank (in general a region lying between the Rhine and the Elbe). 3. Charles the Bald : The western part of the Frankish lands, i. e. Neustria, Aquitania, the northern part of Burgundy, Septi- mania, the Spanish Mark. Lothar retained the imperial dignity which his father had given him. His kingdom, which lacked natural boundaries and comprised various nationalities, contained within itself the germ of rapid disso- lution. The Treaty of Verdun was originally merely a, family contract, made without regard to national differences. In Ludwig's kingdom, how- ever, the German element was in the majority ; in that of Charles the Romance element prevailed. Thus there developed, in the course of the following centuries, from the East Frankish element the German, from the West Frankish the French nationality. The East Franks called their language, in contrast to the Latin used by the educated clergy, the deutsche, i. e. the language of the people, and gradually (since Henry I. ?) those who spoke Deutsche came to be called Deutsche.^ (See pp. 193, 201.) § 6. NEW PERSIAN EMPIRE OF THE SASSANID^.2 Aryan. 226-641. {Seep. 15S.) 226-240. Artaxerxes I. (Artahshatr), son, not of Sasan, but of Papak, probably king of Persia proper, revolted against Artabanus, the last king of Pai- thia (p. 30), whom he defeated and slew in the battle of Hormuz. Contest of Artaxerxes with the Arsacid kings of Bactria and Arme- nia. The claim preferred by Artaxerxes to all Asia as far as the ^gean involved him in a war with Rome. Defeat of Alexander Severus, followed by peace. Subjugation of Armenia. Restoration of the religion of Zoroaster. Collection of the text of the Zend Avesta. Artaxerxes was succeeded by his son, 240-271. Sapor I. (Shahpuhri). Wars -with Rome. I. (241-244.) The Romans were sue* 1 V. Giesebrecht, Gesch. d. deutschen Kaiserzeit, I. 4th ed. p. 149. 2 Bawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy. 188 MedicBval History. A. R cessful under GordianuSf but his successor, Philippus, concluded peace with Sapor, leaving Armenia in his hands, but retaining Mesopotamia. II. (258-260.) A glorious war for Persia. Nisibis, Edessa, Antiock fell into their hands, and the Roman emperor Valerianus was cap- tured and remained a prisoner until his death (265 or 266). Defeat of Persians by Odenathus of Palmyra (p. 157). Erection of many buildings and engineering works in Persia. Mani, or Manes, a teacher of a new form of religion compounded of Christianity and Zoroasterianism {Manicheism), expelled from Persia. Sapor was succeeded by his son, Hormisdas I. (Auhrmazdi), who reigned one year and ten days (271-272) and was followed by his brother, Varahran I. (272-275). Execution of Alani. Aid sent to Zenobia (p. 157). The murder of Aurelianus (275) put an end to his expedition against Varahran, who was succeeded in the same year by his son Varahran II. (275-292?). His reign is marked chiefly by the war with Rome (283), which was closed by the mysterious death of Cams (283-284). Revolt of Tiridates of Armenia, aided by Rome- Varahran IH., son of Varahran II., reigned four months, and was followed by his brother, 292-301. Narses, who after defeating his brother and rival, Hormisdas, drove Tiridates from Armenia (296). War with Rome. Galerius, at first unsuccessful in Mesopotamia, finally defeated Narses. Peace (297) : 1. Persia ceded five provinces beyond the Tigris to Rome. 2. The Tigris recognized as the general boundary between Persia and Rome.^ 3. Cession of a large part of Media io Armenia. 4. Persia surrendered to Rome her supremacy over Iberia (Georgia). Abdication of Narses and accession of his son, Hormisdas II. (301-309), whose reign covers little of importance. At his death the nobles set aside his son Hormisdas, and conferred the crown upon his unborn child. A boy was born, who received the name 309-379 (?). Sapor U. During his minority the country suffered from invasions of the Arabs, but on arriving at his seventeenth year Sapor assumed the government, and inflicted a terrible punishment on Arabia. Persecu- tion of Christians (about 325). First war with Rome (337-350). Defeat of Constantius at Singara (348). JVisibis in Mesopotamia tlirice besieged by Sapor in vain (338, 340, 350). War of Sapor with Tatar tribes in the E. (351-359) and extension of Persian power in this direction. Armenia went over to Rome. Second war with Rome (359-363). Invasion of Syria. Capture of Amida after a desperate resistance. Julianus, emperor of Rome, invaded Persia, and defeated the Persians before Ctesiphon (362), but immediately began a retreat, in the course of which he died. His successor, Jovian, concluded peace with Sapor for thirty years (363) : 1. Restoration of the five provinces ceded by Narses. 2. Surrender of Nisibis and Singara to Persia. 3. Rome to give up all connection with Arme7iia. Conquest of Armenia by Sapor. Third war with Rome (371-376), carried on without energy and concluded by an obscure peace. 1 Bawlinson, Seventh Monarchy, 128 foil., discusses the conditions. A-. D. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 189 The brilliant reign of Sapor was followed by a time of quiet. Artaxerxes II. (379-383.) Sapor HI. (383-388.) Division of Armenia between Persia and Rome, — Persia receiving the larger part. Varahran IV. (388-399) deposed Chosroes, king of Persian Armenia, and placed his own brother on the throne (391). Varahran was murdered during a mutiny, and succeeded by his son Isdigerd I. (Izdikerti) (399-419 [420]), whose peaceful reign is remarkable for little, except a persecution of the Christians in Persia and Armenia. He was succeeded by his son, 419 (420)^40. . Varahran V., who, having put down Chosroes, a pretender to the throne, re- newed the persecution of the Christians, and began war with Rome. Meeting with no success, he concluded peace (422), and agreed to stop the persecution. (Charity of Acacins, bishop of Amida, who ransomed 7000 Persian captives.) Beginning of Persia's wars with the Ephthi- alites (Pers. Haithal), a people dwellmg beyond the Oxus, and prob- ably of " Thibetic or Turkish stock " (not Huns). Surprise, defeat, and death of the invading Khan. The Persians crossed the Oxus and chastised the Tatars in their own territory. Varahran was succeeded by his son, 440-457. Isdigerd II., who at once declared war upon Rome, but as hastily concluded peace. Nine years' war with the Epthialites, ending with their defeat in their own country. The attempt of Isdigerd to convert Armenia to Zoroastrianism brought on a religious war, wherein the Christians were defeated (455 or 456). Forcible conversion of Armenia. To- ward the close of his reign Isdigerd was defeated by the Ephthialites. After his death civil war between his sons Perozes and HormisdaSf ending in the victory of 459-483 (?). Perozed. Great famine in the seventh year of his reign (?). Unsuccess- ful war and disgraceful peace with the Ephthialites (464 465). Re- volt of Armenia under Vahan, which was still unsubdued when Pero- zes again attacked the Ephthialites, at whose hands he suffered a severe defeat, falling in the battle. He was succeeded by his brother (?) 483(?)-487. Balas (Pers. Valahhesh or Volgases), under whom Persia probably paid tribute to Khush-newaz, the Ephthialite Khan. Pacification of Armenia. Edict of toleration. Destruction of fire-altars. Balas was succeeded by 487(?)-498. Kobad, (first reign) son of Perozes, who had been in hiding among the Ephthi- alites. Successful war with the Khazars, a people of uncertain race (Turkish or Caucasian?), dwelling between the Volga and the Don. Communistic and ascetic doctrines of Mazdak, a high priest of Zoro- aster, to which many converts were made, the king being of the number. Consequent disturbances in Persia and Armenia resulting in the deposition of Kobad and the accession of his brother, 498-501. Zamasp. Kobad, however, soon escaped to the Ephthialites and returned 190 Med i aval History. A. d. at the head of an army, whereupon Zamasp voluntarily resigned the crown. 601^31. Kobad (second reign). Withdrawal of support from Masdak. The refusal of the Eastern Empire to fulfil its agreement to contribute to the defence of the pass of Derhend in the Caucasus, which was the usual route of the nomadic tribes in their invasions of Persia or the Eastern Empire, caused Kobad to declare war. Sack of Amida (502). An Ephthi- alite invasion induced peace in 507. Erection of the fortress of Daras, twelve miles from Nisibis by Anastasius, emperor of the East. Second war with the Eastern Empire (524-531), wherein the Per- sians, at first successful, were defeated by Belisarius m the battle of Daras (528). Kobad was succeeded by his son, 531-579. Chosroes I. Anushirwan (" The Just ") per- haps the greatest of the Sassanid kings. Peace with Rome (533) : 1. Rome paid 11,000 lbs. of gold toward the fortification of the Caucasus. 2. Daras retained its fortifica- tions, but was not to be the Roman headquarters. 3. Reciprocal sur- render of recent conquests. 4. Eternal friendship and alUance, whence this peace is known as the " endless peace." It endured for seven years, at the end of which time Chosroes, jealous of the great victo- ries of Justinian in the West, listened to the prayers of the East Goths and declared war. 540. Capture of Antioch. Chosroes extorted ransom from the principal cities of west- ern Asia Minor ; returned home. A truce, concluded in 545, was broken in 549 by Rome, who sent assistance to the Lazi (inhabitants of ancient Colchis^ in their war with Persia. 651. Capture of Petra by the Romans and Lazi. 563. Definite peace between Persia and Rome. 1. Lazica ceded to Rome. 2. Rome to make a yearly pay- ment to Persia. 3. Exercise of their faith secured to the Christians in Persia. 4. Commercial intercourse between the empires restricted to certain roads and marts. 5. Free diplomatic intercourse. 6. Daras to retain its fortifications. 7. Disputes to be settled by arbi- tration. 8. Allies of either party included in the peace. 9. Persia undertook the maintenance of the Caspian Gates alone. 10. The peace was concluded for fifty years. Successful wars with the Ephthialites and Khazars. 662. Expedition of Chosroes to Arabia, against the Christian king- dom founded there by Abyssinians early in the sixth century. Chosroes expelled the Abyssinians and left the country under the control of Salf, leader of the native Homerites ; after his mui'der Arabia was made a Persian province. The expedition to India ascribed to Chosroes is doubtful. Dezabul, Khan of the Turks, who had recently subjugated the Ephthialites and entered into alliance with the Eastern Empire, invaded Persia, but met with no success. 572. Justin, Emperor of the East, declared war on Persia. Chos- roes ravaged Syria. Fall of Daras (573). fL. D. iVW Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 191 Chosro5s died, 579, in Mesopotamia. Improved administration in Persia under Chosroes. Empire di* vided into four governments : East, Khorassan, Seistan, Kirman • North, Armenia, Azerbizan, Ghilan, Koum, Isfahan; South, Fars, Ahwaz ; West, Irak, or Babylonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia. Frequent progresses of the king. Substitution of a fixed land tax for the for- mer variable tax on produce. Tax collectors placed under the super- vision of the priests. Reform in the army. Improved irrigation. Protection of foreigners. Encouragement of learning. Laws of Artaxerxes revised. Collection of the Shah-na-meh, or Book of the Kings, the basis of Firdusi's epic. Introduction of the Fables of Pilpay, and of the game of chess from India. Toleration extended to Christians. Chosrogs was succeeded by his son, 579-589. Hormisdas IV. (Hormazd). At first a wise ruler, afterwards the worst of Persian kings. 579. Invasion of Persia by the Eastern Emperor Maurice. 581. Defeat of the Persians at Constantia. The war continued with alternate defeat and victory until in 589. Persia was invaded by Arabs, Khazars, and above all by the great Khan of the Turks. He was defeated by the Persian general Bahram and fell in the battle. In the same year Hormisdas provoked a war with Rome by invading Lazica. Bahram was de- feated on the Araxes. An insult ofPered him by the king caused his revolt and the deposition and murder of Hormisdas, who was suc- ceeded by his son, 589-628. Chosroes II., Eherwiz, who was at once involved in war with Bahram, who drove him from the kingdom and assumed the crown. The reign of Bahrain (Varahran VI.) was short (590-591). Chosroes had taken refuge at Constantinople, and a Roman force restored him to his throne. Bahram, defeated, fled to the Turks. The second reign of Chosro6s II. was marked by a wonderful in- crease of Persia's power, and by its sudden fall. 603-610. War with Phocas, murderer of Maurice. Capture of Daras. Syria, Armenia, Galatia, Phrygia, ravaged. Sack of Antioch. The accession of Heraclius to the throne of the Eastern Empire did not end the war. 612. Invasion of Cappadocia. 614. Capture of Damascus. 615. Sack of Jerusalem. 616. Capture of Pelusium and Alexandria by the Persian general Shahr-Barz. Submission of Egypt. 617. Fall of Chalcedon. The Persians encamped within a mile of Constantinople. 820. Capture of Ancyra and of Rhodes. Persia restored to the limits "which it attained under Darius I. So nearly had Chosroes driven Heraclius to despair that he pre- pared to take refuge in Carthage, but his design was prevented by the citizens of Constantinople. Thus driven to bay, the emperor formed the desperate resolve of attacking his enemy in his own eountry. 192 Medicevcd History. A. D. 622. Landing of the Romans in the Gulf of Issus. Defeat of Shahr-Barz. 623. Heraclius sailed to Lazica, and invaded Armenia. Chosroes re- treated, and the Romans wintered in Albania. 626. Battle of the Sarus. Defeat of Shahr-barz. Chosrogs al- lied himself with the Avars, and placed two armies m the field: one against Heraclius in Asia Minor, one destined for a direct attack on Constantinople. The latter attempt failed, Constantinople held out, although attacked also by hosts of Bulgarians and other barbarians from the west. Winter campaign of Heraclius. 627. Dec. 12. Battle of Nineveh. Defeat of the Persians. Flight of Chosroes. Heraclius advanced to Ctesiphon, but returned without assaulting the city. Mutiny of the Persian troops at Ctesiphon under two of the king's sons. Seizure and murder of Chosroes. He was succeeded by his son, 628-629 (?). Kobad H. {Siroes\ who concluded peace with Rome on a basis of exchange of conquests and captives. Death of Kobad (of the plague ?). Usur- pation of Shahr-barz, who before two months were over was mur- dered by his own troops. Reigns of Furaudocht and Azermi- docht, daughters of Chosroes II., followed by a period of anarchy, during which nine or ten nobles held the throne successively. 632-641 (651). Isdigerd, grandson of Chosro6s II., last Sassanid king of Persia. His whole reign was a struggle against the growing power of the Caliphs Abu-Bekr and Omar (p. 182). 633. Expedition of Kaled (the " sword of God ") to Hira. Defeat of the Persians. The whole region west of the Euphrates fell into the hands of the Arabs, who, however, suffered a temporary check by the loss of the " Battle of the Bridge." Their ravages were soon renewed, and extended throughout Mesopotamia. Great exertions of the Persians. Levy of an army of 120,000 men, which was defeated in the four days' 636. Battle of Cadesia, by Sa'ad Ibu Abi Wakas. Loss of the Durufsh-katoani, or royal standard of Persia. 637. Invasion of Mesopotamia by Sa'ad. Capture of Ctesiphon. Defeat of the Persians in the battle of Jalula. 639. Invasion of Susiana and Persia proper by the Arabs. Capture of Hormuzan, a Persian general, who, being brought before Omar, asked for a cup of water, which he hesitated to taste until as- sured by the Caliph that he should not be harmed until he had drunk the water, whereupon he dashed the water on the ground before the astonished Caliph, who respected his promise and spared the Persian's life. The recall of Sa'ad emboldened Isdigerd to make a final efPort. Collection of an army of 150,000 men, which was totally defeated in the A. D. Italy and Germany. 193 641. Battle of Nehavend ("victory of victories"). Fall of the Sassanicl power. Persia henceforward governed by the caliphs. Isdigerd III. lived for ten years a fugitive, and was at last murdered (651). SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE BEGINNING OF THE CRUSADES (843-1096). §1. ITALY AND GERMANY. {Seep. 187.) 843-875. Carolingians in Italy. After the death of two sons of Lothar I., Ludwig the German and Charles the Bald divided Lothar's inheritance by the treaty of Mersen on the Meuse (870). The German portion (Friesland^ Lotha- ringia or Lothringen {Lorraine), so called after Lothar II.) was an- nexed to the kingdom of the East Franks, the Romance portion (Burgundy, Provence) to the kingdom of the West Franks. Boun- dary, the Meuse. After the death of Ludwig II., who was the eldest son of Lothar I. (875), Charles the Bald became Emperor (f 877). 843-911. Carolingians in Germany. 843-876. Ludwig the German. Wars with the Slavs, with Charles the Bald, and especially with the Northmen, i. e. the Scandinavian sea warriors (Vikings), by whose ferocious energy the west of Europe was during this epoch harassed almost beyond belief. In 845 simultaneous attack by the Northmen upon all three of the Frankish kingdoms. Ludwig the German's son, 876-887. Charles the Fat, at first in conjunction with his brothers, Karlmann (f 880) and Ludwig (f 882). Successful resistance to the claims of Charles the Bald on the Rhine (battle of Andemach, 876) and Italy. Charles the Fat became Emperor in 881, and in 884 was elected king of the West Franks. He united once more under one sceptre the Mon- archy of Charles the Great, with the exception of cisjurane Burgundy (Dauphiue, Provence, part of Languedoc), which became a separate kingdom under Boso. Charles the Fat was deposed by East and West Franks on account of his cowardice (siege of Paris by the Northmen), abdicated the throne at Trihur (887), and died almost immediately thereafter. The East Franks elected 887-899. Arnulf of Carinthia, grandson of Ludwig the German, illegitimate son of Karlmann. He defeated the Northmen upon the Dyle (at Lowen, 891), and in alliance with the Magyars, a nomadic Finnish tribe, which had gradually made its way from the Ural region towards Europe, and under guidance of 13 194 Mediaeval History. A. d. Arpad had invaded Hungary, conquered Svatopluk II. (893), the founder of the kingdom of Moravia. Arnulf went twice to Italy, and was crowned Emperor (896). His son, 899-911. Ludwig the Child (six years old), was completely under the influence of Hatto, archbishop of Mainz. Terrible devastation of Germany by the Magyars. In 908 they traversed Bavaria, Franconia, and penetrated into Thuringia and Saxony. Lewis, defeated in the neighborhood of the Lech (910), was obliged to pay them tribute. Internecine feuds in Franconia : Adalbert of Bahenherg against Rudolf, bishop of Wurzburg, of the family of Conrad of Hesse. Victory of the Conradines. Adalbert executed in front of his castle. Weakness of the young king. The monarchy seemed about to break up into duchies : Saxony, Fran- conia, Bavaria, Swabia, Lotharingia. After Ludwig's death the aged Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, refused the crown, and se- cured the election of 911-918. Conrad I. of Franconia, by the nobles. Invasions of Danes, Slavs, and Magyars. Conrad was constantly at war with the West Franks and with his own subjects in a vain endeavor to obtain recognition of his sover- eignty, especially from Henry, son of Otto the Illustrious and duke of Saxony, since 912. Lotharingia, with the exception of Alsace, became a part of the kingdom of the West Franks. 919-1024. Kings and Emperors of the Saxon house. In obedience to the wish of Conrad, expressed on his death- bed, and seconded by his brother, Eberhard, the Saxons and Franks elected at Fritzlar on the Eder 919-936. Henry I. the Fowler, founder of the German monarchy. Henry compelled BurTchard, duke of Alamannia (Swabia), and Arnulf, duke of Bavaria, to acknowledge his supremacy. 924. The Magyars (Hungarians) made a new inroad. Henry con- cluded a nine years' truce with them, and secured immunity for Saxony and Thuringia by payment of tribute. 925. Henry regained Lotharingia. Enlargement and better fortification of old fortresses (Merse- hurg) and construction of new ones (Quedlinburg, Goslar), which at a later period became cities. There was no wide-spread founding of cities by Henry himself, but in his reign the Saxons were gradually accustomed to city life and to cavalry service in war. Successful wars with the Wends, against whom a great mark was established along the middle Elbe, out of which at a later time (after the retirement of margrave (Markgraf) Gero, 963) were formed the Altmark or Northmark, Meissen, and the Ostmark (later Mark Lau- sitz), lying between the two. Victory at Lenzen (929). Wars with the Bohemians (recognition of the duty of feudal service), and with the Danes {Gorm the Old). Creation of a mark between the Eidef and Sley (934), afterwards called Mark Schle, Welsh, and Danes crushed in 926. Again A. D. England, 205 renewed, it was again broken up by the defeat of the allies in the 937. Battle of Brunanburh. ^thelstan was succeeded by his brother Eadmimd (940- 946). Revolt of Danes and Scots. Reconquest of the Five Boroughs and the Danelagh. Cumberland given as a fief to Malcolm^ king of Scots. Dunstan appointed abbot of Glastonbury. Murder of Ead- mund, who was succeeded by his brother Eadred (946-955). A revolt of the Danes was crushed in 954 ; final submission of the Danelagh. Bad wig (955-959), nephew of Eadred, quarrelled with Dunstan, and drove him from the country. He was succeeded by his brother, 959-975. Eadgar, the under king of Mercia. Dunstan, recalled in 958, arch- bishop of Canterbury 959, was the true ruler. The royal power stood high. Revision of the laws. Secular priests were out of favor, and monks were installed in many of the wealthiest churches. Mainte- nance of a large fleet. Eadgar was followed by his son Eadward (the martyr), murdered 978. 978-1016. iEthelred II., the Unready,^ son of Eadgar, in whose reign the political conquest of England was under- taken by the Danish sovereigns (p. 203). Danish invasions began, after a long interval, in 980. Death of Dunstan, 988. Battle of Maldon against the Danes (991), when Brihtnoth, ealdorman of the East Saxons, fell. (Song of Brihtnoth's Death.) In this year (991) the plan of buying off the Danes was adopted, 10,000 pounds being paid, which were raised by a special tax (Danegeld). In 994 Anlaf {Ola^f Tryggvesson) and Swegen (Svend with the Forked Beard) rav- aged Kent, and were paid 16,000 pounds. Ravages of the Northmen in 997, 998, 999, 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1006, 1009, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1015. 1002. 24,000 pounds paid to the Northmen. Massacre of all (?) Danes in England, upon one day (Nov. 13, Danish Vespers) by order of JSthelred. Swegen resolves on the conquest of Eng- land. Marriage of jEthelred and Emma, daughter of Richard I., duke of Normandy. In 1007, 36,000 pounds, in 1012, 48,000 pounds, were paid to the Northmen. Death of Swegen (1014). Election of his son Cnut (Canute) to succeed him. The Danes had now recov- ered all that part of England which they had acquired by the treaty of Wedmore (p. 204) in 878. Upon the death of jEthelred the Danish party in England chose Cnut king, but the English party, which centred in London, chose Eadmund Ironside (1016), son of ^thel- red. He made a brave stand, and many battles were fought this year. After the defeat of Eadmund at Assandun peace was con- cluded. Eadmund received Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, and Lon- don ; Cnut received Northumberland and Mercia. The nominal over- lordship of England remained with Eadmund. After the death of Eadmund (1016) Cnut became king of England. 1 Such is his conventional title; probably "Despiser of Counsel" would bet- ter convey the meaning of " Jiedeless.'" 206 Mediaeval History. A. d. 1016-1042. Danish supremacy over England. 1016-1035. Cnut. England divided into four governments : Wessex, under Cnut; Mercia, East Anglia, Northumberland, under Jarls or Earls. Huscarls, Cnut's personal following. Cnut in Rome (1027). Laws of Cnut (1028). Subjugation of Malcolm, king of Scots (1031). Cnut was succeeded by his sons Harold (1035-1040) and Harthacnut (1040-1042). Godwine, earl of Wessex ; Leofric, earl of Mercia ; Si'ward, earl of Northumberland. On Harthacnut's death the son of jEthelredy 1042-1066. Eadward, the Confessor, was elected king. He had been educated at the Norman court, and during his reign Norman influence was supreme at the court of England. The country was in the hands of the great earls Godwine, Leofric, Siward, In 1051, Godwine, father-in-law of the king, was ex- iled. Recalled in 1052 he brought about a general banishment of the French. Upon the death of Godivine his power passed to his son Harold (1053). In 1055 Harold's brother Tostig succeeded Siward as earl of Northumberland. In 1057 Harold's brother Gyrth was made earl in Norfolk and Suffolk, and another brother of Harold, Leo/wine, earl of Kent and Essex. Subjugation of Wales by Harold (1063). Revolt of Northumberland (1065). Deposition of Tos^i^r and election of Morkere, grandson of Leofric of Mercia, and brother of Edwin, then earl of Mercia. On the death of Eadward, 1066. Harold, earl of Wessex, was elected king. A claim to the succession was immediately advanced by "Wil- liam, duke of Normandy, upon three grounds. 1. The alleged be- quest of Eadward the Confessor. 2. An oath taken by Harold upon occasion of his having been shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy about 1064, in virtue of which he had become William's vassal, and had promised to marry his daughter and secure him the succession after the death of Eadward. 3. Tlie right of his wife, Matilda (p. 204). The claim being rejected, William at once prepared to assert it by arms. Invasion of Yorkshire by Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of England. Sept. 25. Battle of Stamfordbridge. Defeat and death of the invaders. "William had meantime landed at Pevensey. Harold hastened south, but was defeated in the Oct. 14. Battle of Hastings or Senlac, and fell on the field. Eadgar uEtheling, grandson of Eadmund Iro7isides, was chosen king, but soon submitted, with all the chief men, to the victor. Election of Wil' liam. (Seep. 229.) A. D. The North, " 207 § 4. THE NORTH. {Seep. 1G8.) Denmark. Northern historians of the Middle Age refer the conquest of the North to the Asas under Odin (p. 168), who gave Denmark to his son. After him came Dan the Famous, who gave a name to the king- dom. Under Frode the Peaceful, who reigned at the beginning of our era, Denmark enjoyed a Golden Age. In the eighth century the famous battle of Bravalla was fought between Harold Hildetand, king of Denmark, and Sigurd Ring^ king of Sweden, and ended in favor of the Swedes. Thus far all is mythical. The true history of Denmark begins with Gorm the Old. It is clear, however, that the Danes had settled in two bands : one occupying the peninsula, Jutland, Schleswig, and Holstein; the other occupying the eastern islands Zealand, FiXnen, etc. Both divisions, between which there was scanty intercourse, were ruled by numerous petty chiefs (smaa-kongar), among the most famous of whom was the king and high-priest of Lejre in Zealand, who was at the head of a loose confederacy of the islands. Wlien Jutes and Angles in the fifth century migrated to Britain (p. 176), Danes from the islands seem to have taken their place in the peninsula. Godfrey, king of Jutland, was embroiled with Charles the Great, and built a Dannevirk or line of fortresses across the peninsula. Under his successor. Hemming, the Eyder was made the boundary between Denmark and the Franldsh empire. In 822 Christianity preached in Denmark by Ebbo, archbishop of Hheims. In 826 Ansgarius, " the Apostle of the North," labored in Denmark, but without lasting results. Gorm the Old (about 860-935), the first king of all Denmark, was a devout heathen, who persecuted the new faith until forced to refrain by Henry I. of Germany. Erection of the great Dannevirke between the Sley and the Eyder. Gorm ruled the peninsula, the islands, and Skaania and Bleking, the southern provinces of Sweden. Harold Blue-tooth (Blaatand), 935-985. War with Norway. Otto II. of Ger- many, in 975, forced Harold to consent to the introduction of Chris- tianity in his kingdom. Svend Forked Beard {Tveskjced), 985-1914. Successful revolt of the tributary Wends. Svend in England (p. 205), Knut the Great (1014-1035), king of Denmark and of England. He passed most of his time in England, which led to an attempt on the part of Ulf-Jarl to make Hardeknut king in Denmark. It failed, and Knut later had Ulf killed. In 1028 Knut was proclaimed king of Norway. Hardeknut (Hathacnut) (1035-1042) succeeded his father in Den- mark. His war with Magnus of Norway ended in an agreement whereby whoever should outlive the other should inherit his kingdom. Under this treaty Magnus ruled Denmark, 1042-1047. He was suc- ceeded by Svend Estridsen, son of Ulf-Jarl and Estride, sister of Knvt (1047-1074). War for seventeen years with Harold Hardrada of Norway was brought to a close in 1064. War with the Wends. Svend raised Denmark to a position of power, which was lost under 208 MedicBval History. A. d. his five sons who followed him: Harold Heyn (1077-1080), St. Knut (1080-1086), Olaf Hunger (1086-1095), Erik Ejegod (1095^ 1103), Niels (1105-1135). (5ee p. 235.) Sweden. (See p. 209.) Sweden was the first of the Scandinavian kingdoms to attain power. According to tradition there were two races in the country besides the Finns, the Gota or Gauta (Goths) and the Svea. The Svea traced their origin to the followers of Odin. Njord, son of Odin, was the first king of Sweden. His son, Frey Yngve, built the temple of Uppsala, and founded the line of the Ynglingar, wliich ruled the Svea until Ingjald Ill-raada so angered the petty kings by his cruelty that they revolted. The king burned himself and his family, and his son Olaf fled to Norway. Ivar Vidfadme, king of Skaania, which was independent before its conquest by Gorm of Denmark, succeeded Ing- jald. This was in the seventh century. In the eighth ( ?) century falls the mythical battle of Bravalla, where Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, defeated Harold Hildetand of Den- mark. Sigurd's son, Ragnar Lodbrog, is even more famous in story than his father. (Tale of his capture by -^Ua of Northumberland, and of his death in a pit of serpents, which his sons avenged by the slaughter of iEUa. See p. 203, where the discrepancy in date is to be noted.) In the ninth century authentic history begins. Mission of Ansga- rius (829-865) to Sweden, where his preaching met with great suc- cess. Erik Emundsson, king of Sweden (died in 885 ?), made im- portant conquests in the East. At the same time bands of Swedes settled around Novgorod, subjugated the Slavs, and laid the foundation of the future empire of Russia (Varinjar, Russ.). Olaf the Lap-king (993-1024) was the first Christian king of Swe- den. War with St. Olaf oi Norway. The last king of the Upsala line was Emund Gammle (the Old), who died about 1056. Stenkil (1056-1066). (Seep.2J7.) Norway. (See p. 209.) According to tradition Norway was first settled by Olaf Trcetelje of the Ynglingar line, who fled from Sweden after the death of his father Ingjald. The country was governed by numerous petty kings, and remained weak and distracted, like Sweden and Denmark, until, as in those countries, a process of consolidation set in in the ninth cen- tury. Halfdan the Black (841-863) reduced many of the petty kings to subjection, and his son, Harald Haarfager (863-932), completed the work of conquest and introduced the feudal system. Defeat of the Jarls at Hafurstfjord, 872. These changes, and the repression of free- booting which followed them, induced a great migration of the Jarls, the most famous of the vikings. Establishment of Northmen under Rolf Ganger (Rollo) in Normandy. Conquest of DuhJ.in by Olauf in 852. Discovery and settlement of Iceland, 861-875, etc. ilrik Blodiixe (930-934), Hakon (934-961), Harald Graafell, Hakon Jarl (988-995). Olaf Tryggvasson (996-1000). He disappeared at the A. D. Spanish Peninsula. 209 battle of Svold, where he was defeated by Olafthe Lap-king of Nor- way, Svend Tveskceg of Denmark, and Erik and Svend, sons of Hakon Jarl. The victors divided Norway between them. Discovery and settlement of Greenland by Erik the Red (983). Vinland (America) seen by Bjarne, and visited by Leif and others, 986-1011. See p. 281. Norway was again united under St. Olaf (II.) 1015-1030, in whose reign Christianity was introduced. Magnus the Good, son of OlaJ (1035-1047), king of Denmark from 1042 to 1047. The Graagaas, or book of the law. Harald III., Hardrada, founded Opslo (Chris- tiania), and fell at Stamford Bridge 1066 (p. 206). Magnus II. (1066- 1069), Olaf (1069-1093), Magnus III. Barfod (1095-1103). Con- quest of the Orkneys and Hebrides • of Dublin. Death of Magnus in Ireland. (5ee p. 2S5.') § 5. SPANISH PENINSULA- (See p. 18S.) 755-1031. Caliphate of Cordova, founded by the last Oramiad, Abd-er-Rahman (p. 183). Most brilliant period of the Moorish civilization, in the ninth and tenth centuries. Abd-er-Rahman III., Hakem II., AlmanzoTj his general. The populous city of Cordova, the seat of science and arts. 1031. Dissolution of the caliphate of Cordova into a number of small states. The Morabethes or Almoravides (Yussuf), sum- moned from Mauretania, successfully opposed the Christians (1086), but made themselves masters of Mohammedan Spain. Christian Kingdoms. Asturia (Oviedo), since the conquest of the country as far as the Duero by Alfonso III. in the tenth century, called the king- dom of Leon, after the new residence, Leon. Castile, so called from the castles erected against the Arabs, origi- nally a county of Asturia. Navarre, a border state in the Pyrenees : first a county under French supremacy, then independent. Sancho I. assumed the title King of Navarre (905), and subjugated Aragon, originally a Frankish county north of Navarre. 1000-1035. Sancho III. the Great, king of Navarre, and, by inheritance, king of Castile, divided at his death his king- dom among his three sons. As Leon and Castile were soon united, there existed henceforward three Christian kingdoms in Spain : 1, Castile-Leon ; 2, Navarre ; 3, Aragon. We must also reckon the county of Barcelona, which grew out of the Spanish mark of Charles the Great, and was independent after the time of Charles the Bald. Wars of Ruy Diaz, called by the Arabs Cid, i. e. Lord (died 1099). {See p. 240.) 14 210 Mediceval History, A. ix § 6. THE EAST. Eastern Empire. 527-565. Justinian I., emperor of the East. Belisarius. Narses (p. 175). Codification of the law in the form known as the corpus juris civilis (Trihonianus), comprising ; 1. Institutiones. 2. Pandectas or Digesta. 3. Codex. 4. Novell'ce, later additions. Parties of the circus : Greens, Blues, Reds, and Whites. Bloody- contests (" Nika," 532). The church of St. Sophia, built by Con- stantine {Hagia Sophia), burnt and rebuilt with great splendor. Decline of the empire under Justinian's successors (cruelty, mutila- tions). A part of the Asiatic and African provinces conquered by the Persians and afterwards by the Arabs. 726-842. Contest over images. Image-breakers (ilKovoKKAtrrax, icon- oclasts) and image worshippers (fi/covoSoSAoi). 717-741. Leo the Isaurian. Image worship prohibited. 780-802. Irene, who out of love of power had her own son blinded, restored image worship. The accession of a woman to the imperial throne served as a pretext to legalize the transfer of the imperial crown from the East to the West. 842. Theodora fully restored image worship. 867-1057. Eastern emperors of the Macedonian Jine. The empire, hard pressed by Arabs, Bulgarians, and Magyars. The emperors Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces, whom Theophano, widow of Ramanus II. (died 962), placed on the throne, partially reconquered the provinces which the Arabs and Bulgarians had torn from the empire. {See p. 2J^0.) Caliphate of Bagdad under the Abbasides (750-1258). Immediately after the reigns of Haroun-al-Raschid and Mamun (p. 186), the power of the caliphs hegan to decline. 935. The Emir al Omra (i. e. prince of princes) received all the secular power; the caliph remained only spiritual head of the faithful. 969, Egypt independent under Fatimites. 1058. Seljuk Turks (Togrul Bey, Alp Arslan, Malek Shah) at- tained the dignity of Emir al Omra. Seljuk supremacy. 1092. The empire of the Seljuks separated into a number of small • sultanates (Iran, Kerman, Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium or Roum). India. The early history is exceedingly uncertain, and the most impor- tant events are assigned dates differing from one another by over four centuries. The Guptas, who succeeded in power the Sahs of Surdshha (60 b. C.-235 a. d.), occupied Kanauj from 319 to about 470, when they were overthrown by Tatar invaders (Huns ?), and the Valabhis, who dwelt in Cutch and the northern part of Bombay, were the principal power in India, 480-722. A. D. The East. 211 Actual authentic history begins with the Arabic invasions. Sind was the first province to feel the Mohammedan attack. It was con- quered in 711, but in 750 a general uprising expelled the victors. About 1000-1*186. Supremacy of the Sultans of Ghazni. The next great attack was made by a Turk, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, (in Kabul), who invaded India seventeen times, and con- quered the country to the Ganges. The decisive struggle took place at Peshawar, where Mahmud was victorious. In 1024 famous expe- dition to Guzerat. Destruction of the idol pillar filled with jewels. (?) Mahmud was succeeded by fourteen rulers of his house, the last of whom, Bahram, was conquered by Allah-ud-din of Ghor. Bahram's son, KhusrUy founded at Lahore the first Mohammedan dynasty in India proper. 1186-1206. Supremacy of the Afghans of Ghor. In 1186, Khusru's son was made captive by Muhammed Ghori, after which the predominance exercised by the Turks of Ghazni passed into the hands of the Afghans of Ghor. Muhammed Ghori was killed in 1206. (See p. 2^1.) China. {See p. 32.) 590-618. Dynasty of Suy, under whose energetic sway China was partially rescued from the confusion of the Three Kingdoms (p. 32). 618-907. Dynasty of Tang, founded by the usurper, Le Yuen, who, as emperor, took the name of Kau-tsu. The first part of tliis period down to 718 was a brilliant time for China, and the Golden Age of literature. The earlier rulers ( Tai-tsung, 627-650 ; Kaou-tsung, 650-683 ; Woo How, 683-705, the wife of Kaou-tsung, who usurped the throne on her hus- band's death) were valiant warriors and wise rulers, who held the Tatars in check, recovered much of the former possessions of China in Central Asia, and raised the empire to a commanding position among other nations ; 643, embassies from Persia and Constantinople in Cliina. From 718 the attacks of the Tatars increased in vehemence. From 763 to 780 their inroads were incessant. Under Woo-tsung (841-847) temples were destroyed, monasteries and nunneries closed, and all foreign priests (Christian, Persian, Bud- dhist) banished. The reaction was, however, short-lived. Inven- tion of printing. 907-960. Five dynasties (Later Leang, Later Tang, Later Tsin, Later Han, Later Chow) occupied the throne within this period, but the power of each was very limited. In Ho-nan, Sze-chuen, and other provinces independent states arose. 960-976. Chaou-kwang-yin, as emperor, Tai-tsoo, the founder of the dynasty of the Later Sung, fought with success against the Khitan Tatars, who had occupied the whole of Manchuria, estab- lishing there the empire of Hia. Succeeding emperors were less for- tunate, and paid tribute to the Tatars (976-1101). {Seep. 24I.) 212 Mediceval History. A. d. Japan.i From the reign of Ojin (270-310, p. 33) to the close of the sixth century, the history of Japan is a record of quiet progress in civiliza- tion, under the influence of continental intercourse and of increasing wealth. Throughout this period, as before, the Mikados were actual sovereigns and personal commanders. The close of this epoch Saw the introduction of Buddhism into Japan and its rapid spread (p. 33). The seventh century is of surpassing interest in the history of Japan, for then it was that causes long working m silence and un- seen resulted in changes subversive of the entire social and political life of the Japanese, — changes which led to the withdrawal of the Mikado from personal intercourse with his subjects behind a veil of formal etiquette and heightened reverence, and to the predominance of the military over the civil power, until the actual government of the country passed from its legal sovereign, the Mikado, into the hands of an usurping military chieftain, thus creating a long-enduring, much misunderstood system of dual government, — changes whose final outcome was a feudal system corresponding to that known to mediaeval Europe, which, with its legitimate oft'spring, oppression, weakness, anarchy, lasted until 1868. These changes were the following : I. The growth of a numerous court nobility of imperial, and hence of divine, descent. II. The creation of numerous offices of state which became the property of the court nobility. III. The division of the male population into an agricultural and a military class. IV. The separation of state offices into two sections, the dvil and the military, and the continuance of each in the hands of one group of noble families. I. The huge, or court nobility, owed their numbers to the practice of polygamy, which the necessity of providing against the extinction of a divine dynastic line imposed on the Mikados. They comprise at present one hundred and fifty-five families, which form among them- selves larger groups, or clans. Such clans are : the Fujiwara, the most famous of all the kuge ; the Sugawara ; the Taira (Heike in Chinese characters) ; the Minamoto (Genji in Chinese charac- ters). II. In 603 the requirements of a more extensive empire caused the establishment of eight great administrative departments, and of a host of smaller offices, which were filled by members of the kuge, and gradually became vested in certain families. III. The demand of the growing empire for increased military efficiency led to the division of the whole male population into two classes : 1. the class of agricultural laborers, comprising all who were unfit for military service ; they were relegated to a life of un- broken toil, and were burdened with the annual payment of a quan- tity of rice sufficient for the support of the 2. military class, the Samurai, which included all the bravest and most intellectual men in Japan. Relieved from the necessity of working by the tax received from the first class, and not overburdened with military duties, these 1 Qriffis, The Mikado's Empire. Reed, Japan. Adams, History of Japan. A. D. Crusades. 213 men were free to devote themselves to the pursuit of literature and learning, forming the best element in the nation. IV. The Fujiwara, increasing in power, gradually absorbed all dvil offices, while the military offices were filled from the two families of Taira and Minamoto, better known as Hei and Gen. Thus did the Fujiwara become enervated by the luxury of palace life ; thus did the Mikado, while his office gained in respect and reverence by its envi- ronment of titled officials, lose all real power, and sink to a mere pup- pet in the hands of intriguing nobles, to be installed and deposed at will ; thus did both emperor and court constantly lose ground before the growing influence of those energetic families to whom were given the active duties of military command. The generals, or Shogims, became the " Mayors of the Palace " of Japan. So originated the dual government, which was not, as foreigners long thought, a con- stitutional institution, whereby the civil and military functions of gov- ernment were vested in the Shogun or temporal emperor (Tycoon), and the religious functions in the Mikado or spiritual emperor^ but an un- constitutional innovation, wherein a subordinate officer had usurped that authority which belonged of right to the only emperor, the Mi- kado, and whose position that emperor had never recognized. The natural result of this state of affairs was the evolution of mili- tary feudalism, whose rise is considered in the next period. 794. The capital of the empire, the home of the Mikado and tho kuge, permanently fixed at Kioto, near Lake Biwa. 1156. Outbreak of war between the families of Gen and Hei (Mina- moto and Taira), which had previously shared the military offices in peace. (5ce p. 2^2.) THIRD PERIOD. EPOCH OF THE CRUSADES (1096-1270). § 1. CRUSADES. Cause : The pilgrimages of the Christians to the Holy Sepulchre, where St. Helena, mother of Constantino the Great, had built a vault for the Sepulchre and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, were inter- rupted after the Fatimites, and yet more after the Seljuks came to power ; ill-treatment of the pilgrims. The hermit Peter of Amiens demanded of the Pope Urban II. (1088-1099) assistance in freeing the holy places, and preached the Crusade in Italy (?) and France. ^ Councils of the church at Pia- cenza and Clermont in Auvergne (1095). Address by the Pope ; uni- versal enthusiasm. {It is the will of God /) The undisciplined bands led by Peter, by the French knight Walter of Pacy, and his nephew Walter Senzaveir (the Penniless), and others, were for the most part, amiihilated in Hungary and Bulgaria. 1 v. Sybel Gesch. des ersten Kreuzz7ios, 1841, has shown on conclusive pounds that the idea of the Crusades originated principally with Pope Urban II. It has recently been made doubtful whether Peter of Amiens had been iu the Holy Land at all before the first Crusade. 214 MedicevaL History. A. D. 1096-1099. First Crusade. Kingdom of Jerusalem. Leaders of the first Crusade ; Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of lower Lotharingia ; his brothers, Baldtvin and Eustach ; Robert, duke of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Robert of Flanders ; Stephen of Blois ; Raymond I V., count of Toulouse ; Hugo of Ver- mandois, brother of Philip I., king- of France ; Bohemond of Taren- tum, son of Robert Guiscard ; his nephew Tancred. They led 200,- 000 or 300,000 warriors to the East. Bishop Adhemar of Puy, who was the first to take the Cross at Clermont, went with the expedition as papal legate (died 1098). No king took part personally in this Crusade. The princes went to Constantinople, where all except Raymond did feudal homage to the emperor, Alexius Comnenus. Attack upon the territory of Kilij Arslan, Sultan of Iconium (or Roum). 1097. Niccea surrendered to the Grecian emperor after a siege of June, several weeks' duration. Victory of the Crusaders at Dory- July 1. laum over the Sultan Kilij Arslan. Baldwin, separated from the main army, crossed the Euphrates, and conquered a principality for himself in Edessa. 1097-1098. The main army besieged Antiochia on the Orontes fop nine months in vain, but finally the city was betrayed to Bohemund of Tarentum by the Armenian renegade, Firua 1098. (Pyrrhus). Kerboga, the powerful Emir of Mossul, besieged the Crusaders, exhausted through sickness and want, in An-- tioch, with an immense army. Victorious sally of the Chris- tians (the holy lance !) ; the Seljuk army defeated and scat- tered. Long rest of the Crusaders in Antioch and quarrels among them. 1099. Expedition along the coast toward Jerusalem. Unsuccessful siege of the fortress of Areas. In Maj^ they advanced be- yond Ccesarea. On* the 7th of June the Crusaders, now numbering but 21,500 effective men, beheld the Holy City, which the Fatimites had reconquered from the Seljuks in 1098. After a five weeks* siege, 1099. Stonn of Jerusalem. July 15. Terrible massacre ; pilgrimage to the Church of the Resurrection. Establishment of a feudal kingdom of Jerusalem, chiefly French, with vassal comities : Edessa, Antiochia, and afterwards Tripollf (Assises du royaume de Jerusalem). Three chief officers : Senechal, Connetable, Marshall. Two patriarchs, at Jerusalem and at Antiochia. Godfrey of Bouillon, Protector of the Holy Sepulchre, defeated the Sultan of Egypt at Ascalon or Gaza. Godfrey died 1100. His brother, Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem. Acre, Trioplis, Berytus (Beirut), Sidon, conquered with the aid of Pisa and Genoa. Baldwin I. (died 1118) was succeeded by Baldtvin II. (died 1131), Fuko of Anj^ou (died 1143), under whom the kingdom of Jerusalem reached its greatest extent, Baldwin III. (died 1162), Amalric (died 1173), Baldwin IV. (died 1184:), Baldwin V. (not of age, died 1186), VeU {Guy) of Lusignan. A. D. Crusades. 215 1147-1149. Second Crusade. Without result. Cause : Conquest of Edessa by Emadeddin ('Imad-ed-Deen) Zenki, Emir of Mossul (1144). Second conquest and destruction of the city by his son Noureddin (Noor-ed-Deen) (1146). Bernard, ab- bot of Clairvaux, preached the Crusade. Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of France started for Palestine ; the former from Regensburg (Ratisbon), the latter from 3Ietz, somewhat later. Both armies passed through Hungary to Asia Minor j the German army, being far in advance, entered Phrygia, where it was ahnost annihilated by want and by the opposition of the Sultan of Iconium, but few regaining Nicsea. With this scanty fol- lowing Conrad joined the expedition of the French army along the coast, but returned from Ephesus to Constantinople, on account of ill health. Louis and the French nobility took ship from Pamphylia for Antiochia. The common soldiery continued by land to Cilicia, and were completely aimihilated by hunger and the enemy. Conrad went from Constantinople to the Holy Land by sea (1148), and iu conjunction with the French made an unsuccessful attack on Da- mascus. 1189-1192. Third Crusade. Conquest of Acre {St. Jean d'Acre), or Ptolemais. Cause : Capture of Veit (Guy) of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, at Tiberias on the sea of Genezareth. Conquest of Acre and Jerusa- lem by Saladin (Salah-ed-Deen) (1187), the founder of the dynasty of the Ayouhites in Egypt. He treated the Christians magnani- mously. The emperor Frederic I., who in his youth had taken part in the second Crusade, undertook in his old age an expedition from Regens- burg (Ratisbon) in the spring of 1189, passed through Hungary, spent the winter in Adrianople, crossed (1190) to Asia Minor, con- quered Iconium, and went to Cilicia, where he was drowned in the Calycadnus (Seleph). His son, Frederic of Swabia, led a part of the pilgrims, many having turned back, by way of Tarsus, Antiochia, and Tyrus to Accon (Ptolemais, St. Jean d'Acre). He died (1191) during the siege of this city, which was conducted by the king Guy of Lusignan, who had gained his freedom. Richard the Lion-Hearted (Coeur-de-Lion), king of England, but French in nationality and language, and Philip II., Augustus (French Auguste, a title of respect wliich was given him later), king of France, went by sea to the Holy Land (1190), — Richard from Mar- seilles, Philip from Genoa ; participation of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. After a long stay in Sicily and many quarrels the two kings reached Acre, which Lusignan had already besieged for nearly two years. The city was now soon forced to surrender (July, 1191). Philip having quarrelled with Richard, returned to France (1191). Heroic deeds (and cruelty) of Richard, who, however, was twice obliged to turn back from before Jerusalem. Armistice with Saladin. The strip of coast from Joppa to Acre given to the Christians ; pil- grimages to the holy places permitted. Richard gave Cyprus, which 216 MedicBval History, a. d. he had conquered in 1191, as a fief to Veit {Guy) of Lusignan (au- tumn of 1192), who transferred his title of " King of Jerusalem " to Henry of Champagne. Richard on his return suffered a shipwreck at Aquileia, was recog- nized in Vienna, detained by Leopold, duke of Austria, at the com- mand of the emperor Henry VI., kept a prisoner by the emperor thirteen months in Trifels (near Annweiler in the county Palatine) and in Worms, and released only upon payment of a ransom and ren- dering homage.^ 1202-1204. Fourth Crusade. Latin empire (1204-1261). At the instance of Pope Innocent III. (preaching by Fulco of Neuilly) a Crusade directed originally against Egypt was undertaken by powerful French barons, assisted by Baldwin, count of Flanders, and Boniface, marquis of Montferrat. The Crusaders undertook the siege of Zara in Dalmatia, which the king of Hungary had seized, for the Venetians (Doge Henry Dandolo'), partly in payment for transport. At the urgent request of Alexius, son of the Eastern emperor Isaac Angelus, who had been dethroned by his brother, a request strongly supported by Philip of Swdbia, the Crusaders went to Constantinople with the Venetian fleet of 480 sail, captured the city, and replaced Alexius and his father on the throne (1203). The emperor was un- able to fulfill his compact with the Crusaders. (Union of the Greek Church with that of Rome ; large payments in money.) Contention, during which the city caught fire. Revolt of the Greek populace. (Isaac died.) After the murder of Alexius by the Greeks, second capture of the city, pillage, new conflagration, which consumed many works of ancient literature. Establishment of the Latin empire (Baldioin, emperor) ; many coast districts and islands fell to the Venetians; the marquis of Mont- ferrat became king of Thessalonica ; French dukes in Athens, Achaia, etc. Villehardouin, historian of the expedition. Establishment of a Greek empire at Niccea by Theodore Lascaris, and a second, the empire of Trebizond on the coast of the Pontus Eu- xinus, by a descendant of the Comnenes. Michael PalcBologus, of the Nicsean empire, put an end to the Latin empire in 1261. 1212. The children's Crusade. Thousands of German and French boys started for the Holy Land. Many died on the way, many were sold into slavery. 1217. Crusade of Andrew II., king of Hungary, without result. 1218-1221. Unsuccessful attack upon Egypt under John of Brienne, " king of Jerusalem." 1228-1229. Fiftli Crusade. Jerusalem regained for a short time. Frederic II., emperor of the West, who was under the papal ban 1 It is probable that the story of the Austrian banner having been trodden fn the filth at Acre by Richard's command is not a fable (cf. Tceche, Kaiser Heinrich, VI. pp. 256, 558), but the imprisonment of Richard had doubtless higher political motives, and is sufficiently explained by the alliance of Richard with the Welfic party in Germany, see p. 223. A.. Do Crusades. 217 for not having fulfilled his promise of undertaking a Crusade, went to Acre by sea, and received Jerusalem (where he crowned himself), Nazareth, and a strip of land reaching to the coast, together with Sidon, from Sultan Kameel {El Kdmil), on condition of a ten years' armistice. Jerusalem was lost again, and finally, 1244. 1248-1254. Sixth Crusade. Without result. Louis IX., king of France (St. Louis), went to Cyprus and passed the winter there. In order to destroy the Saracen power in its stronghold of Egypt, he went in the spring of 1249 to Damietta and captured the city. On the expedition which he undertook in November against Cairo, Louis was defeated by the Ayoubite Sultan Toordn-shdh (Almoadan), cut off from Damietta, and captured with the entire French army (April, 1250). The execution of the treaty of peace, whereby the king was to be liberated on condition of evacu- ating Darmietta and paying a heavy ransom, was delayed by the over- throw of the Ayoubites by the Mamelukes. Louis coasted along Palestine, fortified Acre and other cities of the coast, in the course of a residence of almost four years, and returned to France in 1254. 1268. Antiocliia lost to the Mohammedans. 1270. Seventh Crusade. Without result. Louis IX. went to Tunis, where he and the greater part of tho army were carried off by sickness. 1291. Acre (Ptolemais) stormed by the Mamelukes ; the Christians abandoned their last possessions in Palestine {Tyre, BerytuSy Sidon). The Crusades were the greatest events of the Middle Age. In spite of the excesses and cruelties of many of the Crusaders they lend to the time to which they belong an ideal, a religious character. Results of the Crusades : 1. Increased power and authority of the Church and the Papacy. 2. Increase of the personal power of princes, owing to the reversion of many feudal holdings which became vacant. 3. Rise of independent communities, who bought their freedom from their overlords who needed funds for the pilgrimage. 4. Devel- opment of commerce. The Italian republics at the height of their power. 5. Intellectual growth resulting from the new ideas brought back from the East ; especial advance in the knowledge of geography and natural history. 6. Perfection of the institution of knighthood (chivalry) ; the three Religious Orders of Knighthood. 1. Ejiights of St. John, or Hospitalers; i. e. knights of the hospital of St. John in Jerusalem, founded by merchants from Amalji, 1070. The brotherhood was enlarged after the first Crusade (^Gerhard), and converted into an order of knighthood after the manner of the Templars {Raimund Dupuis). Black mantle, white cross. The order was transferred to Cyprus (1291), to Rhodes (1310), whence they were called Knights of Rhodes. Rhodes lost, 1522 ; in 1526 the order received a gift of Malta from the emperor Charles V., thence called Knights of Malta. 2. Knights of the Temple or Templars (from the temple of Solomon, 218 Medimval History. A. D. on whose site stood the house of the order in Jerusalem), orig- inating in a union of nine French knights in 1118 (Hugo de Pay ens). White mantle, red cross. In 1291 the order was transferred to Cyprus; in 1312 dissolved by Pope Clement V. at the Council of Vienne. 3. The Order of Teutonic Knights, originally brotherhood of the German hospital founded in 1190, was in 1198 raised to an order of knighthood by Frederic of Swabia before Acre, dur- ing the third Crusade. White mantle, black cross. Seat of the order at Acre. Under the grand matter Hermann of Salza a band of knights went to Prussia, then occupied by the heathen Wends, in 1226. Hermann of Balk, first Landmeister in Prus- sia, which was subjugated by bloody wars (1226-1283). In 1291 the seat of the grand master was traiiferred to Venice, 1309 to Marienburg, 1457 to Konigsberg. The land of the order was secularized in 1525. Those knights who remained Catho- lic maintained possession of the German estates. Residence of the grand master at Mergentheim at Franconia. The or- der was dissolved in 1809. In all three orders, knights, priestSy brothers in service. §2. GERMANY AND ITALY. (See p. 201,) 1125-1137. Lothar of Saxony, supported by his son-in-law Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, of the house of Welf, whom he later appointed duke of Saxony as well, and Berthold, duke of Zahringen. Lothar fought (until 1135) against the two powerful Hohenstaufens, Frederic, duke of Swabia, and Conrad, nephew of the last emperor, Henry V. Their father was Frederic of Biiren and Stauf en, son-in-law of the emperor Henry IV. (p. 200). 1132-1133. On his first Roman expedition Lothar was crowned by Pope Innocent II., and accepted the allodial possessions of Matilda of Tuscany as a fief from the Pope. 1136-1137. On his second Roman expedition Lothar attacked the Norman Roger II., who had assumed the title of king of the iwo Sicilies, and drove him for a short time to Sicily. On his return Lothar died at Breitenwang in upper Bavaria (Dec. 3-4, 1137). Under Lothar's reign German influence made great advances in the North and East. The Danish king Magnus recognized anew the overlordship of the Emperor ; Bohemia did feudal homage. The Wends were driven back, and in increasing numbers converted to Christianity. Holstein given to Adolf, count of Schaumburg, the margravate of Meis- sen to Conrad of Wettin, the Nordmark or Altmark, at the mouth of the Havel and on the left bank of the Elbe, to Albert the Bear, of the house of Ballenstddt or Askania (1134), who had done Lothar im- portant service on the first Roman expedition. Albert crossed the Elbe and conquered almost the entire Mittelmark, which then received the name of Brandenburg, from its chief city. A. D. Germany and Italy. 219 1138-1254. House of Hohenstaufen (Staufer),^ so called from the castle of Staufen in Swabia. 1138-1152. Conrad III., elected by the party opposed to the Saxon house, without par- ticipation of the Saxons and Bavarians. War of the Ghibellines (Italian corruption of Waiblingen, the name of a castle of the Hohenstaufens) and the Welfs, or Guelfs (cf. the genealogical table). Conrad put Henry the Proud under the ban, and gave Saxony to Albert the Bear^ and Bavaria to Leopold /F., margrave of Austria. 1139. During the changing fortunes of the war Henry the Proud died. The claims of his ten-year-old son Henry (afterwards called the Lion) to Saxony were maintained by the latter's mother and grandmother and their connection. Bavaria was claimed by Welf VI., brother of Henry the Proud. Welf ad- vanced to the relief of the city of Weinsberg, which Conrad besieged. In the 1140. Battle ^ of Weinsberg Conrad conquered, and the city was com- pelled to surrender. (" The Faithful Wives of Weinsberg," poem by Burger.) After the death of Leopold of Austria (Oct. 18, 1141), Bavaria fell to his brother, Henry Jasomirgott,^ who married Gertrude, Henry the Proud's widow (1142). Her son, Henry the Lion, received Saxony. Albert the Bear gave up his claim to Saxony ; the mark of Bran- denburg, which was a fief held directly from the emperor (reichsun- mittelbar), and his other possessions, which his enemies had occupied, were restored to him. Conrad's Crusade (p. 215). Conrad, whose eldest son, Henry, who had already been elected king, died before him, appointed as his suc- cessor not his second son, a minor, but his nephew, Frederic of Swabia, who was unanimously elected by the princes. Conrad died Feb. 11, 1152, at Bamberg. 1152-1190. Frederic I., Barbarossa, one of the most heroic figures of the Middle Age. Diet at Merseburg. Frederic settled the disputed succession to the Danish crown. Sven became king of Denmark as a vassal of the empire (1152). Frederic's main • object was to make good the imperial authority, and in particular to restore the imperial rights in northern Italy, which had become narrowed by neglect. Hence war with the power- ful republican cities of Lombardy. Six expeditions to Italy. 1154^1155. First expedition. Frederic destroyed some small places which opposed him, and was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, 1 v. Baumer, Gesch. der HoJienstaufenu. ihrer Zeit; JBiS4y Gesch. desd. R. unter Konrad III. ; Prutz, Geschichte Friedrichs I. 2 Recent investigators deny that the cry of Hie Welf! Hie Waiblingen ! was heard here for the first time. * So called from his favorite oath. 220 MedicEval History. A. D. eg CQ fl 0 O o i Wo K-^ ^00 a re • ■cl^o o H « ?; D»H u .«2 JH-^- H- P A. D. Germany and Italy. 221 and emperor at Rome by Hadrian IV., who had appealed to him for aid against the Romans. Arnold of Brescia, scholar of the schoolman Ahelard, a popular preacher, who inveighed against the secular power of the clergy and possession of estates by the church, was condemned and burnt. 1153. Convention of Constance between Frederic and the Papal See. 1156. Henry the Lion received Bavaria again. Austria was sep- arated from Bavaria, and raised to a duchy, hereditary in the female as well as the male line. 1157. Diet at Wiirzburg. Nearly all the states of the "^est did homage to the imperial power (Holy Roman Empire). In Besan, A. D. England. 233 During his absence England was governed by Hubert Walter, and after his resignation in consequence of a refusal of money by the great council, by Geoffrey Fitz Peter. 1199-1216. John Lackland. John was recognized in England without opposition and secured Normandy, but Anjou, Maine and Touraine acknowledged the claim of Arthur son of Geoffrey. 1203. Death of Arthur while in John's power. Philip at once secured the sentence of John and the forfeiture of his fiefs. Nor-^ mandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine and a part of Aquitaine were at one* lost to John. Henceforward John was restricted to his English king, dom. The death of Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury (1205) was followed by a disputed election. A reference to Rome resulted ill the election of Stephen Langton by command of Innocent III, (1207). John refused to receive him and the kingdom was visited with an interdict (1208). Moved by fear of deposition, John finally yielded, received Langton, and accepted his kingdom as a fief of the papacy (1213). John's exactions and misgovernment had embroiled him with the barons since 1199. Refusal of the barons to follow John to France (1213). 1214. Defeat of John at Bouvines in Flanders (p. 227). On John's return negotiations were opened with the barons, but failed, and the confederated lords occupied London. 121 5. Magna Charta granted by John at Runnymede. June The provisions of this charter applied to the commons 15-23. as well as to the nobles and clergy, and directed that its benefits should reach the lower tenants.^ Principal provisions : 1. Ratification of Henry's charter. 2. Security for personal freedom ; no freeman should '• be taken, imprisoned or damaged in person or estate, but by the judgmant of his paers ' or *' by the law of the land " (Art. 39)."^ 3. Regulution of feudal dues and obligations. 4. Regulation of national taxation ; limitation of the aid {aux- iliiim) which could be colle(;ted without the consent of the great council to the three ancient and well known cases (ransom of the lord ; knighting of his eldest son ; marriage of his eldest daughter). 5. Specification of members of the great council, and of the cases for which, and manner in which it should be convened. The charter declared null and void by the Pope. Suspension of Langton. War soon broke out ; the French party among the barons, declaring the crown forfeited, bestowed it upon Louis, son of Philip 1 Stubbs, Early Plantogenets, 149. 2 Xullus liber homo capiatur vel imprisonetur aut dissaisiatur aut utlaghetur aut exuletur aut aliquo modo destruatur, nee super eum ibimus, nee super eum mittemus, nisi per legale judicium pariura suorum vel per legem terras. 234 Mediceval History. A. D. of France, who in 1216 came to England. Death of John (October 19, 1216). 1216-1272. Henry III., of Winchester, son of John. The death of John was fatal to the hopes of Louis. The English party which secured the coronation of the nine-year old Henry, though small at first soon outnumbered the French. The de- feat of the French fleet off Tkanet determined Louis to give up the contest and return to France. Regency of William Marshall (1216- 1219). The Magna Charta was twice reissued in a modified form. After the death of William Marshall, England was governed by Peter des Roches, Pandulf, the papal legate, Hubert de Burgh, the justiciary, and archbishop Langton, who had returned and soon super- seded Pandulf as legate (1221). Second coronation (1220). Third reissue of the charter (1223). Henry's personal government began in 1227, and soon involved the country in difficulties. Heavy taxa- tion necessitated by the demands of the Pope and by the foreign policy of the king. Fall of Hubert de Burgh (1232) ; of Peter des Roches (1234). Marriage of Henry to Eleanor of Provence (1236). Struggle over the money grants in the great council, which hence- forward was called Parliament. Papal exactions of enormous sums of money. Of the French possessions of the Angevines Henry had retained only Aquitaine and Gascony. 1253. Return of Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester (son of Simon of Montfort, who had led the crusade against the Albi- genses), to England from the government of Gascony. Simon soon took a prominent part in the parliamentary struggle which now as- sumed formidable proportions. 1258. Parliament of Oxford. The barons presented a list of griev- ances, the Provisions of Oxford, the reforms demanded in which were to be carried out under a commission of twenty-four barons. Permanent council of fifteen barons to meet three times a year. 1263. Outbreak of war between the king and the barons. Arbitra- tion of Louis IX. of France (1264). Provisions of Oxford annulled. This decision resulted in a renewal of the war. The king and his son Edward were defeated in the 1264. Battle of Lewes. May 14. Treaty {Mise of Lewes) between the parties. Native coun- selors presented and a new council arranged by a parlia- ment in which four knights from each shiro were added to the clergy and nobility. Council of Nine. 1265. Parliament of Simon of Montfort, the first Parliament Jan, 20. to which representatives of the boroughs were called (yet this did not become a legal custom until in the next reign). Edward released. Arms were again taken up. In the 1265. Battle of Evesham, Aug. 4. Earl Simon was defeated and fell on the field. Death of Henry (Nov. 16, 1272). In this reign the begging friars came to England. Revival of A. D. The NoHh, 235 scholasticism. Fame of Oxford. Roger Bacon, author of Opus Magnum, "the encyclopaedia of the thirteenth century." Mathew Paris. Revival of Welsh literatui-e. Mabinogion. Geoffrey of Mori- mouth. Romances of Arthur. rsee p. 263.) § 5. THE NORTH. Denmark. {Seep. 208.) 1134^1397. The extinction of the direct line of Estridsen (p. 208) was followed by a period of confusion and wars over the succession {Erik Emun, 1134-1137, Erik Lamb, 1137-1147) until, 1157-1182. Waldemar I., , quests only Rugen, some places in Mecklenburg, Prussia, Estho- nia, remained to Denmark. Waldemar's code of laws. Waldemar was twice married : 1. Margrete of Bohemia, a well-beloved princess (Dagmar). 2. Berengaria of Portugal, by whom he had three sons who mounted the throne in succession. Waldemar committed the political blimder of dividing the kingdom among his sons so that the nominal king possessed only a small part of the monarchy ; Schleswig was conferred on Abel. This led to disputes, so that the following period was one of civil strife, wars of succession, murder, and exile of khigs. Enk (1241-1250). Abel (1250-1252). In this reign the towns began to send representatives to the council {Danehof). Christopher (1252-1259). War about Schlestdg, the king claiming that it had been granted to Abel as a personal fief, while the descen- dants of Abel declared that it was an hereditary fief. Conflict with the archbishop Jacob Erlandsen. Erik Glipping (1259-1286). Oc- cupation of Schlesivig. Erik Menved (1286-1319). Regency of the queen mother. Miserable condition of Denmark. The larger part of the kingdom granted out to Danish and German nobles. Chris- topher II. (132(>-1334). The nobles and clergy extorted from the king certain capitulations, which materially weakened the power of the crown for 340 years. Confirmation of privileges of the clergy. No ecclesiastic could be tried in a secular court, neither could the tenants of ecclesiastical foundations. No bishop could be imprisoned without the consent of the Pope. The property and persons of the clergy were free from all taxation. The nobles could not be com- pelled to follow the king beyond the limits of the kingdom ; if they were captured in war the crown was obliged to ransom them within a year, or lose the right of holdmg them to military service. The king could declare war only with the consent of the nobles and clergy. No person could be imprisoned without having been tried and con- denmed in a local court and in . the king's court, whence an appeal lay to the national Diet. Laws could be made, repealed, and amended, only upon the motion of the nobles in the annual Diet, and with the consent of the whole nation. Peasants must not be unjustly treated by the king's agents, nor compelled to carry the king's baggage be- yond their own township. Commerce should be free and not bur- dened with extraordinary dues. War with Geert, count of Holstein, who invaded the kingdom, and with the aid of discontented nobles drove Christopher from the kingdom. Election of Waldemar, duke of Schlesivig; soon after, Christopher, by great concessions, acquired the crown again. Eight years of anarchy (1332-1340). Skaania, Hal- land, Bleking attached themselves to Sweden. After the death of Geert, the youngest son of Christopher, 1340-1375. "Waldemar HI., Attadag, was made king, and devoted himself to acquiring, by pur- chase or by force, the alienated crown lands, in which he met with success. In 1359 Waldemar regained Skaania, Halland, and Bleking from the Swedish king, Magnus Smek, and affianced his daughter Margaret to Hakon, son of the Swedish king. Denmark restored to her boimdaries as they had been under Waldemar I. A. D. The North. 237 This success was followed by a general war with Sioeden, Mecklen- burg, the Hanseatic League, etc., which in spite of the sack of Copen- hagen ended disadvantageously for the Hanse towns, 1363. In 1368, however, the Hansa, in alliance with Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Sweden, began war again, and in 1370 obtained from the Danish es- tates a treaty which secured for them the most extensive commercial privileges. In 1372 Waldemar accepted this peace of Stralsund. In 1375 Waldemar died. Passing over the claim of Albert, duke of Mecklenburg, the son of Waldemar's eldest daughter, the estates elected the son of his youngest daughter Olafj (1376-1387), then six years of age. In 1380 Olaf succeeded his father Hakon as king of Norway, and both lands were well governed by his mother Margaret, the regent, who, after Olaf^s death, 1387, was elected queen in both countries. In 1388, Sweden revolted against the king, Albert, and Margaret accepted an offer of the crown. In the battle of Falkoe- ping (1389), Albert was defeated and captured. In 1397, the three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar. {See p. 276.) Sweden. (Seep. 208.) 1066-1397. After the death of Stenkil (p. 208), the country was distracted by wars between the Svea and the Gauta, which lasted, with slight inter- ruptions, for two hundred years ; whereby the people suffered greatly, the free peasants disappeared, and a nobility of warriors arose wliich was exempt from taxation and possessed its own juris- diction. These nobles acquired supremacy in the Diet, and re- duced the power of the king to a shadow. Under Erik IX., the Saint (1150-1162), Christianity was introduced throughout the king- dom. Establishment of the archbishopric of Upsala (1163). The family of the Bonder, which began with Erik the Saint, became ex- tinct with Erik Eriksson Lcespe (1223-1250). Under this family the power of the clergy had so increased that in 1248 they were forbid- den to take the oath of allegiance to the king. At the same time celibacy was introduced. The Bonder dynasty was succeeded by that of the Folkunger, which came to the throne with Waldemar (1250- 1275), son of Birger Jarl, who continued until liis death (1266) the actual ruler of Sweden, as he had been under Erik Lcespe. Founda- tion of Stockholm (1255). Birger assigned his other sons large duchies in Sweden, thereby planting the seeds of future discord. In 1275, Waldemar was imprisoned by his brother Magnus, duke of Sodermanland, and remained a captive until his death (1302). Mag- nus (1279-1290) proved a good ruler and left a prosperous kingdom to his son Birger (1290-1319). The regent Torkel governed wisely until his fall in 1306, when war broke out between Birger and his brothers Erik and Waldemar. In 1317 Birger made his brothers pris- oners and starved them to death. This caused a popular revolt which expelled Birger and placed on the throne the son of Erik, Magnus Smek (1320-1363). During the regency Norway fell to Magnus, through his maternal grandfather Hakon, and Skaania, 238 Mediaeval History. A. D, Halland, and Bleking, which belonged to Denmark, but had been pawned to Holstein, submitted to Magnus, who paid the mortgage. Magnus, after he became of age (1333) made a poor ruler. In 1360, he surrendered Skaania, Halland, Bleking to Waldemar Attadag of Denmark, and betrothed his son Hakon to Waldemar's daughter Margaret. In 1365 A Ibert of Mecklenburg was proclaimed king, and in the battle of Enkoeping (1365) captured Magnus who was released in 1371 upon making renunciation of the crown of Sweden. Albert (1365-1388) was king in name only, the power bemg in the hands of the nobles. In 1388 the nobles deposed the king and offered the crown to Margaret of Norway and Denmark, by whom it was ac- cepted. At the battle of Falkoeping Albert was made prisoner and, after an imprisonment of six years, renounced the crown. In 1397 Sweden joined Norway and Denmark in the Union of Calmar. (See p. 276.) Norway. (Seep. 209.) 1103-1397. After the death of Magnus Barfod in Ireland (p. 209), liis three sons Ejsten, Sigurd, and Olaf, reigned in conjunction until the death of Ejsten and Olaf left Sigurd sole ruler. Sigurd made a pilgrim- age to Jerusalem. He was followed by his son Magnus the Blind, who in 1134 was obliged to cede half the kingdom to Harald Gille, who came from Ireland and claimed to be a son of Magnus Barfod. There followed a wretched period of civil war ; strife between the Birkebenerne, or national party, and the Baglerne, or clerical party, in which the former finally got the upper hand. Magnus V. (1161- 1184), Sverre (1177-1202), Hakon III. (1202-1204), GutKyrm the child (1204), Inge Baardsen (1204-1217). 1217 (1223)-1262. Hakon IV. son of Hakon III., grandson of Sverre. He crushed his rivals, weakened the power of the clergy, restored quiet to the country, and raised Norway once more to an influential position among European nations. Conquest of Iceland (1260) and submission of Greenland. Hakon died in 1262, after suffering a defeat at the hands of the Scots in an expedition which he had undertaken against Scotland. He was followed by his son Magnus Lagabceter (1262-1280) who ceded the Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scotland. Collection and publication of a new code of laws (1264-1279). Erik Priest-hater (1280-1299). War with Denmark over the dowry of his mother, Ingeborg. War with the Hanse towns, wherein the king was worsted and obliged to grant the towns full privileges in Norway, and to join the league. Death of Margaret (" The Maid of Norway "), daughter of Erik, and granddaughter on her mother's side of Alexander III. of Scot- land, while on her way to claim that crown after the latter's death. Hakon F. (.1299-1319). War with Sweden and Denmark. Dying without male issue, he left the crown to his daughter's son, Magnus, king of Sweden, who ascended the throne in 1320. In 1350 Magnus bestowed the crown of Norway on his son Hakon VI. (1350-1380), who in 1362 became co-regent for Sweden. In 1363 Hakon married The North. 239 % E H s "^ Is^s CO CO (Xs ^. 8§? ?^ t> OS '^a— 3 g 3 §3 w"" •5 ► 3 ^^ o o S,5^ CO? o" ^ ab CO CO OO-I _ ooso ^ = ^s.? 2^1 b^ coi^ ^ b Q. O bd ^ CD 00 c/'^ 1^ w Sir o en CO 2 u CO P I" 02 to CO S M CO S g WHO o (K (D v-^ CO (D 2- S2 ^ f cc <] §-| CD Q, r-i » g s o & ^ M g 8 ^ 2 240 MedicEval History. A. d. Margaret the heiress of Denmark. Hakon was succeeded by his minor son Olaf (1380-1387), whose mother Margaret administered the kingdom of Norway as she had done that of Denmark, which Olaf had inherited in 1376. After Olaf's death in 1387 Margaret (1387- 1412) was recognized as queen of both Norway and Denmark. The union of the two monarchies was completed by the Union of Calmar and endured until 1814. At the Union of Calmar (1397) Sweden ^ was united with the two kingdoms. rSee p. 276.) § 6. SPANISH PENINSULA. {See,p. S09.) Arabic Spain was conquered from the Morabethes or Almoravides (p. 209) by the Almohades about the middle of the twelfth century. Since the defeat at Tolosa (1212) steady decline of the power of the Arabians, who since the reign of Alfonso X. of Castile were con- fined to the kingdom of Granada. 1095. County of Portugal, between the Duero and Mitiho, granted as a Castilian fief to the Burgundian count Henry, whose son liberated himself from the overlordship of Castile, and called him- self King of Portugal (1140). Aragon and Catalonia (county of Barcelona) united (1137). Leon and Castile separated again (1157) ; finally definitely united (1230). About 1150. Origin of the three orders of knighthood which took their names from the cities guarded by them : 1. San J ago di Compostella (Galicia), 2. Alcantara (on the Tajo), 3. Calatrava (on the Guadiana. (^See p. 275.) § 7. THE EAST. Eastern Empire. (^See p. 210.) 1057-1185. Eastern emperors of the houses of the Ducaa and the Comnenes. 1185-1204. Dynasty of Angelus. 1204^1261. Latin empire (p. 216). (Seep. 278.) The Mongols. 1206. The Mongols elected on the Amur, TemucMn, their chief. He took the honorary title Jenghiz Khan, under which, rather than under his true name, he is known in history. The Mongols con- quered a part of China, destroyed the empire of the ChowaresmianSy which reached from India to the Caspian Sea, and subjugated south- ern Russia. Terauchin's grandson Batu made plundering expeditions through Russia, defeated the Poles and fought the 1241. Battle of "Wahlstatt, against the Germans under Henry the Pious, duke of Liegnitz, The Mongols, although victorious, retired to the East, and ravaged Hungary. A Christian army under Wenzel, king of Bohemia, cut them off from Austria. A. D. The East. 241 The greater part of the Mongols went back to Asia, but Russia was under their sway till 1480. 1258. The Mongols conquered Bagdad and destroyed the Caliphate. Their immense empire separated into Khanates, {China, Khan- ate of Kaptchak on the Volga, Jagatai in Turkestan, Iran^ etc.) {See p. 278.) India. {See p. 211.) 1206-1500. The Afghan empire broke up after the death of Muhammad Ghari (p. 211), and the vicegerency of the Punjab and Hindustan became an independ^it sultanate under Kutah-ud-dm, sultan of Delhi (1206- 1210), who was originally a slave, and founded the slave dynasty (1206-1288). He extended the Mohammedan rule as far as the Brahma-putra. Under his successors the sultanate suffered from Mon- gol invasions. Allah-ud-din, viceroy of Oude, who had made daring expeditions into the Deccan, murdered the sultan Jeldl-ud-din, his uncle, and made himself sultan. Conquest of Ghxzerat. Capture of Chitor in Rajputana (1300). Conquest of portions of the Deccan. After the death of Allah-vd-din (1316) revolts occurred which were suppressed by the Turkish governor of the Punjab, Tughlak, who mounted the throne of Delhi, and founded a new line of sultans, who transferred their residence to Tughlakahad. Tuglath was succeeded by his son Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), who was obliged to pur- chase the retreat of the Mongols from the Punjab. A terrible famine induced him to remove the population of Delhi to Deoghur, and the misery of those who survived the journey of 700 miles induced him to send them back again. Large issue of copper coinage, followed by financial panic. Rebellions broke out everywhere, and the Mo- hammedan empire separated into numerous small states. Firuz-Shah (1350-1388). 1398. Invasion of Hindustan by Timiir Shah. Allah-ud-din had ex- tended his power over a large part of the south, but the Hindu revolt of 1316 had shattered it. The southern part of the peninsula was comprised in the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar (Narsinga), about 1300. In 1350, on the death of Muhammad Tughlak, the Moham- medan army in the Deccan had set up a sultan of its own, whose capital was at Kulbarga. These Bahmani sultans were soon in- volved in a series of horrible wars with the empire of Vijayanagar. The Bahmani empire endured until 1500, when it was broken up into five kingdoms. {See p. 353.) China. {Seep. 211.) 1101-1398. The Khitan Tatars having established themselves firmly in Leaou- tsung, Hwy-tsung (1101-1126) conceived the idea of inviting the Neu-che Tatars to take the field against them ; they did so and ex- pelled the Khitan, but occupied the province themselves, and thence spread over Chili-li, Shen-se, Shun-se, and Ho-nan. Under Kaou- 16 242 Mediceval History. A. d. tsung (1127-1163) the Neu-che Tatars^ or as they now called them- selves, the Kins, reached to the Yang-tse-Keang. The new empire of the Kins invited attack from the Mongol Tatars, who experienced at this period a wonderful development of power. In 1213 Jenghiz Khan invaded the Kin province of Leaou-tsung; ninety cities were razed to the ground. After the death of Jenghiz (1227) his son Ogdai (1227-1241) continued the work of conquest. 1232. Fall of the Kin dynasty, brought about by an alliance of the Mongols with the independent kingdom of Sung, in the south. Mangu (1248-1259), son of the warrior Too~le, was succeeded by his brother, 1259-1294. Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor. The complete fall of Sung in 1280 left Kublai lord over all China, as well as ruler of almost all the rest of Asia, excepting Hindustan and Arabia. China was never more illus- trious or powerful. Visit of Marco Polo, the Venetian, to the court of Kublai. Unsuccessful attack upon Japan (1281, p. 243). The immediate successors of Kublai were men of little note : Yuen- ching (1294-1307), Woo-tung (1307-1311). Jin-tsung (1311-1320) endeavored to blend the two races, and admitted many Chinese to official positions. After his death matters went from bad to worse, until Shiin-te (1333-1368) was driven from the empire by Choo- yuen-chang, the son of a Chinese laborer, who, in 1368, proclaimed himself emperor under the name of 1368-1398. Hung-woo, the founder of the Ming dynasty. Subjugation of Tatary. (Seep.SrS.) Japan. (See p. 213.) 1156-1392. 1156. The wars of Gen and Hei, which began in this year, are very famous in Japanese annals. In the first battle (1156) the Taira (Heishe) were victorious, under Kiyomori, and obtained control of the royal palace. Exiled from Kioto, the Minamoto (Genji), under the enterprising brothers, Yoritomo and Yoshitsune, founded a power in the plain of the Koanto, with Kamakura as their capital. The death of Kiyomori (1181) was the signal for the downfall of the house of Hei. Kioto was captured by the Minamoto. The final struggle occurred in the 1185. Naval battle of Dan no ura, near Shimonoseki. The Taira were utterly defeated, many perished in the fight, and the family was exterminated throughout the islands, save a few who, escaping to Kiushiu, transmitted their name to the present day. Secure in victory, Yoritomo left the Mikado and the kuge in Kioto undisturbed, while he strengthened his power at Kamakura. Five men of his family were appointed governors of provinces, an office previously filled only by civilians. A special tax was levied through- out the empire for the support of standing garrisons in all the prov- A. D. The East. 24;i inces, and these troops were under military rulers of his own race, who shared the government of the province with the civil governor^ and were subordinate to Yoritomo himself. In 1192 Yoritomo was appointed Sei-i Tai Shogun, or generalissimo. He was henceforward known as the Shogun. With the death of Yoritomo (1199) fell the power of the Minamoto. 1200-1333. Supremacy of the family of Hojo. The founder of the Hojo ascendency was Tokimasa, father-in-law of Yoritomo, who exercised absolute control over the degenerate descendants of that able Shogun. None of the Hojo ever held the office of Shogun^ but, vassals of a vassal, they ruled the Shogun and the Mikado as Yoritomo had ruled the Mikado alone. The line of Yoritomo ended in 1219, when the Shogunate was transferred to the Fujiwara, who held it until 1251, when their vassal-masters handed it over to one of the sons of the reigning Mikado, in whose family it remained until 1333. Since the conquest of China by the Mongm-Tatars, the victors had kept the subjugation of Japan steadily in view. Embassy after em- bassy had demanded submission and been repulsed ; the last, in 1279, was beheaded. 1281. Invasion of Japan by the Mongol Tatars. Destruction of the armada by a typhoon ; defeat and massacre of the survivors upon the island of Taka. By this repulse Hojo Tokimune won great praise ; he was, indeed, a man of great capacity and good sense. After him, however, the Hojo grew more and more outrageous in their treatment of the Mikado until a revolt broke out, headed by Kusunoki-Masashige and Nitta Yoshisada, which ended in the 1333. Capture and destruction of Kamakura, and the exter- mination of the Hojo family. For a time (1333-1336) the Mikado Go-Daigo (1319-1338) was monarch in fact as in name, but his weakness cost him his newly found authority. Ashikaga Takauji, one of the leaders in the revolt against the Hojo, revolted against his new master, seized Kioto, and set up a rival Mikado who appointed him Sei-i Tai Shogun. 1336-1392. "War of the Chrysanthemums, between the false Mikado at Kioto and the true Mikado at Yoshino, each displaying the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum. Peace was concluded in 1392 under the condition that the imperial throne should be occupied by mikados taken alternately from the rival houses. The northern branch died out after a few generations. During this period (since the establishment of the Shogun at Kioto) feudalism reached its full development. The country was di\'ided among the soldiers of the Shogun, who held their estates as iiefs from the Shogun, to whom they owed service. Gradually the agricultural and other classes became attached to certain of these military lords, daimios, and received their lands from them as fiefs. The taxes which supported the Mikado and the court were absorbed by the daimios, and the kuge was left to abject poverty. (See p. 278.) 244 Mediceval History. A. n. FOURTH PERIOD. FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE CRUSADES TO THE DIS- COVERY OF AMERICA. 1270-1492. § 1. GERMANY. {See p. ^£6.) 1273-1347. Kings and Emperors of various houses. 1273-1291. Rudolf I., count of Hapsbuxg and Kyburg, landgrave in Alsace, the most powerful prince in Helvetia, was elected by the three archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier and the count Palatine of the Rhine, through the influence of his cousin, the burggrave Frederic of Hohenzollem. Strict enforcement of" the public peace. War with Ottocar, king of Bohemia, who had taken possession of Austria, after the extinction of the Babenberg line (1246), had reconquered Styria from the Hun- garians, and had inherited Carinthia and Carniola. Ottocar was put under the ban and his fiefs proclaimed forfeited. Rudolf took Vienna, and was on the point of crossing the Daiuibe when Ottocar agreed to a treaty (Nov., 1276), whereby he abandoned Austria^ Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, but received Bohemia and Moravia again as fiefs of the empire. Ottocar however soon renewed the war. 1278. Victory of Rudolf on the Marchfeld (near Vienna). Death of Ottocar. Peace with the guardian of his son Wenzel who received Bohemia and, later, Moravia. Development of the family power of the Hapsburgs. Austria, Styria, Carinthia, given as imperial fiefs to Rudolf's sons, Albert and Rudolf. Carin- thia was given to Meinhard, count of Tyrol, Rudolf's brother-in-law. Campaigns of Rudolf in Burgundy and Swabia, particularly against Eherhard of Wiirtemberg. In Swabia since the fall of the Hohen- staufens the most powerful princes were the counts of Wiirtem- berg, and the margraves of Baden. The ducal title in Swabia de- scended to Rudolf's son Rudolf, and from him to his son John (Parricida), but this title designated only authority over the Haps- burg estates in Swabia. . Formation of a great number of fiefs held immediately of the empire in Swabia. Through the exertions of the archbishop of Mainz, Rudolf's son Albert was not elected his succes- sor, but the choice fell on a relative of the archbishop, 1292-1298. Adolf of Nassau, w hose reign was devoted to the attempt to establish a dynastic power by the acquisition of Thuringia and Meissen (in opposition to the brothers Frederic ^ and Diezmann). Adolf was deposed at the Diet of Mainz, by the influence of his former patron, the archbishop of Mainz, l-The title "with the bitten cheek" appears to have been a later invention ; his contemporaries called this Frederic, son of Margaret, daughter of Frederic II., by the surname " the Cheerful." See "Wegele, Fried, der Frtidige, 1868. A. D. Germany. 245 without the approval of the archbishops of Cologne and Trier and the count Palatine. He fell at Gollheim in personal con- flict with 1298-1308. Albert I., of Austria, son of Rudolf I. who had been elected king by the opposing party. Alliance with Philip the Fair, king of France, against the Pope. Albert tried in vain to recover Holland as a vacant fief of the empire. Alliance of the three ecclesiastical electors and the count Palatine against the king, who was victorious (1301), and reduced the princes to obedience (siege of the castle of Bingen). Unsuccessful wars with Bohemia, and with Frederic and Diezmann of Meissen, who defeated the im- perial armv under the burggrave of Nuremberg at Lucka, not far from Altenburg''(1307). Albert was murdered by his nephew John (Parricida) between the Aar and Reuss, near the Hapshurg. His widow Elizabeth and his daughter Agnes took terrible vengeance for this murder. Through the influence of the archbishop of Trier the princes elected as king bis brother 1308-1313. Henry VII., count of Liitzelnburg or Lux- emburg, a half-Frenchman. 1309. The Swiss Cantons received from Henry VII. doc- June 3. umentary confirmation of their immediate feudal re- lation to the empire. Origin of the Swiss Confederacy. Of the inhabitants of the cantons, those dwelling in Schioyz seem to have been, for the most part, free peasants ; while in Uri and Unter- walden the majority were in a condition of servitude, as regarded either their persons or their estates. The most extensive landowners were monasteries (e. g. the Frauenmilnster in Ziirich), and nobles re- siding out of the country, like the counts of Lenzburg and those of Hapshurg. After the extinction of the former (1172), at any rate since the thirteenth century, the counts of Hapshurg exercised, under various legal titles as landgraves or advocates, full jurisdiction and presided in the assemblies. Under the imperfectly developed admin- istration of that time, the holder of these privileges was considered the actual ruler of the country. As early as the first half of the thirteenth century the cantons had resisted the efforts of the Hapsburgers to develop their stewardship into an actual sovereignty over them ; indeed they had even attempted in part to witlidraw themselves from the stewardship of the Haps- burgers. In 1231 Henry, regent for his father Frederic II. in Ger- many (p. 224), granted the people of Uri a charter which removed t-hem from under the protection of the Hapsburgers and replaced them under that of the empire. In 1240 Frederic II. gave the peo- ple of Schwyz a charter which promised them an immediate tenure from the empire. After the middle of the thirteenth century, the Hapsburgers were nevertheless still in possession of their office 246 3Iedi(Bval History, A. d. of steward or advocate (Vogt) for the cantons. Rudolf I. seems to have recognized the charter of Uri, but not that of Schwyz. Imme- diately upon his death, on Aug. 1, 1291, the cantons Uri, Schwyz, and Nidwalden (which was afterwards united with the towns of Obwalden under the name Unterwalden) concluded a perpetual league. Al- though intended only to insure the maintenance of existing condi- tions, this league is to be regarded as the beginning of the Con- federacy. By making shrewd use of the confusion that followed in Germany, but not without many changes of fortune (after the battle of Gbllheim (p. 245) the cantons were obliged to recognize the su- premacy of the Hapsburgers), the confederates in 1309 attained the object for which their ancestors had striven. The Swiss narrative, to which the popular poetry has added many ornaments, and which condenses the facts of the gradual acquirement of an immediate relation to the empire into a short space of time, and exaggerates their effects, can no longer be regarded as historical in view of the results of modern investigation.^ It is first found in chronicles which were written between two and three hundred years after the events, and is often contradicted by the documents.^ Neither the Oath on the Riltli (1307, Werner Stauffacher, Walther Fiirst, Ar- nold Melchthal), nor the expulsion of the bailiffs on the 1st of January 1308, is historically authenticated. The Swiss confederacy was not formed by the exertions of three or of thirty individuals, but was the result of many historical events which united in powerfully assisting the energetic and enduring efforts of the inhabitants of the cantons to free themselves from all foreign su- premacy. As regards the story of Tell, it is now established that neither the shooting of the apple from the head of his son, nor the murder of the bailiff Gessler in the hollow way at Kiissnacht can be in any way re- garded as an historical event. It has been proved that among the Kiissnacht bailiffs of that tune there was no Gessler. The legend of the shooting of the apple occurs five times outside of the cantons, agreeing almost to the wording of the answer which the archer gives the tyrant : in Norway, in Iceland, in Denmark, in Holstein, and on the middle Rhine, and, with an altered motive, a sixth time in Eng- land. Hence it is tolerably certain that we have here to do with a common Germanic tradition. Moreover, the resemblance of the Swiss version to the elder narrative of Saxo Grammaticus (twelfth century) of the shot of Toko, tho Dane, who is said to have lived in the tenth century, is so striking as to render it probable that the Swiss chroniclers had that historian before them. Whether a man of the name of Tell ever lived in Uri is a question which cannot be answered with certainty either in the affirmative or the negative.^ It is one, moreover, which has but little interest when 1 A. Huber: die Waldstdtte Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, ISQl ; a.nd B.ooh- holz, Tell und Gessler in Sage und Geschichte, 1877. 2 The honor of having first used this fact after a true scientific fashion to dis- prove the tradition belongs to the Swiss historian Kopp ( Urkunden zur Ge- schichte der eidgenossischen Biinde, 1835 and 1857; Reichsyeschichte, 1845-1858). 8 According to the investigations of Kopp, who examined all the archives in Uri, and Kochholz (p. 257, note), the latter is almost certainly the case. A. D. Germany. 247 it is admitted that the main features of the legend are unhistorieal. It is noteworthy that Tell, even in the legend, plays no part at all in the common insurrection, after the murder of the bailiff. It was not until later, when the Swiss had actually worked out their freedom, that his deed was invented, and surrounded by the halo of popular belief, his name made a symbol of Swiss energy and love of freedom The Tell chapels and the memorial festivals are no proof that Tell was an historical personage, since the erection of the former and the estab- lishment of the latter can be shown to date from a time when the tradi- ' tion was already fully developed. The document concerning a public meeting of 1388, when more than a hundred people are said to have declared that they knew Tell, is evidently a later interpolation. 1310. Henry's son, John, was placed on the throne of Bohemia by the national assembly, in spite of the claims of the Hapsburg- ers, whereby the Liitzelnburgers acquired a family power. 1310-1313. Henry's Roman expedition. He was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, and emperor in Rome (1312). 1314-1347. Ludwig of Upper Bavaria at war with 1314-1330. Frederic of Austria, son of Albert. 1315. Victory of tlie Swiss confederates in the pass between lake Nov. Ie5. Ageri and the mountain Morgarten over Leopold of Aus- tria, Frederic's brother. The flower of the Austrian chivalry (1500 in number) slaughtered. Dec. 9. Renewal of the league between iTn, Schwyz and Unterwalden at Brunnen. 1316. Recognition of the immediate dependence of the cantons upon the empire, by king Ludwig. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the people generally bought off the ever diminishing rights of the landed monasteries. Rapid growth of the league of the confederates, which was joined by one after another of the remauiing districts, who thus withdrew themselves from the control of the territorial lords. At the close of the fifteenth century Austria had been entirely driven out of the lands south of the Rhine. After 1340 no imperial bailiff is mentioned in the cantons, which in conse- quence of the weakness of the imperial power soon became republics, so that the proclamation of the independence of Switzerland in the Peace of Westphalia (1648) was only the legal recognition of a state of things wliich had long existed in fact. 1322. Battle at Ampfing near Muhldorf Frederic of Austria de- feated and captured (Schwepperm^nn j, the story is probably unhistoric). 1324. Ludwig gave the mark Brandenburg, which had reverted by the extinction of th& Askanian line, to his son Ludwig, whom he afterwards married with Margaret Maultasch, the heiress of Tyrol and Carinthia. 1325. Frederic set at liberty upon renouncing his claim to the throne. He surrendered himself again as prisoner, was made co-regent by Ludwig, died 1330. 1327-1330. Ludwig's Roman expedition. Crowned emperor in Rome. (Anti-pope Nicholas V.) 248 Mediceval History. A. D. The Electoral meeting at Rense (1338) declared every legally- elected German king to be thereby constituted Roman emperor, even without papal coronation. The violent means adopted by Ludwig to increase his domestic power led, a year befoi-e his death, to the election of Charles, son of John, king of Bohemia (f 1346 in the battle of Crecy). Charles was not universally recognized until after Ludwig's death. 1347-1437. Emperors of the Luxemburg — Bohe= mian line. 1347-1378. Charles IV. A prince with nothing knightly in his character, but wise in statecraft, and shrewd in calculation ; a scholar (he studied at Paris and Bologna, spoke and wrote Bohemian, German, Latin, French, Italian). War with the Bavarian party. In opposition to Ludwig there appeared in Brandenburg the/aZse Waldemar (1348-1350), who was assisted by Charles. The emperor's first care was his hereditary kingdom, Bohemia (whence he was styled by Maximilian L, "Bohemia's father, the Holy Roman Empire's arch-step-father"). The emperor in 1348 founded a university, after the pattern of that in Paris, at Prague, the first in Germany. The Bavarian party elected in opposition 1349. Giinther of Sch-warzburg, king of Germany, but he died in Jan. June of the same year (poisoned ?). Plague (Black Death) in Germany, and throughout nearly all Europe. Persecutions of the Jews. Flagellants. 1353. Berne joined the Swiss confederacy which now included Uri^ Schwyz^ Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Bemey the so-called eight old cantons. 1354-1355. Charles's first expedition to Rome. He was crowned emperor at Rome with a humiliating ceremony. Silesia and Lower Lusatia (^Niederlausitz) united with Bohemia. 1356. Golden Bull.^ Fundamental law of the empire. The election of the emperor was definitively intrusted to the seven electors, who had practically exercised this right for a long time ; ^ three ecclesiastics : 1. Archbishop of Mainz (arch-chancellor of Germany) ; 2. Archbishop of Trier (arch-chancellor of Burgundy) ; 3. Archbishop of Cologne (arch-chancellor of Italy) ; four secu- lar : 4. King of Bohemia (arch-seneschal) ; 5. Coimt Palatine of the Rhine (arch-steward); 6. Duke of Saxon-Wittenberg (arch-mar- shall); 7. Margrave of Brandenburg (arch-chamberlain). Estab- lishment of the indivisibility and inalienableness of the electoral states, which were made hereditary in the male line and received cer- tain regalia (privilegium de non appellando, etc.). The electoral vote went with the land. 1 So called from the gold case which contained the seal. 2 The electoral vote had been disputed between the two Saxon lines and the two lines of Wittelsbach. It was now assigned to Snxon-Wittenherg sm^ the County Pahitine, but refused to Saxon- Lauenb'irg and Bavaria. i A. D. Germany. 249 1363. Austria acquired Tyrol, The heiress of Tyrol, Margaret Maultasch, who outlived her husband, the Bavarian Ludwig, elector of Brandenburg (p. 247), and her only son, Meinhard, gave her county after the latter's death to duke Rudolf of Austria. 1368. Second expedition of Charles to Italy in alliance with the Pope against the Visconti. 1373. By the treaty of F'drstenwalde, Otto the Finne (lazy), the last Bavarian margrave of Brandenburg, transferred the mark to Charles IV., in return for an annuity. Leagues of the Cities. The Hanseatic League. The union of several seaports and trad- ing cities, between the Baltic and the Elbe, formed in the thirteenth century (between 1255 and 1262 ?), was the beginning of this league. ^ Separate alliance between LUbeck and Hamburg. In the fourteenth century the league attained wide extent and great power. After this time the name Hansa (i. e. trade guild) was commonly applied to the league. Since 1350 over ninety cities ex- tending from the mouth of the Schelde to Esthonia, besides many inland cities (e. g. Magdeburg, Berlin, Thorn), belonged to the Hansa. Object of the alliance : common defense, security of sea and land routes, settlement of disputes between members by arbitration, ac- quirement and m^aintenance of trading privileges in foreign countries. Capital of the league : Lubeck. Division of the league into three, afterwards four, quarters : 1. Prussian and Livonian; principal town, Danizig ; 2, Wendic, including also the cities of Mecklenburg, Pom- merania, and the Marches ; chief town, Lubeck; 3. Saxon; chief town, Brunswick ; 4. Westphalian ; chief town, Cologne. Principal trading ground, all northern Europe. Principal trading stations : Novgorod, Stockholm, Wisby (in Gothland), Bergen, Bruges, London. Ships of war {Orlogschiffe). 1361. War with Waldemar IV., king of Denmark, under the conduct of the burghermaster of Liibeck, John Wittenborg, who captured and plundered Copenhagen, but was afterwards defeated before Hel- singhorg, and, in consequence, beheaded at Liibeck. 1367-1370, Second war with Waldemar IV. The king compelled to fly. Copenhagen, Helsingor, and other cities conquered. A glorious and advantageous peace for the Hansa, concluded at Strain sund, ended the war. The League of Rhine cities, founded about the middle of the thirteenth century (league of Worms and Mainz), to insure stricter enforcement of the public peace, comprised at various times more than seventy cities, not all upon the Rhine (e. g. Bremen, Regensburg, Nuremberg) ; both temporal and spiritual princes joined the league. The S"wabian city league concluded in 1376, particularly as a de- fense against the counts of Wiirtemberg. Eberhard the Greiner (i. e. Quarreler), also called Rau^chebart. (Uhland's ballads.) ^ Unions of German merchants in foreign countries under this aamebadlong existed, the oldest being in London. 250 Mediaeval History, A. D. Associations of Nobles founded by members of the middle nobility, the imperial knights, particularly in Swabia, Franeonia, and on the Rhine, to maintain their independence against the cities on the one hand and against the higher nobility, the princes of the empire, who were everywhere trying to acquire territorial sovereignty on the other. The princes of the empire were either spiritual (archbishops, three of whom were electors (p. 248), bishops, abbots), or secular (dukes, counts- palatine, margraves, burggraves). The following associations of nobles deserve mention : the Martinsvogel (named after the day of their union), the Schlegler, the Lowenbund. 1377. Beginning of the wars between the cities and the nobles. Battle of Reutlingen. Brilliant victory of the Swabian league ( Ulm, the capital) over (Jlrich, son of Eberhard. The Swabian league recognized by the emperor. 1378. Death of Charles IV., after he had so divided his lands among his three sons that Wenzel received Bohemia and Silesia (Lux- emburg fell to him afterwards also), Sigismund, the mark of Branden- burg, John, Lusatia. In Moravia two nephews of Charles, Prokop and Jobst, were margraves. The election to the German throne had already fallen upon 1378-1400. W^enzel, Charles IV.'s oldest son. 1381. The Swabian league united with that of the Rhine, and after- wards entered into alliance with a part of the Swiss confed- eracy. 1384. Wenzel proclaimed a new public peace, the so-called Heidel- berger Stallung (Stallung = preserve of game, etc.), for four years, which, however, was broken after the king had returned to- Bohemia. ^ Leopold of Austria, who, in the division of Hapsburg estates had re- ceived the western lands, attacked the Swiss confederacy in alliance with the south German nobility. In the 1386. Battle of Sempach (Arnold von Winkelried?),^ he was defeated and lost his life. His second son, Leopold^ renewed the war and was defeated in the 1388. Battle of N of els, by the men of Glarus and Schwyz. The war with the cities broke out anew. Eberhard the Greiner defeated the Swabian cities at Dojfingen, where his son Ulrich fell. Rupert, count Palatine, defeated the Rhine towns at Worms. These victories restored the superiority of the princes over the cities. 1389. New public peace for eight years proclaimed by Wenzel at the council of the princes at Eger. Wenzel, who was hated in Bohemia for his cruelty and indolence, and had been several times made a prisoner in civil quarrels, was de- posed by a section of the princes of the empire (1400). He died 1419 as king of Bohemia. 1 See O. Kleissner, die QuellenzurSempacherSchlachtunddieWinkelried- sage, 1873. ( A. D. Germany. 251 1400-1410. Bupert, Count Palatine, who was barely able to make the royal authority respected within his own paj^y. 1401. Unsuccessful expedition to Italy. The German army was de- feated at Brescia by John Galeazzo Visconti, whom Wenzel had appointed hereditary duke of Milan (1395). 1409. In consequence of the Hussite troubles (p. 252) in Prague and a change in the university statutes, all Germans, profes- sors and students alike (5000 in number), left the imiversity of Prague and went to Leipzig, where Fredeiic the Warlike of Meissen founded a university. The councU of Pisa, convened to restore papal unity (Pope Gregory Xll.y against Pope Benedict XIII.), elected Alexander V. as a third Pope, not having been able to induce the former two to abdicate. 1410-1437. Sigismund, brother of Wenzel, in right of his wife, daughter of Ludwig the Great, king of Hungary, margrave of Brandenburg since the death of Charles IV. Sigismund was at first elected by the votes of Trier, the County Palatine, and Brandenburg, whose vote he himself cast through his plenipotentiary Frederic, hurggrave of Nwremherg. The other princes elected /oftsf of Moravia (f 1411). By the skillful management of his plenipotentiary, and the recc^nition of the successor of Alexander V., John XXIII., Sigismund gained the votes of the opposition at a second election, went to Italy, fought unsuccessfully with Venice and Milan, but induced Pope John XXIII., who was hard pressed by Naples, to summon an oecumenical council in German territory. 1414-1418. Council of Constance (Kostnitz). At once a council of the empire and, ui a certain way, a Euro- pean congress, visited by Italian, German, French, English, and after- wards by Spanish prelates (5 patriarchs, 33 cardinals, 200 arch- bishops and bishops), and by numerous princes with imposing trains, so that at times there were as many as 80,000 strangers in the city. The council had three objects : 1. Suppression of heresy (causa fdei). 2. Healing of the schism (causa wiionis). 3. Reformation of the church {causa reformationis).^ The party of reform secured the adoption of the plan of voting by nations, Germans, French, English, Italian, having each one common vote. Pope John XXIII., who appeared in person, was first induced to public abdication, but afterwards escaped to Schaffhausen with the help of Frederic, duke of Austria, who being put under the ban was forced to submit. Upon the motion of Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris, the council proclaimed its superiority over the Pope, but proceeded to take up the causa fdei next. Condemnation of the doctrine of the Englishman Wiclif (1327-1384) (opposition to confession, transubstantiation, and absolution), and the chief mis- sionary and developer of this doctrine, John Hus (a Bohemian of Czechish descent, born at Hussinec, 1369 ; 1398, professor ; 1409, rec- 1 Cf. Hiibler, die Konsianzer Reformation, 1867. 252 Mediceval History. a. d. tor of the University of Prague ; since 1412 under the ban), who, re- lying upon a safe conduct from the emperor, had appeared in Con- stance. Hus burnt (July, 1415, his friend Hieronymus of Prague, 1416). After the execution of Hus, the causa unionis was again taken up. John XXIII. was deposed ; Gregory XII. abdicated voluntarily. Sigismund went to Spain to secure the abdication of Benedict XIII. During the long absence of the emperor, discussion of the causa ref- ormationis. After Sigismund's return (1417) Benedict XIII. was deposed by the council. It was now demanded by the party of reform that a thorough re- form of the church in all its parts should precede the election of a new Pope ; the Ultramontanes {i. e. the Italians) ^ reinforced by the Spaniards as ^ fifth nation, succeeded in bringing about an immediate election, so that the reform fell through. Martin V. elected Pope, Nov. 1417 (although with the condition : de Jienda reformatione post electionem), dissolved the council 1418, as an agreement could not be reached. The three concordats which were concluded with the Ger- mans, the English, and the Romans, brought about no real abolition of abuses. At Constance in 1415 Sigismund invested Frederic burggrave of Nuremberg with the mark Brandenburg, the electoral vote, and the office of archchamberlain, as a reward for the important services he had done him (especially at his election), and the empire. The cere- mony of investiture took place in 1417.^ 1423. After the extinction of the Askanian house, Sigismund in- vested Frederic the Warlike, of the house of Wettin, margrave of Meissen, with the electoral duchy of Seixony (Witten- berg). 1419-1436. Hussite War. Terrible indignation of the Bohemians at the execution of Hus. His followers, the Hussites, also called Utraquists, because they demanded communion in both kinds, bread and wine {sub utraque specie), for the laity as well as for the clergy, attempted to spread their doctrine, which the council had rejected, by force. Re- volt in Prague. Ziskti, leader of the Hussites. After the death of king Wenzel (1419), Sigismund was heir to the Bohemian throne. He was crowned in Prague, but was soon obliged to leave the country. The imperial troops were driven back as they entered Bohemia (1421). Sigismund was disgracefully defeated (1422) at Deutsch-Brod. The Hussites ravaged the neighboring countries (skillful use of gun- powder and clumsy cannon \ ramparts of wagons). The coun- cil of Basel (1431-1449) concluded a treaty with the moderate Hus- sites (Calixtinians), (compact of Prague 1433) ; the Taborites, whose leaders (the two Prokops) fell in battle, were defeated and amiihilated at Bbhmisch-Brod (1434). 1420-1460. Epoch of the greatest power of the secret tribunals of Westphalia (Vehmgerichte). 1 The mortgaging the mark for a sum of money was only a form. There was no so/e, only a " remunerative present." Cf. Biedel, Gesch. des Preuss Konigshauses, II. 269. A. D. Germany, 253 1438-1740. Emperors of the House of Hapsburg. 1438-1439. Albert II., son-in-law of Sigismund, whom he succeded in Bohemia and Hungary as well, died after returning from an expedition against the Turks. 1440-1493. Frederic III. (IV.),^ cousin of Albert, the last emperor who was crowned in Rome (1452). He was powerless both in Germany and in his own lands, and involved in war with his brothers. JEneas Silvius Piccolomini (when Pope, Pius II.}, his adviser. Civil war in Switzerland ; Zurich allied with Austria (1440-1446). The troops of Ziirich defeated by the confederates. Ziirich besieged. At the request of Frederic, Charles VII. of France sent the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), with the unbridled bands of the Armagnacs, against Basel, to raise the siege of Ziirich. Heroic death of 1600 Confederates at St. Jacob (1444). Peace with France. Since their victory at Ragaz (1446) over the German troops, the Swiss con- federacy was practically independent. Native kings elected in Him- gary and Bohemia (1457) whom Frederic was obliged to recognize. The reforms resolved upon in the Council of Basel (1431-1449) were abandoned by the Concordat of Vienna concluded with Pope Eugenius IV. (1446). About 1450 John Gutenberg ^ practised (at Mainz) the art of printing. (Joha?in Fust, Peter Schoffer). Frederic, obliged to give up parts of the duchy of Austria to his brother and his cousin, besieged by them in Vienna, and released by George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia (1462). The marriage of Frederic's son, archduke Maximilian, with Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy (f 1477), caused several wars with France, and, after the death of Mary (1482), with the revolted Netherlands. Maximilian, however, succeeded in keeping the Burgundian inheritance for his son by Mary, the arch- duke Philip. Only the duchy of Burgundy (la Bourgogne, capital Dijon), fell to France. Frederic III., involved in a war with Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, was driven out of Austria and restored by Maximilian (only after the death of Corvinus, 1490). Maximilian, after the extinction of a branch line, received Tyrol, which the house of Hapsburg had acquired in 1363 (p. 249), and at Frederic's death was in possession of all the Austrian lands. (5ee p. 300.) 1 If Frederic of Austria, opponent and co-regent of Ludwig of Bavaria, be counted, he was Frederic IV. 2 His family name was Gensfleisch ; the name Gutenberg was that of his mother's patrician family. The claim brought forward in the Netherlands that Lorenz Jansson ( CWer) in Haarlem was the true inventor of printing (1423) has been proved by Van der Linde to rest upon a forgery. His investigations assign Fust and especially Schoffer a much less important position than ha$ been commonly attributed to them. ■ 254 Mediceval History. A. d. § 2. FRANCE. {See p. 227.) 1270-1285. Philip III., le Hardi, the RasTi. A quiet reign whose troubles were mostly from outside. Sicilian Vespers (p. 226). Philip married his son, 1285-1314. Philip IV., le Bel, the Fair, with Johanna, heiress of Navarre. Systematic introduction and development of the Civil (Roman) Law. Increased importance of parliament, from which ecclesiastics were removed in 1287 ; in 1302 it was fixed at Paris. (The French parliament was a court, not a legislature). Agreement between Philip and Edward I., of England, Edward renouncing his claims upon Normandy and receiving from Philip 10,000 livres and a guarantee of non-forfeiture for the rest of his French fiefs. 1292-1293. Conflicts between English and Norman sailors ; sack of La Rochelle. Edward I. of England, summoned before the court of his suzerain, sent instead his brother, earl of Lancas- ter, who surrendered Guienne to Philip as security for a satis- factory arrangement. Pnilip, hereupon, declared Edward's fiefs forfeited, by reason of his non-appearance. 1294-1297. War between France and England, carried on in Gas- cony and in Flanders, Philip being successful in both fields. 1299, June 19. Peace was concluded between France and England at Montreuil-sur-Mer, on the basis of present possession as re- garded territory. Marriage of Edward I. and Margaret, sister of Philip IV. (see below). 1296-1304. Quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII. The strife originated in the Idng's need of money, owing to the growmg central- ization of government, which led Inm to tax ecclesiastical property. Bull, " Clericis laicos,^' forbidding the clergy to pay taxes to the secular government without consent of the Pope (1296). Philip replied by an ordinance prohibiting the exportation of money or valuables from the kingdom without the king's permission. From these extreme positions the princes gradually retreated until a reconciliation was patched up. As a private man the Pope became arbitrator between Philip and Edward, and secured two thirds of Aquitaine to France, which was, however, again transferred to England by a marriage treaty, wherein Edward was betrothed to Philip's sister Margaret, and his son, Edward (IL) to Philip's daughter Isabelle. Flanders an- nexed to France. The quarrel between the king and the Pope broke out afresh in 1301. The bull " Ausculta jili^'' wherein the Pope asserted his su- premacy over all kings, was burned by Philip's order. Remonstrance of the estates of France with the Pope (1302). Revolt of Flanders. The French army of feudal barons was totally defeated by Flemish citizens in the 1302. July 1. Battle of Courtrai {Bay of the Spurs). Four thousand gilt spurs were captured by the victors. So many fiefs were vacated that Philip saw the royal power considera« bly strengthened. I., D, France. 255 Publication of the decretal " Unam Sanctam" Q^cx. 18, 1302) claiming the supremacy of the spiritual power over the temporal ; this was followed by a threat of excommunication. In France the last bull was seized, and violent measures taken against the Pope. On Sept. 7, 1303, Boniface VIII. was seized at Anagni by the king's adviser, Nogeret^ and Sciarra Colonna, and treated with indignity. He was shortly released by a popular uprising, but finding Rome on his return in French hands, fell ill and died. Philip recognized the independence of Flanders (1305, June 5). Benedict XI. dying, after nine months Philip secured the election of a Frenchman as Clement V. Reconciliation of the church with the king. 1309. Removal of the papal residence to Avignon (1309-1376). 1307. Arrest of all Knights Templars in France. Trial of the knights on various charges of immorality and heretical doctrines and practices. By the free use of hearsay evidence and of torture, their condemnation was secured, and fif t^'-f our were burned. Abolition of the order (1312) by the Pope. Execution of the grand master, Jacques de Molai, confiscation of the lands of the templars. Annexa- tion of Lyons, hitherto independent through the very number of her claimants, to France (1312). Death of Philip, Nov. 29, 1314. 1314-1316. Louis X. le Hutin, the Quarrelsome, through his mother heir of Navarre. His uncle, Charles of Valois, was the true ruler. Execution of Philip's minister, De Marigni. Serfs per- mitted to purchase their freedom. {Comme selon le droit de nature chacun doit naistre franc). Louis died June 6, 1316. His brother 1316-1322. Philip V. le Long, the Tall, was appointed regent for the queen, who was with child. On the death of the queen's son, soon after birth, Philip proclaimed him- self king, and to put aside the claims of Jeanne, daughter of Louis X.y he decreed that on the basis of ancient Prankish law,^ no female could succeed to the throne of France (the Salic la"w). Excesses of the Pastoureaux suppressed by force. Attacks upon the lepers and the Jeios. Acquisition of Douay, Orchies, Ryssel from Flanders. Philip died Jan. 3, 1322, and was succeeded by his brother, 1322-1328. Charles IV., the Fair, Died January 31, 1328, without male issue. Jeanne, daughter of Louis X., received Navarre. In France, according to the Salic law, the 1 LecG Salica, tit. 42, 6. De terra rero salica in mulierem nulla portio transit, $ed hoc virilis sexus acquirit. This pplies strictly to allodial possessions, and not to fiefs or to the crown. 256 Mediceval History. A. Di O 5 « rH H eo r o |3 |3 II - S I K, CO >-^ ,-1 eo ^ ^ ^ s ^ .s 1 ^ I - ^ s A. D. France, 257 1328-1498 (1589). House of Valois, a younger line of the Capets, succeeded. Iiouis VIII., 1223-1226. \ IiOuis IX., St. Louis, Charles, count of Anjou and Provence, 1226-1270. ancestor of the kings of Naples. Philip III., le Hardi, Robert (6th son), count of Clermont, 1270-1285. ancestor of the Bourbons. I Philip rV., le Bel, Charles, count of Valois, Louis, count of Ev- 1285-1314. ancestor of the house of reux. ! Valois. I i I \ ^1 I Louis X., Philip v., Charles IV., Isabelle | le Hutin. le Long. le Bel. m. Ed- Philip VI., 1314-1316. 1316-1322. 1322-1328. ward II. 1328-1350. I I of England. I daughters. daughter. ] | Edward IH., John H., I j of England. le Bon, Jeanne, John, 1350-1364. queen of 1316. Navarre. lived seven days. 1328-1350. Philip VI.. nephew of Philip IV. Philip was the choice of the feudal barons, who had regained somewhat of their old power since the death of Philip the Fair, but his tyranny alienated his vassals, while his oppressive exactions ham- pered trade and deprived him of the hearty support of the cities. Quarrel with Ed-ward IH. of England, springing out of the claim of the EngUsh sovereign to the French crown through his mother, Isa- belle, daughter of Philip IV. (see the genealogy). Alliance with Scotland. Outbreak of the 1339-1453. Hundred years War between France and England. (Froissart 1337-1410 (?), chronicler of the war.) Naval victory of the English and their allies, the Flemish (Jacob van Artevelde), at Sluys (1340). Contested succession in Brittany ; John de Montfort, one claimant, obtained the aid of Edward, and recognized him as king of France. (Heroism of Marguerite, countess of Montfort.) Landing of Edward in Normandy (1346). 1346. Battle of Crecy, in Picardy. August 26, Victory of the English. Use of cannon (?). Death of the blind king, John of Bohemia, the father of Charles IV.i 1347. Capture of Calais (story of the intercession of Queen Philippa). 1 Recent investigators reject the story that the fifteen-year-old Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), took from the helmet of the fallen king John, the devise "Ichdien." 17 258 Mediaeval Historif, A. n. 1347-1349. Black Death in France. Acquisition of Montpellier from James of Arragon, and of the Dauphine of Vienne from the last Dauphin^ Humbert II. (who went into a monastery) by purchase. Vienne was given to Charles^ son of John of Normandy, grandson of Philip. He took the title of Dauphin^ and on his accession to the throne decreed that the Dauphine should never be united with the crown. Hence DawjoAm became the title of the heir of the French crown. Origin of the practice of selling offices and titles. First imposition of the gabeUey a tax in the form of control of all salt works by the gov- ernment. Death of Philip, Aug. 22, 1350 ; he was followed by his son, 1350-1364. John II., le Bon. Feud with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre ; arrest and im- prisonment of Charles (1356). 1356. Battle of Poitiers (properly Maupertuis). Sept. 19. Victory of the Black Prince with 10,000 men, over John with 60,000. Capture of John (a prisoner for four years). Meanwhile confusion reigned in France where the young Dau- phin, as regent, was unable to suppress the terrible civil con- flicts. 1357-1358. Insurrection of the bourgeoisie of Paris, led by Btienne Marcel, the provost of the traders {premt des marchands), who entered into treasonable comiection with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre. Meeting of the estates ; abolition of abuses. Truce with England for two years. Murder of the marshaUs of Champagne and Normandy in the regent's presence, by order of Marcel. The government in the hands of Marcel and a com- mittee of thirty-six. 1358. Peasant war, accompanied by horrible cruelties, known as the Jacquerie^ under the lead of Guillaume Caillet, called Jacques Bonhomme, which afterwards became the nickname for the lower class in general, in France. Murder of Marcel in Paris. 1360. Peace of Bretigny (near Chartres). Edward received PoitoUy Guienne, and Gascony, in full sover- eignty, but renounced his claim to the French crown, and re- nounced also all other fiefs in France. Release of John, for a ransom. 1363. Burgundy occupied by John on the death of the queen and her son by her former marriage, Philip, duke of Burgundy, pass- ing over the claim of Charles of Navarre. The duchy was given to the king^s son, Philip the Bold, founder of the Burgun- dian branch line of Valois. By his marriage with the heiress of Flanders, the new duke laid the foundation of the power of the house of Burgundy in the Netherlands. Return of Jolm to captivity. He died April 8, 1364, and was followed by his son, 1364-1380. Charles V., le Sage, the Wise. In the war between Peter the Cruel, of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Trastamara, Charles favored the latter, while the for- I A. D. France. 259 mer was allied with the Black Prince. Expelled by Bertrand du Guesclin, Pedro was restored by the Black Prince (Battle of Naj'ara, 1367). In 1369 Pedro was killed in personal com- bat with his brother. Reform of the coinage in France. 1369. Charles declared war on Edward. Du Guesclin (1313-1380), constable of France (1370). Most of the English possessions in France were again united with the crown of France. Death of the Black Prince (1376). Death of Charles, Sept. 16, 1380. He was followed by his son, 1380-1422. Charles VI., then eleven years old. Quarrels of his uncles, the dukes of Anjou, of Burgundy, of Bourbon, and of Berry. 1386. Threatened invasion of England comes to naught. Revolt in Ghent under Philip van Artevelde. Crushed by Charles (De Clisson, constable) at the battle of Roosebec (1382) ; slaughter of the Flemings. Death of Van Artevelde. 1392. Charles being seized with madness, the regency was assumed by the dukes of Burgundy and Berry, setting aside the duke of Orleans, the brother of the king. Civil strife between the parties of Burgundy and Orleans (Armagnacs ^). 1407. The duke of Orleans murdered by order of John, duke of Bur- gundy. Cabochians (from one Caboche, a butcher) in Paris, overthrown by the Orleanists under the Dauphin. 1415. Henry V. of England, landing at Harfleur, captured that city Oct. 15. (Sept. 22), and in the Battle of Azincourt (Agincourt), hs totally defeated a vastly superior French army. Capture of the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. Death of the Dauphin, of the king's second son, John, and of the duke of Berry. The queen, Isa- heau, of Bavaria, took refuge with the duke of Burgundy. Massacre of the Armagnacs at Paris, 1418. Rouen captured by the English. John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, murdered at the bridge of Montereau by the followers of the Dauphin (Tanneguy Duchdtel). John's son, Philip, hereupon concluded, with the consent of the queen, the Treaty of Troyes with the English (1420). Henry V. married Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and became regent and heir of France. Under John the Fearless (1371-1419) and his son, Philip the Good (1396-1467), the house of Burgundy reached the summit of its power. Philip made himself master of the inheritance of Jacqueline, daughter of William, count of Holland, although the emperor, Sigismmid, had declared her lands to be vacant fiefs of the empire. Death of Henry V. of England (at Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422), and of Charles VI. of France (Oct. 21, 1422). The latter was succeeded by his son, 1422-1461. Charles VII., who, for the present, was recognized south of the Loire only ; in the north Henry VI., infant king of England, was acknowledged 1 From Bernard, count of Armagnac, father-in-law of the duke of Orleans, who became head of the Orleanists about 1410. 260 Mediceval History. a. d. lord. Duke of Bedford, regent in France, allied with the duke of Burgundy. Siege of Orleans (1428). 1429. Jeanne d'Arc (more properly, Dare), bom in Domremy, on the left bank of the Meuse, convinced that she was chosen by Heaven to be the deliverer of France, succeeded in obtaining from the king permission to relieve Orleans, the accomplishment of which feat (AprU 29-May 8) earned for her the name Maid of Orleans (La Pttcelle). The English driven back. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. Intrigues against Jeanne at the French court. Captured by the Bur- gundians at Compiegne (1430), she was delivered to the English, and, after a mock trial, condemned for sorcery, and burnt in Rouen (1431). 1435. The duke of Burgundy recognized Charles VII., on condition of receiving Auxerre, Macon, Peronne, Montdidier, and the towns on the Somme, and being released from feudal homage. Death of the duke of Bedford. 1436-1449. Period of inaction, utilized by Charles VII., for the in- troduction of reforms : establisliment of a permanent tax to be levied by the king without the cooperation of the estates ; aboli- tion of the "free companies," and mstitution of regular companies, the beginning of standing armies (ordinance of Orleans, 1439). 1449-1461. Renewal of the war. After some fluctuations of fortune (Talbot in Guyenne ; his death, 1453) the English lost all their possessions* in France except Calais. 1453. Fall of Constantinople. End of the Eastern Empire. Introduction of Grecian scholars and Grecian ^vriters into Eu- rope (p. 278). Death of Charles VII., July 22, 1461. He was succeeded by his son, 1461-1483. Louis XI., who by his shrewdness and perfidy annihilated the power of the great barons and laid the foundation of absolute monarchy. Revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII. (issued in 1438 by the council of Bourges : declaration of the rights of the Gallican church ; limitation of the power of the papacy in France ; appeals to Rome forbidden). 1462. Acquisition of Roussillon and Cerdagne by mortgage. Re- demption of Amiens y Abbeville and St. Quentin from Bur- gundy. 1464. League of the Public Weal (Ligue du Men publique), a conspiracy of the dukes of Brittany, Bourbon, Lorraine, Alencon, Berry, and the count of Charolois. Battle of MontVhery. Louis broke up the league by the concessions of the treaty of Confians (restoration of the towns on the Somme, Normandy granted to the duke of Berry), the execution of which he evaded. Death of Philip of Bur- gundy ; accession of his son Charles the Bold (le Temeraire). Con- flict between the duke and the king. Meeting at Peronne (Oct. 1468). Storm of Liege. 1475. Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England in alliance with Burgundy. Meeting at Pequigny (near Amiens) between A. D. France. 261 5?^ BO "■« so as 5-8 r ^^ 22 i« B .^^ s ^^ S HJ o so « s Q I -Q Pi 00 I '^ T— I ~o gffl o O . «^ » So am CO SfS ^H- I »n3 11 fcq§ it .2 S 266 Mediceval History. a. d. of the Scots at Dunbar. Baliol resigned the crown and was imprisoned. Scotch coronation stone carried to London. Scot- land under an English regent. 1297. Revolt of the Scots under Sir William Wallace. Defeat of the regent. Edward's demands for money from the clergy being refused (bull Clericis laicos, 1296), the recalcitrant clergy were placed under the ban. In 1297 the king summoned the barons to follow him to FlanderSc The resistance of the lords ended with the acquiescence of the king in the 1297. Re-issue of the Great Charter and the forest charter {Cmijir- matio chartarwni) with additional articles, by wliich the right of taxation without the consent of Parliament was renoimced (1301). 1298. Truce with France enabled Edward to invade Scotland. At the July 22. Battle of Falkirk, the Scots under Wallace were completely defeated. Appeal to the Pope, who laid claim to the suzerainty over Scotland, — a claim which was rejected by the English lords in 1301. 1303. Peace of Amiens with France. Edward had previously mar- ried Margaret, sister of Philip IV., and betrothed his son Ed- ward to Philip's daughter Isabella. Invasion of Scotland. Submission of Bruce and Comyn. 1305. Execution of Wallace, who had been betrayed to the English. 1306. Opposing claims of Bruce and Comyn ; murder of Comyn, coronation of Robert Bruce (March 27). 1307. July 7. Death of Edward I., on his way to Scotland. Legal and Legislative reforms under Edward. 1275. First statute of Westminster : a codification of previous stat- utes. Grant of a regular tax on exported wool, and of a fif- teenth of movable property. These forms of taxation, the in- direct customs duties, and the taxation of personal estate were intended to supplement the older land tax, which they grad- ually surpassed in importance. Separation of the old king's court into three tribunals : Court of Exchequer, for cases where the royal revenue was in- volved ; Court of King's Bench, with jurisdiction in all matters concerning the sovereign, and in criminal cases espe- cially reserved for his decision ("pleas of the crown "); Court of Common Pleas, for cases between private individuals. Development of the jurisdiction of : 1. the royal council (later the " Star Chamber ") ; 2. of the Chancellor, in cases where relief could not be obtained by the ordinary or " common " law. This higher jurisdiction emanating directly from the sovereign was known as equity. 1279. Statute of Mortmain (de religiosis), forbidding the aliena- tion of land to religious bodies (whereby it became free from feudal dues) without the permission of the king. A. D. England. 267 1285. Statute of Winchester, re^ilating the militia and the pre- servation of public order. Conservators of the Peace (later called Justices of the Peace) appointed in every shire to execute the provisions of the statute. Second Statute of Westminster, amending the Statute of Mortmain. 1290. Third Statute of Westminster (Quia emptores}, providing that when land was alienated the sub-tenant should hold directly of the overlord, and not of the tenant. 1295. Summons of the first perfect Parliament ; clergy, barons summoned severally by special writ ; commons sum- moned by writ to the sheriffs directing the election of two knights from each shire, two citizens from each city, two burghers from each borough. 1297." De Tallagio non Concedendo, prohibiting the imposition of taxation without the consent of Parliament. 1307-1327. Edward II., fourth son of Edward I. Peace with Scotland ; Aymer de Valence, governor. Recall of the king's favorite, Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, who had been banished by Edward I. Marriage of Ed- ward II. with Isabella of France. Gaveston soon incurred the hatred of the barons, and he was banished (1308), soon, however, to be re- called. 1310. Government entrusted to twenty-one ordainers. 1311. Ordinances of the Parliament of 1311 presented by the ordainers. Reform of abuses ; punishment of favorites ; ap- pointment of great officers by and with the consent and approval of the barons ; consent of the barons necessary for declaration of war ; parliaments to be called every year. Execution of Gaveston (1312). The successes of Bruce in Scotland (capture of Linlithgow, 1311; Perth, 1312 ; Edinburgh, 1313 ; siege of Stirling, 1314) produced a temporary reconciliation between the king and the barons. Edward marched to Scotland with»100,000 men, and in the 1314. Battle of Bannockburn, June 24. was totally defeated by 30,000 foot-soldiers under Robert Bruce. The king's new favorites, the two Despensers, father and son, were as displeasing to the nobility as Gaveston had been ; in 1321 Parlia- ment decreed the exile of the favorites. Edward showed unexpected energy ; at the battle of Boroughhridge, the earl of Lancaster, the leader of the barons, was defeated and captured (executed March, 1322). Repeal of the ordinances of 1311. After an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland, 1323. Edward concluded peace for thirteen years with Bruce, whosQ assumption of the royal title was passed over in silence. Isabella, sent to France in 1325 to treat with Charles IV., concern- ing the English fiefs in France, intrigued with Roger Mortimer and other hostile barons, and in 1326 landed in England. Capture of Bristol • execution of the Despensers ; imprisonment of the king. 268 Mediceval History. A. D. 1327. Deposition of Edward II., in parliament; accession of his son, Edward. Edward, imprisoned in Berkeley Castle, was there murdered, Sept. 21, 1327. 1327-1377. Edward III. Council of regency (earl of Lancaster), Edward being but fifteen years of age. The queen and Mortimer the true rulers. 1328. Unsuccessful war with Scotland. James, earl of Douglas. Treaty of Northampton. Bruce recognized as king, and feu- dal superiority of the English crown renounced. 1330. Edward took the government into his own hands. Execution of Mortimer. Imprisonment of the queen-mother. The death of Robert Bruce (1329) was followed by civil war in Scotland, during which Edward Baliol seized the crown ; Bruce 's infant son, David, fled to France. Baliol did homage to Edward, which induced a revolt of the Scottish nobles: Baliol driven over the border. Edward hastened north; defeat of the Scots in the 1333. Battle of Halidon Hill, near Berwick (henceforward this town belonged to England). Baliol restored to the Scottish throne. Scotland south of the Forth ceded to England, and homage rendered for the remainder. Alliance between the patriotic party in Scotland and France. 1337. War with France (the Hundred Years' War). Edward claimed the French crown in right of his mother (see p. 257). 1341. Completion of the separation of parliament into an Upper House (Lords), composed of the nobility, and a Lower House (Commons), composed of the representatives of boroughs and the knights of shires. The process of separation had begun as far back as the reign of Edward I. The responsibility of ministers established by act of parliament (revoked by the king in the same year). 1342. David Bruce returned to Scotland and recovered the throne. Scotland henceforward independent. 1346. Battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham ; defeat of the Scots ; capture of David II., who was retained in captivity until 1357. Battle of Crecy, p. 257. 1348-49. Black Death in England; more than a half of the popula- tion perished. As the visita,tions of the plague were especially heavy among the lower classes, a scarcity of labor and rise of wages followed, which led to the passing of the Statute of Laborers, regulating wages. In the next year (1350) laborers were forbidden to leave their own parish. 1356. Edward invaded and ravaged Scotland, but won no lasting suc- cess. Battle of Poitiers, p. 258. In 1357 David II. was ransomed. 1360. Peace of Bretigny (p. 258). Renunciation of the French crown and of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine. Cession in full sovereignty to England of Aquitaine (Gascony, Guyenne Poitou, Saintonge, the Limousin, the Angoumois, Perigord, Bi- gorre, Rouergue), Ponthieu, Guisnes, Calais. 1361. Return of the Black Death. Popular discontent. Preaching of John Ball. William Longland, author of Piers Plow- man. A. D. England. 269 1369. Final visitation of the Black Death. 1370. Capture of Limoges by the Black Prince ; massacre of the in- habitants (death of the Black Prince, June 8, 1376). 1371. John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., married the daughter of Pedro the Cruel of Castile, and assumed the title of king of Castile. Loss of all the English possessions in France, except Bordeaux, Calais, and Bayonne. Peace for three years (1374). 1376. The Good Parliament. Opposition of William of Wykeham and Peter de la Mare (Speaker of the Commons) to John of Gaunt. Punishment of favorites, reformation of the arbitrary royal council (Concilium Ordinarium). After the dissolution of the parliament John of Gaunt disregarded its enactments ; to William of Wykeham he opposed John "WicUf (1327-1384), who taught that the property of the clergy was at the disposal of the crown. 1377, June 20. Death of Edward III. During this reign the crime of treason was defined by the Statute of Treason (1351) ; transfer of a suit to foreign courts was pro- hibited (1353, future Statute of Prcemunire) ; Parliament acquired the power of impeachment; trial by jury assumed a more modem form (^separation of the old jury into a jury proper, and witnesses) ; a poll- tax was introduced (1377) ; English was directed to be used in courts of law (1361). In Ireland, the Statute of Kilkenny (1367) prohibited intermarriage of the English and Irish, and supplanted the native lan- guage and customs by English. 1377-1399. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, twelve years old. The king was in the hands of Parliament, and his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster (John of Gaunt), York, and Gloucester, were excluded from the re- gency. The war with France and Scotland requiring money, a poll- tax was assessed in 1379, and again in 1380. 1381. Revolt of the peasants under John Ball and "Wat Tyler; capture of London ; burning of the duke of Lancaster's palace, the Savoy. Wat Tyler killed by Wahvorth, mayor of London. Suppression of the revolt. Disregard of the charter abolishing serfdom, which Richard had at first granted. Villanage was, however, doomed. Wyclif 's doctrines spread by his " poor preachers." Denial of Transubstantiation (1381). Wiclif's adherents nicknamed Lollards by their opponents. Wiclif's translation of the Bible. 1388. Battle of Chevy Chase (Otterburne), between Lord Henry Percy and the earl of Douglas ; defeat of the English. {Ballad of Chevy Chase). Quarrel between Richard and his favorites, (Robert de Vere, Michael de la Pole), and the parliament. In 1386, Continual Coimcil under the duke of Glojicester, for one year. Defeat of the king ; impeach- ment of Vere and others, before the " Wonderful " Parliament (1388). In 1389 Richard took the government into his own hands. 270 Mediceval History. A. d. 1393. Statute of Praemunire, prohibiting the introduction of papal bulls. 1396. Richard married Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France, and concluded peace for 26 years. 1397. Imprisonment (and death) of the duke of Gloucester. Im- peachment of the earls of Arundel, Warwick, Nottingham, Derby. Arundel was executed ; Warwick imprisoned for life ; Nottingham was made duke of Norfolk ; Derby (Henry Bo- lingbroke, son of John of Gaunt), duke of Hereford. 1398. Quarrel between Hereford and Norfolk. The king forbade their combat, and banished Norfolk for life, Hereford for six years. Richard made an expedition to Ireland, wh6re the isolation of the English who were settled within the conquered district, the so-called English Pale (Drogheda, Dublin, Wexford, Water- ford, Cork) had rendered them almost independent of England. During his absence 1399. Henry Bolingbroke, since the death of his father, duke of Lancaster, landed in England. Richard returned from Ire- land, only to be captured, deposed, and imprisoned in the castle of Pontefract (murdered ?). Geoffrey Chaucer (died 1400), Canterbury Tales. 1399-1461. House of Lancaster, a branch of the house of Plantagenet. 1399-1413. Henry IV., under which name the duke of Lancaster ascended the throne, the claims of Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the true heir, being passed over. 1400. Conspiracy of the earls of Rutland, Huntingdon, Salisbury, Kent, and Spencer suppressed. Revolt of Wales under OTven Glendo-wer ; defeat of Sir Edmund Mortimer (1402). 1402. A Scottish inroad under the earl of Douglas defeated at Hom- ildon Hill. Capture of Douglas. As Henry refused to allow the ransom of Edmund Mortimer (he being the uncle of the young earl of March, the true heir to the crown), a conspiracy was formed against him by Harry Percy {Hot- spur), brother-in-law of Mortimer, to whose family the king was largely indebted for his throne, who induced his father, the earl of Northum- berland, and his uncle, the earl of Worcester, to joui with himself. Glen- dower, and Douglas, and take up arms. In the 1403. Battle of Shrewsbury, July 21. the conspirators were defeated. Harry Percy was killed and Douglas taken. Conspiracy of Mowbray and Scroop, archbishop of York ; execution of the conspirators. 1405. Capture of James, heir of the Scottish throne, while on his way to the court of France (James was the second son of Robert III. of Scotland ; the eldest, duke of Rothsay, had been starved to death by the king's brother, duke of Albany)^ and detained in Eng- land imtil 1423. A. D. England. 271 1408. Defeat of the earl of Northumberland and Lord Bardolph at Bramham Moor; death of the former. 1413. March 20. Death of Henry IV. 1413-1422. Henry V., Monmouth. While prince, companion of wild rakes ; as king, energetic and brave. Trial and condemnation for heresy of Sir John Oldcastle (Lord Cobham), a friend of the king. Oldcastle escaped from prison, and a rising of the Lollards assumed formidable proportions ; it was, how- ever, easily suppressed. (Oldcastle captured and burned, 1417). 1415. Conspiracy of the earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope and Sir Thomas Grey detected. Execution of the conspirators. 1415-1420. "War with France (p. 259). 1415. Oct. 25. Battle of Agincourt. 1417. Second invasion of France. In England, unsuccessful Scottish inroad (" The Foul Raid "). 1420. May 21. Peace of Troyes. Henry married Catharine, daughter of Charles YII. of France, and was accepted as regent and heir of the crown. 1421. Third invasion of France. Death of Henry at Vincennes, August 31, 1422. Use of English in the House of Commons. Sir Richard Whit'.ing- ton, thrice lord mayor of London. 1422-1461. Henry VI., Windsor. Not quite nine months old at his father's death. Parliament refused to appoint a regency, and named the king's uncle, duke of Gloucester, protector, in the absence of his brother, the duke of Bed- ford, who was regent in France. 1423. Liberation of James I. of Scotland, after the conclusion of an agreement with the English not to assist one another's enemies. 1422-1453. War in France. Expulsion of the English. {Joan of Arc.) Seep. 260. 1437. James I. of Scotland murdered by the earl of Athol and Robert Grahame. 1445. Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret, daughter of Rene, titular king of Naples and Jerusalem. Henry promised to re- store to Rene his hereditary lands of Anjou and Maine. This mar- riage was the work of William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk (soon made a duke), whose influence at court surpassed that of the earlier adviser. Cardinal Beaufort (died 1447). Arrest and suspicious death of the duke of Gloucester. The loss of Normandy was followed by the im- peachment of Suffolk, who was banished by Henry, but seized at sea and put to death (1450). 1450. Rebellion of Jack Cade (" Mortimer "). The insurgents occupied London and murdered Lord Say, one of the ministers. The rebellion was soon suppressed, and Cade, while in hiding, was killed by Alexander Iden. The government now passed into the hands of Richard, duke of York, grandson of the fffi son of Edward III., son of Anna Morti- 272 Mediceval History. A. D. mer, heiress of the claims of the third linef who retnrned to England from Ireland ; his power, however, was not enough to oust his rival, the duke of Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, and in 1452 he was induced to dismiss his army, and then forced to swear allegiance. 1452. James II. of Scotland murdered William, earl of Douglas ; defection of the Douglases to England. 1453. Battle of Castillon in France. Death of Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury. Surrender of Bordeaux. Of all the English possessions in France Calais alone -was left in their hands. 1453. Birth of Prince Edward, son of Henry VI. Insanity of Henry. The duke of York protector. Imprisonment of Somerset. The recovery of the king in 1454 was followed by the restoration of Somerset to power. The duke of York, the earls of Salisbury and Warwick, now took up arms against Henry and liis advisers. 1455-1485. Wars of the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York (see the genealogical table). 1455. Battle of St. Albans. York victorious. Death of Somer- May 22. set ; capture of Henry. A hollow reconciliation (1458) was followed by a new resort to arms. At the battle of Bloreheath (Sept. 23, 1459), the Lancastrians were defeated. The victory was a barren one for York ; defection in his army caused him to abandon the contest and retire to Ireland. Flight of Yorkist leaders. York and his party attainted of treason by the ParUament of Coventry. 1460. Landing of the earls of Salisbury, March (afterwards Ed- ward IV.), and Warwick, in England. In the 1460. Battle of Northampton, July 10. the Lancastrians were defeated ; capture of Henry ; flight of Margaret and her son to Scotland. The duke of York entered London and preferred his claim to the crown. Parliament decided that he should succeed Henry. 1460. Battle of Wakefield. Dec. 30. Defeat of York by the queen and Prince Edward. York fell on the field, the earl of SaUsbury and the earl of Rutland, son of York, were killed. 1461. Battle of Mortimer's Cross, near Hereford. Defeat of the Feb. 2. Lancastrians by the son of the duke of York, Edward, earl of March (now duke of York). Feb. 17. Second Battle of St. Albans. Defeat of the Yorkists under Warwick. Release of Henry. The earl of March, however, came to the rescue, joined the remnants of Warwick's army with his own, and entered London, where he was proclaimed king by acclamation, March 3, 1461. 1461-1485. House of York (branch line of the house of Plantagenet). 1461-1483. Edward IV. The early part of his reign was disturbed by constant attempts of the Lancastrians to overthrow the new dynasty. A. D. England, 273 274 Mediceval History. A. d. 1461, March 27. Battle of Ferry Bridge. Defeat of the Lancas- trians. March 29. Battle of ToTvton. After a most obstinate fight Ed- ward and Warwick prevailed, and the Lancastrians were totally defeated (said to have lost 28,000 men). Edward was crowned (June 28), and his brothers, George and Richard, were created dukes (Clarence and Gloucester). In 1462 Margaret obtained assistance from France, and made two' attempts to retrieve the Lancastrian cause, but both were unsuccessful. Henry retired to Wales ; Margaret to Lorraine. A final uprising of the Lancastrians was crushed at Hedgeley Moor and at Hexham (1464). 1464. Secret marriage of Ed-ward with Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Richard Woodville, baron Rivers, and widow of Sir John Grey, a Lancastrian. This marriage and the advancement conferred on the family of the new queen much exasperated the earl of War- wick and the other Yorkists. The dissatisfaction of Warwick was increased by the marriage of Edward's sister Margaret with the duke of Burgundy, and he intrigued with the duke of Clarence, giving him his daughter in marriage and promising him the crown. Revolt of William of Rydesdale in 1469. Execution of the queen's father. Earl Rivers. Edward became reconciled with War- wick, but a victory over the insurgents at Stamford (" Loose-coat Field ") (1470) so strengthened the king that he proclaimed War- wick and Clarence traitors, and they fled to France. Reconciliation of Warwick and Margaret. 1470. Warwick landed in England, occupied London, and pro- claimed Henry (who had been imprisoned since 1465) king. Edward fled to Burgundy, but returning with assistance was well received, and joined by Clarence. Re-imprisonment of Henry. 1471, April 4. Battle of Barnet. The Lancastrians under Warwick (the king-maker) totally defeated. May 4. Battle of Tewksbury. Defeat of Margaret, who was captiired ; murder of her son Edward. Henry VI. died in the Tower May 22, the day when Edward IV. reentered London. 1475. Invasion of France by Edward, who, in connivance with the duke of Burgundy, claimed the French crown. Subscriptions sup- posed to be voluntary (benevolences), without consent of Parlia- m.ent, now first introduced to raise money for tliis invasion. The war was ended without a battle by the Peace of Pequigny (1475). Truce for seven years ; payment of a large annual sum to England ; ransom of Margaret ; betrothal of the dauphin to Edward's eldest daughter, Elizabeth. 1478. Trial and condemnation of Clarence for treason. He was exe- cuted in the Tower. (Popular report that he was drowned in a butt of malmsey.) 1480. War with Scotland, which was ended by the Treaty of Fother- ingay, wherein Berwick was surrendered to the English. As Louis XL now refused to consent to the marriage of the dauphin A. D. Spanish Peninsula. 275 with Edward's daughter, as arranged at the treaty of Pequigny, Edward resolved on war, but died suddenly, April 9, 1483. 1483. April-June. Edward V. Richard, duke of Gloucester, regent for the thirteen-year-old king. The king and his brother, duke of York, confined in the Tower. Richard created protector. Execution of Lord Hastings. Gloucester advanced a claim to the crown, based on the asserted in- validity of Edward III.'s marriage with Elizabeth Woodville. The claim being admitted by Parliament, Richard accepted the crown (June 26). 1483-1485. Richard III. The new king began his reign by a progress in the north. Murder of the two princes in the Tower (Tyrell and Dighton). The Duke of Buckingham (to whose services Richard largely owed the crown), headed an insurrection m favor of Henry, earl of Richmond (great-great-grandson of John of Gaunt). Execution of Buckingham. Return of Richmond to France without landing. 1484. Confirmation of Richard's title by Parliament. The following table shows the derivation of Buckingham from Ed- ward III. : — Edward HI. I |4 16 John of Gaunt, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, by his 3d wife. | I Anne = Edmund, Earl of Stafford. John, Earl of Somerset. I Edmund, Duke of Somerset. Humphrey, Duke of Buckingham. r 1 I John Margaret ===i Humphrey, Lord Stafford. Margaret | I Henry, Duke of I Buckingham. Henry VII. In 1485 Richmond made another attempt, landed at Milford Haven, and completely defeated Richard in the 1485. Battle of Bosworth Field, Aug. 22. where Richard was slain. In 1471 William Caxton, printer, established a press at West- minster ; in 1474, he published " The Game and Playe of Chesse," the first book printed in England. (^See p. S3S.) §5. SPANISH PENINSULA. {See p. 240.) Spain. The Moors in Spain were, since 1238, confined to the kingdom of Granada, where agriculture, commerce, and industry flourished. 276 Mediceval History. A. d. Wars with the Christian kingdoms, occasionally in alliance with Morocco. 1492. Conquest of Granada and union of the kingdom with Castile. The kingdoms of CaBtile and Aragon during this period were in- volved in constant wars, ever renewed and of varying fortune, with the Moors and with one another. In both kingdoms bloody wars of succession and civil wars. Of the kings of Castile may be mentioned, in the thirteenth century Sancho IV., in the fourteenth Peter the Cruel and Henri/ the Bastard f the first of whom was aided, in his war with Henry for the throne, by England (victory of the Black Prince at Najara, 1367), the latter by France. Mercenary bands or free companies, under Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter defeated and killed at Montiel in 1369. Peter III. (1276-1285) of Aragon acquired the crown of Sicily, which he bequeathed to his second son, James, while his eldest son, Alphonso III., succeeded him in Aragon. His successor, Peter IV., curbed the excessive power of the nobility of Aragon. In 1410, after the extinction of the royal family of Catalonia, a Castilian prince, Fer- dinand, ascended the throne of Aragon. His grandson, Ferdinand the Catholic (1479-1516), by the marriage which he had made be- fore his elevation to the throne with Isabella, heiress of Castile, laid the foundation for the final union of the two kingdoms. Portugal. The legitimate line of Burgundy became extinct (1383), and was succeeded by the illegitimate Burgundian line. Heroic age of Portu- gal, which now reached its greatest power. Conquests, Ceuta, Tan- giers ; formation of a Christian kingdom of Algarbe on the northern coast of Africa. Voyages and discoveries (p. 279), under the patron- age of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (1394-1460 ; discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira, 1418-19 ; Cape Verde, 1445 ; Azores, 1447; Cape Verde Islands, 1455). (See p. S28.) § 6. THE NORTH AND EAST. Denmark, Norway, Sweden. {See p. 2It.O.) Each a united kingdom from about 850 on, converted to Christian- ity about 10J3, these three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar (1397). Margaret, queen of Denmark, daughter of Walde- mar IV., married Hakon VI. of Norway, and after the death of Hakon succeeded to the throne, at first for her minor son (f 1387). The crown of Sweden was transferred to her by the estates of that king- dom. The union lasted (interrupted by Sweden) to 1524. {See p. 351.) Russia. From 862 to 1598, under the house of Rurik, converted by Vladimir the Great 988, soon divided into many principalities, which were ir theory subordinate to the Grand Prince of Kiev, but practically were 1 A. D. The North and East, 111 tolerably independent. During the supremacy of the Mongols in Rus- sia, which endured 250 years, there grew up a new grand principal- ity, that of Mosco"w, which after the devastation of Kiev by the Mongols (1239), and its conquest by the Lithuanians (1320, p. 169), became the national centre of Russia. After a long contest the Mongol supremacy in Russia was overthrown (1480) by Ivan IH., the Great, the founder of the united monarchy. Republic of Nov- gm-od subjugated (1478). {Seep. 852.) Poland. Under the Piasts (840-1370, Christian about 1000) involved in war with Germany, with the heathen Prussians (later with the Teu- tonic knights), and with Russia. The last king of this house was Casimir the Great. Short union with Hungary imder Louis the Great (1370-1382). Louis' younger daughter, Hedwig, married the grand duke of Lithuania, Vladislav II. Jagello, whereby Poland and Lithu- ania -were united under the house of JageUo from 1386 to 1572. Conversion of Lithuania. (JSee p. 352.) Prussia. Conquered in the thirteenth century by the Teutonic order (p. 218), since 1309 residence of the grand master at Marienburg. The order attained its greatest power under Winrich oon Kniprode (1351- 1382) ; beginning of a gradual decline. Defeat of the order by the Poles at Tannenberg (1410). The energy and daring of Henry of Plauen brought about the ad- Tantageous frst peace of Thorn (1411). The revolt of the Prussian nobles in the country and the cities and their alliance with Poland led to the second peace of Thorn (1466) : West Prussia and Ermeland ceded to Poland ; the order retained East Prussia as a Polish fief. Hungary. Toward the close of the ninth century Hungary was occupied by the Finnish i tribe of Magyars (p. 193) ; until 1301 under the reign- ing house of the Arpads. Introduction of Christianity by the duke Geisa and his son St. Stephan, the first king of Hungary (crowned 1000). Extensive immigration of Germans. Ecclesiastical division of the country into ten bishoprics ; political di\asion into seventy-two counties (Gespanschaften) . Formation of a powerful aristocracy (Magnats). The Golden Bull extorted from King Andrew II. (con- temporary of the emperor Frederic 11. ), after his return from a cru- sade (p. 216), is the foundation of the privileges of tlie Hungarian nobility. After the extinction of the Arpads, Hungary came under the house of Anjou (1308-1382). Period of greatest power under Louis the Great (1342-1382), who in 1370, succeeded to the throne of Poland also. Under Sigismund of the house of Luxemburg (1387-1437), be- 1 Vambery, Ur sprung d. Magyaren, endeavors to prove the Turkish origiil of this people ; they were, at all events, Turanian. — Trans. 278 Mediaeval History, A. d. ginning of the decline of the kingdom. Albert of Austria (1438- 1439), and afterwards, Vladislav HI. of Poland, elected king ; the latter fell at Varna (1444) in battle against the Turks, whereupon Albert's minor son, Ladislaus Postumus, succeeded. The chancellor of the kingdom, John Hunyadi, defeated the Turks at Belgrade (1456). After his death and that of Ladislaus, Hunyadi's son, Matthias Cw- vinus, became king (1458-1490). After his brilliant reign Hungary- was united with Bohemia under Ladislaus II., of the house of Jagello, and the succession was secured to the archduke Maximilian of Aus- tria. \Seep. SOU.) Turks, Mongols, and the Eastern Empire. {Seep. 2^0.) Supremacy of the Osman {Ottoman') Turks, Turcoman nomads, founded in Asia Minor by Osman I., about 1300. His successors, Urchan, Murad I., and Bajazet I., extended Turkish power during the fourteenth century to the confines of Europe (Adrianople, residence of the sovereigns in 1365). The development of the Osmanic power was temporarily checked by the Mongols under Timur Lenk (i. e. the Lame), commoidy called Tamerlane or Timur the Tatar, Bajazet being defeated and cap- tured in 1402 at Angora. One of Bajazet's successors, Muhammed II., destroyed the Eastern Empire, which had been under the rule of the Palceologi since 1261, by the 1453. Conquest of Constantinople. Flight of Grecian scholars to Italy, where they taught in the universities, and gave the impulse to a new study of Grecian literature. {See p. 353.) China. {See p. 2^2.) ' In 1403 the rebellious prince. Yen, succeeded to the throne under the name Yung-lo (1403-1425), and proved an efficient ruler, carry- ing his arms into Tatary, and annexing Cochin-China and Tonquin to China. Under Seuen-tih (1426-1436) Cochin-China revolted. Chingtung (1436-1465) fell into the hands of the Tatars m 1450, and remained a prisoner until released bv a Chinese victory in 1457. Tlie quiet reigns of Ching-hwa (1465-1488) and Hung-che (1488- 1506) were unmarked by important events. {See p. 35^.) Japan. {See p. 2^3.) Under the domination of the Ashikaga Shoguns (1336-1573), whose founder, Ashikaga-Taka-Uji, set up a rival emperor, Japan was under two dynasties, — the southern (legitimate) at Yoshino, the northern (usurpers) at Kioto; the true sovereigns, meantime, were the Shoguns at Kioto. The period is a dark one, filled with constant wars between the dynasties, and civil wars in Kioto. It is curious to reflect that in the midst of these wretched wars Columbus was sending messengers into the interior of Cuba charged with letters to the sovereign of Japan, whereby he hoped to open communication for Spain with a monarch whose power was as limit- less as his wealth. {See p. 355.) riL MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PEACE OF WEST PHALIA (1492-1648). §1. INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, AND COLONIES. Three inventions, whose discovery belongs to the Middle Age, but which came into more common use at the beginning of the modern period, have played a very important part in the total change in society which followed. 1. The magnetic needle, probably early discovered by the Chinese, applied in navigation (compass) in the east in the thirteenth century; in the west at the beginning of the fourteenth (by Flavio Gioja ?). This invention materially advanced the discoveries of the new era. 2. Gunpowder, probably introduced into Europe from Asia (Cliina, India, Arabia). According to a tradi- tion whose truth can no longer be maintained, invented by the monk, Berthold Schivarz, at Freiburg in the Breisgau, 1354 (?). It was first used in Europe about the middle of the fourteenth century. The new class of weapons thus introduced were at first in the highest degree imperfect, and of but little value ; but their improvement gradually brought about a complete revolution in military science and art, and thereby led to the destruction of chivalry. Standing armies took the place of the feudal levies, and aided the princes to triumph over the lower order of feudal nobility. 3. Printing (p. 253), which was more widely spread after the conquest of Mainz (1462), had scattered the assistants of Fust to various lands. This invention would, however, have very largely failed of its effect, but for the improvement made at about the same time in the manufacture of Paper. 1492. Discovery of America by Columbus (Colon). For details and the further course of discovery see page 282, etc. 1498. Ocean route to the East Indies discovered by Vasco da Gama. After the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Azores ha,d been discov- ered by daring sailors (especially Italians) in the first half of the fourteenth century, but had since been partially forgotten, the Portu- guese at the instance of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (p. 276), be- 280 Modern History. A. D. gan in 1415 to push southward along the coast of Africa in order to j&nd the way to India. The death of Henry (1460) interrupted the prog- ress of discovery for a considerable time, but in 1486 Bartholomdeus Diaz reached Caho tormentoso, called by John II., Cabo da buena esperanza (Cape of Good Hope), and in 1498 Vasco da Gaum landed on the coast of Malabar (Calicut, p. 353). (Martin Behaim of Nu^ remberffy author of the celebrated globe still preserved in that city, which shows the state of geographical knowledge just before the dis- covery of America (1492), was in the service of the king of Portu- gal.) The Eastern trade (in silk, cotton, pearls, spices and other luxuries), had been carried on partly by land through central Asia, and partly across the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, and across Arabia and through the Persian Gulf. Tlie conquests of Islam, and especially the capture of Constantinople, had greatly diminished the number of prof- itable routes, so that the discovery of a new route became of great importance, especially to the maritime nations of western Europe who had been excluded from trade with the East, wherein the merchant republics of Italy, Pisa, GenoGy VenicCy had grown rich and powerful. The Portuguese attempted the eastern route around Africa. Colimibus found at the court of Spain patrons willing to try the experiment of a western route, at once (according to the data with which he reck- oned) shorter and simpler. The success of the Portuguese struck a mortal blow at the pros- perity of Alexandria and the great cities of Italy, and secured a monopoly of the Eastern trade to Portugal for one hundred years, after which it passed into the hands of the Dutch and English. The failure of Columbus had a still greater importance in history, disclosing a new world, where immigrants from the old should develop new political constitutions and new social conditions. The Portuguese power in the East Indies was founded by the vice- roy Almeida (1504-1509), and especially by Albuquerque (1509-1515 ; see p. 353). 1519-1522. First voyage around the world under Fer- dinand Magalhaes (Magellan), a Portuguese who had entered the Spanish service. Passage to the Pacific through the Straits of Magellan. Magalhaes was killed in 1521 on one of the Philippine Islands. §2. AMERICA. It is probable that as early as 1000 the Northmen, who had occu- pied Iceland since 874 and had thence made settlements in Greenland (985), had not only discovered but had tried to colonize the conti- nent of America (Vinland).^ 1 More than a dozen claims to the discovery or attempts at the discovery of America before Columbus have been preferred by various nationalities, a brief list of which is here appended: 1. St Brandan (565) and St. Maclovius ^Malo) in the sixth century. 2. Seven Spanish bishops (714 or 734) ; Isl- and of Seven Cities, also called AntilUn, a name afterwards transferred to the Antilles. 3. Buddhist priests from China (458), followed by Hoei-Shin (499^ A. D. America. 281 986. Bjami Herjulfson saw the coast of Vinland, but did not land. 1001. Leif Erikson discovered Helluland, Marklandj Vinland^ where he built some booths. 1002. Thorwald Erikson coasted along Kjalames and died at Kros* sanness. 1007-1009. Thorfinn Karlsefne, under whom a colony was established which remained several years in Vinland. Birth of the child Snorri. 1011. Helge and Finriborge with Freydis, wife of Thorwald. The tragical ending of this settlement seems to have discouraged colonization ; yet traces of intercourse are observable for a long time, (1121, Bishop Erik of Greenland ; 1266, voyage of clergymen of Greenland to the Arctic regions ; 1255, Adelhard and Thorwald Helgason ; 1347, voyage of seventeen men from Greenland). The identification of the places visited and named by the Northmen is attended with great, perhaps insurmountable difficulties. The detailed exposition of Rqfn (Helluland = Newfoundland or Labra- dor ; Markiand = Nova Scotia ; Vinland = Mt. Hope Bay ; Kjal- amess = Cape Cod ; Krossanness = Boston Harbor) is hardly to be accepted ; some writers place the southern limit of discovery at the southern point of Newfoundland.^ Wherever they were made, the settlements of the Northmen in America were not lasting, and the remembrance of them had almost passed away by the fourteenth century. Although Columbus had discovered Fou-sang. (See Iieland, Fou-sang, for arguments in favor of this discovery.) 4. Basques; Juan de fEstraide (about 1000). 5. Northmen (986). 6. Ari Marson, from Limerick in Ireland (982) discovered Huitramann land (White Man's Land) of Irland it Mikla (Great Ireland). South Carolina ? Florida? He was succeeded by Bjami Asbrandson (999), and Gudltif Gvd- lanfjson (1029). 7. Arabians; Almaghruins (in the eleventh century). 8. Madoc ap Qwynedd, a Welsh prince (1170). 9. Vadino and Guido Vi- valda (1281), Theodoro Doria and Ugolino Vivalda (1292), Venetians. 10. Wicolo and Antonio Zeno (1380-90). This "discovery " involves an older one made bv a fisherman of " Frislanda '' about 1360. 11. Oortereal, 1403. 12. Szkolny, a Polish pilot (1476). 13. Alonzo Sanchez de Helva (1484), the pilot who as some claim died in the house of Columbus, leaving his journal in the latter's hands. 14. Martin Behaim (1484). 15. Cousin and Pinzon from Dieppe (1487). This discovery of America has been assigned to still other races by disputants over the origin of the American Indians, among which may be mentioned : Egyptians, Tynans, Phoenicians, Canaanites, Norwegians, Cfiinese, Iberians, Scythians, Tatars, Jews (the Lost Trih^i), Romans, Malays ; there is also the theory of settlement by the inhabitants of Atlantis, and of a new creation. It is pleasant, from a patriotic standpoint, to state that it has been recently asserted that Europe was originally populated from America. 1 Three "relics" of the Northmen have been famous in their time. 1. The Writing Rock on the Taunton River near Dighton, Mass. It was claimed that the inscription was in runes, and it has been interpreted by northern scholars to £ontain an account of the voyage of Thorfinn, but it seems at present that Washington's opinion of the Indian origin of the picture writing is to be ac- cepted as correct. 2. The Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I. The northern origin of this structure can hardly be maintained against the more probable theory of its construction by Gov. Benedict Arnold in the latter half of the sev- enteenth century. 3. The "Skeleton in Armor," discovered in the early part of the present century at Fall River, Mass., is now admitted to have been that of an Indian. 282 Modern History. A. d. visited Iceland in 1477, it is not probable that he had heard of them ; it is evident, from his own writings, that he had no suspicions of the existence of a continent southwest of Iceland.^ Christoforo Colombo (he called himself and signed himself, after he became a Spaniard, regularly Cristobal Colon), born (1435 ?, 1446 ?) at Genoa, of plebeian origin, a sailor from his earli- est youth, wished to try a western route by sea to India (by which name in his day, the whole East was meant), and especially to Zipangu, (Japan) the magic island, which the Venetian Marco Polo (travels 1271-1295) had described in the book Mirabilia Mundi. Starting from the erroneous calculations of Ptolemy and Marinus concerning the size of the earth and the length of the habitable region (the Eas- tern Continent), Columbus made the circumference of the earth too short by a sixth, thus locating Zipangu in about the position of the Sandwich Islands. His plans having been rejected by Portugal (after the failure of an expedition secretly despatched westward to discover land), Columbus in 1486 accepted the service of the crown of Castile (Isabella). Delayed in the execution of .his project by the Arabian war and the lack of money at the court, he was about to offer his services at the court of France or England, when the cap- ture of Grenada promised the necessary means for the expedition.^ Contract with Columbus, who received nobility, the hereditary dignity of admiral and viceroy, and one tenth of the income from the newly discovered lands. 1492, Aug. 3-1493, March 15. First Voyage. Departure from Pcdos with three small vessels on the 3d of August, from the Canaries on Sept. 6. On Oct. 12, landing on Guanahani,^ one of the Bahama islands. Discovery of Cuba (called by Columbus Juanna) and Hayti (Espanola, St. Domingo). Ship- wreck off Hayti, foundation of the first colony (Navidad) on that island. 1493, May 3. Bull of Alexander VI. establishing the line of parti- tion, which divided that part of the world not possessed by any Christian prince between Spain and Portugal by a meridian line one hundred leagues west of the Azores. All W. of that line to fall to Spain, all E. of it, to Portugal. This compromise between the claims of the Spaniards based on the discoveries of Columbus, and those of the Portuguese based on their dis- coveries in the Atlantic, was afterwards revised so that the line was extended 270 leagues further west (1494). 1493, Sept 25-1496, June 11. Second voyage of Columbus from Cadiz, with seventeen vessels and 1500 persons. Discovery of the Lesser Antilles (inhabited by Caribs, which Colum- 1 See Peschel : Gesch. d. Zeitalters d. Entdechungen, 2d ed., p. 84 2 That Columbus laid his plans before Genoa is unhistorical (Peschel, 2d ed. p. 120). 8 The chief claimants for the honor of having been the first landing place of Columbus are Cat Island, Turk^s Island, Watling's Island, Samana. The latter claim was first advanced, and ably advocated by Capt. G. V. Fox in his " Attempt to solve the Problem of the First Landing Place of Columbus in the New World." Wash- 1882. (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.) A. D. America. 283 bus misunderstood, Canibs, whence Cannibals) and the island of Jam- aica. Voyage along the southern coast of Cuba to within a short dis- tance of the western end. Foundation of Isabella in Hayti (Dec. 1493), of San Domingo on the same island by Bartholomew Columbus. 1497, May-Aug. Voyage of John and Sebastian Cabot from Bristol with two vessels. Discovery of land (Prima Vista, Cape Breton Island (?), Newfoundland (?) June 24, 1497 (not 1494). They explored the coast N. to 67^° N. and S. for an uncer- tain distance, probably not so far as Florida, as has been claimed. 1497. First (alleged) voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Discovery of the continent of South America. This voyage is doubtful, though many give it credence. 1498, May-July (?). Voyage of Sebastian Cabot ; doubtful re- sults (68° N. to 35° N. ?). 1498, May 30-1500, Nov. 25. Third voyage of Columbus. Dis- covery of Trinidad (July 31), the continent of South America (Aug. 1) ; discovery of the mouth of the Orinoco. Exploration of the (pearl) coast as far as Margarita Island. Return of Columbus to His- paniola. Dangerous revolt of Roldan, with whom the admiral was obliged to conclude a treaty. Columbus, who was disliked by the set- tlers on account of !is foreign birth, and his avarice, — a vice from which he cannot be absolved,^ — was accused at court. Bobadilla, sent out as judge with especial powers, sent Columbus and his brother in chains to Spain (1500). Columbus was at once released upon his arri- val and treated with distinction ; he retained the dignity of admiral, but as viceroy was superseded hj Ovando. 1499, May-1500, June. Voyage of Alonzo de Hojeda and Ame- rigo Vespucci. Discovery of Surinam, Paria, Venezuela, and the coast of South America from 3° N. (Brazil?) to Cape Vela. This is often called the second voyage of Vespucci, but the first voyage, which he is said to have made in 1497, when he reached the continent of South America, is doubtful. Vespucci was a learned Florentine (1451-1512) who participated in two Portuguese voyages to South America, entered the service of Castile in 1505, and filled the position of Royal Pilot from 1508 until his death, a post in which he rendered important services to science, particularly in the construction of maps. The new world was called after him, not by him, America. The originator of this name was Martin Waltzemiiller (Hylacomylus) from Freiburg in the Breisgau, professor at St. Die in Lorraine (1507). The name of America spread at first only in Germany and Switzerland, and did not come into gen- eral use until the close of the sixteenth century.^ 1 Peschel, 2d ed., p. 272. 2 Hum.boldt, Examen critique de Vhisfoire et de la geographie du nnuveau continent ; Peschel, Gesch. d. Zeitalter d. Entdeckungen, cap. XIII., Abhand- lungen zur Erd-und Volkerhunde, 1877. Two attempts have been recently made to derive America from a native word : Jules Marcou, in the Atlantic Monthly (1875, March), and T. H. Iiambert, in the Bulletin of the American Geographical Soc. for 1883, p. 45. According to the former, America is a cor- ruption of the Indian name of a range of mountains in Nicaragua; the latter derives it from a native name of the empire of the Incas in Peru. The first dated map to bear the name " America " was that in the edition of Solinus of 1520 by Aoianus. 284 Modern History. A. d. 1499, Dec.-15(X), Sept. Voyage of Vincent Tanez Pinzon from Palos. Discovery of CapeS. Augustin (Feb. 28), of the Amazon. Pas- sage of the equator. This Yoyage traced the South American coast to 8° 20' S. 1500, April. Pedro Alvarez Cabral, bound for the East Indies, was accidentally (?) carried westward until he reached the coast of Brazil, in about 10° S. He called the country Terra Sanctce Crucis, and took possession of it for Portugal. 1500. Gaspar de Cortereal, a Portuguese, discovered Newfoundland (Conception Bay), the mouth of the St. Lawrence^ and the coast of Labrador. 1501. Cortereal sailed again in the hope of finding the passage to the East Indies, a hope which inspired the continuous efforts of nearly all the early explorers. He was lost upon the voyage. 1501. Second voyage of Vespucci under a Portuguese commander. 1502, May 11-1504, Nov. 7. Fourth (and last) voyage of Co- lumbus. Discovery of the Bay of Honduras, Veragua, Porto Bello. Shipwreck at Jamaica. Columbus died in Valladolid (1506) without a suspicion that he had discovered a new continent, and in the firm belief that his discoveries were parts of Asia. His son, Don Diego Columbm, viceroy and admi- ral. A grandson and great grandson of the discoverer retained the hereditary title of admiral. De Bastidas traced in 1500-1502 the coast of Panama to Pt. Manzanilla. Hojeda (1502), Vespucci (3d voyage, 1503), Juan de la Cosa (1505), etc., examined more minutely the coasts already dis- covered, while in the Spanish possessions the work of settlement and conquest was being pushed forward. Cruelties inflicted on the Indi- ans of the West Indies, whose race disappeared with frightful rapid- ity. It is probable that more was learned of the coasts of both Amer- icas in this period than has been divulged ; the rivalry of Spain and Portugal leading to a careful secrecy regarding all discoveries. The exact historical value of the D^Este map, just made public by M. Har- risse, cannot be known as yet, but seems to have clearly established the fact that the coast of North America from Florida to beyond Cape Cod was well known to the Portuguese in 1502. 1504. French fishermen at the banks of Newfoundland. 1506. Jean Denys of Honfleur, and Camart of Rouen, examined (and sketched) the Gulf of St. Laivrence. 1506. Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Yahez Pinzon discovered Yuca- tan. In 1508 they coasted South America to 40° S. 1508. Circumnavigation of Cuba, by Ocampo. Aubert in the St. Law- rence. Importation of negroes from Africa to the Spanish possessions in the West Indies, where they were employed in the mines. 1511. Conquest of Cuba by Diego Velasquez. 1512. Discovery of Florida by Juan Ponce de Leon, governor (since 1510) of Porto Rico. 1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Bal- boa, who crossed the isthmus from ^n%Ma on the Gulf of Ura- A. D. America, 285 ba (Keats' sonnet). Balboa was put to death in 1514 by Davila, governor of Darien, Cartliagena, and Uraba (Castila del Oro). 1515. Voyage of Juan Diaz de Solis in search of a passage to the East Indies. Discovery of the Rio de la Plata, on the banks of which river Solis was killed by the natives. 1517. Alleged voyage of Sebastian Cabot and Sir Thomas Pert. It is very doubtful if this voyage was made, or if made, what part of America was reached. Bartholome de Las Casas (1474-1566) went to the Indies in 1502 with Columbus, bishop of Chiapa (in Mexico), advocate and pro- tector of the Indians. 1517. Francis Hernandez Cordova rediscovered Yucatan (Cape Ca- toche) ; advanced civilization of the inhabitants (Mayas), who were under the supremacy of the Aztec empire in Mexico. 1518. Juan de Grijalva coasted from Yucatan to Panuco, and brought back tidings of the Mexican empire of Montezuma. Name of " New Spain " given to the region which he ex- plored. 1519. Alvarez Pineda, by order of the governor of Jamaica, Garay, coasted from Cape Florida to the river of Panuco. 1519-1521. Conquest of Mexico by Hernando Cortez (1485-1547), whom Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, had appointed to the command of a small force of 600 foot, sixteen cavalry, thirteen cross-bowmen, fourteen cannon, but immediately removed. Cortez sailed against the will of the governor. Capture of Tabasco (March). Landing at St. Juan de Uloa (April 21). Negotiations with Monte- zuma, who ordered the invaders to leave the kingdom. Cortez, elected general by the troops, dispatched one ship to carry a report to king Charles of Spain, and beached (not burned) the rest. Foun- dation of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. In alliance with the Tlascalang Cortez marched upon Mexico, the capital of Montezuma (Montecuh- cuma), who admitted him to the city (Nov. 8). Daring seizure of the king in his own house. Cortez was obliged to march against Narvaez whom Velasquez had sent to chastise him. He defeated Narvaez, and strengthening his army with the soldiers of his opponent, returned to Mexico (1520, June). Revolt of the Mexicans, storm of the temple, death of Montezuma of wounds inflicted by his subjects, who were indignant at his submission to the Spaniards. The Spaniards, leaving the city (July 1), were furiously attacked on one of the causeways through the lake and suffered terrible loss (Noche triste). Reinforced, Cortez defeated the Mexicans in a pitched battle near Otompan (July 8). Occupation of Tescuco (Dec. 31). Conquest of Iztapalapan (1521). After having built a fleet of thirteen vessels which were transported by land and launched in the lake of Mexico, Cortez laid siege to the capital. After a long investment, accom- panied with an almost daily storm (May-Aug. 13, 1521) the city was taken. Capture of the king Guatemozin, who was tortured and 286 Modern History. a. d. finally executed. Submission of the country. Cortez, at first gov- ernor of New Spain with unlimited power, was afterwards restricted to the chief command of the military' forces. Prosecuting the search for a western passage he discovered California (1526). Cortez re- turned to Spain in 1540, and died at Seville in 1547. 1520. Nov. 7-Nov. 28. Passage of the Straits of Magellan by Magalh^es, see p. 280. 1520. Voyage undertaken for slaves at the suggestion of Lucas Vasquez (VAyllon, exploration of the east coast of North America to 32° or 34° N. Cabo de Sta Helena, ''Chicora." 1522. Discovery of the Bermudas. 1524. Alleged voyage of Giovanni de Verrazzano in the service of the king of France. The letter of Verrazzano which gives the only existing account of the voyage ascribes to the writer the discovery of the east coast of North America from 34° (39°) N. to 50° N. It has been thought that many places mentioned can be identified. The truth of the whole story has been disputed, but present opinion seems to be in favor of its acceptance (?). 1524. Geographical congress of Badajos, to settle the boundary be- tween Spain and Portugal in the eastern hemisphere, which should correspond to the line of Alexander VI. in the western ; after a stormy session the council separated without reaching an agreement. 1525-1527. Exploration of the coast of Peru by Francisco Pizarro (1478 (?)-1541), as a preliminary to the conquest of that king- dom, of which he had heard on Balboa's expedition (p. 284), in accordance with an agreement made by Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, and Hernando de Luque. Repulse of Pizarro and Almagro. 1525. Voyage of Estevan Gomez, a Spaniard, along the east coast of North America, 34° N. to 44° N. 1526. Voyage of Sebastian Cabot in the service of Spain. Ex- ploration of the Rio de la Plata, Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay. The English had taken but little part in the discoveries since the time of Cabot, although traces enough of intercourse re- main to show that the New World was not entirely neglected. 1527. Voyage of John Rut, who coasted north to 53° N. and returned by way of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the coast of Maine (Norumbega). 1528. Unsuccessful expedition of Pamphilo de Narvaez to Florida, under a grant of all the country between Cape Florida and the River of Palms. After visiting Apalache (June 5) Nar- vaez sailed westward and was lost in a storm (Nov.). Of the survivors, four, one of whom was Caheca de Vaca, made their way by land to the Spanish possessions in Mexico (1536). 1528. Settlement of Germans at Caro, between St. Martha and Maracapana ; presented to the family of Welser by Charles V. 1531-1532. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. The undertaking was favored by a civil war which was raging A. D. America, 287 at the time in the empire of the Incas. Foundation of St. Michael on the Piuro in Peru. Capture of the Inca, Atahuallpa, before his army (Nov. 16), who, after the extortion of an immense ransom, was put to death (1533). March of Alvarado from Puerto Viego to Quito. Occupation of Lima, the capital of the Incas (1534). Feuds between the Spanish leaders. Almagro defeated (1538) and executed by Pizzaro. The latter was afterwards killed, with his brother. The Spanish crown assumed the administration of the country (1548). 1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier, a French sailor, from St. Malo. Discovery of the west coast of Newfoundland (May 10), Prince Edward's Island, Miramicki Bay, Anticosti, coast to 50° N. 1535. May-1536. July. Second voyage of Cartier; discovery of the Bay of St. Lawrence, River of St. Lawrence (Hochelaga), ' as far as the site of Montreal. Information received about the great lakes. Foundation of the modem city of Lima. Unsuccessful invasion of Chili by Almagro. 1537. Discovery of Lower California by Cortez. 1538. The west coast of South America explored to 40° S. by Valdivia. 1539. May-1543, Sept. Expedition of Ferdinand© de Soto, gover- nor of Cuba, for the conquest of Florida, with nine vessels and over 900 men. After toilsome marches in Florida, with no result but disappointment, De Soto led his men westward to the Mississippi, where he died (at the juncture of this stream and the Guacoya) and was buried in the stream. The remains of the expedition (311 men) reached Panuco Sept. 10, 1543. According to Dr. Kohl, De Soto reached 30"^ 40' N. in Georgia, and explored the Mississippi to the Ohio (38° N.) 1539-1540. Alonzo de Camargo coasted from the Straits of Magellan to Peru, completing the exploration of the coast of South America. 1540. Expedition of Alarcon in search of the passage to the Indies (Straits of Anian). Exploration of the coast of California to 36° N. Voyage up the Rio Colorado. Lower California^, pre- viously held to be an island, was thus shown to be a peninsula. Early maps so represent it ; afterwards the conviction that it was an island spread anew and late into the next century the best maps of America contained this error. 1540-1542. Expedition of Francisco Vasquez Coronado, sent out by the Spanish viceroy, Mendoza, in search of the seven cities of Cibola, concerning whose wealth the Spaniards had derived extravagant ideas from the reports of the Indians. Coronado reached Zuni May 11. Discovery of the Moqui canon of the Colorado. Reports of a city, Quivira. Coronado wintered at Zuni among the Pueblo Indians. In 1541 he marched north- east to 40° N. and returned to Mexico (bisons). 1540. Expedition of Cartier to the St. Lawrence, with five ships. Roherval (Jean Fram-ois de la Roche, lord of Roberval), ap- pointed governor of Canada and Hochelaga and all countrie: 288 Modern History. A. D. north of 40° N. (New France), failed to take partin tliis voyage. Cartier founded the fortress of Charlesburg and explored the St. Lawrence. 1541. Gonzalo Pizarro, governor of Quito, crossed the Andes and ex- plored the river Napo for 200 leagues : his subordinate, Fran- cisco Orellana sailed down the Napo to the Amazon, and down that river to the sea (Aug. 6). Orellana returned in 1543 to conquer the country, but died in the search for the Napo. 1542. Roberval reached Newfoundland, where he met Cartier, who, against the will of the governor, returned to France. Rober- val built a fort not far above the island of Orleans, but the en- terprise was soon abandoned. Rodriguez de Cabrillo, sent in search of the passage to the In- dies, discovered Cape Mendocino in 42° N. on the west of North America, and explored as far as 44° N. 1545. Mines of Potosi claimed for Spain. 1547. Pedro de Gasca, president of Peru. Organization and pacifica^ tion of the country. 1547. Bishopric of Paraguay established. 1548. First act of the English Parliament relating to America (2 Edw. VI. : regulation of the fisheries at Newfoundland). 1555-1560. First attempt of the admiral de Coligny to found a Protestant settlement in America. The chevalier Nicolaus Durand de Villegagnon led two ships to Brazil, and founded a colony at the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Geneva sent fourteen missionaries to the colony. Villegagnon now joined the Cath- olic church, and his defection ruined the colony ; many set- tlers returned to France (1557), some of the rest were mur- dered by the Portuguese (1558), and in 1560 the colony was entirely broken up by the Portuguese government. Andre Thevet, who accompanied Villegagnon, on his return to France coasted along the east coast of North America to the Bacallaos (Newfoundland), and on his return described his voyage in a gossipy, untrustworthy book. 1558. Last Spanish expedition to Carolana ; no settlement made. 1560-1561. Expedition of Pedro de Urana in search of the empire of the Ormaguas, and of the scoundrel Lope de Aguirre in search of El Dorado in South America. 1562. Second attempt of admiral de Coligny to establish a Huguenot colony in America. Expedition of Jean Ribault. Erection of Charles Fort near Port Royal in South Carolina. The settlement was soon abandoned. 1563. First slave voyage made by the English to America. John Hawkins with three ships brought 300 negroes to the West Indies. 1564. Third attempt of Coligny to establish a Huguenot Colony in America. Rene Laudonniere, sent to carry aid to Ribault's colony, finding the settlers gone built Fort Carolina on the St. John's river in Florida (June). Arrival of Ribault (1565, Aug. 28). A. Dk America. 289 1565, Sept. 20. Storm of Fort Carolina by the Spaniards under Menendez de Aviles ; massacre of the garrison ("I do this not as to Frenclimen, but as to Lutherans "). Ribault, having put to sea, was wrecked, captured, and slain with many of his company. Construction of three Spanish forts (Castle of St. Augustine). 1568. Expedition of Dominique de Go urges to avenge the mas- April, sacre of the French at Fort Carolina. Capture and destruc- tion of the Spanish forts, massacre of the garrison ("I do this not as to Spaniards, nor as to maruiers, but as to traitors, rob- bers and murderers"). 1572. First voyage of Francis Drake to South America. Attack upon Nombre de Dios, Carthagena, etc. 1576, First voyage of Martin Frobisher in search of a northwest June-Aug. passage. Discovery of Frobisher's Strait and Meta In- cognita on the north coast of North America (60°). Supposed discovery of gold. 1577, May-Sept. Second voyage of Frobisher. 1578, May-Sept. Third voyage of Frobisher. 1577, Dec. 13-1580, Nov. 3. Voyage of Francis Drake around the world. Touching the west coast of North America he dis- covered " Drake's Port," and claimed the country between 38° N. and 42° N. for England under the name of New Albion. 1578. Unsuccessful voyage of discovery of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, un- der a patent from queen Elizabeth. 1583. Second voyage of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Landing at New- foundland he took formal possession of the island for England in right of the discovery of the Cabots. On the return voyage Sir Humphrey Gilbert was lost in a storm. 1584. Sir "Walter Raleigh having secured a transfer to himself of the patent granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, his half-brother, dis- patched Mmidas and Barlow to explore the coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements. They landed on July 13. the island of Wocokon and took possession of the country for the queen. Exploration of Roanoke. On their return the explorers gave glowing accounts of the country, which received the name of Virginia. 1585. Colony of 180 persons under Sir Richard Grenville sent to Roanoke Island ; suffering from destitution they were re- moved in 1586 by Drake. Grenville arriving with supplies immedi- ately after their departure left fifteen sailors to hold possession ; they had, however, all disappeared before the arrival (1587) of 117 new colonists. " Borough of Raleigh in Virginia," governor, John White. Virginia Dare, first English child born in America. This colony met an unknown fate. White returned to Virginia in 1590, but could not find the colony. In 1589 Raleigh sold his patent. 1585. First voyage of John Davis to the north. Exploration of Davis Straits to 66" 40'. Discovery of Gilbert Sound and Cumberland Straits. 19 290 Modern History. A. d. 1586. Naval expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the Spanish West Indies. Sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena. Rescue of tlie colony of Virginia. 1587. Third voyage of John Davis (the second was to Labrador in 1586). He reached 72° 12' N. and discovered the Cumber- land Islands, London Coast, Lumley's Inlet (Frobisher's Strait ^). 1592. Alleged discovery of the strait of Juan de la Fuca on the west coast of North America in 48° N. by Apostolos Valerianos, a Greek, who had been in the service of Spain under the name of Juan de la Fuca. Peschel (Gesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 273) regards the story as apocryphal. 1595. Expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh to Guiana. Capture of the city of St. James. Search for El Dorado. Voyage up the Orinoco for 400 miles. 1595. Expedition of Drake and Hawkins to the West Indies. Death of Hawkins. Drake died 1596. 1598. The Marquis de la Roche obtained from Henry IV. of France a commission to conquer Canada. He left forty convicts on the Isle of Sable, made some explorations in Acadia, and re- turned to France. After his death his patent was granted to Chauvin, who made two successful voyages to Tadoussac, and left some people there (1600). 1602. Voyage of Bartholemew Gosnold from Falmouth. Taking due westerly course he first saw land in 42° N. Discovery of a cape which Gosnold named Cape Cod (May 15). Discovery of Buzzard's Bay (called Gosnold^ s Hope). Erection of a fort and storehouse on Cuttyhunk (called by Gosnold Elizabeth Island, a name now applied to the whole chain of islands of which this is the most westerly). Return of the whole party to England. 1603. Voyage of Martin Pring from Bristol along the coast of Maine from the Penobscot River to the Bay of Ma^achusetts. 1603. Voyage of Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, from Brouage, up the St. Lawrence. 1604. Foundation of Port Royal (the present Annapolis) in Nova Scotia by the French. In 1603 Pierre du Gast, Sieur de Monts, obtained from Henry IV. of France a grant of all lands in North America from 40° N. to 46° N. (from Pennsylvania to New Brunswick), under the name of Acadia. (This name was afterwards restricted to the present New Brunswick, and the French possessions in N. America were designated generally as New France.) In 1604 De Monts associated himself with M. Poutrincourt and sailed for America with two vessels. Foundation of Port Royal by Poutrincoui-t. Discovery of the St. John River by Champlain, De Monts' pilot. De Monts built a fort at St. Croix, but in the following year joined Poutrincourt at Port Royal. 1 See Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 299, for a discussion of the errors of the early Arctic navigators. A. D. America. 291 1605. Voyage of George Weymouth (who had made a trip to Labrador in 1602) to the coast of Maine. Santa Fd in New Mexico founded. Over a hundred years had elapsed since the discovery of America, and thus far South America and Central America had alone been the scene of active and successful colonization. In North America, a few scattered Spanish settlements in the south and one French colony in the north were the only representatives of European civiliza- tion. The next few years witnessed a mighty change. England, which for all her voyages had not a foot of land in America, entered on a course of settlement and conquest which ultimately gave her the fairest portion of the New World. English, Dutch, and Swedish Colonies in North America (1606-1638). A. English Colonies. 1606. April 10. The patent of Sir Walter Raleigh becoming void by his attainder for treason, James I. issued a patent dividing Virginia into t"wo parts : 1. The First Colony, embracing the comitry from 34° N. to 38° N. with the right to settle as far as 41° N. if they were the first to found their colony : this southern colony was granted to a number of gentlemen, residing principally in London {Richard Hakluyt), and known as the London Company. 2. The Second Colony, embracing the country between 41° N. and 45° N. with the right of settling as far as 38° N. if they were the first to establish their colony ; this northern colony was granted to gentle- men residing chiefly in Bristol, Plymouth^ etc., and hence known as the Plymouth Company. Each company was to become owner of the land for fifty miles on each side of the first settlement, and one hun- dred miles inland. The nearest settlements of the tw^o colonies should be one hundred miles apart. The government of each colony was vested in a council resident in England and nominated by the king ; the local government was intrusted to a council resident in America also nominated by the king, and to conform to his regulations. Imports from England free of duty for seven years ; freedom of trade with other nations, the duties for twenty-seven years to go to the colonies. Right of coinage and of self-defense. Establishment of a Council of Virginia in England for the superin- tendence of both colonies. Colony of South Virginia. 1607. May 13. Foundation of Jamestown in the southern colony by a band of one hundred colonists sent out under Christopher Newport. It included Bartholomeic Gosnold and John Smith. Dissension in the council. Explorations by John Smith who was captured by the Indians, and presented to the chief, Powhatan, but in the end released (story of the rescue of Smith by Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan^). In 1607 1 This story has been releijated to the reahn of fable, on the insufficient ground that no mention of it appears in Smith's first account of his captivity. 292 Modern History. A. d. Smith explored the Chesapeake. During the first years the colony suffered severely from extremes of heat and cold, as well as from dissensions and bad provision by the company. Laborers were scarce, the colonists being either gentlemen or criminals. 1609. Second charter of the company of South Virginia, increase of privileges and of members. Lord Delaware {Thomas West) appointed governor for life. Smith returned to England. 1610. The distress in the colony was so great {The Starving Time) that it was on the point of abandonment when Lord Dela- ware arrived with supplies. 1611. Delaware returning to England, Sir Thomas Gates was sent out as deputy governor. 1612. Third charter of the company of South Virginia. Inclusion of the Bermudas within their possessions. 1613. The French having established the colony of St. Saviour at Mount Desert on the coast of Maine, the governor of South Virginia sent Samuel Argal to dispossess them. Argal de- stroyed St. Saviour and razed Port Royal. On his return he received the submission of the Dutch settlement at Hudson's River (?). 1614. Sir Thomas Dale deputy governor of South Virginia. 1615. Land, which had hitherto been held of the company by farmers as tenants-at-will, was now made private property ; fifty acres being now granted to every colonist and his heirs. 1617. Samuel Argal succeeded Sir George Yeardley as deputy gover- nor of South Virginia ; reduced state of the colony. In the 1618. following year Lord Delaware sailed with supplies and colonists for Virginia, but died on the voyage. Rigorous government of Argal. At this time there were 600 persons and 300 cattle in the colony ; the only exports were tobacco and sassa- fras, and the London company was indebted £5,000. 1619. First General Assembly in South Virginia convoked (June 19) by Sir George Yeardley, governor general, con- sisting of the burgesses of the colony, representing eleven " bo- roughs " or plantations. The burgesses sat with the council and governor. Introduction of negro slaves (20) into Virginia by a Dutch vessel. 1620. Tlie colony, numbering 1000 persons, received an accession of 1200 new settlers. Introduction of women who were sold as wives to the colonists for from 100 to 150 pounds of tobacco. Free trade with the colony established. 1621. Sir Francis Wyatt, governor, brought over a new constitution for the colony, whereby its government was vested in a governor^ a council of state, and a general assembly, to which two bur- gesses were to be chosen by every town, hundred, and planta- tion. The governor had the veto power, and every enact- ment of the colonial legislature required the ratification of the company in England to become binding. All ordinances of the company were without effect unless accepted by the assembly. A.. D. America. 293 1622. March 22. Massacre of 347 colonists by the Indians. 1624. Commission of inquiry into the affairs of Virginia appointed by the crown. In spite of the answer of the general assembly wherein the rights of the people were defined, the court of king's bench in England, before which the cause was tried, de- cided against the company. The charter was annulled. The company had sent out more than 9000 persons to the colony, of whom not more than 2000 now remained. Sir Francis Wyatt was appointed governor, with a council of eleven mem- bers appointed by the king. This plan of government was continued by Charles /., who announced that the colony should immediately depend upon the crown, which should appoint the governor and council and issue patents and legal processes. Commercial restrictions. 1630. Grant of Carolana (the region south of the Virginia colony be- tween 31*^ N. and 36° N.) to Sir Robert Heath, being the first instance of a proprietary grant by the crown. No settlement seems to have been made, on which account the grant was subsequently declared void, and a part of the territory granted out under the name of Carolina, a proceeding which resulted in much ill-feeling. 1632. Grant of Maryland (the region between the Potomac and 41° N.) to Cecd Calvert, the second lord Baltimore, sou of Sir George Calvert, to whom the grant was originally made, but who died before putting it to use. The grant was met by a protest from Vii-ginia which was of no avail. In 1634, the first colony reached Maryland ; being about two hundred persons. Gift of fifty acres of land to each emigrant as pri- vate property. The Calverts being Roman Catholics, no men- tion of religious establishment appeared in the charter beyond the recognition of Christianity as established by English com- mon law. The proprietary, or grantee holding directly of the crown, was subject to no corporation or company, appointed the dep- uty governor and the executive officers, regulated the legisla- tion, and received the taxes. The general assembly of the colonists possessed an advisory power, and the right of express- ing non-approval. 1636. Grant of New Albion (including New Jersey) from the vice- roy of Ireland to Sir Edward Plowden. This New Albion, which was not settled, must not be confounded with the tract of like name discovered by Drake on the western coast of America (p. 289). The Plymouth Company. Immediately upon the receipt of the charter the company had dis- patched two explorers to the region of their grant (Challons, Hanam), and in 1607, George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert led 120 colonists to the 294 Modern History. A. d. northern colony. They built Fort St. George on Parker's " IsU and'' (peninsula), at the mouth of the Kennebec River Id Maine (Aug. 11). The death of George Popham and of Sir John Popham in England (1608) so disheartened the colonists that they returned to England. No further attempts at settle- ment being made for some time, the French (who had also a claim to these regions (see 1604) planted several colonies within the territory of the Plymouth Company. 1614. Exploration of the coast of the northern colony by John Smith from Penobscot to Cape Cod. On his return he wrote an ac- count of his voyage and published a map of the district explored, to which the name of New England was given. Trouble with the Indians, springing from the action of Thomas Hunt, who carried off twenty-seven natives to the West Indies for slaves, discouraged settlement. After the frustration of an attempt at colonization by Smith in 1615 through adverse circumstances, the company itself made no more attempts at settlements, and the colonies that grew up in its territories were founded by companies or individuals under its charter but in- dependent of its action. One of the most important settlements, in- deed, was made without any authority from the company. In 1620 the company was reorganized as the Council at Plymouth for New England with territory from Philadelphia to Chaleur Bay (40° N. to 48° N. across ttie continent). 1620. Settlement of Plymouth in New England by English separatists from Holland. This religious sect, a sort of left wing of the larger body of Puritans, had left England in 1607-8 on account of the intolerance with which they were treated, and settled at Leyden in Holland (1609) to the number of 1000 or more, under their minister, John Rob- inson. After several attempts to secure a patent from the London company (South Virginia), and a promise of toleration from the king, they succeeded in the former endeavor in 1619, but not in the latter. Procuring two ships (Speedtoell, Mayfioioer), a part of the con- gregation, and some others, set sail Aug. 5, from Southampton (hav- ing left Leyden in July) for the vicinity of Hudson's River. TAvice driven back by stress of weather the Pilgrims (a name applied much earlier to the whole body in Holland) finally left Plymouth in the Mayflower, Sept. 6. On Nov. 9 they sighted Cape Cod, but instead of running southward they were induced by fear of shoal water, by the late season, and perhaps by the cunning of the shipmaster, to anchor at the Cape. On Nov. 11, the company signed a compact of govern- ment (they being beyond the limits of the London Company), and elected John Carver governor. For some weeks they explored the coast, landing at various places. (Birth of Peregrine White, the first European child born in New England). Toward the close of De- cember they fixed on the site of Plymouth, and landing, began the erection of a house and portioned out land among the settlers (nine- teen families, 102 individuals).* ^ The date is disputed ; that of the landing of the whole body can hardly be A. D. America. 295 1621. Intercourse of the colonists (Capt. Miles Standish) with the Ii>- dians (Samoset, Massasoit, chief of the Indians in that vicin- ity). Upon the death of Carver, William Bradford was elected governor. Arrival of a new patent from the Plymouth Company, also made out in the name of the London merchants, with whom the Pilgrims had formed a partnership before sail- ing. Over fifty of the original settlers died this year. Trouble with the Indians 1621-23. Meantime the territory of the Plymouth Company was being par- celed out among various adventurers by often conflicting grants. In 1621 Sir William Alexander obtained a patent for the whole of Aca- dia, under the name of Nova Scotia, from the crown of Scotland (confirmed, 1625). The region from Salem River to the Merrimac was granted to John Mason and called Mariana. In 1622 Sir Fernando Gorges and John Mason obtained a grant of all lands between the Merrimac and the Kennebec, which region was called at first Laconia, afterwards, Maine. In 1622 settlements were made on the site of the present Dover (Cochecho) and Portsmouth. In 1624 a few Puri- tans from England settled at Cape Ann ; the colony afterwards re- moved to Naumkeag {Roger Conant, 1626). In 1625 Captain Wollas- ton settled at Mount Wollaston, near Boston. 1623. The Plymouth Company sent out Francis West as " Admiral of New England," Robert Gorges as " Governor-General," and William Morrell as " Superintendent of Churches " but nothing came of this assertion of authority. 1627. The colony at Plymouth succeeded in buying off the London merchants in whose name their charter had been issued. Growth of the colony ; friendly intercourse with the Dutch. 1628. The Plymouth Company issued a grant of the land between three miles south of the Charles River, and three miles north of the Merrimac, reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, to a company which sent John Endicott as governor and colonists who joined the others at Naumkeag. In 1629 the name of the colony was changed to Salem. The colony at Plymouth obtained a grant on the Kennebec. Suppression of the settlement at Wollaston (" Merry Mount ") by Endicott. Morton, who after WoUaston's departure had ruled the colony and sold firearms (?) to the Indians, was seized by Standish from Plymouth and sent to England. 1629. Establishment of the company of Massachu- setts Bay (" The Governor. and Company of Massachusetts Ba?/ in New England ") by a charter issued directly by the crown to the company, enlarged by new associates, which had settled Salem. The company was permitted to elect a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assistants yearly, and to make laws not repugnant to those of England. The first governor of the company was Matthew Cradock. ascertained ; the landing of the first exploring party seems to have taken place on Dec. 11, O.S., or Dec. 21 (22), N S. (confusion here also) See Gay, " When jid the Pilgrim Fathers land at Plymouth?" — Atlantic Monthly, November^ 1881, p. 612. 296 Modern History. A. d. A number of influential men soon becominf^ interested in the enter- prise, the governing council or court of the company in England (that is to say, " The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England") consented that the charter and government should be transferred to the colony (Aug. 29), under which agree- ment John Winthrop was chosen governor, and in 1630 sailed for New England with a large number of settlers, who landed at Charlestown, where an offshoot from the Salem colony was already established. Here a church was founded and two courts of assistants held. 1629. Mason and Gorges dissolving their connection, a new grant was made to each, Mason receiving the territory between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, a region afterwards called New Hampshire. 1 Gorges received the region between the Pis- cataqua and the Kennebec, under the name of New Somerset- shire. 1630. Third and last patent of the Plymouth colony, whereby it was assigned the district between the Cohasset River and the Nar- raganset, extending westward to the limits of Pokenakut or Sowamset. " The colonists were allowed to make orders, or- dinances, and constitutions, for the ordering, disposing, and governing their persons, and distributing the lands within the limits of the patent." 1630. Settlement of Boston, on the peninsula called Shawmut by the Indians, but Trimountain by the English, and then inhab- ited by an episcopal minister, William Blackstone. On Sept. 7, the court at Charlestown changed the name of Trimountain to Boston. First general court of Massachusetts held at Boston, Oct. 19. It was enacted that the freemen should elect the assistants, who were to choose out of their own num- ber the governor, but the next court decreed that the governor, deputy governor, and assistants should be elected directly by the freemen. Only church-members were freemen, so that the freemen formed a minority of the population. In 1631 a fortified town was begun on the Charles and called Newtoum (afterwards Cambridge). Colony of Connecticut. The Dutch (Adrian Block, 1614) were the first to explore the coast of Connecticut and the river of that name, when they built a fort near Hartford. In 1630 the council of Plymouth granted to the earl of Warwick the land 120 miles S. E. from the Narraganset River, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1631 Warwick transferred this grant to the viscount Say and Seal, lord Brook, and others. In 1633 the colonies of Plymouth and Boston conferred on the question of settling the Connecticut valley ; as the Massachu- setts colony declined the enterprise a company was sent out from. 1 The " Deed from four Indian sagamores to John Wheelwright and others, 1629," long accepted as the foundation of the history of New Hampshire, is now generally accounted a forgery. Holmes, Annah, I. 199, note 2. "Win- throp, Journal, ed. by Savage. Fogg, Gazeteer of N. H. A. D. America* 297 Plymouth, which disregarded the prohibition of the Dutch and set up a house on the Connecticut. The rival claims of the Dutch and English were discussed without effect by the colonies. 1634. The growth of the colony of Massachusetts Bay preventing the attendance of all freemen at the general court, it was en- acted that whereas four courts should be held in a year, the whole body of freemen should 1i)e present at that court only in which the elections were held ; at the other courts the freemen in the towns should send deputies. 1635. Surrender of the Charter of the Council of Plymouth to the cro^^n in consequence of the hostility of the govern- ment and chm-ch. 1635. Foundation of the Connecticut colony by emigrants from Mas- sachusetts (Windsor, Wethersfield, Hartford), and by John Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop of Massachusetts, who built a fort at Saybrook, under commission from the proprie- tors. In 1636 a large part of the inhabitants of Newtown (Cambridge) migrated to Connecticut and settled at Hart- ford. 1636. A code of laws (the General Fundamentals) established at Plymouth. 1636. Foundation of Providence by Roger 'Williams, who had been expelled from Salem in 1634 for holding heretical doc- trines subversive of church and state. 1637. War of Connecticut (first general court at Hartford) and Mas- sachusetts against the unruly tribe of Pequots in Connecticut. Extermination of the Indians (Capt. John Mason). 1638. Foundation of the colony of Rhode Island by John Clark and others, who left Massachusetts on account of religious differences. Purchase of the island of Aquedneck (afterwards Isle of Rhodes) from the Indians. Foundation of the colony of New Haven in Connecticut under Davenport and Eaton. In tliis year another attempt was made by quo warranto pro- cess to rescind the charter of Massachusetts, but it failed of success. In consequence of a bequest of £779 17s. 2d. from John Har- vard, of Charlestown, the public school which the colony had enacted in the previous year should be established at Newtown received the name of Harvard College, while the name of the town was changed to Cambridge. 1639. Windsor, Hartford, Wethersfield, on the Connecticut, united to form a separate government. The constitution (Jan. 14) placed the executive, legislative, and judicial powers in the general assembly, composed of the deputies of the towns in the ratio of numbers of freemen, meeting twice a year. All could vote who had taken the oath of allegiance to the con- stitution. The grant of Sir Fernando Gorges was confirmed to him by the crown under the title of the Province of Maine. A general assembly of the deputies of the towns in Plv mouth colony met for the first time (June 4). 298 Modern History. A. D. 1641. The Body of Liberties, a code of 100 laws established by the general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay. 1643. Creation of the United Colonies of New England by the alliance of Connecticut, New Haven, Plymouth and Mas- sachusetts Bay (May 19) for mutual defense. B. Dutch Settlements. 1609. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in Dutch service, coasted from Newfoundland to the Chesapeake, and entered Hudson's River. Trading voyages of the Dutch (1610-1613). 1613. Establishment of a Dutch trading post on the island of Man- hattan at the mouth of the Hudson, or North River (so called to distinguish it from the South River, or Delaware). Alleged submission of the Dutch to Argal (p. 292). 1614. Establishment of the United New Netherland Company in Holland with a grant in America of territory from 40° N. to 45° N. Fort built at Manhattan, another. Fort Orange, near the present Albany (1615). Voyage of Adrian Block through Long Island sound (Block Island). 1621. Creation of the Dutch West India Company to take the place of the New Netherland Company whose charter had expired. 1626. Peter Minuit, having purchased Manhattan Island for twenty-four dollars, founded the settlement of New Amsterdam. Settlements were made under the charter of the company in Con- necticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, as well as in New York. Many of these were founded under an enactment of the com- pany which gave the title of patroon to any person who should bring over a certain number of colonists under certain conditions ; the title represented a certam relation of suzerainty between the founder and the colonists. The council for New England had opposed what it regarded as the Dutch invasion in 1620-21, and the remonstrances of the English grew stronger after the foundation of New Amsterdam (1627,1632). The settlement of Connecticut from New England (1632-1638) was opposed by the Dutch in vain, and the entire region was wrested from them. (Protest of Kieft, governor of New Netherlands against the foundation of New Haven.) The Dutch drove a flourishing trade with the Five Nations of the Iroquois in central New York, whom they supplied with firearms. C. Swedish Settlements. 1638. Foundation of Fort Christina on the Delaware by a colony of Swedes and Finns. The colony was called New Sweden, and was followed by other settlements. The Dutch considered this an invasion of their rights, but the disputes that followed led to no result until 1655, when New Sweden was annexed ta New Netherlands. A.. D. America. 299 D. New Prance and the Arctic Region. It must be remembered that France claimed, by right of the dis- coveries of Verrazano, the whole of North America north of Spanish Florida and Mexico, although settlements had been made only in Nova Scotia and on the St. Lawrence, nothing having come of the projected settlement between Spanish Florida and English Virginia. It was with the French in the north that the English settlers had to deal ; it was to Canada that they applied the name of New France, as that of Acadia was restricted to Nova Scotia. From the north the French afterwards made the great discoveries in the west which gave them new claims to the larger part of America. 1606. An attempted settlement on Cape Cod repulsed by the Indians. 1608. Foundation of Quebec (July 3) by a colony sent out by De Monts, under Champlain. 1609. Champlairiy joining a war party of the Algonquins against the Iroquois, discovered Lake Champlain. 1610. Discovery of Hudson's Bay by Henry HudsoUy who was searching for the northwest passage, in the service of an English company. On the return the crew mutinied and Hudson was put to sea in a small boat, and not heard of again. 1610. EngHsh colony sent to Newfoundland 46° N. to 52° N. (Con- ception Bay). 1612. Voyage of Thomas Button in search of the Northwest Passage. Discovery of New South Wales and New North WaleSj Button's Bay. 1613. Madame de Guercheville, having secured the surrender of De Monts' patent, and the issue of a new patent from the crown for all New France between Florida and the St. Lawrence (except Port Royal), sent Saussage with two Jesuits, who took possession of Nova Scotia and founded a colony (St. Saviour) on Mt. Desert, which was immediately broken up by ArgaVs expedition from Virginia. All the French settlements in Acadia were also destroyed. 1615. Expedition of Champlain to Lake Huron. J 616. Voyage of Bylot and Baffin in search of the Northwest Pas- sage. Discovery of WolstenhoVrne's Sound, Lancaster Sounds Baffin's Bay (78° N.). 1621. Grant of Acadia under the name of Nova Scotia, to Sir William Alexander by the crown of Scotland. An attempt at settlement was unsuccessful and the French continued in pos- session. Grant of a part of Newfoundland to Sir George Cal- vert (Lord Baltimore) who resided there until 1631. 1627. Transfer of the colony of Quebec to the company of a hun- dred associates under Cardinal Richelieu. 1629. Conquest of Quebec by Louis and Thomas Kertk, under a commission from Charles I. for the conquest of New France. An attack of David Kertk in 1628 had been repulsed by Champlain. 300 Modem Histoi'y. a. d. 1630. St. Estienne of La Tour, a Huguenot, bought from Sir William Alexander his patent for Nova Scotia, on condition that the colony should remain subject to Scotland. 1631. Voyages of Fox and James in search of a Northwest Passage. Fox explored the west coast of Hudson Bay from 65° 30^ to 65^10' in vain, but discovered Fox^s Channel and reached Cape Peregrine. James discovered James Bay, where he passed a terrible winter. 1632. Treaty of St. Germain between France and England. Ces- sion of New France, Acadia, and Canada to France. 1635. Seizure of the trading post established at Penobscot by the Plymouth colonists by the French. Plymouth sent a vessel against the French, but failed to recover the place. Death of Champlain. 1641. Maisonneuve appointed governor of Montreal ; in 1642 he brought over several families and took possession of the island. {See p. 357.) § 3. GERMANY TO THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. THE REFORMA- TION. {See p. 2SS.) 1493^1519. Maximilian I., who first took the title of " Roman Emperor elect." 1495. Diet at Worms. Perpetual public peace. Imperial Cham- ber (Reichskammergericht), first at Frankfort, then at Speier, after 1689 at Wetzlar. At the diet of Cologne (1512), establishment of ten circles for the better maintenance of the public peace (Land- friedenskreise): Circle of : 1. Austria ; 2. Bavaria ; 3. Swabia; 4. Fran- conia ; 5. tlie Upper Rhine (Lorraine, Hesse, etc.) ; 6. the Lower Rhine, or the Electorates (Mainz, Trier, Cologne) ; 7. Burgundy (1556, ceded to the Spanish line of Hapsburg) ; 8. Westphalia ; 9. Lower Saxony (Brunswick, Liineburg, Lauenburg, Holstein, Meck- lenburg, etCi) ; 10> Upper Saxony (Saxony, Brandenburg, Pomer- ania, etc.). In all comprising 240 estates of the empire, exclusive of the imperial knights. Bohemia and the neighboring states, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, with Prussia and Switzerland, which was already completely independent, in fact, were not included in the circles. Establishment of the Aulic Council, a court more under the control of the emperor than the Imperial Chamber, and to which a large part of the work belonging to the latter was gradually diverted. Maximilian was obliged to invest Louis XII. of France with Milan. 1508. League of Cambray between Maximilian, Louis XIL, Pope Julius II., and Ferdinand the Catholic, against Venice. Maxi- milian took possession of a part of the territory of the republic, but besieged Padua in vain (1509). The Pope withdrew from the league, and concluded with Venice and Ferdinand the Holy League (1511) against France, in which they were finally (1513) joined by Maximilian (p. 319). The following genealogical table shows the claim of the house of Hapsburg to Spain, and its division into a Spanish and German line A. tJ. Germany. — Reformation, 301 Maximilian /., = Mary, Ferdinand, = Isabella, emperor, f 1519. of Burgundy, king of Aragon, queen of Castile, t 1482. t 1516. I + 1504. d. of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Philip the Fair, - Joanna the Insane queen of Aragon and Castile, t 1555. GERMAN. archduke of Austria, t 1506. SPANISH. Charles I. (V.), t 1558. Ferdinand I., 1 1564. m. Isabella of Portugal. m. Anna of Hungar\'. I I Philip II., king of Spain, Maximilian II., t 1598. emperor, f 1576. Maximilian's son Philip married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand (king of Aragon and Naples) and Isabella (queen of Castile), hence heiress of the three kingdoms and the American Colonies. Philip him- self inherited from his mother, Mary, the heiress of Burgundy, the Bur- gundian Lands ; from his father, Maximilian, all the possessions of the Hapsburgs {Western Austria on the upper Rhine, Austria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol, etc.). All these lands descended to Charles, the eldest son of Philip and Joanna, the ancestor of the elder, Spanish, line of the Hapsburg house. His younger brother, Ferdinand, ancestor of the younger, German, line of the house of Hapsburg, married Amia, sister of Louis II., last king of Bohemia and Hungary (whose wife was Mary, Ferdinand's sister). ^ 1517. Beginning of the Reformation. Luther. Martin Luther was born 1483 at Eisleben, son of a miner, became master of arts and instructor 1505 ; monk in the Augustine monastery at Erfurt; 1507 priest; 1508 professor at Wittenberg; 1511 sent to Rome on business connected with his order; 1512 doctor of theology. On Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed upon the door of the court church at Wittenberg his ninety-five theses against the misuse of absolution or indulgences (especially by the Dominican monk Tetzel). 1518. Beginning of the reformation in Switzerland by Zwingli at Ziirich. Zwingli fell in battle at Kappel 1531. Summoned to Augsburg by Cardinal de Vio of Gaeta (Cajetanus), Luther could not be induced to abjure (1518), but appealed to the Pope. 2 Mediation of the papal chamberlain v. Miltitz. After the discussion at Leipzig 1519 (Bodenstein, called Carlstadt, against Eck), the latter secured a papal bull against forty-one articles in Luther's writings. 1 ITiese fortunate marriages of the house of Austria were celebrated in the following couplet : Bella gerant alii, t^ifelix Avstria, nuhe ! Quce dat Mars aiiis, dat tibi regna Venus. 2 De Pa2)a male informato ad Pajiam melius informandum. 302 Modern History. A. d. Luther burnt (1520) the papal bull and the canon law ; whereupon he was excommunicated. In the mean time the German electors, in spite of the claims of Francis I. of France, had chosen the grandson of Maximilian I. in Spain, Charles I., as emperor. 1519-1556. Charles V. He came to Germany for the first time in 1520, for the pur- pose of holding a grand diet at Worms (1521). There Luther defended his doctrines before the emperor, under a safe-conduct. The ban of the empire being pronounced against him, he was carried to the Wartburg by Frederic the Wise, of Saxony, and there protected. The edict of Worms prohibited all new doctrines. Luther's transla- tion of the Bible. Hearing of Carlstadt's misdoings he returned to Wittenberg, and introduced public worship, with the liturgy in Ger- man and communion in both kinds, in electoral Saxony and in Hesse (1522). The spread of the Reformation in Germany was favored by the fact that the emperor, after the diet of Worms, had left Germany and was occupied with the war with Francis I. Franz von Slckingen and Ulrich von Hutten advocated the Reforma- tion. Sickingen stood at the head of an association of nobles directed against the spiritual principalities. He laid siege to Trier (1522) in vain, was besieged in Landstuhl, and fell in battle. Hutten fled the country and died on the island of Ufnau in the Lake of Zurich (1523). 1524-1525. The Peasants' War, in Swabia and Franconia, ac- companied with terrible outrages. The Twelve Articles, The peasants defeated at Konigshof en on the Tauber and cruelly punished. Anabaptists in Tliuringia. Thomas Miinzer captured at Franken- hausen and executed. Reformation in Prussia. Grandmaster Albert of Brandenburg duke of Prussia under Polish overlordship. Luther's marriage with Catharine of Bora, formerly a nun. Cate- chism. Ferdinand of Austria, the emperor's younger brother, edu- cated in Spain, to whom Charles had intrusted since 1522 the gov- ernment of the Hapsburg lands in Germany, formed an alliance in 1524, at the instigation of the papal legate Campeggio, with the two dukes of Bavaria and the bishop of Southern Germany, in order to oppose the religious changes. To counteract this move the league of Torgau was formed (1526) among the Protestants (John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, Liineburg, Magdeburg, Prussia, etc.). They pro- cured an enactment at the diet of Speier, favorable to the new doctrine (1526). 1521-1526. First war of Charles V. with Francis I. Charles advanced claims to Milan and the duchy of Burgundy. Francis claimed Spanish Navarre and Naples. The French (under Lautrec) were driven from Milan, which was given to Francesco Sforza (1522). The French Conne'table, Charles of Bourbon, transferred his allegiance to Charles V. Unfortunate invasion of Italy by the French 1523-24, under Bonnivert. The chevalier Bayard (" sans peur et sans reproche ") fell during the retreat. Imperial forces invaded southern France. Francis I. crossed Mt. Cenis, and recaptured Milan. A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 303 1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis defeated and captured. 1526. Peace of Madrid. Francis renounced all claim to Milan, Genoa, and Naples, as well as the overlordship of Flanders and Artois, assented to the cession of the duchy of Burgundy, and gave his sons as hostages- 1527-1529. Second -war between Charles V. and Francis I., who had declared that the conditions of the peace of Madrid were extorted by force, and hence void. Alliance at Cognac between Fran- cis, the Pope, Venice and Francesco Sforza against the emperor. The imperial army, unpaid and mutinous, took Rome by storm under the constable of Bourbon, who fell in the assault (by the hand of Ben- venuto Cellini?); the Pope besieged in the Castle of St. Angelo (1527). The French general, Lautrec, invaded Naples, but the revolt of Genoa (Doria), whose independence Charles V. promised to recognize, and the plague, of which Lautrec himself died, compelled the French to raise the siege of the capital and to retire to France. 1529. Peace of Cambray (Paix des Dames). So called from the fact that it was negotiated by Margaret of Austria, Charles's aunt, and Louise of Savoy, duchess of Angonleme, mother of Francis. Francis paid two million crowns and renounced his claims upon Italy ^ Flanders and Artois ; Charles promised not to press his claims upon Burgundy /or the present, and released the French princes. 1529. Second diet at Speier, where, in consequence of the victorious position of the emperor, Ferdinand and the Catholic party took a more decided position. The strict execution of the decree of Worms (p. 302) was resolved upon. The evangelical estates protested against this resolution, whence they were called Protestants. 1526-1532. War with the Turks. Louis II., king of Hungary, having fallen in the battle of Mohacs (1526), one party chose Ferdinand, Charles's brother, the other John Zapolya. The latter was assisted by the Sultan Soliman (Suleiman), who besieged Vienna in vain (1529). 1530. Charles crowned emperor in Bologna by the Pope. This was the last coronation of a German emperor by the Pope. 1530. Brilliant Diet at Augsburg, the emperor presiding in per- son. Presentation of the Confession of Augsburg (Confes- sio Augustana) by Melanchthon (true name Schivarzerd, 1497-1560), the learned friend of Luther. The enactment of the diet commanded the abolition of all innovations. 1531. Schmalkaldic league, agreed upon in 1530, between the ma- Feb. 6. jority of Protestant princes and imperial cities. Charles caused his brother, Ferdinand, to be elected king of Rome, and crowned at Aachen. The elector of Saxony protested against this proceeding in the name of the Evangelicals. In consequence of the new danger which threatened from the Turks, 1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg. The Augsburg edict was revoked, and, free exercise of their religion permitted the Protestants until the meeting of a new council to be called within a year. 304 Modern History. A. D. Soliman invaded and ravaged Hungary. Heroic defence of Giinz. A great imperial army was sent to the aid of Hungary, and Soliman retired. 1534-1535. Aaabaptists in Miinster (Joliann Bockelsohn, from Ley- den). 1534. Philip, landgrave of Hessen, restored the Lutheran duke, Ulrich of Wurtemberg, who had been driven out (1519) by the Swabian league of cities. The emperor had invested Fer- dinand with the duchy, but the latter was obliged to agree to a compact, whereby he was to renounce Wurtemberg, but should be recognized as king of Rome by the evangelical party. 1535. Charles's expedition against Tunis (Chaireddin Barbarossa, the pirate). Tunis conquered ; liberation of all Christian slaves. 1536-1538. Third war, between Charles V. and Francis I., about Milan ; Francis I. having renewed his claims upon that duchy after the death of Francesco Sforza II., without issue. Charles in- vaded Provence anew, but fruitlessly. Francis made an inroad into Savoy and Piedmont, and accepted the alliance of Soliman, who pressed Hungary hard, and sent his fleet to ravage the coast of Italy. The war was ended by the 1538. Truce of Nice, which was concluded on the basis of posses- June 18. sion, at the time of its formation, for ten years. July. Meeting between Charles and Francis at Aigues Mortes. 1539-1540. Charles V. crossed France, for the purpose of suppress- ing a disturbance in Ghent, and was received by Francis with special distinction. Ghent punished by deprivation of its privi- leges. 1540. The Order of Jesuits, founded by Jgnatius Loyola (1534), approved by Pope Paul III., successfully opposed the spread of the Reformation. 1541. Reformation introduced into Geneva by Calvin (Jean Cau- vin, from Noyon in Picardy; born 1509; Catholic pastor in his eighteenth year, resigned his office ; studied law at Orleans and Bourges ; came forward as a reformer at Paris in 1532, finding pro- tection from Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I. Exiled from France, Calvin went to Basel, published the Institutio Christianas, relig- ionis 1535 ; 1536-1538 in Geneva ; 1538-1541 in Strasburg, after- warrds head of the state in Geneva, f 1564). From Geneva the Reformation spread to France and Scotland (John Knox). 1541. Charles's unsuccessful expedition against Algiers. 1542. Henry, duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, driven from the country by the Schmalkaldic League. 1542--1544. Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., occa- sioned by the investiture of Charles's son, Philip, with Milan. The fact that two secret agents, whom Francis had sent to Soliman, were captured in Milan, and when they resisted, put to death, served as a pretext. A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 305 Francis in alliance with Soliman and the duke of Cleve. The allied Twr^M and FrencA fleets bombarded and plundered Nice. Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII. of England, conquered the duke of Cleve, and advanced as far as Soissons. Soliman invaded Hungary and Austria. 1544. Peace of Crespy ; Francis' second son, the duke of Orleans, Sept. 18. was to marry a princess of the imperial family and receive Milan. He died in 1545, however ; Milan continued in the possession of the emperor, who gave it, nominally, to his son Philip, as a fief. Francis gave up his claims to Naples^ and the overlordship of Flanders and Artois; Charles renounced his claims to Burgundy. 1545-1563. Council of Trent, not attended by the Protestants. Reforms in the church. Establishment of a number of dog- mas of the Catholic church. 1546, Feb. 18. Death of Luther at Eisleben. Charles V., who, since the peace of Crespy, was unhindered by foreign complications, sought to crush the independence of the estates of the empire in Germany, and to restore the unity of the church, to which he was urged by the Pope, who concluded an alli- ance with him, and promised money and troops. 1546-1547. Schmalkaldic War. The leaders of the league of Schmalkalden, John Frederic, elector of Saxony, and Philip, landgrave of Hesse, placed under the ban. Duke Maurice of Saxony concluded a secret alliance with the emperor. Irresolute conduct of the war by the allies in upper Ger- many. The elector and the landgrave could not be induced by gen- eral Schartlin of Augsburg to make a decisive attack, and finally re- tired, each to his own land. John Frederic of Saxony reconquered his electorate, which Maurice had occupied. Charles V. first reduced the members of the league in southern Germany (Augsburg, Nurem- berg, Ulm, duke of WUrtemberg, etc.) to subjection, then went to Saxony, forced the passage of the Elbe, and defeated in the 1547, Battle of Miihlberg, on the Lochau Heath, near Torgau the 24 April, elector of Saxony, captured him, and besieged his capital, Wittenberg. Treaty mediated by Joachim II. of Branden- burg. The electoral dignity and lands given to the Albertine line (duke Maurice). The Ernestine line retained Weimar, Jena, Eisenach, Gotha, etc. The elector was kept in captivity. Philip of Hesse surrendered, and was detained in captivity, although Maurice and Joachim II. of Brandenburg had pledged themselves for his liberation. Interim of Augsburg (1548), not generally accepted by the Protestants. The city of Magdeburg, the centre of the opposition, placed under the ban. Maurice of Saxony, intrusted with the exe- cution of the decree, armed himself in secret against Charles V., and 1552. Surprised the emperor, after the conclusion of the treaty of Friedevmlde (1551) with Henry II. of France, and forced him to liberate his father-in-law, Philip of Hesse, and to conclude the 1552. Convention of Passau. Free exercise of religion for the 20 306 Modern History. A. D. Aug. 2. adherents of the confession of Augsburg until the next diet Maurice defeated Albert^ margrave of Brandenburg-Culmbach at Sievershausen (1553), but was mortally wounded. 1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg. Sept. 25. The territorial princes and the free cities, who, at this date, acknowledged the confession of Augsburg, received freedom of wor- ship, the right to introduce the reformation within their territories (Jits reformandi)f and equal rights with the Catholic estates. No agreement reached as regarded the Ecclesiastical Reservation (Reser- vatum ecdesiasticum) that the spiritual estates (bishops and abbots) who became Protestant should lose their offices and incomes. This peace secured no privileges for the reformed religion (Genevan). 1552-1556. War between Charles V. and Henry II., who, as the ally of Maurice, had seized Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Charles besieged Metz, which was successfully defended by Francis of Guise. The truce of Vaucelles left France, provisionally, in possession of the cities which had been occupied. 1556. Abdication of Charles V. in Brussels (Oct. 25, 1555, and Jan. 15, 1556). The crown of Spain with the colonies, Naples, MUan, Franche- Comte, and the Netherlands, went to his son Philip; the imperial office and the Hapsburg lands to his brother Ferdinand I. (p. 302, 303). Charles lived in the monastery of St. Just as a private individual, but not as a monk, and died there in 1558. 1556-1564. Ferdinand I., husband of Anna, sister of Louis II., king of Bohemia and Hungary, after whose death he was elected king of these countries by their estates. Constant warfare over the latter country, which he was obliged to abandon, in great part, to the Turks. His son, 1564-1576. Maximilian II., was of a mild disposition and favorably inclined to the Protes- tants, whom he left undisturbed in the free exercise of their religion. War with Zapdya, prince of Transylvania, and the Turks. Sultan Soliman II. died in camp before Sigeth, which was defended by the heroic Zriny. By the truce with Selim II. (1566) each party retained its possessions. The imperial knight, Grumbach, who had broken the public peace by a feud with the bishop of Wiirzburg, had plundered the city of Wiirzburg (1563), and had been protected by John Fred- eric, duke of Saxony, was placed under the ban, and after the cap- ture of Gotha, cruelly executed (1567). The duke was kept in strict eonfinement in Austria until his death. Reaction against Protestantism. Anti-Reformation. 1576-1612. Rudolf II., son of the Emperor Maximilian II., a learned man, an astrologer and astronomer {Kepler^ f 1630^ A. D. Germany. 807 3 S OOP §_ 0 2'^ i El? Q s» (D PS 5* •^ f 3.M CD ».^ O "■ ►r' TJO SO S 2 o ce _:. ^ "I >S 86 g ^ 5 n> o p s — O -s "^^ 3 o • a 3 3 3 <^ 3=3 a S « "^ S > i2 cd, g.>J •H-R- 3 H I I a> . IT to [^ O 00 o <1 w a O W CO d o o OJ t— I C 308 Modern History. a. d. was appointed imperial mathematician by him), but incapable of gov- erning. New quarrels over the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306). The imperial city of Donauworlh, placed under the ban by the emperor, because a mob had disturbed a Catholic procession, was, in spite of the prohibition of the emperor, retained by Maximilian of Bavaria^ who had executed the ban (1607). These troubles led to the forma- tion of a 1608. Protestant Union (leader, Frederic IV., elector Palatine), which was opposed by the 1609. Catholic League (leader, Maximilian, duke of Bavaria). Both princes were of the house of Wittelsbaeh. Rudolf, from whom his brother, Matthias, had forced the cession of Hungary, Moravia, and Austria, hoping to conciliate the Bohe- mians gave them the 1609. Royal Charter (Majestatsbrief), which permitted a free exer- cise of religion to the three estates of lords, knights, and royal cities. 1609. Beginning of the quarrel about the succession of Jiilich-Cleve on the death of John William, duke of Cleve. The elector of Brandenburg and the prince of Neuburg were the principal claimants. Rudolf, toward the close of his life, was forced by Matthias to ab- dicate the government of Bohemia. 1612-1619. Matthias, being childless, and having obtained the renunciation of his brothers, secured for his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria, Carin- thia, and Carniola, who had been educated by the Jesuits in strict Catholicism, the succession in Bohemia and Hungary, in spite of the objections of the Protestant estates. § 4. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War is generally divided into four periods, which were properly as many different wars. The first two, the Bo- hemian and the Danish, had a predominant religious character ; they developed from the revolt in Bohemia to a general attack by Catholic Europe upon Protestant Europe. The latter two, the Swedish and Sioedish-French, were political wars ; wars against the power of the house of Hapsburg, and wars of conquest on the part of Sweden and France upon Germaii soil. 1. Period of war in Bohemia and the County Palatine. (1618-1623.) Occasion : Closing of a Utraquist ^ church in the territory of the abbot of Braunaii, and destruction of another in a city of the arch- bishop of Prague, that is, in the territory of ecclesiastical estates, whiclj I Utraqidst, that is, favoring communion in both kinds. A.. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 309 according to the view of the Protestants ought to be regarded as royal estates, in accordance with the Bohemian constitution. ^ The irri- tation of the Bohemian Protestants (Utraquists) was increased by the transference of the administration of the country to ten governors, seven of whom were Catholics. Meeting of the defensors, and revolt in Prague, headed by count Matthias of Thurn. The governors, Mar- tinitz and Slawata, and the secretary, Fabricius, thrown from a win- dow in the palace of Prague, seventy feet into the dit^h, but escaped with their lives (May 23, 1618). Thirty directors appointed by the rebels. The Protestant Union sent count Mansfeld to the aid of the Bohemians. From Silesia and Lusatia came troops under mar- grave John George of Jdgerndorf. The imperial forces were defeated by Mansfeld and count Thurn. The emperor Matthias died 1619. Count Thurn marched upon Vienna. The Austrian estates, for the most part Protestants, threatened to join the Bohemians, and made rough demands upon Ferdinand, who, by his courage and the arrival of a few troops, was rescued from a dangerous situation. Thurn, who arrived before Viemia shortly afterwards, was soon obliged to retire by an unfavorable turn of the war in Bohemia. ^ Ferdinand went to Frankfort, where he was elected emperor by the other six electors. 1619-1637. Ferdinand II. Meantime the Bohemians had deposed him from the throne of Bohemia and elected the young Frederic V., elector palatine, the head of the Union and of the German Calvinists, son-in-law of James I., king of England. ("The Winter King"). Count Thurn, for the second time before Vienna, allied with Beth- len Gabor, prince of Transylvania (Nov. 1619). Cold, want, and an inroad of an imperial partisan in Hungary, caused a retreat. Ferdinand leagued himself with Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, head of the Catholic League, the friend of his youth, who helped him sub- due the Austrian estates, with Spain (Spinola invaded the county palatine; treaty of Ulm, July 3, 1620; neutrality of the Union se- cured), and with the Lutheran elector of Saxony, who re-subjugated Lusatia and Silesia. Maximilian of Bavaria, with the army of the League commanded by Tilly, marched to Bohemia and joined the imperial general Buquoy. They were victorious in the 1620, Nov. 8. Battle on the White Hill over the troops of Frederic V., under the command of Chris' tian of Anhalt. Frederic was put under the ban, and his lands confis- cated ; he himself fled to Holland. Christian of Anhalt and John George of Brandenburg-Jagerndorf, also put under the ban. Sub- jugation of the Bohemians, destruction of the Royal Charter, ex- ecution of the leading rebels, extirpation of Protestantism in Bohemia. Afterwards, violent anti-reformation in Austria, and, with less vio- lence, in Silesia. Dissolution of the Protestant Union and transfer of the seat of war 1 Cf. Gindely, Gesch. d. dreissioiahr. Kriegs, vol. i. (1869), chap. 2. a Gindely, ii. (1878), chap. 2. I 310 Modern History. ▲. ix to the palatinate, which was conquered in execution of the ban by Maximilian's general, Tilly {.Tan TzerklaSy baron of Tilly, born 1559, in the Walloon Brabant), with the help of Spanish troops under Spinola. Tilly, defeated at Wiesloch by Mansfeld (April, 1622), de- feated the margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wimpfen (May), and Christian of Brunswick, brother of the reigning duke and administra- tor of the bishopric of Halberstadt, at Hochst (June, 1622), and again at Stadtlohn in Westphalia (1623). 1623. Maximilian received the electoral vote belonging to Frederic V. and the Upper Palatinate ; Saxony obtained Lusatia for the present in pledge. 2. Danish Period. Seat of "War in Lower Saxony. 1625-1629. Christian IV., king of Denmark and duke of Holstein, was the head of the Lower Saxon Circle, and the leader of the Protestants. Albert of Wallenstein (Waldstein, born 1583, in Bohemia, of an utraquist family, but educated in the Catholic faith, 1617 count, 1623 prince of the empire, 1624 duke of Friedland) became the imperial commander of an army, recruited by himself, which was to be provi- sioned by a system of robbery. Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld at the Bridge of Dessau (1626), pursued him through Silesia to Hungary, where Mansfeld joined Bethlen Gabor. Mansfeld died in Dalmatia (Nov., 1626). Christian of Brunswick had died in June of the same year. Tilly defeated Christian IV. at Luther am Barenberge, in Bruns- wick (Aug., 1626). Tilly and Wallenstein conquered Holstein (1627). Wallenstein alone conquered Schleswig and Jutland, drove the dukes of Mecklenburg from the country, forced the duke of Pommerania to submission, but besieged Stralsund (1628) in vain, the citizens de- fending themselves heroically for ten weeks. 1629. Peace of Liibeck May 22. between the emperor and Christian IV. The latter re- ceived his lands back, but promised not to interfere in German affairs, and abandoned his allies. The dukes of Mecklenburg put un- der the ban. Wallenstein invested with their lands. 1629, March 29. Edict of Restitution: 1. Agreeably to the ecclesias- tical reservation (p. 306), all ecclesiastical estates which had been confiscated since the convention of Passau should be restored. This affected two archbishoprics: Magdeburg and Bremen; twelve bis- hoprics: Minden, Verden, Halberstadt, Lubeck, Ratzeburg, Meissen^ Merseburg, Naumburg (the latter three were, however, left in the pos- session of the elector of Saxony), Brandenburg, Havelberg, Lebus and Camin, besides very many (about 120) monasteries and foundations. 2. Only the adherents of the Augsburg confession were to have free exercise of religion ; all other " sects " were to be broken up. Be- ginning of a merciless execution of the edict by Wallenstein's troops and those of the League. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 311 1630. Electoral Assembly at Regensburg (Ratisbon). The party of Bavaria and the League was hostile to Wallen- stein and took up a position of determined opposition to the too pow- erful general. An excuse was found in the loud and well founded complaints of all estates of the empire, particularly the Catholics, over the terrible extortion and cruelty practiced by Wallenstein's army. The emperor consented to decree the dismissal of the general and a large part of the army. 1627-1631. War of succession over Mantua by the houses of Nevers and Guasialla. The former, supported by France (Richelieu himself took the field) obtained the duchy in the peace of Cherasco (April 6) although the imperial forces had been victorious and cap- tured Mantua. 3. Swedish Period (1630-1635). 1630. Gustavus II., Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed on July, the coast of Pomerania. Object and grounds of his interference : protection of the oppressed Protestants ; restoration of the dukes of Mecklenburg, his relatives ; the rejection of his mediation at the peace of Liibeck ; anxiety in regard to the maritime plans of the emperor. Political position of Sweden : Finland, Ingermannland, Esthonia, Livonia, belonged to the kingdom of Gustavus ; Curland was under Swedish influence. An ambitious monarch might easily dream of the acquisition of Prussia and Pomerania, which would have almost made the Baltic a Swedish sea. Gustavus concluded a subsidy treaty with France (Richelieu). Gustavus Adolphus drove the imperial forces from Pomerania and marched up the Oder, where Tilly came against him (1631). The king went to Mecklenburg. Tilly retired to the Elbe, and laid siege to Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus captured Frankfort on the Oder. Negotiations with his brother-in-law, 'George William, elector of Bran- denburg (1619-1640), who was under the influence of Schwarzenberg. Spandau was at last surrendered to him. Negotiations in regard to the surrender of Wittenberg, with Saxony, which endeavored to main- tain the position of a third, mediatory, party in the empire, a sort of armed neutrality (diet of princes at Leipzig, 1631), and was with difficulty brought to form an alliance with an enemy of the empire. Meanwhile 1631. Capture of Magdeburg by Tilly. The storm was conducted May 20. by Pappenheim. Terrible massacre and sack of the city by the unbridled soldiery of Tilly, who did what he could to check the outrages. Fire broke out suddenly in many places far removed from one another, and the whole city with the exception of the cathe- dral was consumed (Not by Tilly's command). ^ Tilly took possession of Halle, Eisleben, Merseburg, and other cities 1 Probably the fire was set by previous ap'eement of the more determined portion of the defenders (Falkenbery). Ct. Wittich, Magdeburg, Gustav Adolf u. Tilly, vol. ii. 1874. 312 Modern History. a. d. and burned them. John George^ elector of Saxony, formed an alli- ance with Gustavus Adolphus, who crossed the Elbe at Wittenberg. Leipzig occupied by Tilly. The imperial army and that of the Swedes and Saxons, each about 40,000 strong, were face to face. 1631. Battle of Leipzig or Breitenfeld. Sept. 17. The Saxons were at first put to rout by Tilly, but after a bloody fight Gustavus Adolphus won a brilliant victory. The Saxons entered Bohemia. Gustavus crossed Thuringia and Franconia to the Rhine by way of Erfurt, Wurzburg, Hanau, Frank- fort, Darmstadt, crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim, and occupied Mainz. Winter quarters. Meantime Prague was captured by the Saxons under Arnim {Boyt" zenhurg), a former subordinate of Wallenstein. The emperor held fruitless negotiations with the Saxons. At the urgent request of Ferdinand, Wallenstein collected an army, over which he received uncontrolled command. He recaptured Prague, and drove the Saxons from Bohemia. Their eagerness for the war and the Swedish alliance was already chilled. 1632. Gustavus advanced to the Danube by way of Nuremberg to meet Tilly. Conflict at Rain, near the confluence of the Lenz and the Danube. Tilly, mortally wounded, died at Ingolstadt. He was seventy-three years old. Gustavus went to Augsburg, vainly besieged Maximilian in Ingol- stadt, but forced Munich to surrender. Wallenstein summoned to the assistance of Maximilian. 1632. Fortified camp near Nuremberg. July-Sept. (Burgstall). Gustavus and Wallenstein face to face for eleven weeks. Wallenstein declined battle. Reinforced by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar, the Swedes attacked Wallenstein's in- trenchments, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Gustavus advanced to the Danube. Wallenstein turned upon Saxony, now defenseless, Arnim having marched through Lusatia to Silesia with the Saxon and Brandenburg troops. Terrible ravages committed by the bands of Wallenstein. At the call of the elector of Saxony, Gustavus hastened back by way of Kitzingen and Schweinfurt, joined Bern- hard of Saxe- Weimar in Arnstadt, marched upon Naumburg, and hearing that Wallenstein had dispatched Pappenheim from L aipzig to the Rhine, attacked the imperial forces (18,000 against 20,000 Swedes). 1632. Battle of Liitzen. Death of Gustavus Adol- phus/ Nov. 16. Pappenheim, recalled in haste, took part in the battle with his cavalry, after three o'clock ; he was mortally wounded. The victory of the Swedes was completed by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. Bernhard,^ Gustavus Horn, and Baner took command of the Swedish forces. The conduct of foreign affairs was assimied by the Swedish 1 The suspicion that the king was murdered by Francis Albert, duke of Lau- enburg, is totally unfounded. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 313 chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna (born 1583, councillor since 1609). League of Heilhronn between the circles of Swabia, Franconia, Upper and Lower Rhine, on the one part, and Sweden on the other. 1633. Expedition of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar to Franconia. He took Bamberg and Hochstadt, drove back the Bavarians under Aldringer, and joined fieldmarshal Horn. Bernhard received from the chancellor the investiture, with the bishoprics of Wiirzburg and Bamberg, under the name of the Duchy of Franconia, and occupied the upper Palatinate. Feb. After Wallenstein had tried and punished with death many of his officers in Prague, and had filled their places with new recruits, he marched to Silesia, fought with the Saxon, Brandenburg, and Swedish troops, and negotiated frequently with Arnim. Nego- tiations with Oxenstierna. Oct. Capture of a Swedish corps at Steinau-on-the-Oder. Wallenstein invaded Brandenburg, sending raiders as far as Berlin, and then plundered Lusatia. Nov. Regensburg (Ratisbon) captured by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. Wallenstein found himself unable to go to the assistance of the elector of Bavaria, as the emperor urged, and went into winter quarters in Bohemia. Growing estrangement between Wallenstein and the imperial court. The Spanish party and the league wished him removed from his com- mand. Wallenstein conducted secret negotiations with the Saxons, the Swedes, the French. He intended to create, with the help of the army (declaration of the generals Piccolomini, Gallas, and Aldringer, at Pilsen), an independent position for himself, whence he could, with the aid of the two north German electors, liberate the emperor from the control of the Spanish party, and, if necessary, compel him to make peace and reorganize the internal affairs of the empire (on the basis of a religious peace?). He had resolved upon open revolt if the hostile party continued in power. Whether he harbored a wish for the crown of Bohemia, along with other fantastic plans, it is hard to decide. The court of Vienna succeeded in detaching the principal generals (Piccolomini, Gallas, Aldringer, Marradas, Colloredo) from his cause. How, Trzka, Kinski, remained faithful. 1834. Imperial proclamation : " Friedland was concerned in a con- Jan. 24. spiracy to rob the emperor of his crown." Tlie chief officers of the army commanded to no longer obey him. Feb. 18. Second proclamation, formally deposing Wallenstein. On the 24th Wallenstein went to Eger, where he was to be met by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar, and Arnim. There occurred the Feb. 25. Assassination of Wallenstein by captain Devereux, at the instigation of the Irish general, Butler, after his intimate friends had been treacherously massacred. The emperor had not commanded the murder, nor had he definitely desired it ; but he had given rein to the party which he knew wished " to bring in Wallenstein, alive or dead," and, after the deed was done, he rev/arded the murderers with honor and riches. 1634. Victory of the imperialists under Ferdinand, the emperor's son, and Gallas and the Bavarians {John of Werth), over the Swedes at Ndrdlingenc 314 Modern History. A. D. 1635. Peace of Prague, May 30. between the emperor and the elector of Saxony. 1. The elector received Lusatia permanently, and the archbishopric of Magdeburg for his second son, August, for life. 2. Those ecclesiastical estates, not held immediately of the emperor, which had been confis- cated before the convention of Passau (p. 305), should remain to the possessor forever ; all others should remain for forty years (from 1627), and in case no further understanding was reached before the expiration of that period, forever, in the condition in which they were on Nov. 12, 1627. 3. Amnesty, except for participants in the dis- turbances in Bohemia and the Palatinate ; common cause to be made against Sweden. The Lutherans alone to be allowed freedom of wor- ship. Brandenburg and the majority of the other Protestant estates accepted the peace. 4. Swedish-French period (1635-1648). The policy of Sweden was determined by Oxenstierna, that of France by Richelieu (f 1642), and afterwards by Mazarin. France fought at first in the person of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar only, with whom subsidy-treaties had been concluded, and who was trying to conquer himself a new state in Alsace, in place of the duchy of Franconia, which he had lost by the battle of Nordlingen. Capture of Breisach, 1638. After his death (1639) France took control of his army. 1636. Victory of the Swedes under Baner at "Wittstock over the imperialists and the Saxons. Death of Ferdmand II. His son, 1637-1657. Ferdinand III., was desirous of peace. The ducal house of Pomerania became extinct (1637). After the death of Baner (1641) Torstenson became commander- in-chief of the Swedes. 1640. Death of George William. Frederic William, elector of Brandenburg. (The great elector, 1640-1688). 1641. Discussion of the preliminaries of peace in Hamburg. A con- gress agreed upon. 1642. Second Battle of Leipzig (Breitenfeld). Torstenson defeated the imperialists under Piccolomini. Torstenson threatened the hereditary estates of the emperor. These Swedish successes aroused the envy of Christian IV. of Denmarko Hence 1643-1645. War bet-ween Denmark and S^veden. 1643. Torstenson hastened by forced marches through Silesia, Sax- Sept, ony, Brunswick, to the north, conquered Holstein and Schles- wig, and invaded Jutland. Meanwhile the French in South Germany, under Marshall GuSriant had penetrated to Rottweil (Wiirtemberg). Guebriant fell in battle. Shortly afterwards the French, under Rantzau, were surprised at Duttlingen. by an Austro-Bavarian army under Mercy and Werth, and totally defeated. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Tears' War. 315 1643. Opening of the negotiations for peace in Osnabriick with the Swedes ; 1644 in Miinster Avith the French. Marshal Turenne and the twenty-one-year-old prince of Bourbon, duke of Enghien, afterwards Prince of Conde, appointed commanders- in-chief of the French troops. They forced the 1644. Bavarians under Mercy to retreat. Conde captured Mann- heim, Speier, and Philippsburg. Turenne took Worms, Oppen- heim, Mainz, and Landau. Meanwhile an imperial army, under Gallas, had been sent to the aid of the Danes, who were hard pressed, both by land and by sea (by the Swedish admiral, Gustavus Wrangel). The im- 1645. perial force was repulsed by Torstenson and Konigsmark, pur- Jan, sued into Germany, and almost annihilated at Magdeburg. March. Brilliant victory of Torstenson over the imperialists at Jan- kau, not far from Tabor, in Bohemia, whereupon, in union with the prince of Transylvania, Rakoczy, he conquered the whole of Moravia, and advanced hard upon Vienna. May. Turenne defeated by John of Werth at Mergentheim, in Fran- conia. Aug. Turenne, at the head of the French and Hessians, defeated the Bavarians at Alter sheim. Peace between Sweden and Denmark at Bromsebro (p. 352). After a futile siege of Briinn, the plague having broken out in his army, Torstenson returned to Bohemia. He resigned his command on account of illness, and was succeeded by Wrangel. 1646. Wrangel left Bohemia, united to his own force the Swedish troops under Konigsmark in Westphalia, and joined Turenne at Giessen. Swedes and French invaded Bavaria and forced the elector Maximilian to conclude the 1647. Truce of Ulm, and to renounce his alliance with the emperor, after Turenne had been recalled, from envy at the Swedish successes, and Wrangel had gone to Bohemia, Maximilian broke the truce and joined the imperialists again. 1648. Second invasion of Bavaria by the French and Swedes ; terrible ravages. A flood in the Inn prevented the further advance of the allies, who returned to the upper Palatinate. The Swedish general Konigsmark captured that part of Prague on the right bank of the Moldau (Kleinseite). Terrible condition of Germany. Irreparable losses of men and wealth. Reduction of population ; increase of poverty ; retrograda- tion in all ranks. 1648. Peace of Westphalia. Oct. 24. Negotiations from 1645-1648. Imperial ambassadors, count Trautmannsdorf and Dr. Volmar. French, count d^Avaux and count Servien. Swedish, count Oxenstierna, son of the chancellor, and baron Salvius. France and Sweden, against the will of the emperor, secured the participation of the estates of the empire in the negotia* tions. 316 Modern History. A. D. Conditions of the Peace.^ A. Indemnifications. 1. Sweden received as a fief of the empire the whole of hither Pomerania and Rugen with a part of farther Pomerania (Stettin, Garz, Damm, GoUnow, WoUin, and Usedom), the city of Wismar, formerly belonging to Mecklenburg, and the bishoprics Bremen (not the city) and Verden as secular duchies, and five million rix dollars. Sweden became a member of the diet with three votes. 2. France received without reservation of the feudal overlordship of the empire, hence with absolute sovereignty : the bishoprics and cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had been in French hands since 1552 ; Pignerol, the city of Breisach, the landgx'avate of upper and lower Alsace, which belonged to a branch of the Austrian house, and the government of ten imperial cities in Alsace (praefec- tura provincialis decem civitatum imperialium), with express acknowl- edgment of their previous freedom. The other imperial estates in Alsace (particularly Strasburg) retained their immediate relation to the empire and their freedom. France also received the right of gar- risoning Philippsburg. 3. Hesse-Cassel : abbey of Hersfeld, Schaumburg, the fiefs of the foundation of Minden, and 600,000 rix dollars. 4. Brandenburg : as indemnification for Pomerania which be- longed to Brandenburg by the law of inheritance, but of which it re- ceived the larger part of farther Pomerania only, the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden, and Cambi as secular principalities, the arch- bishopric of Magdeburg as a duchy, with the reservation that it should remain in possession of the administrator August of Saxony, durmg his Hfe (t 1680). 5. Mecklenburg : the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzehurg as principalities. 6. Brunswick : alternate presentation to the bishopric of Osna- bruck, where a Catholic and evangelical bishop were to alternate. B. Secular Affairs of the Empire. 1. General amnesty and return to the condition of things in 1618. 2. The electoral dignity and the upper Palatinate were left in the hands of the Wilhelmian line (Bavaria) of the house of Wittels- bach, while a new electorate (the eighth) was created for the Ru- dolfian line (Palatinate). 3. The territorial superiority {Landeshoheit) of the whole body of estates, as regarded their relation to the emperor, was recognized, which involved the right of concluding alliances with one another and \/ith foreign powers, if they were not directed against empire or emperor. (Afterwards, since 1663, the standing diet at Regensburg developed the German constitution more in detail.) 4. The republics of the United Netherlands and of Switzerland were recognized as independent of the empire (p. 247). 1 K. F. Hichhorn, Deutsche Staats- u. Eecktsgeschichte, iv. § 522 foil. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 317 C. Ecclesiastical Affairs {Gravamina ecclesiastical. 1. The Convention of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg (p. 305) were approved and extended so as to include the Calvinists. 2. Catholic and Protestant estates were to be on an entire equality in all affairs of the empire. 3. January 1, 1624, was adopted as the norm (annus normalis) by which questions of ownership of ecclesiastical estates and exercise of religion should be settled. As things were upon that date, so they were to remain forever ; that is, the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306) was acknowledged to be binding for the future. The subjugated Pro- testants in Austria and Bohemia obtained no rights by the peace, but those evangelical states which had been gained by the anti-reformation during the war (the Lower Palatinate, Wiirtemberg, Baden, etc.) were allowed to resume the exercise of that religion which had been theirs in 1618. The Jus reformandi, the privilege of deciding by fiat the re- ligion of those subjects to whom the year 1628 did not secure free ex- ercise of religion, was retained for the future by the territorial lords. The right of emigration was, however, reserved to the subjects in such cases. The imperial court (Reichskammergericht) was restored, and its members were to be equally divided between Protestants and Catholics. France and Sweden guaranteed the peace. (Seep. 371.) 818 Modern History. A. D. §5. FRANCE. {Sttp,zu2.) 1498-1589. Houses of Orleans and Angouleme. Branch line of the house of Valois (since 1328, p. 257) whose relation to the main line is shown in the following genealogical table : Charles V. (third king of the hous^e of Valois). 1364-1380. I Charles VL 1380-U22. Charles VII. 1422-1461. liOuis XI. 1461-1483. I Louis, duke of Orleans, f 1407. m. Valentine Visconti. I Charles, duke of Orleans, t 1467. Xiouis XII. 1498-1515. m. (2) Anna of Brittany, died without male issue. Charles VHI. m. Anna of Brit- tany. 1483-1498. died without male issue. John, count of Angouleme. t 1467. Charles, count of Angouleme. t 1496. m. Louise ~ of Savoy- Claudia Henry II. 1547-1559. m. Catharine of Medici. I (2) Francis L 1515-1547. I I I Francis II. Elizabeth Charles IX. 1559-1560 m. m. 1560-1574. Mary Stuart. Philip II. king of Spain. Henry III, 1574-1589. duke of Anjou; king of Poland. I Francis, duke of Alencon and Anjou, t 1584. Margaret m. Henry IV. see p. 323. 1498-1515. Louis XII. obtained a divorce from Joanna, daughter of Louis XI,, and married Anna of Brittany, widow of Charles VIII., in order to keep this duchy for the crown ; as grandson of Valentina Visconti he laid claim to Milan, drove out Ludovico Moro, who was imprisoned when he ventured to return to Milan (1500). 1501. Louis XII. in alliance with Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Ar- agon, conquered the kingdom of Naples. The Spaniards and French soon falling out, the latter were defeated by the Spanish general Gonzalvo de Cordova on the Garigliano (1504). Louis XII. gave up his claims to Naples. 1508. Louis a party in the League of Cambray, p. 300. In 1511 the Pope, Ferdinand the Catholic, and Venice, concluded the Holy League, with the object of driving the French out of Italy. The lat- A.. D. France, 819 ter, under the young Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, nephew of Louis XII., were at rirst successful in the war, taking Brescia (1512) by storm (Bayard, " without reproach or fear "), and defeating the united Spanish and Papal armies at Ravenna, with the aid of 5000 German mercenaries, in the same year ; they were, however, compelled by the Swiss to evacuate Milan. In 1513 the French formed a new alliance with Venice, but were defeated by the Swiss at Novara and withdrew from Italy. Henry VIII. of England, who had joined the Holy League in 1512, and the emperor Maximilian who had joined in 1513, invaded France, and defeated the French at 1513. Guinegate, called the " Battle of the Spurs " from the hasty Aug. 17. flight of the French. France concluded peace with the Pope, with Spain (1513), with the emperor, and with Henry VIII. (1514). Anna of Brittany having died, Louis took, as his third wife, Mary the sister of Henry VIII. He died soon after the marriage (Jan. 1, 1515). He was succeeded by his cousm, the Count of Angouleme, who had married Claudia, daughter of Louis XII. and Anna, hence heiress of Brittany, which, however, was not actually incorporated with France until 1598. As king the count of Angouleme is known as 1515-1547. Francis I. Courageous, fond of display, dis- solute. 1515. He reconquered Milan by the brilliant victory of Marignano Sept. 13-14. over the Swiss, who fought most bravely. Peace and alliance between France and Switzerland. Treaty of Geneva (Nov. 7, 1515) ; treaty of Fribourg (Nov. 29, 1516). The lat- ter (la paix perpetuelle) endured till the French Revolution. 1516. Increase of the royal power by a Concordat with the Pope which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 and placed the choice of bishops and abbots in the hands of the king ; the Pope on the other hand received the annates, or the first year's revenue of every ecclesiastical domain where the king's right of presentation was exercised. Francis also abandoned the principle of the Council of Basle, that the Pope was subordinate to an oecumenical council. 1520. Meeting of Francis and Henry VIII. of England in the neigh- borhood of Calais. " Field of the Cloth of Gold." The wars of Francis with Charles V. (p. 302, etc.) occupied the rest of Francis' reign. Restrictions upon the political rights of the Parliaments. Cultivation of literature and the arts. Rabelais (1483-1553). Perse- cutions of the Protestants. Francis died March 31, 1547. He was succeeded by his son 1547-1559. Henry XL Growing power of the house of Guise (Francis, duke of Guise^ and Charles, " Cardinal of Lorraine "). 820 Modern History. A. D. HOUSE OF LORRAINE AND GUISE. Ren^ le Bon, d. of Anjou and titular king of Naples and Sicily, ni. Isabella, d. of "Lorraine. I Margaret, m. Henry VI., k. of England. John II., d. of Lor- raine and Bar. Nicolas, d. of Lorraine and Bar t U73. no male issue. Antoine, d. of Lorraine and Bar. t 1544. Yolande, d. of Lorraine, m. Ferri II., c. of Vaudemont, Guise, etc. I Rene II., d. of Lorraine and Bar, c. of Vaudemont, Guise, etc t 1508. I I Claude L, c. of Aumale, d. of Guise (1527). Francis I., d. of Lorraine and Bar. I Francis, d. of Guise, mur- dered 1563. Charles, Card, of Lorraine. Claude, d. of Aumale. I I Louis, Mary, m. Card, of James V. Guise, of Scot- land. Marv, queen of Scots. Charles II., d. of Lorraine and Bar. t 1608. Henry, d. of Guise. t 1588. Charles, d. of Mayenne. Louix, Cardinal of Guise. t 1588. Henry's mistress, Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois, ruled him almost absolutely. Montmorency, constable. Persecution of the Protestants in France ; assistance to German Protestants. 1547. Final union of Brittany with the French crown. DESCENT OF BRITTANY. Francis II., d. of Brittany, t 1488. Charles VHI. = (i) Anne (2) = Louis Xn., k. of France, k. of France. | Claude = Francis I. I Francis the dauphin. t 1536, without male Henry II., k. of France A. D. France. 321 1552. War with Charles V. (p. 306.) Seizure of the three bishop* rics, Toul^ MetZy Verdun. 1556-1559. War with Philip II. of Spain. The French defeated by the Spaniards with the aid of the English at 1557. St. Quentin (on the Somme), and by count Egmont at Grave' lines (1558). 1558. Calais and Guines, the last English possessions in France, Jan. captured by Francis, duke of Guise. 1559. Peace of Cateau-Cambresis : the French restored all their con- April, quests except Calais and the three bishoprics (Metz, Tout and Verdun). Henry II., who died of a wound i»ceived in a tourney, was succeeded by his three weak sons. 1559-1560. Francis II. (sixteen years old), the first husband of Mary Stuart of Scotland, a niece of the Guises. Persecution of the Protestants {chambres ardentes). Cruel executions. The king's mother, Catharine de' Medici, struggled for power and influence against the Bourbon prmces, Anton (king of Na- varre) and Louis of Conde', descended from Louis IX. The Guises, at first rivals of the queen and then in alliance with her, conducted all affairs of state and surpassed in influence their opponents, the Catholic constable Montmorency, and his nephews, the three brothers Chdtillon : Gaspard, admiral de Coligny (1517-1572), Francois d'Andelot, Cardi- nal Chdtillon, afterwards leaders of the Huguenots. De I'Hopital, chancellor. Conspiracy of Amboise (La Renaudie) against the Guises defeated (1560). Death of Francis II. 1560-1574. Charles IX., ten years old, under the influence of his mother, Cathar rine de' Medici. 1562-1598. Wars of the Huguenots.^ Cruel persecutions compelled the Huguenots to take up arms. At the same time they became & political party opposed to the Catho- lic party. The wars of the Huguenots were therefore not simply religious wars, but also political civil wars, in which the leaders of both parties were endeavoring to take advantage of the weakness of the king and get control of the government. The first three -wars form properly one war, interrupted by truces called peaces (Amboise, 1563, Longjumeau, 1568, St. Germain, 1570), which were without result. The conditional freedom of religious worship permitted the Hugue- nots was to be guaranteed by the surrender to them for two years, of the four strong towns La Rochelle, Cognac, Montauban, La Charite. 1572. Night of St. Bartholomew. Aug. 23-24. Murder of admiral Coligny and general massacre of Hu- guenots, under the conduct of Henry of Guise and Tavannes, on the occasion of the marriage of Henry of Bourbon, king of 1 Huguenots is said to be a nickname derived from King Hugo, a spectre which, in the belief of the people, nightly haunted the streets of Paris; whence the Protestants, from their nocturnal gatherings, were called Huguenots. Others derive the name from a corruption of Eidgenossen, confederates. 21 322 Modern History. A. D, Kavarre (son of Anton, king of Navarre) with the sister of Charles IX., Margaret of Valois. Henry of Navarre saved his life by a pre- tended conversion to Catholicism. Over 3,000 Huguenots were slain :n the capital, in the whole of France about 30,000. This bloody deed led to the 1572-1573. Fourth Civil War. La Rochelle, besieged by Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., made a brave defense. The election of the duke of Anjou to the crown of Poland brought about a compromise. Edict of Boulogne (July 8, 1573) ended the war favorably to the Huguenots. Charles IX. died May 30, 1574. His brother, who fled from Po- land, becam"fe king. 1574-1589. Henry III., a debauched weakling. The fifth civil vrar, during which Henry of Navarre re-as- sumed the Protestant faith, was concluded (1576) by conditions more favorable to the Huguenots than those of any previous peace. Peace of Chastenoy ( Paix de Monsieur, after the duke of Alen9on) May 6, 1576. Hence dissatisfaction among the Catholics. Origin of the Holy League (1576) which in alliance with Philip II. of Spain purposed the annihilation of the reformed party, and the elevation of the Guises to the throne. The king, out of fear of the League pro- claimed himself its head and forbade the exercise of the Protestant religion throughout France. The Protestants and moderate Catho- lics had joined forces in 1575 by the confederation of Milhaud (po- litique-Huguenot) . Sixth Civil War, wherein the Huguenots were defeated, but ob- tained favorable terms at the peace of Bergerac (or Poitiers, Sept. 17, 1577), as the king was unwilling to let the League become too powerful. In spite of the' renewal of the treaty of peace, not one of its articles was executed. This caused the Seventh Civil War {La guerre des amour eux) (1580), which was ended in the same year by the treaty of Fleix (near St. Foy), Nov. 26, in which the conditions granted the Huguenots in former treaties were confirmed. The death of Francis, duke of Alen^on (since the accession of Henry III., duke of Anjou), the younger brother of the king, in 1584 rendered the extinction of the house of Valois certain. As it was the intention of the League to exclude from the throne Henry of Navarre, who belonged to the reformed religion, and to give the crown to the latter's uncle, the Cardinal of Bourbon, and as the League meantime induced the king to revoke the concessions granted to the Huguenots, there broke out the 1585-1589. Eighth Civil War called the War of the Three Henrys {Henry III. of Valois, Henry of Navarre, Henry of Guise). The Catholic party triumphed in spite of the victory of Coutras (Oct. 20, 1587), gained by Henry of Navarre. Formation of the League of Sixteen at Paris, which purposed the deposition of the weak king. Guise entered Paris, was received with ac- clamation (" King of Paris ") ; the timid resistance of the king was broken by a popular insurrection (day of the Barricades, May 12, A. D. France, 323 la IJ P •5 2. g?3 LI % ass a_- - s p 9o Sf Si- 19 |5 3-°°— gV .13- lit loco 3p ]2.™p ?<3 *: go >? n ?•:- f^o 12. §2 •og* o 2 3 M % 2. |- ws2m a— o ' 2 ^~ t ^s 2^2.3 • * 5 5 3* 824 Modern History. A. d. 1588). Henry III. fled to Blois, where he summoned the estates of the kingdom (Etals-GenerauXy States General). Fmding no sup- port among them against the League, he caused Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis the Cardinal, to be murdered (Dec. 23, 1588). At this news, a revolt of the Catholic party broke out, headed by the brother of the murdered men, the duke of Mayenne. Henry III. fled to Henry of Navarre in the Huguenot camp, where he was mur- dered before Paris, at St. Cloud, by the monk Jacques Clement (July 31, t Aug. 2). Death of Catharine de' Medici (Jan. 5, 1589). Michael Montaigne, 1533-1592. 1589-1792. (1830.) House of Bourbon descended from St. Louis IX.'s younger son Rdberty count of Clermont, husband of Beatrice of Bourbon. 1589-1610. Henry IV. The Catholic party refused to recognize Henry and made the old cardinal of Bourbon king under the name of Charles X. (f 1590). Some wished the duke of Mayenne to be his successor, while others joined themselves to Philip II. of Spain, who laid claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by his third marriage with Eliz- abeth of Valois, sister of Henry III. Victory of Henry IV. over the duke of Mayenne at Arques (1589) and at the 1590. Battle of Ivry. March 14. Henry besieged Paris, which was relieved by Mayenne r.nd the duke of Parma. Henry abjured the reformed religion at St. Denis (1593) and was crowned at Chartres (1594). Brissac having thereupon surrendered Paris to him, the power of the League was broken. Not, however, until Henry, after public penance, by his ambassadors at Rome, had been freed from the papal ban, was he generally recognized (by Mayenne too). The civil wars of religion were ended by the 1598. Edict of Nantes, April 15. which gave the Huguenots equal political rights with the Catholics, but by no means secured them entire freedom of religious worship. The edict granted the exercise of the reformed religion to nobles having the right of criminal jurisdiction {seigneurs hauls jus- ticiers}, and to the citizens of a certain number of cities and towns, but prohibited it in all episcopal and archiepiscopal cities, at the court of the king, and in Paris, as well as within a circle" of twenty miles around the capital. Public offices were opened to the Huguenots and mixed chambers were established in four Parliaments (Paris, Toulouse, Grenoble, Bordeaux). The Huguenots obtained some forti- fied towns, and were recognized, to a certain extent, as an armed po- litical party. The Edict of Nantes was registered by the Parliament only after a long delay. Treaty of Vervins (May 2, 1598) with Spain ; restoration of all conquests to France. Adoption of measures looking to the improvement of the finances A, D. France, 325 and the general prosperity, which had gone to decay, especially by Rosny, afterwards duke of Sully (1560-1641). Fantastic plan of the king's (?) to establish a universal Christian republic in Europe, comprising six hereditary monarchies (France, England, Spain, Den- mark, Sweden, Lombardy), five elective monarches (the Empire, Papacy, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia), and four republics (Switzer- land, Italy, Venice, Belgium), which probably would have turned out to be a league against the too great power of the house df Haps- burg. Question of Cleves-Julich succession. Henry IV. supported the claims of Brandenburg. In the midst of great preparations for war, Henry was assassinated at Paris, 1610 (May 14), by the fanatic (Francois) RavaiUac. He was succeeded by his minor son, 1610-1643. Louis XIIL. nine years old. Regency of his mother, Mary d^ Medici (1610-1617). Sully removed from office ; the Italian Concini (^Marechal d'Ancre) was placed in control of affairs. Louis XIII., declared of age in 1614, was in fact all his life under the guidance of others. Summons of the States-General, 1614, being the last before the Revolution of 1789. Arrest and murder of Concini/ the queen mother banished to Blois (1617). The king under the in- fluence of his favorite, the duke of Luynes. By the mediation of Armand-Jean du Plessu (born 1585, in Poitou, 1607 bishop of Lucon, 1622 cardinal), duke of Richelieu, a treaty was concluded between Luynes and the queen mother (1619). New civil war. Contest of the crown with the nobility and the Huguenots. After the death of Luynes (1621) Mary de' Medici and her favorite, Richelieu, obtained control of affairs. The influence of the latter soon became supreme, and the queen-dowager quarreled with him. 1624-1642. Administration of Richelieu, whose influence over the kmg was henceforward unbroken. Numerous con- spiracies against Richelieu instigated by Gaston of Orleans, the king's brother. 1625. Revolt of the Huguenots under the dukes of Rohan and Sou- bise. 1627-1628. Siege of La Roohelle, under the personal supervision of Richelieu. In spite of the dispatch of three fleets from England to the aid of the Huguenots, the city surrendered Oct. 28, 1628, after a heroic resistance of fourteen months. Defeat of the duke of Rohan, and complete subjugation of the Huguenots, who hereafter were no longer an armed political party, but only a toler- ated sect. War in Italy with Spain ; subjugation of Savoy, Riche- lieu at the head of the army. Treaty of Cherasco (April 6, 1631). France renounced all conquests in Italy, but by a secret treaty with Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, Pignerol was surrendered to France (negotiators of these treaties, Richelieu's confidant. Father Joseph and the Pope's agent, Mazarin). A final attempt of Mary Medici to overthrow the cardinal igno- miniously failed (Nov. 11, 1630, the " Day of Dupes "). Mary died at Cologne, 1642. 326 Modern History. A. d. Conspiracy of Gaston and the duke of Montmorency. 1632, Oct. 30. Defeat of the allies and execution of Montmorency. Foundation of the French Academy (1635). 1631-48. Participation of France in the Thirty Years' War. See p. 314. 1641. Conspiracy of Henri d^Effiat, marquis of Cinq-Mars (" Mon- sieur le Grand "). Secret treaty with Spain. The plot was exposed by Richelieu. 1642. Dec. 4. Death of Richelieu. The effect of Richelieu's admmistration had been to break the power of the nobles and make the crown independent of the parlia- ments. He restored French influence in Italy, in the Netherlands, in Germany (311), and established it in Sweden. Richelieu laid the foundation of the power of Louis XIV. Louis XIII. died May 14, 1643. (Seep. 365.) § 6. ITALY. {Seep. 263.) The duchy of Milan, since 1556 (p. 306) an appanage of the Spanish crown, was held, nominally, as a fief of the empire. Venice. The discovery of the new route to the Indies struck at the root of the commercial prosperity of Venice, and her power was steadily de- clining during this period. The danger which tlireatened the repub- lic from the League of Cambray (1508), between the Pope, the emperor Maximilian, Louis XIL, and Ferduiand the Catholic, passed away as the Pope, Julius II. withdrew from the League in 1510, made his peace with the Venetians and induced Ferdinand the Catholic to join the Holy League, which had for its object the expulsion of the French from Italy. On the other hand the Turkish power confined Venice to the coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1570 the Turks at- tacked Cyprus, of which Venice had acquired possession in 1489 (p. 262). The victory of Lepanto, gained by Don John of Austria (p. 330), retarded the progress of the Turks but little. In 1573 Venice was forced to deliver Cyprus to them, and at the close of this period retained of all her possessions in Grecian waters, Candia, Paros, and the Ionian Islands only. Genoa. Genoa freed herself in 1529 from French supremacy^ under the doge, Andrea Doria, who gave the republic a new constitution. Unsuccessful conspiracy of Fiesco (Jan. 2, 1547). Gianettino Doria, the nephew of the doge, was murdered, and Andrea Doria was com- pelled to fly. The conspirators had got possession of nearly the whole city, when Fiesco was accidentally drowned. Return of the doge, restoration of the constitution. A. D. Italy, S27 Savoy. The dukes of Savoy, who also possessed Piedmont^ were the most powerful of the native dynasties of northern Italy. Nevertheless, during this period, Bern deprived them of the Waadtland, and they got into straits during the war between France and the empire. After the peace of Cateau-Camhresis (1559), Emmanuel Philibert was reinstated in his duchy. Florence. In the year in which Charles VIII. of France invaded Italy (1494), Peter de' Medici, son of Lorenzo, who had concluded a treaty with the king, was driven from the city. The Dominican monk Savonarola (born 1452, prior of San Marco, 1490) was leader of the democratic party in Florence ; asceticism for a short time fashionable in Flor- ence. Savonarola excommimicated, and executed (May 23, 1498). In 1512 the Medici were restored in consequence of the victory of the Holy League (pp. 300 and 318). In 1527 the Medici were a second time expelled, and the republic for a while restored. In 1530, how- ever, Charles V. appointed Alexander de^ Medici hereditary ruler lu Florence, and he soon assumed the ducal title. After his murder by his cousin, Lorenzino, Cosimo (^Cosmus)de' Medici hecs,me duke (1537). He incorporated the republic of Siena with his territory, and in 1569 was created grand duke of Tuscany by Pope Pius V. Under Cosi- mo II., Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) taught in Florence, who, in 1633, was forced to abjure the Copernican System by the Inquisition at Rome (" It does move though " i). The Papacy. The following popes of this period deserve mention : the debauched and criminal Alexander VI. (1492-1503), of the family of Borgia. His daughter was Lucrezia Borgia; his second son Ccesar Borgia, ruler of the Romagna; the warlike Julius II. (1503-1513); the schol- arly Leo X. (1513-1521) of the family of Medici^ a patron of art ; the fanatical Paul IV. (Caraffa, 1555-1559), upon whose advice Paul III. had established the Inquisition in 1542 ; Gregory XIII. (1572-1585), who revised the calendar by striking out leap year at the close of each century, excepting every fourth century ; the wise and severe Sixtus V. (1585-1590), who suppressed the banditti in the Papal States and adorned Rome. (Reerection of obelisks, completion of the dome of St. Peter's 2), Naples. Naples throughout this period was an appanage of Spain (since 1504, see p. 318). Insurrection of the fisherman, Tommaso AniellOf called Masaniello (1647), soon suppressed (f July 16). Most flourishing period of Italian art. Painters : Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) ; Raphael Santi (erroneously called Sanzio, 1483- 1 This saying:, it is now claimed, i'^ unauthenticated. — [Trans.] 2 Kanke, die rdmigchen Pdpste, 6th ed., 1878. 328 Modern History. A. D, 1520); Antonio Allegri, called Ccrrreggio (1491-1534) ; Michael Angela Bumarotti (1475-1564), also sculptor and architect ; Titian (1477- 1576); Paul Veronese (about 1535-1588). Poets: Ariosto (1474- 1533); Torquato Tasso {IM^imo). Politician: Macchiavelli (1^^ 1527). {Seep. 415.) § 7. SPANISH PENINSULA AND THE NETHERLANDS. {Seep. 276.) By the marriage of 1479-1516. Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon and Isabella 1474-1504. of Castile (p. 276), which was consummated before the accession of either to the throne, the way was prepared for the future union of the two kingdoms. 1492. Conquest of Grenada, capital of the last Moorish kingdom Jan. 2. in the peninsula. In the same year, discovery of America (p. 282), and consequent acquisitions on the other side of the ocean for the crown of Castile. Conquest of Naples (1501-1504, see p. 327) for the crown of Aragon. Annexation of the grandmaster- ships of the three military orders of Calatrava (1487), Alcantara (1494), and San Jago (1499), to the crown. Support given to the league of the cities {Hermcmdad) against the robber-nobles; (Spanish) Inquisition. Upon Isabella's death (1504) her daughter, Joannay wife of PkUip, archduke of Austria (p. 301), was the legal heiress of Castile. Her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, however, who had long planned the union of the two kingdoms in one kingdom of Spain^ obtained from the Cortes authority to carry on the government in place of his absent daughter. In 1506, Philip and Joanna went to Castile to expel Fer- dinand by force. Meeting of the two princes and treaty of Villafa- Jila, whereby the regency was granted to Philip. Shortly after the treaty Philip died suddenly (of poison ?), and Ferdinand resumed the regency (f 1516). Joanna, who was insane, was kept in strict con- finement for 49 years (f 1555), first by her father, afterwards by her son Charles.^ Ferdinand was succeeded in both kingdoms (at first as co-regent of his mother, in theory) by the son of Philip and Joanna. Netherlands. Preliminary : These provinces, originally inhabited by Batavians and other German tribes, formed a part of the empire of Charles the Great, and after the treaty of Mersen (870) belonged in great part to Germany, forming a dependence of the duchy of Lotharingia. The decline of the ducal power favored the growth of powerful counties and duchies, such as Brabant, Flanders^ Guelders, Holland, Zealand^. Hainaulty and the bishopric of Utrecht. After 1384, and during the fifteenth century, the provinces were brought under control of the dukes of Burgundy. 1 The view advanced by BerRcnroth [Karl V. und Johanna, in V. Sybel's Hist. Zeits., 1868), that Joanna was onlv declared insane from political reasons, has been clearly shown by other scholars\Qacliaxd, Boesler, Maurenbrecherj to rest on misunderstandings. A.. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 329 Philip n. the Bold, fourth son of John II., k. of France. In 1363 made duke of Burgundy (the duchy reverted to the crown, 1361, by the extinction of the first ducal line in the person of Philip I.). In 1369 m. Margaret, dan. and heiress of Louis III., c. of Flanders and Artois, f 1404. John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, 1404-1419. Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 1419-1467. Acquired Namur, by purchase, in 1425 ; in 1430, Brabant and Limburg, which had been bequeathed by Joanna, dau. of John III., d. of Brabant, to her great-nephew, Antoine, brother of John the Fearless ; in 1433, Holland, Hainault (Hennegau), Zealand, by cession from Jacqueline c. of Hoi- land (of the Bavarian line) ; in 1443, Luxemburg, by ces- sion from Elizabeth of Luxemburg, and by purchase ; ho also acquired Antwerp and Mechlin. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 1467-1477. Acquired Gelderland and Zutphen in 1472, by bequest from duke Arnold. Mary, f 1482 = Maximilian, arch- duke of Austria. Joanna, dau. of Ferdi- ■ nand of Arragon, and Isabella of Castile. Philip the Handsome, archduke of Austria, duke of Burgundy. Charles I. (V.) k. of Spain; archduke of Austria, d. of Burgundy, k. of Naples and Sicily, lord of Spanish America, emperor. They descended to the Hapsburg heirs of Charles the Bold, united and having a common states-general. In 1548 Charles V. annexed the seventeen provinces (Brabant, Limburg^ Luxemburg, Gelderland, Flan- ders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, East and West Friesland, MecJdin, Utrecht, Overyssel, Groningen) to the Bur* gundian circle of the empire. 1516-1556. Charles I. (as emperor, Charles V. p. 302). 830 Modern History. A. D. After suppressing a revolt in Castile he founded the absolute mon- archy, the Cort»s henceforth having no importance. In America con- quest of Mexico, Peru, Chili, New Granada (p. 283, etc.). Upon his abdication the Spanish lands and the colonies, the Netherlands, Franche-Comte, Naples, and Milan, descended to his son 1556-1598. Philip II., who married four times : 1. Mary of Portugal, mother of Don Carlos ; 2. Mary the Catholic, of Eng- land (p. 336); 3. Elizabeth of Valois (p. 318); 4. Anne, daughter of Maximilian II. War with France (p. 381). Bloody persecution of the Moors and the Protestants in Spain. Inquisition, autos da Je (i. e. acts of the faith). Conflict between the king and his heir, Don Carlos ; the lat- ter was arrested and died in prison (1568). Don John of Austriay a natural son of Charles I. (V.)» gained over the Turks the 1571, Oct. 7. Naval battle of Lepanto (on the Gulf of Corinth). 1568-1648. "War of Liberation in the Netherlands. Cause : The provinces of the Netherlands, which fell to Spain after the abdication of Charles I., rejoiced in the possession of ancient and important privileges. The estates (Staaten, etats) granted taxes and troops. The Spanish garrison, the penal edicts against heretics, the dread of the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition, led, during the rule of the regent Margaret of Parma (1559-1567), the natural sister of king Philip II., and her adviser, bishop Granvella, to a league of the nobles (the Compromis de Breda), headed by Philip Marnix of St. Aldegonde. Presentation of a petition by 300 nobles (Gueux, Beggars, a party name, originating in the contemptuous exclamation of the count of Barlaimont : Ce n'est qu'un tas de gueux). Insurrection of the lower classes. Destruction of images, and sack of the churches. These disturbances were opposed by Lamoral, count of Egmont (b. 1522, fought under Charles V. in Algiers, Germany, France ; led the cavalry at St. Quentin, and Gravelines, 1558 ; appointed governor of Flanders and Artois by Charles V. ; executed June 5, 1568), and William of Nassau, prince of Orange, the leaders of the higher nobil- ity in the Netherlands, who were soon no longer masters of the move- ment. Separation into a Catholic and a Protestant party. Although quiet was finally restored Philip sent the 1567. Duke of Alva with 20,000 Spaniards by way of Genoa, Savoy, and Franche Comte to the Netherlands. William of Orange and many thousand Netherlanders left their native land. Margaret resigned her regency and left the country. Creation of the " Council of Blood." The counts of Egmont and of Hoorn and many others were executed (1568). The estates of those who did not appear be- fore the tribunal were confiscated, including those of William of Orange. The latter and his brother, Louis of Orange, invaded the Netherlands, but were repulsed by Alva. The arbitrary taxes imposed by Alva (the tenth pfennig from the price of every article sold, the one hundredth part of every income), produced a new revolt. Capture of Brille, on the mouth of the Meuse by the Water Beggars (1572). Rapid spread of the insurrection, particularly in the northern provinces. I A. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 331 1573. Alva recalled at his own request. His successor, Luis de Re- quesens y Zuniga, gained a victory 1574. At Mookerheide, where two brothers of the prince of Orange fell, but could not suppress the revolt, and died (1576). The sack of the cities of Antwerp, Mastricht, Ghent, etc., by the royal troops brought about the 1576. PacUacation of Ghent, a treaty between all the provinces, whereby they united, without regard to national or religious difPereuces, to drive the Spanish soldiers from the country. The new governor, Don John of Austria (p. 330), was not recog- nized by the majority of the provinces. In spite of the new disputes which had broken out among them he was unable to quiet the country, and died, 1578. He was succeeded by Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma (1578-1592), a shrewd statesman and an excellent general. He reduced the southern Catholic provinces, which form modern Bel- gium, to submission on condition of the restoration of their old politi- cal freedom. The seven northern provinces, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland, Overyssel, con- cluded 1579. The Union of Utrecht, proclaimed their complete independence of Spain (in 1581) and settled the hereditary Statthaltership upon "William of Orange (the Silent, b. 1533, inherited the principality of Orange, 1544, ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the Netherlands and governor of Hol- land, Zealand and Utrecht, by Charles V., resigned his offices 1567, converted to Protestantism, elected commander-in-chief by the rebels, 1572, relieved Leyden, Oct., 1574, murdered by Balthazar Gerard, 10th Jidy, 1584), After his murder at Delft, his son, the seventeen- year-old Maurice of Nassau, became the head of the seven provinces. Successful campaign of Alexander of Parma ; capture of Antwerp. The help furnished the Hollanders by the English (Leicester) induced Philip to fit out the Great Armada, which was destroyed by terrible storms and the bravery of the English (1588). After a long contest with changing fortunes, there was concluded under 1598-1621. Philip III. 1609. The twelve years' truce, on the basis of possession at the time. Under the weak king, who was controlled by his fa- vorites, the dukes of Lerma and Uzeda, father and son, the power and the prosperity of Spain declined, exhausted by constant war, the demoralization consequent on the discovery of America and the intro- duction of American gold, and the expulsion of 800,000 Moors, the most learned and industrious inhabitants of the peninsula. After the expiration of the truce with Holland the war was resumed until under 1621-1665. Philip IV. The Republic of the United Provinces obtained the 1648« recognition of their independence from Spain and the empire at the Peace of Westphalia. 332 Modem History. A. D. Under Philip III. and IV. (minister Olivarez), decline of the Spanish power. Insurrection of the CatdUmianSy lasting twelve years. Revolt of Portugal. Portugal, under the illegitimate house of Burgundy (1385- 1580), descendants of John the Bastard (f 1433), son of Peter the Cruel, who was a descendant of Robert, duke of Burgundy, grandson of Hugh Capet. John, the Bastard, son of Pedro the Cruel. I I Edward. I Ferdinand. Emanuel. I Isabella m. John HI. Charles V. I I Lewis. Henry. Edward. Philip n. = Maria. John. The Prior k. of Spain, j I of Crato. Don Carlos. Sebastian. Beatrice, m. Charles III. d. of Savoy. Alfonso. Fernandoi. Fernanda James. Emanuel Fhilibertj d. of Satoy. Theodosius. I Maria m. Alexander of Parma. Ranuccio of Parma. Catharine John, Theodosius. John IV. Kings of Portugal in heavy type. Claimants (except Philip II.) in itahcs. 1495-1521. Emanuel the Great. Golden age. Acquisitions in the East Indies, South America (Brazil), and Northern Africa. Under his successors, decline of the Portuguese power. Sebastian fell in the unfortunate 1578. Battle of Alkassor'va. Morocco. After the death of his succes- sor, Henry, 1581-1640. Portugal became a Spanish province. Four (?) false Sebastians.'^ An almost bloodless revolution raised to tho throne of Portugal the duke 1640. John of Braganza, as John IV. (descended through his mother from the legitimate, through his father from the illegitimate son of John the Bastard). {See pp. 390, JtU.) 1 After the death of Henry (1580) there were five claimants for the crown (4 Portugal. A.. D. England and Scotland. 333 § 8. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. {Seep. 275.) 1485-1603. House of Tudor (pp. 273, 275). 1485-1509. Henry VH. Henry's first act was to imprison the Earl of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence. The first parliament (1485) secured the crown to Henry and his heirs. Five checks on the crown : 1. imposi- tion of new taxes and 2, the enactment of new laws without the consent of parliament prohibited ; 3. no man could be imprisoned without legal warrant ; 4. trial should be before twelve jurors in the county where the offense was committed, and there should be no ap- peal ; 5. officers of the crown were liable to trial for damages before a jury in case any person were injured by them, and no authority from the king could be pleaded. Violation of these checks. Rees- tablishmeut of the king's court (Star Chamber ? 1488), which took cognizance of forgery, perjury, fraud, libel, conspiracy, etc., gave sen- tence without the use of a jury, and inflicted fines and mutilations. 1487, The pretended earl of Warwick (Simnel) landed in England, but was defeated at Stoke (16 June, 1487), and became one of the king's scullions. 1488-1499. Attempts of Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming who person- ated the duke of York, to overthrow Henry. Disavowed by Charles VIII. in the peace of Estaples (Nov. 9, 1492) which ended the war in which Henry had engaged on account of the annexation of Brittany by Charles VIII. (1491), Perkin found a warm reception in Flanders from the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. Expelled from Flanders by a provision of the commercial treaty with England (1496 Magnus intercursus), Perkin fled to Scotland, where his claim was recognized. Perkin and James IV. of Scotland in- vaded England in 1496. In 1497 a formidable insurrection broke out in Cornwall on occasion of an imposition of a tax by parliament. It was suppressed by the defeat at Blackheath (June 22, 1497), and the leaders executed (Flammock). Peace with Scotland (Sept. 1497). Warbeck was soon taken and imprisoned in the Tower, where he escaped, but was recaptured. Plotting another escape with the earl of Warwick, both Perkin and Warwick were executed (1499). 1495. Statute of Drogheda (Poyning's law). 1. No Irish parliament should be held without the consent of the king of England. 2. No bill could be brought forward in an Irish parliament without his consent. 3. All recent laws enacted in the Eng- lish parliament should hold in Ireland. 1502. Marriage of Henry's eldest daughter, Margaret, with James IV., king of Scotland. Henry's distinguishing characteristic was his avarice ; by various extortions (£'?w/)son, Dudley, "Morton's Fork") he accumulated a for- tune of nearly £2,000,000. During this reign occurred the discovery of the West Indies by Columbus (1492) and that of North America by the Cabots. 334 Modern History. A. D. 1509-1547. Henry VIII., of a cruel disposition and variable temperament. He was six times married : 1. Catharine of Ar agon, widow of his brother Arthur, mother of Mary the Catholic (married June 3, 1509, divorced March 30, 1533). 2. Anne Boleyn, mother of Elizabeth (married Jan. 25, 1533, beheaded May 19, 1536). 3. Jane Seymour (married May 20, 1536, died after the birth of her son Edward VI., Oct. 24, 1537). 4. Anne of Cleves (married Jan. 6, 1540, divorced June 24, 1540). 5. Catharine Howard (married Aug. 8, 1540, beheaded Feb. 12, 1542) „ 6. Catharine Parr, widow of lord Latimer (married July 10, 1543, outlived the king). Henry united in his person the claim of both Lancaster and York. Execution of Empson and Dudley. 1511. Henry a member of the Holy League (p. 300), received from the Pope the title of " Most Christian King." Henry having laid claim to the French crown sent troops to Spain, which were unsuccessful (1512). In 1513 the king went to France in person and with Maximilian, the emperor, won the bloodless victory of 1513, Aug. 17. Guinegate, the " Battle of the Spurs " (p. 319). 1513, Sept. 9. Battle of Flodden Field. Defeat and death of James IV. of Scotland who was allied with France. 1514, Aug. Peace with France (Tournay ceded to England, after- wards (1518) bought by France for 600,000 crowns) and with Scotland. 1515, Thomas Wolsey, the king's favorite, chancellor (b. 1471, ap- pointed almoner and dean of Lincoln by Henry VII., member of the council 1510, bishop of Tournay 1513, bishop of Lin- coln and archbishop of York 1514, cardinal and chancellor 1515, papal legate 1517, surrendered the great seal 1529, f Nov. 28, 1530). 1520, June 7. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France near Calais (" Field of the Cloth of Gold "). 1.521. Execution of the duke of Buckingham on a charge of high treason. Buckingham was descended from Edward III. (p. 277). 1521. Henry wrote the " Assertion of the Seven Sacraments " in re- ply to Luther, and received the title of "Defender of the Faith " from Pope Leo X. After the battle of Pavia the relations between Henry and the emperor, which had been weakened by the double failure of the em- peror to secure the promised election of Wolsey as Pope, became so strained that war seemed inevitable, and a forced loan was assessed on the kingdom, which brought in but little. In 1523 an attempt to force a grant from parliament met with no success, but a rebellion was provoked which was suppressed only by abandoning the demand. 1527. Henry, desiring to divorce his wife in order to marry Anne Boleyn, alleged the invalidity of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, and appealed to Rome. The delays of the Pope and the scruples of Wolsey enraged the king, who deprived the latter of I A. D. ' England and Scotland. — Henry VIIL 335 the great seal and gave it to Sir Thomas More (1529). Sentence and pardon of Wolsey, who, however, died in disgrace (1530). At the suggestion of Cranmer the question was referred to the univer- sities of England and Europe, and a number deciding in the king's favor Henry married Anne Boleyn. Henry also broke with the Church of Rome. Confiscation of the annates^ followed by the res- ignation of Sir Thomas More (1532). The Pope excommunicated Henry and annulled his divorce from Catharine, which Cranmer, now archbishop of Canterbury, had pro- nounced. After the birth of Elizabeth parliament confirmed the divorce, recognized Elizabeth as heir to the throne (1534), and se- cured the succession to other children of Anne in case of the death of the princess. 1534. Act of Supremacy, appointing the king and his succes- sors " Protector and only Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy of England" (1531). Refusal to take the oath of supremacy was made high treason, under which vote Sir Thomas More was condemned and beheaded (1535). Thomas Crom-well, a former servant of Wolsey, and his suc- cessor in the favor of the king, now vicegerent in matters relating to the church in England, issued a commission for the inspection of monasteries which resulted in the suppression, first of the smaller (1536), and afterwards (1539) of the larger monasteries, and the confiscation of their property. Abbots now ceased to sit in parlia- ment. 1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of adultery. Princess Elizabeth proclaimed illegitimate by parliament. The crown was secured to any subsequent issue of the king, or should that fail, was left to his disposal. 1536. Publication of TyndaWs translation of the Bible, by CoverdaUy under authority from the king. 1536. Suppression of the Catholic rebellion of Robert Aske, aided by Reginald Pole, son of Margaret, countess of Salisbury, daughter of George, duke of Clarence. 1539. Statute of the Six Articles, defining heresy ; denial of any of these positions constituted heresy : 1. Transubstantiation ; 2. Communion in one kind for laymen ; 3. Celibacy of the priesthood ; 4. Inviolability of vows of chastity ; 5. Necessity of private masses ; 6. Necessity of auricular confession. 1540. Execution of Crom-well, on a charge of treason. Cromwell had fallen under Henry's displeasure by his advocacy of the king's marriage with Anne of Cleves, with whom the king was ill pleased. 1542. Ireland made a kingdom. 1542. War with Scotland. James V. defeated at the Nov. 25. Battle of Solway Moss. James V. died shortly afterward. Henry proposed a marriage between his son, Edward, and James's infant daughter, Mary, •836 Modern History. A. d, but the Scottish court preferred an alliance with France, whereupon Henry concluded an alliance with the emperor. 1544. Parliament recognized Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the crown, in the event of the death of Edward without issue. 1545. Invasion of France. Coin debased ; property of guilds con- fiscated. 1547. Execution of the Earl of Surrey, on charge of high treason. Henry VIII. died Jan. 28, 1547, leaving a will, wherein the crown was left to the heirs of his sister, Mary, duchess of Suffolk, in the event of failure of issue by all of his children. 1547-1553. Edward VI., ten years of age ; his uncle, earl of Hertford, was appointed lord protector and duke of Somerset, and assumed the government. Eepeal of the six articles (1547). Introduction of reformed doc- trines. 1549. Execution of lord Seymour, brother of the duke of Somerset, who wished to marry the princess Elizabeth. Establishment of uniformity of service by act of parliament ; introduction of Edward VI. 's first prayer-book (second, 1553). Fall of the protector, Somerset, who was superseded by lord "Warwick, afterwards duke of Northumberland (1550). Exe- cution of Somerset (1552). 1551. Forty-two articles of religion published by Cranmer. 1553. Edward assigned the crown to Lady Jane G-rey, daughter of his cousin, Frances Grey, eldest daughter of Mary, daughter of Henry VII., to the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth, daughters of Henry VIII. Lady Jane was married to the son of the duke of Northumberland. Death of Edward VI July 6, 1553. 1553-1558. Maxy the Catholic. The proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen by Northumber- land meeting with no response, Northumberland, Lady Jane, and others were arrested. Execution of Northumberland (Aug. 22, 1553). Restoration of Catholic bishops. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, author of the Six Articles, lord chancellor. 1553. Marriage treaty between Mary and Philip of Spain, son of Charles V., afterwards Philip II. Pliilip was to have the title of king of England, but no hand in the government, and in case of Mary's death could not succeed her. This transaction (" The Spanish marriage ") being unpopular an insurrection broke out, headed by Sir Thomas Careia, the duke of Suffolk, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. The sup- pression of the rebellion was followed by the execution of Lady Jane Grey (Feb. 12, 1554), and her husband. Lady Jane was an ac- complished scholar (Roger Ascham) and had no desire for the crown. Imprisonment of Elizabeth who was soon released on the intercession of the emperor. 1554. July 25. Marriage of Mary and Philip. 1555. Cruel persecution of the Protestants (^Bonner, bishop of Lon- A. D. England and Scotland, ,987 3" l-?i-:?|-||| ,(B Ml. 11- ^^ig^ I'? >§■- 1^3 ^1-' of ^ -0= 2 M K3hn >i p.