^"^ i ■^lyti ^ ^^^^^^^I^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^I B Hi IHI ^^^^^^^3i^^^^^^^lC^^^^^^I 1^9 BH^ i ■ V^ ^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/eskimoaboutberinOOnelsrich THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT BY ED'WARD ^VILLIAM NELSON EXTRACT FROM THE EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOU)GY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1900 n^ i\^^ iij^7 SMfTHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY WASHINGTON, Jamiar- 4, 1^0.1. Dear Sir: In rasponsa to the request of the author I have pleasure in sendin^s you a copy of a menoir on "The Bsk.lmo about Bering Strait," by Edward William Nelson, reprinted in advance from the eighteenth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Yours with i^^ The Library, University of California, Berkely, California, ACCOMPANYING PAPERS 18 ETH 1 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRUT EDWARD WII^LIAM ISTELSON CONTENTS Page Introtlnctory 19 Sketch of tbe western Eskimo 23 Geographic features of their ranjje 23 . Distribution of tribes and dialects 21 Physical characteristics 26 Clothing 30 Garments in general 30 Waterproof garments 36 Ear-Haps 37 Gloves and mittens 38 Foot-wear 40 Boots 40 Socks and boot-pads 43 Clothing bags ... .^ ^ 43 Personal adornment -. 44 Labrets 1 44 Tattooing 50 Meads and earrings 52 Hair ornaments and combs 57 Bracelets 58 Belts and belt buttons 59 Utensils and implements 63 Lamps 63 Dippers, ladles, and spoons 65 Wooden dishes, trays, and buckets 70 Pestles 73 Blubber hooks and carriers 73 Bags for water and oil 73 Rakes 74 Root picks 75 Bone breakers 75 Fire-making implements » 75 Snow beaters 77 Snow shovels and ice picks 78 Mallets 79 Implements used in arts and manufactures 80 Ivory and bone working tools 80 Drills, drill-bows, and caps 81 Kni ves '. 85 Chisels 86 Polishing and finishing tools 87 Wedges and mauls 88 Arrowshaft straighteners 88 Beaver- tooth tools 89 Birch-bark tools , SO 5 • 6 CONTENTS [ETH.ANx. 18 Sketch of the western Eskimo — Continnetl. Iinplenieiits us2 The Raven, the Whale, and the Mink 464 The Red Bear (from St Michael and Norton sound) 467 The Giant J 471 The One-who-finds-nothiug 474 The Lone Woman 479 The circling of cranes 480 The dwarf people 480 The Sun and the Moon (from St Michael) 481 The Sun and the Moon (from the Lower Yukon) 482 Origin of land and people 482 The bringing of the light by Raven 483 The Red Bear ( from Andreivsky ) 485 The last of the Thunderbirds 186 The Land of the Dead - - ■ - 188 The strange boy 490 Origin of the Yu-gi-yhTk' or I-tt-ka-tah' festival 494 Origin of winds 497 The strong man 499 The Owl-girl 499 Tale of Ak'-chlk-chi»'-gfik 499 The discontented Grass-plant 505 The fireball 510 The Land of Darkness 511 The Raven and the Marmot 514 The shaman in the moon 515 The Man-worm 516 Migration legend f>16 Origin of the people of Diomede islands and of East cape, Siberia 517 ERKATA Plate LIII. Change "seal spear" in the title to "bird spear," Plate LVIII. Change "bird spear" in the title to "seal spear." Plate XCVII. The mask shown in this plate should be inverted. ILLUSTRATIONS' Page Platk I. Group of Kinugunnit from Port Clarence 19 II. Distribution of the Eskimo about Bering strait 23 III. Maleniut family from .Shaktolik 25 IV. Kiiiugumut male, Su-ku-uk, age 25 27 V. Kinugumut male, Komik-seder, age 23. . .... 29 YI. Kinuguuiut male. Kyo-kuttsee, age 16 31 VII. Kinugumut male, Iser-kyner, age 20 33 VIII. Kinugumut leraale, Kok-suk, age 23 • 35 IX. Kinugumut female, Unger-kee-klnk, age 22 37 X. Kinuguumt female, age 22 39 XI. Siberian Eskimo: a, Womau of Mechigme bay. h, Womau of East cape ^ 40 Xll. Eskimo men — Mechigme bay, Siberia 43 XIII. Cape Prince of Wales and Icy cape uien 45 XIV. Typically dressed Avomeu and children from East cape, Siberia 47 XV. Typical-dress of Kaviagmut and Ku§kokwogmut men and womeu. .. 49 XVI. Man's birdskin frock. (64273) 50 XVII. Front and back of man's deerskin frock. (49107) 53 XVII I. Front and back of woman's frock. (7510) 55 XIX. Front of man's fishskin frock. (38817) 56 XX. Men's gloves: 1 (64271), 2 (1728), 3 (48135), 4 (64287), 5 (44350), 6 (38454), 7 (48101) '.... 58 XXI. Hoots, waterproof mittens, and straw socks: 1 (49082), 2 (38814), 3 (48127), 4 (43345), 5 (49083), 6 (48381), 7 (48132), 8 (38871), 9 (38779), 10(129822), 11 (43315), 12(49164) 60 XXII. Labrets: 1 (176070), 2(31277), 3 (176069), 4 (36869), 5(36871), 6(176074), 7 (37038), 8 (16210), 9 (43757), 10 (16205), 11 (16204), 12 (16203), 13 (76681), 14 (176067), 15 (76678), 16 (48749), 17 (33506), 18 (37663), 19 ' (44903), 20 (44902), 21 (48898), 22 (45200), 23 (176068), 24 (63839), 25 (44130) 62 XXIII. Kotzebne sound Malemut men and women with labrets. 64 XXIV. Earrings: 1 (4573), 2 (48306), 3 (38170), 4 (37271), 5 (4574), 6 (37270), 7 (4572), 8 (38051), 9 (24701), 10 (38168), 11 (4569), 12 (43667), 13 (36839), 14 (37517), 15 (37264), 16 (4570), 17 (4568), 18 (36862), 19 (44912) 66 X .\ v. Earriugs and other ornaments : 1 (37002), 2 (37745), 3 (37006), 4 (37007), 5 (43743), 6 (37003), 7 (36003), 8 (38417), 9 (37258), 10 (37254), 11 (38410), 12 (37356), 13(43730) - 68 XXVI. Women and children of Cape Smith 70 ' The ii;;ure8 in parentheses ibllowiuj^ the titles of the illustrations refer to the uiinibcrs of the objects in the catalog of the United States National Museum. 9 10 ILLUSTRATIONS 1eth.anx.18 Piige Plate XXVII. Belt fasteners : 1 (44428), 2 (3720(5), 3 (37043), 4 (48629), 5 (37212), 6 (44641), 7 (36920), 8 (43724), 9 (37034), 10 (43880), 11 (45183), 12 (36911), 13 (63835), 14 (44529), 15 (43723), 16 (37468), 17 (43719), 18 (37484), 19 (38565), 20 (37833), 21 (37012), 22 (48194), 23 (37990), 24 (43615), 25 (37209), 26 (37332), 27 (37989), 28 (38553), 29 (37706), 30 (37333) 72 XXVIII. Lamps and pots: 1 (63545), 2 (38078), 3 (64222), 4 (63544), 5 (6356(1), 6 (30761), 7 (63570). 8 (49196), 9 (63543), 10 (127018), 1 1 (49110), 12 (44338), 13 (63548; 74 XXIX. Ladles and dippers: 1 (38629), 2 (45054), 3 (45100), 4 (38631), 5 (38635), 6 (33062), 7 (45007), 8 (38604), 9 (45513), 10 (63575), 11 (63576), 12 (48129) 76 XXX. Spoons and ladles: 1 (33280), 2 (63227), 3 (37340), 4 (37475), 5 (37116), 6 (35961), 7 (63832), 8 (37118), 9 (36355), 10 (35959), 11 (36358), 12 (38062), 13 (36359), 14 (36357), 15 (t)3278), 16 (38508), 17 (38527), 18 (4.5051), 19 (38503), 20 (43491), 21 (38637), 22 (35960), 23 (37120), 24 (38632), 25 (38638) 78 XXXI. Trays and pestles: 1 (63719), 2 (127007), 3 (48844), 4 (38678), 5 (37868), 6 (38683), 7 (38844), 8 (38677), 9 (127019) 80 XXXII. Trays and bnckets: 1 (63243), 2 (38654), 3 (38685), 4 (33066), , 5 (37143), 6 (37355), 7 (63245), 8 (38642) 82 XXXIII. Implements and ntensils: a, Water bag, mouthpieces, blubber hook, and carrier: 1 (44605), 2 (35982), 3 (37432), 4 (36488), 5 (33213), 6 (43954), 7 (30774), 8 (16135), 9 (37375), 10 (38708), 11 (30773), 12 (33203). b, Koot picks : 1 (16132), 2 (44414), 3 (33081) 84 XXXIV. Fire-making implements: 1,2,3 (33166), 4, 5(36325), 6 (49067), 7,8 (37961), 9 (38601) 86 XXXV. Snow shovel, pick, rake, and maul: 1 (63600), 2 (48994), 3 (63650), 4 (63601) 88 XXX VI. a. Ivory workingtools : 1 (63274), 2 (65483), 3 (37980), 4 (63319), 5 (63316). 6 (43821), 7 (33604), 8 (48087), 9 (46145), 10 (48179). b, Drill bows: 1 (44206), 2 (44209), 3 (44467), 4 (33189), 5 (33186), 6 (33191), 7 (45017), 8 (63804), 9 (44208), 10 (48021), 11 (63622) 90 XXXVII. Drills, drill caps, and cords: 1 (45563), 2 (126986), 3 (33171), 4 (63323), 5 (33170), 6 (38798), 7 (89625), 8 (89627), 9 (44203), 10 (33172), 11 (38084), 12 (63720), 13 (48.585), 14 (48565), 15 (49177), 16 (45.520), 17 (63(563), 18 (33147), 19 (.33174), 20 (37962), 21 (336.53), 22 (33149), 23 (36321), 24 (48927), 25 (16176), 26(45383), 27 (36322), 28 (44.561), 29 (126995). 30 (63.506) 92 XXXVIII. Wood-working tools: 1 (48705), 2 (38292), 3 (46147). 4 (48706), 5 (36427), 6 (38494), 7 (44981), 8 (48704), 9 (36508), 10 (48552), 11 (38201), 12 (36420), 13 (45150), 14 (48542), 15 (43883), 16 (45163),17 (33026),18 (36554), 19 (32882), 20(48847 ), 21 (36366), 22 (64154), 23 (38294), 24 (89634), 25 (64155), 26 (32878), 27 (63320), 28 (45488), 29 (63318), 30 (36507), 31 (48291) 94 XXXIX. Wedges and adzes: 1 (38836), 2 (16067), 3 (44601), 4 (48873), 5 (63619), 6 (48872), 7 (127023), 8 (48182), 9 (38258}, 10 (3.3082), 11 (37865), 12 (45069), 13 (3,3260\ 14 (33083) 96 XL. Arrowshaftstraighteners and point setters: 1 (33039), 2 (63723), 3 (44383), 4 (44415), 5 (33048), 6 (38492), 7 (64159), 8 (48680), 9(48723), 10 (63790), 11 (43924), 12 (44745) 99 XLI. Tool bag and handles: 1 (64151), 2 (44169), 3 (44398), 4 (48531), 5 (63305), 6 (48529), 7 (48089) 101 >>E's'>Nl ILLUSTRATIONS H Page Platk XLII. Tool and trinket boxes : 1 (49103), 2 (63240), 3 (36240). 4 (37561), 5 (43887), 6 (36239), 7 (36243), 8 (36241), 9 (49015), 10 (36244), 11 (36246) 102 XLIir. Bu< ket and box handles: 1 (44691), 2 (48685), 3 (63824), 4 (48270), 5 (38752), 6 (3aS75), 7 (48461), 8 (63809j, 9 (24431), 10 (38776), 11 (44716), 12 (63801), 13 (33279), 14 (48137), 15 (48164), 16 (33273), 17 (43820), 18 (38751), 19 (33220), 20 (63884), 21 (129218), 22 (44190), 23 (48163), 24 (43809), 25 (63879), 26 (44L76) 104 XLIV". Thimble guards, needle-cases, and boot-sole crea«ers: 1 (48496). 2 (63421), 3 (36459), 4 (364.o6), 5 (36463), 6 (364ft4), 7 (48299), 8 (36455), 9 (36453), 10 (36454), 11 (44011), 12 (48664), 13 (36452), 14 (44340), 15 (43861). 16 (64165), 17 (63827), 18 (64167), 19 (48570), 20(44017), 21 (37237), 22 (36885), 2 { (36878), 24 (45459), 25 (24484), 26 (33462), 27 (36880), 28 v48560), 29(45168), 30 (64164 s 31 (38448), 32 (33699), 33 (43505), 34 (48980), 35 (36742), 36 (36758), 37 (37807), 38 (33214), 39 (36721), 40 (44137), 41 (48546), 42 (63806). 43(16189), 44 (48289), 45 (38364), 46 (38449), 47 (43738), 48 (33677), 49 (45140), 50 (43389 >, 51 (48543) 106 XL^'. "Housewives" and fjistenmgs: 1 (48963), 2 (37778), 3 (43662), 4 (36690), 5 (37791), 6 (36695), 7 (37786), 8 (37189), 9 (37783), 10 (45142), 11 (43663), 12 (49001). 13 (37319), 14 (64288), 15 (38691), 16 (44021), 17(38198), 18 (48795), 19(37767), 20 (38221), 21 (38402^ 22 (36419), 23 (3ff310), 24 (37457), 25 (38376), 26 (38241), 27 (37739), 28 (35972), 29 (43694), 30 (38387), 31 (16343), 32 (38690) 108 XLVI. Bodkins: 1 (33251), 2 (37304), 3 (38385), 4 (37752), 5 (37621), 8 (36286), 7 ,36631), 8 (36634), 9 (43535), 10 (36632), 11 (37776), 12 (43388), 13 (36626), 14 (48798), 15 (48948), 16 (38495) 110 XLVir. Fish and skinning knives : 1 (36315), 2 (63771), 3 (63773), 4 37957), 5 (43892), 6 (36506), 7 (48829), 8 (48828), 9 (38256), 10 (43482) . . 112 XLVin. Thread- and cord-iuaking implements: «, Grass combs: 1 (44779), 2 (44777), 3 (44419), 4 (48120), 5 (33145), 6 (63657), 7 (48842), 8 (38079), 9 (48877), 10 (48918). b, Thread shuttles and needles: 1 (24463), 2 (24464), 3 (36449), 4 (48261), 5 (48287), 6 (43740), 7 (43742), 8 (36448) 114 XLIX. Skin scrapers: 1 (30825), 2 (63851), 3 (64181), 4 (63850), 5(48631), 6(ti3868), 7(48624), 8(44084), 9(63849), 10(44983), 11 (44982), 12 (48882). 13 (43408), 14 (64176), 15 (38252), 16 (63405), 17 (38828), 18 (33086), 19 (38485), 20 (43927) 116 L. Skin-oleaning tools: 1 (43433), 2 (32890), 3 (38755), 4 (43767), 5 (48256), 6(36520), 7 (44771), « (6.3800), 9 (63353i, 10 (63351), 11 (63833), 12 (63666), 13 (37967), 14 (45730), 15 (32885), 16 (45105), 17(48982), 18 (48549) 118 LI. Nets, snares, and traps: 1 (38622), 2 (33716), 3 (43291), 4 (44255), 5 (126033), 6 (46072), 7 (37651), 8 (63815), 9 (33820), 10 (33812), 11 (126993), 12 (63590), 13 (63590), 14 (63258), 15 (126993), 16 (38444) 122 LII. Hraining clubs and seal-capturing implements: 1 (63745^, 2 (63676), 3 (38476), 4 (33143), 5 (37598), 6 (63270), 7 (63788), 8 (63787), 9 (48503), 10 (48167), 11 (33143), 12 (48561), 13 (45113), 14 (38500), 15 (63777), 16 (44411), 17 (45003), 18 (45005), 19 (45047), 20 (63876), 21 (63781), 22 (44142), 23 (04218), 24 (127013), 25 (46355), 26 (63780) 126 LI 11. St Michael hnnter casting a seal spear 135 12 ILLUSTRATIONS [i:th. an.v.18 Platk LI V. Small seal spears iukI lines : 1 (175G69), 2 (33980), 3 (3G110), 4 (33872), 5 (36103), 6 (37350), 7 (43748), 8 (36081), 9 (175673), 10 (160337) .. 137 lA . Spears ami lances: «, Larjie spears: 1 (33911), 2 (29780), 3 (48150), 4 (33373), 5 (36067), 6 (33888), 7 (45415), 8 (43429). b, Lances: 1 (175672), 2 (48379), 3 (45419), 4 (45431), 5 (37388), 6 (37389) . 139 LVI. Hunting and fishing apparatus : a, Float, float-plugs, and nioutli- pieces: 1 (37820), 2 (37239), 3 (44627), 4 (36499), 5 (37822), 6 (36498), 7 (43981), 8 (44306), 9 (43509), 10 (44629), 11 (45169), 12 (44305), 13 (43510), 14 (44770), 15 (37329), 16 (36209), 17 (33298), 18 (63340), 19 (44285), 20 (33452), 21 (33451), 22 (36495), 23 (63663), 24 (44284), 25 (37818), 26 (33627), 27 (36209), 28 (44432), 29 (43515), 30 (45126), 31 (63342). b, Cord attacbers: 1 (16192), 2 (37054), 3 (37060), 4 (.37068), 5 (37824), 6 (37052), 7 (38149), 8 (48317), 9 (.37055), 10 (37036), 11 (129271), 12 (44709), 13 (37064), 14 (43624), 15 (336.50), 16 (49009), 17 (43382), 18 (33630), 19 (38006), 20 (37218), 21 (.37228), 22 (33445), 23 (37057) . 142 LVI I. Objects used in hunting: o. Lance points, etc. : 1 (48389), 2 (43758), 3 (37657), 4 (48181), 5 (43870), 6 (38517), 7 (36294), 8 (44051), 9 (.37618), 10 (36312), 11 (44217), 12 (37662), 13 (63863), 14 (44321), 15 (126915), 16 (.37390), 17 (38459), 18 (38607), 19 (46076), 20 (16173), 21 (331.59), 22 (44657), 23 (36333), 24 (37.389), 25 (37388), 26 (37581), 27 (37390). b, Spear heads, points, linger-rests, etc. : 1 (44405), 2 (63497), 3 (126912), 4 (16125), 5 (37377), 6 (44C99), 7 ( 14703), 8 (44746), 9 (.3852»), 10 (48820), 11 (33632), 12 (48471). 13 (63334), 14 (36343), 15 (37951), 16 (44421), 17 (43461), 18 (43461), 19 (48276), 20 (44077), 21 (45171), 22 (43865), 23 (45173), 24 (63842), 25 (63844), 26 (63843), 27 (33465), 28 (44812), 29 (45170), 30 (37671), 31 (48293), .32 (33611), 33 (37417), 34 (36097) 148 L^■III. St Michael man casting a bird spear 151 I. IX. Bird spears: 1 (.36139), 2 (33879), 3 (48387), 4 (48354), 5 (36129), 6 (45426), 7 (33845), 8 (48350), 9 (29852), 10 (33848), 11 (36076). .. 153 LX. J50W8: 1 (36038), 2 (36033), 3 (33886), 4 (160341), 5 (43679), 6 (36034), 7 (48374), 8 (33884), 9 (73172), 10 (45736), 11 (36029) 155 LXI. Hunting and war implements: a. Arrows for large game and for war : 1 (126990), 2 (176093 a), 3 (63.584), 4 (176093 (/), "> (45433), 6 (176093/>), 7 (129.327), 8 (16415), 9 (36179), 10 (16415), 11 (63584), 12 (63584 «)• b, Arrowpoints, strengtbeners for bows and quivers, and wrist-guards: 1 (482.59), 2 (48974), 3 (63374), 4 (33634), 5 (49065), 6 (48717), 7 (48200), 8 (38530), 9 (63860), 10 (43350), 11 (44078), 12 (6.3331), 13 (63276), 14 (63328), 15 (63326), 16 (46097), 17 (48446), 18 (63375), 19 (44079), 20 (63755), 21 • (43872), 22 (6.3864). 23 (63753), 24 (36300), 25 (44048), 26 (38450), 27 (24596). i; Bird arrows and quiver: 1 (36140), 2 (176094a), 3 (45432). 4 (33833), 5 (33821), 6 (.33824), 7 (33827), 8 (176095) .... 1.58 LXII. Boxes for arrowpoints and paints: 1 (33015), 2 (44458), 3 (.33019), 4 (44450), 5 (48253), 6 (37557), 7 (38475), 8 (24607), 9 (33024), 10 (45514), 11 (24347), 12(43489), 13 (38336), 14 (37342), 15 (482.52), 16 (37342), 17(43485) 162 LXIII. objects used with guns and iu bunting: 1 (49187), 2 (33209), 3 (44326), 4 (44612), 5 (33210), 6 (44117), 7 (43977), 8 (36323). 9 (44773), 10 (4.3512), 11 (36407), 12 (43513), 13 (63349), 14 (64197), 15 (37433), 16 (36486), 17 (43923), 18 (43854), 19 (48134), 20 (44772), 21 (44966), 22 (38100), 23 (4.3490), 24 (48450), 25 (37966), 26 (.36490), 27 (37363), 28 (33079), 29 (44963), 30 (4438"^). 31 (36026),32 (44327), 33 (43480) '..... 164 NELSON] ILLUSTRATIONS 13 Page Plate LXIV. Hunting helmets, visors, and sdow goggles: 1 (44328), 2 (38659), 3 (44330), 4 (38658), 5 (72906), 6 (32945), 7 (63626), 8 (44256), 9 (32942), 10 (46137), 11 (63825), 12 (63269), 13 (J8996), 14 (36351), 15 (33136), 16 (37351), 17 (45072), 18 (160337), 19 (44349), 20 (38718), 21 (38711), 22 (38713) 166 LXV. Nephrite knife sharpener, dagger, and sheath: 1 (48586), 2, 3 (176072) ^ 170 LXYI. Curd or drag handles: 1 (37693), 2 (44537), 3 (48190), 4 (33620), 5 (63889), G (38o56), 7 (48567), 8 (44885), 9 (45231), 10 (48666), 11 (45176), 12 (44890), 13 (43970), 14 (33657), 15 (45026), 16 (37384), 17 (46162), 18 (44191), 19 (44151) 173 LXVII. Ice pick, scoops, and fish spears: 1 (48344), 2 (48343), 3 (33860), 4 (36070), 5 (49051), 6 (49049), 7 (49141), 8 (4^142), 9 (36024), 10(33894) 175 LXVIII. Fishing implements: 1 (16303), 2 (44096), 3 (37349), 4 (37348), 5 (63513), 6 (38377), 7 (33037), 8 (33036), 9 (33376), 10(37946), 11 (45115), 12 (44930), 13 (48298), 14 (37253), 15 (38413), 16 (36378), 17 (37253), 18 (44745), 19 (43852), 20 (63284). 21 (43401), 22 (63265), 23 (33915). 24 (45402), 25 (33816), 26 (45441), 27 (33900), 28 (33899), 29 (33038), 30 (44075), 31(33915), 32(63513) • 176 LXIX. Fishhooks and sinkers: 1 (46318), 2 (46264), 3 (37413), 4 (44370), 5 (64199), 6 (45255), 7 (44482), 8 (45261), 9 (49172), 10 (44475), 11 (49172), 12 (44509), 13 (44953), 14 (44508), 15 (64188), 16 (63630), 17 (44125), 18 (48305). 19 (44954), 20 (44493), 21 (63634), 22 (44371), 23 (44480), 24 (44371), 25 (126983), 26 (44939), 27 (449.-58), 28 (63512), 29 (126984), 30 (38816), 31 (126989), 32 (63897), 33 (126989a) 178 LXX. Objects used in lishing: 1 (45422), 2 (48998), 3 (37347), 4 (48899), 5 (63377), 6 (63737), 7 (63744), 8 (38808), 9 (38867), 10 (127943), 11 (38498), 12 (49148), 13 ^32988), 14 (176092), 15 (38825), 16 (33138) , 184 LXXI. Setting fish trap throngh the ice on the Yukon, near Ikogmnt. . 187 LXXII, Net-making implements : 1 (43967), 2 (49183), 3 (63304), 4 (63305), 5 (43811), 6 (36373), 7 (48539), 8 (44487), 9 (37428), 10 (49004), II (48283), 12 (44202), 13 (44996), 14 (63652), 15 (48832), 16 (33176), 17 (33257), 18 (36413), 19 (44385), 20 (44607)^ 21 (48722), 22 (48460), 23 (44569), 24 (33267), 25 (38276), 26(45110) 190 LXXIII. Net-making implements: 1 (36681), 2 (33050), 3 (37459), 4 (36416), 5 (36398), 6 (44413), 7 (48726), 8 (38662), 9 (37927), 10 (37928), 11 (126988), 12 (63307), 13 (19408), 14 (44787), 15 (49013), 16 (38211), 17 (48938), 18 (44448), 19 (48286), 20 (63654), 21 (49000), 22 (33095), 23 (44994), 24 (44573), 25 (44463), 26 (45014), 27 (48583), 28 (38501) 192 LXXIV. Objects of grass and spruce root: 1 (37603), 2 (37926), 3 (44234), 4 (36190), 5 (38204), 6 (32977), 7 (35962), 8 (32968), 9 (166949), 10 (127890), 11 (176077), 12 (176078), 13 (38467), 14 (32964), 15 (32945) 502 LXXV. Malenuit family with dog sled 205 LXXVI. Model of sled frame with other objects used in transportation : 1 (63587), 2 (63656), 3 (43849), 4 (63371), 5 (127004), 6 (44375), 7 (63361), 8 (49076), 9 (44736), 10 (63829), 11 (63698), 12 (43857), 13 (48725), 14 (16251), 15 (49146), 16 (48104) 208 LXX VII. Model of umiak with matting sail. (38882) 217 14 ILLUSTRATIONS |kth .\nn.18 Page Platk LXXVIII. Model of uuiiak frame and appnitenauces of umiak andkaiak ii.a;23. Mallets: 1 (48993), 2 (48909), 3 (48885) 79 24. Wood chisels: 1 (43737), 2 (36397) 87 2.5. Knife sharpeners: 1 (43858), 2 (.33047), 3 (46109), 4 (63529), 5 (43817). 90 26. Flint flakers: 1 (6.3786), 2 (64153), :! (37600), 4 (37615), 5 (48554) 91 27. Wooden trinket box. (35955) 96 28. .Trinket box. (49075) 98 29. Boot-sole creaser. (7521) 108 30. Sinew twisters. (44688) Ill 31. Sinew spinner froai St Lawrence island 112 32. Stretched sealskin , 116 33. Method of folding sealskin 117 34. Model of a deer snare. (18208) 119 35. Etching on ivory sliowing deer snares. (7521) 120 36. (lame spits. (38488) 121 37. Fox or wolf trap Avith sinew spring. (7510) 122 38. Mannottrap. (33146) 125 39. Sealskin float. (129381, old number 48330) 141 40. Cord attacher. (7508) 144 41. (;ord attacher, obverse and reverse. (7509) 145 42. Spearpoints for birds and flsh: 1 (38499). 2 (38783), 3 (44574), 4 (43361), 5 (126916),6 (e3.S3o),7 (45519), 8 (45737) 150 16 ILLUSTHATIOXS [kth. ann. la Page Fignn-43. Throwing sticks: 1 (49001), 2 (38fi70), 3 (33897). 4 (36013), 5 (24355), 6 (4539(j), 7 (49002), 8 (168581), 9 (16G94()), 10 (15644), 11 (36018).... 154 44. Fish arrows: 1 (160341), 2 (43680), 3 (49044), 4 (48340), 5 (48338), 6 (63578), 7 (48341). 8 (49037), 9 (33858), 10 (36161) 160 45. Ivory ornaments for hunting helmets: 1 (37419), 2 (38325), 3 (36477), 4 (49014), 5 (32954), 6 (36428), 7 (36408), 8 (43808) 169 46. Cord handle of ivory. (7517) 172 47. Tonicod fishing through sea ice at St Michael 174 48. Grayling hook. (7515) 180 49. Seining on Kotzebne sound 186 50. Mesh of dip-net made of sinew. (48923) 187 51. Mesh of dip-net made of willow bark. (48925) 187 52. Mesh, float, and sinker of herring seine. (33871) 188 53. Herring seine with stretcher at one cud and with float and sinker. (43353) 189 54. Sealskin-cord herring seine with stone sinker. (176090) 189 55. Wooden net float. (63505) 190 56. Ivory auu linspike. (16143) 193 57. Marlinspike with bone point. (33100) 193 58. Wooden paint box. (38338) 200 59. Wooden paint box. (35954) 200 60. Clay pot from Ilotham inlet 202 61. Kaviak hunter with hand sled 207 62. Sled used on the Siberian shore of Bering strait. (176084) 208 63. Snowshoes from Norton bay. (45400) 212 64. Snowshoe frcun Cape Darby. (48092) 213 65. Snowshoe from Icy cape. (63604) 213 66. Snowshoe from St Lawrence island. (63236) 214 67. Ice staff. (45424) 215 68. Ice staff. (73178) 215 69. Ice creepers: 1 and la (63881), 2 (46260), 3 (44254), 4(126982), 5 (63514) 216 70. Forms of umiak paddles: a, from Kotzebne sound; b, from Point Hope 224 71. Kaiak paddles from Point IJarrow and King island: 1 (89246), 2 (160326) 225 72. Ivory spear guard for kaiak. (176086 a) 227 73. Ivory spear guard for kaiak. (176086?/) 227 74. Plan of house at St Michael 242 75. Storehouse at St Michael 243 76. Kashim at St Michael 246 77. Section of kashim at St Michael .• 247 78. Section of kashuu at Kushunuk 250 79. Carved lamp support 252 80. Section of house at Ignitnk 253 81. Section of house at Ignitnk 253 82. Section of house at Cai)e Nome 254 83. Ground plan of house at Cape Nome 254 84. Walrus skin summer house on King island 256 85. Eskimo village at East cape, Siberia 257 86. House frame of whale ribs and jawbone 259 87. Section of house on St Lawrence island 260 88. Summer camp at Hotham inlet 260 89. Frame for summer lodge, Hotham inlet 261 90. Arrangement of summer camp at Hotham inlet 262 NELSON] ILLUSTRATIONS 1 7 Page Figure 91. Summer lodge at Cape Thorapsou 262 92. ' Sites of ancient villages at Cape Wankarem, Siberia 265 93. Fungus used for making ashes to mix with tobacco. (43366) 271 94. Pipe from Kotzebue sound. (48133) 281 95. Pipe from Cape Prince of Wales. (7516) 284 96. Respirator (front view). (38850) 288 97. Lancet pointed with nephrite. (38797) 310 98. Back scratcher. (45107) 310 99. Position in which the dead are buried at St Michael 311 100. Method of disposing of the dead at St Michael 313 101. Position of burial of the dead on the lower Yukon 314 102. Gi'ave boxes, Yukon delta 315 103. Burial box at Razbinsky .- 316 104. Memorial images at Cape Vancouver 317 105. Monument board at a Big lake grave .' . 319 106. Grave box at Cape Nome 320 107. Griive on St Lawrence island 321 108. Arrowpoint showing wolf totem signs. (43689) 322 109. Spearhead representing a wolf. (38442) 323 110. Spearhead representing a wolf. (43751) 323 111. Spearhead representing an otter. (43750) 323 112. Spearhead representing an ermine. (36080) 323 113. Gerfalcon totems on bow and seal spear 324 114. Simple forms of the raven totem 324 115. Raven totem tattooing on a Plover bay boy 325 116. Raven totems on smoke-hole cover 325 117. Wolf totem signs on a storehouse door 325 118. Tobacco board with bear and loach signs. (48922) 326 119. Figures on a grave box 326 120. Boy with toj^ sled, St Lawrence island 331 121. Dart. (45475) : 334 122. Top from Cape Prince of Wales. (43371) 341 123. Toy woodpecker. (33798) 341 124. Toy mouse. (48912) 342 125. Toy representing a murre swimming. (63478) 342 126. Claydoll. (48735) 342 127. Wooden dolL (38345) 343 128. Doll. (38351) 343 129. Woodendoll. (37878) 344 130. Mechanical doll. (63814) 344 131. Toy bear with dog harness. (63644) 345 132. Toy dogs and sled. (63387) 345 133. Toy bear. (63867; 346 134. Toy kaiak from St Lawrence island. (63449) 346 135. Ivory image of man and bear. (37750) 346 136. Drum handle. (63797) 351 137. Drumhandle. (33308) 351 138. Ivory baton for beating time on a stick. (45282) 352 139. Wand used in asking festival. (33804) 359 140. Plan of kashim during mortuary ceremony 366 141. Maskoid representing a seal-head with rising air bubbles. (33115). 414 142. Eagle-feather wand used in dances. (49061) 414 143. Eagle-feather wand used in dances. (45446) 415 144. Armlet worn during dances. (45336) 416 145. Loonskin fillet worn in dances. (49079) 417 IS ETH 2 18 ILLUSTRATIONS [eth.ann.18 Page Figure 146. Reindeer-skin fillet. (36195) 417 147. Woman with ermine fillet and eagle- feather wands 418 148. Wristlet from Ikogmut. (36198) 419 149. Armlet worn in dances. (48695) 420 150. Fetich from a Maleniut kaiak 436 151. Graphite fetich used in right-whale fishing. (48384) 439 152. Whale fetich of wood. (64220) 440 153. Shaman's doll fetich. (37372) 441 154. Drawing of a composite animal in a wooden tray. (38679) 444 155. Drawing of the pal-rai-ijuk in a wooden tray. (45494) 444 156. Drawing of the ^ai-?■a^-l/^tfc on an umiak. (160261) 445 157. Ivory carving of a composite animal. (44143) 446 158. Ivory carving representing the man-worm. (43550) 446 159. Ivory carving of a mythic animal. (7518) 447 160. Ivory drag handle representing a composite animal. (7511) 447 161. Ivory carving of a mermaid-like creature. (7520) » 447 162. Ivory float handle with mermaid-liko figure. (7514) 448 163. Carving representing a mermaid-like creature. (36336) 448 164. Ivory carving showing the face of a walrus i»u(a. (43561) 448 165. Drawing of a mythic creature in a wooden tray. (38642) 448 o ■'•^V 0 R A ^> J,- . XTNIVERSIT ' THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT By Edward William Nelson INTKODUCTORY The collections and observations on which the present work is based were obtained by the writer during a residence of between four and five years in northern Alaska. The fur-trading station of St Michael, situ- ated aboul65 miles north of the Yukon delta and some 200 miles south- ward from Bering- strait, was my headquarters during the greater period of my residence in that region. On June 17, 1877, 1 reached St Michael and remained there until the last of June, 1881, except during the time consumed by a number of excursions to various parts of the surrounding country. Owing to the fact that my officnil work was that of procuring an unbroken series of meteorological observations, whatever I did in other branches of science had to be accomplished in odd moments or during the short periods when the agents of the Alaska Commercial Comi)any kindly relieved me of my duties by making the necessary observations. During the first year I ex])lored the district lying immediately about St Michael. The next year my investigations were extended over a wider field, and on the 1st of December, 1878, I left St Michael in com- pany with Charles Petersen, a fur trader, each of us having a sledge and team of eight dogs. We traveled southward along the coast to the mouth of the Yukon, and thence up that stream to Andreivsky, which was Petersen's station and the second trading post from the sea. From this point we proceeded south westward ai:ross the upper end of the Yukon delta, passing the eastern base of the Kusilvak mountains and reaching the seacoast just south of Cape Roman zof at a previously unknown shallow bay. From this point we proceeded southward, keeping along or near the coast until we reached Cape Vancouver, opposite Nunivak island. The second day. beyond this point, Peter- sen, who had accompanied me thus far, said the weather was too bad to continue the journey and he therefore turned back. From the last-mentioned point I proceeded, accompanied by an Eskimo, to the mouth of Kuskokwim river. After traveling some dis- ance up its course we turned back toward the Yukon, which we reached at a point about a hundred miles above Andreivsky. Turning up the river the journey was continued to Paimut village, the last Eskimo settlement on the Yukon, At Paimut I turned and retraced my steps down the river and thence along the coast back to St Michael. 19 20 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethann.18 This expedition completed a very successful reconuoissauce of a region previously almost completely unknown as regards its geograi)liic and ethnologic features. A very fine series of ethnologic specimens was obtained and many interesting notes on the people were recorded; some of their curious winter festivals were witnessed, and several vocab- ularies were procured. On Xovember 0, 1880, in company with a fur trader and two Eski- mo, I again left St Michael on a sledge expedition. We proceeded up the coast of Norton sound to the head of Norton bay, where we remained for some days. Thence we traveled along the coastline past Golofnin bay to Sledge island, south of Bering strait. Owing to the fact that the people of this district were on the point of starvation our farther advance was prevented and I was forced to give up my contem- plated trip to Cape Prince of Wales and the islands of the strait at this time. We turned back from Sledge island and reached St Michael on April 3, after an extremely rough journey; but the series of notes and ethnologic specimens obtained on this reconnoissance are exten- sive and valuable. On November 16, 1880, in company with another fur trader, I left St Michael and crossed the coast mountains to the head of Anvik river, down which we traveled to its junction with the Yukon. At this point is located the fur-trading station of Anvik, which was in charge of my companion. Bad weather delayed us at this point for some time, but we finally set out, traveling up the Yukon, crossing Shageluk island, exploring the country to the head of Innoko river, and return- ing thence to Anvik. From the latter place I descended the Yukon to its mouth and went back to St Michael along the coast. On the way down the river I stopped at Razbinsky and witnessed one of the great Eskimo festivals in commemoration of the dead. As was the case in all my sledge journeys, the main object in view was to obtain as large a series of ethnologic specimens and notes on the character and customs of the people as was possible. Unfortu- nately my limited time on these trips prevented any extended inves- tigation into the customs and beliefs of the people, but the series of specimens obtained is unsurpassed in richness and variety. At the close of June, 1881, the United States revenue steamer Corwin called at St Michael on her way north in search of the missing steamer Jeannette. By the courtesy of the Secretary of the Treasury, Captain O. L. Hooper was directed to take me on board as naturalist of the expedition. During the rest of the season I was the guest of Captain Hooper and received many favors at his hands. We left St Michael and sailed to St Lawrence island, where the Cap- tain had been instructed to land me in order that 1 might investigate the villages which had been depopulated by famine and disease daring the two preceding winters. The surf was too heavy on the occasion of this visit to risk landing at the desired points, so we passed on to Plover bay, on the Siberian coast. Thence we coasted the shore of Siberia to NELSON] SCOPE OF THE WOEK 21 North cape, beyond Bering strait, taking- on board a sledge party wliicli had been left there early in the season. We then returned to St Lawrence island, where a landing was effected and a fine series of valu- able specimens obtained, after which we departed for St Michael where the collections were transferred to the Alaska Commercial Com- pany's steamer for shipment to San Francisco,, and the Coi'tr in once iiiore returned to the Arctic. During the remainder of the season we visited all of the Arctic coast of Alaska from Bering strait to Point Barrow, including Kotzebue sound. The ethnologic collection obtained during my residence in the north numbers about ten thousand specimens, which are deposited in the United States National Museum, under the auspices of which my work in Alaska was done. With the exception of a comparatively small number of specimens obtained among the Athapascan tribes of the lo^wer Yukon and among the Chukchi of eastern Siberia, the entire collection was obtained among the Eskimo. Since my return from Alaska Mr John Murdoch has reported on the collection and observations made by the International Polar Expedi- tion at Point Barrow.' Although my collections cover many of the objects found along the northern coast, I have been more explicit in describing those from other regions visited by me rather than to duplicate the work of Mr Murdoch. The preparation of the present work has been delayed from various unavoidable causes, but despite the length of time which has elapsed since my observations were made, but little has appeared regarding the customs of the Eskimo in the region visited by me. This being the case, the data collected at a time when the life of the majority of the natives had not been so greatly modified by intercourse with white men as at present, are of particular value. Since then the introduction of missionary schools and the gold mining excitement have resulted in greatly changing the status of many of the people, and as a natural consequence their old customs and beliefs are rapidly falling into disuse or are becoming greatly modified. In this work I have confined myself to recording the information obtaijied and have made no attempt to elaborate any of the matter by geueralizations. However imperfect my observations Avere in many cases, I trust the information gained will serve as a basis for fuller investigation of a very interesting field. I was placed under great indebtedness for favors received Irom the Alaska Commercial Company and its officers at St Michael during my residence at that point. Through the cordial assistance of Mr lludolph Neumann and the late M. Lorenz, who volunteered to carry on my meteorological observa- tions during periods of absence from St Michael, I was enabled to accomplish much work that would have been impracticable without such aid. I am also indebted to Mr Neumann for several of the tales from St Michael. • Ninth Annual Eeport of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1887-88. 22 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 The fur traders, oue and all, furthered iny work with voluntary assistance. To Messrs McQuesten, Petersen, Fredericks, and Will- iams I owe many favors. I am particularly grateful to the late Pro- fessor Baird for the opportunity to accomplish the field work which resulted iu tlie accumulation of the material on which the present report is based. I have also to extend to the authorities of the National Museum my appreciation of their courtesy in placing the entire Alaskan ethnological collection at my disposal during the prep- aration of this report, and for other favors. To Professor Otis T. Mason and Dr Walter Hough, of the United States National Museum, I am under special obligations for their unfailing courtesy and cordial assistance during the preparation of this work. I wish also to express my sense of obligation to Mr Wells M. Sawyer, illustrator of the Bureau of American Ethnology, for many suggestions and other favors while arranging the illustrations. ALPHABET The following alphabet is used in writing all Eskimo names of places, etc, in this memoir : a as a in father. kn a nasal sound formed iu the roof of a as a ill what. the mouth by the blending of the ii as a ill hat. k into the n. a as aw in law. 1 as I in lull. ai as ai ill aisle. V an aspirated 1. au as oto iu how. Ih a harsher aspirated sound than I'. b as h in blah. in as TO iu mum. ch as ch in church. n as n iu nun. a as d in dread. n as m/ in sing. dj asj in judge. o as 0 in note. e as e in they. 6 as 0 in home, with a short pronun- 8 as e in then. ciation. f as /in fife. P as p iu pipe. g as g iu get. ph an aspirated p. g' au aspirated {/. r as )• in roaring. gh a harshly aspirated (f. 8 as 8 iu sauce. h as h iu ha. sh as s/i iu should. h' a soft aspiration. t as t iu touch. hi a sound formed by P acing the tl as He in little. tongue iu the position issume dat ts as DIALECTS The Shaktolik people told me that in ancient times, before the Rus- sians came, tlie Unalit occupied all the coast of Norton sound from Pas- tolik northward to a point a little beyond Shaktolik. At tliat time the southern limit of the Malemut was at the head of Norton bay. They have since advanced and occupied village after village until now the people at Shaktolik and Unalaklit are mainly Malenuit or a mixture of Malemut and Unalit. They added that since the disappearance of the reindeer along the coast the Malemut have become much less numerous than formerly. ' Various Kussians and others, who were living in that region in 1872 and 1873, informed me that at that time there were about two huiulred people living in the village of Kigiktauik, while in 1881 I found only about twelve or fourteen. At the time first named the mountains bor- dering the coast in that neighborhood swarmed with reindeer, and in addition to the Unalit many Malemut had congregated there to take advantage of the hunting. During November, 1880, I found a family of Malemut living in a miserable hut on the upper part of Anvik river. As stated else- where, these people have become spread over a wide region. About the middle of March, 1880, between Cape Nome and Sledge island, I NELSON] TRIBES AND DIALECTS 25 found a village occupied by a mixture of people from Kiug island in Bering strait, Sledge island, and otliers from difterent parts of Kaviak peninsula. These people had united there and were living peaceably- together in order to fish for crabs and tomcods and to hunt for seals, as the supply of food had become exhausted at their homes. There are few places among the difterent divisions of the people living between Yukon and Kuskokwiin rivers where a sharp demarkation is found in the language as one passes from village to village. In every village in this region they have had friendly intercourse with one another for many years, and intermarriage has constantly taken place. They visit each other during their festivals, and their hunting and fishing grounds meet. All of these causes have aided, since the ces- sation of the ancient warfare which served to keep them separated, in increasing the intercourse between them and have had a tendency to break down the sharp distinctions that existed in their dialects. The language used in this region, south of the Yukon mouth, is closely related to that of the Uualit along the shore of Norton sound north of the Yukon. rJ- The greatest distinctions in language appeared to be in the curious modification of the sounds of the vowels, these being lengthened or shortened in a difterent manner, thus causing the pronunciation to be differently intoned in the two districts. The Nunivak island people and those living at Cape Vancouver, however, appear to speak a lan- guage quite sharply divided from that of their neighbors. As it is, one of the natives from any portion of the district south of the Yukon mouth, except ouNunivak island or Cape Vanconver, can readily make himself understood when visiting villages of the lower Yukon or among the Unalit of Norton sound. The distinction between the Unalit and Kaviagmut P^skimo, or the Unalit and the Malemut, is considerable, and people speaking these tong-ues do not readily com- municate at once, although it takes but a short time for them to learn to talk with one another. The dialect of the people of Point Hope appears to differ but slightly from that used at the head of Kotzebue sound. There is such a general resemblance between the dialects spoken by the Eskimo of the Alaskan mainland tliat a person belonging to one district very quickly learns to understand and speak other dia- lects. My Unalit interpreter from St Michael accompanied me on the Coricin, and when at Plover bay, on the eastern coast of Siberia, man- aged to understand a considerable portion of what the people of that point said. He had great difficulty, however, in comprehending the language of the St Lawrence islanders, and in fact could understand but few words spoken by them. Both at East Cape and at Plover bay, on the Siberian coast, there were many words that I could understand from my knowledge of the Unalit tongue gained at St Michael. The people of St Lawrence island and Plover bay are closely related and the dialects spoken by them are very similar, so that they have no diffi- cuUv. in communicating with each otlier. 26 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT ETH. ANN. 18 The Point Barrow Eskimo occupy the coast from Cape Lisburne to Poiut Barrow. The Malemut inhabit the country from Point Hope arouud the shores of Kotzebue sound to beyond Cape Bspenberg-, and thence south to Unaktolik river. From this point southward to tiie Yukon mouth, including St Michael island, are the Unalitor Uualig- mut. The people of Cape Prince of Wales, Port Clarence, and King island are the Kinugumut. The people occupying the coast from Port Clarence and arouud to Cape Nome, Golofnin bay, and Nubviukhchug- aluk, including the interior of the peninsula back from the coast country as well as Sledge (Aziak) island, are Kaviagmut. The people of the Diomede islands and of East cape, Siberia, are a group of Eskimo of whom I failed to obtain a special designation. South of this point the Eskimo of Plover bay and the neighboring coast form another group. The people of St Lawrence island form still another group, and of these also I failed to record any special designation. The people of the lower Yukon, from Paimut down to the vicinity, of Pastolik, including the Y'ukon delta, are the Ikogmut. The Magemut are the people occupying the low, marshy country back from the lower Y'ukon, between it and the Kuskokwim, extending from a line just back of the Kuskokwim northwesterly to the coast between Cape Eomanzof and the Kusilvak branch of the Yukon mouth. The i^univagmut are the people of iSTunivak island and the main- land at Cape Vancouver. The Kaialigamut are the people occupying the coast northward from Cape Vancouver to Kushunuk, Kaialigamut, and the adjacent villages. The Kuskokwagmut are the people occupying the villages along tlie lower Kuskokwim and the adjacent country to the north of that poiut to a line where begin the other divisions already named. BLACK GREEN WHITE BLUE RED BROWN Fig. 1— Scheme of color on masks and mask-like objects, grave boxes, and totem markings. PHYSICAL. CHARACTERISTICS The Eskimo from Bering strait to the lower Y^ukon are fairly well- built people, averaging among the men about o feet 2 or 3 inches in height. The Y'ukon Eskimo and those living southward from that river to the Kuskokwim are, as a rule, shorter and more squarely built. The Kuskokwim people are darker of complexion than those to the northward, and have rounder features. The men commonly have a considerable growth of hair on their faces, becoming at times a thin Z3 NELsoNl SOMATIC FEATURES 27 beard two or three inches in length, with a well -developed mustache (plates IV, V). No such development of beard was seeiT elsewhere in the territory visited. The people in the coast region between the mouths of the Kuskokwioi and the Yukon have peculiarly high cheek bones and sharp chins, which unite to give their faces a curiously pointed, triangular appearance. At the village of Kaialigamut I was impressed by the strong develop- ment of the superciliary ridge. From a point almost directly over the pupil of the eye, and extending thence inward to the median line of the forehead, is a strong, bony ridge, causing the brow to stand out sharply. From the outer edge of this the skull appears as though beveled away to the ears, giving the temporal area a considerable enlargement beyond that usually shown. Tiiis curious development of the skull is rendered still more striking by the fact that the bridge of the nose is low, as usual among these people, so that the shelf-like projection of the brow stands out in strong relief. It is most strongly marked among the men, and appears to be characteristic at this place. Elsewhere in this district it was noted only rarely here and ther^. All of the people in the district about Capes Vancouver and lioman- zof, and thence to the Yukon mouth, are of unusually light complexion. Some of the women have a pale, slightly yellowish color, with pink cheeks, dittering but little in complexion from that of a sallow woman of Caucasian blood. This light complexion is so>^x^eptionally striking that wherever they travel these people are readily distinguished from other Eskimo; and before I visited their territory 1 had learned to know them by their complexion whenever they came to St Michael. The people of the district just mentioned are all very short and squarely built. Inland from Cape Vancouver lies the fiat, marshy coun- try about Big lake, which is situated between the KuskokNvim and the Yukon. It is a well-populated district, and its inhabitants differ from those near the coast at the capes referred to in being taller, more slender, and having more squarely cut features. They also differ strik- ingly from any other Eskimo with whom I came in contact, except those on Kowak river, in having the bridge of the nose well developed and at times sufficiently prominent to suggest the aquiline nose of our southern Indian tribes. The Eskimo of the Diomede islands in Bering strait, as well as those of East cape and Mechigme and Plover bays on the Siberian coast, and of St Lawrence island, are tall, strongly built people, and are generally similar in their physical features (plates XI, XII). These arecharacterized by the unusual heaviness of the lower part of the face, due to the very square and massive lower jaw, which, combined with broad, high cheek bones and flattened nose, produces a wide, flat face. These features are frequently accompanied with a low, retreating forehead, producing a decidedly repulsive jihysiognomy. The bridge of the nose is so low and the cheek bones so heavy that a profile view will frequently show 28 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx.is only the tip of the ])ersoii's uose, the eyes and upper portion of the nose being completely hidden by the prominent outline of the cheek. Their eyes are less oblique than is common among the people living southward from the Yukon mouth. Among the peojile at the north- westeru end of St Lawrence island there is a greater range of physiog- nomy thau was noted at any otlier of the Asiatic localities. The Point Hope people on the American coast have heavy jaws and well developed snperciliary ridges. At Point Barrow the men are remarkable for the irregularity of their features, amounting to a posi- tive degree of ugliness, which is increased and rendered specially prominent by the expression produced by the short, tightly drawn upper lip, the projecting lower lip, and the small beady eyes. The women and children of this i^lace are in curious contrast, having rather pleasant features of the usual type. The Eskimo from upper Kowak and Iis^oatak rivers, who were met at the summer camp on Hotham inlet, are notable for the fact that a considerable number of them have hook noses and nearly all have a cast of countenance very similar to that of the Yukon Tinne. They are a larger and more robustly built people than these Indians, how- ever, and speak the Eskimo language. They wear labrets, practice the tonsure, and claim to be Eskimo. At the same time they wear bead-ornamented hunting shirts, round caps, and tanned deerskin robes, and use conical lodges like those of the adjacent Tinne tribes. Among them was seen one man having a mop of coarse curly hair, almost negroid in character. The same feature was observed in a number of men and women on the Siberian coast between East cape and Plover bay. This latter is undoubtedly the result of the Chukchi-Eskimo mixture, and in the case of the man seen at Hotham inlet the same result had been brought about by the Eskimo-Indian combination. Among the Eskimo south of Bering strait, on the American coast, not a single instance of this kind was observed. The age of the individ- uals having this curly hair renders it quite improbable that it came from an admixture of blood with foreign voyagers, since some of them must have been born at a time when vessels were extremely rare along these shores. As a further argument against this curly hair having come from white men, I may add that I saw no trace of it among a number of people having partly Caucasian blood. As a general thing, the Eskimo of the region described have small hands and feet and the features are oval in outline, rather flat, and with slightly oblique eyes. Children and young girls have round faces and often are very pleasant and attractive in feature, the angular race characteristics becoming prominent after the individuals approach manhood. The women age rapidly,, and only a very small proportion of the people live to an advanced age. The Malemut and the people of Kaviak peninsula, including those of the islands in Bering strait, are tall, active, and remarkably well ^ARy »2f CAUfSl NELSON] INSENSIBILITY TO EXPOSURE 29 built. Among tliera it is coinmon to see men from 5 feet 10 iiicbes to 6 feet tall and of proportionate build. I should judge the average among tliem to be nearly or quite equal in height to the whites. Among the coast Eskimo, as a rule, the legs are short and jworly developed, while the body is long, witli disproportionately developed dorsal and lumbar muscles, due to so mncli of their life being passed in the kaiak. The Eskimo of the Big lake district, south of the Yukon, and from the Kaviak peninsula, as well as the Malemut about the head of Kot- zebue sound, are, on the contrary, very finely proportioned and athletic men, who can not be equaled among the Indians of the Yukon region. This fine physical development is attributable to the fact that these people are so located that their hunting is largely on open tundra or in the mountains, thus producing a more symmetric development than is possible among those whose lives are passed mainly in the kaiak. There were a number of halfblood children among the Eskimo, resulting from the intercourse with people from vessels and others, who generally sliow their Caucasian blood by large, finely shaped, and often renuirkably beautiful brown eyes. The number of these mixed bloods was not very great. ^ A.S a race the Eskimo are very hardy and insensible to cold. While the Coriciu was at anchor in HQtham inlet during the fall of 1881, 1 found a Malemut woman with two little girls, one about two years and the other five years of age, lying fast asleep on the deck of the vessel clothed only in their ordinary garments. A very raw wind was blow- ing at the time, and it was difticult for us to keep warm even while moving about in heavy overcoats. While I was at the head of Norton sound during February, when the temperature stood at mimis 40^ Fahrenheit, a boy 10 years of age, with a sled and three dogs, was sent back several miles along the previous day's trail to recover a pair of lost snowshoes. He started off aleue and returned a few hours later with the snowshoes, his cheeks glowing red from the cold, but without other indication of the effect of the temperature. The men lead a hard and perilous life in the districts bordering the sea, where much of the liunting is done in kaiaks. In spring they go long distances offshore, and are sometimes cast adrift on the moving ice, requiring the greatest effort to return to the land. In a number of instances that came to my notice men were forced to spend one or two days fighting their way back to shore in their kaiaks, after having been driven seaward by a strong wind. In addition, the constant wetting and exposure throughout the entire year helps gradually to undermine the strength of the natives; as a result,. consumption and rheumatic complaints are common, and but few live to an advanced age. Families rarely have more than two or three children, and it is not uncommon for them to have none. \\\ 1 \ J 30 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ax.n. 18 CTiOTHIIS^G GARMENTS IN GENERAL The garments of the wester i Eskimo are similar in general plan to those worn by their relatives farther eastward, but vary locally in pat- tern and style of ornamentation. The upper i)art of the body of both men and women is covered with a frock-like garment put on over the head, and in the greater part of the area visited these garments are provided with a hood. In addition, both men and women Avear trousers. Those of the men are made to reach from the hip to the ankle, the feet being clothed with socks of deerskin or grass, over which skin boots are drawn. The lower garments of the women are combined boots and trousers reaching to the waist. Over the feet are sometimes drawn skin boots, but frequently a sole of oil-tanned sealskin is attached directly to the trousers. On the Diomede islands, along the eastern shore of the Chukchi peninsula, and on St Lawrence island the women wear a curious garment having a loose waist, flowing sleeves, and very baggy trousers reaching to the ankles. They put this on by thrusting the head and feet into a slit-like opening in the back, which is then laced uj). Tlio feet and lower i)art of the legs are then encased in skin boots tied about the ankles. Usually these combined garments are loosely made, without hoods, and are opened broadly at the neck, with a narrow trimming of wolverine or other fur about the border. They are worn usually with the hair inside, and the smooth outer surface becomes greasy and begrimed so that they present a curious appearance. Small children dressed in these garments waddle about and appear to move with the greatest difficulty. Very young children on the coast named are placed in these combination garments with the ends of the sleeves and legs sewed up, so that nothing but the face of the child can be seen. In addition the women of this region wear a frock-like outer garment reaching down to midway between the waist and knee and provided with a hood. The hood is trimmed with wolverine skin or other fur, the long hairs i)rqjecting halo-like about the face. In front is a broad bib like flap, usually made from the short-hair skin taken from the reindeer's legs, which hangs down over the breast. Sometimes, how- ever, these flaps are replaced by a long, narrow gore of white reindeer skin, sewed over the shoulder on each side of the neck and extending down the front. Very little effort is made to ornament the garments among any of the people save those of St Lawrence island, where they are ornamented with tassels made from strips of fur taken from the hair-seal pup and dyed a reddish brown. Hows of the crests and horny bill sheaths from the crested auklet are also sewed along the seams. Similar ornamentation was observed in lesser degree along the Siberian shore. // TT-AT 21 O NHL80.N] SIBERIAN AND ALASKAN GARMENTS 31 The illustration (plate xia^ from a photograph taken of a party of women and children from East Cape, Siberia, gives an idea of the gar- ments described. The woman on the left wears one of the combination garments with the fur vside out, the one on the right having the gar- ment turned with fur inward, and tbe two central figures wear the frock in addition. Most of the garments worn by these people are made from the skins of tame reindeer, although those of wild reindeer are used to a limited extent. The handsomely mottled coats of tbe tame deer serve to render some of the clothing rather ornamental in api)earance. On St Lawrence island and the Diomedes the skins of waterfowl are sometimes used for making the outer frock-like garment for both men and women of the [)Oorer class. Their boots are usually of reindeer skin, generally taken from the leg of the animal, with a sole of tanned sealskin. Crossing Bering strait to the American shore we find the garments for men and women closely alike in general style over a wide area. They are practically identical in pattern northward to Point Bariow and southward to the Yukon mouth, including King and Sledge islands. The garments worn by the men consist of a skin frock, which is put on over the head and has a hood variously bordered by strips of skin. These borders are made usually of an outer strip of wolfskin with the long hairs standing out like a halo, as before described. Just within this is sewed another belt or band of skin from the wolverine so that the long outer hairs lie back against the wolfskin border, producing a pleasing contrast. These halo like borders, when the hood is drawn up, surround the face and give a picturesque appearance to the wearer (plates IV, XIII&, xya). The back of the hood is made usually pf several^ pieces sewed in such a way as to take the form of the head. A gore usually extends from the top of the shoulders at the base of the hood down on each side of the chest, and is generally of white-hair skin from the belly of the reindeer. The sleeves and lower border of this garment are fringed with a narrow band of wolf or wolverine skin. These garments niay be made of the skins of wild or tame reindeer. Parry's marmot, muskrats, mink, or waterfowl, such as cormorants, anklets, murres, eider ducks, or loons, and in the region southward of the Yukon mouth the skins of emperor and white-front geese are also used for this purpose. One such garment is made from the skins of scaup ducks, with the hood of Parry's marmot skins, and is bordered around the bottom with a narrow fringe of wolfskin. On the lower Yukon very ])oor people utiUae even the skins of salmon for making their frocks. /'"^^^ The trousers of the^en extend from the hips to the ankles and are rather awkwardly made. They are fastened about the waist with a drawstring in a loop of skin sewed along the border. A variety of materials are used, including wild and tame reindeer, sealskin, dpgskin, and white-bear skin. The trousers made from the skins of reindeer are sometimes worn with the hair inward during cold weather or with 32 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 the hair outward when it is warmer. Of late years these people durinj^ the suininer wear shirts ;uul trousers of calico and drilling- obtained from the fur traders. Ordinary cotton shirts also are worn by them. Reaching the lower Kuskokwim and adjacent country to the north, the men wear frocks similar to those hitherto described, but so long that when at full length they reach the ground about the wearer's feet. When traveling these frocks are drawn up and belted about the waist until the lower border reaches only to the knee. They are made usually from the skins of Parry's marmot or a species of whistler found in the mountains south of the lower Kuskokwim district, and are ornamented with the tails of the animals, ■which are set on, fringe-like, with each skin hanging all about the person. They are made generally without hoods and the neck is bordered by the skin of the Arctic hare or white fox, or more commonly by a roll- like edge of deerskin with the hair on. A gore is set in on each side of the neck over the chest, or sometimes a single broader gore extends down the middle in front. The sleeves may be bordered by the white- hair skin of the reindeer's belly, and bands of the same are some- times set in around the body or near the lower border. In place of hoods the wearers of these frocks have fur caps with ear laps for tying under the chin. Their trousers are sim- ilar to those already described. On tlie tundra betveen the Kuskokwim and the lower Yukon there are worn similar, but shorter, hoodless frocks. In place of the fur caps described as worn by the Kuskokwim people these tundra men wear curious headdresses made of various skins. One of these (figure 2), from Koniguuugumut, is a hood made of the skins of Parry's marmot with a border about the face of reindeer skin with the hair on. The hood is bordered also along its lower edge by a / |4'A" FlC. 2— Man's hood from Koiiigunuguinut (j'g). NELSON] HOODS AND CAPS Fig. 3— rox-skin cap. strip, about two inches wide, of reiudeer skiu and has a narrow baud extending up from this over the crown. About the lower border, on the sides and behind, extends a fringe consisting of narrow strips of rein- deer skin, 12 to 15 inches in length, which hangs down the back. Another variety of hood worn in this district is made of a band of deerskin, with the hair on, sewed to fit about the brow like a turban with the crown of skins of Parry's marmot, or of white or blue foxes. When the marmot skins are used they are usually sewed in a series so as to hang behind like an open sack. If the fox skins are used they are sewed so that the head of the fox rests on the crown of the wearer with the body and tail hanging down over the back. These caps are very pic- turesque and give the wearer a remarkably dignified appearance. In the region about Askinuk curious small fur caps or hoods are worn, fitting snugly about the head and fringed behind by a few little tags or strips of skin, but which do not hang- far down the back like those last described. These hoods are made in ornamental patterns from various kinds of skin. A hood of reindeer and marmot skin from Askinuk (figure 4) has a circular piece of reiudeer skin set in the middle of the crown ; this is surrounded by two strips of white reindeer skin taken from the leg of the animal with the hair clipped. Following this is a broader strip of similar reindeer skin, alternating with a square of dark-hair reindeer- skin on the top and marmot skins on each side, succeeded by another strip of reindeer skiu and bordered about the face by a narrow fringe of mink fur. Similar caps were obtained at Kofiigunugumut. In summer the Eskimo of Noatak and Kowak rivers wear bead-ornamented caps similar to those of the Tinn^ along the upper Yukon. On the shore of the Arctic at Point Hope the specimen represented in figure 5 was obtained. This 18 ETH 3 Fio. 4 — Man's hood of reindeer and marmot skin and mink for (i). 34 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 is a handsomely made bood fashioned from the skin of a wolf's head, the nose of the animal resting directly over the brow and extending back over the head, so that the ears of tlie animal lie on the na])e of the wearer's neck. From just back of the nose to a point nearly between the ears the skin is slit and an oval ])iece of skin, tanned with the hair oft", is set in, and along it are sewed ten paiallel, lon<;itndinal rows of blue beads. Little strings of red, white, blue, and bhick beads are attached to the sides of the head from just back of the wolf's nose, down along each side, two- thirds of the way to the ears. Sewed to the front border of the hood is a strip of Ion*.; hair wolfskin, and two strings at tlie corners in front serve to tie it about tlie wearer's chin. From the Yukon month northward to Point Barrow the frocks of the men are cut a trifle longer bi'hind than in front. South of the Yukon these garments are cut nearly the same length all around. Many of the Ko- wak and Noatak men seen at Hotham inlet wear hunting shirts of tanned moose-skin similar to those used by the Tinne of the inte- rior, from whom they were probably obtained. These Eskimo also wear robes made from reindeer skin tanned with the huir on. These are matle to fasten over the shoulders by two cords, and fall behind nearly to the ground like a cloak. They are usually bordered with a fringe formed by cutting the skin into little strips, and on the inside the totem signs of the owners are marked in red paint. Frotn one pi-the Diomede islands I obtained the garment illustrated in plate xviy a frock without a hood, made from the skin of a guillemot. Fig. 5 — Mau'8 wolf-head summer hood from Point Hope (J). V.^ B F' A R y." or TMK try NELSON] FACE PROTECTORS FROCKS 35 Aroniid the back of the neck is a border of black-bear skin with the \oug hair erect. The lower border of the garment is edged Avith a nar- row strij) of white-reindeer skin, succeeded by a border of red-bear skin with tufts of white bear fur sewed on all around at short intervals. The people on the islands of Bering strait and the adjacent shores use a kind of face protector made of a ring of white-bear skin, which is drawn on over the head and fitted round the face. These are held in place b}' a narrow band of the same material extending over the top of the head ; another strip from each side joins the other at the back. During summer the men usually wear alight frock made from the skins of the marmot, mink, muskrat, fawns of reindeer, or the summer reindeer with its light coat of hair. In winter two of these garments are frequently Wiu-n, and those of the winter deerskin Avith its heavier coat of hair are used in severe weather. A man's frock from Cape Vancouver (plate xvii) is made of reindeer- fawn skin and has a hood which forms a part of the garment instead of being worn separately as is done farther inland. From the shoulders hanging down both in front and behind depend broad strips of reindeer skin with the fur cut short and having attached to their tips strings of white, red, and blue beads from five to six inches in length with narrow strips of wolverine fur. From the middle of the hood behind hangs a strip of reindeer skin, tipped with wolverine fur. Little tassels of red- bear skin are attached to strips of white-deer skin, set in, gore-like, over the tops of shoulders. Two sharp-pointed gores of white deer skin are set in above the waist. The hood has an inner border of arctic-hare skin followed by a strip of wolf skin. The lower end of the sleeves is bordered by a band of white-deer skin, edged by a narrow border of mink fur, the lower edge of the garnicnt being bordered in the same manner. This is one of the most ornamental garments of the kind seen in that district. The frocks worn by the women of this region are made similar to those of the men except that they are cut up a little farther on the sides so as to make a more conspicuously pendent flap before and behind. From the Yukon mouth northward the women's frocks are much more handsomely made, the mottled white skin of the tame reindeer, obtained from the Siberian people, affording a good material for the production of ornamental patterns. Some of these garments are very richly ornamented; they are deeply cut up along each side, so that before and behind the skirt hangs in a long, broad, round flap. The hoods are bordered by wolverine and wolf skin, and the ends of the sleeves and the lower edge of the garment are trimmed with wolf or wolverine skin, usually the latter. A typical garment of this kind (number G4272), from Cape Prince of Wales, has the hood made of a central oval piece extending up from the back of the garment as a narrow strip which broadens above. The hood is bordered on each side by short-hair white-reindeer skin which extends to the shoulders and then divides and forms a long, narrow gore down the front and 36 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 back of the garment. Between the white skin on the sides and the brown deerskin forming the back or central part of the hood, extends a series of five narrow strips of white deerskin with the hair shaved close and having welted into the seams narrow strips of black parch- ment-like skin. Two of these welted seams bordering the central one have little tufts of red wool set along at intervals of about one-fourth of an inch. Across the shoulders from front to back extend a similar series of strips of white deerskin with black welted seams, and the lower border of the garment is ornamented with a broader band of the same handsome pattern. From the top and back of the shoulders, as well as on the middle of the back, are attached tassel-like strips of wolverine skin eight to ten inches in length. The frocks of the women of the lower Kuskokwim have the sides cut up to a lesser degree than those to the north, and are provided with a hood bordered with wolf, wolverine, or other skin with the fur on. Set across the body before and behind are bands of white-hair deerskin, having narrow welted strips of dark skin in the seams. The sleeves and lower edge of the garment are bordered with a band of white-hair reindeer skin fringed with wolverine *skin. In addition, the women's frocks of this district have strung along the patterns of white deer- skin in front and back little strings of beads an inch or two in length. The trousers worn by the women from the lower Kuskokwim to Point Barrow are made usually of skin taken from the legs of reindeer, and commonly by sewing in alternating strips of different colors to produce ornamental patterns. The specimen shown in plate xviii, from the head of Norton sound, is a woman's handsomely made frock. The body of the garment is of marmot skins, while skins from the crowns of the same animal are pieced together on the crown of the hood. The skirts and ornamental pieces are of white-hair reihdeer skin, and the trimming is of wolf and wolverine fur. The example from Mission, illustrated in plate xix, is made of salmon skins tanned and worked with a scraper until they have become pliable. Most of the seams are ornamented with bands of brownish dyed fish- skin, on the surface of which are sewed narrow strips of white parch- ment-like skin from the throats of seals. On each shoulder are inserted two gore-like pieces of fish-skin dyed brown and having ornamental strips of white sewed along them and following their outline. WATERPROOF GARMENTS In addition to the upper garments already described the Eskimo make waterproof frocks from the intestines of seals. The intestines are dried and slit open, and the long, ribbon-like strips" thus formed are then sewed together horizontally to form a frock similar in shape to those of fur worn by the men, as already described. About the sleeves a braided sinew cord is inclosed in a turned- down border to form a drawstring for fastening the garment securely about the wrist, in order that the water may not enter. In addition the border of the C3 NELSON] WATERPROOF GARMENTS — EAR-FLAPS 37 hood about the face is provided with a similar string, the ends of which hang down under the chin so that this portion of the garment may be drawn tightly for the same purpose. These garments are worn over the others during wet weather on shore as well as at sea. Their most important use, however, is while the hunters are at sea in kaiaks. At such times, when the weather becomes rainy or rough, the hunter dons his waterproof irock and the skirt is extended over the rim of the manhole in which he sits. A cord provided for the purpose is wound around the outside, fastening the border of the skirt down into a sunken groove left for the purpose below the rim on the outside of the kaiak. When this cord is made fast and the drawstrings about the face and sleeves are tightened, the occupant of the kaiak is safe from being drenched by the dashing spray, and no water can enter his boat. These garments are strong and will fre quently withstand the pressure of the water even when the wearer is entirely submerged be- neath the combing sea. Among the breakers, however, they are not to be relied on, as the writ- er knows from experi- ence, the weight of the water striking heavily from above, tearing them and permitting the water to enter the boat. The seams of these waterproofs are fre- quently ornamented by sewing in seals' bristles or the line hair-like feathers of certain Avaterfowl. About the islands in Bering strait and on the bordering Asiatic shore the horny sheaths from the base of the mandibles of the crested anklet are sewed along the seams of some of these frocks as ornaments. Narrow strips of black, parchment-like tanned skin are frequently welted into the seams for ornamental purposes, and the lower borders are' sometimes narrowly fringed with a strip of woolly fur from small hair-seals. Garments of this kind made for the use of women are cut nj} on each side to jiroduce flaps similar to those of the ordinary frock. Fig. 6— Ear-flai)8 (i). EAR-FLAPS About Chalitmut and the adjacent district on the tundra between the Kuskokwim and the Yukon, where men's frocks are made without 38 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [kth.anx. 18 the hood, ear-flaps are commonly used. These are made of oval flaps of deerskin with the hair side inward and having- the base truncated and sewed to a narrow band of skin to go around the head. The flaps are then tied under the chin by means of strings. The tanned outer surface of these flaps has various ornamental patterns in white hairs from reindeer sewed on with sinew thread, the designs produced being parallel lines, either straight, curved, or in circles. Figure 0 represents a i)air of these ear-flaps. GLOVES AND MITTENS From the Yukon northward to Kotzebue sound and thence to Point Barrow, mittens and gloves are found in common use. The gloves are made usually with places for each linger and the thumb. From the Yukon mouth to Point Barrow were obtained gloves having each of the fingers made of a separate piece sewed upon the hand, the thumb in both cases being sewed on in the same manner and having an awkward, triangular shape. A pair from Sledge island (number 45085) are made of sealskin with the hair removed and the wrists bordered with a fringe of white-bear fur. A pair from Point Hope (plate xx, 1), of the usual i)attern described, is of tanned reindeer skin with the hair side inward. The wrists are bordered with a fringe of little strips of tanned reindeer-skin, d\ed reddish brown, and on the back are numerous little pendent strings of red-andwhite and red and-blue beads, with other beads strung on the fringe bordering the wrist. These gloves are joined by a double string of little copper cylinders, spaced by blue beads, reaching up to the central loop of soft, tanned skin, for going completely around the neck, thus holding the gloves without danger of their being lost if suddenly taken oif. Plate XX, 3, shows a pair of deerskin gloves of the common pattern from Kotzebue sound. The skin is tanned with the hair left on and turned in on the inside of the hand and all around on the fingers. The back of the hand and the tliumb are covered with a piece of white- hair deerskin, on which hang four tassel-like strips of wolverine skin. The wrists are bordered with a series of narrow bands of reindeer skin, with the white hair clipped short, and between the strips a nariow band of parchment-like skin is welted in. Midway in this series of strips a seam is bordered by a series of small, regularly spaced tufts of red worsted. A narrow band of wolverine fur completes this orna- mental border. Other gloves from Bering strait are made of skin tanned with the hair left on and turned inward; others have the hair entirely removed. A peculiar pattern of glove is common to the Diomede islands and the adjacent shore of Siberia. The fingers and the hand are of one piece, with three pieces of skin of a different color set in gores along the back and divided to extend down as a gore along the inside of each \\ ©PAR y^v 2 o Z3 NELSON] GLOVES AND MITTENS 39 finger. Plate xx, 7, illustrates an example of these gloves from King island. Another curious pair of gloves, from Norton sound, is shown in plate XX, 5. These are made with separate divisions for the thumb and the forefinger, the other fingers being provided with a single cover. They are made like other gloves used along the American coast in that they have the parts covering the fingers in separate pieces sewed on the piece forming the hand. The gloves illustrated in plate xx, 6, were obtained on the Diomede islands, Bering strait; they are made of tunned reindeer skin, with the hair side inward. The front of the gloves is a dingy russet brown in color and the skin on the back is hard-tanned and colored chestnut brown. The back of the hand and the wiist have ornamental patterns in red, white, and blackish stitching, made by sewing in white reindeer hairs and red woolen yarn with sinew thread. These are made in the style peculiar to these islands and the coast of Siberia already described, the pieces of skin sewed into the gores being pale buff in color. The glove shown in plate xx, 2, from Anderson river, British America, is similar in style to the gloves from the head of Norton sound. It is made of reindeer skin. The mittens used are of a com- mon pattern, with a triangular thumb. They are made of the skin of seals, reindeer, dogs, wolves, white bear, cormorant, murre, and salmon, and are sometimes of woven grass. For use while at sea long mittens reaching to the elbow or above are made of well tanned sealskin and are provided at their upper borAI)S III addition to the boots described, socks made of deerskin or sealskin with the hair not removed, and reaching- a little above the ankles, com- monly are worn in winter. For wear at all seasons socks are made of woven grass, the patterns of weaving varying to a certain extent and sometimes different colored grasses being used to produce ornamental patterns, as shown in the sole of the example from the lower Kusko- kwim, illustrated in plate xxi, 2. Plate XXI, 1, shows a typical grass sock from Kazbinsky, on the lower Yukon, and plate xxi, 5, also represents a common style of grass sock from that district. The bot- toms of boots of all kinds are usually stuffed with a grass pad made by taking wisps of hmg grass stalks and binding them over one anotlier to form a long cushion for the bottom of the foot. This gives a soft footing and ab soibs the moisture that penetrates the sole, so that it requires a long time lor water to reach the foot. At night the socks and the grass pa«l> are removed and hung to dry either over the lamp in the house or in a convenient place intheroom, so as to be ready for use on the fol- lowing morning. CLOTHING BAGS Along the lower Yukon and thence to the Kuskokwim large numbers of bags are made for vari- ous purposes from the skins of salmon. Some are used for stor- ing clothes, and still smaller OTies for various small objects, such as trinkets and small odds and ends of different kinds. Others are made very large, frequently with a capacity of a bushel or two, and are used for the storage of dry fish, which is kept in them in the storehouses until needed. Figure 7 (2) illustrates a salmon-skin bag for storing clothing. This example, from Tikchik lake, is ornamented with bands of russet- colored fishskin and white, parchment-like skin from the throats of seals, and is neatly sewed with sinew thread. The upper border of the bag is hemmed, and a series of rawhide loops are sewed at intervals around the top, through which is run a cord of the same material for Fig. 7— Fish-skin clothing bags d'c). 44 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 ^ilimA use as a drawstring iu closiug- the bag. The bottom is oval in outline and has a piece of. flshskin sewed into it, with the seam inside. These bags are in common use from the lower Yukon to the lower Knskokwim. Figure 7 (1) rei)resents a handsomely ornamented bag from St Michael, made from the skins of salmon trout. The bottom of the bag is fash- ioned from a piece of deerskin with the hair side inward. The sides are ornamented with strips of white, j)archment-like leather made from the gullets of large seals. These strips are edged with narrow bands of russet-color leather, sewed with orna- mental seams of black and white. On each of four upright white bands which cross the side of the bag are sewed two circular pieces and a four-pointed piece of the shiny black skin of the sea- wolf, the round i)ieces being edged with strips of russet skin. Figure 8 represents a sealskin clothing bag from Sledge island. Jt is made from the skin of the ribbon seal, taken off entire, including both flippers. The nose and the eyes are sewed up; the only open- ing is a cut extending crosswise between the fore flippers. The edges of this cut are bound with a border of stout raw- hide, pierced with holes at intervals of about two inches, through which is run a strong rawhide cord for lacing the open- ing. This skin is tanned with the hair left on. Bags of this character are made from skins of all of the smaller seals, and are useful for storing clothing from the fact that their shape makes them convenient for handling in umiaks or while on sledge journeys; at the same time their waterproof character serves to protect the contents from getting wet. Every family has from one to three of these bags, in which are kept their spare clothing, dressed skins, and valu- able furs. Fig. 8— Clothing bag of sealskin (j'c). LABRETS The wearing of labrets and the custom of tattooing are very general among the Eskimo of the Alaskan mainland and islands northward from Knskokwim river. The style of the labrets, as with the extent and the pattern of tattooing, varies with the locality. The custom of \,1BRA or THB UNIVERSITY NEi-sox] LAB RETS 45 wearing labrets is almost ^ost among the Eskimo of the Asiatic coast and of St Lawrence island. One man seen at the latter point had a circle tattooed on each side of his chin to represent these ornaments (figure 15 b). Some of the natives on Mechigme bay, just south of East cape, Siberia, had labret holes in tlieirlips. The Eskimo of the Yukon and the Kuskokwim who live nearest the Tinne have also generally abandoned the i)ractice of wearing labrets, and the custom is becoming obsolete at other points where there is constant intercourse with the whites. During my residence at St Michael it was rather uncommon to see very young men among the Unalit with their lips pierced, and throughout that time 1 do not think a single boy among them had been thus deformed. Many of the old men also have ceased to wear labrets, although the incisions made for them in youth still remain. Among the Eskimo of Bering strait and northward, where contact with the whites has been irregular, labret wearing is still in full force. Increasing intercourse with civilized people makes it only a matter of time for this custom to become entirely obsolete. In the district south- ward from the Yukon mouth labrets were not universally worn among the men, as is tlie case in the country northward from Bering strait, and in every village some of the men and many women were found without them. The labrets of the women are of a curious sickle shape, but vary in detail of arrangement, as shown by the accompanying illus- trations. Most of them are made with holes in the lower border for the attachment of short strings of beads. The women who wore labrets had the under lip pierced with one or two holes just over the middle of the chin. The use of these labrets, in the country visited by me, seemed to be limited to the district lying between Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers and Nunivak island. Elsewhere I did not see labrets of any kind used by women. In the villages of Askinuk, Kushunuk, and other places in that region the common form was a small, flattened, sickle-shape piece of ivory, with a broad, flattened base for resting against the teeth, and the outer tip brought down to a thin, flat point. Of this style there are some variations, the most common of which is to have the two ordinary sickle-shape labrets joined by a crosspiece of ivory cut from the same piece and uniting the two sickle-shape parts just on the outer side of the lip. Another form was to join the inner ends of the labrets so that the portion resting against the teeth united the bases of the two sickle-shape points. In a labret (plate xxii, 2) from Kofiigunugumut the piece joining the two sickle-shape points is flattened vertically. In another specimen (plate xxii, 3), from Kulwoguwigumut, this crosspiece, uniting the bases of the two projections, is flattened horizontally. In another (plate XXII, 4) from the lower Kuskokwim, the two sickle-shape projec- tions unite exteriorly to the lip so that a single orifice in the middle of the lower lip serves for the insertion of the stem. 46 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx. 18 The National Museum collection contains two specimens of women's labrets (one of which is siiown in i)late xxii, 10) obtained on Nunivak island by Dr W. H, Dall, which differ from most of those of the main- land in having the broadened bases for resting against the teeth made of separate pieces of ivory. These pieces are small, flattened disks with holes in the center through which fits the inner end of the labret, after piercing the lips. These differ also in external form, as shown by the figures. Another specimen (plate xxii, 1) obtained on Nunivak island has the comuion sickle-shape parts joined by an external bar, and the inner end is enlarged by means of similar small perforated disks of ivory set on the rounded inner end of the labret. This specimen has attached to its outer border three short, double strings of beads, which hang down over the chin. Plate xxii, 5, showing a specimen from Askinuk; figure 7, one from Kulwoguwigumut, and figure 0, one from Kushunuk, are the ordinary forms of women's labrets of sickle shape. The labrets worn by men in the district between the Yukon and the Kuskokwim are rather small and are commonly formed of a long, thin, curved ivory flange for resting against the teeth, with a hat-shape pro- jection for extension through the lip to the surface. The hat shape projection is i)rovided with a central hole, through which extends a wooden pin. This pin reaches beyond the outer border of the ivory and has fitted upon it some kind of bead, a round piece of stone, or, as in one specimen from Nunivak island, a truncated cone of lead. Another style of labret obtained from Nunivak island by Doctor Dall is shown in plate xxii, 10. It has the usual hat shape piece for pierc- ing the lip, with the wooden pin extending through and bearing on its outer end a white bead. Beyond this bead is attached a well-cut piece of serjieutine, apparently representing the tail of a whale. This labret is two inches long and the serj)entine tip is an inch and five-eighths in width by an inch and a quarter long. From the lower Yukon was obtained a large, flat labret (plate xxii, 16) having a rectangular outline with the sides slightly rounded and on the inner surface a pin five-eighths of an inch in length which serves to pierce the lip. On this is fitted a long, oval piece ot ivory an inch and a half long and five-eighths of an inch in width, made convex in front and concave behind, with a slot in the middle for fitting it on the pin. This labret is to insert in the lip and then the last described por- tion is fitted on it from the inside, thus holding it in place. The face of this labret measures an inch and seven-eighths in length by an inch in breadth and is made of fossil mammoth ivory. Northward from the Yukon the commonest style of labret is the hat- shape form shown in plate xxi, 21, of white quartz from Sledge island. This specimen has the inner side smoothly excavated to fit upon the teeth and the outer border has a groove across its face. This labret is about half an inch across its exposed face and nine tenths of an inch along the portion resting against the teeth. UJ cc Q _J I o Q Z < z u o Q UJ CO 05 UJ OC Q > _1 _l < O a > kelson] LABKETS 47 Similar labrets are shown in plate xxii, 19, 20, from Sledge island, wliich are from an inch to an inch and a qnarter along the beveled inner flange, and five eighths of an inch across their outer faces; these are made of hard stone, mottled black and white. Figure 9 shows a pair of lignite labrets worn by a King island man. The specimen shown in jdate xxii, 0, was obtained on King island in Bering strait. The base is the ordinary hat-shape lahret of walrus ivory, having a slot cut in its outer face in which is fitted a well modeled piece of serpentine two inches in length and three founhs of an inch in breadth, representing the tail of a right whale, and is fastened in place by means of a wooden pin which i)asscs through a hole drilled] across the top of the labret and tlnougli a corresponding hole in the Fio. 9 — King islaud man with labrets of lignite. border of the piece of serpentine inserted in the slot. Its similarity of shape to the specimen (plate sxii, 10) from Nunivak island is curious, and probably represents an ancient and widely spread form that is now rare. A labret obtained on Nunivak island by Doctor Dall (plate xxii, 11) is elaborate in form, having a hat shape ivory base with six short strings of beads forming the outer part, which are held in position by flat ivory spacers. Another style (plate xxii, 12) from the same locality has an ivory base with a lead tip in the form of a truncated cone. In the neighborhood of Bering strait and Hotham inlet, large, flat labrets made of jadite were not uncommon. Tbe beautiful specimen (plate XXII, 15) obtained in Hotham inlet by Mr Woolfe measures one and seven-eighth inches by an inch and a quarter on its outer surface. It has an oval button on the inside an inch and a half in width; the out- 48 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 line of the exposed surface is quadraugulsir, with the two sides rounded ; the surface is plain, beveled at each end and crossed lengthwise by a groove. Other styles of labrets worn along this coast, in addition to those already described, have a large inner flange beveled to fit the teeth, and a large, rounded, knob-like head to project through the lips; these are made from various materials, usually some kind of stone. The specimen (plate xxii, 14) from Kotzebue sound is the finest labret obtained. It is made of nephrite and measures three and a half inches long by an inch and a quarter wide on its outer surface. It is reduced in thickness uniformly, is very regular in outline, and has a well-made button-shape projection on the inner surface for fastening it in the lip. Some large labrets made of white quartz were obtained at Point Hope; they are circular in outline on their outer faces, measure an inch and a half in diameter, and have the ordinary flanged in^ojection inside for holding them in position. Some of these have the outer face plane and a few have half of a large blue bead fastened to the center of the outer surface. Others have the middle of the outer surface plane and thence to the border slightly beveled. The labret shown in plate xxii, 18, is a good example of the variety with the bead in relief. Plate XXII, 17, shows one with plane surface. The collection also contains a specimen obtained by Mr Woolfe from Point Hope, which has a large blue bead fitted upon a wooden ])eg which pierces the hat-shape portion of the labret in a manner exactly similar to those from the island of Nunivak and adjilcent mainland. Among the males labrets are worn only after puberty, as the lips of the young boys are not pierced until that period. The hole is made just below each corner of the mouth and at first a long, thin, nail-like l^lug of ivory, about an inch in length, having a slight enlargement at the inner end, is thrust through the opening and left for some time. After the wearer becomes accustomed to this, a somewhat larger plug is made, like that shown in j)late xxii, 22, from Sledge island, and inserted in the hole for the purpose of enlarging it. This process is repeated, a larger plug being used on each occasion until the hole is of the size desired. In many cases it is so large that the teeth are visible through the opening when the labret is not in jdace. To complete the process of enlarging the hole, a man uses a series of from six to eight or ten of these little plugs, which he afterward pierces at their small ends and keeps strung upon a sinew cord, as shown in plate xxii, 25, from Koyukuk river and figure 23 of the same plate from UGaktolik. These he may keep among his small effects or they may be hung as pendent ornaments to the end of his wife's waist belf, or to the strap of her needle case. When they are used in this way as ornaments, the men frequently etch little patterns upon them, as shown iu some of the specimens (plate xxii, 23), which have about their center a double band of incised lines, making a zigzag pat- tern, with the raven totem mark toward the larger end. Various other figures are also drawn upon these ornaments as fancy may dictate. z Ul o Q z < z UJ h- D o o o CD D z < I- < > < LABRETS 49 The people of Kowak and Noatak rivers, like those of Point Hope and the adjacent Arctic coast, wear large labrets, varying from half an inch to neaily two inches in diameter. The materials from which these are made varies greatly, among them being granite, syenite, jadite,, quartz, slate, glass, lignite, and wood, as well as walrus and fossil mam- moth ivory. The heads, as already described,. may be round, squarely beveled, angular, knoblike, or of various other forms. The photographs of men taken at Point Hope and Kotzebue SQund show the appearance of these objects when in place (plate xxiii and figure 10). Fig. 10 — Kotzebue sound Maleniiit men and women. The specimen from Point Hope, figured in plate xxii, 24, is a knob- head labret made of a dark green stone. Another from the same locality (plate xxii, 13) has a hat-shape base of ivory with a large blue bead on a wooden pin inserted in a hole made in the basal portion of the labret. In wearing large stone labrets, the lip is dragged down by their weight, so that the lower teeth and gum.'s are exposed. It is the usual custom to wear but one of the larger size at a time, one of smaller dimensions being inserted on the opposite side of the mouth. While traveling with these people in winter, I found that during cold days 18 ETH 4 50 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT fETH. ANN. 18 the labrets were invariably removed in order to prevent the lip from freezing, as must have occurred had they remained in place. The labrets were removed and carried in a small bag until we approached a village at night, when they were taken out and replaced, that the Fig. 11— Tattooing on women (a, South of Yukon mouth; 0, East cape, Siberia; c, c, Head of Kotzebue sound). wearer might present a proper appearance before the people. They are also sometimes removed when eating and before retiring for the night. TATTOOING Tattooing is universally practiced among the women of the Bering strait region, but has attained its greatest development on the Siberian coast and St Lawrence island. On the tundra south of the Yukon only part of the women are tattooed, and I was informed that the practice is comparatively recent among them. They claim to have adopted it from the women of Nunivak island, who had straight lines on their cheeks, and also from having seen tattooing on the faces of Tinn^ women.' The common pattern used in this district is a pair of lines across the chin from each corner of the mouth, as shown in figure ll,a. Fig. 12— Tattooing on a St Lawrence island girl. Malemut women, as well as those from Noatak and Kowak rivers, cross the chin with series of lines of tattooing radiating from the lower lip, as shown in figure 11, 6, c; they also frequently have straight lines across the back of the wrist and forearm. On St Lawrence island and BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XVI MAN'S BIRDSKIN FROCK iabout one-seventh ) UNIVERSITY NELSON] TATTOOING 51 the adjacent Siberian coast women have the sides of their faces (figure 12) and their arms and breasts covered with finely designed patterns of circles and scroll work, sometimes crossed by straight lines. At East cape, the women ordinarily have six or eight pairs of lines crossing their chins, and on each side of their faces patterns of circles Fig. 13 — Tattooing on a woman of St Lawrence isl.uul. and spiral lines; also, two or three vertical, parallel lines crossing their temples and extending to the chin. The patterns on the cheeks usually cover a space about four inches in width extending from the ear toward the nose and from the eye to the lower jaw. On the inside of the forearm two long parallel lines usually extend from the elbow to the bor- der of the palm. These are crossed just below the elbow by two short lines, and the wrist is crossed by four lines which so»netimes completely encircle that part of the arm (figure 14). On the body the tattooing covers the breast and sometimes the shoulders and upper arms. The pattern shown in figure 12 was seen on the face of a little girl of St Lawrence island. Figure 13, showing the tattooing' on the face of a Fig. 14 — Tattooing on a woman's arm, East cape, Siberia. 52 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. a.nx. 18 woman of tbis island, is from a sketch made and kindly presented to me by Mr Henry W. Elliot. At Mechigme bay, Siberia, a man was seen who had a double circle connected by radiating lines on each cheek (figure 15, a). At Plover bay a boy had the raven totem over each eye, as shown in the illustra- tions of totem markings. On St Lawrence island a man had circles, representing labrets, near the lower corners of his mouth, and two short, parallel lines on each temple (figure 15, h). BEADS AND EARRINGS The practice of piercing the septum of little girls is still common among the Eskimo of the Alaskan mainland. While the children are small they wear one or more beads about the size of buckshot pendent from this hole so that they rest upon the upper lip. When the girl reaches maturity, the nose beads are not worn, and I never observed any use made by women of the hole in the septum except for carrying a b Fig. 15 — Circular forms of tattooins {«. ou a Mecliigme bay man ; b. on a St Lawrence island young man). small objects like needles, which are frequently thrust through the opening and held in place by the pressure of the wings of the nose on either side. On the Asiatic coast large boys and young men were frequently seen wearing two or three beads strung on their hair so as to hang down over their foreheads. The hair and the clothing of little girls and young women of the district south of the lower Yukon are highly ornamented- with beads. These are hung in parallel strings, held in position as flat bands by means of small, ilat, ivory rods, or by strips of heavy skin pierced with holes at short intervals, through which pass the cords on which the beads are strung. Loops of these bands sometimes hang from the earrings over the shoulders to the breast; others are attached to the braids of hair above the ears. To these loops is frequently attached a heavy copper ring. The practice among women of piercing the lobe or outer edge of the ear is common in all the territory occupied by the Eskimo visited by me. In some instances only the lobe is pierced, and in others holes or THB UNIVERSITY NELSON] BEADS AND EARRINGS 53 are made along the outer border above the lobe. It is also common for men to have their ears pierced, particularly in the district between the Yukon and Kuskokwim, where they wear huge earrings, from which frequently hang strings of beads, extending under the cliin from ear to ear in a long loop. The variety of earrings worn by the women in the vicinity of the Yukon and the Kuskokwim is very great, as shown by the series illustrated in plates xxiv and xxv; they are made of ivory, with occasional settings of beads or other objects. Elsewhere along the coast very much less variety iu the ornamentation of these objects was observed. It is interesting to note that the greatest richness of ornamentation and variety in form of earrings is found among the people of the district south of the lower Yukon, which coincides with the elaborate style of their carvings on masks and other objects. Earrings worn by men of the tundra between the Yukon mouth and the lower Kuskokwim are made of ivory and are very large. They are usually rectangular and measure from an inch and a quarter to two inches in length by three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in width. Frequently there are four plane sides, but some of them have the lower end rounded, while others have this portion beveled from each side to the center. They commonly taper slightly from above downward. The front is excavated, leaving a narrow rim of ivory around the border, the sides of the excavation being parallel with the outline of the tablet-like piece forming the ornament. Fre- quently this excavated space ia crossed midway by a narrow ridge of ivory, which subdivides the central opening into upper and lower divi- sions of equal size. This sunken area is then filled with some kind of cement, probably made from spruce gum, in which are set various shining objects. The following descriptions cover some of the most interesting forms of men's and women's earrings contained in the collection. The speci- men from Kaialigamut shown iu plate xxv, 12, measures an inch and a quarter in length by three quarters of an inch in width and has its outer face divided by an ivory ridge. The excavated spaces are filled with a black cement, and set in each subdivision are three small, square pieces of lead, making six on each earring. The lower end is beveled to a point, and like all of these large earrings has a boss on the pos- terior surface near the lower border, which is jiierced with a hole for fastening the ends of little pendants of beads. In addition, this speci- men has a longer string of beads passing beneath the cltin to the opposite side. The hook for attaching these ornaments to the ear is cut from the same piece of ivory and extends back and downward neaily to the lower point of the carving. Another example from Kaialigamut (plate xxv, 10) is similar, in shape to the one last described, with the lower end beveled to a point. It is two inches in length by an inch and one-eighth wide, and has set in 64 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth ann. 18 tbe cemented outer face several fragments of bottle glass. Ou the back is the usual long, stout hook, and a small pierced knob or boss is provided near the lower point for the attachment of strings of beads. The earring from Nunivak island shown in plate xxv, 13, is an inch and five-eighths long by au inch wide, with the lower end of bow shape. The excavated front surface is not subdivided by an ivory ridge, but has an insertion of some white substance crossed by regular black lines forming a diamond-shape pattern over which is neatly fitted a piece of window glass. Another specimen (plate xxv, 11), from Big lake, is of quadrilateral outline and has an ivory septum across the center forming two sub- divisions filled with cement, in which are set four rounded fragments of brass, one at each corner, with a round bead of iron in tlie center. A smaller specimen than this, from the same locality, has four white beads set in the cement at each corner of the subdivisions, with frag- ments of glass in the center. Another earring, from Koiiigunugumut, has small fragments of mica imbedded in the cement. The greatest variety of carving, however, is shown in the earrings worn by women. These are sometimes plane-face, quadrate, or oval pieces of ivory with a stout hook in the back ; but, as a rule, the fronts are variously carved and ornamented. A common style of ornamentation consists of a series of concentric rings with a round pit or dot in the center. Their faces are frequently crossed by fine, etched, ray-like lines. Another form is that of the circles and ray-like lines shown in plate xxiv, 18, from Askinuk. All these rings have a stout hook for attaching them to the ear, and a pierced boss near the lower border, on the posterior side, for the attach- ment of a string of beads. From Cape Vancouver was obtained the specimen shown in plate XXIV, 5, which exhibits another form, consisting of a circle five-eighths of an inch in diameter, with a round hole in the center and a knob on each corner, and a long, narrow bar at its lower edge, all carved from a single piece of ivory. The front is surrounded by a series of seven neatly etched concentric circles. From the same locality is a similar earring (plate xxiv, 1), having the circles spaced in pairs, between the outer and the next to the outer set of which are a series of round, sunken dots. The example illustrated in plate xxiv, 2, from Kunivak island, is an inch and an eighth long by three-fourths of an inch wide. The upper portion is circular, with concentric rings, and the central hole is filled with a little ivory plugj the borders have on each corner a little spur, also of ivory, and below, extending downward, two oblong ivory pro- jections with rounded ends which are pierced by a small, round hole. The front surfaces of these are convex and are covered with a series of five concentric circles; etched lines extend from the outer circle down on the front of the lower projections, and a little circle surrounds each of the holes near the lower end. NELSON] BEADS AND EARRINGS 55 The specimen from Chalitmut figured in plate xxiv, 6, is small and rounded J it is a little over half au inch in diameter, and has a rounded knob at each corner. The center has a black spot and two concentric rings with spaced dots scattered around these and a dot in the middle of each corner i)rojection. Another small set (plate xxiv, 8) from Chalitmut measures half an inch in diameter and is rudely oval in shape, with five small circles and dots arranged in the form of a cross on a slightly convex face. A single earring obtained from St Michael (number 129205) exhibits two circles, joined one below the other, and each having the front cov- ered with concentric rings with a piece of lead set in the center. There is a hole at the lower end for the attachment of a string of beads. A pair from Nulukhtulogumut (plate xxiv, 3) measure three-quarters of an inch in width. They are of the usual rounded pattern with pro- jecting corners, and with the center excavated and set with half of a blue bead, which is surrounded by two concentric circles, the outer one having spur-like etched lines drawn from it to the corner projections. Another example (plate xxiv, 4) from Kaialigamut, is three-«]uarters of an inch in diameter, with rounded outline and convex face, in which is set half of a large, amber-colored glass bead. In addition to the styles already described, the country between the lower Yukon and the Kuskokwim affords a considerable variety of these ornaments, upon which are carved the features of men, animals, and tunghdt. These are usually oval in outline, measuring from half an inch to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, but some are oblong in shape. A pair from Chalitmut (plate xxiv, 15) are square, with the features raised in relief in the center. A pair from Kushutuk (plate xxiv, 13) are each three-quarters of an inch in length and in shape represent a small seal. The ornamentation of the specimen from Cape Vancouver illustrated in plate xxiv, 1(5, represents the features of a timghcU; and on another from the same locality (plate xxiv, 14) is shown the face of a short- ear owl. Northward from St Michael to Bering strait the earrings used are more oblong in shape, being longer and narrower in proportion j they are also less handsomely ornamented, and the entire workmanship is more crude. These measure from half au inch to an inch and a half in length and from an eighth to half an inch in diameter. An oblong, convex-face pair (plate xxiv, 19), from Sledge island, measure a little over an inch and a quarter in length and three eighths of an inch in breadth, and have half of a large blue bead set in the front of each. Most of the earrings from this island hav e the faces crossed by deeply incised lines, although there were obtained one or two pairs which are perfectly plain. The specimen from Cape Vancouver shown in plate xxiv, 7, is a disk with a series of concentric circles on its face; another (plate xxiv, 11) 56 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.an.v. 18 from the same locality represents a grotesque human lace with tufts tied on each side to represent a woman's braided hair, while another (plate XXIV, 17), obtained also at the same place, represents the features of a seal. The only metal earrings obtained were collected on the lower Yukon. They are made of copper, of the usual round style worn by women, with concentric circles on the iface and projecting knobs at the corners. A pair of earrings (plate xxiv, 9), obtained at St Michael by Mr L. M. Turner, show smooth, disk-like faces three-eighths of an inch in diam- eter, back of which project for about a quarter of an inch rounded ivory pins extending downward three-quarters of an inch to roughly truncated tips pierced for the reception of the ends of a. string of beads. These are the only earrings of this description that were seen. A pair from Cape Vancouver (plate xxiv, 12) are long, narrow, and oval in shape. They are an inch long, by three-eighths of an inch wide, and taper down to a narrow, flattened point pierced as usual for attach- ing a string of beads. Extending lengthwise along the median line of the faces is a ridge from which the surface is beveled away on both sides. On this doubly beveled surface is represented, by means of incised lines and dots, a grotesque human face with labret holes below the corners of the mouth. Another pair, from Nulukhtulogumut (plate xxiv, 10), are broadly oval in outline with a grotesque human face on the front; they measure seven-eighths of an inch long by nearly three-quarters of an inch wide. Plate XXV, 9, shows a pair from Chalitmut, three quarters of an inch long by half an inch wide, having an oval outline and a slightly con- vex face. An incised line extends vertically through the center, with two i)airs of beveled lines extending thence diagonally downward to the border on each side. In the three spaces thus made along each side of the surface are three small circles and dots. From the lower ends of these rings hang two pendants of beads two and one-half inches in length, and a string of beads twelve inches in length connects them below the chin. A pair of rounded earrings from Sfugunugumut (plate xxv, 7) are about seven-eighths of an inch in diameter and have knob-like projec- tions on four corners, each of the latter having an incised dot in the center. The faces are marked by two concentric circles, with a hole in the center, which is plugged with wood. A hole in the lower edge of these rings serves to attach the upper edge of a band over four inches in length, made of seven strings of beads, which are spaced near. the upper end by a flattened ivory rod an inch and a half long, pierced with a hole for each string. N^ear the lower end they are held in place by a similar strip made from a thick piece of sealskin. On the islands as well as on both shores of Bering strait, the wome^ frequently wear pendent from their earrings, in x^lace of beads, strings of the little orange-color horny sheaths from the angle of the bill of BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XIX FRONT OF MAN'S FISHSKIN FROCK lummet-like piece of ivory, with a stem-like projection on one end which is pierced for the cord; the surface is crossed by incised lines extending around each face and by a similar line around its greatest diameter, between which and the stem are four sets of circles and dots. The specimen from Anogogmut, illustrated in plate xxyii, 10, is a neatly made carving of a seal an inch and three-eighths long, with a projecting ear-like piece on its lower surface, through which a trian- gular hole admits a cord. Another, from isunivak island (plate xxvii, 15), is a double oval carving, with an angular projecting ear on the lower surface for the attachment of the cord. On the front the double oval surface meets at a narrow neck, each end having etched upon it a grotesque countenance, probably representing the face of a seal. The fastener shown in plate xxvii, 12, from Sfugunugumut, is an inch and a half long, made from walrus ivory in the shape of a white whale, and is pierced through the side. P^igure 3 shows a carving fty)m Agiukchugumut, two and a quarter inches in length, slightly resembling in outliue the incisor of a bear; on the truncated end is a grotesque semihuman face, and etched upon the sides are lines, circles, and dots, including the representation of fore and hind limbs. It represents some being recognized in the mythology of the Eskimo. Plate XXVII, 7, represents a neatly made carving, an inch and three- quarters long, in the form of a walrus, the flippers of the animal being conventionally shown in relief. It is from the lower Kuskokwim. Plate XXVII, 11, shows a miniature carving, from Sledge island, repre- senting a white bear; it is an inch long and is pierced through the side for the cord. Plate XXVII, 8, illustrates a fastener, from Nunivak island, represent- ing a walrus. It measures two and a half inches in length and is pierced vertically for the cord. An unnumbered piece from Kushunuk is a small carving represent- ing on its front a grotesque flgure of a woman; it is pierced on the back for the passage of the cord. Plate XXVII, 10, represents a small carving, from Nunivak island, an inch and three-eighths long, almond-shape in outline, flat on the lower edge and concave on the upper; the latter surface has marked ui)on it the figure of a fish, with a broad, deeply incised, crescent-shape mouth; it is pierced vertically for the cord. Plate XXVII, 14, shows a fiistener from Cape Kome; it measures an inch and a half in length and rei)resents the heads of two polar bears BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXI BOOTS, WATERPROOF MITTENS, AND STRAW SOCKS (about one-ninth) NELSON] BELTS AND BELT BUTTONS 61 with open mouths and joined at the necks. A hole passes laterally- through the bases of the necks for the cord; the heads are divided by a deep, broad incision, separating them from each other at their bases. Another fastener from Cape Nome (figure 17) is a fine piece of com- I)Osite carving. Held in one position it represents the head of a> white bear; turned with the other surface upward it represents a seal, the ears of the bear serving in that case for the fore-flippers of the latter animal, while a ridge along both sides of the posterior portion of the seal's body marks the position of its hind flippers and serves to outline the lower jaws of the bear. This object can also be used as a cord handle. Plate XXVII, 13, from Point Hope, is an excellent representation of the skull of a walrus an inch and a half in length. Figure 21 of the same plate represents a fastener from Askinuk, in the form of a seven- fingered human hand. Another style of button or belt fastener is made from a rounded, oval, or quadrangular flattened piece of ivory or bone, pierced through the center with a single hole for the accommodation of the belt cord. The following fasteners are also illustrated in plate xxvii : Figure 19, from the lower Yukon, is a thin, square piece of ivory, pierced in the center by a hole for the cord; its border is surrounded by a series of etched lines, forming a wave pattern; extending toward the center from each corner are etched the tridentate marks repre- senting the raven totem. ^^^ 17_I^.„^y belt fastener. Figure 20 is from Cape Vancou- ver. It has a circular face, with four projecting knobs at the corners, and etched upon the front are seven concentric circles; the knobs at the corners are pierced and the holes are plugged with wood; two circular lines surround the holes. Figure 22, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a round, convex-face piece of ivory, with the surface neatly carved in relief with a wave pattern alternating with rings; a large ear-hke projection on the back is pierced for the cord. Figure 18, from Anogogmut, is an inch and a quarter long, rounded above and square below, with a slightly oval front, on which, in low relief, is a grotesque human face. The usual ear-like ring on the back serves for attaching the cord. Figure 17, from Nunivak island, is an inch and three-eighths long and an inch and a quarter wide. It is excavated at the back, and on the front has a well-made representation of human features, with the mouth and the eyes pierced, and with Hues representing snow goggles across the eyes; on the back is a strong ear for attaching the cord. Figure 24, from Cape Vancouver, represents the head of a salmon; 62 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 it is hollow and has an ivory pin passing through its base, to which a cord may be attached. In addition to the button-like objects described, other belt fasteners are made in the form of hooks. These vary from plain hooks, as in plate XXVII, 30, to the elaborately carved forms shown in this plate. Figure 26, from Agiukchiigumut, has its surface marked by incised lines inclosing the eye at the base of the hook, passing thence to a point, where they unite. A similar but larger specimen is more elab- orately ornamented on its surface. Figure 27, from Chalitmut, represents a fish, and has an incision along the entire length, following its outline. Figure 23, also from Chalitmut, is a square, flattened piece of ivory with a slit-like notch cut in on one side to a hole in the center, and with ii beveled edge on one face. Both surfaces are marked by heavily incised lines. Figure 28, from the mouth of the Yukon, is a rudely made hook with the head of an animal carved upon the outer end, the other end being pierced by a hole for the cord; along the back of the animal, from between the ears, extends an incised line, from which other lines extend diagonally down the sides as though outlining segments. Figure 29, from the northern end of Norton sound, is a curiously made hook in the shape of a human figure, represented as sitting on its legs with the body bent forward and the head supported by the hands placed on either side of the face; the area inclosed between the neck and the arms serves for attaching the belt cord, and the legs extending forward and upward parallel to the body serve as a hook for insertion into the opposite loop. Figure 9, from Kushunuk, represents a rudely outlined, grotesque human figure. Figure 30, from Agiukchugumut, shows a plain hook with an eye for the cord and two lines etched along the surface, surrounding the eye and following the outline. The men and boys wear belts of various kinds. Sometimes these inay be simply a rawhide cord or strap of tanned skin; more com- monly, however, they are made of the skin taken from the feet of a wolverine or wolf, the claws being left on. It is soft-tanned without removing the hair and the edges are sewed together to make a continu- ous band; on the back is sewed the skin of the animal's head, the nose being attached to the belt and the tail fastened to the lower end. These belts are highly prized, and it is very seldom that a man or a boy, unless he be very poor, does not possess his wolverine or wolf-skin belt. It is supposed to give the wearer a certain strength and prowess similar to those qualities in the animal from which the skin was taken. Belts representing the totem animal of the owner are also worn, and sometimes the mummi fied bodies of the little weasel are attached to them in front, ia the belief that some of the animal's prowess will be conveyed BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXII LABRETS (NINE-SIXTEENTHS) I "UNIVERSITY NELSON] WEASEL BELTS LAMPS 63 to the wearer. These weasel belts were most frequently seen among people from the head of Norton bay and Kaviak peninsula, where they seemed to be particularly prized. The people from that section offered as much as two dollars' worth of furs for the skin and the head of a weasel for this pur})ose. Fig. 18— Lamp from Point Barrow. UTENSII.S AND IMPI^EMENTS LAMPS Throughout western Alaska, including the islands of Bering strait, and upon the coast of Siberia, open lamps are used for burning seal oil; they are made of clay, soa])- stone, or other easily worked stone, and present considera ble variety of form. At Point Barrow I saw a tine soapstoue lamp (figure 18), 2 feet long and 10 inches broad, weighing about 30 pounds. The owner refused to sell it, but the accomi)any- ing sketch made a^ the time shows the manner in which it is sub- divided by ridges of stone, with sunken interspaces; it is symmetrical in form and suboval in outline, with the convexity greatest on one side. At East cape, Siberia, 1 saw a stone lamp lying upon a grave, just back of the village, which is similar in outline to the Point Barrow lamp described, but it lacked the subdivisions across the interior; it is about 15 inches long and proportionately broad. The specimen illustrated in ])late xxviii, 3, was found on the eastern coast of Siberia; it is made of stone, is suboval in outline, deeply excavated at the back, and slopes upward to a broad ledge in front; this ledge is crossed by a ridge of stone cut through in the center for holding the wick. On the Diomede islands similar lamps were found in use, but a child's toy, made from ivory in shape of a lamp, was obtained on one of these islands, which shows a different form (figure 19). It is suboval in outline and deepest in the center, with a ridge extending along each side just above the bottom, and with a groove cut through the middle of each side for the wick. This lamp is repre- sented as standing upon a stool like frame, \vhich is supported by four legs, with a crosspiece on each side and two crosspieces on the ends to hold the legs in place. An exami)le (number 64223) from Hotham inlet is of stone, subtri- angular in outiine, with the convexity greatest on one side, toward which Fig. 19 — Ivory carving: represeiitiug a lamp and stand (full size). 64 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 tbe bottom slopes; tlie long, nearly straight, unnotclied sdge forms the ledge on which the wii-k rests. From St Lawrence island a number of lamps were obtained, showing considerable variety of form. Plate xxviir, 7, represents a lamp made of clay, 11|; inches long, 9^ wide, and 2f deep; it is siiboval in outline, with a tray-shape bottom; a high, thin ridge runs along each side, just above the bottom, which projects upward, and inclines a little outward; a dee]) notch is cut through tlie middle of these ridges close to the level of the bottom for receiving the wick. The lorm of this lamp is precisely that indicated on the toy carving from the Diomede islands above described (figure 19). Plate XXVIII, 8, illustrates a lamp from St Lawrence island, 14i inches long by 12:1 wide and 2| deep. It is like the last in general shape, but slopes gradually from the sides downward to within a short distance of the bottom, when it drops suddenly to a depressed area about an inch deep, which occupies the entire bottom of the lamp; along each side of the bottom projects a ridge, which slopes upward and a little toward the middle. These ridges are pierced by a round hole near each end, about on a line witli the bottom of tiie himp, through which the wicks were inserted. Both this lamp and the one last described undoubtedly stood upon framework supports, and were used probably for cooking purposes. •A tray-shape clay lamp (number 63569) from St Lawrence island is 15^ inches long by lOf wide; it has two projecting ridges on the inner sides, midway between the rim and the bottom, for supporting the wick. This, like the other large lamps from this island already described, was undoubtedly used for cooking. Plate XXVIII, 4, shows a tray-shape lamp from St Lawrence island, which undoubtedly was used solely for illuminating purposes. It has the upper border flattened smoothly on three sides; along the front the sloi)e extends gently backward toward the deepest part. Extending lengthwise, midway between the bottom and the front border or lip, is a tliin projecting ridge; the front border of the lamp above this ledge shows signs of having been burnt; evidently the wicks had their bases supported against the raised ridge while their upper edges projected from thejip. Plate XXVIII, 5, represents the support for the last described lamp. It is made of clay, and is in the form of a pot 5 inches high and 6f wide. It has a fiat bottom, with tlie sides rounded to the front, where a cres- centic dejiression is made in the border, with a slightly raised point on the rim at each side. The lamp was placed on the mouth of the vessel, the depressed portion of which is just beneath the point where the wick rests along the outer edge of the lip, so that any drippings of oil which might run down would be caught in the vessel below. The lamp from St Lawrence island shown in plate xxviii, 9, is some- what similar in shape to the preceding, but having the bottom flattened BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXIII KOTZEBUE SOUND MALEMUT MEN AND WOMEN WITH LABRETS NELSON] LAMPS 65 and on the posterior side a handle like projection which extends outward for two inches from the general outline of the lamp. Along the opposite side the bottom slopes gradually from the border to the side next to the projection just described, where its deepest point is found. Just below the border is a ridge for supporting the wick, which rests along the upper edge of the lamp in front. Plate xxviii, 10, represents a wooden bowl-like holder or support for this lamp. It is excavated into a smoothly oval, gourd-shape depression, and has the bottom flat to insure its retaining an upright position. All of the lamps from St Lawrence island are made with nearly tiat bottoms, with the exception of that shown in plate xxyiii, 4, in which the base is rounded. Plate XXVIII, 12, from Norton bay, is a crescentic toy lamp made of stone, with a sharp edge extending almost straight across one side, the remainder of the border approaching a semicircle. Figure 11 of the same plate is a clay lamp from St Michael, very similar in shape to the preceding; it is the ordinary form used at that locality and in other villages of the Unalaklit. From St Michael there is a toy lamp (number 43470) made apparently by utilizing a natural hollow in a small stone. There is also a small toy lamp of stone (number 0475), from Cape Darby, of crescentic out- line, and sloping from the nearly straight border to the deepest point below the rim on the opposite side. Figure 0 represents a stone lamp obtained by Mr L. M. Turner at St Michael; it is nearly pear-shape in outline, with a smoothly sunken depression. Figure 2, from Big lake, shows a round, saucer-shape toy lamp of clay, with the bottom rounded and the interior regularly depressed. A series of three parallel grooves are incised around the outer edge, near the border; inside the border are seven incised parallel grooves, suc- ceeded by two others which encircle the center of the bottom and are connected with the series on the side by four spoke like rays, each of which is formed by a series of four incised lines with an intermediate row of dots. Similar round, saucer-shape lamps are in common use from the Kus- kokwim to the Yukon mouth and are found also along the shore of Norton sound to St Michael. One of these lamps from the lower Yukon bears Museum number 38078a. It has two grooves encircling the outside, near the border; inside are four heavy grooves, and a large cross is incised in the center of the bottom. DIPPERS, LADLES, AND SPOONS In the neighborhood of Norton sound and the lower Yukon the most common form of dipper is made by cutting a long, thin strip of spruce, three to six inches wide, and fashioning one end into the form of a handle; the other end is thinned down to a long, wedge shape pointy 18 ETH 5 OQ THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT fETHANx.is and the wood is steamed and bent upon itself so that the thin edge rests against the strip just inside of the base of the handle. It is then held in position by means of two pairs of sticks clami)ed upon opposite sides and tied by a wrapping of cord or spruce rootlets. After the frame becomes dry the (ilamps are removed and a series of holes are punched through the overlapping wood. The bottom of the cylinder formed by the sides has a groove extending around it, in which is fitted a circular or an oval piece of wood, with the edges chamfered. When this bottom is in place the stitching of rootlets is ijassed through the series of holes in the overlapping ends, holding them permanently in position. Plate XXIX, figures (5 and 7, illustrate dippers of this description from Norton sound and Sledge island, respectively. The latter is not colored; the former has on the outside of the handle a band extending around the upper and lower edges of the sides, and a strip around the sides of the bottom painted red. The red borders on the sides are outlined on their inner edges by narrow black lines in a slight groove. Figure 8 of the same plate represents a dipper of slightly different pattern from the lower Yukon. It is obovate in horizontal section, and near the beveled edge of the end of the strips of wood which form the sides of the dipper there is a slightly raised boss extending across it as a strengthener. Exactly opposite this is a similar thickening of the side, which strengthens it and renders the curves around the ends uniform, in the same manner that a thickening in the center of a bow braces it and governs the curves. After being steamed the wood is bent until two notches cut in the upper edge come together at the points where one end of the strip should overlap the other inside of the handle. The ends are then held in place by means of four short, stout sticks, which are bound in pairs on the outer and inner sides by means of tightly wrapped sjnuce roots, which form a strong clamp. In this manner the wood is held firmly in place until it dries, after which the clamps are removed and a double series of holes are pierced for sewing. A groove is cut on the inner side near the lower edge, into which the chamfered edges of the bottom are sprung. Spruce root- lets are then sewed along the holes pierced in the side, and the dipper is ready for use. Plate XXIX, 12, from Ikogmut (Mission), represents a round, bowl- shape dipper cut from a single piece of wood, with a flat handle project- ing on the inner side; its capacity is about a quart. Figure 10 of the same plate, from St Lawrence island, is a flat- bottom, bowl-shape dipper, a little smaller than the preceding, wliich has a round handle projecting from one side with a quadrate opening cut through it. The dipper from Cape Nome shown in plate xxix, 9, is made from the horn of a Dall's sheep. It has a deep spoon-shape bowl, with a long, slender handle provided with an ivory pin, held in place by two ivory pegs set in a slot cut through its outer end and projecting down- BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXIV EARRINGS UNIVERSITY CALIFOFltil) ^EisoN] DIPPERS, LADLES, AND SPOONS 67 ward with a recurved hook. This is intended to prevent the hand from slipping. Dippers similar to this were obtained from Kotzebue sound. Among the handsome dippers observed was one seen at Point Hope, made from fossil mammoth ivory. It was oblong in outline, with a deeply excavated interior and a handle projecting at one end. Plate XXIX, 3, from Cape Nome, shows an oval, spoon-shape ladle, with a rounded handle, pierced by two orifices, projecting from one side. A ladle similar to the preceding in form of handle is common along the coast of Bering strait from Cape Nome to the Diomede islands. A specimen from Sledge island, shown in figure 2 of plate xxix, is similar as to the form of the bowl, but has a handle more ornately carved. The dipper from Ohalitmut, shown in plate xxx, 24, has a handle smoothly rounded, with a long, slender, oval hole pierced through it. The inside of the bowl is surrounded by a checked pattern in black, with a curious figure representing some mythological being marked on the center in black paint. This paint is very durable, since it shows no signs of defacement, although the utensil has been used in hot water and in greasy compounds. Plate xxx, 19, from the lower Kuskokwim, is somewhat similar in outline to the last. The handle is provided with a very small hole, and the edge of the bowl is elevated like a rim above the point of insertion of the handle. This spoon has its inner border encircled by two black lines with crosslines, and in the center is painted, in black, the form of a seal with a spear attached to its back, to which is fastened a line with a float at its outer end. Near the upper edge of the handle are black crossbars. Plate xxx, 20, from Cape Vancouver, shows a spoon somewhat similar in shape to the preceding, but with the handle differing in outline and the inside of the bowl bordered by a black line, with a conventional drawing of some mythological animal. Plate XXIX, 5, from Chalitmut, has the outer end of the handle trun- cated and a long, narrow, triangular slot cut through it; the inside of the bowl is ornamented with two drawings, in black, of the killer whale, and the exterior surface is painted red: the handle is crossed by red and black bars. Dipper numbered 38630, is similar in outline to that just described. On the iuside the figure of a man, a circle, and two skins, apparently of otters, are painted in black; the border of the bowl is surrounded on the inside by a black line. The handle and the lower border are red and the former is crossed by a black band. Plate xxx, 21, from Sfugunugumut, is similar in outline to the last mentioned. It has a seal-like animal painted on the bottom, showing details of its internal anatomy, and inclosed by two long arms with the hands extended and the palms pierced similarly to the hands. Similar figures are seen on masks from this district. A ladle with a deep bowl, from Paimut, illustrated in plate xxx, 25, 68 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx.18 has the handle narrowed near the base, then widened and narrowed a^ain toward the top, ending in a rounded point; a triangular slot is cut through the handle, and near the top is a circular hole; its upper sur- face is carved around the border, and a quadrangular area with incurved sides is sunken near the base and painted black; on the lower surface a groove extends in toward the handle on each side and surrounds the bottom. The form of a small flsh is painted in black on the bottom of the bowl, which, near its border, is surrounded by two black rings connected by crossbars. Plate XXX, 23, from Chalitmut, has the handle made in two ])arts, joined by a crossbar near the outer end; the lower side of the bowl and part of the handle are painted red; above this the handle is crossed by one red and two black bauds. On the inside of the bowl are painted tigures of the curious hybrid animal known in Eskimo mythology as the metamorphosis of the white whale into a combination of wolf and whale. Plate XXX, 22, from Sfugunugumut, is similar in form to others described. It has the inside of the spoon outlined by a black line, and in the center a pattern like that seen on Avomen's earrings in this dis- trict, being a circle and a dot with four projecting points which form corners on the outside of the circle. Figure 1) of the same plate, from Konigunugumut, is a round-handle spoon, the handle being surrounded at equal intervals with three beads cut in the wood ; it is not painted. Figure 10, from Chalitmut, is a plain-handle spoon having the form of a seal painted in black on the inner surface. Figure IG, from the Kuskokwim, is a plain-handle spoon having a double-head bird painted in black on the inside; the inner border of the bowl is surrounded by two black lines. Plate XXIX, 4, shows a spoon from Sabotnisky with a plain handle narrowed near the bowl, which is pear shape in outline and has the figure of an otter painted within it. The border is surrounded near the upper edge by two black lines; the edge of the rim is red, as are also the borders of the handle on each side, which are connected by a cross- bar of red in the middle; the two quadrangular areas of plain wood thus left on the upper surface of the handle are outlined in black. Plate XXX, 17, also from Sabotnisky, is a long, oval spoon, with the bowl continued to form the handle; it has both the upper and the lower surface ornamented with figures in black. Plate XXIX, 1, represents a rudely shaped ladle from Big lake. It has a long handle, flattened above and oval below, and is painted red except on the inner surface of the bowl. On this unpainted portion is out- lined a figure of the head and fore part of the body of a mythological animal, combining features of the wolf and the killer whale. The fin of the whale is shown rising from the shoulders of the animal, while the fore feet and the head of the wolf are also represented. Plate XXIX, 11, from St Lawrence island, is a broad, flattened scoop, with a short, projecting handle on the inner end and nearly square 3UREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXV EARRINGS AND OTHER ORNAMENTS (seven-sixteenths) KELSON] DIPPERS, LADLES, AND SPOONS 69 across its outer border. This utensil is used for skimming oil or for taking the scum from boiling meat. Plate XXX, 15, represents a small, rudely fashioned wooden spoon from St Lawrence island, somewhat similar in outline to the scoop last described. Plate XXX, 18, from Sledge island, is a spoon with a deep bowl and a short, neatly turned handle. Plate XXX, 11, from Kulwoguwigumut, is a short-handle spoon having a narrow black line extending around the inner border of the bowl, in the center of which are the figures of three reindeer and a laige pair of antlers in black. Plate XXX, 14, from Kushunuk, is a short- liandle spoon with a square, shovel-shape edge. Plate XXX, 13, is similar to the last in shape, but has on the inside of its bowl the figure of a reindeer in black. Plate XXX, 12, from Kaialigamut, is a scoop-shape spoon, with a con- ventional representation of a wolf-like animal on the bowl, which is also ornamented with bordering lines of black, and is dotted over with round, red spots. Plate XXX, 7, from Point Hope, is a small ivory spoon, with a hole in the handle, to which is attached a piece of rawhide cord. ^" ^^'' **'" -^-*"-"rtirfiiiifrtiniMiriy,^>V"r*^N^ '^^''^ Fig. 20 — Marrow spoon (J). Plate XXX, 4, from Anogogmut, is a flat spoon, made from reindeer horn, having its smooth upper surface ornamented with three concentric circles and a black dot, and two parallel incised lines which extend around the surface just inside the border. Plate XXX, 3, from Kushunuk, is a long, narrow spoon of deerhorn, with a hole in the end of the handle for attaching a cord. Plate XXX, 5, from Kushunuk, is a deerhorn spoon, oval on the inner side and straight on the outer side, with a short handle projecting spur- like on one side. Plate XXX, 8, from Kushunuk, is a spoon with a shovel-shape bowl and a projecting arm-like handle at one corner. Plate XXX, C, from Kushunuk, is a long-bowl, scoop-shape spoon without any distinct handle. A rudely made spoon of walrus ivory, from St Lawrence island, is represented in plate xxx, 2. It has a hole at one end of the handle for attaching a cord. Spoons similar in shape were obtained also on the Diomede islands. Plate xxx, 1, from Pastolik, is a spoon for extracting the marrow from bones. The handle is scalloped to receive the fingers,- two parallel lines are etched along the borders of the scallops, which terminate below with the raven totem mark. A deerhorn marrow spoon from Kigik- 70 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT IethannIS tauik has a rounded tip and scalloped handle, as shown in the accom- panying figure 20. WOODEN Wishes, trays, and buckets The Tinnt' of the lower Yukon, adjoining the territory occupied by ^ the Eskimo, are expert in woodworking. They fashion from spruce large numbers of wooden dishes, buckets, trays, and ladles, which they ornament with red and black paint, and the maker usually places his totem mark on each utensil. They make trips down the river for the imrpose of selling their x)roducts to the Eskimo, and travel as far as St Michael on the seacoast. In addition to this trade with the Eskimo, the articles manufactured by these people are distributed over a much greater extent of territory by means of intertribal trading among the Eskimo themselves. Besides the ware of this kind obtained from the Tinn^, the Eskimo make similar articles themselves, which are as a rule equally well made- Examples of this class of work are shown in the ladles, dippers, and spoons already described and illustrated. The simplest form of tray or dish made by the Eskimo is that cut from a single piece of wood, and this variety of utensil is found over a wide area. Plate XXXI, 1, represents a rude bowl-shape wooden dish from Icy cape, slightly flattened below to enable it to istaud safely. Figure 2 of the same plate, from St Lawrence island, is a slightly pear-shape, dipper-like dish, with a flattened bottom and a short, pro- jecting handle on one side. This is rather rudely made, as are all the articles obtained on this island. Figure t), from the same island, is a tray-like dish with a long, obovate outline above, and slightly flattened below, with the handle projecting upright from one end. It is rudely made and is without ornamentation. Figure 6, from the lower Yukon, is a handsomely made, tray -like dish, cut from a single piece and bordered around the edge, outside and in, with a baud of red paint, inside of which are two parallel narrow black lines connected by similar straight crosslines. Figure 5, from Chalitmut, is a deep tray, oval in outline and having the head of an animal at one end, which serves as a handle. At the other end is a short, quadrate projection representing the animal's tail. It is bordered around by a band of red, succeeded by an uncol- ored area and a red line in a groove around the outside. The bottom, both within and without, is uncolored. Figure 4, from Big lake, is a smoothly finished, deep, tray-like dish. The rim is bordered with red and the inside is painted black. At one end projects a carving representing the head and neck of a human being. The lace is turned upward and a short string of beads hangs from each ear. Two white beads are inlaid to represent labrets, and a blue bead, hangs from the pierced septum. A circular i^iece of wood was cut from the rear of the head, through which the latter was excavated, and the BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVI WOMEN AND CHILDREN OF CAPE SMITH eRAR CALIFO] NELSON] UTENSILS OF WOOD 71 mouth aud the eyes were pierced into the hollow interior. This orifice is closed with a neatly fitted circular piece of wood. Figure 8 represents a very well made tray-shape dish' from Big lake; it is oval in outline aud is cut from a single block. Projecting from each end are carved figures of grotesque humau heads which serve as handles; the eyes are represented by white beads, and others are set around the grooved upper edge of the dish. The lower surface is not painted. A groove around the inside, below the edge, is painted black, succeeded by a red border, below which is a narrow black line. The insule bottom is ornamented with a large figure of a quadruped with a short tail and a curious bird-like head marked with a crest. Another kind of shallow tray or dish is made from two pieces of wood, the bottom shaped like a truncated cone, the base of which is turned up and chamfered to fit in a groove on the inside of the rim. In most specimens the narrow, ledge-like rim is made from a thick strip of wood, softened by steam, and then bent around with the beveled ends overlapping and fastened together with wooden pegs. These are in general use on the American coast and on the islands of Bering sea. Specimens from St Lawrence island are made in the same way except that the overlapping ends are sewed together with whalebone. The iedge-like borders are beveled to a central ridge on the inside and are plane along their outer surfaces; in the middle on each side these bor- dering strips are thickened slightly, in order that in bending them the curves shall be thrown out regularly. A tray of this kind from Nukikhtulogumut, represented in plate xxxii, 3, is painted red around the rim and on the inside to cover the border. Just inside this is a narrow black line, and on the bottom is painted in black a grotesque figure of some mythologic animal having upraised hands with pierced palms; along one side of this figure is a row of five walruses and on the other five seals. Plate XXXII, 8, shows a handsomely made tray of similar character, also from iiulukhtulogumut. It is about fourteen inches in length and has inlaid around the beveled inner edge of the rim a series of eight neatly cut, almond-shape pieces of white stone. The rim, both outside and in, is painted red, as is the upper edge on the inside. Just below this, on the inside, are two parallel, narrow black lines, and painted in black on the bottom is a grotesque figure of some mythological animal, showing anatomical details. Plate XXXII, 2, from the same locality as the last, is similar to it in form and has two mythological figures with heads like reindeer painted in black on the inside. Specimen number 45494, from Ikogmut (Mission), is a large tray measuring about 28 inches in length and 18 inches in width. It is painted red around the border, and h^s two parallel black lines inside. On the bottom appears an alligator-like coiled figure, inside of which a mythologic animal is painted in black. 72 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn.18 Plate XXXII, 7, from St Lawrence island, is another type of tray made from a broad, flat piece of si^ruce, which has a square groove cut across inside of each end; a strip of wood is bent upward to meet tlie end pieces, which are fitted into the grooves and held in place by means of thin strips of whalebone sewed through holes in both edges. This is a rude piece of work, showing none of the finish characteristic of speci mens from the American coast. It is the only tray of this kind that was seen. Another style of utensil made in a similar manner to the trays, but with the overlapping ends sewed in two parallel seams by means of spruce roots, are the large tubs used for containing water, seal oil, berries, and other food supplies. Si>ecimen number 45495 is a tub of ibis kind from Ikogmut. Its sides are 11^ inches high above the upper edge of the bottom, which is exca- vated and of tray shape, with chamfered edges to fit into a groove around the inner edge of the side. The outline of the utensil is an elongated oval and measures twenty-two inches in length. Some tubs are larger than this; others are smaller and serve for many uses in the domestic economy of these people. One of the smaller sizes, from St Lawrence island (plate xxxii, 1), 9 inches long, 2i inches deep, is the ordinary style of urine tnb used by the Eskimo throughout the coast and islands \'isited. This with others of the same form obtained on St Lawrence island, have the overlapping ends united by sewing thin strips of whalebone through slit like holes made for the purpose. The buckets used for carrying water are similar in form, the only difference being that they are provided with a handle or bail. A specimen from St Lawrence island (number ()3237) has a bail made of a narrow, curved piece of bone cut from the jaw or rib of a whale and fastened at each end by whalebone strips passed through holes pierced in the edges of the bucket and in the ends of the handle. A small bucket from Cape Vancouver (plate xxxii, 6) has the overlapping ends of the sides fastened by means of two seams sewed with spruce roots. The bail is a thin, narrow strip of reindeer antler, with a hole pierced in each end; it is bent and sprung over the inwardly projecting ends of two short bone pegs which are inserted through the rim on each side. Plate xxxii, 4, from Kushunuk, is very similar to the preceding, except that the curved handle has the boles in its ends fitted over a round, slender rod of wood which extends across the top of the bucket, piercing the rim on each side. • Figure 5 of the same plate, from Kaialigamut, has the handle made from spruce roots, several turns of which are passed through holes made for the purpose in the sides of the rim and then united by having the end wound around the strands crossing the top of the bucket and fastened at one side. From one side of the handle hangs a feather attached by a sinew cord. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVII BELT FASTENERS (seven-sixteenths! NELSON] IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS 73 PESTLES 111 connection with the round-bottom trays used to contain food, broad-head wooden pestles are used for crushing berries, seal fat, or livers of birds and fish with which various pastry mixtures are made. Plate XXXI, 3, from the lower Yukon, and plate xxxi, 7, from Ikog- mut, represent typical examples of these implements. They are made of wood, with large spreading heads and slightly convex lower sur- faces; they taper in somewhat conical form toward the handle, which in one consists of a large ring cut from the same piece as the head, and in the other has a flaring rim shaped like the bottom of a goblet. BLUBBER HOOKS AND CARRIERS Figure 8, plate xxxiiia, illustrates a hook for handling blubber, obtained on Nuuivak island by Doctor Dall. It consists of a short wooden handle curved to a pistol-like grip at the upper end, and having a slot on the inside of the lower end, in which is set the butt of a sharp-pointed ivory spur, which is pierced with a large hole, through which passes a strong rawhide lashing, which also passes through the wooden handle a little above the insertion of the ivory point. The base of the ivory point is held in position in the slot by means of an ivory pin, which is inserted through a hole made in the handle and in the base of the hook. A curious article, intended for carrying small pieces of meat or other articles when traveling (figure 9, plate xxxiiirt), was obtained at Chalit- mut. It consists of a wooden handle about seven inches long, slightly curved along the middle and pierced near both ends to admit the points of a crescentic rod of deerhorn, truncated at one end and pointed at the other, which is passed through one end of the wooden handle and wedged in by a wooden pin ; the pointed end fits into the hole in the opposite side. Just above this the handle is pierced to receive a raw- hide loop, by which it can be hung up or carried. Pieces of meat or other objects are placed upon the carrier by being slipped upon the rod, which is withdrawn for the purpose, after which it is returned and the point again inserted into the hole in which it fits. BAGS FOR WATER AND OIL For carrying water or seal oil while making hunting trips at sea or on land small bags made from the stomachs or the bladders of reindeer, white whale, seal, or walrus are in common use. They hold from one to four quarts, and usually are jirovided with ivory nozzles, which are inserted in the narrow necks of the bags, and are then firmly lashed with sinew cord above the projecting ridge at the inner ends of the nozzles. In order that they may be filled easily these nozzles are made usually with a slightly flaring mouthpiece, which sometimes is 74 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ann. i8 surrounded by a flaring, somewhat spoon-shape rim. The orifice is usually rather small, and is provided with a wooden plug or stopper. Occasionally a funnel is used for filling water bags or small oil bags of this character. One specimen of this kind of nozzle from St Michael (figure 11, plate XXXIII a) is of wood. The top is of spoon shape, rather flat in outline, with one end in the form of a grotesque walrus head with small ivory tusks and eyes represented by inlaid ivory pegs; the other end repre- sents the hind flippers of the walrus, and the fore flippers are painted on the inside of the top near the edge. The broad top is excavated downward to the center, where it is perforated by a round hole. The lower surface is convex, with a round, projecting, stopper-like base for inserting in the moutli of the bag. Figure a, plate xxxiii«, from St Michael, is a spoon-shape nozzle, with a projection below through which the hole passes. It is provided with a wooden stopper attached to a sealskin cord which is fastened into a hole made in a handle-like projection at one end. Figure 6 of the same plate, from Nunvogulukhlugumut, is a some- what similar spoon-shape nozzle, with a wooden stopper attached to a cord fastened into a hole at one end. Figure 2, from Agiukchugumut, is a funnel-shape mouthpiece, with a wooden stopper inserted in a hole in the lower part of the wide- mouth upper end. The outside is marked with raven totem signs. Figure 3, from Anogogmut, has a funnel-shape mouthpiece, with its outer rim marked with raven totem signs. Figure 4, from the lower Kuskokwim, is a funnel-shape ivory nozzle, with the interior beveled. The outlines of a wolf and a white whale are incised on opposite sides of the opening in the interior. The outer border is marked with the raven totem sign. Figure 12, from Norton sound, is a nozzle made from walrus ivorj'; the surface is ornamented with etched lines and patterns, and the form of a seal's head and back appear in relief on two sides. Figure 7, from St Michael, is a conical mouthpiece without orna- mentation. Figure 10, from Sfugunugumut, is a water bag, with a funnel-like wooden nozzle provided with a wooden stopper attached by a cord. RAKE« Plate XXXV, 2, represents a rake, from Sabotnisky, made from a piece of reindeer antler with the tips curved inward; the handle is worked down flat on the lower and flattened a little on the upper side, and has a notch for lashing it to a stout wooden haft, the lashing pass- ing through a hole in the handle. This implement is used for taking away the refuse in the fire hole of the Icashim or for clearing away refnse material while building a house. It is used also for cleaning BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOQV EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVIll LAMPS AND POTS (one-fifth) or TMK NELSON] IMPLEMENTS OF VARIOUS KINDS 75 drift material from about the place where nets or fish traps are set in rivers or small streams. ROOT PICKS Small picks, made from bone or ivory, with wooden handles, are used by the women for digging the edible bulbous roots of a species of grass which grows on the plains from the Kuskokwim northward to Bering strait. Figure 3, plate xxxiiift, illustrates one of three picks from Norton sound. It has a flat, wooden handle with two large scalloped incisions near the butt to aid in grasping with the hand ; it is grooved and pierced by two holes. The jjick is made from a long, pointed, slender rod of walrus ivory, held in position against a groove along the front of the handle by rawhide lashings which pass through the holes. Figure 1 of the same plate shows a pick obtained on Nunivak island by Doctor Dall. It has a rounded, wooden handle, with a knob-like head, flattened in front to receive the pick and pierced by two holes for lashings. The pick is half of a walrus tusk, and its flattened side is bound against the front of the handle by rawhide lashings passing through two holes in the handle and two corresponding holes in the pick. Figure 2, from Cape Nome, is a small ivory handle for a root pick, grooved along the front to receive the pick and pierced by two holes for binding it in position ; a third hole, midway of the lower side of the handle, is Intended for another lashing, to form a brace on the lower part of the pick. BONE BREAKERS For the purpose of breaking large bones in order to extract the marrow, stone implements are used. These in some cases are simi)ly hammer-like stones, used without handles, but they are frequently of very hard stone, ground to a smooth polish and fastened by thongs to a short handle of wood or other material. Plate XXXIX, 3, represents a small hammer-shape bone breaker of pec- tolite from Cape Nome. It is somewhat oblong in cross section, with rounded corners. The sides are smoothly polished, but the ends are battered and worn down by use. At Point Hope there was seen a handsome stone breaker of clear white quartz. It weighed about a pound and a half and was polished to four very regular surfaces, with the corners somewhat rounded, and was secured to a wooden handle by a rawhide lashing. FIRE-MAKING IMPLEMENTS The method of obtaining fire, common to so many savage races, from the heat developed by the friction of a stick worked with great rapidity on a piece of soft wood by means of a cord, was found in common use among the Eskimo throughout the region visited, and the 76 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 people of the lower Yukon and thence southward to the Knskokwim were specially expert in its ai)plicatiou. A small notch is cut in the fire stick, in which the point of the drill is inserted, while the upper end, which usually is capped with a piece of stone or bone, is held in the month; the rapid revolution of the drill dev^elops sufficient heat to set fire to the dust produced by the friction which accumulates around the pivot of the drill. This tire is then transferred to a small i)iece of punk or tinder and fanned into a tiame. Plate XXXIV, 3, represents a fiat stick, from Norton sound, used for fire making. It is of dry spruce, having- a deep groove along its upper surface, with a series of little notches opposite each otlier in pairs along the whole length; near one end are four small circular pits, where the drill has been used, l^'igure 2 of this plate shows the drill intended for use with the fire stick. It is a round, slightly tapering stick of spruce, about 19 inches in length, and has the upper end painted red; the bow also is made of spruce, and is about 10 inches long, with a rawhide sealskin cord attaclied to the holes in the ends. With this is used the ordinary mouthpiece cap (figure 1 of the same plate) slightly crescentic in form, with a square piece of white quartz set in its lower side. Figures 4, 5, 7, and 8 of plate xxxiv illustrate a set of fire-making iijii)lements, from Chalitmut, consisting of a large drill, the cap of which has a piece of obsidian set in its lower surface, a double-hand drill cord with handles made from the points of small walrus tusks, and a broad fire stick with a step-like ledge on one side and several holes along the center where the drill has been used. In plate xxxiv, 9, is shown a broad fire stick obtained at Cape Van- couver. It is made with a ledge along one side which slopes inward a trifle toward the center, where holes have been bored in making tire. The surface of this specimen is covered with deep holes, showing that it has frequently been used. riate xxxiv, 6, represents a tinder box from St Michael. It is 6^ inches in length, and is made from a section of reindeer horn, truncated at each end and of roughly oval shape in cross section. It has a long, oval opening on one side, through which the interior was excavated. In addition to procuring fire by means of drills the Eskimo make common use of flint and steel. Sometimes the steel is replaced by a piece of iron i)yrites, but usually a fragment of an old knife-blade or other steel object is carried. The flint is held between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, just above a little wad of tinder which fre- quently consists of fur jHucked from a garment. The steel is grasped in the right hand, and as the downward blow is struck the spark ignites the tinder, which is then transferred to the bowl of the pipe, or to a larger piece of tinder surrounded by fine shavings if the operator wishes to kindle a fire. Of late years matches have been sold by the fur traders and are greatly prized by these people, who are always anxious to obtain them. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXIX LADLES AND DIPPERS (ONE-FIFTH.) / or xHjt {^ ■CTNIVERSITY NELSON] IMPLEMENTS OF VARIOUS KINDS 77 SNOW BEATERS For beating snow trom boots, clothing, and other articles made of fur, the western Eskimo use a long,, flattened piece of bone,' ivory, or deerhorn. Some of these are nearly straight, while others are more or less curved. Figure 21, 1, represents a beater of this kind, from Sabotnisky, made from walrus ivory, smaller at one end, where a strip of wood is lashed on the inner side by means of rawhide, cord in order to give a tirmer grip. This implement is suboval in cross section and is much heavier than is usually the case. Fig. 21— Snow beaters (f^). A strongly curved beater from the lower Yukon (figure 21, 2) is made from split deerhorn Avith a knob, carved into the form of a man's head, terminating the handle. A snow beater brouglit from St Lawrence island is exactly like the one from the h)wer Yukon in shape and mate- rial, including the knob at the end of the handle, except that the latter is not carved. The specimen from Sledge island shown in figure 21, 4, is made from •walrus ivory, with a rounded wooden handle fitted upon one end; on the inside it has a central ridge and on the back is a broad, shallow groove. A long snow beater from Cape Prince of Wales (figure 21, 5) is made of a thin piece of whalebone, narrowed a little toward the handle and 78 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 pierced with a series of boles, through which cords are passed and wrapped around the liaudle to giv^e a stronger grip. A double cord, about two inches in length, with a knob made from a little roll of cloth at its upper end, is attached to the handle, aud serves for buttoning this implement to the belt so that it may be carried conveniently. Another specimen from Cape Prince of Wales (figure 21, 3) consists of a long, tapering piece of ivory, nearly flat on one side and beveled to three surfaces on the other; the handle has a series of notches along each border. Strongly curved beaters of deer- horn, similar to those found on St Lawrence island and the lower Yukon, were observed in use among the na- tives of the eastern Siberian coast. SNOW SHOVELS AND ICE PICKS In the region visited, the Eskimo use wooden or bone shovels for clearing away snow from around their houses or for excavating the snowdrifts. Picks of walrus ivory or deerhorn are also used for removing frozen snow, for cutting holes in the ice for fishing, and for other purposes. A fine wooden snow shovel from Point Barrow is represented in plate XXXV, 4. The blade is broad, nearly flat, and formed of three pieces, held together by means of lashings of whalebone passed through holes bored for that purpose; the lower edge of the wood is fitted by a tongue into a groove, in a sharp, flat piece of walrus ivory, which is fastened by a series of wooden pegs. A blue bead is inlaid on the upper part of the blade near the handle. The handle is 18 inches in length and subtriangular in cross section ; the upper end is bound with braided cord of sinew, to give a firm grip for the hands, while on the lower end, near the blade, is a lashing of whalebone. Figure 22, 2, from St Lawrence island, is a rude shovel made from a Fio. 22— Snow shovels d'j BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXX SPOONS AND LADLES ^ABOUT two-ninths) OF r«iK trisriVERSlTY ^CALlF052i> KELSON 1 SHOVELS, TICKS, AND MALLETS 79 piece of the jawbone of a whale, worked down to a thin, flat blade, roughly rounded in outline. On its upper edge is a projection to which a stout wooden handle is fastened by means of a strong lashing of rawhide, which passes through two grooves and two holes in the blade. Figure 22, 1 , from Ikogmut, is a wooden shovel with a long, flat blade and curved handle carved from one piece. The back surface of the blade is slightly convex, with a medium ridge which extends upward to the handle. The back and the portion of the handle where held are painted red. On the inner surface of the blade, near the handle, is the private mark of the owner, consisting of an incised circle and two straight grooves extending ob- liquely outward from its upper edge to the shoulders of the blade. Plate XXXV, 1, rei)resents an ice pick obtained at Point Bar- row. It is made from a small walrus tusk attached to a flat wooden handle by strong raw- hide lashing i^assed through a hole in the handle and two holes in the butt of the pick. The handle is wrapped in two places with braided sinew cord, to afford a firm grip for both hands, above which are slight projections of the wood to pre- vent it from slipping. MALLETS Mallets of wood or deerhorn are used for breaking ice from the framework of fish traps and sledge runners, for driving small pegs, and for other similar purposes. Figure 23, 1, from Sabotnisky, is a deerhorn mallet about 12 inches in length, with one end worked down to a flattened handle and the other having a rounded knob truncated upon one face. The handle is pierced for the reception of a rawhide cord, by means of which the mallet can be suspended from the wrist. Figure 23, 3, from Ikogmut, is a small wooden mallet with a slender rod like handle about 5^ inches in length; the head is made from a FiH. 23 -Mallets (i). 80 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethann. 18 rounded f;Towth of wood which had formed an excrescence on the branch which Serves as the handle. Figure 23, 2, from Sabotnisky, is a small deerhorn mallet with a han- dle 3i inches in length, pierced at its outer end for a cord and with the head rounded above and truncated below. In the front are carved two large, eye-like cavities with a rudely shaped uose and a slightly incised groove to represent the mouth, giving the front a resemblance to a grotesque human face. impi.eme:n^ts used i:^ arts A:sjy ^iai^ufactures IVORY AND BONE WORKING TOOLS lu former times the tools used by the Eskimo for working ivory, bone, and deerhorn were chipped from flint or other hard stones, and some- times for etching or scoring deeper lines, the canine teeth of small mammals were used, mounted on a short handle. Since iron and steel have become common among them, however, tools made from these metals have superseded to a great extent the more primitive imple- ments. The tools now in use are scrapers, scoring or etching imple- ments, wedges for splitting the material, and narrow pieces of thin iron with serrated edges for use as saws. Figure 9, plate xxxvi«, is a small saw obtained at Port Clarence by Dr T. H. Bean. The blade is set in a handle in a manner similar to that of a table knife. Figure 10 of the same plate is a saw from Cape Prince of Wales, evidently modeled from those in use by white men. It is 11 inches long; the blade is a long, narrow strip of iron with teeth cut in the lower edge; it is riveted into slots in small round pieces of ivory which are fastened into a wooden frame. A wooden rod extends across the middle of the frame into which it is dovetailed; a double cord of raw- hide is stretched across the frame, between the two strands of which a piece of bone is inserted for twisting the cords and thereby tighten- ing the blade of the saw in the frame. Another style of saw is made by inserting a narrow piece of iron with a serrated edge in a slot cut in a long piece of ivory, horn, or bone. Sometimes these saws are mere strips of iron with teeth cut in one edge and without either handle or frame. Figure G, plate xxxvia, represents a frame for one of these saws from Unalaklit. It is made of reindeer horn and has a i)i*ojecting spur on its upper side, the same end being bent downward to serve as a handle. Figure 7 of this plate is a scoring or etching implement from the Yukon district. The iron point is wedged firmly into a slit in the end of the handle, which has a conical hole on one side, having evidently served as a cap for a drill. Figure 8, from Cape Darby, is a handle for one of these tools, made from two j)ieces of bone with a slot for fitting in an iron point; the two pieces are riveted together by wooden pins, and a rawhide cord is BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXI TRAYS AND PESTLES ione-fifth) X^' NELsoNj IVORY-WORKING TOOLS — DRILLS 81 wrapped tightly around the lower end to hold the iron point firmly in position. Figure 3 is an iron pointed awl, from Chalitmut, used as an etching tool in ivory working as well as for a bodkin. Figure 1, from St Lawrence island, is a similar tool of slightly differ- ent construction, being made with a slot on one side of the handle into which the end of the blade is placed; a wooden plug is then fitted over the slot, and the end wrapped around with a sinew cord to hold the blade and plug in position. From St Lawrence island another imple- ment of this kind was obtained; it is made in the ordinary style, with the blade wedged into a hole cut in the bone handle. From the same locality came another specimeu (figure 4, plate XXXVI a) which has the blade fitted into a slot cut in the side of the wooden handle, and held in position by a wrapping of whalebone, one end of which is set in a slit in the handle. This is one of the rudest implements of the kind obtained. Figure 5, from St Lawrence island, is an ivory working tool with a curved blade made of iron set in a notch in the end of the handle. Figure 2, from St Michael, is another style of ivory working tool. It has a curved handle with a small iron blade set in a slot near the end of the handle on the lower side. DRILLS, DRILL-BOWS, AND CAPS Drills are used for piercing holes in bone, ivory, reindeer antler, or wood. Tbey consist of a wooden shaft with a point of stone or iron merely inserted in the wood or sometimes held firmly in place by wrap- ping with sinew or rawhide. A cap is fitted over the upper end, and the shaft is made to revolve rapidly by means of a stout rawhide cord passed twice around it and sawed backward and forward by the oper- ator who grasps handles in the ends of the cords. The large drills, used for boring holes in wood when manufacturing the frames of umiaks, kaiaks, and sledges, or in bone for sledge runners, are worked by two men, one of whom presses down on the cap of the stem and keeps it in position while the other works the cord. Smaller drills, with finer points, for more minute work are operated by one man, a bow being used instead of a loose cord, which enables the operator to use his left hand to hold the shaft in position by press- ing on the cap. If the material be hard and diflflcult to drill the cap piece is grasped in the teeth and both hands used to work the bow; or sometimes, if a small object is to be drilled, it is held in the left hand, the cap is held in the teeth, and the drill bow worked by the right hand. Plate XXXVII, 8, obtained at Point Barrow by Lieutenant Ray, is a large drill with a wooden stem, and with a well-made flint point inserted in its lower end and held fast by a wrapping of sinew cord. It is intended to be used with the double-hand cord. Figure 7 of the same plate, also obtained by Lieutenant Ray from 18 ETH 6 82 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 the same locality, Las a flint point niounted in a hollowed bone ferrule to fit on the lower end of the shaft. Figure 10, from Norton sound, is a drill having the iron point mounted in a bone head, the base of which is divided by a wedge- shapeslot in which the wooden shaft is mounted and held in place by a wraijping of rawhide. Figure 0, from Cape Nome, is also an iron-point drill, mounted simi- larly to the preceding except that the wooden shaft is held in position in the bone head by rivets. Figure 3, from St Lawrence island, is a drill with a broad, flat point of iron inserted in the wooden shaft without any wrapping or other fastening. Figure 4, from St Lawrence island, is somewhat similarly mounted, but the point of the shaft is tapered down and wrapped with a strip of whalebone. Figure 5, from Norton sound, has a greenstone point mounted in the end of a wooden shaft and held in place by a wrapping of sinew. Another specimen, from Hotham inlet, is provided with a finely made nephrite point. Figure 6, from Paimut, is a similarly made greenish stone drill point. Figure 2, from St Lawrence island, is another small drill. It has the lower end of the stock narrowed down and wrapped with sinew to hold the point in positioii. The, large canine teeth of bears are commonly used for the cross handles at the ends of the drill cords; they are drilled crosswise through the middle, and the cord is then passed through and fastened at each end. Figure 21, from Norton sound, is an example of these handles. Various other forms of drill handles are used; some are made from the wing-bones of waterfowl; others are carved from deer- horn or ivory to represent seals, fish, or other forms. Figure 14, from Kotzebue sound, shows one of a pair of handles made from smooth bars of walrus ivory, slightly curved on their outer surface and having a double curve on the inside, in which the fingers rest yrhen grasping it. Figure 15, from St Michael, is another of these handles carved from walrus ivory to represent two heads of a white bear. Figure; 20, from Paimut, represents a pair of handles, each in the form of a fish-like creature with the tail of a white whale. Caps for drill shafts to be used with double-hand cords are made usually with the top smoothly rounded ; sometimes they are large enough only for one hand, but ordinarily are made for grasping with both. Nearly all of these objects are provided with a hole m one end for attaching to the drill cord when not in use. They are generally made of wood, with a piece of stone set in the lower side, in which is a small conical depres- sion to receive the top of the shaft. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXII TRAYS AND BUCKETS (one-fifth) ^\ B R A ft y" OF TM» UNIVERSITY NELSON] DRILL -CAPS 83 Figure 30, from St Lawrence island, is a piece of walrus tusk, about five inches in length, roughly oblong in shape, with a conical depression in one side for receiving the top of the shaft. Figure 29, from the same locality, is another rough piece of walrus tusk, made with a conical depression in each side for receiving the top of the shaft. These two are the rudest implements of this description that were obtained. Figure 27 is a cap having the wood rudely carved into the form of a seal, with a square hole through the tail, in which the drill cord can be tied when not in use. This specimen is from the Kusskokwim. Figure 22, from Norton sound, is a cap with an oval piece of white quartz set in the lower side and the wooden portion carved in the form of a wolf fish. Figure 28, from Cape Nome, has a square piece of grayish-white stone set in its lower surface, and the two long arms, oue at each end, are carved to represent the heads of white bears. This drill cap is intended to be used either singly, with the crossbar mouthpiece, or by grasping the ends with the hands. Figure 27, from the Kuskokwim, is a similar cap, having inserted a piece of stone, mottled green, black, and white in color. Figure 23, from Agiukchugumut, is made in the form of a seal, with a hard, milky white, flat stone set in its lower surface. Figure 25, obtained on Nunivak island by Dr W. H. Dall, is made from an oval iDiece of white quartz with a conical dej)ression in its lower surface. A groove extends around the side, in which is fastened a raw- hide cord with a loop at oue end to which the drill cord can be fastened. Figure 24, from Sabotnisky, is a long, oval, green and black stone, having the usual conical pit in one side; this, like the preceding, is made for holdiug in one hand. Figure 26, from Cape Nome, is a long, rather slender cap or handle of wood, having a small, square piece of stone set in its lower surface and provided with a projecting block on its upper side for grasping with the teeth ; it is carved at each end to represent a wolf's head, and is intended for use with either a large or a small drill. A cap obtained at Cape Darby is also made to serve for both kinds of drills. The caps to be used exclusively with the small drills, worked with a bow, are always provided with a projecting block on the upper sur- face for grasping with the teeth, and are much more elaborately made than are those used with the larger drills. They are commonly some- what crescentic in form, and have a piece of stone or lead set in the con- vex lower surface; where stone is used it is out usually into a square or rounded outline and is neatly inlaid. Two specimens, however, are of walrus ivory and are without any stone setting, the conical depression being made directly in the material of the cap. Of these, figure 16 is from Cape Nome and figure 17 from the Diomede islands. Figure 11, from the lower Yukon, has a crescentic outline and is carved on the convex surface at one end to represent a human ^ce and 84 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. ann. 18. 3,t the other the head of some aiiimal. A round piece of stone is inserted in the center. From Yukon river and I^Junivak island were obtained rudely made specimens similar in character to those used with the double-hand cord, except that they have the back carved to permit of their being seized in the teeth. Figure 13, from Kotzebue sound, is a crescentic piece of wood with a square stone inlaid in its lower surface; a crossbar of wood for grasp- ing in the teeth is fastened on the upper surface by means of strong rawhide wrappings. Figure 1, from Cape Nome, is a crescentic piece of wood pierced with a triangular hole near each end, and a round stone is set in the center. Figure 18, from Norton sound, is a crescentic piece of wood with a_ square piece of iron set in the center, and a crescentic incision on each side of the thin upper border to give a hold for the teeth. Figure 19, from Norton sound, is a long, 'slender cap, having a gro- tesque head on each end. . Figure 12, from the Diomede islands, is strongly crescentic, with a high ledge inside for grasping with the teeth, and with blue beads inlaid on each side of the stone center. Drill bows, some of which are nearly straight while others are strongly curved, measuring from 12 to 18 inches in length, are in com- mon use over all of the region visited. They are square, suhoval, or .triangular in cross section, and commonly have one or more of the sur- faces covered with etchings representing various incidents in the life of the owner, such as a record of the animals killed by him on various hunts, the number of skins of certain animals he has jiossessed, or other personal data. Figure 7, plate xxxvift, from Sledge island, is a slender, nearly straight ivory bow, with one surface etched to represent houses, people, and umiaks. Figure 10 of the same plate, from the same locality, is triangular in cross section, and the three sides are covered with a great number of figures and scenes. Figure 11, from the Diomede islands, is a nearly straight ivory rod with the surfaces etched. Figute 3, from Cape Nome, is triangular in cross section and has the three sides covered with a. multitude of small etched figures. Figure 9, from Cape Darby, is triangular in cross section and has one side etched with figures. Figure 1, from Cape Darby, is oblong in section and strongly curved, with figures etched on two of its surfaces. Figure 2 shows a specimen from the same place that is etched on all of its sides. Figure 5, from Norton sound, is oblong in cross section, with two of ^its surfaces etched. x BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXIII WATER BAG, MOUTHPIECES, BLUBBER HOOK, AND CARRIER (About one-sixth) ROOT PICKS (About one-fifth) IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS ■J \ B « A R y • or T«» HIVEBSIT •£f CALlf 02 .t^^ NELSON] DRILL-BOWS KNIVES 85 Figure 6, from Norton sound, has one end terminating in a figure representing the head of some animal and with etched lines and pat- terns along two sides. Figure 4, from Norton sound, is a curved piece of deer antler, quad- rangular in outline and etched on three of its sides. Figure 8, from Point Hope, is triangular in cross section, with the angles cut into scalloped outlines. KNIVES For whittling, carving, and finishing all kinds of woodwork the Eskimo use what is commonly called a "crooked knife," the curved blade of which varies from one to three inches in length, and is made usually from hoop iron or some similar scrap, but sometimes a portion of a steel knife blade is cut and bent for this purpose. The handle of bone, horn, or wood tapers downward to a point, and is from four to fifteen inches in length. This knife is the principal tool used in fashion- ing and finishing a great variety of boxes, dishes, trays, tubs, spear- shafts, bows, arrows, and frames for umiaks, kaiaks, sledges, and other woodwork. The wood is first blocked out with an adze, after which it is cut into the desired shape, smoothed, and finished by patient labor with the knife. It is surprising to notice the dexterity with which this tool is used, and the excellent work produced with it. One of these knives (plate xxxviii, 26), from Norton sound, has the blade set in a groove in the inner edge of the handle near the end, and with no other fastening. The handle is wrapped with spruce roots just above the blade, in order to give a better grip for the hand. The under side of the handle has a conical depression, showing that it has been used as a cap for a small drillhead. Figure 31 of the same plate, from Nunivak island, is the rudest of all the knives of this kind that were obtained. It has a short, thick piece of iron wedged into a slot in the handle, while the inner end of the blade is held in place by sinew lashing. The lower side of the handle has a small conical depression, marking its use as a cap for a drillhead. From St Lawrence island were obtained two knives of this descrip- tion, made of long, tapering pieces of iron set into wooden handles, but in a manner different from the foregoing. One of these (plate xxxviii, 27) has the inner end of the blade set in a deep, flat hole in the end of the handle, somewhat as the blade is set in an, ordinary table knife. The handle is oval in cross section, with a slightly enlarged truncated end, and is only about four inches in length. Next to the blade is a groove, which serves to receive a sinew wrapping. Plate XXXVIII, 29, shows a knife of similar shape, but the end of the blade is fitted into a gore-shape slot sunk in the side of the handle, into which is fitted a thin strip of wood, filling it out so that the outline is continuous with the rest of the handle. Over this is wrapped a sinew cord for holding the blade in place. Plate XXXVIII, 30, from Kulwoguwigumut, is a knife with a bone 86 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT [eth.axn.18 handle about four inches long, crossed with diagonal, zigzag, etched lines,'aud scored with a series of straight lines running its length, with a groove around it near eacli end. In the end of the handle is wedged a short, straight, iron blade about two inches in length with a heavy back and a sharp edge. At the other extremity of the handle is a rawhide loop fastened into a hole by a wedge. Figure 25 of this plate, from Hotham inlet, has the blade fastened to the handle by two iron rivets; the upper surface of the handle is grooved for about four inches next the blade to enable a firm grasp; the under surface of the handle is excavated. In the handle two holes are pierced for fastening the end of a cord by which a leather sheath is attached. Figure 22, from Hotham inlet, has the blade attached in the same manner as the preceding and has a handle of similar shape. Instead of grooves, as in the i)receding specimen, this knife has a series of holes pierced along the front of the handle extending upward for about four inches, through which are passed two rawhide cords ; these are wound around a narrow strip of wood, holding it in place against tlie front edge of the handle to give a better grip for the hand. Attached to the handle is a leather sheath. Figure 19, from jIsTorton sound, has a handle of two parts; the lower piece, to which the blade is riveted, is of bone, and the upx^er of wood. They are neatly joined by a close wrapping of spruce root. Figure 28, from St Michael, has the blade fitted into a groove or slit made in the inner edge of the bone handle, which is wrapped with a stout rawhide cord to hold the blade in place, and has three ships etched upon it. CHISELS A flat, round-pointed, chisel-like implement of bone is in common use for making incised grooves in wood preparatory to splitting it for use in the manufacture of various articles. Specimens of these tools were obtained at different localities from the mouth of the Kuskokwim northward to Kotzebue sound. Plate XXXVIII, 11, represents a typical implement of this kind from Kotzebue sound. It is made of bone and has a sinew cord forming a loop for suspension passed through a hole near the head of the instru- ment. Another specimen, from Kushunuk (plate xxxviii, 12), is similar in form, but slenderer. Plate xxxyiii, 16, from Sledge island, is a small tool of this character made of reindeer horn. It is very slender; the handle is bent at an angle with the shank and has the top neatly carved in the form of a reindeer hoof. The thin, narrow point is used for making small inci- sions in the wood of arrow or spear shafts for the purpose of inserting feathers, also for making little slits in which are fastened the ends of sinew wrappings of spears, arrows, or other implements. BUREAU QF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIQH*rEeNTW,A,NNUAL REPORT PL. XXXIV FIRE-MAKING IMPLEMENTS (ONE-fifth> (-- KELSOX] CHISELS FINISHING TOOLS 87 Plate XXXVIII, 9, from Kusliunuk, is auotber slightly curved imple- ment of bone, suboval in cross section and brouglit down to a flattened, ronnded, wedge-shape point. The handle is wrapped with a fine rootlet to afford a firmer grasp for the hand, and has a round hole near the end for attaching a cord. Plate XXXVIII, 15, from Ikogmut, is another of these wood-working chisels, made of bone, having the raven totem etched on the upper surface and a grotesque human countenance on the end of the handle; just below the head it is encircled by a series of ornamental lines and dots. Figure 13 of the same plate, from Sledge island, is a similar implement. In the accompanying figure 24, 2, is shown a curved chisel of deerhorn for making wooden splints. It is very much discolored from age, and upon the inside of the curve are etched two raven totem signs. This chisel is from Kushunuk. Plate XXXVIII, IS, from the lower Kuskokwim, is another of these tools. It terminates at the upper end in a carving which represents the head of a gull. Figure 24, 1, from !N^univak isl- and, is a broad-handle chisel of bone, roughly crescentic in cross section. It has the convex upper surface covered with etchings representing a seal with anatomical details; the intersjiace is filled with a complicated mixture of other figures representing fishes and various animals and conventional signs. POLISHING AND FINISHING TOOLS For producing a smooth surface and for finishing woodwork of all kinds when it is desired to complete it with more than usual neatness, a variety of small implements of deer antler are used, in which are cut notches of varying form for the purpose of rubbing along the projecting angles and edges of the article in course of manufacture. Plate XXXVIII, 7, represents an implement of this kind from Sledge island, having a broad notch in each end. Plate xxxviii, 3, obtained at Port Clarence by Dr T. H. Bean, is somewhat similar in character to the preceding. Figure G of this plate, from the lower Yukon, has a single notch in one end and a long, curved handle. Figures 1, 4, and 8 are from the lower Yukon, and vary in the arrangement of the points Fio. 24— Wood chisels (J). 88 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ethann. 18 and notches. Figure 2, also from tbe lower Yukon, has the end cut into two notches with two points of different shape, one on each side. Figure 5, from the lower Yukon, shows still another form. Plate XXXVIII, 11, from the lower Yukon, is a bent piece of deerhorn having- a screw-driver set in one end; the other end is fashioned into notches to form a finishing tool. Plate XXXVIII, 10, from Kotzebue sound, is a small piece of fossil mammoth ivory, with a rounded handle and a knob-like head, the lower surface of which is convex in shape and smoothly polished. The sides and the top of the handle are provided with hollows to receive the thumb and the first two fingers. WEDGES AND MAULS Wedges of wood, bone, deerhorn, and ivory are used for splitting wood; they vary considerably in size, but the majority are from six to eight inches in length. Heavy wooden mauls are used for driving them. Plate XXXIX, 5, shows a wedge, from the Diomede islands, made from the butt of an old walrus tusk, bev- eled from both sides. Around the lower end is a broad, sunken groove for the attachment of a handle, thus permitting the use of the implement as an ax. Plate XXXIX, 6, represents a small wooden wedge used in making splints for fish traps. It has a short groove, painted red, on each side, which is said to represent the track of a land otter in the snow and to be the private mark of the maker. Two more of these wedges were obtained from the same man, one of them being about five inches and the other eleven inches in length. Plate XXXIX, 4, represents a deerhorn wedge from the lower Yukon. From Point Hope was obtained a rude wedge, made from a i)iece of the jawbone of a whale and beveled on one of its two sides. Plate XXXIX, 2, from Nunivak island, obtained by Dr W. H. Dall, is a curiously shajjed wedge of reindeer horn, having a projecting prong on one side. In the middle is fastened a little tuft of reindeer hair by means of a peg inserted in a hole made for the purpose. Plate XXXIX, 7, from St Lawrence island, is a wedge of walrus ivory. Plate XXXV, 3, from Hotham inlet, is a heavy maul or beetle made from a section of fossil mammoth tusk about 18 inches in length. AREOWSHAFT STBAIGHTENERS Straighteners for arrowshafts are in common use throughout western Alaska, and the collection contains a large series of implements of this kiud. Deerhorn and walrus ivory are the materials commonly employed in their manufacture, and considerable ingenuity is shown in shaping them. Plate XL, 9, from the lower Yukon, is a small, roughly made shaft straightener of deerhorn, as is figure G of the same plate, from the same BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXV SNOW SHOVEL, PICK, RAKE, AND MAUL (ONE-FIFTH) ^ O \Lm f** ti"^*"^- ^^^-"^^^ NELSON] ARROWSHAFT STRAIGHTENERS BEAVER-TOOTH TOOLS. 89 locality. A specimen (figure 11) from Golofuin bay, made from deer- horn, has one end shaped to represent the head of a deer. Figure 4, from Cape Nome, has a well-carved head of a reindeer on the larger end, with the eyes formed by inlaid beads; the other end terminates in a representation of a hoof. Plate XL, 3, from Cape Nome, has the larger end terminating in the form of the head and forelegs of a white bear, the eyes being repre- sented by blue beads. Plate XL, 12, from Sledge island, is of deerhorn, and has the head of ' a deer carved ui>on its larger end with blue beads for eyes. Another specimen from Sledge island is of ivory and shows signs of great age. It is the only one of these objects showing much effort at orna- mentation by etched figures; scattered over the surface a number of reindeer are represented. Plate XL, 2, from the Diomede islands, is of ivory and lias two bears' heads rudely carved on the larger end. Figure 7, rom Hotham inlet, is a beautiful specimen representing a reindeer in a recumbent position, with the legs folded beneath the body. Figure 8, from Kotzebue sound, is another fine carving, representing a reindeer lying down with the legs folded beneath the body; the horns are represented by two spikes of iron set in the head; the eyes were represented by beads, which have been lost. Figure 10, from Point Hope, has the larger end rounded into a knob-like termination which is crossed along its upper edge by a series of incised grooves. Speci- mens similar in form to that shown in figure G were found over a wide area and seem to be the most general type of these implements. Plate XL, 1, from Norton sound, made from deerhorn, and figure 5, of wood, from the same locality, are somewhat similar in form to straight- eners for arrowshafts, but are used for straightening and setting arrowpoints. BEAVEE-TOOTH TOOLS A tool made from the chisel-shape tooth of the beaver is used as a gouge for making the hollows for the fingers in throwing-sticks, for cutting grooves, and for excavating hollows in fashioning boxes, masks, spoons, and wooden dishes. The smooth back of the tooth is used also as a polishing instrument for finishing woodwork, and the carved outer edge serves for sharpening knives by rubbing it sharply along the blades. These tools are still in use, but to some extent they have been superseded by implements of steel and iron, since these metals have become more easily obtainable. Plate xxxviii, 21, from Chahtmut, is a typical example of these implements, having a beaver tooth set in a wooden handle and held firmly in place by a wrapping of rootlets. Figure 25, 3, from Port Clarence, is a beaver tooth for sharpening steel or iron knives, set in a short wooden haft with a wrapping about the end. Figure 25, 2, from Norton sound, is a beaver-tooth knife sharpener, with a strip of tanned skin, about seven inches in length, 90 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. axn. 18 fastened about the center for attaching it to the belt. Figure 25, 1, from Norton sound, is a similar implement, with a strip of skin lashed to the butt with a sinew cord for attaching it to a belt. Plate XXXVIII, 23, from the lower Yukon, is a double-end tool of this kind, having a tooth set in each extremity of the handle. BIRCH-BARK TOOLS Implements for stripping bark from birch trees are used in Alaska wherever those trees are found. Plate xxxviii, 20, represents two of these tools from the lower Yukon; they are intended to be used together and are coupled by a rawhide cord. One of them has a short, knife-like blade, which pro- jects a little more than half an inch from the handle and has two sharp points which are used to mark the outlines of the sheets of bark to be stripped from the tree; the han- dle consists of two pieces of spruce, between which the blade is inserted and is kept in place by strong wrappings of raw hide cord. The other implement is a long, knife-like piece of bone, on which the raven totem is rudely cut. After the birch-bark has been scored by the first- described implement, the point of the other is inserted between the bark and the wood and forced around the trunk of the tree to separate and remove the bark. Plate XXXVIII, 17, from the head of Norton sound, is a long bone knife for removing birch-bark from the tree. It is sharpened at the point and on one edge; the butt is heavily etched with zigzag patterns and with the raven totem mark. Fig. 25 — Knife sharpeners (/a). BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVI (ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE (ONE-FIFTH NATURAL SIZE) IVORY-WORKING TOOLS AND DRILL BOWS ( TJKI VERSITY l'.^ "i?V" NELSON] CELTS, ADZES, AND FLAKING TOOLS 91 STONE IMPLEMENTS Celts and axes of nephrite or other hard stone are fashioned by- grinding into shape and sometimes by pecking, and are finished by- grinding or friction with other stones. Knife blades, lance points, and whetstones are also made from these substances in a similar manner. The stone celts, axes, and wedges are mounted on handles of wood and deerhorn and are very skilfully used by the Eskimo for hewing and surfacing logs and planks, although at the i)resent time they are being displaced by iron and steel tools obtained from white traders. In a l-ashim on the lower Yukon a plank was seen that was made many years ago by use of a stone adz. It was 25 feet long and four or five inches thick. The surface bore so many marks made by the hacking of Fig. 26— Flint flakers (J). Stone adzes that it looked as if it might have been cut by beavers. Flint knives, spearheads, and arrowpoints are made by flaking. The flakers are made of small, rod-like pieces of deerhorn, wood, or ivory, fastened into a slot at the end of a handle, usually of ivory or deer- horn, with wrappings of sinew or rawhide cord. Figure 26, 3, represents one of these flaking implements from Kotze- bue sound. Figure 26, 4, is another flaker from the same locality, with a handle made from fossil mammoth ivory. Figure 20 2, from Hotham inlet, and figure 26, 1, from Point Hope, represent flakers with similar handles. Figure 26, 5, from Kotzebue sound, has a handle of deerhorn. Formerly small fragments of flint were used for scraping down the surfaces of bone, ivory, or deerhorn articles in the course of manufac- ture, but for this purpose steel or iron implements are now in common use, and naturally produce much more satisfactory results. 92 ' THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18 Plate XXXIX, 14, from Norton sound, is a wooden-liandle adz, with a deerhoru liead in wliich is fitted a point of liard, greenish-colored stone, ground to a sharp edge. Pla.te xxxix, 10, also from Norton sound, is another wooden-handle adz, with a deerhoru head in which is fitted a small, greenstone i)6int, with a smoothly ground edge. These two specimens are hafted in the style commonly employed before iron was brought to the country by the Kussians. A considerable variety of stone blades or celts for use as adzes was obtained from points between the lower Kuskokwim and Kotzebue isound. Plate XXXIX, 12, from Sledge island, is a fine large celt of nephrite, measuring 9 inches in length, 3 inches in width, and an inch and a quarter in thickness; it is roughly quadrate in cross section, and the point is smoothly beveled on both sides to a chisel-shape edge. Plate XXXIX, 8, from Cape Prince of Wales, i^ a small adz blade of nephrite intended for setting into the bone or deerhoru head of the implement. Plate XXXIX, 3, from Cape Nome, is a pale, olive-greenish colored stone adz, hjiviug two grooves around its upper end to admit rawhide lash- ings, by means of which it can be attached directly to a haft. Plate XXXIX, 11, from the lower Kuskokwim, is a curiously shaped celt, partly ground and partly pecked into shape; the point is roughly flattened on one side and oval on the other. A groove is pecked around the upper part of the head, by means of which, with the shoulder lower down on the same face, the head is attached directly to the handle and secured by rawhide lashings. Plate XXXIX, 13, represents a celt from the lower Yukon, somewhat similar in style to the last specimen. Plate xxxix, 9, from the lower Yukon, is an adz head made from slate. Figure 1 of the same plate is an adz handle from the lower Yukon, made from reindeer antler. It has been sawed from the lower end nearly to the head, and a piece of wood inserted for the purpose of enlarging the shaft and aftbrding a better grip for the hand. Another piece of horn, having a slot in the lower end for the reception of a stone blade, is bound firmly to it by rawhide cords. On one of the Diomede islands a piece of nephrite was obtained from which ax heads had been cut. It was said to have been brought from the Kaviak peninsula. It measures 9^ inches broad and 2i inches in thick- ness. The longest edge is smoothly polished and has a coarse groove down the center, showing where a ronghed-out celt has been detached. Nephrite is used largely for making whetstones; slate is also in com- mon use for this purpose, and other hard stones are occasionally employed. A nephrite whetstone from Kotzebue sound (plate LXV, 1) has a deep longitudinal groove on each side, terminating in a hole through which is passed a loop of sealskin for attaching the implement to the waist belt. Figure 25, 5, shows a smaller stone of similar character from Unalak: lit. The specimen shown in figure 25, 4, was obtained on St Lawrence BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVII DRILLS, DRILL CAPS, AND CORDS ione-fourth) NELsoNi RECEPTACLES FOR TOOLS 93 island; it is made of slate, and is pierced at one end for the reception of a sinew cord. TOOL BAGS AND HANDLES Large oblong bags or satchels made of skin are in common use among the Eskimo for holding tools and implements of all kinds, including arrow and spear points, and other odds and ends which may- have been accumulated. They have slightly arched handles of ivory or bone stretched lengthwise across the open mouth. Peculiarly shaped, long, narrow wooden boxes are also used for the same purpose ; these are often carved into a variety of forms with great ingenuity. One of these tool bags from Cape Darby is illustrated in plate xli, 7. It is made from the skin of four wolverine heads, with a bottom of tanned sealskin with the hair side turned inward. The walrus ivory handle, 17 inches in length, has etched along its lower surface repre- sentations of thirty-four wolverine skins, and the ends are carved to form heads of animals; the upper surface is plain, with the exception of a groove in one side. Plate XLI, 2, is an ivory bag handle from Sledge island, which has etched on it the representation of eight tails of whales and numerous wolverine, fox, and wolf skins. Figure 4 of the same plate, also of ivory, from Kotzebue sound, has scalloped edges, and etched upon the convex surface are the outlines of whales and skins of wolverines and otters. On the convex side is represented a man pointing a gun at a bear, seven other bears, a man in a kaiak pursuing a whale, and another shooting waterfowl with a bow and arrow. Figure G of this plate, from Kotzebue sound, has both surfaces covered Tvith etchings of the skins of various fur-bearing animals. Figure 5, from Point Hope, is a slender handle of deerhorn, having a series of etched figures of dew and men along one side and terminat- ing in the head of a deer at one end and in a sharp point to represent the tail at the other. Figure 1 shows an ivory handle from Hotham inlet, with the con- vex surface marked atone end with a representation of wolf skins, and along the entire length beyond these are a number of waterfowl in the act of swimming. Figure 3, from Cape Nome, is another ivory bag handle, both sur- faces of which are filled with etchings representing occurrences in the life of the Eskimo, including dragging home a seal, the pursuit of a whale, traveling with dog sledges, launching of umiaks, walrus hunt- ing, and other similar occupations. TOOL BOXES A tool box obtained at Cape Nome (number 45385) is 14 inches long, 4J high, and 5 wide. The ends are dovetailed into the sides, and the bottom is fastened on with wooden pegs. The lid, in which half a blue bead is inlaid, is attached by rawhide hinges and has a loop of rawhide 94 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 and a double-eud cord for tyinj? it down. A split in the cover has been neatly mended by means of tliin strips of whalebone i)assed through holes pierced on opposite sides. A small scalloped rod of ivory forms a handle to the cover, held in place by a loop of rawhide passed through two holes at each end into corresponding holes in the cover ail d the ends knotted inside. Plate XLii, 10, represents a box from Sfugunugumut, oval in shape, rather truncated at the smaller end and beveled toward the center. One end is carried upward in the form of a neck, terminating in a gro- tesque human head, having a prominent nose and an incised crescent- shape mouth with two pieces of white crockery inlaid at the corners to lepresent labrets; the other end has a pair of seal's flippers, the entire design being intended to represent a mythical being, with the body of a seal and a human head. It is painted in a bluish tint, excei)t the head, which is black, and the incised lines that outline the flippers. Which are red. The cover is slightly convex above antl concave below, with a broad groove cut in its upper surface; it is hinged by two raw- hide cords, and a double-end cord is fastened in two places on the side and passed twifce around the box and tied to hold the cover in place and to fasten it. Another box (number 36242) from Sfugunugumut is similar in outline to the latter, except that it lacks the head, and, like the preceding, the body of the box is fashioned from a single piece of wood. The exterior is i^ainted a dull red and has three grooves extending around it, which are colored black, and set in them at regular intervals are broad-head pegs of ivory, which are ornamented with a circle and dot. The interior of the box is divided into two compartments, unequal in size; the smaller, conical in shape, has been used for storing fragments of red ocher and other substances used as paints. The cover is hinged with rawhide and is fastened by a loop of rawhide which passes over a peg in front of the box. On the top of the cover is painted in black the figure of a curious mythical creature, so conventionalized in outline that it is difficult to identify it. From marks on the inside of the cover it has evidently been used in cutting tobacco. Plate XLII, 4, from Askinuk, is a box, suboval in shape, flattened above and below and truncated at each end, cut from a single piece of wood. The interior is neatly excavated to about an inch in depth, leaving a ledge crossing from side to side about an inch inward from each end. The sides of the box are painted black while the top and the bottom are of a bluish tint. On each of the four surfiices a shallow groove extends from end to end ; on the sides they are of equal width, but on the top and the bottom they are narrow in the middle, broad- ening gradually toward each end. These grooves are painted red. The cover is slightly convex without and concave within. On its inner sur- face are painted in red and black a number of rude figures representing two sledges, men, and various beasts, among the most conspicuous of which are wolves and reindeer. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVIII WOOD-WORKING TOOLS ione-fourth NELsoNj TOOL BOXES 95 A box from Cape Vancouver (number 37357) is flattened oval in out- line, with a seal's bead carved upon it, the eyes of which are represented by a piece of marble on one side and a fragment of porcelain on the other; ivory pegs form the nostrils, and at the corners of the mouth are ivory pegs with beads set in the center to represent labrets. On the top and on each side of the head small blue beads are inserted. A groove painted black extends around the sides of the box, in which seven ivory pegs are inserted. The cover is attached as usual by hinges of rawhide. The box is cracked, and has been mended by raw- hide cords laced through holes on each side of the fissure. A rawhide loop passing over a peg set in the front of the box serves as a fastening. A box from Pastolik (plate XLii, 11) is made in three pieces, the bottom being fastened on with wooden pegs ; it is rather flattened oval in outline, and represents the body of a seal. The head is represented with the mouth open and with wooden pegs for teeth; the nostrils are marked by ivory pegs, and for the eyes are inlaid small oval pieces of ivory with a hole in the center to represent the pupil ; the flippers are carved in relief on the sides and at the rear; the tail is represented on the upper surface of the box and forms a thumb-piece for raising the cover. The cover is slightly convex without and con- cave within, with a groove extending its entire length; a groove is also cut around the body of the seal, and another below it extends the whole length of the box. The surface is painted black, except the grooves and the interior of the mouth of the seal, which are red. The inside of the cover is decorated with figures in red and black, representing human beings and animals. On one side the thunderbird is represented grasping a deer with one claw and a man in a kaiak with the other; on the opposite side the thunderbird is seizing a whale with one claw and a seal with the other. One curious figure represents a double-head wolf with four legs and connected by a black line with the hand of a man. Another box from Pastolik (number 38739) is made from separate pieces, the ends being mortised into the sides; wooden wedges are driven into the tenons to fasten them more firmly in the slots; the bottom is attached by wooden pegs. On the inner surface of the lid are painted in red a number of figures of men and animals, many of which are obscene. The outer surface is not colored, but is covered with neatly made parallel groov^es extending lengthwise and following the outlines of the box. A box from Kaialigamut (number 37562) is made of wood, and is oval at one end and truncated at the other; about an inch from the truncated end a crosspiece is inserted in slots on each side, which are cut narrow at the edges and flaring toward the inside, so that the edges of the crosspiece, which are cut in corresponding shape, hold the ends of the box firmly in position. The sides are formed by one piece, which is bent to form the oval figure ; the bottom is attached by wooden pegs, and the cover is hinged with rawhide. For fastening, a 96 THE E.SK1M0 ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.annMS loop passes down over a projecting peg on tlie bottom f the box. Following the outline of the box around the bottom, about one- third of an inch from the edge is cut a bead in strong relief, and around the sides extends a groove. The cover is carved to represent t.e flattened form of a seal with a large, broad head; the hind flippers are cut in relief; the eyes are represented by two small white buttons, and the nostrils by two white beads inlaid in the wood. The box is painted red, with the exception of the groove around the sides and the incisioL ; outlining the flippers and the sides of the seal, which are black. The inside of the cover has a carious conventional design painted in black, intended as a private mark of the owner. Plate XLii, G, is a long oval box from Anogogmut, cut from a single piece of wood and divided into two compartments of unequal size'>y lea-ving a partition at the smaller end when the interior was excavated. The cover is neatly fitted and is hinged by two rawhide cords, and the Fig. 27— Wooden trinket box (^ . fastening consists of a loop of rawhide tipped with a small ivory button, in which is a hole which fits over a bone peg. xV groove is cut around the top and the bottom of the box about half an inch from the edge, and another i^asses around the center. The surface is painted r?d, with the exception of the grooves, which are black. In the center " the cover is set a round piece of white porcelain, and six smaller pieces are inlaid in ouQ of the grooves. ■ Figure 27 is a box from Anogogmut made from a single piece of wood, fattened oval in outline, slightly convex above and very strongly so on its lower surface. It is deeply excavated and has a neatly fitted cover held in position by two rawhide hinges and fastened by a loop of cord - passed over a wooden peg on the lower edge of the box. On the upper surface of the cover the figure of a seal is carved in relief, having in the center of the back a grotesque semihuman face, also in relief, probably intended to represent the shade of the seal. The bottom of the box is carved in the form of a larger seal with the flippers in relief and a BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXIX WEDGES AND ADZES (one-fifth) I ^x >>' NELsoNi TOOL BOXES 97 deeply incised, crescentic mouth. The eyes and the nostrils of the larger seal and the eyes of the smaller seal are formed by the insertion of ivory pegs. Ivory pegs are also set around the edges of the body of the seal on the cover. This is a very old box, and if it was ever painted the coloring has long since disappeared. Another old box (number 37553), from Askinuk, is oval in outline and has one end carved to represent the head of an animal. The nostrils are formed by blue beads, between which projects an ivory peg. Oval pieces of bone serve for the eyes, with a slit in the center for the pupil. The cover is an oblong strip of wood truncated at one 8n<1 and the other tapering to a projecting point, which serves as a thumb-piece by which it can be raised. It is held in position by pegs at each' end and by a thin strip of spruce rootlet jjassed through a hole on each side of the box. Plate XLii, 7, is a box from Sfugnnugumut, composed of threo pieces of wood. The sides were formed by a strip bent and joined on beveled edges at the ends. The bottom is slightly convex and is attached by wooden pegs. The cover is similar in outline, but one end extends upward and forms the head of a seal, the eyes of which are of ivory, •with small blue beads for the pupils. Ivory pegs form the nostrils, and others are set at the corners of the mouth to represent labrets. Fore-tiippers are cut in relief on each side of the cover, the intention having been to represent a seal lying on its back. A groove extends around the side, in which are set small ivory pegs, with a round hole in the center of each. Similar pegs ornament the surface of the cover, which has the usual rawhide hinges and loop passing over a peg in the front of the box for a fastening. From Kaialigamut is a box (number 37863), cut from a single piece of wood, the interior excavated and the cover neatly fitted. It is in the form of a seal, the tail forming a thumb-piece by which the cover can be raised. The mouth is incised, the nostrils are flattened spots on the muzzle, and both are painted red. The eyes are represented by small ivory pegs. Extending along each side and the top of the cover is a long groove, broad in the center and narrowing at each end, on which are depicted various figures of men and animals in black on the back- ground of red with which these grooves are painted. The body of the seal is colored a dull blue. Three black stripes extend from the crown along the sides. The center of the back and the outlines of the flippers are also black. Figure 28 is an oblong box from the lower Yukon. It is made from thin boards fastened together with wooden pins. On all the surfaces except the bottom, rows of ivory pegs are inserted. On the upper sur- face are two small rectangular doors extending across the box from side to side and opening into little shallow box like compartments. They are hinged with strips of sealskin neatly sewed in place by chain stitches of spruce root, and fastened to them are pieces of rawhide, by 18 ETH 7 98 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [kth ann. 18 which they can be raised. In the center, extending lengthwise, are two other doors, and on each side, just below the upper edge, is another little door. A loop of cord extending over and tied across the middle of the box keeps all these doors shut. women's workboxes Small wooden boxes are used by the women for the safekeeping oi their needle cases, sinew and fiber thread, scraps of skein, earrings, pieces of colorin <; matter, and various other small articles used by them in their work. Figure 3, plate xlii, represents one of these workboxes from Sfugu- nugumut. It is oval in outline, and the top and bottom are in the shape of flattened, truncated cones, their thin bases resting on the sides of the box. On the front and back, crossing the sides vertically, are inlaid flat Fig. 28— Trinket box (about I). strips of ivory, with a series of three circles and dots engraved upon them ; extending around the sides are a series of round, button-like pieces of ivory, their surfaces covered by a number of concentric circles with black centers. A hook-shape knob of ivory projects from the front, over which a rawhide loop fastened to the cover is passed to keep the lid closed. A slender ivory rod, four inches in length, having its upper surface etched with circle and dot patterns, forms a handle and is attached to the top of the cover by a rawhide cord at each end. Figure 5 of the same jflate shows a box, from Ikogmut, made from a single piece of wood in the shape of a seal lying on its back with the head and hind flippers turned upward ; the fore-flippers are also carved in relief on the surface. On the cover a flattened ivory rod is fastened with pegs to the main part of the box. On the upper surface of tlie cover, in the center of a broad circular groove in which ivory pegs are p p / y CO cc 111 I- I- UJ CO y- z o Q. Q Z < CO DC UJ z LU I- I o < DC I- co h- Ll < I CO o DC CC < 'KELSON] women's workboxes 99 set, is a semihiiman face carved in relief; it has ivory labrets at each corner of the mouth, and inlaid pieces of ivory represent the eyes. Figare 9 of the plate shows a box, from Sabotnisky, cut from a single piece of wood, ilattened and slightly oval in outline, with truncated ends. The form of a salmon is carved in relief on both the top and the bottom, and a groove extends along the sides. The cover is attached in the usual manner by rawhide hinges, and a cord is provided for fastening it in front. Another box from Sfugunugumut (number 36245) is made from a single piece of wood, oval in outline, truncated at one end, with a sunken ledge around the upper edge to receive the cover, which is slightly convex and projects upward at one end to form a thumb-piece for rais- ing it. This projection is carved in the form of a cormorant's head, the eyes being represented by incised circles. Figure 8, plate xlii, from Konigunugumut, is a long, quadrate, \yooden box, the top, bottom, and sides of which are made from sepa- rate pieces, the edges of the cover and the bottom being beveled. It is fastened together with wooden pegs, and the cover is attached as usual by rawhide hinges and fastened hy a loop passing down over a project- ing peg in front. The bottom of the box is painted black around the edges and crossed by black barsj the ends of the top and sides are l^ainted red, and a broad, black band extends around the middle. Figure 2, plate xlii, from St Lawrence island, is a workbox, circular in form, made by bending a thin piece of spruce, three inches wide, so that the ends overlap, and are sewed together with strips of whalebone passed through slits pierced in both thicknesses of the beveled ends. The top and the bottom are truncated cones in shape, chamfered and fitted into grooves cut around the inner edges of the sides. A round hole in the top serves for putting in and taking out small objects. Figure 1, plate xlii, from Sledge island, is a box 4 inches high and 4^ inches square, made of thin pieces of spruce smoothly finished. The bottom is attached by wooden pegs; the sides are lieatly mortised together. The cover is hinged by two pieces of rawhide and is fast- ened in front by a double-end string passing through a rawhide looi) pendent from the cover. The handle on the cover consists of two pieces of rawhide cord tied together in the middle, the ends passed through holes and knotted inside, forming a loop about an inch ah d a half in length. The box is grooved around the top and the sides in- parallel lines; the outer grooves, painted black, ar6 brOad aud shallow^ while those on the inside are narrower and red in color both on the cover and sides. On the center of the cover is a pointed oval groove, black in color. The bottom of the box and a broad band around the sides are not painted. A circular box, from Sledge island (number 45093), is seven inches high and over nine inches in diameter, made from a strip of spruce bent until the beveled edges overlap, and sewed together with a double 100 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.iS row of stitching with spruce rootlet. The bottom is chamfered and fitted into a groove like the head of a barrel; the cover is slightly con- vex above and concave within ; three parallel grooves cross the top at equal intervals, and two others, about an inch apart, extend around the edge. The body of the box has also a broad and a narrow groove near each edge. Tlie cover is painted red and a band of this color extends around each edge of the box; the grooves are all colored black. A cord loop, two inches in length, forms a handle for the cover, which is liinged with sinew cord and is fastened by two ends of a raw- hide cord which project through a hole in front of the box and pass through a loop i>endent from tbe lid. Another box (number 176081), from Sledge island, is oval in outline, but is contracted in the middle by means of a stout, sinew cord passed through holes on each side, forming a stout cross-stay. The sides are made of two pieces with the ends lapping, sewed together in the same manner as in the preceding specimen, and the bottom is similarly fitted into a groove by a chamfered edge. The cover is also hinged in the same manner and is provided with a similar fastening. A looped raw- hide handle, each end of which is divided into two parts, is passed through four holes and knotted on the underside. HANDLES FOR WORKBOXES AND AVATER BUCKETS Handles for women's workboxes and for water buckets are frequently made of ivory or of bone. They present a considerable variety of form and many of them are handsomely carved. A large number were obtained, of which the following specimens, illustrated in plate XLiii, present the i)rincipal variations: Figure 16, from Xorton sound, is a plain rod of ivory, nearly square in cross section. Figure 5, from Unalaklit, is a rod of ivory, suboval in cross section, with the upper surface etched in parallel lines extending obliquely from the middle of the top to the edge. Figure 11, from Sledge island, is a small, flat rod, broadened verti- cally at each end to be pierced for a cord. The upper surface is marked with raven totem signs and a simx)le etched i»attern. Figure 24, from Shaktolik, has the lower side scallo])ed and the upper side etched coarsely with lines and points. Figure 10, from Xorton sound, is slightly curved and has the np])er portion covered with zigzag patterns. Figure 26, from Cape Darby, is sul)oval in cross section ami has across its upper surface the figures of ten whales carved in relief. Figure 17, from Unalaklit, is a flattened ivory rod, carved at one end ' to represent the head of a seal, and with the figures of several whales etched upon its upper surface. Figure 13, from jSTorton sound, is nearly square in cross section, NELSON] WORKbOX AND WATER-BUCKET HANDLES 101 scalloped along each side, aud grooved along the middle of the upi)er surface; the ends terminate in the head of au animal which has been much worn by long use; the details are consequently obliterated. Figuie 9, is a handle obtained by Mr L, M. Turner from Xorton sound. It is suboval in cross section, and has in relief along its upper surface the figures of thirty seal heads; on each side of the two holes in which the cord is fastened to attach it to the box or bucket is also carved in relief the figure of a right whale. Figure 14, from Cape Darby, is an ivory rod, suboval in cross section, with the figures of seven right- whale tails projecting from one side. Specimen 45157, from Sledge island, is a small rod, evidently used for a box cover, having along its upper edge, in an upright position, the figures of twelve Avhale-tails joined by their tips. Figure 12, from Point Hope, is an ivory rod, oblong in cross section. Carved on one side of the middle is the projecting figure of the tail of a right whale, aud on the upper surface are etched the figures of two right whales and the tails of four others. Figure (>, from Kigiktauik, is a bucket handle of ivory, strongly curved and having in relief along its upper surface the figures of nine seal heads, several etched figures of seals with spears in their backs, rude figures representing otters, and a framework for storing objects above ground. Figure S, from Point Hope, is a slender ivory rod, triangular in cross section, doubly scalloped along both sides, and having a slight border- ing pattern of etched lines. Figure 1, from Sledge island, is a bucket handle consisting of a fiat, ivory rod about four inches in length, with a neatly carved, five-link chain of ivory depending from a loop in each end. These chains ter- minate below with a carving, representing the head of a small seal. Through the fiat surface near each end of the handle is a large, round hole in which fits, swivel-like, a small, round rod of ivory, terminating above in the figure of a seal's head, the eyes and ears of which are represented by a black substance inlaid in the ivory, while the mouth and the nostrils are etched. The lower ends of these handle rods are pierced with holes for receiving the cords connecting them. with the bucket. Figure 22, from Sledge island, is a heavy rod of ivory, suboval in cross section, terminating in a ring in which hangs by another ring the image of a right whale's tail about two inches in, length. Upon the middle of the upper surface are etched figures of two right whales, and across the rod, near each end, are carved in strong relief two other figures of right whales. This carving is remarkably well done aud is a very artistic j)iece of work. Figure 7, from Kigiktauik, is a plain, slightly curved handle of rein- deer horn, suboval in cross section. Figure 2, from St Michael, is a handle of deerhorn, round in cross 102 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axx. 18 section, and bent at an obtuse angle in the center. It bas a shallow groove along its convex upper surface, in which are a number of small, round points. Figure 4, from ]!sunivak island^ is a thin, curved piece of deerhorn with the ends rounded, and having a rounded protuberance in the sides at about one-third of the distance from each end. The upper surface has two parallel incised lines extending nearly its entire length, which are intersected at the widened points by a series of concentric circles with holes through the center. • Figure 23, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a large, strong handle of walrus ivory, with a doubly serrated edge on one side but smooth on the other. Two parallel grooves extend along the upper surface; the lower surface is convex. Figure 20, from the Diomede islands, is a bar of walrus ivory. The ends are tlattened, but the center is curved upward. Carved at each end is the figure of a polar bear in a standing position, looking outward. Figure 21, obtained at St Michael by Mr. L. M. Turner, is a rounded bar of ivory, flattened on its lower surface and convex above, with a well-carved head of a polar bear, facing outward, on each end. A large iiole is ijierced lengthwise through this handle to admit the passage of a cord for attaching it to a water bucket. Figure 18, from Unalaklit, is a flattened bar of ivory with the figure of a right whale, facing inward toward the center, carved in relief upon its upper surface at each end. In the back of each whale, near the tail, are two large, vertical holes for attaching the cord. Figure 15, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a bar of walrus ivory, flat on the lower surface. On the upi)er side two right whales, facing out- ward, are carved in relief on one end, and on the other end is the figure of a wolf. Figure 3, from Point Hope, is a small carving intended for a work- box handle, with a pair of seals' heads, facing outward, in high relief on each end of the upper surface. Between these heads are deeply incised lines forming a simple pattern. Figure 19, from St Michael, is a rod of ivory carved in the form of a ^volf, the legs being represented by the downward-projecting knobs, wliich are pierced for the attachment of cords. Figure 25, from the Diomede islands, is an ivory handle for a water bucket. It is a flat bar, 8^ inches long and li broad, having each end rounded and pierced with a hole three-quarters of an inch in diameter. In the center is another smaller round hole. In the holes at the ends are round pins, in which are holes with grooves below them at each side to admit the cords for attaching the handle to the bucket. The heads Of the pins are carved to represent the heads, shoulders, and forelegs of white bears in an upright position, facing inward toward the centei'. Inside the bears' heads, on the upper surface, near the hole in the center, BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLII TOOL AND TRINKET BOXES ^0NE-FIFTH^ NELSON] BUCKET HANDLES NEEDLE-CASES 103 are carved in relief two figures of seals with their heads facing inwacd. The whole group represents two seals lying on the ice near their hole and two polar bears rising from the water at the edge of the ice, close to the seals. NEEDLE-CASES The women have a great variety of cases for holding their needles, differing widely in form and made from a diversity of materials, show- ing the remarkable ingenuity of these people in their adaptation of ornamental designs to practical purposes. In the country about the lower Yukon and southward to the Kusko- kwim a favorite form of needle-case is made from a section of the hollow wing bone of a goose or other large waterfowl, plugged at each end with wooden stoppers, one representing the head and the other the tail of a fish. The surfaces of these cases are covered with a variety of incised patterns, as will be seen by the following figures comprising plate XLiv: Figure 35, from Kushunuk, is one of these needle-cases, representing a fish. Figure 33, from Cape Vancouver, and figure 3A, from Sabotnisky, also represent fishes and have tufts of seal hair inserted around the wooden head and tail. Figure 3(i, from Kushunuk, has the stopper carved in the shape of the head of a young white whale. Figure 30, also from Kushunuk, has a fiat stopper in one end and a round knob on the other. IMgure 38, from Norton sound, is an ivory tube in the form of a woman's leg, with etched lines to represent the seams of the trousers. Figure 37, from Konigunugumut, is made of wood, over which are placed five empty cartridge shells. The stopper is in the shape of a cormorant's head. Figure 46, from Unalaklit, is an octagonal tube of ivory. Figure 30, from Hotham inlet, is a round, ivory tube with a figure of an Arctic hare in strong relief on two opposite sides, near one end. Figure 32, from St Michael, is an ivory tube, round at one end and broadened by a ridge on each side near the other. It has the raven totem etched upon it. Figure 48, from Unalaklit, is a short, ivory tube plugged at one end and with blue beads inlaid around it. The surface is surrounded by zigzag etchings and raven totem marks. Figure 29, from Sledge island, has in relief on two sides the figures of two white whales. Figure 45, from the lower Yukon, is a tube in the form of a woman standing with her arms held against her sides. Figure 40, from King island, is a round tube carved with two human figures, facing inward from each end, in a sitting position, with the elbows resting upon the knees and the hands folded under the chin. This is a fine piece of carving, and from the fact that it has been much worn by handling it is doubtless of great age. 104 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 13 •Figure 31, from the lower Yukon, is a tube with the head of a walrus iu relief on each of two sides uear one end and the head of a seal ou the other end. Figure 28, from Kotzebue sound, is of ivory in the shape of a small flask closed by a wooden stojjper. The wooden bottom is held in place with wooden pegs. In relief on one side of the neck is the figure of a right whale, and on opposite sides are two bears. Needle-cases are sometimes used without stoppers, in which case a large cord of sealskin is passed through the center, which terminates in a hook of bone or ivory for holduig thimbles, or hung to it by small cords are various little pendent ornaments, which consist sometimes .of the canine teeth of various animals, but are often small carvings representing arrowheads, human faces, miniature belt fasteners, and various animal forms. . When this style of needle-case is used the needles are thrust into the sealskin cord and are drawn into the case by pulling on the other end of the cord, and when needed can be withdrawn by a reverse movement. Figure 25, obtained on l!forton sound by Mr L. M. Turner, is a good example of this style of needle-case with sealskin needle holder. Figure 20, from St Michael, is a small, neatly carved needle-case i)end- ant representing a, reindeer's foot. Figures 22, 23, and 27 represent a number of these small pendants, all of which were obtained at Kushuuuk. The last mentioned is in the form of a frog Avith a large head but without the fore-limbs. women's "housewives'* ' The little cases oi' bags for materials used in sewing and for other articles for women's work, commonly called " housewives," are in general use among the western Eskimo. They are made from skins of various kinds and embellished with needlework in ornamental patterns. The lower end terminates usually in a bag and the upper end is rounded; to the latter a rawhide cord is attached, having at its end a slender cross-piece, of bone, ivory, or deerhorn from three to eight inches in length, which is generally carved into various designs with the inge- nuity characteristic of these i^eople. When not in use the "housewife" is rolled^up, the cord is wound several times around it and fastened by thrusting one end of the cross-]|iece under the cord. A specimen of these housewives from Kaialigamut (number 37918) is made from the skin of reindeer ears and pieces of skin from other parts, of the same animal. The upjjer end is rounded and trimmed with stripes of white, black, and russet leather parallel to the curved edge, the seams being sewed in black ^nd white. The lower end terminates in a bag, the inner surface of which is divided into square sections by double row* of stitching, along which are painted bordering red lines. Along the outer edges is a narrow strip of white reindeer fur succeeded by a little strip of plucked beaver, outside of which is a coarse fringe made from little strips from the edge of the skin of reindeer ears. JUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLIII BUCKET AND BOX HANDLES (about one-FOURTH) NELSON] women's "housewives" 105 Plate XLV, 14, from the lower Yukon, is a small housewife covered on the inside with ornamental patterns of red, white, and black. It con- tains three pockets, and is bordered with a narrow strip of muskrat skin; the back is made of lishskin. Plate XLV, 32, from the lower Yukon, is a piece of lishskin intended to form the outer ends of a large housewife. It is sewed with ornameutal patterns, oval in outline on three sides and straight across the other, and bordered by a narrow fringe of sealskin. Plate XLV, 31, obtained on iS^univak island bj^ Dr W. H. Ball, is a good example of a housewife made from the skin of reiudeer ears, bordered by a fringe of small strips of the same material. The sides have a border of white reiudeer skiu, surrounded by a narrow strip of sealskin and miuk fur around its upper edge. The interior is divided into late xliv, represent various forms of this implement made from ivory. All are from Kushunuk. Figure 11, plate xliv, from Kubviukhehugaluk, and figure 12, of the same plate, are ivory hook-shape holders from Kotzebue sound. Figure 15, plate xliv, from Unalaklit, is a hook-shape holder having a leather band which slips down over the hook, holding it closed aud preventing the thimble from dropping off. Figure G, plate xltV, from Kushunuk, is a specimen Avhich has a wrapping of spruce rootlets around the shank and inside the slot which forms the hook to keep the thimble in place. Figure IG, plate xliv, is a double thimble guard of ivory from Point Hope. implements for making thread and cord V Thread for sewing clothing or other small articles is made of sinew from the legs of reindeer, dried and beaten with a maul to loosen the fibers, which are then divided and cleaned. From the Kuskokwim northward to Kotzebue sound and the islands of Bering strait, small comb-like implements with from two to four teeth are in use for this purpose. On the lower Yukon a species of tough grass is obtained and utilized for making thread and for other purposes. After being dried and beaten it is hatcheled with the combs which are used for making thread from sinew. Cords are made in different ways and of various materials, according to the uses for which they are intended. The kind most commonly in use is made from tanned sealskin, which is trimmed to an oval shape, from which a continuous strip is cut. Sometimes an entire skin is made into an unbroken cord. For heavier cords the skin of the walrus is utilized. Tanned reindeer skins are also cut into thongs, and sinews of reindeer and seals are twisted into cords of various sizes. On the lower Yukon and in the interior ter- ritory occupied by the Eskimo, cord is made from the inner bark of the willow. Strips of whalebone are also frequently employed for lashings on sledges, boats, and various implements. Figure 5, plate XLViiia, from Norton sound, represents one of the combs used in making thread from sinew. Figure G, plate XLViiia, from the Diomede islands, is a comb or sinew BUREA(J OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLVI BODKINS (ONE-THIRD) TJ>T NELSON] THREAD AND CORD IMPLEMENTS HI sbredder of walrus ivory, with four large, coarse teeth and a narrow handle. Figure 1, plate XLViiia, from Sledge island, is a tliree-toothed sinew shredder with a flattened knob-like blade at the end of the handle. Figures, plate XLViiia, from Cape ^ome, is a small, flat piece of deerhorn with three flat teeth on one end, and figure 2, plate xlviii a, from Sledge island, is a similar implement made of ivory. Figure 4, plate xlviii a, from Cape Darby, is a toothed ivory imple- ment of this kind, one tooth being attached to the side of the main piece by means of a strong wrapping of willow root. Figures 7 and 9, plate xlviii a, from the lower Yukon; figure S, from Mission, and figure 10, from Sabotnisky, are specimens of combs which have been used in making grass thread. The accompanying figure 30, from Sledge island, represents some of the implements used for twisting sinew cords. A full set consists of two flattened ivory rods with a small knob or head at each end, and four bodkin-like ivory rods each with the figure of a deer-head at the upper end. These implements are all pierced with holes and strung Fig. 30— Sinew twisters (i). on a rawhide cord in order that they may conveniently be carried and not readily mislaid. Figure 8, plate xlviii 6, from Cape Vancouver, and figure 5 of the same plate, from Nunivak island, represent reels on which thread is wound. They are sometimes used also as shuttles in making small meshed nets. Figures 4 and 6, plate xlviii h, from Nunivak island, are specimens of thread reels carved to represent mythical beings, half woman and half seal, with the hands held against the sides of the faces. Figures 3 and 7, plate xlviii 6, from the same island, are ivory reels carved to represent seals. Figure 31 represents a sinew cord spinner from St Lawrence island. This object is made of ivory and consists of three parts; these are a quadrate base for holding in the hand, and pierced in the middle of the outer surface for the insertion of one end of a slender rod having a knob at its other end. A flattened rod is pierced near one end and slipped upon the first-named rod, upon which it revolves. The sinew to be spun is attached to the flattened rod at the shoulder, just below the hole, and by a rapid circular motion of the hand the flattened rod is caused to revolve rapidly, giving the desired twisting to the cord. 112 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 Xo implements of this kind were seen among the Eskimo elsewhere in the region visited, and it is quite possible that the St Lawrence islanders obtained the idea from some of the whaling ships which stop so frequently along their shore. liner Iroiii St Lawrence isLiiid. .SKO-DRESSINCr TOOLS For dressing and tanning skins several different implements are used, the most important of which are scrapers for cleaning the fat and water from the surface, and polishers for the purpose of softening the hide. From the lower Kuskokwim to the northern part of Xorton sound and the coast of IJeriug strait, stone-blade scrapers with long handles are the prevailing style, although on the coast and islands of Bering strait a short-handle scraper is frequently seen, while from ICotzebue sound northward they are all of the latter type, with the handle made to fit the hand and elaborately carved. Plate XLlx, 17, from Big lake, represents one of these scrapers of BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLVII FISH AND SKINNING KNIVES (ONE-THIRD) XJNIVJeHSITY j NELsoNl SKIN-DRESSING TOOLS 113 Lard, green schistose ground to a crescentic edge, fitted to a wooden handle eleven inches in length, which extends downward, overlapping about one-half the length of the blade, and held in place by a rawhide lashing which is prevented from slipping by a ridge along the lower edge of the wood. The upper part of the handle is bent downward for convenience in grasping. Plate XLix, 19, from the lower Yukon, is a slate scraper similar in design to the last, with a wooden handle attached by a lashing of spruce root, the upper part bent downward nearly to a right angle. Plate XLIX, 20, from Xubviukhchugaluk, is a scraper consisting of a chisel-shape blade inserted in a broad wooden handle which overlaps the upper part and is held in i^osition by a lashing of spruce root. On the upper surface of the handle is a groove to receive the forefinger, on the inner side is another groove to receive the thumb, and two grooves on the under surface of the downward-turned end of the handle admit the remaining three fingers. Plate XLIX, 15, from the lower Yukon, is a short scraper with a wooden handle curved downward to a pistol-like grip, and a heavy blade of black chert ground to a chisel-shape edge, fitted to the handle with an intervening x>ad of grass. The blade is held in position by means of a strong lashing of spruce root. Plate XLIX, 12, from the lower Yukon, has a broad, flattened blade of slate, chisel-shape at the edge, with an overlapping wooden handle held in place by a spruce-root lashing. The handle is bent downward to form the grip. Plate XLIX, 18, from Norton sound, has a large, slate blade with a rounded, chisel-shape edge. It is fitted into a groove in the wooden handle, which is held securely in place by a rawhide lashing. The handle is broad near the blade and narrows gradually to a rounded grij), which is bent abruptly downward; a groove extends along the upper surface, and others, on two sides, below the grip, form a rest for the forefinger and the thumb. Plate XLIX, 10, from Sledge island, has a flat blade of slate with a rounded edge fitted against a shoulder on the lower surface of the overlapping wooden handle, which has a projecting spur just above the grii>, intended to rest between the thumb and the forefinger when the implement is in use. Plate XLIX, 13, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a small scraper with a flat, chisel-like blade of black slate, held in position against the short oval wooden handle by a rawhide cord. Another scraper from Cape Prince of Wales (number 43405) consists of a rudely chipped flint blade, fitted into a mortise in the rough wooden handle and secured by a lashing of sinew. The upper end of the handle is bent downward and has two grooves on the lower surface to receive the second and third fingers. Plate XLIX, 11, from Sledge island, has a thin, chisel-shape blade of 18 ETH 8 114 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 black slate wedged into a slot in the Avooden handle, which is broad near the socket and tapers gradually to the grip, where it is enlarged to form a broad oval to rest in the palm of the hand. A broad groove runs down tlie front of the handle, and the sides are flattened to form rests for the thumb and the forefinger. Plate XLix, 7, from Kotzebue sound, is a short handle for a scraper, made of fossil mammoth ivory, with a slit in its lower end for the insertion of a flint blade. It is hoHowed on the lower side of the bent upper portion to receive the thumb. On the outer surface are two grooves for the second and third fingers. The first finger is intended to rest at the base of the blade. Plate XLIX, 8, from Kowak river, has a chisel-point, chipped flint blade, inserted in a j)lain handle of fossil mammoth ivory. Another specimen (number 48627), from Kotzebue sound, has a chipped flint blade inserted into a slot in the mammoth ivory handle, which has a groove on the inside for a thumb rest and two on the upper surface for the first and second fingers. A deeyt slot on the under surface is intended to receive the third and fourth fingers. Plate xIjIX, 14, from Hotham inlet, is a wooden handle larger than that last described, but grooved in the same manner to receive the fingers. Plate XLIX, 3, also from Hotham inlet, is a short handle of mam- moth ivory, with a slot for the insertion of a flint blade. The back of the handle forms a flaring edge intended, when in use, to rest on the under surface of the hand near the base of the thumb, while the first and second fingers are i)laced in a deep groove in front and the third and fourth fingers lie in a deep excavation on the under surface. Plate XLIX, 2, from Point Hope, is a handle made from fossil mam- moth ivory, with a deep groove on the inside for receiving the thumb, two grooves on the upper surface for the first and second fingers, and an excavation on the lower surface for the third and fourth fingers. Plate XLIX, 4, from Point Hope, is a scraper consisting of a small flint blade fitted into a handle of mammoth ivory. On the inside is a shal- low depression for the reception of the thumb, and another above for the first and second fingers; a deep slot across the lower surface is for the third and fourth fingers. Plate XLIX, 9, from Point Hope, has a blade of brown flint in a wooden handle, which has a deep slot for the thumb on the inner side, two grooves for the first and second fingers on the upper surface, and a deep excavation below for the third and fourth fingers. Plate XLIX, C, from Point Hope, is a very curious specimen, roughly triangular in shape; the chipped flint blade is fitted into a groove in a wooden handle, which has a large blue bead inlaid on the upper part; on the inside is a deep slot for the reception of the point of the thumb; along the front of the top is a deep excavation bordered above by three grooves for the ends of three fingers, and on the outside a hollow for the little finger. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETH^OLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLVIII GRASS COMBS THREAD SHUTTLES AND NEEDLES THREAD AND CORD MAKING IMPLEMENTS (Three-tenths) NELSON] SKIN-DRESSING TOOLS 115 Another form of scraper, used specially for cleaning the skins of birds and small mammals, is somewhat knife-like in shape. Plate l, 5 is a specimen of this type of implement from Nunivak island. It is made of deerhorn with a slightly spoon-shape blade, and has incised parallel lines across the upper side of the handle. Plate L, 6, from Big lake, is also of deerhorn, and is somewhat simi- lar in shai)e to the preceding. Plate L, 3, from Ikogmut, is of ivory. The edge is sharp and across the butt of the handle is a series of notches forming short teeth, which are used in cleaning fat, blood, and other matter from among the feathers or hair of the skins and for softening hard spots. On the lower side of the handle are four round projections, each pierced with a large hole, and on the back etched lines form a conventional pattern. Plate L, 2, from Norton sound, is another of these ivory knife-like scrapers with a notched butt. Plate L, 15, from Norton sound, is an ivory scraper generally similar in form to the preceding, but lacking the toothed butt. Plate L, 1, from St Michael, is of ivory and has a number of small knobs on the handle and a coarsely-toothed butt. Plate L, 4, from Cape Prince of Wales, also of ivory, has a long, taper- ing blade and a toothed butt. It has four grooves on the lower side of the handle to form a grip for the fingers. Plate L, 9, from St Michael, is a ruder implement of this kind, semi- lunar in shape and with a flat back. Plate L-, 11, from Point Hope, is a tray-shape implement about 4 inches long and 2^ inches wide, deeply excavated inside and with a sharp edge all around the exterior rim. It is used by placing the thumb inside with the fingers grasping the back and pressing either side or end against the skin. Plate L,, 12, is a rudely made scraper from the Diomede islands. Plate L, 8, from Point Hope, is a scoop-shape scraper made from fossil mammoth ivory; the inside is slightly excavated and the lower edge is sharpened. It is used by placing it in the palm of the hand with the grooved end resting against the Inside of the fingers, the con- vex under surface against the palm, and j)ushing it from the operator. This is the only implement of this kind that was seen, all the other scoop-shape scrapers being used by drawing toward the person. Plate L, 7, from Sledge island, is a flat rod of deerhorn beveled to an edge on one side; each end is pierced with two holes in which a strong rawhide cord is fastened, by which the ends are drawn toward each other until they form a horseshoe-shape curve; it is used by grasping the cross cord and drawing the edge of the scraper along the skin toward the operator. Plate L,, 18, from Kotzebue sound, is a scraper made from the shoulder- blade of some animal; the butt is sawed down and shaped to serve as a handle; the outer end is also cut off and the thin lower portion cut to a straight edge. 116 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 Plate L, 13, from Chalitmiit, is a deerliorn scraper with a well shaped upcurved handle, a blade formed like au obli(iuely truncated half of a spoou, and a sharjiened edge. Plate L,, 16, from Sledge island, and figure 17, of the same plate, from the lower Yukon, are sections of deerhorn with one surface flattened and cut to a sharp edge. Plate L, 11, obtained on St Lawrence island by Captain C. L. Hooper, is a ci-escent- shape piece of reindeer horn with a sharp edge, flat upon one side and beveled to three surfaces on the other, with a groove run- ning down the center of each. Plate L, 10, from St Lawrence island, is of ivory, dish-shaped, some- what oval in outline and nearly straight on the upper or thicker side ; the other side is curved and thinned down to a sharp edge. It is used by resting the thumb on the interior and grasping the back with the first and second fingers. Plate XLix, 1 , obtained by Mr L. M. Turner at St Michael, is a rounded bowlder-like piece of granite about 5 inches in its longest diameter for rubbing and softening skins; the lower surface is smoothed and polished by use. SKIIS^ DRESSING Among the Eskimo it is customary for the men to dress the skins of large animals such as rein- deer, wolves, wolver- ines, bears, seals, and walrus, while the women ijrepare the skins of smaller creatures such as fawns, hares, muskrats, marmots, and waterfowl, and sometimes assist the men in the preparation of the larger skins. In dressing sealskins and walrus hides they are first scraped to free them from the adherent particles of flesh and fat, then rolled into a bundle with the hair side inward and kept in the house or the kashim until they become sour and the hair loosens; small sealskins are some- times dipped in hot water to hasten the loosening of the hair; the hair is then scraped oif and the skin is stretched on a wooden frame, made from sticks of driftwood (figure 32), by stout cords passed through slits around the edges and over the side bars of the frame, when they are again scraped and placed outside the house to dry. When dry they are removed from the frames and folded compactly into flat, oblong packages (figure 33), for convenience in carrying or storing. If the skin is to be tanned with the hair on, for use in making boots or Fig. 32— Stretcbod sealskin. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLIX SKIN SCRAPERS (one-fourth) mm m UNIVERSITY NEi^oN] SKIN DRESSING 117 clotliiDg, it is soaked thoroughly in urine to remove the fat, then stretched, scraped, and dried in the manner described. The beautifully white, parchment-like leather used for boot§ and ornamental work is made from small sealskins from which the hair has been removed. The skin is then soaked in urine to free it from the oil, stretched upon the drying frame and exposed in the open air during the coldest months of winter; the intense cold and the beating of the dry snow upon the surface of the skin bleaches it to a satiny whiteness. A finer quality of white leather is obtained from the gullets of large seals and walrus treated in the same manner. The russet colored seal- skin, used for ornamental work, is made by washing the surface of this white, parchment-like leather with dye obtained from alder bark. The skin of the wolf-fish {Annarrichas lupus), called M-ehii-hluJc by the Eskimo, when stretched and dried makes a thin, blackish, parchment- like material, which is cut into narrow strips and frequently welted into the seams of boots and other articles of clothing, or used for other ornamental purposes. The white woolly skin of the new-born fur seal, after being tanned, is dyed a rich brown by an infusion of alder bark and cut into narrow strips for borders to garments or for making tassels for boots ,...-"""""";"■"''-—- and frocks. .,--^--' ■-■' -^'■■•■:A """"x To tan reindeer skin with the hair on, / I ""/ the fleshy side of the skin is wetted with xMMMd,^;^^^ ■) urine; it is then rolled into a compact ;* i / bundle, with the hair side outward, and x _ [ _ ,' permitted to remain a few hours in the '^ — . i /' warm kashim, after which it is unrolled „ „ „ ,, ' '^^ ,,• ' Fig. 33— Method of folding sealskin. and any remaining fragments of sinew or flesh are removed with a scraper. It is then dried and again thor- oughly scraped and hung up open in the kashim while a fire is burning, and dried until it becomes hard and almost as brittle as pasteboard, when it is taken down and scraped carefully and lightly on the inner side. This breaks the grain of the leather and covers the epidermis at the roots of the hair with numberless little cracks, rendering the skin very pliable. After this treatment the skin is scraped again more thoroughly, and boiled fish eggs, while still warm, (/ are rubbed on the inner surface. It is then rolled up and permitted to lie for a few hours, after which it is unrolled and worked and rubbed between the hands until it becomes dry and soft; a final scraping then removes any remaining roughness or adherent matter and completes the ])iK)cess of tanning. Eeindeer skins tanned in this manner are beautifully white on the inside and the leather is as soft and pliable as chamois skin. Small skins are soaked in urine to remove the fat, after which they are stretched and worked with the hands and finally rubbed with pieces of pumice until dry. Urine is so much used in tanning and for 118 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 other purposes that every house is provided with one or more tubs in which a constantly renewed supply is kept. Marmot skins and the skins of inuskrats and birds are rubbed and worked in the hands, after which the women use their teeth to chew the harder i^arts to render them soft; they are then stretched and dried and a slight wash of oil is applied to render them more pliable. The skins of salmon and losh are dressed and used for making bags, boots, mittens, and waterproof garments by the Eskimo of the lower Yukon. The intestines of seals, cleaned and inflated, are dried, and form a kind of translucent parchment, which is cut into strips and sewed to form the waterproof frocks worn by the men when at sea in the kaiaks or when out on land in rainy weather. These garments will shed water for several hours. Coverings for the smoke holes in roofs of houses and kashuns are made of this material, which is used also for covering bedding during transportation or in open camps. The Eskimo who live away from the coast, lacking the sea animals, use the intestines of deer and bears for similar purposes. HUJ^TIIS^G AXD HUN^TIXG IMPI.EMENT8 ANIMAL, TRAPS AND SNARES Owing to the rapid extermination of reindeer in the neighborhood of the coast of Norton sound, the natives depend on hunting the various kinds of seals and on fishing for their main supply of food. For over a hundred miles along that coast, during my residence at St Michael, not a dozen reindeer were killed each year. Twenty years earlier reindeer were extremely numerous throughout the same district, but the intro- duction of firearms, after the Americans took possession of the country, resnlted in a wasteful slaughter by the natives, who soon succeeded in virtually exterminating these animals in the larger portion of the coast region. Before the introduction of firearms the Eskimo had various ingenious modes of capturing and killing deer. They were stalked in the usual manner by hunters, armed with bows and arrows, who approached the herds by creeping from one shelter to another until within bow shot. At other times two hunters went together, and when a herd of reindeer was seen one of the hunters walked immediately behind the other, so that their two bodies were in contact. Then, while keeping step as one man, they walked directly toward the herd. The deer would per- mit them to come within a certain distance and then make a wide cir- cuit for the purpose of passing behind the advancing hunters; the man in the rear then took advantage of the first hollow or other shelter to throw himself on the ground and lie hidden while his comj)anion con- tinued onward, apparently without paying the slightest attention to the game; as a result the deer would circle in behind him, and while watching him were almost certain to run within bow shot of the con- BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. L SKIN-CLEANING TOOLS (ONE-FOURTH) ^taii NELSON] TRAPS AND SNARES 119 cealed hunter; when they were near enough he would spring up and discharge his arrows; this would distract their attention from the first man, who in the meantime had also concealed himself. In running to escape from the hunter who had just discharged his arrows, the game would frequently circle within shot of the other man and become so confused as to run wildly back and forth, approaching each man in turn several times before the survivors regained their wits suflBciently to make their escape. Another method was to close the lower end of a rocky pass through which the deer were accustomed to travel, and then make a drive from the open valley and inclose an entire herd at once, when they were "^d with lances and arrows. The people said that in cases of this 1 they were accustomed to kill every deer thus inclosed, with- out -regard to number, and that frequently such large numbers were killed that they were unable to utilize them, and they were left where they fell. Deer were also snared with strong nooses of rawhide, which were tied to stout bushes and held open by light strings of grass or sinew con- necting them with other bushes, or with small stakes planted in the ground. In feeding, the deer would entangle their antlers or thrust in their heads, so that they were held or strangled by the nooses closing around their necks. Another method practiced by the young men in early summer, when the fawns were born, was to look for them, and when a fawn only a few days old was found they would run it down. The hunters considered this sport to be a great 01 [ test of agility and endurance, for instead of fig. 34— Model of a deer shooting the fawn with arrows, as might readily ^'^'*''®- have been done, it was a matter of pride to pursue the animal until it became so tired and its feet so tender that it stopped and permitted itself to be captured. At the time of my visit to Point Barrow in 1881, reindeer were still common in the low mountains to the south and southeast of that place, but it had become very easy to obtain breech loading guns and ammu- nition from the whalers, and the people were destroying the deer very rapidly. One old man and his son, it was claimed, had nearly live hundred skins in storage, and others had an abundance of them. Ball's sheep were also killed in large numbers by these people and by the Eskimo of Kowak river, judging from the number of skins seen among them. ' Figure 34 shows a model of a deer snare from the lower Yukon; it consists of two straight sticks, to the larger of which the end of the snare is firmly attached, while the outer side of the loop is lightly held by a smaller stick which serves to keep the snare in place. 120 THE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT [kth.ann. 18 This method of snaiing deer is illustrated in figure 35, which repre- sents a boot-sole creaser from Nushagak. It is etched on three sides, and on the side shown are two reindeer caught in rawhide snares, with another snare still set between them. The white bear is found only at very rare intervals on the mainland south of Bering strait, A single young white bear was killed a few miles south of St Michael during my residence there, and was said to have been the first one seen in many years. On St Lawrence island they are fre^iuently seen on the ice during winter and spring. The hunters there kill them by concealing themselves among the ice hummocks in the course the bear is ])ursuing, and as he passes shoot him in the head between the eye and the ear. This spot is chosen on account of the thinness of the skull, as the .44-caliber breech-loading guns which they use have not power enough to kill the bear if shot in any other part. I saw a great many skulls of these animals on the island named, and all of them had bullet holes in the same place. From Point Hope to Point Barrow bears are not uncommon, and a number of Eskimo living along the coast from Bering strait northward have been frightfully disfigured by encounters with them. A man from Point Hope told me of an encounter with one of these animals that took place near his vil- lage in the winter of 1880. Two men left the village and Fio.35-Kt(liiiiK on iv.,ry, showing deer wiiires (g). WCUt Ollt OU the SCa icC dur- ing the night to set their nets for seals; while they were setting thfe nets, at some distance from each other, one of them heard the snow cracking under the feet of a white bear which was approaching. The hunter was without weapons of any kind, and as it was too dark to see the animal he quietly lay down tiat upon his back on the ice, hoping to escape notice. The bear came directly up to him, and stopping, began smelling along his body, until finally he pressed his cold muzzle against the hunter's nose and mouth and sniffed vigorously several times. As he did this the hunter held his breath until his head swam. Suddenly the bear heard the other liunter moving about and raised his head to listen; then he sniffed at the hunter's face again and started off on a trot toward the other man. When the bear had been gone a few moments the prostrate hunter sprang to his feet and fled for his life toward the slioie, hearing the death cry of his comrade as he ran. About noon the next day, wlien the sun came to the horizon, the villagers armed themselves and went out on the ice, accomi)anied by the wife of the missing hunter. They reached the place at dawn and found the l)ear still feasting on the hunter's remains. The wife fired the first shot at him, followed by the others, and the bear fell; then the woman drew a hunting knife and rushing at the bear slasiied its sides until the skin hung in shreds, when she stopped from exhaustion. NELSON] TRAPS AND SNARES 121 Another man in that region has the scalp and flesh from one side of his head, including one eye, torn away by a stroke from the paw of one of these animals. Formerly, after bears had been brought to bay by dogs they were killed with stone or iron-pointed lances, and, indeed, the people of the Siberian shore still kill many in this old fashion. Wolves are killed with guns or arrows or are taken with various kinds of traps; steel traps have been introduced by the traders, but the ancient devices are still sometimes used for both wolves and foxes. One of the common methods of killing wolves in ancient tunes, which is still practiced to a slight extent, was by the use of spits made of whalebone. A slender piece of bone, 8 or 9 inches in length and a third of an inch wide is pointed at each end, and, after being softened, is bent upon itself in folds 1^ or 2 inches in length. It is then bound in position by a strip of cord and laid aside until it becomes dry, when it retains the form in which it has been bent. The cord is then taken oif and the whale- bone is soaked in oil for a short time, then wrapped in tallow, blubber, or sometimes a piece of fish-skin, after which it is placed in a locality frequented by wolves and foxes. Discovering this morsel the animal begins to devour it, but finding that it is not easily masticated, swallows it entire, doubtless mistaking it for a piece of gristle. When the whalebone becomes warm and is moistened in the stomach, it straightens out and the pointed ends pierce tlie beast to death or cause such pain that it is soon found and dispatched by the hunter who has followed its trail. Figure 36 shows examples of this implement both in the folded and extended form ; they were obtained at St Michael. Dead falls, used as traps for minks, foxes, and sometimes for larger animals, are made by build- ing a small inclosure of sticks driven into the ground, over the entrance to which a heavy log is supported by an ordinary 4-shai)e device. Plate LI, G, illustrates a bait spit for use in one of these " 4-traps," which was obtained at Port Clarence by Doctor Dall. It consists of a double-pointed bone spit about seven inches in length, with a notch an inch from one point, against which is fastened the end of another bone spit resting against the notch, and projecting at the other end opposite the point of the first named. Near Andrejvsky I saw snares for catching lynxes made by building a dome-shape pile of brush, with one or more narrow openings leading to the bait, which was placed on the ground under the center. At the t\ Fig. 36— Game spits. 122 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 mouth of each of these openings a rawhide loop was so arranged that the lyux coukl not reach the bait without getting its head or legs entangled, and as the ^.nimal drew back the snare would close and hold it fast. Another common style of snare was made by setting a noose over a path used by animals and digging a deep hole in the ground below it. To the lower end of the snare a heavy stone was attached, hanging in the mouth of the pit; the upper part of the snare was held open by attaching it by strings to surrounding objects, and a trigger was so arranged thiit at a touch from a passing animal the stone would be freed and drop into the hole, causing the snare to close and draw the animal's neck down to the ground and hold it fast. Sometimes a noose was set at the entrance to a tunnel made in the frozen snow, with a bait of meat at the rear end, and in endeavoring to reach this the animals were snared. I was informed that animals as large as reindeer, and even bears, were formerly caught by means of snares, and that they were in gen- eral use for tak- ing red and white foxes. South of the mouth of the Yu- kon the Eskimo formerly made pits for ciitchiug wolves by dig- ging in summer Fig. 37— Fox or wolf trap with sinew spring. SquarC hOlCS down to the per- manently frozen earth, and then making a wall about the sides and grading the earth in a gentle slope up to the outside edge, thus making a pit so deep that no animal could jump out; it was then covered with a frail roof concealed by straw and weeds, with the bait laid on the center. In winter the roof was covered with snow. According to the old men this was the commonest style of trap used in ancient times, and with it many animals were caught. One of the most ingenious traps found among the Eskimo was one by means of which the tension of a set of strong, twisted sinew cords was used to throw a lever and brain the animal that sprung it. These traps were known to the people from the northern shore of ]!^orton sound to Kotzebue sound; they are not now used on the American coast, as they have been superseded by steel traps, but I was informed that formerly they were in common use. On St Lawrence island were found many pieces of such traps that were large enough to kill foxes, and from this I conclude that they are still in use in that district. The accompanying sketch (figure 37) from BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LI NETS, SNARES, AND TRAPS (three-sixteenths) TJ-NTVERSITY NELSON] TRAPS AND SNARES 123 a model made by an Eskimo liviDg at the head of Norton sound, shows the parts and illustrates the working of this ingenious contrivance: 1 — 1 is a cylinder of wood, that material or bone ordinarily being used for these traps; 2 — 2 are crosspieces of wood or boue, bound together by strong sinew, cords; 3 is an ivory or bone block; 4 is an ivory or bone pin, fitting into 3, and is attached to a cord passing through a hole in the cylinder to the bait at 10; 5 is a slot cut through the side of the cylinder; 6 is a stout lever of bone with a knob at its inner end, which is inserted through the cords connecting 2 — 2; 8 is a pointed spike of bone or ivory (a nail is sometimes used on St Lawrence island); 7 is a peg projecting from the side of tlie lever. 2 — 2 are twisted in opposite directions until the twisting of the connecting cords, which pass around them and through the cylinder, causes a strong tension, thus holding the crosspieces so firmly against the ends of the cylinders that they can not slip back. This also draws the cord so taut in the cylinder that when the lever, 6, is drawn back to lie parallel with 9, a great resistance is encountered, acting like a spring to throw it back to its first position. The lever, 6, is held in position next to 9 by pass- ing 4 over 7 and into 3. The bait is tied to the end of a cord attached to 4 at 10, so that it lies just within 8. The trap is then fastened firmly to the ground and concealed with earth, but care is taken to insure the free working of the lever. The bait is then exposed in line with the lever and when a slight pull is given, the pin, 4, is freed and the lever springs sharply over, burying the spike set in its end in the skull of the animal. These traps work very nicely and strike a heavy blow. They are ordinarily made for killing foxes and wolves, but I was told (hat formerly they were sometimes used for bears. Figure 13, plate li, illustrates a cylinder for one of these traps from St Lawrence island. It is 12 inches long and 5 inches in diameter, and is made from a piece of the jawbone of a whale. It is capped at each end by a ring of bone held in position by four iron nails. A deep notch is cut in the middle of one side of the cylinder, at one end of which is a slot and at the other a round hole through the side. Figure 11, plate li, from the same island, is a lever made of bone, forked, and armed at the outer end with iron spikes. The inner end terminates in a rim of bone. This is the striking arm of one of these traps. It has a notch on one side for receiving the trigger. With this arm is a bone ring (plate li, 15), pierced with four holes, intended for a cap, at one end of the cylinder. Figure 12, plate li, from the same island, represents another striking arm for a trap, with three iron spikes set in it. For trapping beavers in their houses square nets, 4 or 5 feet across, with meshes large enough for the beaver's head to pass through, are fastened over the entrance to the animal's house below the surface of the water, so that in going out or in the animal will become entangled and drown. These nets are sometimes used in the same way for otters. 124 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 Hares are snared and netted in spring by setting the nets or snares among the bushes which they frequent, so that they become entangled while moving about, or by setting fine sinew nets in open spaces among the bushes and then making a drive and frightening the animals into them. This method is practiced for taking both the large Arctic hare and the white rabbit. Parry's marmot is a common animal in many parts of Alaska, par- ticularly about the head of Norton sound and along the shore of Ivaviak peninsula. Their skins are highly i^rized for making light frocks for summer use and form a prominent article of trade among these people. They are best when taken early in spring, soon after the marmots have come out of their holes and while they are still in the soft, grayish winter fur. They are taken in several ways. One method consists of a noose fastened to the end of a willow or alder stick 4 or 5 feet long, with the large end planted firmly in the snow or ground. The small end, having the noose attached to it, is bent down so that the noose hangs just over the marmot's runway in the snow or on the ground, and is held in place by a small cross stick above it, winch is hooked under a stick bent across the runway with its ends thrust into the ground. It is fastened so lightly that as the animal passes a touch releases the trigger and the bent stick springs up and catches it. Figure 4, plate li, is an example of ihis style of snare from Cape Darby. The noose is made of whalebone, and is passed through a small wooden cylinder, which causes it to run freely and at the same time helps to hold it in position. Similar nooses were obtained from the head of Kotzebue sound with the cylinders made from the hollow wing-bones of birds. In these latter a hole is made in one side of the bone at the lower end, in which is tied the end of a fine rawliide line. This line passes up through the cylinder, and has a small, round block of wood tied crosswise at the other end of the cylinder. Figure 38 is another style of marmot trap, from the head of Norton sound, made from a cylinder of wood a little over eight inches in length. The cylinder is made in two parts, fastened together by means of a willow-bark lashing through holes made along the line of junction on both sides. A slot is cut through the upper side and a deep groove runs around the inside from it, and there are two holes near the other end. A strong running noose, made from feather vane or whalebone, is inserted through the upper slot and lies conc-ealed within the groove on the inside. At the upper end of the noose is a sinew cord, which is attached to a bent stick having one end planted firmly in the ground and held in position by a strand of willow bark tied to it, passed down through the two holes in the cylinder, and knotted on the under side. As the animal comes out of a hole or along a runway, where the trap is set, it enters the cylinder, and finding the passage barred by the strand of willow bark across the end, bites it oft". This releases the NELSON] TRAPS AND SNARES 125 bent stick, which flies up and draws the concealed noose taut about the animal's body and holds it against the upper side of the cylinder until it is strangled or the trapper comes to remove it. Among the people living to the south of the Yukon mouth thousands of muskrats and minks are caught every fall and winter in small wicker fish traps, such as are used for taking the blackfish {Ballia). These traps are set in creeks and small rivers, beneath the ice, with a close wicker or brush fence extending as wings from either side and completely shutting oft" the stream except at the opening occupied by the funnel-shape mouth of the trap. In this way from ten to twenty mink have been known to be taken in a single day. The traps are completely submerged, and, of course, when the animals swim into them they are unable to rise to the surface, and quickly drown. At Fig. 38— Marmot trap. times animals even as large as the land otter enter these traps and are taken. The skins of minks, muskrats, and marmots are taken off', by a slit between the hind legs, and dried on stretchers, with the flesh side out- ward. The stretchers are made by fastening together two long, slender sticks by means of crossbars, which permit them to be brought together by a hinge-like motion and pushed into the inside of the skin ; they are then spread, thus stretching the skin and holding it until it is dry. This contrivance and the " figure-4 " dead-fall were probably introduced by white men. Land otters and beavers are taken at their holes by means of steel traps. The hunting of far-bearing animals of all descriptions commences with the first heavy frost of autumn and continues until the short cold days of midwinter.^ Then a period of cessation ensues until February, 126 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 when the hunting and trapping are resumed and continued until the sun in April renders the fur too harsh and brittle to be of value. The hunting of seals, whales, and walrus is conducted in a variety of ways, according to the season. Each year about the first of September the hunters on the coast of Norton sound begin to overhaul their seal nets, repair broken or weak places, and rig them with sinkers and floats. The nets used are from 10 to 15 fathoms in length and from 1^ to 2 fathoms in depth, made from rawhide, with a mesh large enough to admit easily the head of a seal; they are buoyed with wooden floats, or sometimes with inflated bladders; the floats are frequently made in the form of sea fowls or the heads of seals. The lower side of the net is strung with sinkers of stone, bone, or ivory, and is anchored at each end by a large stone tied with a heavy rawhide cord. These nets work precisely like the gill nets used for salmon fishing, and are very eflective. By the middle of September far seals of two or three species begin to come in shore and pass about the rocky points or around reefs which guard the entrances to the bays and coves which they are in the habit of entering. The nets are watched by the owners, and when a seal is caught the hunter goes out in his kaiak and braiiis it with a club or stone, fashioned for the purpose; then if the net has been damaged it is repaired and reset. During the dark nights of midwinter seals are netted beneath the ice. The blowholes of the seals are located during the day; at night the hunters go out and make four holes in the ice, in the form of a square, at equal distances from the seal hole; a square net is then placed under the ice by means of a long pole and a cord, so arranged as to cover the access to the hole from below, and held in place by cords passing up through the holes in the ice. When the seal rises to breathe it becomes entangled in the net and is captured. This method of net- ting is common from Bering strait to Point Barrow. Another method of netting seals through the ice was observed on the shore between Bering strait and St Michael. In swimming along the shore the seals are obliged to pass near the rocky points and head- lands. Taking advantage of this, the hunters make a series of holes through the ice at intervals of from 10 to 15 feet, and then, by use of a pole a little longer than the distance between the holes, a stout sealskin line is passed along from hole to hole until the cord is run out to the distance desired, and is used to drag the long net below the ice. Sink- ers are fastened to the lower edge of the net, and it is held in position at each end by a stout cord tied to a crossbar at the hole or to a stake set in the ice. While swimming beneath the ice during the night the seals become entangled in the net and drown. For light sinkers on these nets, long, pointed, ivory weights are used by the people from the northern end of Norton sound to the coast of Bering strait. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT BRAINING CLUBS AND SEAL-CAPTURING IMPLEMENTS (ONE-fifth) "CI NEi^o^] SEAL-HUNTING IMPLEMENTS 127 Figure 17, plate lii, is an example of. one of tbe ivory sinkers from Sledge island; it is long, rounded, and tapers from the middle toward each end. Figure 16, plate lit, from Cape Kome, is another sinker of this de- scription, made from a walrus tusk, with three links in the middle. Figure 18, plate Lii, is a light ivory sinker, from Sledge island, with etchings on its surface representing boats and houses. Figure 2, plate lii, from Cape Espenberg, is a club used for killing seals; it has a rounded, curving, wooden handle, with a rawhide cord wound around it to afford a good grip. A rounded knob of bone, grooved to fit against the side of the handle, is fastened to the head by a lashing passnig through two holes and around a groove at the back. Figure 5, plate lii, from the head of Norton sound, is an oval brain- ing stone, having a groove around the middle and the ends brought down to a truncated point. This stone is used on the end of a stout cord, which is fastened firmly about the groove. Figure 1, plate lii, from Point Hope, is a braining stone of mottled black and white color, roughly oval in outline, with a hole pierced through one end, in which is fastened a stout rawhide loop, by means of which the hunter swings the stone and brings it down upon the head of the animal. Figure 3, plate lii, from Kigiktauik, is an oval bone head for a braining club, with a prominent ridge along the face and truncated on the back; it is provided with three holes, by means of which it is lashed to the handle. Figure 23, plaie lii, from the Diomede islands, is a float for a seal net, with a long, dattened handle, oval in cross section and i^ierced at the lower end for attachment to the net cord. Figure 22, plate lii, from Cape Nome, is a float in the shape of a seal head, with blue beads inlaid for eyes and tufts of hair inserted on each side of the nose to represent bristles. A hole is pierced through the neck, through which the cord is passed for fastening it to the net. Figure 15, plate lii, from Point Hope, is a curiously made float rep- resenting a seal, with a rounded body, terminating at the rear in an ivory ring for attachment of a cord ; on the back a larger ivory ring is inserted and held in place by a wooden pin. In this ring are linked two ivory pendants, having upon their outer surfaces incisions rep- resenting the eyes, nostrils, and mouth of an animal, probably a seal. The eyes of the seal in the head of the float are represented by inlaid white beads. Figure 21, plate lii, represents the head of a seal, with the eyes formed by inlaid blue beads. A large bone ring is inserted in the mouth, from which hang two ivory pendants. Figure 20, plate lii, represents a double-head seal, with a hole made through the wood on the back end for the attachment of the cord, and an ivory pin, with a single link pendant, inserted in the breast. % 128 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth ann. 18 Figure 25, plate lii, is a rudely oval, wooden net float, pierced on one side. It is from Icy cape. Figure 24, plate lit, from St Lawrence island, is a wooden net float, somewhat rounded in outline, with an ear on one side, which is pierced with a hole for the attachment of the line. Figure 14, plate lit, from St Michael, are specimens, made from wal- rus ribs, of a class of implements which serve a double purpose; they are used as sinkers and as handles for hauling in the seal or beluga nets. Figure 20, plate lii, from one of the Diomede islands, is an elongated oval sinker for a seal net, made of walrus ivory ; it is surrounded with etched bands of zigzag pattern. About the end of February the Eskimo from Bering strait southward begin to hunt seals at the outer edge of the shore ice, where the leads are open at that season. On the 28th of February, 1880, 1 met a party of people on their way from the head of Norton bay to Cape Darby, where they were going to hunt seals on the ice until spring opened. At midnight on March 28, the same season, I reached a village on the northern shore of Norton sound as a party of seal hunters came in from the outer edge of the ice, bringing several flue, large hair seals. The entire village was up awaiting their return, and we were cordially welcomed to the ensuiug feast, which lasted until well into the morning. The entrails and other parts of the viscera were cooked and passed around as si^ecial delicacies, while the people of the village who had come to share in the feast assisted in dressing the animals. At this season, also, the people about St Michael begin their usual spring hunting upon the ice. They leave their village, hauling their kaiaks, spears, guns, and other implements on small, light sledges made specially for the i)urpose. Whenever open water is to be crossed the kaiak is launched, the sled placed upon it, and the hunter paddles to the opposite side, where he resumes his journey upon the ice. The method of obtaining seals at this time is by the hunter concealing him- self on the ice close to the water, and from this point of vantage shoot- ing or spearing them as they swim along the edge. Sometimes a seal is shot or speared while lying asleep on the ice. When the ice breaks up, so that there is much open water, with scattered floes and cakes of varying size, the hunters make long hunts in their kaial^s, searching for places where the seals have hauled up onto the ice. On the 10th of May, one season, I met a party of Eskimo between Pastolik, near the Yukon mouth, and St Michael. They had umiaks of ordinary size on sleds, drawn by dogs, and were going with their families to the outer edge of St Michael island to hunt seals, planning to return to the Yukon mouth in the umiaks when the ice had left the coast. During the early spring months the small hair seals come up through holes in the ice to be delivered of their young. These holes are !^ NELSON] SEAL-STALKING IVORY SCRATCHER8 129 sometimes covered by the hunter with au arch of snow, and the seals are surprised and speared as they come up. When stalking these seals as they lie sleeping or sunning themselves on the ice, the hunter wears a pair of knee protectors made of white bear or white dog skin, which reach from just above the knee to the ankle, and have the long shaggy fur outward. They are secured upon the leg by strings along their edges, like a legging, but they do not inclose the leg in the rear. A huge mitten of the same skin, reaching from the hand to a little above the elbow, is also worn on the left arm. Armed with a spear, which has a long line fastened to a detachable point, the hunter approaches erect as near to the seal as is prudent, then lies flat upon the ice and places his bent left arm before him so that the huge fur mitten forms a shield between him and the seal. The fur hood is raised over his head, so that the long border of gray or whitish fur blends with the mitten. The color of the fur harmonizes so well with that of the snow that the hunter can creep to within the desired distance of the seal without being detected. He is always careful to keep his body flat and in a direct line behind the mitten, and trails his gun or spear behind him with his right hand until near enough to make sure of his aim. When stalking a seal in this manner the hunter carries a small wooden scratcher, con- sisting of a neatly carved handle, tipped with seal claws. If the seal becomes uneasy or suspicious, the hunter pauses, and with this imple- ment scratches the snow or ice in the same manner and with the same force as a seal while digging a hole in the ice. Hearing this the seal seems satisfied and drops asleep again. This is repeated, if neces- sary, until the hunter is within reach of the animal, when he drives his spear into it, braces himself, and holds fast to the line. If close to a hole, the seal struggles into it. By holding the line the hunter pre- vents its escape, and the animal soon drowns and is hauled out. Of late years guns are commonly used for this class of hunting, and the seal is shot through the head, so that it remains on the ice. On the Diomede islands I obtained a typical pair of white bear skin knee i)rotectors, having a triangular jiiece of sealskin sewed on their upi)er edge to extend above the knee, along the leg, and provided with a cord which extends thence up to the waist belt of the hunter. Figure 7, plate Lli, from Point Hope, is an ivory-handle scratcher with a ring in the upper end; the handle is crescentic in cross section. The lower end is divided into two parts, on which two claws are held firmly in position by a sinew lashing. Figure 8, plate lit, from Point Hope, is a similar scratcher with an ivory handle, and with three claws fitted on the lower end in the same manner as in the preceding specimen. The upper end of the handle is carved to represent the head of a seal. Figure 0, plate Lii, from St Michael, is a very ancient scratcher obtained in the ruins of an old village. It is made of reindeer horn and has two x)oiiits forming a Y^shape end, on which the seal claws 18 ETH — y 130 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 ■wexe fitted. The handle has a groove around it for the sinew cord that served to hold the claws in place. Figure 6, plate lii, from St Lawrence island, is a small scratcher with a wooden handle, and with three large claws upon the tip, which are held in position in the usual manner by sinew cords. Figure 11, plate lii, from Norton sound, is a wooden-handle scratcher with three claws fastened in position by fine sinew cords passed through a hole in the handle. The upper end of the handle is bound with sinew cords to afibrd a firm grip, and a loop of similar cord is fastened to the butt for suspending the implement from the wrist. Figure 10, plate m, from Cape Prince of Wales, ts a handsomely made scratcher with a long wooden handle, having three claws on the lower end, attached in the usual manner. The handle is carved on both sides, above aud below, and terminates in the image of a white bear's head, having blue beads inlaid for eyes. Figure 4, plate Lii, from St Michael, is a rather rudely made scratcher, with a wooden handle having four claws at the tip, held in position by a strip of rawhide pierced with four holes and drawn over the claws, with a flap extending back on the handle and bound by a cord lashing. Another method of approaching seals on the ice is by the hunter covering a light framework with white sheeting and i)lacing it upon a kaiak sled in such a way as to conceal himself aud the sled, which he pushes cautiously before him until he is within range and shoots the seal with a rifle. Should he not be provided with a rifle, he uses a spear, but approaches near enough to be sure of the cast and then fixes the barb firmly in the animal's body. After having killed a seal at sea the hunter is sometimes able, if the seal be small, to drag it upon the k^iak and thrust it inside; but if it be large this is impossible, and he is compelled to tow it to the shore or to the nearest ice, where it can be cut up and stowed in the interior of the kaiak. The towline is made fast to the animal by cutting slits in the skin through which cords are passed, or the flippers are tied together by cords and drawn against the body aud a cord passed through a slit in the upper lip aud the head drawn down on the breast. In order to pass the cord between the slits in the skin without difli- culty, small, slender bone or ivory probes are sometimes used, having a notch at the upper end aud a groove along both sides. The cord is looped and placed over the notched end; the hunter holds the two ends in his hands and passes the doubled cord through from one slit in the skin to another. Figure 12, plate lii, represents an implement of this kind obtained on Kotzebue sound. It is of deerhorn, with a wooden handle fastened on by sinew cords and heavily grooved on four sides to enable the holder to secure a firm grip. During the winter and late in the fall seals are usually fat enough to float when killed in the water, but in spring, and sometimes at NELSON] SEAL-FLOATING WHITE- WHALE NETS 131 other seasons, they are so thin that they sink and the hunter loses them. To insure their floating while being towed, it is a common prac- tice to make slits in the skin at various points and, with a long pointed instrument of deerhorn, to loosen the blubber from the muscle for a space of a foot or more in diameter. Then, by use of a hollow tube, made from the wing-bone of a bird or from other material, air is blown in and the place inflated ; wooden plugs are then inserted in the slits and driven in tightly to prevent the air from escaping. By the aid of several 'such inflated spots the seal is floated and the danger of losing it is avoided. Figure 13, plate lii, from Sledge island, is one of the probes used for loosening the blubber in the manner described. It consists of a long, curved rod of deerhorn, round in cross section and pointed at the top. It is set in a slit made in the round wooden handle and held in position by means of a lashing of spruce root. A similar instrument was obtained at Cape Nome. Figure 19, plate lii, from Sledge island, shows a set of eight of the described wooden plugs, flattened oval in cross section. They are fashioned to a thin, rounded point at one end and are broad and trun- cated at the other, giving them a wedge shape. During the latter part of August and early part of September nets are set near rocky islets or reefs to catch white whales. These nets are simi- lar to those intended for seals, except that they have larger meshes and are longer and wider. Whales enter them and are entangled exactly as fish are caught in gill nets, and, being held under water by the weight of heavy anchor stones, are drowned and remain until the hunter makes his visit to the net. As these nets are set so far from shore that it is impossible to observe them from the land, a daily visit is made in a kaiak to inspect them. Sometimes white whales are cap- tured in seal nets near the shore, but this occurs only once or twice in a season. Occasionally a school of these whales, while swimming in company, encounter one of these nets set for them and by their united strength tear it to pieces and escape. BIRD SNARES AND NETS The Eskimo have various ingenious methods of taking ptarmigan and water fowl. During the winter small sinew snares are set among the bushes where the ptarmigan resort to feed or to rest. Sometimes little brush fences are built, with openings at intervals in which the snares are .set so that the birds may be taken when trying to pass through. Figure 10, plate li, illustrates one of these snares, from Nor- ton sound. It consists of a stake nearly 14 inches in length, having a rawhide running noose attached to its upper end by a sinew lashing; a twisted sinew cord about a foot in length serves to attach the snare and stake to the trunk or branch of an adjacent bush. As spring opens the male birds commence to molt and the brown 132 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 summer plumage appears about their necks. At tbis time they become extremely pugnacious and utter load notes of challenge, which so excite other males within hearing that desperate battles ensue. The birds occupy small knolls or banks of snow, which give them a vantage point from which to look over the adjacent plain. If, when on his knoll, the male ptarmigan hears another uttering his call within the area he con- siders his own he flies to the intruder and fiercely attacks him. Tliis habit is taken advantage of by the Eskimo, who stuff the skin of one of these birds rudely and mount it upon a stick which holds the head outstretched. This decoy is taken to the vicinity of one of the calling males, and it is planted on a knoll or snowdrift so that it forms a con- spicuous object. The hunter then surrounds it with a finely made net of sinew cord supported by slender sticks. Both netting and sticks are pale yellow in color, and are scarcely discernible at a short distance. The hunter then conceals himself close by and imitates the challenge note; the bird hears it and flies straight to the spot. As he flies swiftly along within a few feet of the ground he sees his supposed rival, dashes at him, and is entangled in the net. The hunter secures him, after which he carries the decoy and the net to the vicinity of another bird. Figure 9, plate li, illustrates one of these fine-meshed ptarmigan nets, from St Michael. It is made of sinew cord, and is about 10 feet in length. At each end it has a wooden spreader, in the form of a round stake, about 18 inches in length, tapering at the lower end, to which a deerhorn i)oint is securely lashed. In the middle of the net is a similar wooden spreader. In the collection from Cape Prince of Wales is a similar but stronger sinew net (number 43354) having the two end spreaders and three wooden sticks for use along the middle of the net for holding it in position. Once when hunting near the Yukon mouth in the month of May, while patches of snow still covered the gi'ound in places, I saw my Eskimo companion decoy ptarmigan by molding some soft snow into the form of a bird; around the part representing the neck he placed a bunch of brown moss to imitate the brown plumage. This image was placed on a small knoll ; from a short distance the imitation of a ptar- migan was excellent and the hunter succeeded in calling up several birds that were in the vicinity. He told me that hunters used to call the birds in this manner to shoot tliem with arrows when they were hunting on the tundra and had no food. After the first snow of winter great flocks of ptarmigan migrate southward across the Kaviak peninsula and resort to the valleys of Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers for the winter. They fly mainly at night, and usually begin to move just as it is becoming dusk, when it is still possible to distinguish objects at a distance of 75 or 100 yards. A favorite direction for these flights is down the valleys of the rivers flowing southward into Norton bay. NELSON] BIRD TRAPPING AND SNARING 133 When the migrating season commences the people take advantage of it to capture the birds with salmon nets. Each net is from 50 to 100 feet in length and is spread open by wooden rods; a man or a woman at each end and another in the middle holds the net flat on the ground; when a flock of ptarmigan come skimming along within two or three feet of the ground, the net is suddenly raised and thrown against and over the birds, so as to cover as many as possible. The persons at the ends hold the net down, while the one in the middle proceeds to wring the necks of the captured birds. After throwing them to one side the net is again placed in position. In this manner a hundred birds or more are sometimes captured in a few minutes. Gulls are taken about the northern shore of Norton sound and the coast of Bering strait by means of bone or deerhorn barbs, pointed at both ends and having a sinew or rawhide cord tied in a groove around the middle, the other end of the cord being fastened to any suitable object that will serve as an anchor; or a long line is anchored at both ends and floated on the surface of the water tVith barbs attached to it at intervals. Each barb is slipped lengthwise down the throat of a small fish which serves as bait. " As the gulls in their flight see the dead fish floating on the water they seize and swallow them; when they attempt to fly away the barbs turn in their throats and hold them fast. Figure 7, plate Li, represents one of these barbs made of deerhorn; it was obtained from Norton sound. Along the northern coast of Norton sound the people gather the eggs of sea fowl from the clifls by means of seal nets, which they roll into a cable and lash in that shape with cords; the nets are then lowered over the cliffs and the upper ends firmly fastened to rocks or stakes. The egg gatherer fastens a sash about his waist, removes his boots, and goes down the net, hand over hand, to the ledges below, the meshes of the net forming excellent holding places for the fingers and toes; the hunter then fills the inside of his frock above the sash with the eggs and climbs to the top of the cliff. In a camp at Cape Thompson, on the Arctic coast, I saw many dead murres^which had been caught by letting a man down by a long line from the top of the cliff to the ledges where the birds were breeding; there he used a scoop net and caught as many birds as he wished by putting it over them while they sat stupidly on their eggs. On the islands of Bering strait the people catch great numbers of auklets with scoop nets, and also by placing the rudely stuffed skin of one of the birds on a rocky ledge and a fine-mesh net or snare about it. These birds swarm around the rocky cliffs like bees and continually alight near each other, so that the hunter has only to place the snares in position and come out of concealment to take the birds as they are caught. Figure 5, plate li, illustrates one of these snares from St Lawrence island. It consists of a wooden stake, about five inches in length, 134 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18 having about its upper end a wrapping of wlialeboue which secures the middle of another strip of wlialebone extending outward about a foot in each direction, each end of which is made into a running noose. Figure 1, plate Li, represents a set of snares, from Big lake, used for catching ducks or other wild fowl about the borders of grassy lakes. It consists of a strong spruce root, three or four feet in length, with a rawhide cord fastened to each end, by which it is firmly attached to stakes. Spaced at regular intervals along this root are eight running nooses, also made of spruce root, spliced by one end to the main root, leaving a point j)rojecting outward about two inches, which serves to hold the noose open. The snares are set just above the surface of the water across the small openings in the floating grass and weeds, and as the birds attempt to pass through they are caught. Similar snares of whalebone were obtained along the shore of Norton sound,' and thence northward to Kowak river and Kotzebue sound. An ordinary sling, consisting of a strip of leather in the middle and two long strings at each end, for casting a stone, is used among the Eskimo from the mouth of the Yukon to Kotzebue sound for killing birds. A compound sling or bolas is used for catching birds by the people of the coast from Unalaklit to Kotzebue sound, the islands of Bering strait, St Lawrence island, and the adjacent Siberian coast. It is used but little by the people around the northern end of Norton sound, but in the other districts mentioned it is in common use. These implements have from four to eight braided sinew or rawhide cords, varying from 24 to 30 inches in length, united at one end, where they are usually bound together with a tassel of grass or fine wood shavings; at the free end of each cord is a weight of bone, wood, or ivory, usually in the form of an oval ball, but occasionally it is carved into the form of an animal, as in the specimen from Point Hope, illus- trated in figure 8, plate li, which has ivory weights representing five white bears, a bird, and a seal. Another example, from Nulukhtu- logumut, shown in figure 10, plate li, has four pear-shape ivory balls, with raven totem marks etched upon their surfaces at the lower ends of the rawhide cords; to the united upper ends are attached two white gull feathers to guide the implement in its flight. Tiie si)eeimen represented in figure 14, x)late li, which was obtained at St Law- rence island, has four oval wooden balls united by a braided sinew cord; another from Port Clarence, shown in figure 3 of the same plate, has six oval balls of bone attached to sinew cords. When in search of game the bolas is worn wound around the hunter's head like a fillet, with the balls resting on the brow. When a flock of ducks, geese, or other wild fowl pass overhead, at an altitude not exceeding 40 or 50 yards, the hunter by a quick motion untwists the sling. Holding the united ends of the cords in his right hand, he seizes the balls with the left and draws the cords so tight that they lie parallel to each other; then, as tiie birds come within throwing '■"V^ A R V ■ ^ ^ or TUB \. NELSON] USE OF BOLAS — BIRD IMPOUNDING 135 distance, he swings the balls around his head once or twice and casts them, aiming a little in front of the flock. When the balls leave the hand they are close together, the cords trail behind, and they travel so swiftly that it is difficult to follow their flight with the eye. As they begin to lose their impetus they acquire a gyrating motion, and spread apart until at their highest point they stand out to the full extent of the cords in a circle four or five feet in diameter; they seem to hang thus for a moment, then, if nothing has been encountered, turn and drop to the earth. While in the air the cords do not appear to interfere with each other, but when the sling reaches the ground the cords will be found to be interwoven in a perfect network of entanglement; if a bird is struck it is enwrapped by the cords and its wings so hampered that it falls helpless. It is curious to note the quickness with which this implement changes its course if one of the balls encounters any obstruction. At Cape Wankarem 1 saw the Chukchi capture many eider ducks by its aid, and frequently saw one of the extended balls or its cord touch a duck, when the other balls appeared as if endowed with intelligence; their course was rapidly changed, and the bird enwrapped as com- pletely as if it had been struck squarely by the sling. Owing to the space covered by these implements they are very effective when cast among a flock of birds. They are used mostly on low points over which waterfowl fly at ceitain hours of the day. The Eskimo of the Yukon delta and the low country to the southward make drives of waterfowl on the marshes during August, when the old birds have molted their wing-feathers and the young are still unable to fly. Salmon nets are arranged by means of stout braces and stakes to form a pound with wings on one side; the people form a long line across the marsh and, by shouting and striking the ground with sticks as they advance, drive the birds before them toward the pound. As they approach it, the line of people converge until they reach the wings, and the birds, thus inclosed, are driven in and killed with sticks. Thou- sands o|>"downy young are thus slaughtered and thrown away, while umiaks are filled with the larger or adult birds. One of the fur traders told me that he witnessed a drive of this kind where about a ton of young birds were killed and thrown aside, while several umiaks were loaded with the larger birds, among which were many varieties of ducks and geese. Thetre drives and the constant egg gathering that is prac- ticed every spring are having their effect in rapidly diminishing the number of waterfowl in this district. SEAL SPEARS The ordinary types of weapons used for spearing seals from a kaiak vary from 4 to 4^ feet in length. They have a light wooden shaft, rounded or slightly oval in cross section, of about the same size from butt to point, with a long, rounded head of bone or ivory having a 136 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 hole in the tip in which is fitted a wooden socket with an oval slot, to receive the wedge-shape base of a detachable barbed point of bone or deerhorn. The heads of some of these spears are sluiped into ronnded, tapering- points, which are inserted in the ends of the wooden shafts; in others the heads have deep, wedge-shape slots in which the bev- eled ends of the shafts are fitted, and have a small shoulder at their upper ends to prevent the lashings from slipping. In all instances the heads are held firmly in position by strong lashings of braided sinew cotd, which sometimes extends up the shaft in a long spiral, with from one to three bands of wrapping at the upper end, inclosing the (piills of feathers placed near the butt, the other ends of the feathers being inserted in deep slits in the shaft, as ,are also the ends of the sinew cord, to hold the wrappings in position. The ivory points for these spears are from an inch to three inches in length, and have two or three barbs along each side, with the points and edges formed by four beveled faces, and are pierced near the base to receive a sealskin cord wliich connects them with the hafts. When the spear is thrown, the barbed point, when imbedded in the animal, is immediately detached from the head of the shaft, to which it remains attached only by the sealskin cord which has been wrapped around the shaft; as it unwinds the shaft of the spear is drawn crosswise after the retreating animal, and serves as a drag to exhaust its strength and render it more easily over- taken by the hunter. The method most frequently used, however, is to attach to the barbed point a line about 3i feet in length, which is divided at about two thirds of its length into two ends, which are attached to the shaft about two feet apart, a little nearer to the head tlmn to the butt, and are then wound tightly about the shaft. Plate Liii, drawn from a ])hotograph, illustrates the attitude of a St Michael man casting a seal spear from a kaiak. Figure 2, plate liv, from Unal^klit, is made with the head, point, and lashings placed upon the hafts in the usual manner, but the butt is without feathering. Figure 4, plate liv, a typical spear of this class, from Norton sound, has on the butt three feathers from a cormorant's tail, but is otherwise very similar in its finish to the one just described. Figure 3, jjlate liv, from St Michael, is a spear having an ivory head fitted upon the shaft by means of a slot. The barbed point is attached to the shaft by a line about IG inches long, fastened just above the lashing which binds the head to the shaft. Figure 5, plate liv, from Big lake, has an ivory head, roughly trian- gular in cross section, with angles rounded and the butt cut down to a smaller size and inserted in a slot on the end of the wooden shaft, which is attached to the head by a rawhide lashing passed through a hole in the shaft and in the adjoining part of the head. Outside of this the usual sinew lashing holds the shaft firmly over the end of the head. Figure C, plate liv, from Cape Vancouver, is another spear, with a double-feathered butt and an ivory head carved at the end to represent *^ n A r? y NELSON] SEAL, WALRUS, AND WHALE SPEARS 137 the head of an otter. The inner end of the head has a wedge shape slot, in which the beveled point of the shaft is fitted; in the base of the head is a hole through which a rawhide lashing is passed and wound tightly around the projecting sides of the slot, holding the head firmly against the shaft. A braided sinew cord is also wouhd about the shaft from the head to the butt, where the featherings are held in placje by a tight wrapping. All the small spears with featherless shafts which were collected came from the shores of Norton sound; those with single feathering, were obtained between Bering strait and the Kuskokwini, and those with the double feathering from I^univak island and tlie adjacent mainland at Cape Vancouver, Chalitmut, and other villages of that district. These spears are the lightest weapons of this character used by the Alaskan Eskimo, and serve mainly for the- capture of the smaller seals. Throwiug-sticks are in general use for casting them. Figure 1, plate liv, from I^univak island, is an example of another style of seal spear intended to be used with a throwing-stick; the head is short and thick and the feathered butt of the shaft has attached to it a bladder float, over which is a light netting of twisted sinew cord. WALRUS AND WHALE SPEARS For taking the larger and more vigorous seals, walrus, and white whales, a spear of about the same size and length is used in connection with a float and float-board. The dragging of the shaft against the wafer, in the kind of spears just described, is suflQcient for retarding the flight of the smaller seals after they are struck, but for the larger ani- mals the greater resistance of a large float on a long line'is required! This latter style of implement is in use from Kotzebue sound to Bristol bay. The haft is not feathered, and the bead is rather longer. and slightly heavier than that on ordinary spears of the class just described. The heads are of ivory or bone, and, in the region about Nunivak .island and the adjacent mainland, are commonly carved into the conventiouail forms of wolves or land otters. Figure 7, plate liv, from I^univak island, is such a spear, with tli^ end of the head carved to represent the head of a land otter, with blue beads inlaid for eyes. . '■ . Figure 8, plate liv, from the lower Kuskokwim, is a spear with the shaft carved to represent the conventionalized form of a^wplf. The ivory head has a w6dge shape point by which it is fitted to- the shaft; and is bound firndy in place by a spruce-root lashing in place of the usual sinew or sealskin cord. Figure 10, plate liv, from the Yukon mouth, is a spear Avith the float line and board attached. The barbed ivory point has a triangular iron tip inserted in a slot, and is united to the head by a rod of deer- horn inserted in a hole in its lower end. The point is pierced through the middle for the insertion of a strong rawhide line, which passes 138 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 back and is looped to the lower end of a strong sealskin line six to eight fathoms long, connecting the spearhead \Yith the float, which consists of the entire skin of a seal with all of the openings closed and having a nozzle by means of which it is inflated. A cord looj) in the front end serves to attach it to the end of the float line, which also has a permanent loop for this purpose. The float-board consists of a strong, oval hoop of spruce made in two U -shape pieces, with the ends brought together and beveled to form a neatly fitting joint, which is wrapped firmly with a lashiug of si^ruce root; the sides have holes by which a thin board is fastened to the under side, the ends of which are notched in front to form a coarsely serrated pattern with five points that are inserted in slots cut in the front of the hoop. The front of the board is oval, and the sides taper gradually to the points of two projecting arms, which extend four or five inches behind the bow; between these arms a deep slot is cut, with the inner border rounded. The board has a round hole in the center and a crescentic hole on each side (plate liv, 10). On the kaiak the float-board is placed in front of the hunter, with the arm-like points thrust beneath the cross lashing to hold it in posi- tion, and upon it lies the coil of float line with the spear attached and resting on the spear guards on the right rail of the boat; the end of the line is passed back under the hunter's right arm to the float which, fully inflated, rests on the deck just back of the manhole. When the spear is thrown the coil runs oft' rapidly and the float is thrown overboard. In some cases, when the prey is vigorous and leads a long i)ursuit, another line, like that showu in figure 9, plate Liv, is made fast through the semilunar orifices in the center of the float-board, which latter, when drawn through the water by means of this cord, assumes a position nearly at a right angle to the course of the animal and forms a heavy drag to impede its i)rogress. When hunting on the ice the float-board, with the line coiled upon it, is carried in the left hand of the hunter and the spear in the right hand while he watches along the borders of the leads or holes for the appear- ance of the seal. When he succeeds in striking it, he holds firmly to the line until the animal is exhausted, or if necessary the float-board attached to the line is cast into the water, while the hunter hurries to his kaiak and embarks in pursuit. In addition to the smaller spears used in connection with the throw- ing stick and float-board, larger spears are used to cast directly from the hand. These spears have a stout wooden shaft from four to seven feet long, with a finger-rest of bone or ivory lashed on at about oue- third of its length from the butt. The head is of bone or ivory, roundetl and fitted to the wooden shaft by lashings in a manner similar to that of the smaller spears. It is pierced near the base for the reception of the line by which it is attached to the shaft. Several feet of this hue are wound about the shaft, so that when the point is detached the cord will unwind and the shaft will form a drag to impede the animal in its efforts £? OALlFO^ NELsoNl WALRUS AND WHALE SPEARS 139 to escape. Figure 2, plate Lva, is a typical spear of this kind from St Michael. Figure 3, plate LVa, illustrates a typical example of this kind of spear which was obtained at Sledge island. The shaft is a little over six feet long, tapering from the middle toward both ends, the upper end being the smaller. The private mark of the owner is marked on the shaft in red and black paint. The head is held in place by a com- bination of sinew and rawhide lashings. Spears very similar to this are in common use on the shores of Korton sound and Bering strait. Figure 1, plate lv«, from Norton sound, is an example of the large spear used in that locality. Figure 8, plate Lva, is another spear of this kind, about seven feet in length, from Port Clarence. Jhe shaft is strongly lashed with rawhide in several places, the lashings being held in place by small bone pins, and a strong finger-rest in the form of a seal-head is attached to one side for use in casting; the butt has a tapering, rounded point of bone, fastened by a rawhide lashing which passes through an orifice in the bone. The bone head is inserted in a groove in the wooden shaft, against which it is held firmly by a rawhide lashing; an ivory rod about seven inches in length is inserted in the top and on it is fitted the detachable harpoon point, the tip of which is slit and a triangular jjiece of brass inserted to form a sharp point. The detachable point has a hole through which is passed the cord which attaches it to the shaft. Figure 7, plate lva, from Sledge island, is a similar but shorter walrus and whale spear, having the bone head worked into an image of a white bear's head, with pieces of blue beads inlaid for eyes. Spears of this character were found also in use along the coast of Kotzebue sound and northward to Point Barrow. From St Lawrence island a similar but ruder spear of this kind waS obtained. It has a long, rounded shaft, with a small ivory head and a finger- rest at the middle; the short bone tip at the butt is sharpened to a wedge-shape point. This specimen, which measures nearly eight feet, is the longest of any of the spears that were seen. Figure 6, plate Lva, from Norton sound, is a spear used for walrus and wliales, somewhat similar in general character to those already described, but the long, slender . shaft has a spur-shape point of bone inserted in its upper end and fastened by a rawhide cord. This pro- jects obliquely from the shaft instead of being in line with it, as in the other specimens described. The usual lashings of rawhide are around the shaft, but the bone head is smaller and terminates in a knob, in which is inserted the bone peg on which is fitted the detachable point. This point has a fiat, triangular, iron tip and a hole through the base for the attachment of a stout rawhide cord that passes backward through two grooves in the bone head and thence along the shaft to the butt, where it is coiled and attached to a float. . Figure 5, plate Lva, from ChichiQagamut, is the style of large hand 140 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 spear used ou Xunivak island and the adjacent mainland, between the Yukon and the Kuskokwim. A deerhorn peg is inserted in tlie side of the shaft to serve as a finger-rest for casting. The shaft is largest near the head, round in cross section, and tapers gradually back to the truncated tip. A modification of this style is seen in figure 4, plate LVa, from Pastolik, which has the finger-rest formed of a small bone pin inserted in the side of the shaft, but with the latter oval in cross section and tapering each way, like the Norton sound spears of this kind. FLOATS The sealskins used as floats in connection with spears in capturing large seals, walrus, and white whales, are taken from the seals entire and are tanned usually with the hair removed. To stop the holes made in them by spears or in other ways, and to prevent their fastenings from becoming loose and the consequent loss of the float and the game, jflugs of wood, bone, ivory, or deerhorn are used, which are stud-like in form, with spreading heads and a deep groove around the side. The hole in the skin is first sewed up or patched, if necessary, leaving a very small orifice, through which the stopper is pressed until it projects far enough on the inside for the workman to wrap a stout lashing of thin rawhide or sinew cord around the groove and make it fast. This work is done through a hole left open at the muzzle of the skin, after which the nozzle through which it is inflated is inserted and fastened by rawhide lashings. Some of these stopi)ers are j)lain, but most of them have the upper surface carved in a great variety of ornamental designs. Figure 5, jilate lvi «, illustrates a specimen of one of these stoppers obtained at Koiiigunugumut, having the top in the form of a cone. Figure 7, plate lvi «, from Nubviukhchugaluk, has a conical head with half of a blue bead set in the top. Figure 1, plate lvi«, from Koiiigunugumut, has an oval head. Figure 4, plate lvi a, from the same locality, has an oval head with the raven totem sign etched upon its surface. Figure 6, plate lvi a, also from the same locality, has a round, flat top, with two concentric circles surrounding a wooden plug set in the center. Figure 3, plate lvi a, from Cape Nome, has the top surrounded by a circle with an inlaid bead in the center and a conical base. Figure 10, plate lvi a, from Cape Nome, has the top in the form of a seal's head, with the eyes, nostrils, and ears indicated by round wooden pegs inlaid in the ivory. Figure 14, i)late lvi a, from Sledge island, is a large, round, wooden plug, on the surface of which are three concentric incised circles. Figure 13, plate lvi a, from Cape Vancouver, has the upper surface very slightly rounded and bearing the features of a woman in low relief. The eyes, nostrils, and mouth are incised; there are two labret holes on each side of the lower lip, and radiating lines from the middle of the mouth indicate tattooing. NELSON] FLOATS 141 Figure 15, plate LVia, from Agiukcliuguuiut, is of ivory and has a human face carved on the surface of the head. Figure 9, plate lvi a, from Cape Vancouver, is an ivory plug, oval in outline, with the face of a short-ear owl on its ui)per surface. Figure 2, plate lvi a, from Chalitmut, is a small stopper with the face of a seal in relief on its surface. Figure 8, plate lvi a, from Cape Darby, is a stopper with a stem in the form of a link, with its base projecting and i)ierced with a hole, through which a crosspiece cf ivory is inserted to hold the lashing in position. In the link, and carved from the same piece of ivory, is a seal- head with bristles set in by plugs of wood to indicate the whiskers; the eyes, nostrils, and ears are represented by wooden plugs. Figure 12, plate LVI a, from Cape Darby, is another link plug, having carved on it a seal- head, the nostrils and eyes formed by inlaid beads. The base has the usual constricted neck, but is conical in- stead of flattened. Figure 11, j^late LVI a, from Sledge island, is made like the preceding, with Fig. 39— Sealskin float (about I'o). a conical base attached to the open link by a narrow neck. In this link is another one, the outer end of which is carved to represent the end of an inflated float. Figure 16, plate lvi a, from Kushunuk, is a long, slender float with an ivory nozzle. It is made from the intestines of a seal, and is intended to be attached to the shaft of a hand spear. Some of these floats are made from the bladders or stomachs of seals and walrus, and are usually oval in shape. Figure 39, from Nunivak island, is a sealskin float, tanned with most 142 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT. [bth.ann.18 of the hair removed. It has an ivorj'^ nozzle fitted in the place of one of the fore-flippers. The front of the skin is bent downward and wrapped with rawhide cord, with an ivory peg stuck through to pre- vent the cord from slipping. The cord has a loose end about three feet In length with a loop for attaching it to the float line. The nozzles for tbe smaller floats, which are attached to the shafts of spears, are made usually of ivory ; they are round and have a projec- tion at one end which is i)ierced for the attachment of a line to bind the nozzle' to the shaft of the spear; an enlarged rim prevents the lashing from slipping oflE". In some specimens the base is not pierced, but a projecting piece is left which is concave on the lower surface and convex on the up])er and serves to retain the lashing. Figure 29, plate lvi a, represents a nozzle or mouthpiece obtained at Cape Vancouver. It is intended for a small float. Figure 24, plate lvi a, is a nozzle from Cape Darby. The projection on the side has a single hole for the passage of the cord and a shoulder on the projecting end which is grooved for the lasbing. Figure 27, plate lvi a, from Unalaklit, is another mouthpiece with a single flattened hole through its projecting lower side. Figure 17, plate lvi a, from Kushunuk, is a large mouthpiece having a raven totem mark on one side of the base, which is pierced with three holes for the lashings. Figure 20, plate lvi a, from St Michael, has two holes through the base for the attachment of the cord. Figure 18, plate lvi a, from St Lawrence island, is another nozzle, as is also figure 19 of the same plate, from Cape Darby. Both of these are of ivory, and the latter has etched upon its surface several raven totem signs. Figure 21, plate lvi a, from the Yukon mouth, is made of deerhorn, and has three holes along the base for the attachment of cords. Figure 28, plate lvi a, from Cape Nome, has four holes along the base for the attachment of cords. Figure 25, plate lvi a, from Koiiigunugumut, is carved in the form of a walrus head, the projecting tusks below forming one side of the opening at the base for the attachment of the cords. For the purpose of attaching one float line to another when greater length is needed, or for joining lines along the shafts of spears, small ivory blocks are used, which are made in great variety of form, and considerable ingenuity is displayed in carving their surfaces into vari- ous figures and patterns. One form consists of a small block with a round hole across its length, near the underside. Another larger hole runs from below and extends obliquely upward, continuing on the upper surfaceas a groove around the base of an enlarged head on the upper side of the block, in which a permanent loop is inserted. When the hunter wishes to attach another cord to lengthen his line he passes the looped end through the hole on the underside to the upper surface and BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LVI FLOAT, FLOAT PLUGS, AND MOUTH PIECES CORD ATTACHERS HUNTING AND FISHING APPARATUS (three-sixteenths) "vTi B R A /r "DHIVEHSITY NELSON] CORD ATTACHERS 143 slips it over the head, where it falls into the slot or neck and forms a firm attachment. Figure 20, plate lvi b, represents one of these blocks, obtained at Paimut. It is carved on the underside to represent a bear, with the fore- paws extended around in front. When this figure is turned over, the hind-legs and the tail, which appear on the opposite side, are seen to form the fore-legs of another bear, while the fore-legs of the first form the hind-limbs of the latter. In the space inclosed by the legs of the last-named bear is the figure of a seal-head in strong relief, which forms the head over which is passed the loop of the cord to be attached. Figure 19, plate lvi 6, from Chalitmut, is a block having the head carved to represent a grotesque face. Figure 21, plate lvi h, shows a specimen from Kaialigamut, the head of which is carved to form a human face and on the opposite end is etched the head of a seal. Figure 16, plate LVi 6, from Sabotnisky, is a plain block with a deep groove cut in the head for the permanent loop, instead of a hole side- wise through it. Figure 15, plate lvi 6, from St Michael, is one of these blocks with a grotesque face on the head. Two rawhide loops are placed in it in position to show the manner of making the attachment of lines. Figure 7, i^late lvi 6, from Nulukhtulogumut, has a diamond-shape head projecting forward to a point. Figure 8, plate lvi h, from ^univak island, has an almond-shape head, crossed lengthwise by an incised line. Figure 22, plate lvi h, from St Michael, has the head decorated with incised concentric circles arranged in two jjairs. Figure 9, plate lvi h, from Kushunuk, has the head cut into an oval form, with a strong ridge along its top, which turns abruptly down- ward in front. Figure 6, plate lvi h, from the lower Kuskokwim, has a long, beak- like projection for the head, as does figure 5 of the same plate, from Koiiigunugumut. Figure 23, plate lvi h, from Askinuk, represents a grotesque counte- nance. In it are inserted two loops to show the method of attachment. Another style of cord attacher, commonly used to fasten the end of the float line to the short loop on a detachable spearhead, consists of a bar-like piece of ivory, pierced with two holes through which is passed the end of a rawhide loop, forming the permanent attachment, which projects beyond the side of the bar far enough to permit another loop to be run through it, passed over the bar, and drawn back; the bar lies across the end of the second loop and prevents slipping. Attachers of this kind are commonly made in the form of a double crescent joined along one side, having two parallel holes for the permanent loop; the upper sides are convex and the lower ones slightly concave. Figure 1, plate lvi 6, represents one of these cord attachers, in the 144 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 form of a white whale, with the loop in position to show the method of attachment. It is from the coast between Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. Figure 1 1 of the same plate, obtained at St Michael by Mr L. M. Turner, is in the form of a seal, and figure 10 shows a specimen from the Yukon mouth,' also fashioned in the form of a white whale. Still another form of these cord attachers consists of a rounded, upright block, pierced with two parallel holes for the attachment of the permanent loop, just above which is a deeply grooved constriction or neck to receive the temporary loop. Figure 13, plate lvi Z>, shows a specimen of this form of the implement, obtained at Askinuk; on it is a human face, with labret holes at the corners of the mouth, and a raised rim around the face representing a fur hood. The raven totem mark is incised on the sides. Figure 12, plate lvi 6, from Sledge island, is similar in form, and has a woman's countenance upon the upper surface, with two labret holes in the middle of the lower lip. Figure 4, plate LVii, from Kushunuk. has a grotesque face upon its upper surface. Fig. 40— Cord attacher (about t). Figure 14, plate lvi b, from Cape Vancouver, has the face of an owl upon the upper surface. Figure 2, plate i.Yih, from Kushunuk, has a wolf-head upon the up])er surface. The accompanying figure, 40, from Unalaklit, is very well carved to represent a hair seal; blue beads are inlaid for eyes. Figure 41 « shows a well carved attacher from Golofnin bay; at one end the nostrils of a seal are indicated by round holes, with the cord hole for a mouth; in the top is a deep excavation, in the middle of which stands a projecting knob carved to represent a seal-head, over which the loop of the temporary attachment is passed; on the lower side (figure 41 &) is the figure of a whale in reliefs- Figure ;3, plate luYib, from Kulwoguwigumut, has the upper surface plain, excejit for a median ridge running lengthwise across it. Figure 18, plate lvi 6, from Norton sound, is a long, fiat-head speci- men, with a cord inserted to show the manner of attaching the loops. Figure 17, plate lvi&, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a handsomely made ivory swivel for attachment to a float line to j^revent it from becoming twisted by the movement of the float; the block, or maia portion, is handsomely carved in the form of a white bear's head, h\ which fragments of blue beads are set for eyes. The swivel is formed by an ivory rod, about an inch in length, with the head carved in the NELSON] FLOATS LANCES 145 shape of a closed liumaii fist; it is placed in a hole in the lower side of the bear head and projects to the rear. The front ends of large floats are commonly provided with a cross bar of ivory, which serves as a handle for raising them, and at the same time is convenient for looping the lines. Fignre 26, plate LVirt, from Unalaklit, is such a handle bar with the head of a seal carved at each end. Figure 23, plate lvi«, from the Dio- S\/T \ •. /. mede islands, is another such bar carved in the form of a woman. Figure 22, plate lvi a, from the lower Knskokwim, has one end cut into the form of a grotesque head, and fignre 30 of the same plate, from Sledge island, has upon one end the head of a salmon and at the other a seal's hind flippers. Figure 31, plate lvi a, from St Law- rence island, is a wooden bar, rounded in cross section, with a rounded knob at each end. LANCES In addition to the spears for killing whales and walrus, two distinct kinds of lances are used by the Eskimo. The ordinary form is found generally on the Asiatic and American coasts of Bering straits and thence northward along the Arctic coast. It consists of a slender wooden shaft, from six to seven feet in length, with a rounded point of flint, nephrite, or other hard stone, held in position by rawhide or willow-root lash- ings. In recent years some of these lances have been tipped with iron, but the use of stone for this purpose is con- nected with the superstition that exists among these people which prohibits the use of iron in cutting up these animals. Figure 3, plate lv6, from Cape Nome, is a typical example of this style of lance. It has a shaft about 5^ feet in length, oval in cross sec- tion, with a rounded point of chipped iiint set in the slot at the end and bound firmly in position with a sinew lashing. Fignre 4, plate lv6, from St Michael, is a shorter shafted lance, with the point made from marble ground down to the leaf-shape outline 18 ETII 10 Fio. 41— Cord attaolier, obverst- and reverse (about |). 146 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 common to the stone points of these weapons. Usually the shafts of these lances are plain, hut a specimen (number 33891) from Norton sound, has a finger rest of bone bound midway on the shaft. The other form of lance is a peculiar one used along the coast of Nor- ton sound, about Nunivak island, and in the region lying between the mouths of Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. It is from 4 to 4J feet in length and has a walrus ivory butt from 20 to 24 inches in length fas- tened to the end of the wooden shaft. The end of the butt has two holes, through M^hich a sinew cord is passed and wound tightly around the junction of the two parts of the shaft. The head has a round hole for the reception of the point, which is held in position by a stout lashing of sinew cord. Figure 2, plate lv?>, represents a specimen of this kind of lance obtained on Nunivak island. It has a butt made from a walrus tusk, along each side of which is etched a long, slender figure of an animal, having a blue bead inlaid for the eye; the tip of the butt is shaped to a tapering point. In the wooden shaft, just above the ivory butt, a deerhorn peg is inserted for a finger-rest. Another example (number 1G8579) from Nunivak island has the ivory butt etched with the outline of a long arm, with a hand at the lower end and the palm pierced. Figure 1, plate Lvft, from Nunivak island, has a round bone head with three deep grooves extending around it, leaving four ridges ter- minating in a shoulder next to the shaft, bound in position by a cotton cord, evidently obtained from some trader. A long, tapering ivory butt, triangular in cross section, is fastened to the wooden shaft, and about the junction is a strong binding of cord similar to that used on the head. All the points used on these lances are detachable, and every hunter carries a small bag made from sealskin or other hide, containing eight or ten additional points. Figure 17, plate LViia, from the lower Yukon, is a fish-skin bag for holding a set of spearpoints. These points vary somewhat in char acter, but are from 8 to 10 inches in length, with thin, triangular tips of stone, glass, iron, or other material. Sometimes the points are made of ivory or bone, but this is not common. Slate is perhaps most frequently used, and occasionally flint or iron points are seen. Figure 5, j)Iate lv h, from Chalitmut, is a lance with a wooden shaft on which a raven totem mark is incised. The point to this is of slate, beveled on both sides to a sharp edge, and set in a wooden foreshaft; with it is a wooden sheath, to slip over the point and ])rotect it when not in use (figure 25, plate LViia). Figure 27, plate LViia, represents another form of these wooden sheaths for lance points. Figure 19, plate LViia, shows a lance from Port Clarence, Bering strait. It has a wooden shaft, with a chipped flint point inserted in a slot in the end and held in position by a wrapping of whalebone. The upper end of the shaft is wrapped with whalebone to prevent splitting, and a small tuft of seal hair is inserted in a narrow slot on the side. NELSON] LANCES SPEAR AND LANCE HEADS 147 Figure 22, plate lvii«, from Cape Nome, and figure 21 of the same plate, from Norton sound, are lances of this kind, with the points bound to the wooden shafts by wrappings of whalebone. Figure 18, plate lvii a, from Unalaklit, has a wooden shaft, with a long, slender point of flint, shaped like the flint arrow-tips used in that region for hunting deer. Figure 24, plate lvii a, from Cape Vancouver, has a long, gracefully shaped head of slate, set in a wooden shaft. Sojne of these lances, instead of a plain wooden shaft or a wooden shaft with an ivory butt, have the upper part or foreshaft made of bone or ivory. Figure 23, plate lvii «, from the lower Kuskokwim, has a bone fore- shaft set in a slot in the wooden shaft and held in jjlace by a sinew lashing. It has a triangular slate point, between which and the fore- shaft is a deep notch forming a barb. Figure 26, plate lvii a, from Anogogmut, has a bone foreshaft with a triangular slate tip. The foreshaft is excavated at its posterior end for the reception of the end of the wooden jiart, which is thrust into this hole without other fastening. Figure 16, plate lvii a, from Chalitmut, has an ivory foreshaft with a triangular iron point set in a slot in its end. On the side of the fore- shaft a sharp-pointed ivory spur is set, pointed backward, and made to serve as a barb to fix the point in the body of the animal. With this specimen is a neat sheath, made from two pieces of wood carefully excavated to the form of the head and bound together by a spruce-root lashing. Figure 20, plate lvii a, obtained on Nunivak island by Doctor Dall, has the head made from a piece of iron riveted to a wooden shaft, which is pierced with a hole in which a strong rawhide loop is fastened, evidently for attaching the head to the line, so that the weapon could be withdrawn and used repeatedly on the same animal. A long sheath of wood, wrapped with spruce roots, serves to protect this point when not in use. These lances are used when the seal or walrus has been disabled, so that it can not keep out of reach of its pursuers, when the hunter pad- dles up close alongside and strikes the animal, driving the detachable head in its entire length. The head remains in the animal, and the hunter immediately fits another point into the shaft and repeats the blow, thus inserting as many of the barbed heads as possible, until the animal is killed or the supply of points exhausted. Every hunter has his private mark cut on these points, so that, when the animal is secured, each is enabled to reclaim his own. SPEAR AND LANCE HEADS Figure 34, plate lvii &, illustrates a round ivory head for one of the smaller seal spears used with a throwing stick, obtained at Big lake. Figure 18, plate lvii b, represents one of the barbed deerhorn points ^-48 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERrNG STRAIT [eth ann. 18 usetl in the sm all spears. They are from St Michael. Figure 17 of the same phite shows a seal spearpoiut iiotchiBtl alorhg one side. It also canie from St Michael. . Figure 20, i^late LVii &, from Xorton bay ; figure 16, plat« lvii h, frojn Cape Nome, aud figure 19, plate lvii 6, from Nunivak islaud, are exam- ples of the points used in the large hand spears thrown by means of a ringer rest on the side of the shaft. Figure 33, j)late LViift, from Anogogmut, is a head for a light spear cast with a throwing stick and used in connection with the detachable harjjoon head and sealskin float. Figure 12, i^late LVii h, from Kigiktauik, is the point for one of these spears made entirely of deerhoru. Ordinarily these points are tipped with iron, copper, or stone set in a slot in the end of the point. When not in use these points, which have a permanent loop fastened to them, are kept in a wooden sheath to jireveut the thin metal or stone tip from •being broken. - Figure 14, plate lvii h, from Kushunuk, is one of these points having a triangular copper tip. On both the front and the back of the point raven totem signs are etched. Figure 15, plate LViift, from Kaialigamut, shows another of these •points with the sheath in position over the tip. Figure 5, plate LVii/>, from Chalitmut, is an iron point for a walrus spear, fastened to the bone rod which connects it with the spearhead. The rod is lashed to a wooden butt which fits into the spi-arhead. Figure G, plate lvii6, from Sledge island, is a detached point for one of these spears with a triangular tip of thin iron. It terminates at the inner end in a single beveled point. . Figure 8, plate i.\iib, from Sledge island, is a point for one of these •spears made entirely from iron worked down to a shape similar to that of the others. Figure 13, plate lvii ft, from St Lawrence island, is a curiously shaped point for one of these spears made from bone with a thin iron tip inserted in a slot. Figure 11, plate LVII&, from tlnalaklit, is a bone point for a large hand spear, the inner end terminating in two sharp points. Figure 4, j)late lvii 6, obtained on Nunivak island by Doctor Dall, is a good example of a head for a large spear, with a sheath made of woiod and wrapped with spruce root. Figtire 7, plate LVii7>, from Sledge island, is a specimen of the ivory rods used to connect the detachable spearpoint with the head of the spear shaft. - , Figure 1, plate Lviii, from Cape Xome, is a walrus ivory spur, such as is used at the butt of the large hand spears for walrus and whales. This specimen is very old, and has etched along its surface upon one side scenes of whale and walrus hunting in umiaks, and wolves and the killer whale iipon the other. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LVII LANCE POINTS, ETC. SPEAR HEADS, POINTS, FINGER-RESTS, ETC. OBJECTS USED IN HUNTING NELSON] SPEAR AND LANCE POINTS 149 Figure 3, plate lvii &, from St Lawrence island, is a bone spur such as is used on the ends of walrus spears on that island. Figure 2, plate lvii b, from St Lawrence island, is another spur for a walrus spear shaft. Figure 9, plate lvii b, from the lower Yukon, and figure 10 of the same plate, from Uazbiusky, represent triangular slate tips for use on detachable points of walrus and seal spears. Figure (J, plate lvii a, from Kigiktauik, is a handsome flint lance- point of bluish stone, very regular in form. Figure 9, plate lvii a, from Norton bay, is a triangular slate lance- point with the border beveled down on both sides to form the edge. Figure 4, plate LVii a, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a large, round- pointed, flint lancehead. Figure 1, plate LViio, is an old flint lancehead obtained from an ancient village site at St Michael. Figure 10, plate lvii «, from Kushunuk, is a curiously formed slate lancepoiut. Figure 11, plate lvii a, from Cai)e Darby, is a leaf-shape slate point. Figure 2, plate lvii a, from King island, is a handsomely made flint point, sub triangular in outline. Figure 8, plate LViirt, from iJ^Tubviukhchugaluk, is a diamond-shape, flint lancepoint. Figure 5, jjlate lvii a, from Unalaklit, is made of quartz crystal. Figure 7, plate lvii a, from Big lake, is a handsomely made, oval lance- point of bluish flint. Figure 13, plate lvii a, from Point Hope, and figure 12 of the same plate, from Kotzebue sound, are well-chipped flint jjoints. Figure 3, plate lvii a, from Kotzebue sound, is a haindsomely made flint point of dull greenish color. Figure 15, plate LViirt, from St Lawrence island, i|( a lancehead of bone, tipped with a thin, oval iron point which is rivleted in place by an iron pin; it has a deep slot at the upper end in which the wooden shalt is fitted, and has a hole Just below the slot through which passes •the rawhide cord which binds it to the shaft. Figure 42 (2), from Kotzebue sound, is one of the points used on the three-point bird spears. Figure 42 (8), obtained on St Lawrence island by Captain C. L. Hooper, is a rudely made ])ioiig for a bird spear- point. Figure 42 (7), from Cape Nome, is a bone point such as is used on the shafts of bird spears. Figure 42 (3), from Cape Nome, and figure 42 (4), from Cape Prince of Wales, represent points for bird spears. Figure 42 (0), from St Lawrence island, is a prong or spur for attachment to the side of the shaft of a bird spear. Figure 42 (5), from St Lawrence island, shows the bone points for a small, three- point bird aijil fish spear. In places where there is considerable whale and walrus hunting, each 150 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axx. 18 hunter has several laneepoints, which are kept wrapped in some kind of skin to protect them from injury. Figure 14, plate lviio, from Cape Darby, illustrates a wrapper of this kind for laneepoints, made from the skin of a swan's neck, with the feathers left on, and having a rawhide cord attached to one end as a fastening. The lanceheads are so wrapped that each has a fold of the skin between it and the next. On the shafts of the large hand spears various kinds of finger-rests are used. Sometimes a small pin of ivory, deerhorn, or bone is driven into the shaft and left projecting from half an inch to an inch, sloping slightly backward to aftbrd a firm rest for the finger. From Point Hope three finger-rests of deerhorn were obtained. Fig- ures 25 and 26, plate LVii6, illustrate these specimens, each of which has the head of a deer carved on the outer end. Figure 2i of the same Fig. 42— Spearpoints for birds and fish (},). plate shows the other example, which is carved to represent the head of an unknown animal, the eyes being formed by inlaid blue beads. The base of each of these finger-rests is in the form of a long, thm strip for lashing along the shaft of the spear. Figure 28, plate i^viih, from Sledge island, is a handsomely carved finger-rest, with the head of a white bear on the outer end and the base made concave to fit the spear shaft. There is a hole through the base to receive the cord whichfastens it in place. Figure 29, plate Lvirfe, from the same locality as the specimen last described, represents the head of a seal. Figure 27, plate LViift, from St Michael, represents the head and shoulders of a seal. The base has three holes to receive the cord. Figure 22, plate Lviift, from Unalaklit, has a triangular hole in the base for the cord. i ■aNX"^''i^'- - NELSON] FINGER-RESTS BIRD SPEARS 151 Figure 21, plate LVii?/, from Sledge island, is carved to represent the head of a seal. Figure 30, plate Lviii, from Kouigunugumut, is a round piece of ivory, with the interior excavated and crossed by a triangular hole for the passage of a cord. Figure 32, plate lvii&, from the lower Yukon, and figure 31 of the same plate, from Xuuivak island, are roughly triangular finger rests of a very common style. They have three holes along the base for the cord. Figure 23, plate lvii6, from Sledge, island, is a small, curved object, with a seal-head on the top and pierced with five small holes along the base for the attachment of cords by which it is lashed to the shaft of the spear. This devi(;e serves to hold a cord at a point where it is desired to pass it along the shaft in a diflerent direction without form- ing a knot. Ordinarily small pegs are inserted in the shafts of these spears for this purpose, but in some instances objects of this kind are used. In addition to the use of spears for killing seals, walrus, and white whales, the Eskimo have several forms of spears for capturing birds, which vary considerably in length and in other details. The commonest form consists of a round wooden shaft, varying from 3 feet 9 inches to 4 feet 3 inches in length, with three long, rounded, tapering points, barbed along the inner side with a series of serrations curved slightly outward and set in the form of a triangle in grooves around the lower end of the shaft. A strong sinew lashing, about one-third of the distance from their lower end, secures them to a small central knot on the end of the shaft, thence to their lower ends they are wrapped about with a braided sinew cord, which afterward passes spirally about the handle to the butt, where it is fastened. Plate lviii, after a photograph, illustrates the method of casting bird spears at St Michael. Figure 5, plate lix, from Anogogmut, is a typical example of these spears. The shaft is not feathered. Figure 6 of the same plate, from Cape Kome, has a shorter shaft, near the butt of which are inserted three feathers from the tail of a cormorant. Figure 2, from Norton sound, is a bird spear with three rudely made points of deerhorn, the serrations on which are made to turn to the sides instead of toward the center as is the usual custom. Figure 3, from St Michael, has tliree deerhorn points, with serrations on their outer sides. Figure 4, from Nunivak island, has three bone points, triangular in cross section, with serrations in pairs facing inward. From Nunivak island and the adjacent mainland some spears were obtained similar to the preceding, except that they were not feathered and have four points. Figure 1, plate lix, from Nulukhtulogumut, is a typical specimen of these four-point bird spears. It has serrations on the inner faces of the points. 152 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 The most curious bird spears are those witli a long point of bone, ivory, or deerhoru, serrated on one or both sides, inserted in the end of tlie wooden shaft. Set in the sliaft, at about one-third of the dis- tance from the butt, are three points of bone, ivory, or deerhorn, which are lashed in position with their sliarp points extending obliquely out- ward, forming a triangle. These spears are from 4 to C feet in length and fre(iuently have handsomely made points. Figure 8, plate Lix, from Nunivak island, is one of these spears with a bone ])oint triangular in cross section and 22 inches in length. It is grooved along all the angles, which have serrations along them in pairs, at intervals of an inch or more, with a series of coarsely made serrations near the butt. The points on the shaft are triangular in cross section and are barbed along their inner edges. This specimen is without feathering at the base of the shaft. Figure 9, plate lix, represents a spear obtained by Mr L. M. Turner at St Michael. It has three cormorant feathers on the shaft and three barbs, on two of which the serrations fiice outward and on the other they are inward. The point is of ivory, hexagonal in cross section, and barbed on two sides. Figure 7, plate lix, from St Michael, has an ivory point, roughly oval in cross section, with two sets of barbs on the edges; three barbs on the shaft are of deerhorn serrated along their inner edges. Figure 11, plate lix, from liazbinsky, is a large and heavily made bird spear, with a strong point of deerhorn and three heavy points on the shaft. Figure 10, plate lix, from St Michael, is another spear of this description, having the point set in a slit at the upper end of the wooden shaft and secured by a rawhide lashing. Three bone points are lashed to the shaft near the butt. Bird spears are used for capturing waterfowl, particularly during the late summer and fall, when the geese and ducks have molted their wing-feathers and are unable to tiy; also for catching the young of various water birds. The object of the three prongs on the shaft is to catch the bird by the neck or the wing when the point may have missed it. In using the spear but little attempt is made to strike the bird with the point, but it is thrown in such a manner that it will diverge slightly to one side as it approaches the quarry, so that the shaft will slide along the back or the neck and one or more of the points will catch the neck or the wing. THROWING STICKS The Eskimo are very exjiert in casting spears with the throwing stick. The small, light spears used in hunting seals are cast from 30 to oO yards with considerable accuracy and force. I have seen them practice by the hour throwing their spears at young waterfowl, and their accu- racy is remarkable. The birds sometimes would see the spear com- ing and dive just before it reached them, but almost Invariably the . Op. rr) lO U} 00 \ ch KELSON] THROWING STICKS 158 weapon struck in the middle of the circle on the water where the bird bad gone down. Bird spears are generally cast overhand, so as to strike from above, but if the birds are shy and dive quickly, the spears are cast with an underhand throw so that thej"- skim along the surface of the water. I have seen a hunter throwing a spear at waterfowl on the surface of a stream when small waves were running ; the spear would tip the crests of the waves, sending up little jets of spray, and yet continue its course for 20 or 25 yards. This method is very confus- ing to the birds, as they are frequently struck by the spear before tliey seem to be aware of its approach. When throwing spears into llocks of partly fledged ducks or geese that are bunched together, two or even three are sometimes impaled at once upon the triple points. Hunters in kaiaks are able to follow a seal or a diving waterfowl in calm weather by the lines of bubbles which rise from the swimming animal and mark its course beneath the surface. On one occasion I amused myself for nearly half a day with two Eskimo comi)anion8 in kaiaks by pursuing half-fledged eider ducks in the sea off the end of Stuart island. After a little instruction from my companions I was surxjrised to see how readily the birds could be followed, for when they came to the surface they were always within easy range of a cast of the spear. In using the throwing stick for casting the spear in a curve through the air by an overhand niotion, the throwing stick is held pointing backward; the end of the spear shaft is laid in the groove on its upper surface, resting against the ivory i)in or other crosspiece at the outer end; the shaft of the spear crosses the fingers and is held in position by grasping with the thumb and forefingers around" the throwing stick. The under side of the spear rests upon the extended end of the third finger, which lies along a groove in the throwing stick. This gives the outer end of the spear an upward cant, so that when it is cast it takes a slightly upward course. If the cast is to be made directly forward with a vertical motion of the hand, the spear is held with the groove upward; but in throwing the spear along the surface of the water the throwing stick is so held that the groove faces outwardly. In using throwing sticlcs that have pins set along the side for finger-rests, the spear is held in position by the thumb and second finger instead of with the thumb and first finger, as is usual with other throwing sticks. In the case of the three-peg throwing sticks the spear rests upon the tnrned-in ends of the first and third fingers, while the thumb and second finger hold it in position from above. , The throwing sticks used by the Unalit Eskimo are made of a length proportioned to the size of the person who is to use them; this is determined by the measurement of the forearm from the point of the right elbow to the tip of the outstretched forefinger. Throwing sticks used with the spears for hunting white whales are made longer by the width of the forefinger than those used for seal and bird spears. The ordinary length of (he seal spears uSed with throwing sticks by 154 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 the Unalit is calculated as three times the distance from the point of the maker's elbow to the tip of the outstretched forefinger, with the added width of the left thumb for each of the first two cubits and the width of the left hand added to the last. Seal hunters arc not so care- ful about the precise length of their throwing sticks as the" white whale hunters, who are extremely exact in their measurements. Figure 43 (6) represents a throwing stick, from Sledge island, with the tapering jioint deeply grooved and provided with an ivory pin against which the slightly excavated tip of the spear is intended to rest. The handle is rounded near the end and notched on the sides to receive the thumb and the little finger. Small, rudely made depressions in the upper surface serve for the ends of the second and third fingers, and a Fig. 43— Throwin g stick a ( JK hole running obliquely through is intended for the insertion of the forefinger. Figure 43 (1) shows a throwing stick, from Sabotnisky, with a peg of ivory in the groove on its upper surface to receive the butt of the spear. The handle has a hole on the underside to receive the forefinger, a wooden pin on the inside as a rest for the second finger, with a deep notch opposite for the thumb, and the upper surface of the slightly expanded butt has a flat depression to receive the ends of the last two fingers. Figure 43 (7), also from Sabotnisky, is similar in form to the last, with a wooden peg at the end of the groove to receive the butt of the S]>ear. Another wooden pin on the inside of the handle serves as a rest for the forefinger, while an excavation on the upper surface for the tips of the last three fingers is oval in form, with incisions representing a crane with long bill and legs, which is a totemic sign. ^ OT TlIS I tJNIVERSlTYJ NELSON] THROWING STICKS BOWS 155 Figure 43 (4), likewise from Sabotnisky, has two pins on the handle, against which rest the second and little fingers. The usual slot for the thumb and an aperture for the admission of the first finger are pro- vided. Figure 43 (5), from St Michael, has two pins, one of wood and the other of deerhorn, on the side of the handle as rests for the first and last fingers. Three hollows on the upper surface serve for the tips of the last three fingers. An upright wooden pin at the end of the groove in the handle is intended to retain the butt of the spear. Figure 43 (3), from Norton sound, has a hole on the underside for the forefinger, a shallow depression on the upper surface for receiving the tips of the fingers, and two bone pins on the side, against which the third and last fingers may rest. Figure 43 (9), from St JVIichael, has two wooden x)ins on the side and a depression on the upper surface as rests for the fingers, and a hole through the lower part for the forefinger, in front of which is cut the raven totem sign. Figure 43 (2), from Cape Vancouver, is a long, slender stick, with a nartow groove on one side of the handle for the thumb, two pins on the opposite side as rests for the first and second fingers, and a deep depression on the top for the ends of the last two fingers. Figure 43. (8), from Nunivak island, has two pins on one side of the handle as rests for the first and second fingers, a groove for the thumb, and a crossbar of ivory at the end of the groove in the upper surface, with a small spur at its side to retain the butt of the spear. Figure 43 (11), from Kushunuk, has three pegs along one side of the handle, and a groove on the upper surface as a rest for the fingers, while a rounded slot on the opposite side is intended for the thumb. Figure 43 (10), from Nunivak island, was obtained by Doctor Dall. It has three pegs on one side of the handle and three depressions on the upper surface as finger-rests and a deep slot to receive the thumb. Among the throwing sticks obtained by Doctor Dall on Nunivak island is one having two bone pegs on one side and made to use in the left hand. This is the only example of the kind in the collection. BOWS Bows and arrows were still in common use for shooting birds and fish in some districts of northwestern Alaska during my residence there. The Eskimo hunter's rule for making his bow was that it should be the length of his outstretched arms, measuring from the finger tips. The length of the ordinary hunting or war arrow was the distance from the tip of the extended left thumb to the inner end of the right collarbone, but if the man happened to be short armed he usually measured from the tip of the left forefinger instead of from the thumb. Among the Eskimo the making of sinew-backed bows attained a high degree of excellence, particularly in the district between lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, where bows are still used more than 156 THE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 elsewhere iu Alaska. These bows are of the kind generally iu use, but some are made Avithout backing. At St Michael, and thence to the northward, bows without sinew backing were common, but the majority of all bows in this region have a ba(;king of some kind. A large number of bows were collected which vary considerably in form.and style of backing. Figure 1, plate lx, illustrates a bow from Askinuk, narrowed and thickened in the middle, where it is grasped by the hand; thence it broadens in each direction for a short distance and then narrows toward the tips, where it is notched for the reception of the string. Figure 4, plate LX, from Nunivak island, is a bow with a heavy sinew cable along the back, with three sets of cross-lashings to hold it in position; the string is of twisted sinew. Figure 2, plate lx, from the lower Yukon, is backed with a single heavy cable of sinew, with two cross lashings near the ends and one iu thi^ middle. Figure 6, plate lx, is a bow from Askinuk, made with a single cable as backing, which is held in position by fine cross lashings; to force u\} and. tighten this backing two small wooden blocks, each notched on its upper side, are inserted on one side of the middle. Figure o, plate lx, is a broad, heavy bow from Tununuk, with a sin- gle cable along the back and a continuous lashing to hold it in position along the inner two-thirds of its length. The string is of sinew, witli a wrapping of spruce root on the middle to afford a good hold for the fingers. Figure 7, plate lx, from Nunivak island, has a single cable along the back, which is held in i)osition by a continuous cross-lashing along the middle third and one near each end; inserted under the cable in the center of the bow is a long strip of ivory, fiattened below and grooved above, to receive the cable, which is intended as a strength- ener'and to give elasticity. Figure 3, i)late lx, from Unalaklit, has two flattened cables of sinew along the back, with a thin layer of skin beneath them. They are held in position by a continuous cross-lashing of sinew, which extends along the entire length from within about six inches of the ends. Figure 8, plate lx, from Pastolik, has a single light cable along the back, with across-lashing extending about one-third of the length each way from the middle. This bow has a doable curve about one-fourth of the length inward from each end; along the bitck, in this curve, is laid a piece of deerhorn, which is flat on the lower side for resting upon the bow and grooved above to receive the cable. Figure 10, plate lx, represents a heavy bow obtained by Captain Hooper on St Lawrence island. It has a double curve about eight inches from each end and is backed with a series of braided sinew cords, the ends of which are wound around the bow and form cross- lashings for about eight inches from each end. Figure 11, plate lx, is a bow from Cape Vancouver, with a double NELSON] BOWS AND ARROWS 157 curve about fifteen inches from each end. It has a single cable of sinew as a backing, held in position by numerous cross lashings, and a long strip of ivory along the middle, under the backing, to give addi- tional strength. Figure 9, plate Lx, is a broad, thin bow from Eazbinsky, with a raw- hide string and a sinew cable as backing, fastened by numerous cross- lashings; there is a double curve about a quarter of the distance from each end, in which is set a short, triangular wooden pin, having a broad base, and notched above to receive the backing. A strip of wood is inserted under the backing as a strengthener. Figure 26, plate lxi &, from the lower Yukon, represents a strip of bone, flat on one side and grooved on the other. It is intended for use as a strengthener to be inserted under the sinew backing of a bow. Figure 2, plate li, is a small bow from St Michael, with a sinew backing, fastened by a number of cross lashings at short intervals. Attached to the bow by means of long sinew cords are two slender bone arrows about nine inches long, with barbed points. This imple- ment is used for killing rauskrats. The hunter, having found a hole of these animals in the ground, or at the entrance of their house, sits quietly down in front of it, with one of these arrows fitted on the string ready to shoot. The moment the head of the muskrat is seen at the mouth of the hole the arrow is loosed and the barb point entering the animal iireveuts its escape, while the cord that attaches the arrow to the bow enables the hunter to drag it out of its burrow. ARROWS , ARROWS FOE LARGE GAME Several forms of arrows are used in different parts of the Alaskan mainland and on the adjacent islands. Among those collected the most important were the arrows used for hunting large game and in war. These consist of a straight wooden shaft, sometimes terminating in a foreshaft of bone or of ivory, with a stone or metal point set in a slot in the end. Others have a long point of bone or ivory with a sharp edge, either notched or smooth. Figure 5, plate lxi a, represents an arrow from Cape Darby, having a straight bone tip, suboval in cross section, with three notches on one side, and shaped to a sharp point. The shaft has a notch for the bow- string, but it is not feathered. Figure 9, plate lxi a, shows a deer arrow from Big lake, having a long bone point with four notches along each side, and a narrow, flattened base inserted in the split end of the shaft and firmly lashed to it by a sinew cord. At the butt of the arrow are three feathers with one side of the plume removed, the tips being inserted in little slits near the end of the shaft, and the butts, which point forward, being held in position by a sinew lashing. This is the method commonly adopted on the" Alaskan mainland for attaching feathers to arrows. 158 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.antc. 18 Figure 1, plate lxi a, shows one of two arrows from St Lawrence island, both of which have long, pointed, triangular heads of ivorj^, the butts of which are set in slots in the wooden shafts and fastened by sinew lashings. The shafts have their fore ends triangular in continuation of the sliape of the i)oints, but toward the butt they become round, and are flattened as they approach the end. One of these shafts is broadly flattened as an aid to the feathering in guiding its flight; the other was feathered upon both sides of the flattened butt, but the feathering has been lost. Figures 4 and 6, i)late Lxia, are ivory- pointed arrows from St Law- rence island. Figure 2, plate lxi a, represents an arrow from St Lawrence island, having a long, triangular point of ivory with four notches on one side of the point without barbing, except on the hindmost, where the point is cut to a wedge-shape for insertion in a slot in the wooden shaft. This shaft has two feathers from a cormorant tail, fastened in the usual manner. Figure 8, plate lxia, shows an arrow obtained on Kunivak island by Doctor Ball. It has a long bone point with three notches on the side and a groove running along their bases, thus marking the arrow as belonging to a man of the wolf totem. The point is inserted in a hole in tlie shaft, which is wound with sinew lashing; it has three feathers near the butt, held in position by a sinew cord. Figure 3, plate LXirt, shows an arrow from St Lawrence island, with a long, flattened bone point with a strong barb on one surface and grooved along the other. . There are two tail-feathers of a cormorant on the flattened sides of the shaft near the butt. Figure 7, plate lxi a, shows an arrow obtained at St Michael bj' Mr L. M. Turner. The point is of bone, triangular in cross-section, but .becoming round near the butt, where it is inserted in the shaft and held in jflace by a sinew lashing. The butt of the shaft is not feathered. Figure 10, i)late lxi a, represents an arrow obtained by Doctor Dall from Nunivak island; it has a foreshaft of bone, is suboval in cross- section, with a single strong notch and barb on one side and a thin, triangular tip of iron inserted in a notch at the top. It has three halves of feathers at equal intervals around the butt, fastened in the usual manner. Figure 11, plate lxia, from St Lawrence island, has a bone fore- shaft in which a triangular point is inserted, and two cormorant feathers near the butt of the shaft. Figure 12, plate lxi«, from St Lawrence island, has a bone fore- shaft set on the shaft in an unusual manner. The foreshaft has a wedge-shape slot in which the wooden shaft is inserted, and an iron point is fixed in a slot in the other end of the foreshaft. Both point and foreshaft are held in position by wooden rivets, and a sinew lash- ing is wound around the junction of the foreshaft and shaft to bind them securely in place. BUREAU Op AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXl -rm ^"""'"m wttmmmm a— ARROWS FOR LARGE GAME AND FOR WAR (Tnree-twentiethsj Ci-ARROW POINTS, WRIST GUARDS, AND STRENGTHENERS FOR BOWS AND QUIVERS ( About one-sixlh ) \ (■—BIRD ARROWS AND QUIVER (Three-twentieths) HUNTING AND WAR IMPLEMENTS NELSON] ARROWS 159 Amoug tbe arrowpoiuts without shafts, obtained on St Lawrence island, are several of peculiar form. Among these the specimens shown in figures 12, U, and 15, plate lxi6, dififer most from those already described. They are all made from bone. Figure 11, plate LXi 6, from Kowak river, is a double-notch arrow- point of deerhorn, and figure 10 of the same plate is a single-notch ivory point from Nubviukhchugaluk. Figure 8, plate lxi6, from the lower Yukon, is a bone foreshaft with a single notch on one side and with a small slate point. Figure 9, plate lxi6, from Point Hope, is a bone foreshaft with a single deep notch and a well-made tip of chipped flint. Figure 6, plate lxi&, from Razbinsky, is a triangular slate point. Figure 7, plate lxi&, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a triangular point of hard, green stone. Figure 22, plate LXift, is a beautifully chipped flint arrowhead from Point Hope. Figure 21, plate LXi6, is a flint point from Unalaklit. Figures 20, 23, plate Lxii, are flint points from Hotham inlet. Figure 24, plate lxi&, from Shaktolik; figure 25 of the same plate, from Nubviukhchugaluk, and figure 5 of the plate, from St Michael, illustrate well made flint points. Figure 13, plate LXi6, is an iron point, from St Lawrence island, resembling some of the bone points in form. BIRD ARROWS Arrows with blunt heads of various patterns are used for killing birds. Figure 2, plate Lxic, is a featherless arrow from St Lawrence island, with a rounded, conical head of ivory that has a hole in the base for the insertion of the shaft. Figure 3, plate lxic, is an arrow from Cape Darby, with a bone head that terminates in a knob-shape enlargement with a series of notches around the edge, forming a crenelated pattern. Figure 4, plate lxic, is an arrow from Pastolik, with a long bone head, which is excavated and crossed by two slots which form four points ranged in a circle around the edge. The butt has two feathers. Figure 1, plate lxic, is an arrow from Cape Vancouver, with a round head of ivory terminating in a conical point. Just back of the head the shaft is crossed by two bone pins which are passed through it at right angles, with the points projecting. . The butt has three feathers which are bound on with a strip of whalebone. Figure 5, plate lxic, is a boy's bird arrow from Kigiktauik, with a knob-like head of bone which has four points around its surface. The tapering end of the shaft is inserted in a hole at the base of the head. On the butt are two feathers. Figure 6, plate lxic, shows an arrow, from Kigiktauik, with a double- pointed bone head on which the raven totem sign is engraved. 160 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. AN.V. 18 Figure 7, plate LXie, illustrates an arrow from the lower Yukon, with a knoblike bone head notched around its edge and terminating in a small point in the center. At the base of the shaft are three feathers of the gerfalcon, fastened by sinew wrappings. FISH ARROWS In addition to the arrows used for killing birds and mammals, the Eskimo have others for shooting fish, which vary considerably in the shape of the heads. Figure 44 (3) represents one of these fish arrows from Razbinsky. It has a wooden shaft, with three feather vanes at the butt and a single barbed point of bone in- serted in the split end of the shaft and held in position by sinew lashing. Figure 44 (4, 5) are fish arrows from Xunivak island, each having a single, long point with a series of barbs along the inside and a short supplementary barb on the oppo- site side of the shaft. The base is set in a slot in the shaft and held in place by sinew lashings. At J 1 9 . I f I I the butt are two feathers. Figure 44 (0) shows a fish arrow, from the lower Yukon, with two barbs of unequal length, notched along their outer edges, set into the head of the shaft with their backs nearly touching, and held in posi- tion by a strong lashing. At the butt of the shaft are three feath- ers, the ends of which are inserted and fastened by sinew lashings. Figure 44 (7) shows a fish arrow, from Xunivak island, somewhat similar to the preceding specimen, having two points of bone, barbed along their outer surfaces and held in position by sinew lashings. The butt has three feather vanes. Figure 44 (8) illustrates another double-pointed fish arrow, from Kazbinsky, with barbs along the inner faces of the points. Figure 44 (9) shows a fish arrow, from Il^orton sound, which has three bone points with a series of barbs along the inner face of each; the long, pointed lower ends are inserted in deej) grooves in the sides of the Fig. 44— Fish arrows (Jg). NELSON] ARROWS, QUIVERS, AND WRIST- GUARDS 161 shaft, where tbey are fastened by sinew lashings. At .the base are three feathers. Figure 44 (10) represents a handsomely made triple point fish arrow from Cape Vancouver, with the points serrated as in the preceding specimen and held in position by an ivory ferule slipped over them. At the base of the shaft are three tail-feathers of a cormorant. They are notched along their inner vanes and bound in place by a sinew cord at their tips and a strip of whalebone about the lower ends. Figure 44 (2) shows a fish arrow from Cape Vancouver ; it has a bone head, provided with a detachable barbed point fastened to the shaft by a cord. Figure 44 (1) shows a fish arrow from the Yukon mouth, having a detachable point, with a long sinew cord, which is divided on its inner half and attached at two widely separated points to the shaft. When a fish is struck and the point freed, the shaft floats and forms a drag to impede its escape. ARROWPOINTS Figure 2, plate lxi&, is a bone arrowhead from Sabotnisky, the tip of which is notched to form four points. The base forms a wedge- shape point for insertion in the shaft. Figure 17, plate i,xi6, from Kigiktauik, is a bone point beveled down to form five faces. Figure 1, plate LXi&, from Nunivak island, is a conical point of wood having two short, iron crossbars inserted at right angles through the head. The inner end is cut down to a wedge-shape point for insertion in the shaft. Figures 3 and 18, plate LXlft, show conical i)oiut8 of ivory from St Lawrence island. Their bases are excavated, with a round hole for receiving the points of the shafts. Figure 16, plate Lxii, from Nunivak island, is of ivory, with the base excavated to receive the shaft. The conical point is surrounded by rounded auxiliary points, formed by incisions along the sides, making a crenelated pattern. QUIVERS Figure 8, plate lxic, represents a fish-skin quiver from the lower Yukon. It has a cord attached at the upper edge and at another point about midway on one side. Figure 27, plate lxi?>, shows a long ivory rod which was obtained at St Michael by Mr Turner; it is intended for insertion along the side of a quiver to stiffen it It is crescentic in cross section and large at one end, which terminates in the figure of a wolf's head. The back of the rod has three holes for the passage of a lashing. WRIST-GUARDS Figure 4, plate l,xi6, shows a bone wrist-guard from St Michael, made to wear upon the left wrist to prevent the bowstring from striking it. 18 ETH 11 162 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 ]t is bound on by a strip of rawhide, which is passed through two holes on one side and one upon the other. Figure 19, plate lxiZ>, illustrates a bone wrist-guard from Kowak river, with a single hole on one side for the attachment of a cord. Wrist- guards are all made crescentic in cross section, in order to fit the curve of the wrist. BOXES FOR ARROW- AND SPEAR POINTS The Eskimo store and carry the thin, flat points for arrows, spears, and lances in small wooden boxes, in the manufacture of which they display considerable ingenuity. A box of this kind (number 36248), from Kushunuk, is flattened and square in outline and made from a single piece of wood; the excavated interior is shallow; it is grooved just below the upper edge to receive the sliding cover, which has a notch on the top near one end for a thumb-rest in drawing it out. On two corners of the box a rawhide loop is fastened for hanging it to the belt or for attaching it to any other object. Figure 10, plate lxii, is a long, flattened box from Cape IS^ome. It is less than an inch in height, is 7^ inches long, and has a sliding cover. The sides and top are ornamented with a variety of incised cross-line patterns. Figure 5, plate lxii, is a long, thin box from Nunivak island, slightly convex above and below, pointed oval at one end and truncated at the other. It has a long, narrow coverj fitting like a stopper and resting at each end on a sunken ledge, and a thumb-piece for raising it projects at the rear. On the upper side of the front end of the box are incised the outlines of the mouth, nostrils, and eyes of some animal. FiguriB 1, plate lxii, from Pikmiktalik, is a rudely oval box, grooved around the sides and along the bottom, but otherwise is not ornamented. Figure 4, plate lxii, represents a box, from Cape jSTome, fashioned in the form of a fish known as the losh. The eyes are formed by small ivory pegs with the centers excavated for the pupils; the gill openings are marked by incised crescentic lines; the mouth is incised, and the tail is represented as doubled and lying forward midway along the body. It has a long, oval, stopper-like cover resting on a sunken ledge at each end. Figure 6, plate lxii, shows a box, from Askinuk, in the shape of a seal. The eyes and the mouth are incised and the front flippers are in relief; the cover is a long-pointed oval in outline and tits into the side, thus differing from the ordinary method of fitting it either in the upper or the under surface. Figure 3, plate lxii, illustrates a box, from Norton sound, represent- ing a seal in flattened outline. The head is well made, the eyes and nostrils being formed by inlaid pieces of ivory. The cover represents another seal, the projecting head and neck forming the thumb piece for raising it. The eyes and the nostrils are marked by ivory pegs. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXII BOXES FOR ARROWPOINTS AND PAINTS (one-fifth) NELSON] ^ PROJECTILE-POINT BOXES — FIREARMS 163 A box (number C4220) from tbe Diomede islands represents a rude, beavily-made figure of a right whale cut from a piece of wood; the mouth aud blowholes are incised; the lower surface of the body is excavated, forming a somewhat rounded, conical orifice on which fits a stopper-like cover in the shape of a seal; this is held in place by means of a rawhide cord passing through a hole in the under surface of the whale, thence through two holes in the shoulders of the seal, and is fastened on the under surface. Toward the rear of the seal's back a loop of cord is attached, the end of which passes through a hole in the tail of the whale and through which the cord is passed for fasten- ing. This box is a kind of fetich in which are kept the small spear- and lance-points used in killing whales. A box (number 63268) exactly like the preceding was obtained on St Lawrence island. Figure 2, plate lxii, shows a flattened oval box, from Cape Nome, representing a seal with a smaller one on its back ; the latter forms a long, pointed, oval cover; the eyes of the larger seal are indicated by blue beads. The top of the box is crossed by a series of parallel lines extending from the middle diagonally backward toward the border. FIREARMS Although primitive forms of weapons are still largely used, guns are common everywhere among the Eskimo. The guns obtained by them during the early period of their contact with the Eussians 'were extremely clumsy, and the Russians brought with them the forked supports for these weapons which they were accustomed to use in Siberia. In some of the more retired x)art8 of the country between the lower Yukon and the Kuskokwim these supports still exist, as the poor quality of the guns and the scarcity of ammunitioi^ render its aid nec- essary in hunting to secure a fair degree of accuracy and success. Figure 31, plate lxiii, illustrates one of these forked supports, from Chalitmut, having two legs tipped with ivory points and a crossbar of ivory to hold them in position. Along each of the three outer faces of these legs is a groove in which small, round, ivory pegs are set at inter- vals; at the upper end the support has a rounded head in which is a deep slot; through the sides is a hole in which fits an ivory pin, fas- tened by a rawhide cord. A deerhorn disk is fitted into the slot and is held in place by a pin; it has a long, flattened projection on one side which is grooved to receive the gun barrel and has three holes for the lashings by which it was secured; as this disk moved freely on the pin the support folded down parallel to the gunstock when being carried, and could be readily set in position when needed. Figure 24, plate lxiii, from Kigiktauik; figure 25 of the same plate, from Chalitmut; and figure 26, from Kushunuk, illustrate examples of the pieces of deerhorn intended for securing the lower side of the gun barrel to connect the forked rest with the gun. 164 THE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT (ethann. 18 Figure 8, plate lxiii, represents a pair of bullet molds, froui Clialit- nuit, made from two small blocks of slate neatly hollowed out ami set in wooden blocks, united by pins and corre.sjxnidinff holes so that the faces of the molds are broujjfbt squarely together; there is a conical hole at tlie top by means of which lead can be poured into the mold. Figure 10, plate lxiii, represents a bullet starter, from Cape Van- couver, for use in muxzle-loadiug guns; it is made of wood and has a bone handle. Figure 15, plate lxiii, shows another bullet starter made entirely of bone, which was obtained at Anogogmut. Nearly all the guns in use at present among tlie Eskimo are muzzle- loaders, and the ingenuity of the natives is displayed in the many lorms of cap boxes, powder chargers, and flasks made by them. A common style of cap bo\ is made of wood, flattened and rectangu- lar in shai)e, with a sliding cover. Some of these are jjlain, others have their surfaces cut into a variety of i)atterus. Figure 28, plate lxiii, from Fastolik; figure 30 of the same plate, from Cape Nome; and figure 29, from Sledge island, are exami>Ies of this style of box. Other small wooden cap boxes are rounded in cross section, broadest at the base, and tapering toward the top, where they are truncated and fitted with a wooden stoi)per. Figure 17, plate lxiii, illnstiates one of these boxes, obtained at Cape Vancouver. If lias a s<'rie>< of grooves around the sides. Figure 27, plate lxiii, froin Kushunuk, is a round sided box, shaped like a truncated cone, with a separate piece fitted in the bottom. Fig- ure 0 of the same plate, from Kowak river, is another tapering box of this kind, with the top turned out to form a lip, under which is fas- tened a rawhide cord for attaching the box to the hunting bag. Another curious style of box, made to contain a few caps in each end, illustrated in figure 1, plate lxiii, was obtained at St Michael. It is a long, cyliudqcal box, largest in the middle and tapering toward both ends, which are truncated. It consists of two pieces, excavated, neatly fitted together, and fastened by sinew cords. Extending cross- wise through the middle is a wootlen pin for the attachment of the cord whicli fastens the box to tlie hunting bag. A little wooden 8toi)per is inserted in each end. Other cap boxes are made of ivory, cat into various forms, with a stopper in one end and the other closed by a piece of wood which is held in position by rivets. Figure 4, plate lxiii, from Cape Nome; figure 5 of the same plate, from Norton sound ; figure 7, from Nubviuk- chugaluk; and figure 2, from Kaviak peninsula, illustrate specimens of these boxes. Powder chargers are even more varied in form, and show more inge- nuity in design than the cap boxes. Figure 3, plate lxiii, is a small charger, made of bone, with a long, round, wooden cap box attached to it by a sinew cord. It was obtained at Norton bay. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXIII OBJECTS USED WITH GUNS AND IN HUNTING one-fifth) 0» Tit J. NBL80N] POWDER CHARGERS 165 Figure 14, plate lxiii, represents a rounded bone charger from Hotbam inlet. It has an ornamental device of circles and dots and the raven totem etched upon its surface. Figure 18, plate lxiii, from Unalaklit, has its lower end carved into the form of a human head. Figure 12, plate lxiii, from Cape Vancouver, represents a cormo- rant's head. Figure 11, plate lxiii, from Cape Vancouver, represents the head of a skua- gull. Figure 9, plate lxiii, from Sledge island, is a r.ylindrical ivory charger with a knob on the lower end. Figure 13, plate lxiii, from St Lawrence island, is rounded with a small, spout-like projection on the rim. Figure 10, plate lxiii, from Cape Vancouver, represents a falcon's head. Figure 20, plate lxiii, from Sledge island, is a rounded bone charger with a wooden stopper; it is intended for carrying a charge of powder ready for putting in the gun when needed. Figure 19, plate lxiii, represents a powder flask obtained at Kotze- bue sound; it is made from a section of deerhorn, excavated and fitted with a wooden stopper at each end; one of these is perforated and a small plug of wood inserted, by removing which an inlet is formed for the powder. A charger of deerhorn is attached to the flask by a sinew cord. Figure 23, plate lxiii, from Cape Vancouver, is a wooden powder flask in the form of a sea parrot's head. The small end at the neck is bound together with sinew lashings, and a rounded stopper is fitted in the hole. Figure 22, plate lxiii, from Nulukhtulogumut, shows a small, leather- covered flask with an ivory mouthpiece in which a wooden stopper is fitted; to this is attached an ivory charger in the shape of a cormorant's head. With this charger is a small ivory disk, having a conical perfora- tion in the center, which is intended to be placed over the nipple of the gun for priming it. The form of both of the preceding flasks is an imitation of those •sold by the fur traders. Figure 21, plate lxiii, from Sledge island, is a wooden powder flask with the sides carved in a twining pattern. Figure 32, plate lxiii, from Norton bay, is a wooden flask fitted at each end with an ivory cover and having an iron tip at the nozzle. The Eskimo of Plover bay on the Siberian shore and on St Lawrence island, as well as those along the shores of Bering strait and thence up the Alaskan coast to Point Barrow, are successful hunters of the right whale; for this purpose the old-fashioned barbed spear is the weapon ordinarily used, but it is being superceded by firearms wherever the people have been able to obtain them. At Plover bay the natives had 166 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.13 a bomb gun which they had obtained from some whaler. While on a summer cruise on a whaling ship some of the men had learned the use of this gun and they took the earliest opportunity to obtain one; in the fall it was planted on the ice near the entrance to the bay, and as the whales swam slowly along the narrow lead that remained open in midchanuel the bomb lances were fired into them without any lines attached. This was always done while the whales were heading up the bay, so that they might swim as far as possible toward the head of the bay and die under the ice; a few days later the gases would inflate their bodies to such an ex^nt that the carcasses would burst through the ice and indicate their position to the people, who would at once cut them up, using. the blubber for food and keeping the whalebone to be traded to the whalers in the spring. The people at Point Barrow have also used a whaling gun for some time. The walrus is found on many jmrts of the coast, but is rarely seen near St Michael; about Nunivak island and the coast of the adjacent mainland it is caught during fall and spring. ^Near the mouth of the Kuskokwim the hunters endeavor to surprise herds of walrus in the shallow bays along the coast. When they succeed, they form a line of kaiaks between the animals and the sea, and by shouting and striking the sides of the kaiaks with their paddles, so alarm them that they are driven ashore, where they are easily killed. In the fall of 1879 thirty of these animals were captured by a drive of this kind just south of Cape Vancouver. This method, however, can be employed only where the water is very shallow, so that the walrus can not escape by diving and passing beneath the kaiaks. Although spears and lances are still used in ^alrus hunting, as fire- arms become more plentiful among the natives many of these ani- mals are shot with rifles, which are used in addition to the old-style weapons for killing the beluga or white whale. This animal is some- times stranded at low water and is then easily killed. These whales are treated with great respect by the Eskimo, and when one is taken certain ceremonies must be observed to avoid offending it. At St Michael I saw the hunters haul a recently killed beluga ashore, and before it was completely dragged out of the water one of them poured some urine in its mouth and then addressed several sentences to its shade in propitiation for having killed it. At Point Hope one was killed during the visit of the revenue cutter Gorwin to that place in the summer of 1881, and while it was being drawn ashore the people gathered on the beach and sang a song of welcome such as is used in the kashim during certain dances. HUNTING BAGS AND HELMETS Hunting bags are made in various forms and are worn by a strap over the shoulders; in them the hunters carry their powder, bullets, cap boxes, and other small articles needed in the chase. Bags of this kind made from the skins of wolves' heads are highly prized. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXIV HUNTING HELMETS, VISORS, AND SNOW GOGGLES g' Vtr TUB f "CTNIVERSIT^ NELSON] HUNTING BAG8 AND HELMETS 167 Figure 33, plate lxiii, from St Michael, is such a bag made from the skins of two wolves' heads, bound around the edge with red flan- nel and lined with white cotton. A shoulder strap made of white cotton and ornamented with stitching of red worsted is attached to it. At St Michael I obtained a long, slender hunting bag (number 38458) made of alternating strips of white and brown deerskin, with a fringe of the same cut in little strips around the lower end. It is bordered above by a trimming of skin from a loon's throat, which is succeeded by ornamental bands of deerskin and a strip of wolverine fur. The people of the seacoast between Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers use conical wooden helmets to protect their eyes from the glare of the sun when hunting at sea; these are ornamented with carved ivory images or are painted with various devices. At Kushunuk were seen many of these hats which were painted white, on which were various phallic pictures in red; these pictures had a certain significance connected with the religious beliefs of the people, which I failed to ascertain. The same idea was shown in a phallic picture on a pair of paddles obtained at this village, each of the two having one-half of the picture uj)on it, so that it was completed by Joining them at their edges. From the mouth of the Yukon northward, wooden visors are used to shade the eyes; these are somewhat similar in shape to the helmets but they lack the conical top; the forepieces of the visors are often ornamented with ivory carvings and have at the back a plume of feathers from the tails of old squaw ducks. Figure 22, plate lxiv, represents «oue of these conical helmets from Kushunuk. It has a strip of deerhorn lashed around the base at the rear to hold the bent ends in position. On both sides are fastened, by sinew cord passed through holes, wing-like pieces of ivory, carved with open-work pattern and ornamented with groups of concentric circles, with a central hole in each. On the middle of the front are two carved walrus heads of ivory, and on each side of these are two ivory strips representing heads of gulls. The outer surface of this helmet is painted slate color splashed with white. Another helmet, from Kaialigamut (figure 20, plate lxiv), is without ivory ornaments on the front. It is held together at the back by a strip of deerhorn pierced with holes, through which pass lashings of cord; the edges, where they are held together in the rear, are fastened together with spruce-root lashings. The outer surface is painted white and decorated with red figures; bordering grooves on the top and bottom are also red. The visors worn by the people of Norton sound and the lower Yukon are usually plain, but sometimes are made to represent the head of some animal. They consist of a fillet of wood passing around the back of the head, with the front carried out to form a long, rounded fore- piece. Figure 21, plate lxiv, illustrates one of these unornamented visors, 168 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethann.iS wliicli was obtained at Eazbinsky. It has a groove around the edge and a deep, broad groove down the front; at the rear the overlapping ends are lashed together with willow bark. The specimen from St Michael, shown in plate LXiv, 15, is more heavily made. On the middle of the front is a groove. The front is carried out to represent the head of a pike, with a mouth formed by a deeply incised groove, in which are set numerous small reindeer teeth; two deep holes represent the nostrils, and two amber-colored beads are inlaid for eyes. One side of the visor is black, the other side is not colored. Visors from the shore of Korton sound are sometimes ornamented with ivory figures lashed to their sides and front, like the helmets from south of the Yukon mouth. Figure 18, plate lxiv, illustrates a visor of this kind, which has a wing-like piece oii each side and the head of a gull in front; the median ridge is ornamented with the ivory images of two walrus heads. Tlie back of the visor has an oval ring of shavings projecting upward and stuck full of feathers from the tails of cormorants and old wife ducks. Figure 2, plate lxiv, from Chalitmut; figure 19 of the same plate, from Norton bay; and figure 17, from Sledge island, represent visors made from pieces of wood, with a rawhide strip or cord attached on each side for passing over the back of the head. The first specimen mentioned is painted black on both sides and has a series of ivory pegs and white beads inlaid in two rows on the upper surface. The visor shown in plate lxiv, 19, has a shallow groove, painted red, around the upper edge; inside of this is a deep, narrow groove, which, with the remainder of the visor, is uncolored. The third specimen (plate lxiv, 17) has the lower part of the visor, a band around the edge, and a long, oval groove down the front, painted black. A shallow groove, extending around the borders above and below inside the black line, is colored red. The ornamentation of helmets with ivory carvings varies but little in the several localities, L'sually there is a long, flat, wing-shape piece on each side and the head of a bird in front ; the middle is occupied by carvings of walrus heads or figures of other animals. The following specimens, shown in figure 45, illustrate some of the ornaments : Number 8 represents one of the wing-shape pieces from Shaktolik, with open-work pattern and a series of circles and dots. Number 7 shows one of the ivory strips obtained at Kushunuk ; it is carved to represent the head of a cormorant. Another, from Askinuk (number 6), represents the head of a gull. A specimen from St Michael (num- ber 5) is an ivory walrus head for the front of a helmet. Another, from Kushunuk (number 3), represents a land otter, the eyes of which are represented by inlaid blue beads, and similar beads are inlaid in the centers of circles etched along the back. A thin band of deerhorn from the lower Yukon (number 2) is flattened on one side and beveled KELSON] HELMET ORNAMENTS SNOW GOGGLES 169 to three faces on the other; it is pierced with holes, in pairs, to receive the lashings, with which it is bound on the back of a helmet to hold the bent ends of the wood in position. A walrus head, cut from ivory, from Kushunuk (Museum number 38719), is for ornamenting the front of a hunting- helmet. A similar ornament from Anogogmut (number 1) represents the flattened image of a seal, with eyes formed by inlaid blue beads. Another of these ornaments (number 4), from the lower Yukon, is a flattened, conventionalized image of a wolf. Along the Fio. 45— Tvory omameTits for hunting helmets (i). back and the sides it is ornamented with etched lines and a series of three pairs of concentric circles, each having a wooden peg inserted in a central hole. SNOW GOGGLES To preserve the eyes from the glare of the sun on the snow in the spring and thus prevent snow blindness, goggles are in general use among the Eskimo. They vary considerably, according to locality, but the specimens illustrated give the principal variations in form among those collected. Figure 5, plate LXiv, represents a flattened, funnel shape specimen of these goggles, obtained from the lower Yukon. The projecting front extends out both above and below in a gradual slope to the edges 170 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BEKING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 of a single broad slit, the upper border slightly overhangiug the lower. They have a rounded notch for fitting over the nose, and are held in position by a cord which passes over the back of the head. A speci- men from Point Hope, shown in plate LXiv, 11, Is somewhat similar to the preceding, except that the slit is smaller and the upper front bor- der projects farther beyond the lower. Another i>air from the Lower Yukon (plate Lxiv, 4) have two narrow slits divided in the middle by a septum. A notch is cut on the inner surface for the nose, and the front is carved in slight relief to represent a human face, with the nose between the eye slits. The forehead pro- jects at the eyebrows to form a visor-like edge. The inside and top of the goggles are i)ainted black and the front red. A pair from Norton sound (figure 0, plate lxiv) have two slits, a notch for the nose resting against a strong septum in the middle, and a visor-like projection along the top in front. Tbe goggles from Sabot- nisky (figure 13, i:)late lxia^) have a notch for the nose and two flat- tened eye slits divided by a rudely made septum. The top is grooved to represent hair, and a nose is shown between the slits, giving them a mask-like appearance. They are painted red in front, but are not colored behind. Figure 8, plate lxiv, represents spectacle-shape goggles from Cape Darby, with two narrow eye slits and a visor-like projection in front. There is a deep groove for the nose and the outline is narrowed in the middle, so that the eyepieces are suboval in shape. Another pair (figure 1, plate lxiv), from Norton bay, are still more like spectacles than the preceding, being greatly narrowed in the mid- dle between the two slits for the eyes. The front slopes gently to the borders of the slits and there is no visor. Another example of neatly made goggles (figure 9, plate lxiv), also obtained at Norton bay, are narrowed in the middle with two narrow slits and a visor in front. The upper borders of the eyepieces are deeply notched to permit the circulation of air about tbe eyes. Tbe pair shown in figure 3, plate lxiv, are also from Norton bay. They consist of two suboval eyepieces, held together by two sinew cords which are strung with beads. Each of these eyepieces has a long, narrow eye slit. Figure 14, plate lxiv, represents spectacle- shape goggles from Kushunuk; they are fashioned to extend forward, surrounding the large, oval eyeholes in a flattened, tubular form ; the iusides of the eye- holes are painted black, as is the upper portion of the outside, with the exception of the borders of the eyeholes which are red. A specimen from St Lawrence island, figure 12, plate lxiv, consists of a trough- shape piece of wood, concave within and convex on the outside; it is somewhat crescentic in form, with a notch on the lower side for the nose; the eyeholes are straight within against the wooden crossbar or septum which divides them, and their outer edges are oval; they are large, and without any arrangement for shading them. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXV KNIFE SHARPENER AND DAGGER OF NEPHRITE, WITH SHEATH (ONE-half) V^ B R A /Tp* or THK UNIVERSITY »=LsoN] SNOW GOGGLES — KNIVES 171 A pair of goggles (figure 10, plate lxiv) obtained at Port Clarence by Doctor T. H. Bean, are made from three pieces of wood; both the upper and lower pieces are grooved to admit the insertion of a fragment of common window glass in each oval eyehole; they are lashed together with whalebone cord passed through holes; a projecting visor over- hangs the front; inside a bar of wood is lashed, which is notched on each side over the eye to permit circulation of air. A clumsily made pair from the Diomede islands (figure 7, plate LXiv) consist of two pieces of canvas sewed together; eyeholes are cut in the middle of each, in which are inserted pieces of window glass; the can- vas is backed by a rudely formed wooden frameworii, rather quadrate in outline. These are the only goggles of this kind that were seen. Figure 10, plate lxiv, represents a pair of wooden goggles from Nor- ton sound; they are notched for the nose, and project at the sides as long, oval ends reaching to the temples; the tubular front has two large, oval holes, and a strip of rawhide, rounded in front, is pegged to the upper surface to form a visor. HUNTING AND SKINNING KNIVES The stone knives formerly in universal use among the Eskimo have been almost entirely displaced by the ordinary butcher knives sold by the traders. Some of these old-fashioned flint knives were procured at Hotham inlet, and were in actual use when obtained; they are illus- trated in plate xlvii, figures 2, 3. They consist of leaf-shape, chipped flint blades, set in short wooden handles split at the lower end to receive the blade which is held in place by a wrapping of rawhide or sinew cord, or (as in figure 3) by a lashing of willow root. From the northern end of Norton sound a beautiful knife (plate lxv, 3) was obtained. The narrow, leaf shape blade of nephrite is 8^ inches in length and 2^ inches wide at its broadest part, and is slightly convex on one side; the other side is slightly grooved near each edge and has a broad, slightly elevated, flat ridge runuiug down the center to near the point; it is double-edged and brought to a slightly rounded point. The handle is of ivory, oval in cross section, 3^ inches in length ; the blade is set in a slot, the sides of which overlap about 2 inches, through which ivory pegs are inserted to hold it in place. In the handle are seven holes, through which a rawhide cord is wound and crossed to afford a firm grip for the hand. The wooden sheath (plate lxv, 2) follows the outline of the knife and extends halfway up the handle; it is in two parts, which are fastened together by thin strips of whalebone passed through holes in the edges. Across one side of the sheath, near the butt, are two small, parallel grooves which form the private mark of the owner. This specimen, from its large size and the beauty and regu- larity of its finish, is probably unique. It was purchased at Nubviukh- chugaluk from a Kaviak Eskimo who said that it had been an heirloom in his family for many generations; although now of no practical utility 172 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 he prized it very much from its association, and it was only after two years of careful effort that I succeeded in obtaining it by paying what he considered a large price. Other jade knives, somewhat similar to this but much smaller and with less perfect blades, were also seen. Knives are usually worn by the Eskimo in a sheath strapped to the outside of the right thigh, just below the hip, so that the handle may readily be grasped ; some of the men, however, have the sheath sus- pended from the waist belt. DRAG HANDLES Drag handles, attached to a stout permanent loop of sealskin cord, are used for hauling dead seals or other heavy weights over the snow or ice. They are made of wood, bone, ivory, or deerhorn, carved in a variety of forms, considerable ingenuity being exercised in adapting the designs to the shape of the handle and to the purpose for which it is to be used. Plate Lxvi, 16, from Kushunuk, is a cylindrical wooden handle, grooved around the middle for receiving the loop. Plate Lxvi, 4, from St Michael, is an ivory handle, in the form of a crossbar, with the head of a white bear carved r""***^ on each end and a square slot crosswise through s,^ the middle for receiving the cord. \ <^li.ljyjTr|^ Plate Lxvi, 18, from Cape Darby, represents \Vii^^ _ .^^'s3^y^ ly^Q ^vhite whales lashed together on their ven- FKK46l'cordhan.iieofivory(j). ^^^1 surfaccs and picrccd throughthc middle for receiving the ends of tlie cords, which project through their mouths and form a loop on that end. The other ends of the whales terminate in a ring from which are suspended six links of ivory; to the last link of one of these chains is suspended a small carving in the form of a whale's tail. Plate LXVI, 14, shows a handle, from Sledge island, in the form of a white bear. A cord passes through the lower surface. A rounded block, carved in the form of two seals lying face to face, with their fore-flippers along their muzzles, is illustrated in plate lxvi, 1. It has two holes pierced in one end which join and issue as a single hole at the other end. It was obtained at Unalaklit. Plate lxvi, 15, represents a handle, from Sledge island, in the shape of a white whale, which is ijierced transversely for the cord. Figure 46 shows an ivory cord handle from Sledge island. It is an extremely artistic carving, representing the head of a white bear with a small seal in its mouth. On the lower surface of the head is a figure, in relief, of another seal. Plate lxvi, 19, shows another elaborate drag handle from Cape Darby. The central portion consists of a piece of ivory, pierced by two round holes, and a third one forming a slot through which is passed the cord for the loop. From one of these rings is hung, as a link, the tail of a whale, and from the other two chains, each consisting of eight links, "ToBAHy OY TB* »£^CALlFO^ NELSON] DRAG HANDLES FISHING 173 one of which terminates iu the head aud fore-legs of a white bear aud the other in the tail aud hind-flippers of a seal. Plate Lxvi, 12, from Sledge island, is a four prong ivory rod, with white-bears' heads carved upon two of the points and a seal's head on another; the fourth point terminates in a ring in which is linked a pendant representing the head and shoulders of a seal. Plate LXVI, 2, from Cape Nome, is a sjuall ivory handle, pierced with a hole at one end, which forks and terminates in two holes on the other end. On one side is carved in relief the form of a seal, and on. the other the form of a white bear. . Plate LXVI, 17, is a handle, fashioned in the form of a white-bear's head, with blue beads inlaid for eyes. The two cords form one loop, projecting from the bear's mouth, and on the other side they project from separate holes at the rear. Plate LXVI, 11, from Sledge island, is an ivory image of a seal, with a hole through the back, in which is fitted an ivory pin, terminating above in the figure of a seal's head. To the lower end is attached the cord forming the loop. Plate LXVI, 5, from the Diomede islands, is a handle made of a bar of ivory, an elongated oval in outline, with a convexity near each end on the lower side and slightly excavated Avithin. In the middle of this excavation is a hole, through which passes the cord forming a loop. On the upper side the cords pass through holes in two figurines of seals, which rest with their heads down against the outer borders of the bar. Plate LXVI, 8, from Sledge island, has carved on one end the head of a seal and on the other that of a white bear. Plate LXVI, 10, from Kotzebue sound, is in the shape of the head of a white bear, represented as holding a seal crosswise in its mouth; i^ is pierced lengthwise on the under side for the passage of a cord. Plate LXVI, 7, from Kotzebue sound, is an elongated bar, with a seal's head on each end. The handle is surrounded by eight series of etched parallel lines. Plate LXVI, 3, from Cape Prince of Wales, has four images of seals carved in high relief on the small ivory center through which the cord passes. Plate LXVI, 13, from Nubviukhchugaluk, is a handle in the form of a white-bear's head, represented as holding a stick crosswise in its mouth, and just back of this, carved from a separate piece, the head of a seal. FISHING a:nj) fishing implements METHODS OF FISHINQ Fishing forms one of the main sources of food supply among the western Eskimo, and in its pursuit a variety of methods and imple- ments are employed. The fishing season along the coast of Norton sound opens about the end of March or early in April of each year; at 174 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 this time the spring tides begiu to show along the shore, where the water forces its way up through the cracks iu the ice. During the cold weather of winter the touicod and the sculpin remain in deep water, but as spring approaches they begin to return to the vicinity of the shore, and holes in the ice are made through which they are caught by means of hook and line. During May, as the weather grows warmer, the tomcod become extremely numerous, and at this time the old men and women may be seen scattered about on the ice, a few hundred yards from the shore, where they tish during many hours of the day. Figure 47, from a ]ihotograph taken at St Michael, shows a man at one of the fishing holes. Fig. 47 — Tomcod fishing through sea ice at St Michael. For fishing through the ice a hole from six to eight inches in diam- eter is made. The ice i)ick employed for this purpose consists of a stout wooden staft', usually provided with a point made from the end of an old chisel or a flat i)iece of iron ; but formerly, and indeed fre- quently during my residence in Alaska, picks pointed with reindeer horn or ivory were in use. Figure 10, plate lxvii, illustrates one of these picks from Norton sound; it consists of a wooden staff, nearly four feet long, terminating in a deerhorn point, which is lashed firmly to the staff with cords of sealskin. As the ice is generally several feet in thickness, the hole becomes filled with small fragments as the work of digging progresses. To Q Z < CO Q. o o o CO isf O Q. UI O KELSON] TOMCOD FISHING 175 remove tliese, as well as to skim out the film of ice that constantly forms on cold days, a small scoop with a netted bottom is used by the natives of the coast from the mouth of the Kuskokwim to Kotzebue sound. A typical specimen of an ice scoop, from St Michael, is illus- trated in figure 9, plate lxvii. The rim consists of a band of deerhoru bent into a circle, the overlapping ends being pierced and lashed together with rawhide cord. The upper edge has a long, rounded point in front; the lower edge has holes in pairs, through which is passed the rawhide cord, which is netted across the bottom in a hexa- gonal ijattern. This scoop is fastened to the handle with a lashing of sinew cord, which passes through a hole in the handle and over the rim. The wooden handle is oval in cross section, and is about 34 inches in length. In the vicinity of Bering strait the net of some of these implements is formed of a cord made of twisted filaments of whalebone. Another variety of this Implement, from St Lawrence island, is illus- trated in figure 8, i)late Lxvii; it consists of a slightly grooved wooden handle, to which is attached a scoop-shape piece of bone. Still another, from the same locality, is shown in figure 7, plate lxvii ; it is made from the shoulder-blade of some animal, pierced near its small ctkI with two holes, through which a lashing is passed, which fastens it firmly to a wooden handle four feet in length. The implements used in fishing for tomcod consist of a short pole, from 25 to 36 inches in length, and a long line made from whalebone, sinew, rawhide, or the feather quills of gulls or other large waterfowl. These are split and worked a little to render them more pliable, and knotted together while moist, forming a tough and durable line. On the lower end of the line, six to ten inches from the bottom, a sinker of stone, bone, or ivory is attached, pierced at each end for attachment to the line. The hooks usually have a straight ivory or bone shank, with a hoje at the upper end for the line, and two holes near the lower end, at right angles with each other, through which are thrust small, double-pointed iron skewers, with iheir ends bent upward, forming a hook with four points. The rods are usually provided near the top with an ivory or bone guide, perforated near the tip for the passage of the line, and fastened to the rod by sinew cord. The base of the rod is notched, so that the line may be wound on it when not in use. In connection with these rods a slender stick of about the same length is used. It is held in the left hand, and so manipulated as to enable the fisherman to bring the hook to the surface without rising from his seat on a mat spread on the ice. As the fish comes to the surface it is thrown to one side on the ice and disengages itself, as the hook is not barbed. The fisherman then gives it a rap with the stick to prevent it from struggling back to the hole, and returns his hook to the water. No bait is used, as the fish nibble at the white ivory shank, and are caught by a continued up-and down movement of the hook. In autumn the tomcod are extremely abundant near St Michael. At 176 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 this season cold north winds generally blow and render it verynncoiu- fortable to remain for hours in one i)osition on the ice. To remedy this, small shelters are arrauged, consisting of grass mats, held on a frame- work of sticks, to the windward of the hole. In November, soon after the ice is formed, a fisherman frequently catches 200 pounds of tomcod in a day, but from 10 to 40 pounds is the average, result of a day's fishing. Figure 24, plate lxviii, represents an outfit for tomcod fishing, from Cape Nome, consisting of the two rods, a whalebone line, stone sinker, and hook as described. The line is guided through the notch in the end of the rod, which is cut in at each end so that it forms a shuttle- like stick, upon which the line is wound when not in use. In some instances the four hooks are arranged around the sinker and held in place by means of short, elastic leaders of whalebone or (luill. Among the fishermen of Norton sound and along the American shore of Bering strait the lines on which these hooks are held usually pass through holes in the sinker and are wedged in place. On St Lawrence island, sinkers are made with a hole at the bottom for suspending a hook, and four other holes for a similar purpose at each of the rounded corners. Figure 5^ jdate Lxviii, represents one of the sinkers from this island; the hooks are made of iron and have from three to four i)oints on the end of a straight shank, which is lashed to a whalebone leader by a sinew cord; the upper end of the leader is passed through the holes in the sinker and knotted. Accompanying this specimen is the stick for manipulating the line when lauding the fish (figure 32, plate LXVIII). Figure 31, plate lxviii, illustrates another tomcod fishing outfit, from Norton sound, consisting of a shuttle-like rod notched at each end and a thin rawhide line with an ivory sinker, which is in two parts, excavated in the middle and filled with lead; the two halves are held together by a lashing of whalebone; a whalebone loop extends from the bottom of the sinker and to it is attached a small hook made by lashing a small iron point across the lower end of a whalebone shank; just above the sinker a leader of whalebone is attached to a line with a similar hook. Figure 28, plate LXix, represents a large sinker, from St Lawrence island, made from a piece of the jawbone of a whale. On two of the sides, a little below the middle, are holes through which pass whale- bone leaders about nine inches long, on which are hooks with bone shanks having conical knobs on the lower ends; there are three slits on one shank and two on the other, in which upstanding points of bone are inserted and fastened in position with fine cord made from whalebone. From Cape Nome was obtained an obovate ivory sinker, shown in figure 4, plate lxix. It has three holes in the sides, in which are inserted three upstanding points of ivory over an inch in length, held in posi- tion by a wrapping of tine whalebone; lower, through one side of the BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXVIII FISHING IMPLEMENTS (one-fifth) ^[TB fi A .i y OF THK NELSON] TOMCOD-FISHING APPARATUS 177 sinker, passes a whalebone leader with a small hook at each end ; these hooks have an ivory sliank through which is passed a pointed iron spike bent upward at the point. Hanging from the lower end of the sinker is another leader of about the same length as the others with a straight shanked hook of the ordinary style, with four points. The style of tomcod hook used from the Yukon mouth to the Kus- kokwim is illustrated in figure 3, plate lxix. This specimen, obtained at Askinuk, has a long, round shank of deerhorn, with a knob at the upper end for attachment of the line, and the lower end is enlarged to a doubly conical base, which has three slits at equal intervals, nar- rowed on the outside and widening within. Above these, on the upper cone, are three similar slits alternating around the surface with the first-named. Into these slits are fitted long, slender, sharp-pointed spines of deerhorn, 3^ tp 4 inches in length, projecting upward and slightly outward. This hook is moved slowly up and down in the water, and catches the fish by piercing them from below while they are gathered about the ivory sinker. Figure 21, plate lxviii, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a common style of ivory-shanked tomcod hook,'*with four projecting iron points. It varies from the ordinary style in having the shank made in a series of curves instead of being straight. A peculiar style of tomcod hook and sinker, from Cape Nome, is shown in figure 10, plate lxix. The sinker is made from an old, stained piece of ivory, fashioned into the shape of a fish. Two blue beads are inserted in rings of ivory near the lower end to represent eyes, and another is inlaid on the lower surface. The tail is formed of a piece of white ivory attached to a truncated end of the dark material by a lash- ing of fine cord; the mouth is represented by a hole, in which is a leader, attached to which, below the sinker, are three orange-yellow pieces from the bill of the crested auklet, which are strung on a fine sinew cord with two blue beads, serving to attract the fish. At the lower end of the leader is a hook, with the upper part of the shank of ivory and the lower of deerhorn. These are fastened together with small bone pegs and a lashing of fine cord around the joint. At the base were four iron points, one of which has been broken oft'. Figure 2G, plate lxviii, from Cape Nome, is a rod used for fishing for tomcod, with an ivory line guide in the end. Figure 20, plate LXVIII, from St Lawrence island, are bone shanks for tomcod hooks, made with two slits on the sides at the lower end, in which may be inserted upright bone barbs; the upper end is broadened and flattened a little and pierced for the attachment of a line. Figure 22 of the same plate, from St Lawrence island, is a rather flat, shuttle-shape rod, notched at each end and having wound upon it a long line made from whalebone, with a set of four tomcod hooks at the ends of leaders, which are of the ordinary straight-shank pattern with four barbed points of copper. Figure 9, plate lxviii, from St Michael, is a deer- 18 ETH 12 178 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.akn. 18 horn guide from a tomcod rod. Figure 12, plate LXViii, shows another tip for a tomcod rod, from Sledge island. Another set of hooks and sinker from Hotham inlet are shown in figure 5, plate lxix. The sinker is of greenish slate, with a rounded ivory tip at the upper end, excavated to admit the pointed end of the stone, which is riveted in place. There are two holes in the middle of the stone, at right angles to each other, for the passage of the leaders. Only a single pair of leaders are in place, the other set having been lost. Figures 14 and 10, i^late lxviii, illustrate forms of tomcod hooks, obtained at Sfugunugumut, which are used also for catching smelts. When tomcod' are abundant along the coast in autumn and spring, smelts also are plentiful, and often are caught on the same hooks; but in some localities special hooks are made for taking smelts, one of which, from Nunivnk island, is illustrated in figure 13, plate lxviii. This has a straight ivory shank, largest near its lower end, in which a recurved copper hook is set and held in place by a wooden i)lug. While fishing for tomcod, sculpin of several species are frequently caught in shallow water. A number of hooks made especially for taking these fish were obtained at Cape Nome. Sculpin hooks from the northern shore of Norton sound and from Bering strait are made from pieces of stone and ivory, fitted together to form an oval shank (figure 21, plate LXIX). The surface of the stone is grooved to receive the ivory, which forms the lower end, and is fastened by a lashing. The hook, either of iron or copper, passes through the shank and the point is upturned in front. The shank is ornamented with little tags of sinew cord at the lower corners, to which are attached blue beads and the sheaths from the bills of auklets. The stone chosen for these hooks varies consid- erably, but is usually of some bright color. Sometimes the lower end is made also of stone of another color instead of ivory, as in the speci- men from Cape Nome, illustrated in figure 12, plate lxix, which is used also as a gTayling hook. A sculpin hook and sinker of dark-colored stone is represented in figure 14, plate lxix. It was obtained at Cape Nome. The sinker is i)ierced at the upper end for the attachment of the rawhide line; to this upper end is fastened a finely braided sinew cord, ha\ing an orange-yellow piece from an anklet's bill at its lower end. The other end of the sinker has a white ivory cap fitted over it and held in place by a wooden peg; in the lower end is a hole in which is a small seal- skin band, to which are attached some pieces of skin from the legs of birds, and below this extends a leader, terminating in a fiat-shank hook. The leader is also ornamented with a blue bead and a piece from the bill of an auklet. The shank of the hook is composed of three pieces, the upper and lower of ivory, and the middle one of stone, neatly fitted in grooves in the ivory and fastened by a lashing; a single- IDoint copper barb is inserted through the shank and bent upward in front. In the truncated base of the ivory of the shank are two holes below the ida{;e where the hook is inserted, to which are hung BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXIX FISHHOOKS AND SINKERS tONE-FlFTH) WAR y f ^ .FT** -aillVEBSlTY CALIFO^ KELSON] FISHING TACKLE 179 two short siuew cords, on each of which is strung a blue bead and an orange-colored piece from the bill of an anklet. These various orna- ments are intended as lures for the fish. Another of these sculpiu hooks from Cape Nome is shown in figure 22, plate LXix. It is attached by a leader to a small ivory sinker, which is yellow on one side and blackened on the other; on the dark side are inserted two white ivory eyes with a dark colored wooden plug in the center of each to represent the pupil. On the other side is a hole for attaching the leader; small bits of red flannel are fastened to this end for lures. The other end terminates in a flattened point, in which is a hole for the line. Strung OD the leader is a blue bead and an orange-yellow piece from the bill of an auklet. The shank, which has near the end two holes for the line, is made from deerhorn and flattened, becoming larger toward the lower end, where an oblong piece of ivory is inserted just back of the point of the hook, which is a single, sharp-pointed iron barb inserted through the lower end of the shank and bent upward in front. At each of the lower corners of the shank is a short sinew cord, on which are strung a blue and a white bead and an orange sheath from the bill of an auklet. Another sculpiu hook from the same locality is rei)resented in figure 8, i)late LXIX. It is made from a stout piece of iron, the ends bent together and the points sharpened and upturned. It is attached to a sinker of gneiss, which is elongated-oval in shape and fastened to the line by a lashiug of whalebone, which passes around it from end to end. A small hook from Sledge island (figure 20, plate LXix) is made from two i)ieces of ivory joined by a small connecting rod, on which is strung a flat blue bead. It is shaped to represent a fish. At the lower end are two small, dark-colored wooden pegs set in to represent eyes. A short copper hook projects on the inside. Another sculpiu hook, from Cape Nome (number 45281), is made in three pieces. The lower part is of dark chocolate-colored stone, the middle of reddish granite, and the upper part of ivory. They are lashed together in the usual rjanner. For catching salmon trout and the large-fin grayling, small, orna- mented hooks are made of stone and ivory. These hooks are similar in character to those used for catching smelts and sculpiu along the shore of Norton sound and the coast of Bering strait. One of these grayling hooks from Cape Nome is shown in figure 12, plate lxix. It is made from two pieces of stone, the upper of which is chocolate- color and the lower reddish white. They are neatly joined together and held in position by a sinew lashiug, which passes through a hole in one piece and around a groove along the middle line of the other. A small iron pin is passed through the lower part of the shank and curves upward in front to form the hook. Attached to the upper and lower ends of the shank are orange-yellow sheaths from the beak of an auklet, the lower end having also a blue bead. Figure 21, plate lxix, represents two hooks from the Diomede 180 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 islands. One is similar in form and ornamentation to the last pre- ceding specimen, but the lower portion is of yellowish bone and the upper part of greenish-gray stone. The other is similar in shape, but the upper half of the shank is of white ivory, with two encircling grooves in which narrow strips of skin from the legs of an auklet are bound, and the lower half of the shank is of dark-colored ivory. A grayling hook from Unalaklit (figure 48) has a leader of whalebone. The white ivory shank has a dull green spiral band, produced by stain- ing the ivory in some unknown manner. Figure 30, plate Lxix, represents a set of hooks from the lower Yukon, which are intended for catching losh. They have tapering wooden shanks, split at the lower end to receive the butts of long wooden or deerhorn points, which are lashed in position with spruce root. Most of these hooks are provided with rawhide leaders, but one leader is made from a strip of whalebone. They are held together by thrusting the points into a rounded mass of fine shavings bound together with a strip of spruce root. A hook from the Lower Yukon (figure 15, plate lxviii) has an obovate shank of deerhorn, with a spur-like barb of iron thrust through the lower end. The upper end is taper- ing, flattened, and pierced with a hole for the reception of a line. Hooks of this kind are used for small whitefish and losh in the streams back from the coast. A losh hook from the head of ISTorton bay (figure 17, plate lxix) has an obo- vate shank of ivory, bored across through the shank and filled with lead to give additional weight. The lower end has a hole through which is thrust a small, double-point rod of iron, bent upward at the ends to form two barbs. A hook used for catching large whitefish or nelma (fig- ure 10, j)late lxviii) was obtained at Paimut. It has a curved deerhorn shank, broadening toward the lower end, in which are incisions representing the mouth and eyes of a fish. Between the eyes is inserted a strong iron barb, bent upward at the point. The upper end of the shank is forked like the tail of a fish, and has a hole for the line. A hook for catching pickerel and whitefish, illustrated in figure 19, plate lxviii, is from Unalaklit. The shank is broad and flattened toward the upper end, where it has two holes for attachment of the line. The edges are serrated. Near the lower end it is slender and has an upcurled barb of iron fastened with a lashing of sinew cord. Another hook, obtained at Sledge island, is somewhat similar to the preceding, but the barb, instead of being fastened by a lashing, is inserted through a hole in the shank, the upper portion of which is broad and has only two notches on the sides (figure 11, plate lxviii). Two hooks, from St Michael, used for catching wolf fish, illustrated in figures 9 and 11, Fiu. 48— Grayling Look (J). NELSON] FISH HOOKS AND SINKERS 181 plate LXix, are attached to rounded, tapering sinkers of ivory. One of them has a deerhorn shank, serrated on the edges, with a stout iron barb inserted through the lower end. The other hook has a rude, straight shank, made from a stick about four inches in length, with a notch at the upper end for attaching the line, which passes downward to the lower end, where a pointed spine of deerhorn is lashed obliquely across it. Another variety of hook is a rudely made specimen from St Lawrence island (figure 25, plate lxix). It is cut from a piece of walrus ivory and is provided with a long barbed point. It was used for catching wolf fish, but probably both this and the two preceding examples were also used for cod-fishing. A similar hook from the same locality is shown in figure 29, plate LXIX. In this case, however, the shank is of wood with a barbed point of bone fitted in a slot at the base. The upper end of the shank has a hole for attaching the whalebone line. This hook was used i)robably for catching codfish. An outfit for catching wolf fish, illustrated in fig- ure 27, plate lxviii, was obtained at the head of JTorton sound. It consists of a shuttle-like rod, 28 inches in length, on which is wound a rawhide line, near the end of which a rounded j)iece of lava, reddish in color, is fastened with a basket lashing. The hook has a straight deerhorn shank, to the lower end of which is lashed crosswise an iron nail with the projecting end pointed. In the fork between the hook and the shank a kind of bait comj^osed of sinew-like material is secured by a lashing. Figure 28, plate lxviii, shows a similar outfit from Nor- ton sound, with the sinker made of a rounded granite pebble grooved at each end for the attachment of the rawhide lashing Another out- fit (figure 25, plate lxviii), from Norton sound, for catching blackfish {Dallia) is a long, slender, shuttle like rod 20 inches in length, on which is wound a short line of sinew with a small hook at one end. This hook has a straight, rounded ivory shank and is provided with a pointed iron pin through the lower end, with the tip upcurved. -^long the shore of Bering sea and the adjacent Arctic coast con- siderable ingenuity is displayed by the people in manufacturing sink- ers for fishing lines, and a great variety are made. For several species of fish the sinker is intended to attract the fish, as well as to serve as a weight for the line, and is made of a variegated white and dark colored stone. Other sinkers, of ivory, have a portion of the surface blackened, and some of the stone sinkers have an ivory cap. A large collection of these objects was obtained, from which typical examples have been selected for illustration. A specimen from the Diomede islands (figure 32, plate lxix) is a piece of bone, discolored to a chocolate-brown, pierced with a hole and grooved near the upper end to receive the line. The lower end has a hole for fastening the leader for the hook. The lower end represents the head of a fish, with an incision for the mouth ; a blue bead repre- sents one eye and a piece of lead the other. Another example from 182 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 tlie same locality (figure 16, plate LXix) is a long, oval stone with a rounded ivory cap, held in position by a deerhorn pin passed through both substances. A liole for the line is in the upper end of the ivory cap and another in the lower end of the stone portion. A similar sinker (figure 1, plate lxix) was obtained at Port Clarence by Dr Dall. It is made from a piece of granite and has a cap of chocolate- color ivory, held in position by an iron rivet through the two pieces; the ivory portion has a flattened point, and on the sides a pair of eyes are represented by two inlaid rings of ivory, in which blue beads are set. A similar sinker, from Cape Xome (figure 7, plate lxix) is made of stone, with a small ivory cap fastened by a rivet. The long, round stone sinker shown in figure 27, plate lxix, was obtained on Sledge island. It tapers below to a blunt point, where it is pierced for a leader. The upper end is truncated, and has fitted on it a long, round tail-like piece of ivory, lashed in position with a strand of whalebone I)assed through holes in the two parts. In tlie stone is a hole to receive a long leader for two hooks. Another sinker, of variegated black and white stone, from the same locality (figure 26, plate lxix), has an ivory cap fastened with a lashing passed through a hole in the lower end of the ivory and around a groove in the stone. A black and white stone sinker from Cape Nome (figure 23, plate lxix) has been broken in the middle and neatly mended with a strong lashing of whalebone passed through two holes and around a deei) groove in the sides. A small sinker of greenish stone from Sledge island (figure 19, plate lxix) is rudely shaped to rei)resent a fish, having ivory pegs with black centers inlaid for eyes. It has a small hole at each end for attaching the lines. Another specimen from the same locality (figure 13, plate LXIX) is a handsome sinker of variegated white and brown stone, with a deep groove on each side near the ends, in which holes are bored for attaching the lines. The black and white ivory sinker shown in figure 18, jjlate lxix, was obtained on Nunivak island. Eyes, also black and white in color, are inlaid in the black upj)er surface. The black and white, flattened stone sinker shown in figure 6, plate LXIX, is from Cape Nome. A long ivory sinker from Hotham inlet (figure 15, plate LXIX) has a hole at each end; the upper end is surrounded by four grooves and raven totem marks. On one side is a rude etching representing a framework for drying fish. The bone sinker from St Lawrence island, shown in figure 31, plate lxix, is triangular in cross section and pierced at the upper end for the line ; on the lower half, at each of the angles, is an ear containing a hole for attaching a leader. Another example from the same place (figure 33, plate lxix) is a rude bone sinker, roughly obovate in shape, with a hole at the upper end for a line and two ear-like projections near the lower end for attaching leaders. A heavy ivory sinker (figure 2, plate lxix) was obtained at Plover bay by Mr W. M. Noyes. It has holes around the sides and the bottom for attaching leaders. The upper end is oval in cross section and tapers to a thin, flat point, pierced for the line. About the base NELSON] SINKERS, SEINES, AND TRAPS 183 are three upriglit spines, projecting slightly outward, carved from the same piece, which serve as additional hooks for capturing fish that may gather around, attracted by the white ivory. This sinker has been used in fishing for toracod and other small fish. In the deep water off the headlands, from Golofuin bay to Cape Nome, large crabs are very abundant ; sometimes specimens are seen measuring three feet from tip to tip of their outstretched claws. They are caught during March and April by the use of a bait of dead fish tied to the end of a line and sunk to the bottom through a hole in the ice. In March, 1880, near Cape Darby, I saw large numbers of people fishing for crabs by this method, and on the 10th of March, west of Cape Darby, I found a party of about twenty-five i)eoi)le, from Sledge island, who had been starved out at home and were camping there, living on the tomcod and crabs, which were abundant. Their crab lines were fastened to small sticks set in the snow beside the holes in the ice, thus enabling one person to watch several holes. When the crab seized the bait the stick was moved sufiBciently to attract the attention of the watcher, who at once drew in his line. Small snow shelters were built beside the holes to jirotect the fishermen from the wind ; they were open on one side and had a crescentic base with the convexity toward the direc- tion of the wind, while some of them were partially arched over. The crabs were so plentiful that one day, soon after my arrival, a man and a woman came in bringing about tVo hundred pounds, which they had taken during the day. As soon as the ice leaves the coast of Norton sound, in June, herrings arrive and spawn on the seaweed about the rocky points and shores of the small bays. At this time many of them are caught by means of small seines made from rawhide or sinew cord; but about the latter part of June commences what to these people is the most important of all fishing seasons. This is the time for the arrival of the salmon. The king salmon enter the rivers first, and are followed during the season by two or three smaller species of inferior quality. Along the entire coast, from the Kuskokwim to Point Barrow and up Kuskokwim and Yukon rivers, the Eskimo are very busy during July and August catching and curing these fish. The cleaning is done by the women. The fish are split from the head to the base of the tail, the entrails removed, and the fish thrown over a raised framework and left hanging until dry, when they are stored away in bales or bunches. The large king salmon (chow-chee), after being split, are slashed crosswise at short intervals to open the flesh and thus facilitate drying; the backbone is also generally removed and dried separately. When dry, the smaller species, called dog salmon, are always tied in bunches of twenty, and are stored or sold in this shape. FISH TRAPS Along the entire seacoast salmon are caught in gill nets, which are placed at intervals along the shore. On lower Yukon and Kusko- 184 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 kwim rivers wicker fish traps are set, with a brusli and wicker-work fence connecting them with the shore. These fish traps form an elon- gated cone, with a funnel-shape entrance in the larger end. Each has two long poles at the sides of the mouth or broad end and another at the small end, by means of which it is raised or lowered. It is set at the outer end of the wicker-work fence with the mouth facing down- stream, and held in place by poles driven in the river bottom with their ends projecting above the water. A model of a trap from the lower Yukon, used for catching salmon, is illustrated in figure 14, plate lxx. The funnel-shape mouth is fas- tened to a square framework, with handle-like extensions along the upper and lower sides, by means of which poles are fastened for guid- ing the trap in setting, and which rest against the poles driven into the river bottom to keep the trap in position. The Eskimo living near the base of the Kuslevak mountains go to the Yukon delta to fish for salmon. Norton bay and the shores around the head of Norton sound are occupied by people from the surround- ing districts, who gather there during the fishing season. Nearly all of the Sledge islanders resort to the adjacent mainland at this time. Throughout the region the people go out from their villages to sum- mer camps at places where the run of fish is known to be greatest, and all enjoy a season of plenty, always anticipated with i^leasure by the entire community. At times fish are so pleutiful on the lower Yukon in July, while the dog salmon are running, that the wicker fish traps, which measured to 5 feet in diameter and about 10 feet in length, have to be emptied several times a day to prevent their breaking. The gill nets are also watclied coustantly by the owner, who goes out in his kaiak whenever the motion of the floats shows there are fish in them, and, drawing up the net so that the heads of the fish are above water, he stuns them by a blow from a short club and removes them from the net. Figure 2, plate lxx, represents one of these clubs for killing fish, which was obtained at Sabotuisky. It is made of spruce and is reduced in size downward to form a slender handle, suboval in cross section, grooved on each side, and wrapped with spruce root at the grip. Toward the end it becomes larger and is rounded, and then tapers again to a truncated point. Another club of this character, from Sledge island, is shown in figure 1 of the same plate. It is 30 inches long, and is oval in cross section. The blackfish (Dallia pectoraUs) is common wherever sluggish streams and lakelets occur from Kotzebue sound to Kuskokwim river. Throughout this region they are taken by means of small wicker traps, about 18 inches in diameter and 5 feet long, which are set in small streams, with a wicker fence leading from the mouths of the traps to the shore. A model of one of these traps, from St Michael, is illustrated in ■-UNIVERSITY BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXX OBJECTS USED IN FISHING (one-eighth) NELSON] FISH TRAPS AND NETS 185 figure 13, plate Lxx, showing the method of coustruction. Splints of spruce are fastened together in a bunch to form the small end of the trap, and are held in position by a rawhide or spruce-root lashing; thence toward the mouth they are held in place by a wrapping of spruce root, which is wound spirally several times around the circum- ference to the mouth, forming a cone-shape basket; the splints are fastened to the wrapping by a lashing of spruce root or rawhide, which is wound around the crossings of the framework; in the mouth of the trap is a conical mouthpiece attached to a square framework of four sticks and inserted in the larger end of the trap, where it is fastened by lashings on each side. By means of traps of this character vast quantities of blackflsh are taken in the waters of the low country between Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, where they are very abundant, and form one of the principal sources of food supply for the people during several mouths of the year. After the salmon season, the main trapping for fish is done along the lower Yukon and in the adjacent region in autumn, just before and after the streams become frozen; at this time the salmon traps are set again and vast quantities of whitefish, losh, pickerel, and blackfish are secured and preserved by freezing for use later in the season. The traps are kept out until midwinter, but the main catch is while the fish are crowd- ing in from the small streams. Plate lxxi, from a photograph, shows the method of setting these traps through the ice on the Yukon, near Jkogmut (Mission). On Norton sound, when high gales blow from the north during Sep- tember and October, very low tides ensue, and the women go out among the exposed rocks to gather mussels, ascidians, and several kinds of fish which are found concealed beneath the large stones off the rocky points. NETS Gill nets for salmon are set usually on a line leading from the shore. The inner end of the line is made fast to a stone or a stake, and the owner carries the other end out to the proper distance and anchors it with a stone. At the outer eud of the net is fastened a wooden marker- float, commonly made in the form of a bird. Bounded wooden floats, varying considerably in form, are also strung at intervals along the upper edge of the net. A specimen of these net floats, from Ikogmut, is illustrated in figure 4, plate lxx. It is fashioned in the shape of a loon, with along, projecting neck, and is made from a single piece of wood. A hole runs through it for attaching the cord; two incised grooves outline the wings, and a wide, shallow groove extends around the edge. All of these grooves are painted red; the center of the back has a greenish tint, but the wings are not colored. At Cape Blossom, on the Arctic coast, the people were seen using gill nets about 25 feet in length, strung with floats and sinkers in the usual 186 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn.18 manner. A stout cord held one end fast to a stake on the shore, while the owner, by means of several slender poles lashed together, pushed the anchor stone on the outer end out to its place, thus setting the net. "When the floats gave indication that fish had been caught, the net was pulled in hand over hand, the fish removed, and the net reset. This plan appeared to work very successfully, as evidenced by the large number of fish on the drying frames close by. On Kotzebue sound, in the month of September, I saw a party of Malemut catching whitefish with a seine. The net was fitted with wooden floats and stone sinkers in the usual manner, and was about 60 feet long, the ends being spread by stout staTies secured by lashings of cord. The shore end of the net was held by two men standing at the water's edgej the other end was xiushed out from the shore to its full extent by the aid of several long poles. A long, rawhide line was made fast to the outer end of the net and another to the middle of the string of poles, by which it was pulled along. One man carried the inner Fig. 49— Seining on Kotzebae sound. end of the pole along the beach between the two rear line men and the men holding the net. In this way the net was drawn along the beach for 100 or 200 yards, and when the fish were running large hauls were made. The accompanying figure -49, showing this method, is from a sketch made at the time. Between Cape Eomanzof and the month of Kuskokwim river the greater part of the fishing is done by means of dip-nets, but great quantities of stickleback and other small fish are taken in small nets or seines of fine rawhide cord. Large dip-nets for whitefish are made of the same material, and among the people south of Cape Vancouver this style of net is used more than the gill net. A dip-net obtained by Lieutenant Stoney at the head of Kotzebue sound is about three feet long, and is made of twisted sinew cord. The upper third of the net has meshes about an inch in diameter; this is joined to the finer-mesh lower portion by a rawhide cord, which is knotted into the adjoining meshes of the two parts. The meshes of the lower portion are less than half the size of those of the upper part. On the lower iwint of the net is a rawhide loop, by means of which it can be raised and the contents discharged. A small dip-net obtained at Ikogmut is nelson] FISH NETS 187 Fig. 50 — ^Mesh of dip-net made of sinew (about I). shown in figure 16, plate lxx. The hoop at the top is a round willow stick, with the beveled ends overlapping and bound together. The handle extends across the hoop and projects four and one-half inches on one side. The net is shallow, made of twisted sinew cord, and is joined to the hoop by a spiral wrajjping of sx)ruce root, which passes around the frame and through the bordering meshes. The accompanyingfigure 50 shows the mesh of alarger dip-netfrom Sabotnisky. This net is about thirty inches in diame- ter, is made of twisted sinew cord, and is used for catching various kinds of small fish. A small, strongly made dip- net of willow bark, obtained by Lieuten- ant Stoney from the region back of Kotzebne sound, is shown in figure 10, plate LXX. It is only about fifteen inches in diameter; the meshes are of diamond shape around the border and quadrate on the bottom. The mesh of a large dip-net used for catching salmon and whitefish (figure 51) was obtained from Sabotnisky. It is about six feet in length and the same in diameter, and is made of willow bark. The hoop is of spruce wood, with a long, slender handle of the same material, which crosses the hoop. Figure 12, plate lxx, represents a dip-net from Plover bay, Sibe- ria, made of whalebone, which is used for catching small fish iu the lakes and streams of that vicinity. The mouth of the net is held open by a stout rim of whalebone. Four strands of the same material are attached at intervals around the rim and fastened together about sixteen inches above it. A heavy granite bowlder, grooved to receive the lashing, is fastened to a whalebone ring in the bottom of the net, which is used by being thrown out into the water and then hauled to the shore by a cord. A herring seine of sinew cord, from St Michael (figure 52), has a number of rounded, subtriangular wooden floats pierced at their small end for attachment to a sealskin cord which runs along the upper edge of the net; to a cord stretched riG.51— Mesli of dip-net made of willow bark (|). 188 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 along the lower border are lashed pieces of deerhoru four to Ave inches in length, which serve as weights and also as handles by which the net can be hauled to the shore. A seine of twisted sinew cord similar to the preceding, obtained at Hotham inlet (number 63G12), is about thirty inches in width, with a stretcher of wood at each end. It has oval wooden floats and deerhorn and stone sinkers. A small-mesh seine of sinew cord, used for herring and whitefish, obtained at Cape Prince of Wales, is shown in figure 53. It is nearly thirty inches wide, and has wooden stretchers at each end, a series of rounded, tapering floats along the up- per edge, and handle-like sinkers of ivory along the lower border. Another small-mesh herring seine, about five feet wide, obtained at St Michael (figure 54), is made from fine sealskin cord. Along the bottom is strung a series of small oval stone sink- ers, notched above and below to secure the lashings. Floats for nets are some- times carved in the shape of birds and in other forms. Fig- ure 15, plate Lxx, represents a float rudely fashioned in the form of a grebe ; another, from the lower Yukon (plate lxx, 8), reinesents the head of a man and the flattened tail of a bird. A float from St Lawrence island (figure 55) is round in cross section, large in the middle, and tapers gradually to both ends, where there are slight shoulders to retain the cords by which it is made fast. Others are merely rounded blocks of wood, pierced for attachment to the net. In addition to the wooden floats, others are made from the inflated bladders or stomachs of various animals. Figure 9, jflate lxx, illus- trates a set of three such floats and a wooden marker-float for use on one end of the net. The latter is a thin, curved piece of wood in the form of a thumbless hand, with a round, excavated depression in the center, which, with the inside of the finger tips, is painted black. This Fig. 52— Mesh, float, and sinker of herring seine (J). NELSON] FISH SEINES 189 hand is similar to that represented so frequently in this region on masks and in paintings of mythological beings. Figure 7, plate lxx, illus- trates a stone sinker for a net, obtained at Point Hope, consisting of a roughly triangular pebble with a lashing of rawhide terminating in a loop for attaching it to the net. It is not grooved, advant- age being taken of the natural shape to secure the lashings. Another example (figure G, plate lxx), from the Diomede islands, is a rounded bowlder, with two pecked grooves extending around it in opposite directions, around which is a stout sealskin cord. The lashings on both this and the preceding sinker are per- manent, and the attachment to the net is made by a separate cord. Ivory or bone weights fre- quently alternate with stone sinkers on the nets, and serve both as sinkers and handles. They vary from five to six or seven inches in length, are more or less curved, and have a hole at each end for fastening them to the net. A small bone handle of this kind (number 36395), with the raven totem mark on its inner surface, was obtained at Kushunuk. A set of four such handles from the lower Yukon are shown in figure 11, plate LXX. Another set of four handles, from Cape Vancou- ver, illustrated in fig- ure 3, plate LXX, are slender, curved, bone rods, with a hole at each end. The sub- oval weight of walrus ivory shown in figure 5, jilate LXX, was ob- tained on St Law- rence island. Directly after the freezing of the Yukon in the fall there is an annual run of lamprey, which pass up the river, just below the ice, in great FiQ. 53 — Herring seine, -with stretcher at one end and with float and sinker (J). Fig. 54— Seal8kin-cord herring seine with stone sinker (J), 190 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 numbers. Holes are kept open in the ice bj^ the people who watch for the first appearance of these fish. As soon as the first one is seen everybody seizes a dip-net or a stout stick with a short cross-piece at the lower end and throws out as many as possible. When the main body of the fish have passed, the people run up the river for some dis- tance, cut other holes, and repeat the T?,r. ..- w- , * 1 » ,.x catch. This is continued until the Fig. 5o— W ooden net float (g). people are exhausted by the violent exertion or a neighboring village is reached, when they are compelled to stop and give way to those living in that locality. NET-MAKING IMPLEMENTS GAUGES Various tools are used by the Eskimo in the manufacture of nets, several forms of which were seen in different districts. From St Law- rence island several curiously shaped whalebone gauges for the meshes of nets were obtained. One of these (number 127020) is a trifle over six and one-half inches in length, and is a flat, oblong tablet, with a small projection at each end on one side. From the holes through it near one end it had evidently been used previously as part of a sledge runner. The specimen illustrated in figure 4, jjlate lxxii, is similar in form and material to the preceding, but is smaller. Similar but shorter examples are shown in figures 2 and 3, plate lxxii. Each of these has a long, curved handle projecting from one corner and a short spur from the other. A whalebone gauge from Kotzebue sound (figure 7, plate lxxii) is notched along each side to receive a sinew cord to secure it to the wooden handle in which it is inserted. The specimen from Sledge island (figure 13, plate lxxii) is a long-blade gauge of ivory, with a lieavy back. The handle is grooved to receive the fingers, and ter- minates in an image of a seal's head, with eyes, ears, and nose repre- sented by inlaid, blackened wooden pegs. The loug-blade ivory gauge with heavy back, from Cape Darby (fig- ure 12, plate LXXII), has a long, tapering deerhorn handle riveted and lashed to its upper side. The example from the Diomede islands (fig- ure 14, j)late lxxii) is a large, heavy, ivory gauge with a j)lain handle, which has a rude projection at the inner end to prevent it from slip- ping. The deerhorn gauge from Cape Nome (figure 8, plate lxxii) is fastened in the split end of a wooden handle by a lashing of spruce root. A gauge similar to this was obtained on Nunivak island. A small, double-end gauge from Sabotnisky (figure 10, plate lxxii) is slightly different in size at each end. the handle is enlarged in the middle and has a stick lashed to it by spruce roots to make it large enough to afford a convenient grip for the hand. The single-blade BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXII NET-MAKING IMPLEMENTS (nearly one-fourth) m:lson1 net-making IMPLEMENTS 191 deerliorn jj:auge from Shaktolik (figure 5, plate Lxxii) is similar in form to the precediug; it has a circular hole through the middle, sur- rounded by an incised circle; the handle is pierced with four holes, three of equal size and one larger. Figure 9, plate lxxii, shows a hand- somely made ivory gauge from Cape Vancouver, with a handle wrapped by spruce roots, and figure 6, plate lxxii, illustrates a small gauge from Kushunuk, made of deerhom, with a handle enlarged toward the butt. The deerhom gauge from Nunivak island shown in figure 11, plate LXXII, is grooved along the upper edge and has a handle terminating in a hook curved downward. The specimen from iN^ubviukhchugaluk (figure 1, plate lxxii) is a small gauge entirely difierent in form from the others. It is of deer- horn, with a handle oval in cross section, from which it projects at a right angle a little over two inches. SHUTTLES AlfD NEEDLES The shuttles used in making nets also vary considerably in size and form, according to locality and to the purpose for which the nets are to be used. Figure 14, plate lxxiii, illustrates a small wooden shuttle from Sledge island, used for making fine-mesh nets. The long, slender, ivory shuttle, shown in figure 26, plate lxtii, is also from Sledge island. The long, slender shuttle from Cape Nome, shown in figure 25, plate LXXIII, has the central portion of wood and the two ends made of bone, with a wedge-shape notch on the inner side, into which the tapering ends of the wooden portion are fitted and held in position by means of a series of cross rivets. The shuttle from the lower Yukon (figure 28, plate lxxiii) is made of deerhorn and has conventional figures and patterns etched on one surface. Another deerhorn shuttle from Cape JS^ome (figure 18, plate lxxiii) has four reindeer etched on one side. The specimen from Kot- zebue sound (figure 27, plate lxxiii) is a long, plain, deerhorn shuttle. The deerhorn shuttle from Nunivak island (figure 19, plate lxxiii) has the end openings deeper than usual and the borders along the sides are raised above the plane of the flat, central portion. One of the arms is made from a separate i)iece and is attached by means of sinew cords passed through three holes in the main part of the shuttle. The specimen from Cape Kome shown in figure 21, plate lxxiii, is a long wooden shuttle. At the bottom of the notch in each end it is crossed by a sinew lashing, to prevent it from splitting, the lashing passing through two holes on each side of the edge. A deep groove runs along the sides between the notches in the ends. The long wooden shuttle from Sledge island represented in figure 23, plate LXXIII, has a deep groove along the sides between the notches. Figure 20, plate lxxiii, shows a large, heavy, wooden shuttle, such as is used in making nets for catching white whales or large seals. It 192 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 was obtained on one of the Diomede islands. The large wooden shuttle from Cape Vancouver (figure 8, plate lxxiii) has two sides made of separate pieces, which are held together by crossbars which pierce the sides at the bottom of each notch. The inside is excavated to forn" two long, triangular borders. Figure 21, plate lxxiii, represents a large, rather broad, wooden shuttle from Nunivak island. It has a flat groove extending between the notches. The wooden shuttle shown in figure 10, plate lxxiii, is from Paimut, as is also that shown in figure 9 of the same plate, which is made of one piece with two long openings in the middle. The specimen from Norton sound (figure 22, plate lxxiii) is a large wooden shuttle used in making nets for capturing seals and white whales. The deerhorn shuttle from Nulukhtulogumut (figure 16, ijlate lxxiii) contains some fine, twisted sinew cord. A long, narrow, wooden shuttle from Sabotnisky (figure 15, plate lxxiii) has the two ends lashed with sinew cord to prevent the wood from splitting; wound upon it is some fine cord made from the twisted inner bark of the willow. The large wooden shuttle from the lower Yukon (figure 17, plate lxxiii) is also filled with cord made from mate- rial similar to that in the preceding specimen. The shuttle from St Lawrence island (figure 12, plate lxxiii) is made of whalebone in the shape of an arrowpoint, with the center excavated, leaving a long, tongue-like point projecting from the base toward the tip. Another shuttle (figure 11, plate lxxiii) from the same locality is filled with well-made, twisted sinew cord. Figure 13, plate lxxiii, represents a shuttle, obtained on the coast of Japan by General Capron, which is similar in pattern to the preceding. The Eskimo of eastern Siberia and of St Lawrence island must have derived the pattern of their shuttles from farther south, and the imported design thus replaced the ordinary kind in use among their relatives of the islands of Bering strait and the American shore. Figure 7, plate lxxiii, represents a long, wooden, netting needle, tapering toward both ends, with a large hole in the middle; it is used for mending the broken meshes of nets. The double-point ivory net- ting needle from Askinuk (figure 4, plate lxxiii) is similar in shape to the preceding. The ivory netting needle, pierced at one end, shown in figure 6, plat© LXXIII, was obtained at Cape Nome. The large, curved needle of deer- horn represented in figure 5, plate lxxiii, is from the lower Yukon. Figure 3, plate lxxiii, from Ukagamut, and figure 1 of the same plate, from Kushunuk, represent small needles used in mending the meshes of small nets. A needle from St Michael (figure 2, plate lxxiii) is somewhat similar to the preceding, but has a hole near the center instead of near one end. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXIII NET-MAKING IMPLEMENTS ^one-fifth) ■CTKIVERSITY CALI FO^ NEi^oN] NET-MAKING IMPLEMENTS 193 MARLINSPIKES Marlinspikes are used for tying and slipping meshes while making nets ; they also serve for slipping meshes to enlarge or to reduce their size when it is desired to change the uses of nets. Figure 21, plate lxxii, illustrates a large marlinspike, from Eaz- binsky. It is made from reindeer horn, tapers to a blunt end, and has the upper end forked. Figure 18, plate Lxxir, shows an implement, from the lower Kusko- kwim, similar to the last mentioned but smaller in size. A curved mar- linspike from Pastolik /^figure 17, plate lxxii) is made of ivory and is oblong in cross sec- tion. Another exam- ple, from Cape Nome (figure 19, plate Fm.se— ivory marlinsplkod). lxxii), has an ivory point fitted into a slot in a wooden handle and held in place by a rawhide lashing. Figure IG, plate lxxii, represents a marlinspike from Norton sound; it is made of ivory and is double pointed ; it is nearly plain on two sides and convex on the other. A line of walrus is etched upon one side, houses on another, and a conventional pattern ornaments the third. Figure 56 shows a marlinspike used for slipping knots in large nets. It is from Nunivak island and is round in shape, the handle terminat- ing in a figure of the head of a murre, with the mouth, nostrils, and eyes marked by incised lines. A marlinspike from Norton sound (figure 57) has a bone point set in a slot in the wooden handle and held in position by lashings of spruce root. The example from Cape Nome mmmmmr Fio. 57 — Marlinspike with bone point d). (figure 20, jdate lxxii) has a large, blunt point at one end and at the other a small, spur-like point which serves for loosening knots. Figure 15, plate lxxii, represents a marlinspike from Kotzebue sound; it is a long, slender rod of ivory, triangular in cross section, having all its surfaces ornamented with etched figures of whales, wal- rus, and hunting scenes. A specimen from the lower Yukon has a round ivory point set in a wooden handle and held in place by a lashing of sinew cord. REELS Several forms of reels are employed for holding the smadl cord used in making nets. Figure 24, plate lxxii, represents one of these reels from Norton sound. It is neatly groovcl ; at the tips of the arms of the fork at one end are two seal-heads, and the hind-flippeis are at the other end; a 18 ETH 13 104 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann 18 grooved pattern extends down their backs and the fore-flipiiers are indicated by etched lines. A grotesquely made reel of deerhorn, from Sledge island, is shown in figure 2G, plate lxxii. One end is ornamented with the head of a wolf; the opposite side is forked to represent the legs of the animal, and two forked arms at the other end represent the hind-limbs. A reel of deerhorn from Sabotuisky (figure 25, plate lxxii) has the tops of the arms at one end, as well as one of the arms at the other end, carved in the shape of animal heads. On the sides are etched patterns. Figure 23, plate lxxii, from Cape Nome, and figure 22 of the same plate, from Kigiktauik, represent deerhorn reels without ornament. FISH SPEARS In the fall season holes are made in the ice at places where the water is sufiiciently clear to render objects visible several feet below the sur- face. Througli these holes fish are speared, and large quantities of whitefish and pickerel are obtained by this method. Figure .'3, plate lxvii, shows a typical example of these fish spears from St Michael. " It consists of a wooden shaft about six feet in lengtli, with a sharp, deerhorn point, surrounded by narrow pieces of deer- horn with triangular points which are secured by a lashing to a shoulder on the shaft. At the base of these points a wooden crossbar, fastened by a strong leather cord, holds the points in their relative position. When a fish is struck with the central point, the triangular sidepieces spread a little, grasp the fish firmly with their inner edges, and hold it until it can be drawn out of the water. A somewhat simi- lar fish spear from Eazbinsky (figure 5, plate lxvii) has the central point barbed, instead of smooth as in the jireceding specimen; the sidepieces are fastened against a shoulder on the shaft by rawhide cords, and the points are lashed across the ends in a similar manner. Figure 42, 1, represents a deerhorn prong for one of these fish spears from the lower Yukon. Another fish spear, from Razbinsky (plate lxvii, G), has two points of reindeer horn with two notches on one side of each. A short-handle fish spear from the lower Yukon (plate lxvii, 4) has only one large, single barb point lashed against the side of the shaft. The head of a fish spear from Nunivak island, (plate LXViii, 1) has the central point surrounded by six others, inserted in slits in the end of the shaft and held in place by a lashing of spruce root. All of these points are barbed for about four inches along one edge. A small fish spear from Nunivak island (figure 2, plate lxvii) has a central point, surrounded by three other points, forming a triangle; these points are inserted in the shaft and held in position by a rounded ivory ferule. The shaft is very slender, round in cross section, and NELSON] FISH SPEARS 195 about four feet iu length; it is in two sections with overlapping euds beveled and beld together by a lashing of twisted sinew cord. Another spear from the same locality (figure 1, plate Lxvii) is sim- ilar to the preceding except that it has four points instead of three surrounding the central point, which are also held in position by an ivory ring. The inner sides of all the points on both of these spears are notched to form barbs. From the lower Kuskokwim northward to Kotzebue sound spears used for taking salmon and whiteflsh have large points of bone, deer- horn, or ivory, with from one to three barbs. They are ynerced near the butt for the attachment of a cord, and at this end are of a rounded Avedge shape for insertion into a slot in the end of a long wooden shaft; a stout sealskin line is made fast to the point, drawn up along the shaft, and terminated in a coil, which is held in the hand of the fisher- man. When a fish is struck the shaft becomes detached, leaving the barbed point in the fish, which is hauled ashore by aid of the line. The points of these spears vary considerably in character, as is shown in the examples described; they are intended for capturing large fish in the streams flowing into the sea, or in the tributaries of the larger rivers in the interior; but they are also sometimes used for spearing white whales. Figure 7, plate lxviii, illustrates one of these points from Norton sound; it is made of bone and has four barbs, two on each side; to the hole in the butt is attached a piece of stout rawhide line. A slen- der point of deerliorn, from Kowak river (figure 30, plate lxviii), has a barb on each side. Another from the same locality (figure 2, plate LXVIII) is a flat, slender point of bone with a single barb. A bone point from Chalitmut (figure 3, plate lxviii) has a single barb and is made in two pieces; the overlapping ends are riveted together and wrapped with two rawhide lashings'. A short, rudely made bone point from Norton sound (figure 8, plate lxviii) has two barbs, one on each side, and two holes near the base. Figure 4, plate lxviii, from Agiuk- chugumut, and figure 29 of the same plate, from Norton sound, repre- sent bone points with one barb. To attract pickerel and large whitefish within reach of their spears while fishing through holes in the ice, the Eskimo of the lower Yukon make use of the figure of a fish about six or seven inches long. They have two holes pierced through the back for sinew cords, which are tied together a few inches above and continue thence upward as a single string. These images are well fashioned, with the eyes, gill openings, scales, and lateral line indicated by etched lines. The fisherman stands directly over the hole and dangles the image a few feet below the sur- face of the water, holding the spear in his hand ready to thrust on the approach of the fish, which rush at the lure and are readily speared. Figure G, plate lxviii, represents one of these lures, which was obtained at Kazbinsky. 196 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 1£ ARTS AT^D MA:NUrACTURES BONE AND IVORY CAUVINCf i The Alaskan Eskimo are remarkable for their dexterity in working wood, boue, ivory, and reindeer born. This is i)artit'ularly noticeable among the people on the islands of Bering strait and tlie mainland coast from Point Ho\)^i southward to the mouth of Kuskokwim river. Within this area the implemeuts used in hunting and for household purposes are handsomely made and often are elaborately ornamented; special skill is shown in adapting the forms of mammals, birds, and fish, with which they are familiar, to the ornamentation of useful arti- cles. In addition to utilizing animal forms for this purpose, they dis- play considerable imaginative faculty in the conception of designs for fanciful carvings, as well as in ornamental patterns, which are fre- quently etched on the surface of various objects. Many of their carv- ings are really artistic, and the skill with which animal forms are carved in relief is admirable. The beauty of their work is the more surprising when we consider the rude tools with which it is accom- plished. Of the articles obtained many are very ancient, and, the old men told rae, had been made by the use of flint tools. The execution of these carvings is equal to that of the specimens produced by the use of iron and steel tools at the present time. While a considerable degree of artistic taste and skill is quite gen- eral, tliere are some districts in which the people seem to have a greater amount of ability in this direction than the average. The most notable instance of this is among the people living between the Yukon delta and the lower Kuskokwim, which is amply illustrated in the collection, obtained in that locality, of elaborate masks, handsomely ornamented wooden boxes and trays, and a great variety of beautifully executed ivory work. The villages of Askinuk, Kushunuk, Agiukchu- gumut, and others in this vicinity, supplied a fine series of ivory carvings, well-made wooden dishes, and numerous implements of wood and ivory, all marked by excellence of workmanship. The people of Ukagamut were living in the greatest squalor, even for Eskimo, yet among them were found beautiful specimens of ivory carving. Before Avorking bone, deerhorn, or ivory, it is the custom to soak the material thoroughly in urine in order to soften it, and indeed it is frequently wetted with the same liquid as the work progresses. For rendering the etched lines on the surface of carvings more distinct, a black paint is made from a mixture of gunpoM'der and blood, which is rubbed into the freshly cut incisions, making a permanent stain. In places where ivory is plentiful the men appeared to delight in occu- pying their leisure time in making carvings from that material or from bone, sometimes for use, but frequently merely for pastime, and many little images are made as toys for children. The articles thus produced NELSON] CARVING AND DRAWING • 197 are not regarded by them as baviug any particular value, and I was oiten amused at the delight with which they sold specimens of their work for one or two needles, a brass button, or some similar trifle. The women of the district between the Yuton delta and Kuskokwim river are not very proficient in needlework or in ornamenting their gar- ments, the artistic skill appearing to be confined to the men; but on the islands and the adjacent American shore of Bering strait, while the men make very handsome ivory work, the women are equally skilful in beautifiil ornamental needlework on articles of clothing. This is nota- bly the case with the finely decorated sealskin boots for which the natives of Diomede and King islands are noted. The men at Point Hof)©, on the Arctic coast, are also skilful in ivory work. About the shores of Kotzebue sound and Bering strait various articles and implements, such as celts, knives, knife sharpeners, and labrets, are made from nephrite. On the Asiatic shore the Eskimo appear to have lost much of their skill in carving and other ornamental work ; consequently their cloth- ing and implements, both on the mainland coast and on St Lawrence island, are rudely made. In ascending Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, as the coast districts are left behind skill in carving becomes less and less marked among the Eskimo, until those living as neighbors to the Tinne appear to have but little ability in that art. Paimut, the last Eskimo village on the Yukon, was notable for the fact that the tools and other implements in use were as rude a.s those of the adjacent Tinne. In addition to their skill in carving, the Eskimo of the coast display great ability in etching upon tools and implements, notably on ivory drill-bows, scenes from their daily life, records of hunts, or other events. They also produce a great variety of ornamental designs, composed of straight or curved lines, dots, circles, and human or grotesque faces. Upon the surfaces of their wooden dishes they frequently paint a ground color of redj upon which, as well as upon those that are not colored, are drawn in black various well made patterns and figures representing totem animals, personal markings, or mythological creatures. DRAWING The Eskimo also possess considerable skill in map making. While traveling between the Yukon delta and the Kuskokwim, several men drew for me excellent maps of the districts with which they were familiar, although probably they had never seen a map of any kind made by a white man. At other points to the northward of St Michael considerable skill was manifested by several persons in sketching out- lines of the coast, with its indentations and projections. During one winter at St Michael a young Eskimo, about 23 or 24 years of age, came from the country of the Kaviak peninsula and remained about the station. While there he*" took great pleasure in looking at 198 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 tlie numerous illustrated papers we bad, and would come day after day and borrow tbem; finally be came and asked me for a pencil and some paper, wbicb 1 supplied him. Some days later I chanced to go to his tent, and found bim lying prone upon the ground, with an old magazine before bim, engaged in co})ying one of the pictures on the piece of paper which I had given bim. When be saw me be seemed to be very much abashed and tried to conceal the drawing, but I took it up and was surprised at the ability he bad shown. He had done so well that I asked him if be could draw me some pictures of'Bskimo villages and scenes. He agreed to try to do so. He was furnished with a supply of pencils and paper, and the result was a series of a dozen or more pictures which were remarkable, considering that they were made by a savage whose ideas were similar to those of his people, ^cept what he had learned by looking over the papers I had loaned him a short time before. WRITTEN RECORDS The Eskimo also have an idea of keeping records or tallies of events, as was illustrated in a trading record kept by a Malemut during a winter trading trip which he made from St Michael to Kotzebue sound. It was kept for his own reference and without any suggestion from another. It was drawn on small fragments of brown paper and was a good examj)le of picture writing; small, partly conventional out- lines were made to represent the various articles of trading goods, which were drawn beside a representation of the skins for which be bad exchanged tbem. On the same paper he drew a route map of bis journey, marking the villages at which he had stopped. PAINTS AND COLORS A picture, image, paint, or color is called a'-lhiii-nk by the Unalit. Fine shades of color are not differentiated by these people, but they have names for most of the primary colors. Black is called tun-u'-U; white, M-tughu-li; red, Tcauig'-A-lt; brown or russet, Jcau-h/'-it-Wch-lu'-ffuk; green, cliun-n'kh'-lulc or chiin-uf/'-n-li. Various other shades are distinguished as being colored like natural objects; gray or clay color is called Mgu'-yu-gnal'-in-ulc (from M-gu'-yitJc, clay, and a'-lMri-nk, color); purple is li-uii' a'-lhm-uk; blue is lii-logh' -un W-lliin-uTi. Coloring matter i« obtained from various sources. Tbe dark reddish shade wbicb is given to tanned sealskin is obtained by soaking tbe inner bark of the alder in urine for a day and washing the skin with the infusion. White is made from a white clayey earth ; yellow and red from ocherous earths; red is also obtained from oxide of iron; black is made from plumbago, charcoal, or gunpowder, the two latter being mixed with blood; green is obtained from oxide of copper. NELSON] PAINT BOXES 199 For the purpose of storing their fragments of paint the Eskimo use boxes somewhat similar in general character to those used for tools, save that they are very much smaller. These boxes also serve for keep- ing other small articles, such as fishhooks, spear- or arrow-points, etc. Figure 8, plate lxii, illustrates a small ivory paint box obtained from Norton sound by Mr L. M, Turner. It is about four inches long- by an inch and a half wide, and with the exception of the cover is made from one piece. It is oblong, and has a sunken ledge at each end to receive the cover. On one end a human face is carved in relief, on the other end the mouth and nostrils of an animal, and on the bottom the figure of a seal. A small wooden box from St Michael (number 33021) is oval in outline and represents the body of a seal. The cover is in the form of a smaller seal, of which the projecting head and neck serve as a handle for raising it. Another paint box, from the lower Yukon (figure 13, i^late lxii), is cut from a single piece of wood and represents a salmon, the eyes, nostrils, mouth, gill openings, and lateral line being indicated by incised lines. A square cover fits like a stopper in the top and has a rawhide looj) on its center for raising it. A box from Norton sound (figure 11, plate Llii) represents two seals, one on the back of the other, with their heads turned to the left, the upper seal forming the cover. The eyes of both are rep- resented by inlaid beads, the nostrils and mouths are indicated by incised lines, and the fore-flippers of the larger seal are carved in relief on its sides. A somewhat similar box (figure 15, i)late lxii) was obtained on Nunivak island, but it represents the figure of only a single seal. A curious colored box (figure 12, jilate lxii) was obtained at Cape Vancouver. It represents a seal with the mouth open and with the teeth in relief; the fore-flippers are carved in relief on the sides, the eyes and nostrils are indicated by ivory pegs, and various other pegs are inserted on the surface of the body. The back- and fore-flippers are painted a dull bluish color; the sides are red, and the same color extends forward over the top of the head to the muzzle; the chin, throat, lower surface of the body, and outline of the flippers, with triangular spots to mark the ears, are black; the teeth are outlined in red. A similar box from the same locality (figure 17, plate lxii) represents a banded seal. The lower surface of the body and a large, triangular space from the crown to the shoulders are colored black; the remainder of the upper surface is alternately banded with red and black lines. A paint box from Norton sound (figure 0, plate lxii) is made from a single piece, and represents a seal. The fore-flippers are in relief, the tail and hind flippers are carved free, and the whiskers are represented by little tufts of seal hair set in on each side of the muzzle. The cover, which is of spoon shape, fits like a stopper and is provided with a projecting rod which serves as a thumb-piece for raising it. A curiously shaped box from Big lake (figure 16, plate lxii) is 200 THE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT [ETII. ANN. 18 Fig. 58— Wooden paint box (about §). intended to represent the larva of some insect. It is cut from a single piece and has an oval, stopper-like cover, with a cord loop in the center for raising it. A series of alternately red and black grooves encircle the sides of the body; the crescentic mouth is incised, two beads rep- resent the nostrils, and two incised rings outline the eyes. The mouth, nostrils, and eyes are painted red, the rest of the face showing the natural color of the wood. A box from the lower Yukon (figure 58) is flattened above and below, and is pear shape around the sides, which are formed by bending a thin strip of wood, the ends being sewed together with spruce root ; the bottom is fast- ened on with wooden pegs, and a stopper-like cover, with a flaring rim, fits into the top, on which a series of small triangular and circular pieces of ivory are inlaid. The colors which originally ornamented this box have disappeared through long use. A box from Pastolik (number 33014) is somewhat similar to the preceding, but the cover is held in place by a long cord which is wound several times around the box and fastened over a i)eg which projects in front. A rudely oval box from the lower Yukon (figure 7, plate lxii) is cut from a single piece of wood, and has two compartments to each of which is fitted a stopper-like cover, one rounded in outline and the other with one end truncated; they are x>rovided with small cord loops for lifting them. The body of the box has a groove extending entirely around the sides; another starting from it i)asses under the bottom to the opposite side. A handsome wooden box from Big lake (figure 50) is carved from a single piece, and has a stopper-like cover. ^ The body of the box represents a seal with the front flip])ers in relief and the eyes formed by white beads; the wrists of the flippers are crossed by a small inlaid bar of ivory. At one end of the cover is a human face carved in relief, the mouth and eyes being represented by pieces of ivory neatly inlaid. This face and a circle about the eyes of the seal, as well as a long ridge connected with Fig. nO— Wooden paintbox (about g). NELSON] PAINT BOXES POTTERY 201 the flippers and the bottom of the box, are colored red. The rear end of the cover is bhie, and the remainder of the box is black. An oval box from St Lawrence island (number 652G7) represents the rude outline of a seal with a smaller one on its back, which forms the cover, fitting like a stopper. On the back of the cover are inlaid six halves of blue beads. A sinew cord projecting several inches through the cover serves for raising it. The eyes of the larger seal are formed by round pieces of ivory, with some black substance filling a hole in the center of each to indicate the pupil. An oblong wooden box from Nunivak island (number 43878) is made of two pieces, the lower two-thirds forming the main part and the other the cover, which is held in place by two bone pegs inserted in the lower edge, at each end, and fitting into corresponding holes in the ends of the lower portion of the box. On the sides and ends of the box are inlaid square strips of ivory, about half an inch from the edge, and a number of small ivory pegs are set in the space between the inlaid strips. POTTERY . The manufacture of pottery from clay is widely spread among the Eskimo Avith whom I came in contact, but the women are the only potters. 1 he process of making vessels from clay, as witnessed at St Michael, is as follows: A quantity of tough, blue clay is moistened and kneaded thoroughly with the hands until it assumes plasticity; then short, tough blades of a species of marsh grass and a small quantity of fine, black, volcanic sand from the beach are mixed with it. A round, flat laj'^er of the prepared ciay is worked out to form the bottom of the vessel, and about the edge of this a wall is built up with a thin band of clay, carried around a num- ber of times until the desired height is reached. The top is then smoothed, and is either left plain or slightly scalloped with the fingers. The sides of the vessels are usually left plain,' but sometimes they are ornamented with a series of simple, incised lines made with a stick. Several vessels obtained at St Michael have the sides curving slightly until near the top, where they are somewhat constricted and the rim is made slightly flaring. After the shaping and the ornamentation of the vessel are completed, it IS placed near the fire until it becomes dry; then a fire is built both on the inside and the outside, and it is baked for an hour or two with as great a heat as can be obtained. In a summer camp at Hotham inlet a number of pots were seen, varying in capacity from two to three gallons. Several of the larger ones had the tops scalloped and were slightly constricted in outline below the rim. On the sides they were ornamented with short, paral- lel, horizontal lines, beginning near the rim and forming a band extend- ing to the bottom, as shown in figure 60, from a sketch made at the time. 202 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn 18 "^ Despite the ability shown by the Eskimo of this region in carving bone and ivory, I saw only two efforts m^ftB^t modeling in clay beyond the niannfacture of pots and lamps. TheseNw^ere both rude clay dolls, obtained at a village on the lower Yukon. A specimen of earthenware from St Michael (number 43068) is 9 inches high by 10^ wide. Around the inside, near the top, occurs a series of small incised dots; on the inside of the rim are live parallel incised grooves, just below a broader groove which borders the edge; the upper surface of the edge is marked also with a shallow groove. Another vessel from tiie same locality has three lines of dots around its outer border, near the rim, with two sets of double parallel grooves, and just inside the slightly flaring rim are four roughly made grooves. From St Lawrence island were obtained some small clay vessels which were used for suspending over ignited lamps. One of these (fig- ure 13, plate XXVIII) is 4^ inches long, 3^ wide, and li in depth. It is quadrate in outline, with rounded corners, each of which is provided with two holes through which are passed ^^^^^^^^^^S'-s^'-^^ strips of whalebone by which it was sus- iHHPIP^^P^^ ^ pended. A similar vessel from the same ^ '3 locality (number 63r)46) measures 6 inches fe ':i in length, 4f in width, and 2 inches in i ::; depth ; it has a small lug at each corner, (|., •-/9'lili near the ui)per edge, pierced for the recep- t: ''"W-^ tion of the cord by which it M^as suspended ^ ' over the lami). Anotherof these small pots ^^ g from the same place (figure 1, plate xxviii) \^ . - # is oval at the ends, with the sides nearly ^'"''^^^^^^^''*^**^'^"^ parallel. It measures 8i inches in length Fig. 60— Clay pot from llotliain inlet. ,„, , , i.^,, ... by 3 broad, and a little over au inch in depth. Another specimen from the same island (number 02547) is fash- ioned like the preceding three vessels, all of which are too small for use in cooking food, and probably served for the purpose of trying out seal oil for use in the lamps. MATS, BASKETS, AND BAGS From the shore of Norton sound to the Kuskokwim tue women are N^ expert in weaving grass mats, baskets, and bags. Grass mats are used on the sleeping jbenches and for wrapping around bedding. They are used also as sails for kaiaks, and formerly were utilized as sails for umiaks. They uow frequently serve as curtains to partition off the corners of a room or a sleeping i^latform. Small mats are placed also in the manholes of kaiaks to serve as seats. The bags are used for storing fish, berries, and other food supplies, or for clothing. Smaller bags and baskets are made for containing small articles used in the house. At Chukwuk, on the lower Yukon, I saw a woman making one of BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXIV OBJECTS OF GRASS AND SPRUCE ROOT ione-eighth) «EL«ox] MATS, BASKETS, AND BAGS 203 these mats and watched the process she employed. A set of three or four straws were twisted and the ends turned in, forming a strand, a number of whicli were arranged side by side with their ends fastened along a stick, forming one end of the mat and hanging down for the warp. Auother strand was tlien used as a woof. By a deft twist of the fingers it was carried from one side to the other, passing above and below the strands of the warp; then the woof strand was passed around the outer strand of the warp and turned to repeat the operation. The strands were made continuous by adding straws as necessary, and with each motion the strands were twisted a little so as to keep them firmly together. By this simple method a variety of patterns are produced. Figure 15, plate Lxxiv, illustrates a common sleeping mat of the kind used by the Eskimo from Kotzebue sound to the Kuskokwim. It was obtained on Norton sound. The size of these mats varies; the example shown is 4 feet long by 3^ wide, but they are sometimes made twice this size. A toy grass mat, made for use with a doll (figure 8, plate lxxiv), is also from Norton sound. It is woven in the same way as the larger mats, except that the warp is twisted at intervals and the strands are crossed, thus producing small quadrate openings in the pattern. lu making grass bags, they are started from a point at the bottom, where the strands of the warp, consisting of two or more grass stems, are fastened together and extend vertically downward. The woof is formed by a double strand of grass which is twisted about itself with the strands of the warp inclosed in the turns; both are continually twisted as the weaving progresses. In coarsely made bags, the strands of the woof are spaced from an inch to two inches apart, and those of the warp at intervals of from a quarter to half an inch. These bags have a conical bottom, which slopes from the center to the sides. At the mouth the ends of the warp are braided to form a continuous edge. Figure 14, plate lxxiv, represents one of these loosely woven bags from Norton sound. These bags, when used for storing fish, sometimes contain from 50 to 100 pounds, which is frozen into a solid mass and packed away in storehouses for use during the months when fresh food can not be obtained. The contents become so thoroughly frozen by the intense cold of winter that when required for use the mass has to be separated by use of wedges and mauls. Another bag from Norton sound (figure 11, plate lxxiv) is similar to the preceding, except that the bottom has a long, narrow base instead of ending in a point. Along the mouth the strands of the warp are brought together in little braids about an inch and a half in length, spaced at intervals of about half an inch and merged into a thick, braided border, which forms the rim. The weaving is done as in the specimen last described, except that the warp consists of two grass stems, extending down the sides to the bottom, without being twisted. 204 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 The woof is twisted, but tlie strands are spaced only a little over a quarter of an inch apart. A bag obtained at St Michael by Mr L. M. Turner (figure 9, plate Lxxiv) is somewhat similar to the preceding specimens, but the warp is divided alternately by the twisted strands of the woof, forming a slightly zigzag pattern from near the mouth to the edge of the bottom, where the warp extends again in parallel lines. A closely woven bag, intended to hold clothing (figure 13, plate LXXIV), is from the lower Kuskokwim. It is made like the example from St Michael, except that the solid weaving of the sides extends to the braid at the moutli. The warp extends up and down the sides, as usual, and the strands of the woof are woven close together, forming a coin]iact, thick texture. Several black lines of varying width extend around the bag, and are made by interweaving strands of blackened sinew cord. This pattern and another of ornamental black bands are made in the country between Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers and thence southward to Bristol bay. One specimen from the latter locality, in addition to the black lines, has three broken bands of russet brown, made by drawing small strips of brown leather through the warp. From the lower Kuskokwim was obtained also a grass bag, 11 inches in height and 13 inches across the bottom, woven in the same manner as the last specimen. It is circular in shape around the sides and widest near the bottom, narrowing gradually to near the to^), which is suddenly constricted to an opening five inclies in diameter. The people of the lower Yukon and thence northward to Kotzebiie sound make various sizes of grass baskets of a coil pattern. A strand of grass is laid in a coil forming the warp, the woof is then woven in by interlacing grass stems, and the coil is continued until the fl^at bot- tom is completed. The coils are then superimposed one upon the other until the basket is built up to the top, where it is narrowed in to form a circular, oval, or square opening. Frequently the coil is commenced on the bottom around a vacant space, from an inch to three inches in diameter, into which is sewed a piece of rawhide. The rim at the top has the grass brought over and neatly turned in on the under side, forming a smoothly finished edge. One of these baskets (number 48139), used for storing clothing and various small articles, which was obtained from the mouth of the Yukon, measures lOi inches in height by 13 inches in width, with an opening at the top 10 inches in diameter. A basket of this description from Kushunuk (figure 7, i)late lxxiv) is roughly quadrate in otitline, with rounded corners; it has the bottom woven in the same manner as those of the bags which have been described. Another basket, obtained on Putnam river by Lieutenant Stoney (figure 10, plate lxxiv), has a flat bottom, with a long, oval piece of rawhide in the center; the sides round gradually upward to an oval opening, A basket from St Michael (figure 1, plate lxxiv) has a flat bottom, TTF NELSON] BASKETS SLEDS 205 with a center made from a piece of rawhide; the sides, built up of coils, narrow inward to the top, where they are suddenly constricted to a rolled rim surrounding the circular openin;:. The basket from the lower Yukon shown in floure 4, i)late Lxxiv, has a flat bottom with a cir- cular piece of rawhide in the center. A double strand of grass is twisted into the woof between each of the coils on the sides, producing a doubly ridged surface. The top has a slight rim around the central opening. A toy basket from the lower Yukon (figure 5, platg lxxiv) has the warp varied at intervals with grass cords passed around the surface, about a third of an inch apart, in three parallel rows. These cords consist of three strands, only one of which is woven into the warp, leaving the remainder in relief on the surface. Figure 6, plate lxxiv, shows a basket from St Michael. In this specimen the coil starts from the center of the flat bottom; the sides slope slightly outward and end at the upper edge without being con- stricted, forming a dish shape. Another basket from the coast of I^'orton sound has the usual flat bottom; the sides slope slightly out- ward, swell around the middle, and then are drawn in again toward the top to form a rim around the opening. On the lower Yukon coiled baskets are made of spruce roots, which form ^yery strong, rigid walls. They vary in form, but all have flat bottoms. A basket of this* kind, from that locality (figure 2, plate LXXIV), is roughly quadrate in form, with rounded corners. The sides are nearly straight, but are constricted abruptly above, forming a neck like rim about an inch high, which surrounds the square opening in the top. Another specimen, from Sledge island (figure 3, plate lxxiv), is round in shape, with the sides slightly curved and constricted above to a slightly flaring tip around the opening. The most elaborately finished specimen procured is shown in figure 12, idate lxxiv. This was obtained from the lower Yukon district. It is round in shape, with slightly curving sides, which are constricted abruptly to the neck of a slightlj^ flaring rim. It has a flattened conical top, which has two small sinew hinges, and is fastened in front with sinew cords; a loop of the same material on the top forms the handle. A "housewife" of woven grass, obtained on the lower Yukon, is woven with open-work similar to the bags which have been described. TRAVEL AXI> TKAXSPORTATIOX SLEDS The Alaskan Eskimo of the mainland and on all the islands about Bering strait, including St Lawrence island, use dogs and sleds for winter traveling, Plate Lxxv, from a photograph taken at St Michael, represents a Malemut family ready to start on a journey. On the 206 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT Ieth.ann.IS American coast and adjacent islands sleds from 9 to 10 feet in leiij>tli are built strongly of driftwood. Their runners are from 2 to 3 inches broad and from C to 7 inches high. They are straight nearly to the front, where they curve up regularlj^ to the level of the bed. Along the sides four or five stanchions are mortised into the upper edge of the runners and project upward about 2.J to 3 feet; the ends of bow- shape pieces of wood are also mortised in the top of the runners, and both these and the stanchions are fastened with wooden pins. These bow-shape pieces curve upward and inward about iive inches above the tops of the runners, forming the supports on which rests the bed of the sled, which is from 16 to 24 inches in width, and is formed of a kind of latticework. A crescentic or bow-shape j)iece of wood is fastened across the front, from whicli two long, thin, wooden slats run length- wise to the rear, where they rest on the upcurved bows, to whicli they are lashed. Across these pieces a series of thin wooden slats are lashed by rawhide cords passed through holes and corresponding holes in the longitudinal slats, which extend out to the rear line of the runners and have a long strip of wood lashed along each side. A long wooden rod is fastened firmly to the upturned point of the runner on each side and extends to the rear of the sled, resting on the tops of the stanchions, forming a rail. A stout rawhide cord is passed through holes in the top of the stanchions and wound around the rail, holding it firmly in position. The rail usually projects a few^ inches beyond the last stan- chion on each side, forming handles for guiding the sled. Some sleds also have a crosspiece resting on the last stanchions at the rear. On the sides a stout rawhide cord is fastened at the end of the rail and is passed down around the side bar of the bed and back to the rail again in a diagonal or zigzag pattern along the entire length, thus forming a netting, which prevents articles from falling from the sled. Inside of this netting it is customary to place a large sheet of canvas or of skins sewed together to form a covering for the load. The flaps are folded over the top, and a rawhide lashing from rail to rail holds the load firmly in place. From five to nine dogs are attached to large sleds of this character, and a considerable load can be hauled on them. With seven dogs it is customary, on trips along the coast of Norton sound, to haul a load weighing 300 or 400 pounds. Smaller sheds, from 5 to C leet in length, are used about the villages or for short journeys. Figure IG, plate Lxxvi, represents a model of one of these sleds, which was obtained at the head of Norton sound. A simpler form of sled also is used by the people along the coast from Kotzebue sound to the Yukon mouth. The runners are of the same fashion as those last described, to which a stout crosspiece is fastened on the inside of the upturned ends, and two or three short stanchions, 0 to 8 inches in height, are mortised into their upper edge. A rail on each side is lashed against the crosspiece and extends backward, renting upon and NELSON] SLEDS 207 lashed to the tops of the stanchions to form rails. Crosspieces con- nect the sides of the sled between the stanchions. These sleds are very light, weighing only from 15 to 20 pounds. They are used for short hunting or fishing trips, and are liauled usually by the hunter himself. In the spring they are used by hunters to haul their kaiaks on the sea ice to open water, or to the cracks that are opening. When such a break is reached, the hunter places the sled on the top of the kaiak, back of the manhole, and paddles across to the other side, where he disembarks, places the kaiak on the sled, and resumes his journey. In this manner these people make long trips over the sea ice in search of seals and walrus. .^^ - J • *». 40 ^ » -1:/ ^^^^^^^^^B'' j^ N I^^ ^H IE ^^^^ , ^Jtm l£L ^^^^ \^m '^^H^B^^ ' ' ■ J ^ imp i ^0^ ^ ' m «' 13 ^^ ^ • Pio. 61— Kaviak hunter with hand sled. When a hunter wishes to make a trip to the mountains in winter in search of reindeer and does not care to take dogs with him, he fre- quently loads his provisions, bedding, and gun on one of these light sleds and drags it to the camping place. The accompanying illustration (figure 61), from a photograph, rep- resents a deer hunter leaving St Michael with one of these sleds for a winter hunt iu the mountains backward from the coast. Both of the styles of sleds described are in common use over nearly the entire coast district visited. The runuers of the larger sleds are commonly shod with thin, flat strips of bone— sawed from the jawbone of a whale— of the same width as the runner, and fastened on with wooden pegs; the smaller 208 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 sleds commonly have the runners unshod, although sometimes strips of bone are used for that purpose. Figure 62 illustrates a sled from Plover bay, Siberia, which is the style used on St Lawrence island and the adjacent Siberian coast. It is modeled after those used by the Chukchi of eastern Siberia. The runners are made from pieces of driftwood; they are suboval in cross section, about 2 inches wide by IJ thick, and taper toward the front. To tlie front ends of the runners is lashed an overlapping piece of wood of the same width and about half an inch thick, which extends down the under side of the runner and is curved up over the back, reaching midway to the rear of the sled, where it is lashed to the end of a flat piece of wood which serves as the rail. Bowed pieces of reindeer horn are fixed in the tops of the runners, to which they are fastened by whalebone or rawhide lashings. Two flattened sticks extend from the top of the first bow to a little beyond the last one, to form a resting place for the bed of the sled and to which it is lashed. Crosspieces are then lashed to these sticks. On each side a bra(;e is formed by a rod of wood, which is lashed against the side of the stringer and to the Fig. 62 —Sled used on the Siberian shore of Bering strait. runner 15 inches in front of the rear end and extending obliquely for- ward under the bed. At the rear end a bow of wood is lashed to the last deerhorn bow under the bottom, forming a curve about 10 inches high above the bed; from each side of tliis, near the top, another bow extends forward and downward to the base of the second deerhorn bow, where it is firmly lashed. To serve as a shoe, a thin, flat piece of wood is fastened to the lower side of each runner by rawhide lashings X^assed through the runner and through holes in the shoe, which are countersunk, so that the friction against the surface of the snow or rocks shall not cut the cord. The load is fastened on these sleds with rawhide cords, and the attachment for hauling is made to the forward part of the runners and the first crosspiece. This form of sled is used with dogs by the Eskimo and sedentary Chukchi of the Asiatic coast, and with reindeer by the reindeer-using Chukchi of that region. Figure 1, plate Lxxvr, represents another stj'^le of sled, from St Lawrence island, used for transporting to the village the meat and blub- ber from the place where the game is killed. It is about 15 inches in length and the same in width, and has two stout, Avalrus-tusk run- ners about 15 inches long, an inch and a half deep, and two-tliirds of an BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXVI MODEL OF SLED FRAME, WITH OTHER OBJECTS USED IN TRANSPORTATION (Three-sixteenths) NELsoNj SLEDS — DOG HARNh:SS 209 iDch wide; they have a flange-like projecting edge along the outside of the upper border, and are held together by three rounded wooden crossbars 14 inches long, with two grooves in their ends, held in posi- tion by strong rawhide lashings that pass through two holes in the upper edges of the runners. The front ends of the runners are curved upward and have a large slot in them for attaching the cord by which the sled is hauled. In the rear end of each runner are two holes, in which are inserted stout rawhide loops, and a hole just in front of the second crossbar serves for another rawhide loop; these loops receive the lashings with which the load is held in place. DOCi HARNESS AND ACCOUTERMENTS The ordinary style of harness used for dogs is made of rawhide straps. It consists of a collar with a strap extending down from the back of the neck to the middle of the back, where it meets a strap which passes from the lower part of the collar between the fore-legs and up on each side over the ribs, to be attached to the back strap ; at this point is made fast the leading line, which is from three to five feet long, and is attached either directly to the front of the sled or to a single straight leading line fastened to the sled and extending forward to a distance sufficient for the attachment of all the dogs belonging to the team. When the team consists of more than three dogs, they are attached to the main leading line in pairs, with the most intelligent dog in front as a leader. When the load is very heavy, or the dogs are too numerous to work well in a single team, they may be attached to thefoiward stanchions, sometimes one or even two on each side, in addition to the team in front. On the islands of Bering strait and along the Asiatic coast, long- handle whips are used for driving dogs; specimens of these were obtained on Sledge, King, and St Lawrence islands. The handles of the whips from King and St Lawrence islands are round rods of spruce, a little over forty inches in length, and have rawhide lashes fastened to them with sinew cord. One of these whips from St Lawrence island (figure 15, plate lxxvi) has a lash made from a piece of sealskin, with the edges sewed together, forming a round cord, with a slender strip of sealskin at the tip for a cracker. On the handle is a ferule of walrus ivory, rudely represent- ing the head of a white bear; the end of the handle is wedged into the ferule, which jirojects spur-like on one side. A King island whip (number 45407) has a stout lash made of a piece of walrus hide, with a small rawhide cracker at the tip. At the butt of the handle is a round ivory ferule, sloping to a flaring rim, which extends around it. The use of these whips also extends to the main- land of the American coast at Cape Prince of Wales, and thence north- ward to Point Hope on the Arctic coast. 18 ETH 14 210 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 The Eskimo to the southward of Bering strait use short-handle whips with a long lash, generally of braided rawhide, largest just in front of its attachment to the handle and tapering to a point at the end, which is provided with a sealskin cracker. The ferules used on the handles of these whips vary considerably in form, as is shown in the specimens illustrated. One example, from St Lawrence island (figure 7, plate lxxvi), is slightly spoon-shape in outline, projecting spur-like on one side. A round ferule from the Diomede islands (figure 11, plate lxxvi) is of walrus ivory and has a lobe-like projection on each side. Figure 9, plate lxxvi, shows a round ivory ferule from Sledge island, w^ith a carving representing the head of a white bear projecting on one side. Another, from Point Hope (figure 10, plate lxxvi), is a small ivory specimen with a flattened spur on one side. In many localities I found in use swivels made of bone, deerhorn, ivory, or wood, which were fastened to the cords by which dogs were attached to stakes or other objects, to prevent the cords from becoming twisted by the movement of the animals. Figure 13, plate lxxvi, represents a large wooden swivel of this kind from Eazbinsky, on the lower Yukon. It consists of a round wooden rod, deeply notched on one side, with a hole pierced through the head formed by the notch, through which is inserted a stout wooden rod with a large head. In the opposite ends of the two rods are holes in which cords are fastened. Swivels exactly similar in design, but made of deerhorn or ivory, were obtained on the Diomede islands, St Lawrence island, on Kowak river at the head of Kotzebue sound, and at Point Belcher on the Arctic coast. Figure 2, plate lxxvi, represents one of these ivory swivels from the Diomede islands. Another style of swivel used similarly to the preceding, as well as on dog harness to prevent the lines from becoming twisted, is made by inserting a large-head rod of deerhorn or ivory in a hole in the center of a square or oval block of the same material, around the borders of which are four holes, to which are attached cords with their ends fastened together a few inches beyond their starting points. Figure 12, plate lxxvi, shows such a swivel from Unalaklit, made of deer- horn, with a square block on the head. Another swivel of this char- acter, with an oval head (figure 6, plate lxxvi), is from Cape Nome. A similar specimen was obtained on Kowak river. A deerhorn swivel from the lower Yukon (figure 8, plate lxxvi) has a head roughly triangular in shape, with two holes for the lines ; through another hole in the center is a deerhorn rod with a large head and with a hole at the small end for the attachment of a cord. In addition to swivels, small, double eye blocks are also commonly used on dog harness ; these are cut from bone, deerhorn, or ivory, and have holes passing through them in two directions. Blocks of this NKLsoN] DOG HARNESS BREAST YOKES 211 character were obtained from various localities between Norton sound and Point Hope, on the Arctic coast, and thence across Bering strait to the coast of Siberia, and on St Lawrence island. Figure 4, plate lxxvi, illustrates a small ivory block of this charac- ter, from St Lawrence island. It is somewhat pear-shape, with a hole through one end, surrounded by a lip or bead-like elevation ; this hole and a groove on each side are intended to receive a permanent cord. In a direction transverse to this hole is a larger one, through which the cord is passed in making a temporary attachment. Another of these blocks from St Lawrence island (figure 5, plate lxxvi) has an incised groove, forming a neck, between the two holes. Some of these blocks are very rudely shaped, as is shown in figure 3, plate LXXVI, from St Lawrence island. This example is cut without any attempt to round ofi' the corners. Another very plainly made specimen was obtained at TJnalaklit. In addition to the use of dogs for hauling sleds, it Is a common prac- tice among the Eskimo when traveling in summer to put their dogs on shore and harness them to a long line attached to the bow of the boat, one of the party remaining on shore to drive the dogs, which travel along the beach and pull the boat. By the employment of this means much labor is saved. BREAST YOKES From Nunivak island southward beyond the mouth of Kuskokwim river the people are in the habit of using breast yokes when carrying heavy burdens on their backs; they are made of flattened pieces of wood, crescentic in form, with a hole at one end through which a cord is fastened; at the other end is a knob-like enlargement, with a notch on its outer side, over which a loop on the end of the cord can be slipped. Figure 14, j)late Lxxvr, illustrates one of these breast yokes, which was obtained on Nunivak island by Doctor W. H. Dall. It consists of a flattened board, slightly crescentic in shape, about three inches wide and half an inch- in thickness. On the curved front is carved in relief a human face, the eyes, mouth, and nostrils being incised, as are also four parallel lines extending downward from near the corners of the mouth, to represent tattooing; across the front each way from the face is a broad groove which narrows to a point at the outer end, along each edge of which are set six small reindeer teeth. The face, grooves, and tips of the yoke are painted red; the remainder of the front and upper border is black. Doctor Dall obtained another yoke of this kind on Nunivak island; it has a beveled front and a slight ridge along the cen- ter, which is narrow in the middle but broader toward the ends. A yoke from Chalitmut (number 36023) is constricted in the middle and expanded into a wing-like form toward each end. 212 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BKKING STRAIT [ETH. AXX. 18 SNOWSHOES Auioug the western Eskimo siiowslioes are in common use. They are of the greatest service for traveling, both over the sea ice and on land, and aie nsed by both men and women, but more largely of coarse by men, as their more active life necessitates almost constant travel while hunting, visiting netting places on the ice, or traps on the shore. For traveling on land, where the snow is solter and deeper than on the sea ice, suowshoes with larger and finer netting are nsed. Figure 63 represents snowshoes, used for land travel, which were obtained near the head of Norton bay. They are made of two pieces of wood, sjdiced in front where they curve upward at the toe, held together by means of Fio. 63 — Snowshoes from Norton bay. two crossbars in the middle, before and behind the foot-rest. The net- ting in front of the first crossbar is hexagonal in shape, and in the rear consists of ten cords passing through holes in the hindmost crossbar and converging to the thong that binds the frame together at the heel. The foot-rest is on a stout netting made of widely spaced crosscords attached to the framework on the sides as well as to the crossbars. This is the general style of snowshoe worn about the shores of Norton sound and thence southward to the Kuskokwim, and n\) lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. Various forms of coarsely netted snowshoes are used on the sea ice at difierent points along the coast. Figure G4 shows the style of snowshoe used at Cape Dar))y. The frame is in two pieces, rounded in cross section and tapering in front, where they are curved strongly upward at the ends which overlap and NELSON] SNOWSHOES 213 -are lashed together. At the heel the rim tapers backward to a point and is held together by a rawhide lashing; the toe netting is replaced by a cord passing from side to side and two other crosscords which pass diagonally from near the point of the upturned toe to holes in the front of the crossbar. The foot rest is made of a strong cord of rawhide passed through holes in the side of the frame and over the Fig. 64 — Snowslioe from Cape Darby. front and rear of the crossbars, forming a pattern somewhat similar to that in the shoes used on land. A roughly oval shoe from Icy cape (figure 65) is rudely made and pointed at the heel. The spaces in front and behind tlie crossbars are filled with fine netting of babiche, which is fastened through holes in the rim. The foot-rest is made by rectangular netting fastened through holes in the sides of the framework and over the front and rear cross- bars. These shoes are intermediate in character between those used on land and the ones intended for service on sea ice. A short, stoutly made shoe from St Lawrence island (figure 66) has. the framework oblong in cross section, with the corners slightly rounded and turned upward abruj^tly at the toe, the curve commenc- FiG. 05 — Snowshoe from Icy cape. ing immediately in front of the first crossbar. The ends of the side- pieces meet at the toe and are held firmly together by a lashing Of whalebone passed through holes. The rear crossbar is close to the heel, which is held in position by the end of the cord used for the foot- rest, which passes through a hole on one side, and, crossing the trian- gular space behind the last crossbar, is tied through a hole in the 214 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 opposite side. The space between the front and rear crossbars occupies almost the entire area of the slioe and is crossed by a stent netting of rectangular pattern, with some of the strands passing diagonally, pro- ducing a combination of patterns. These coarsely netted shoes are intended for use upon frozen snow or on the rough surface of the sea ice, for "which purposes they are very serviceable, as the masses of broken ice have many small openings large enough for the foot to i)ass through, which render traveling very difficult without such assistance. By aid of these shoes hunters are enabled to travel safely and fre- quently to pass over weak places where newly made ice would not otherwise support them. On the Asiatic coast the Eskimo use snow- shoes similar to those from St Lawrence island that have been described, and others rather more elougated but similar in general pattern. Fig. 66 — Snowshoo from St Lawrence i.sluud. ICE STAFFS When traveling or hunting on the sea ice there is great risk of breaking through thin places which have been concealed by drifted snow. To guard against this danger the people are in the habit, at certain seasons, of carrying a stout wooden staff with a strong ivory or bone point, two or three inches long, inserted in the lower end and fastened by a strong wrapping of sinew. Around the base of this point is fastened a hoop of bone or deerhoru, hung to the staff by a cord passed through a hole above the point. A ring of bone or horn surrounds the base of the point, and between it and the outer hoop strong cross-lashings of rawhide form a sort of netting. In walking over suspicious places in the ice the traveler plants the staff solidly before him previous to taking a step; if the ice be thin the point of the start" goes through, but the hoop comes in contact with a broader surface and prevents the start' from sinking farther. In this way NELSON] ICE STAFFS AND CREEPERS 215 Fig. 67— Ice staff (J). the weight of the man is distributed over three points, and thus he is often enabled to pass over places which otherwise would not support him. These stafts are also used in summer travel. During this season the tundras are covered with tussocks and soft beds of sphagnum, which render walking excessively laborious and difficult. By use of the staff the traveler is enabled to walk more safely, and by lessen- ing the weight on his feet, does not sink so deeply in spongy patches of moss or in semi- marshy ground. Figure 67 illustrates one of these ice staffs from Cape Nome. An ice staff" from Point Barrow (figure G8) consists of a round wooden staff nearly five feet in length, the lower end being tipped with a cap of ivory, held in place by a pin through its base. Through the upper end is a hole, in which is a sealskin loop for hang- ing the staff on the wrist. ICE CREEPERS Ice creepers are used to i)revent the feet from slipping while traveling over the sea ice or frozen snow in spring. In some of them the central groove is deepened to form an oblong slot, piercing through, and on others the points are formed in groups near each end. Figure 69 (3) represents a pair of ice creep- ers from Cape Darby, consisting of small, fiat, oblong ivory rods 3^ inches in length, with the upper surface slightly rounded and the lower side having a deep, flat groove extend- ing lengthwise along the middle, leaving two high ridges that are crossed by deep grooves, producing a row of pyramidal points along each edge. The ends are provided with two holes, in which are fastened the rawhide cords by which the creepers are attached to the sole of the boot. A pair of ice creepers from St Lawrence island (figure 69, 5) are in the form of flat, ivory bars, about 4 inches long and an Fio.cs-ice inch wide. Eight small holes are drilled into the lower sur- ^*"' ^*'' face, in which are inserted small, round-pointed iron spikes; there are 216 THE ESKIMO AROUT BERING STRAIT [etii.ann. 18 two holes through each end for the cords by which they ure fastened to the foot. Figure 69 (1 and Irt) show the upper and lower surftices of a broader and heavier pair of ice creepers from the Diomede islands. They are turned up at the ends to retain them in place on the foot, and have four rows of pyramidal points along the lower surface. Figure 69 (2 and 4), from St Michael and St Lawrence island, respec- tively, represent ivory creepers with a row of pyramidal points along each side. Through the middle, between the rows of points, is cut a Fig. 69— Ice creepers (4). long, rectangular slot, and in the ends of eacli are holes for the cords by which they are fastened on. Other creepers of similar style were obtained from Plover bay on the Siberian shore. BOATS The Eskimo of the Alaskan coast, the islands of Bering strait, and the coast of Siberia use large open boats, varying in length from fifteen to forty feet, and made by covering a wooden framework with seal- skin or walrus-hide. These are the umiaks so well known from their use by Greenlanders. Among the people from the head of Norton sound and northward to Point Barrow, these boats are known as u'-mV-dli ; among the Unalit of the eastern shore of Norton sound and southward they are called an'-ijiOc. They vary in size according to locality or to the purpose for which they are made, and their pattern also varies slightly with the locality. Originally they were propelled by paddles, after which slender-blade oars were adopted in some locali- ties, and these are still used. Although oars are in common use, yet it is not rare to see umiaks l)ropelled wholly by paddles, as was done in ancient times. Paddles TJITIVERSITY NELSON] BOATS, OARS, AND SAILS 217 were seen in use at Cape Prince of Wales on Bering strait, and at points northward and southward from that locality. The oars are held in place usually by means of a rawhide lashing made fast, on the inside of the boat, to the framework. The steering is always done with a large, broad-blade paddle. In an(!ient times sails sometimes were improvised by sewing together grass mats and putting them up between two long sticks, which were fastened to the framework of the umiak and stayed by means of cords so as to extend upward and outward in V-shape form, one from each side of the boat. Later, after the arrival of white men, a single upright mast with stays and with blocks made from bonej)r ivory, were adopted in imitation of the rigging used on the ships of the strangers. Sails were next made from the skins of reindeer or other animals, sewed to a proper size and shape and fastened to a,^ard, which was raised or lowered by tackle made of walrus-hide cord passed through an ivory or bone block or through a hole in the upper end of the mast. Some sails are still made of old deerskins or light sealskins sewed together, but many are seen of light canvas ot drijiiug obtained from vessels or through fur traders. : , , v The framework of these boats is formed of neatly shaped pieces cut from driftwood and lashed together with rawhide cords, whiih are passed through holes drilled in the wood, as shown in the model, from St Michael, illustrated in plate Lxxvii, 38. The covering, is of heavy sealskin or walrus-hide, tanned toxemove the hair, sewed into proper shape, and drawn over the framework. In the edges many little slits are cut, tlirough which is passed the cord which laslies it to the frame- work on the inside under the rail. After it is in pla,ce the lashings are drawn tightly and permitted to dry; as it contracts the cover becomes as tight as a drumhead, after which several coats of seal 6il. are applied to the outside and allowed to become thoroughly dry,; jvheu the cover becomes impervious to water for a week or ten days, at the expiration of which time it becomes water-soaked and it is then^neces- sary to haul up the boat on the shore aud, after allowing it to dry, to give it another coating of oil, otherwise the skins would rot. Travel- ing is done by day, and at night the boats are hauled up on the beach and turned bottom up or upon one edge, so that they may dry during the night. When treated carefully in the manner described, the cover of an umiak will last for several years. In comparison with the Norton sound umiaks, I noticed that the boats used by the people of Bering strait have somewhat less sheer to the sides and are provided with flaps of sealskin about two feet wide, which are attached along the rail and folded down inside the boat in fair weather; in .rough weather these flaps are raised and held in place by stout sticks lashed to the framework around the sides and their ends thrust into a series of holes or slots along the upper edge of the flap. In addition to these, the people of Bering strait carry sealskin 218 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 floats, which are inflated and lashed under the rail on the outside, to prevent the boat from swamping. Sometimes umiaks are driven out to sea by storms and their occu- pants are unable to regain the shore, when the dashing spray and the waves soak the cover and the rawhide lashings of the frame until they relax and the boat collapses, drowning all on board. From Kotzebue sound northward the umiaks are very similar to those of l!irorton sound, but are slightly narrower. At the former place, during the summer of 1881, I saw a number of umiaks, each of which had a figure of a man painted roughly in black close to the bow. The umiaks of the Yukon and adjacent country, and thence southward, are commonly ornamented, on the middle of each side, with the fig- ure of a mythic, alligator like animal called pal-rai'-yuk; the head, with open mouth and projecting tongue, is close to the bow, while the tail reaches the stern (figure 15G). The umiaks seen among the Eskimo south of East cape, Siberia, at Mechigme bay, St Lawrence island, and Plover bay, were all very much narrower than those of Norton sound, and with very little sheer to their sides ; some of them seemed to have almost perpendicular sides. All of the umiaks used in the latter region are provided with a set of sealskin floats to fasten along the outside below the rail in rough weather, which render the boats very buoyant, and but little water can be shipped even in very stormy weather. With their boats fitted in this manner with inflated floats, these people sail fearlessly along their stormy coasts and cross back and forth between the mainland and St Lawrence island. The oars used in the umiaks of the American mainland are kept in position by means of rawhide stays, which are attached firmly to a notch in the part of the oar which rests on the rail; the stays extend fore-and-aft a short distance and are fastened to the side pieces on the inside below the rail. The steering is i^erformed with a broad-blade pad- dle. On St Lawrence island oarlocks have been copied from those seen on whaling vessels. An example of these (figure 34, plate lxxviii), made of oak, is provided with a pin to fit in a hole in the rail of the boat, and its upper portion is pierced to receive the oar. Figure 19, plate lxxviii, represents an ivory block, from Sledge island, used for the rigging of an umiak. Another form of these blocks, from the same place, is shown in figure 20 of the same plate. A hand- somely made little block from Cape Nome (figure 21, plate lxxviii), has the head of a seal carved in relief on the lower side. A smaller boat or canoe, called Jcai'alc, is also used along the Ameri- can coast and the adjacent islands; but I have never seen one among the people of the Siberian coast nor among the St Lawrence islanders. It is decked over, except a hole amidships, where the navigator sits. They vary somewhat in size and shape in diflereut localities, but the general plan of construction is the same. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY MODEL OF UMIAK FRAME AND APPURTENANCES OF UMIAK AND KAIAK RIGGING (three-sixteenths) NELSON] KAIAKS 219 The frame consists of small strips of wood running lengthwise and brought together at the bow and stern ; they are connected by curved ribs, placed at short intervals and fastened by rawhide cords; the bow has a stem piece of wood, roughly triangular in form; another piece at the stern is flattened, but varies in form according to the style of the kaiak in which it is placed. The rail is formed of a strong piece of wood, into which the upper ends of the ribs are mortised, holding the rail in place and forming a support for the deck of the boat, in the middle of which is a circular opening, forming the manhole, surrounded by a wooden hoop, which is fastened to two pieces extending to the bow and stern, and resting on the cross-pieces which support the deck. On each side of the manhole is a short stanchion mortised into the rail and the lower side of the rim of the manhole. The entire surface is covered with sealskins, tanned with the hair taken off, and sewed together with sinew cord. The seams are oiled or coated with reindeer tallow, and the entire surface of the boat is thoroughly covered with oil, which is permitted to dry before the boat is placed in the water. In front of the manhole the deck is crossed from side to side by two stout rawhide cords, three or four feet apart, and one or two similar cords are placed at the back of the manhole; slipped on these cords at the rail, on each side, are spur-like pieces of deerhorn, ivory, or bone, which project upward and form a rest on which may be placed the paddle or the hunting spears. Commencing with the kaiaks in use at l^univak Island, the following descriptions show the different forms used successively along the coast nearly to Point Barrow : Figure 2, plate lxxix, illustrates a kaiak from Nunivak island, 15 feet 1 inch long, 14 inches deep, with 29 inches beam. Another kaiak, from the same island (figure 1, plate lxxix), is 15 feet 1 inch long, 14 inches deep, and has 29 inches beam. These kaiaks are heavily made, the framework being strong and stoutly built, in order to withstand the stormy seas which they have to encounter about this island. A similar form is in use on the coast of the adjacent mainland. The manhole is placed a trifle back from the center; the rim is lashed to the rail by rawhide cords ; the cross-pieces which support the deck are upcurved toward the middle, forming a ridge, on the top of which is lashed a stout stick extending each way from the manhole to the bow and to the stern, where it projects as a short, handle-like, quadrate spur; below this the stern slopes downward, with a slight slant toward the front. The wooden parts on top of the bow -are cut out, forming a large, round opening just above the rail, around which the skin cover- ing is cut away. On some of the kaiaks this opening is made to repre- sent the eye of some mythological animal, the mouth of which is painted in black on the outside of the covering. In front of the stern are two loops of cord, which are attached to the central ridge, and hang on each side, so that the shafts of the spears, which lie on the ivory rests, may be thrust into them and their points placed under the crosscord to 220 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 hold them firmly in place. The cross section of these kaiaks is slightly rounded along the keel, with a stronger broken curve along each side to the rail. Figure 3, plate lxxix, shows a kaiak from St Michael. It is 16 feet S^ inches long aiid 12 inches deep, with 27^ inches beam. The kaiaks of Xorton sound are made ligliter and narrower than those from Xunivak island. They are essentially the same in the plan of framework except that the projecting stern extends out even with the spur-like point of the top-piece, which reaches back from the man- hole. In the bow this top piece extends forward to the upturned point of the stem, leaving a broad, slot like interspace. When these kaiaks are covered, the covering follows the point of the stem and of this cen- tral piece so as to leave an open space. The same is done at the stern, so that there is a slot-like opening there. This projecting point at the stern serves as a handle for lifting the kaiak, as does the projecting point of the centerpiece at the bow. The central ridge, produced by the stick fastened along the top of the ui>turned crosspieces of the deck, is similar to that in the kaiaks from Nunivak island. Figure 4, plate lxxix, represents a kaiak from King island. It is 15 feet 3 inches long, 13J inches deep, and has 28i inches beam. These kaiaks are comparatively sliort and broad, with an upcurved bow very similar in form to that of the Nunivak island type, and with the same kind of circular opening through the bow piece. The stern is quite different, however, as it extends back from the manhole nearly straight for a short distance and then curves regularly down to the level of the keel point. These kaiaks are strongly made; they are used in the Btormy waters of the strait, and sometimes are taken even to the Sibe- rian coa^st of the strait and to St Lawrence island. The kaiaks of ^univak island and of Bering strait are curiously alike in general form, corresponding in a broad bottom and in the strength of their framework. The Nunivak island kaiaks, however, are sometimes twice the size of those used in Bering strait, and at times the bow is very strongly upcurved and the projecting end piece on the top of the stern extends out, or out and down, so that the point reaches halfway to the level of the keel. At Kushunuk and Askinuk, as well as along the southern border of the Yukon mouth, the Nunivak island style of kaiak is in use, but to the northward it gives way to the type used in Norton sound. South- ward from Is^univak island there is a decrease in the size and height until they reach their minimum in the Aleutian islands. The kaiaks in use on the shores of Kotzebue sound are much smaller and slenderer than those found elsewhere along the Alaskan main- land, and are built on a somewhat different model. This style of kaiak is found from Kotzebue sound northward to Point Barrow, but at the latter place they are made about one-fourth longer thaii in Kotzebue sound, and as their width is but little greater, they are proportion- ately slenderer. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXIX t KAIAKS (ABOUT ONE-FORTIETH) vJB'uTr TMM ^NlVERsiTT NEi^oN] KAIAKS 221 A kaiak from Cape Krusenstern (figure G, plate lxxix) is 17 feet 3 inches in length, 8 inches in dej^th back of the manhole, and has 18 inches beam. Another, from Cape Espenberg (figure 5, plate lxxix), is 14 feet 4 inches long, 13 inches deep, and has 24 inches beam. These are examples of the Kotzebue sound kaiaks. They are long, slender, and sharp-pointed at both ends; the manhole is placed somewhat back- ward of the center, and the deck is flat from the rear of the manhole to the stern. Just in front of the manhole the deck is sprung upward by means of the upcurved cross pieces so as to form a rising slope, which extends back to the rim of the manhole. This curving surface is brought to a central ridge by means of a strip of wood bound along the tops of the upcurviug cross-pieces. The manhole is fitted into position along the rear of this raised i)ortion, with its borders sloping down and backward to the lower flat deck behind. These kaiaks lie very low in the water, and the upsprung curve of the deck just in iront of the manhole serves to throw oft' the water and prevent the. full force of the waves from striking against the occupant. Kaiaks with two or three manholes are now used to a limited extent along the Alaskan coast. These have been introduced by the Russian traders from the Aleutian islands, but they are rarely used by the natives. They are ordinarily made for the convenience of white men, who can thus utilize native labor to propel them. In journeying on rivers or along the coast, the Eskimo frequently fasten two kaiaks side by side by lashing cross-sticks against the front and rear of the manholes with rawhide cord. A kind of platform of sticks is also made across the deck, on which small loads of goods are placed. These are fixed usually behind the manhole, although at times a load is carried both before and behind the occupant. On one occasion, near St Michael, I saw two kaiaks lashed together in this way, with a man in each, and just behind them was placed a small pile of household goods, consisting mainly of bedding, upon which sat a woman. In front a small mast, held in position by guys, had been raised on a crosspiece lashed on the decks near the front crosscords, and a small sail, made from parchment-like gut skin, was raised. This odd-looking vessel was making very good time on a small stream before the wind. In rough weather at sea hunters frequently lash their kaiaks together in pairs in order to rest or to prevent accident. When the Corwin reached King island, in Bering strait, one stormy day in the summer of 1881, the islanders lashed their kaiaks in pairs, and came oft" with piles of furs and other articles of trade heaped up on the decks behind the manholes. The rim of the manhole is made slightly flaring or with the cover constricted just beneath it next to the deck. Around this constriction a cord is passed, which fastens down the borders of the waterproof frock worn by the occupant in rough or wet weather. With this gar- ment lashed down it is impossible for any water to reach the interior. 222 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eih.ann. 18 When occupied by skilful paddle-men these boats are very difficult to upset and will ride through extremely rough weather in safety. I was told that some of the most skilful among the coast people could upset their kaiaks and right them again by the use of the paddle, but the old men said this feat was now becoming rare as the young hunters were degenerating and were not as good kaiak men as formerly. BOAT HOOKS Boat hooks are used by the men on umiaks and kaiaks all along the coast and on the islands, the principal difference in them being in the larger size of those used on the umiaks. These boat hooks are of great service, particularly to men on kaiaks when landing on rocky shores or upon the ice, and those having pointed sj)urs at the butt are used for fending off ice when paddling about at sea during spring and autumn. Figure 1, plate lxxx, illustrates a stout boat hook, 6 feet in length, for use in a umiak, which was obtained on Norton sound. The end of the shaft has a strong bone point lashed against a shoulder with rawhide cords; a foot inward from the lower end a strong spur of deerhorn is lashed against the side, from which it projects at a right angle. This is the style of boat hook commonly used on umiaks, the shafts varying from 6 to 8 feet in length. A boat hook intended for use on a kaiak, obtained at Golofnin bay, is shown in figure 3, ijlate lxxx. It is 4 feet 9 inches in length; the shaft is rounded and tapering, with a long, spur-like hook of walrus ivory set in a notch near its end and held in place by lashing with strips of whalebone passed through holes in the spur and shaft. This hook is flattened triangular in cross section; the inner edge is thin, but it broadens toward the back; it projects backward toward the end of the shaft and ends in a tapering point. Boat hooks of this kind are common from the mouth of the Kusko- kwim to Kotzebue sound, and vary but little in shape and in the form of the spur or hook. The backs of these ivory hooks are covered with conventional patterns of diagonally etched lines, <;rossed by long, hori- zontal grooves. This pattern is common on these implements over a wide extent of territory. A specimen in the National Museum (num- bered 73797) was brought from Taku harbor, in southeastern Alaska. It is made of walrus ivory and is marked with the pattern described. Figure 15, plate Lxxviii, shows an ivory hook from Sledge island, which has two points at one end and the other fashioned into the form of a seal-head. Another small ivory hook of this kind (figure 26, plate lxxviii) has three walrus-heads along the back. A long ivory hook from TJnalaklit (figure 23, plate lxxviii) has etched upon it a conven- tional pattern of straight lines and the raven totem sigu. A deerhorn hook from Askinuk (figure 25, plate lxxviii) has the back carved to represent the head of a walrus, the outlines of the flippers NELSON] BOAT HOOKS AND PADDLES 223 being etched on the sides of the hook. A hook from Big lake (figure 22, plate lxxviii) has two raised heads extending along each side near the middle. Another, from the same place (figure 24, i)late lxxviii), has the back carved into the form of the head and body of a wolf, with etched lines below on the sides to represent the legs. A boat hook from Sledge island (figure 5, plate lxxx) has a strong wooden shaft, 3 feet 9 inches long, grooved along both sides. It has a double point hook of deerhorn bound to one side by a rawhide lashing, which passes through two holes in the shaft and through corresponding holes in the hook. The other end of the shaft is heavily grooved crosswise to afford a firmer grasp. These double-point hooks are frequently notched at the ends, so that the points become double, as shown in the specimen from St Michael, illustrated in figure 18, j)late lxxviii. Boat hooks of this style are commonly used for drawing out articles from the interior of kaiaks which can not be reached with the hand. An ivory hook (figure 17, plate lxxviii) obtained on Norton sound by Mr L. M. Turner, has a forked point at one end and the head of a seal carved on the other. A boat hook from the lower Yukon (figure 2, plate lxxx) has a round handle, three feet in length, with a deerhorn hook lashed with spruce roots to one side of the end; the lashing passes through two holes in the handle, then through a corresponding hole near the outer end of the hook, and around a notch at the base. The holes in the handle, through which the loops pass, are plugged with wooden pins to bind the lashings. A detached hook for a similar implement from the lower Yukon, shown in figure 16, plate lxxviii, has its surface covered with a heavily etched pattern. A short boat hook from the lower Kuskokwim (figure 4, plate lxxx) has a backward -pointed spur of deerhorn near one end, which is held in place by rawhide lashings through holes in the hook and in the shaft. A pointed spur of deerhorn at the butt is set in a groove in the same side as the hook at the other end, and is fastened by strong rawhide cords passed through holes in the spur and thence around the notched shaft. The ends of the lashings at each end of the hook are inserted in slits made in the shaft with a flat-point chisel of bone or ivory. PADDLES In Kotzebue sound the blades of the paddles used on umiaks are made rounded and very short. Korth of this district-, at Point Hope, the paddle blades are lanceolate in shape, broadest near the handle, and taper downward to a long, sharp point. The paddles used on kaiaks are made in two forms, one having a blade at each end and the other being provided with a single blade. The forms of the blades vary according to locality. The single-blade paddles have the handles terminating in a crossbar, which is sometimes 224 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT Ieth.ann.18 cut from the same piece of wood, and at other times is formed from a separate i)iece pierced with a hole, by which it is fitted on the end of the handle. Figure 29, plate Lxxviii, shows one of these crosspieces for a paddle handle from the lower Yukon. It is made of bone, is oval in outline, and is provided with a projecting lip on the lower side, through which is a round hole for putting on the end of the handle. Figure 70a represents an umiak paddle used in Kotzebue sound, and figure 70 & shows a form of umiak paddle seen at Point Hope. The kaiak paddles used by the people of Nunivak island and the adjacent mainland are neatly made and frequently ornamented, in red and black paint, with figures forming the private marks or totem signs of the owner. The Bering strait islanders decorate their kaiak paddles in patterns of red and black, which probably form totem and ownership marks. Figure 71 b represents a double-blade paddle from King island. It is about 8 feet long and the handle is suboval in cross section. The blades are long, narrow, and tiat on the surface which is to be used Fig. 70— Forms of umiak jiaddles. against the water, and are strengthened along tlie backs by a ridge down the middle. One of the blades is painted black and the other red, and the handle is surrounded by red and black bands. Another double-blade paddle, obtained at Point Barrow by Lieutenant Ray (figure 71 rt), is 7 feet in length, with the blades nearly flat on both sides and much broader and more rounded than those of the preceding speci- men. The backs of the blades have a very slight ridge running down the center. A single-blade paddle from King island (figure 9, i)late Lxxx) has a large, broad >)lade, with a central ridge on the outside. The lower two-thirds of the blade is painted black, and a triangular spot of black is marked on each side; the edge of the blade, where it joins the handle at the upper end, is also black, with a ring extending around the handle. All of these black markings are bordered by a narrow line of red and constitute the private marks of the owner. Another single-blade kaiak paddle, from Kushunuk (figure 7, plate LXXX), has a crosspiece fitted on the top of the handle by means of a square hole. The blade is long and slender and is tipped with black for a short distance; this is succeeded by several bands, varying in width, alternately of red, black, and uncolored wood. The handle near the KAIAK AND UMIAK PADDLES 225 blade is surrounded by a broad, black baud, with a red band above and another below it. Figure 8, plate lxxx, represents one of a pair of single-blade kaiak paddles from Kushunuk. It has a long, narrow blade, and the crossbar at the end of the handle is cut from the same piece. The paddle is marked with black lines and bars representing a female phallic emblem, one-lialf of the figure being on each of the two paddles forming the set. On each side of the crossbar are incised lines repre- senting the mouth, nostrils, and eyes of a semi- human face. On one side the mouth is curved downward, and on the other it is upcurved. The two paddles are exact duplicates as to their markings. A single-blade paddle from Big lake (figure 6, plate LXXX) is somewhat similar in form to the preceding. On the middle of the blade on each side is painted a red disk, surrounded by a black circle, from which a black band extends up the median ridge of the blade to its upper edge, where a black ring surrounds the handle; from this point to the tip the edge of the blade is Ijainted black. In the vicinity of the lower Kuskokwim the paddle blades are somewhat similar in shape, but vary in the character of the figures painted on them, which indicate the totems or the owner- ship marks of their makers. Figure 10, plate lxxx, illustrates a thin, sword- shape implement of wood, which was obtained at Cape Denbeigh. It is flat on one surface, down the middle of which extends a small groove, while the other surface is so ridged that the cross section forms a flattened triangle. It is employed by seal and walrus hunters for a double pur- pose— as a paddle for propelling the kaiak slowly and cautiously toward sleeping seals, and for striking the water with the flat side to frighten a wounded animal and cause it to dive again before it can take breath, and thus become exhausted more quickly. From the Chukchi of the Asiatic coast, northwest of Berin g strai t, I ob- tained a similar implement made from a lont^-, flat piece of whalebonis fitted to a wooden handle. Strips of bone cut from the jaw or rib of a whale are sometimes 18 ETH 15 Fig. 71— Kaiak paddles from Point Barrow and King island i-^). 226 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRA.IT [eth.ann. 18 lashed. to the rails of umiaks at the poiut where the oars pass over them to preserve the cover from wear by friction. One of these strips, obtained at Port Clarence by Dr Dall, is shown in figure 35, plate lxxviii. It is flattened below, with one edge turned down, forming a slight lip; the upper portion is rounded, and has a projecting shoulder to retain the lashing which binds it to the rail of the boat. SPEAR AND PADDLE GUARDS In Bering strait, where considerable whale lishing is done, small ivory or bone forks are lashed to the bows of umiaks, just inside and between the front ends of the rails; in these the ends of the lances and spears rest, and through them the lines run out. The projecting sides of these forks are usually carved in the form of the heads and shoulders of white bears. They are made in two pieces and are united in the middle by an ivory or bone block mortised in and fastened by wooden or ivory pegs. In some instances the two halves are lashed together by rawhide cords passed through holes; on the outer edges are holes through which pass the lashings which attach them to the bow. Figure 33, plate lxxviii, shows an example of these lance guards from the Diomede islands; another (figure 37, plate lxxviii) from Cai)e Prince of Wales, has been illustrated among the mythological figures to show the "thuuderbird" Wvhich is etched on its surface (see plate cviia). To prevent the spears and paddles from falling off the sloping deck of the kaiak, when not in use, there are used guards consisting of upstanding, spur-like pieces of bone, ivory, or deerhorn, which rest on the gunwale on each side, and are fastened to the crossline of the kaiak, which passes through a hole in the base. This base of the guard is flattened and sometimes heavily scored with grooves to give it a firmer hold against the surface of the skin covering. The guards are made in a variety of forms, the simplest of which is a subtriangular piece with the broad base downward. Figure 4, plate lxxviii, represents one of these guards, which was obtained at Kofiigunugumut; it is rounded in outline and narrow above, where it ends in the form of a tail of a white whale. Another, from Chalitmut (figure 3, plate lxxviii), is curv^ed over at the end and pierced with a narrow, pear-shape hole through the tip. Another simple form is a flattened, shell-like piece of ivory, having the bottom curved or flat for resting on the surface of the cover, with a thin, flattened or oval upturned point, the outer side of which is gen- erally covered with etched patterns. Sometimes the inner surface is also ornamented in the same manner. Figure 8, plate lxxviii, from Anogogmut; figure 10, plate lxxviii, from Kushunuk, and figures 7 and 9, ])late lxxviii, from Sfugunugumut, rei)resent examples of this kind of guard. NRLSON] SPEAR AND PADDLE GUARDS 227 Fig. 72— Ivory spear guard for kaiak (f ). In many cases these spear guards are made in the form of various animal figures. Figures 72 and 73 represent a pair of beautifully made ivory guards from Kaialigamut. One of them (figure 72) has the broad outer sur- face carved to represent grotesque semihuman features, and the upper end represents the face of a seal, while on the two sides are the figures of white whales. On the other (figure 73), on both sides, are carved semihuman faces, and on each side is the figure of a seal in relief, and terminating in the head of a seal. These are all beautifully executed carvings. A guard from Cape Vancouver (figure 12, plate Lxxviii) is in the form of a hand, with the palm pierced and a tuft of seal hair set in the back and held in place by a wooden plug. Another, from Cape Nome (figure 5, plate lxxviii), is carved in the shape of the head of a white bear. A rounded guard with truncated end (figure 13, plate lxxviii) is from Sfugunugumnt. A specimen from Agiukchugumut (figure 11, plate lxxviii) is in the form of the head and shoulders of a human being, with the hands repre- sented by a flipper etched on each shoulder. Another example from Cape Xome (figure G, plate lxxviii) is in the shape of the head of a white bear, with fragments of blue beads representing the eyes and another bead inlaid on the top of the head. On Nunivak island a somewhat different form of guard is made. It is carved in the shape of a seal or other animal, with the body some six or seven inches in length, and has a hole passing diagonally through the side, through which are passed the cross-cords. These figures then lie diagonally along the cover near the rail with the heads point- ing upward. Figure 14, plate lxxviii, repre- sents one of these guards, which is in the form of a land otter. Figure 2, plate lxxviii, shows an ivory guard, obtained at Kotzebue sound, of a pattern different from those generally used. The portion whicli rests on the cover of the kaiak is rounded above and tapers downward to a wedge-shape point; the upright part forms an obtuse point, which curves forward from the base. A similar guard, made from deerliorn, was obtained on Sledge island. For repairing broken ribs or for strengthening weak places in the frames of umiaks and kaiaks, strips of ivory or deerhorn are used as Fig. 73— Ivory spear guard for kaiak (j). 228 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 splices; holes are pierced tlirough tbe ends, or a sboulder is left across the upper side to retain the lashings by which they are fastened. Fig- ures 33 and 36, plate lxxviii, show examples of splices for. use on umiaks, collected on Sledge island. A small deerhorn splice, from St Michael, intended for use on a kaiak, is shown in figure 31, jAate lxxviii. It is pointed oval in outline, and has holes along the middle to receive the lashing. A longer splice, from Chalitmut (figure 30, plate lxxviii), is slightly hollowed below and convex on the outer side; it has two holes along the central line, which is grooved on the convex surface; the latter is crossed by numerous incised lines to prevent the lashings from slipping. When paddling about among the broken ice in spring and autumn there is danger of the skin covering of the kaiak being cut at the bow by floating pieces of ice; to lessen this risk protectors are made from deerhorn and bound on the bow at the water line. Figure 27, plate lxxviii, represents one of these protectors from Pikmiktalik; it is 7^ inches long, and is excavated within so as to form a hollow shoulder. One end terminates in a hollow, spoon-shape point, which rests against the bow above the water line. The lower end has a bar of the material left across it, which rests against the bow below the water line, thus j)ermitting the curve to enter the hollow but not to rest against the interior of the protector. Holes along the sides and three notches across the outer surface serve for the lashing by which it is attached to the bow of the boat. The sides are orna- mented with a conventional pattern of etched lines. A similar bow protector from Cape JSTome (figure 28, plate lxxviii) is made of deerhorn; it has holes along the sides for attaching it to the boat. This protector is not ornamented. The cross-cords for kaiaks are generally plain rawhide lines, but sometimes they are ornamented with beads carved from walrus ivory and strung on them. The commonest form of these represents an inflated sealskin float, generally alternated with round or elongated beads of ivor3% and ornamented with etched patterns or having the surfaces of the beads pierced with round holes, in which are inserted small, black wooden pegs. Figure 1, plate lxxviii, represents one of these cords from King island. The ornaments strung along it are held in place by wooden wedges, inserted in the holes through which the cord passes. Examples of similar cords were collected at points from Bristol bay to beyond Kotzebue sound. TRADE AND TRADING VOYAGES According to traditions of the Unalit, the people on the coast of Bering strait, in ancient times, made regular summer trading voyages back and forth across the strait. Old men told me of hiaving seen small pieces of cloth which had been brought by the people of East cape, NELSON] TRADING VOYAGES 229 Siberia, and sold as curiosities to the American Eskimo, before the Kus- siaiis took possession of the country. They also informed me that the use of tobacco was introduced among them, before they were brought into direct contact with white men, by means of trade with their Asiatic neighbors, who brought across Bering strait small bundles, called "hands," of Circassian leaf tobacco. In ancient times intertribal communication along the coast was irreg- ular and uncertain, owing to the hostile attitude of the people toward one another. For this reason trading was then confined to those villages which happened to be on friendly terms. Now the old barriers have been broken down, and active barter between the different communities has become a marked feature of their life. This is particularly the case among the people living between the Kuskokwim and Kotzebue sound. The numerous fur-trading stations which have been established among them, and the visits of trading vessels and whaling ships to the coast of Bering strait, have served to quicken and encourage among them the spirit of trade. In summer the people of Bering strait make visits to the head of Kotzebue sound and to the mouth of the Yukon, carry- ing the skins of tame reindeer purchased from the people of the Asiatic coast, for which they receive in barter skins of various fur-bearing animals that are used in turn for trading with vessels in Bering strait or with their Asiatic neighbors. For the latter purpose beaver and land-otter skins are the most highly prized, as the Chukchi of Siberia will always offer two full-size deerskins for one of either of the skins named. They cut them into strips for trimming the collars of their deerskin coats, and use them also for trading with the Russians. Parties of traders from East cape, Siberia, and the Diomede islands also make yearly voyages to Kotzebue sound, where the Eskimo of Kowak and Noatak rivers hold a sort of summer fair. After the sea freezes in winter, the Eskimo, who have thus obtained a stock of rein- deer skins, start out with dogs .and sledges to travel along the coast and barter for furs. In the winter of 1880 I met, on Norton sound, a sledge party of Eskimo, who were making a trading trip from Sledge island to Kotzebue sound. The Malemut along Kotzebue sound make trading trips southward to the Yukon, and even to their enemies, the Tinne, of Koyukuk river. The Malemut are the most energetic and enterprising of all the people of this region. They are great traders, and are more courageous and domineering than most of the natives with whom they deal, and are in consequence much disliked by the people with whom they come in contact. When, in 1873-'74, the reindeer suddenly left the shores of Norton sound, these people pushed on in family parties from point to point until, in 1877-78, they had reached Kuskokwim river, Nunivak island, and Bristol bay. During trading voyages there are carried from one part of the coun- 230 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 try to anotber beatls and other articles of use or ornament, as well as pieces of jadeite, which material, according to some of the Eskimo, is found in the mountains inland from Kotzebue sound and also on Kaviak peninsula. Small articles, such as green and red paint and wooden dishes, were sent out from the lower Yukon; and the people of other localities who have a surplus of seal oil, dried fish, and skins of various animals, take them to points where they can be exchanged for other desirable commodities. During one winter at St Michael the skin of a Siberian squirrel was brought to me by an Eskimo living on Norton sound, he having obtained it on Bering strait. The skin must have come from the inte- rior of Siberia. In the month of August, 1879, we were visited at St Michael by an umiak from Cape Prince of Wales, and another from King island. In July, 1881, a number of umiaks arrived from the former place. These all brought deerskins and tanned hides of seal and walrus for trade. The umiaks in full sail, crowded with fur-clad people, dogs, and their various possessions, made a very picturesque sight. Among the men were some Chukchi from the northern coast of Siberia. These were recognized by onr officers, who had spent a couple of weeks with them earlier in the season. The Chukchi generally start out on their trad- ing voyages in May, traveling along the shore with dog sleds, hauling on them their umiaks, which are folded, until they reach open water, when the sleds are left at some point and the umiaks set up; then, tak- ing the dogs and goods on board, they coast along the shore of Bering sound and over to the American side. Some of them even visit the Eussian fair at Ghigiga, near Anadyr river, during the winter to dis- pose of the furs they have gathered on their summer trading voyages. During one season an umiak came to St Michael from King island, but the people were poorly supplied with goods for trading, having only dried salmon and seal oil. As usual, they were very difficult to trade with on account of their slowness in closing a bargain. A man would bring in a bunch of dried fish, throw it on the floor, and then stand about as if he had no interest in anything going on, until asked what he wished; when the regular price was offered he would almost invariably refuse, and then a long talk would ensue, which ended either by his accepting what was offered or by taking away the fish. This slowness is common with these people. I was at a trading station on the head of Norton bay one winter when a Malemut chief wished to exchange some reindeer skins for various articles. It was in the evening, and after prolonged haggling, and changing one article for another, which lasted until 3 oclock next morning, half a dozen skins were finally bought from him. We retired and were hardly in bed before the man came back to exchange for other things some of the goods which he had taken. Finally the trader put him off until next day, when he again occupied a couple of hours before KELSON] TRADE AND TRADING VOYAGES 231 he was satisfied. This may be an extreme case, but it ilhistrates their general methods of trading. In July, 1881, we found at Hothara inlet a row of over 150 conical lodges set up for over a mile along the beach, which were occupied by Malemut from Selawik lake and natives from Kowak and i^oatak rivers. In 1880 Captain Hooper found about twelve hundred of these people encamped at Cape Blossom, but in 1881 the main camp had been located at Hotham inlet. When we arrived there we saw a small trading schooner lying off the village, surrounded by umiaks three or four deep and the deck crowded by a dense mass of the Eskimo. Tobacco, drilling, knives, ammunition, and other small articles were used to buy from them the skins of reindeer, wolves, black bear, arctic hare, red, white, and cross foxes, etc. As we proceeded up the coast a number of umiaks were seen on their way to the camp at Hotham inlet, and at many points we saw umiaks on trading trips up the coast, and some of the people told us that they had bought rifles and cartridges from the men of Cape Prince of Wales. At many places from Point Hope to Point Barrow we were offered whalebone, ivory, the skins of reindeer, mountain sheep, Parry's mar- mot, whistlers, and many white ajid red fox skins. Whisky and car- tridges seemed to be about the only articles desired by these people in exchange. This was unfortunate, considering the fact that the object of our visit to the coast was to prevent the sale of these very articles to the natives. Near Cape Lisburne we met nine umiaks containing about one hundred people from Point Hope, who were on their way to the vicinity of Point Barrow to trade. Their dogs were running along the shore, keeping abreast of the boats but stopping occasionally to howl dolefully. We obtained two photographs of their camp near our anchorage. While we were anchored in Kotzebue sound in September, several umiaks passed on their way back to Cape Prince of Wales from a trading voyage up the coast. One came alongside the Corwin that had a huge sail made by sewing numberless pieces of deerskin into a strange patchwork. To show the difficulty attending the navigation of these frail boats in Bering strait I will state that, although we made six passages through the strait during the summer of 1881, only once was it clear enough from fog to permit the high land of both shores to be seen. Among the islanders of Bering strait the main articles they had for barter were coils of rawhide line, tanned sealskins, and handsomely made, water- proof sealskin boots. At East cape and along the Siberian coast, including St Lawrence island, the articles of trade among the Eskimo were walrus ivory, whalebone, and the skins of white foxes and rein- deer. The St Lawrence islanders make frequent trading voyages to the Siberian coast, where they obtain reindeer skins for clothing. Formerly these people went along the American coast as far as Cape 232 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 Nome, but this has not occurred recently. On a clear day the head- land on the Siberian shore is visible from St Lawrence island, some 40 or 50 miles away. During the summer of 1879 the Tinne from Anvik, on the lower Yukon, descended the river in several umiaks and visited St Michael to exchange their wooden tubs and dishes for seal oil and other products of the coast district. UNITS OF TALUE AND MEASUREMENT— NUMERATION UNITS OF VALUE The skins of mammals, being the most valuable portable property among the Alaskan Eskimo, give the most convenient standard of value. In very early days, before the advent of the Russians about the Yukon district, the skin of the full-grown land otter was consid- ered the unit of value. Equaling it was the skin of the large hair seal. Of late years the skin of the beaver has replaced the otter skin as the unit of trade value. All other skins, furs, and articles of trade generally are sold as "a skin'' and multiples or fractions of <'a skin," as it is termed. In addition to this, certain small, untanned skins, used for making fur coats or blouses, are tied in lots sufficient to make a coat, and are sold in this way. It requires four skins of reindeer fawns, or forty skins of Parry's marmot or of the muskrat, for a coat, and these sets are known by terms designating these bunches. Thus: Four fawn skins — no-ukh' -Mt. Forty Parry's marmot skins = chigiTih' -kut. Forty muskrat skins = i-lig'-i-ivulch'-hut. The pelt of a wolf or a wolverine is worth several "skins" in trade, while a number of pelts of muskrats or Parry's marmot are required to make the value of ^'a skin." The foregoing terms are of the Unalit, but similar ones are in use among all the Eskimo of this region. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT All units of linear measurement among these people are based on body measurements — mainly of the hand and the arm, which form the readiest standards. Such units of measurement are used also by them for gauging the size and length of all of their tools, implements, and, in fact, of nearly everything made by them. As the length of a man's hands and arms are usually in proportion to the length of his body, it is evident that bows, arrows, spears, boat frames, etc, when made by him according to a fixed number of spans or cubits, will be in direct proportion to himself, and thus especially suit- able to his use, whether he be large or small. NELSON] UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 233 The following terms are from the LTnalit, and cover the units of measurement commonly in use, although others i)robably exist: Large, an-to'-uk. Small, mik' -i-lin' -u-iik. Ni-g'in' ' is the measurement of the length of the mesh in the largest seal nets used for the large hair seal or muk-luk. It is found by measuring a line from the lip of the extended thumb of the right hand across the palm of the hand, the fingers being closed. Nu-ki-shun' m-g'in' is the mesh of the small salmon (nH-ka') net. This is the dis- tance from the wrinkle or line dividing the first and second joints of the right fore- finger to the line midway between the base of the thumb and the forefinger. Tu-bukh-chun' ni-(ftn' is the size of the mesh used for nets for the large sea whitefish (tii-buk'). It is found by taking the width of the extended first three fingers on the palmar surface at the first joint. Tiifl-i-juk'-iohukh-clum' ni-g'ln' is the size of the mesh for the large salmon {tug-t- shuk'-ifhiik), and is measured from the base of the extended thumb along the inner surface of the hand to the tip of the extended first finger. I-ka' -thlu-ukh' -pukh-chnn ni-g'in' is the mesh for the herring seine (herring=t-fca'- thhi-nkh'-puk). The width of the inner surface of the two extended first fingers at the first joint. Siokh-chun' ni-g'in' is the mesh used in nets for the white whale (a'to'-uk). The tips of the extended thumbs are placed together and the measurement takeu on the palmar surface across both extended hands along the line of the thumbs. Tvn-iu-shnn' ni-ghxik' . The length of the rawhide line used for a reindeer snare is obtained by passing the cord twice around the sole of the left foot and drawing the double loop up to the groin while sitting on the floor with feet extended. Kai-okli' -hUkh-chnn' ni-g'in' is the mesh used iu nets for the Arctic hare (kai-okh'- hllk). It is determined by the width of the palm at the base of the fiugers. A-kiif-Hgikh-chun' ni-ghuk'. The length of the cord used for snaring ptarmigan {d-kuf -i-gtk) . The distance from the tip of the outstretched forefinger along the palm and the inner side of the forearm to the point of the elbow. Pci-lok' -tUkh-chun' kd'-bvi-xhd, the mesh used in nets for beaver {pd-lok' -tdk) . The distance around the head on a line with the middle of the forehead. U-niig'-u-mun is the distance from the tip of the extended left thumb, with fingers cloi^ed, along the inside of the extended arm to the armpit. K'okh-kog'-d-niik, the distance measured from the end of the left thumb across the palm of the closed hand, thence along the upper side of the outstretched arm and across the chest to the inner end of the right collar bone. Tuj'-i-mun', same as the last, but extended to the point of the right shoulder. I-ku' -yig-i-nug' -il-miik, same as the last, but extended to the point of the right elbow, the right arm being extended and flexed at the elbow. I-gv'-yi-gtlg'-i-nuk. This is the measurement used for making the stem, or bow- piece, of a kaiak. It is found by measuring from the tip of the extended forefinger, through the palm of the hand and along the inner side of the arm, to the point of the elbow, with the added width of the left forefinger, which is placed crosswise on the angle of the elbow. Ai' -hiig' -xi-nHk is a measurement used for making boot soles, the height of kaiak frames, etc. It is a span, or the distance between the outstretched tips of the thumb and the second finger of the right hand. Kih-u' is the height of a man's knees from the ground ; used in making dog-sleds. Ydg'-u-nuk. The distance from the tip of the extended left thumb, along the arm, across the chest, and to the tip of the extended right thumb. This is the most com- • Ni-g'in' is the name given to the gauge used in measuring meshes of nets of any kind. 234 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 raon unit of measure used amon^ these people. It is the regular measurement used for all objects having considerable length, such as rawhide lines, nets, cloth, etc. It is adopted by the fur traders, and is called a 'fathom.' By it cloth and other trading goods of that character are sold, the end of the article to be measured being taken in the left hand, with the extreme end opposite the tip of the left thumb, then the edge of the cloth is slid through the right hand and raised until it is drawn across the chest, nnder the chin, by the outstretched right hand; then the left hand drops its end and takes a new hold at the point of the right thumb, and so the operation is repeated until the desired length is obtained. CHRONOMETRY The Eskimo divide their time by moons, each moon being designated by the title of the most characteristic local phenomenon which accom- panies it. The following lists of mouths from varions localities agree in this. By the '' moons" all time is reckoned during the year, and dates are set in advance for certain festivals and rites. In addition to the moons, the year is frequently divided into four seasons according to the regular occupations that occur in each — but this is indefinite and irreg- ular as compared with the other method. In counting years they are referred to as winters — the winter being the most impressive x)art of each year in this high latitude. The following are Unalit terms: A year, (ithl-han'-i. A moou, i-gha'-hik. Spring, ii'-pUn ukh'-ktik. Summer, ki-iik'. Autumn, uk-shu'-£k. Winter, nk-shuk'. Long ago, u-ka'. Very long ago, u-ka -mx. Thirteen moons are counted to a year, but I failed, unfortunately, to obtain the complete series. In tbefollowing lists the moonsarearranged as they correspond with our mouths ; as a matter of course, this corres- pondence is not perfect, but is very close. January, Wi'-wlk. "To turn about," from an ancient game played with a top. February, Nai-ikh'-chik. Time tirst seals (nai'-yik') are born. March, Ti-ghfi-lukh'-chik. The time of creeping on game. From the custom of hunting seals on the ice by stalking. April, Ktp-nukh'-chik. The time of cutting off. From the appearance of sharj* lines where the white of the ptarmigans' bodies is contrasted with the brown of the new summer neck feathers which begin to appear at this time. May, KaV -(ikh-tug' -o-iink . Time for going in kaiaks. The ice opens at this time so that the hunters go out to sea in kaiaks. June, No-dkh' -cliug' -ii-wik. Time of fawn hunting. July, Kon-xn'-ni-g'e'-nut m-tf-u-vi-ut. The time of geese getting new wiag feathers (molting). August, Kuj'-u-gut in-if-u-vi-ut. Time for brooding geese to molt. September, Am-i-ghaV -ghu-wik. The time for velvet shedding (from horns of rein- deer). October, Kii'-bvi-jukh-piig'-ii-tvik. Time for setting seal nets. November, tfk' -ichii-tug' -u-wlk. Time for bringing m winter stores. December, Chau'-i-ug'-u-ivik. Time of the drum — the month when the winter fes- tivals begin. NELSON] NAMES OP MONTHS OR MOONS 235 Very often several different names may be used to designate the same moon if it should chance to be at a season when different occu- pations or uotable occurrences in nature are observed, and I have used the most common terms. On the lower Yukon, near Mission, the following terms are used for the moons: January, U-i'-wuk. The season for top-spinning and for running around the kashim. ' January (last part, and first part of February), A-kt-luh' st-a'-gii-icik. Time of offal eating (from a-ki-lukh-stakh-tuk, "he boils offal"). This name comes from the scarcity of food likely to occur at this time and the necessity that arises during such periods to eat scraps of every description. Another name tised for this moon is I-ga-luh'-lilkh, the cold moon. February-March, Kup-nukh-chitk. The time of opening the upper passageways into the houses. This term was said to come from the time long ago when they claim it was much warmer than now and when the sun began to melt the snow a month earlier than at present. March-April, Tin' -u-ini-dkh' -Ihu-ug' -u-unk . Birds come. April-May, ThV-u-mi-ag'-Ci-wik. Geese come (tin-u-mi-uk, goose). May-June, Mdn-tt' dn-u'-iit. Time of eggs (vidn' ik). June-Jnly, Nuk' -sCig' -o-wik. Time of" salmon (nuk'-suk). July-August, U-ko'-go-U-sog'-u-wik. Time for red salmon (w-fcojf'-o-irA;). Also, TuT'- ii-miat' in-u'-tit, Waterfowl molt. August-September, Tm'-u-mi-dt Un-u'-vi-dt. Time for young geese to fly. September-October, Am-i-gai'-gu-wik. Time for shedding velvet {a-mV-vik) from reindeer horns. October-Xoveniber, Chiip'-tohik. Mush ice forms. November-December, Ka'-gitdgh'-u-tvtk. Time of muskrats {ka-gV -tak) . December-January, Chai-Hgh'-v-rvik. Time of the feast {chai'Hk). Among the Eskimo just south of the Yukon delta the following moons are- recdgnjzed : January, Wi'-ivik. From the game with a top ; also the time of a certain festival in which the dancers wear straw fillets stuck full of feathers. Februarj% A-gdh-hUh'-luk. The time of much moon (long nights). March, Un-ogh-o-wik. Time of taking hares in nets. April, Kup-nukh'-chuk. Time of opening summer doors. May, Tin-vii-dgh' -u-wik. Arrival of geese. June, Chi-aiigh'-ii-wik. Time of whitefish. July, Tiig-i-yilk'-piik ka-gu'-ti. The time of braining salmon. (The fish are struck on the head when lifted from the water.) August, Tin-H-mi-ut in-u'-ti. Geese molt. September, Ku'-gi-yut' in-ii'-ti. Swans molt. October, Tln-u'-tit. The flying away (migration of birds). November, Am'-i-gha'-ghun. Time of velvet shedding (from reindeer horns). The name for December was not obtained. NUMEEATION The following notes and numerals are from the Unalit Eskimo, but are typical of the system in use among all the Eskimo with whom I came in contact, except those of the Aleutian islands: Kit-stchi', count. A7<-8/c/(i'-n« A, counting. jnt'-8t(hi-ok, he counts; 236 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 The intertribal communication between the mainland Alaskan Eskimo and the constant trade carried on among them have developed consider- able quickness in the use of numbers up to two or three hundred; this is quite general witli both old and young. Going beyond the numbers ordinarily used in trade, however, the most intelligent among them become quickly confused. In order for them to count correctly it is necessary to have the objects lying before them, and these are placed in groups of twenties as they are counted. If required to count abstractly they soon become con- fused after reaching one or two score; in this, however, there is great individual variation. About the Bering strait region most boys of 10 or 12 years of age count objects very readily up to one hundred and over, and some men can reach four hundred, but it is only among the most intelligent natives of this section that four hundred can be counted, and it is rare that attempt is made to exceed that number. ♦'■'"Trhe Eskimo system of counting is based on a series of fives, rising in this way to twenties. The fingers and toes furnish the counters for computing numbers, as is explained below. Among the Unalit Eskimo, as elsewhere among these people, there is great variability in indi- vidual power. The most intelligent men and boys can count very readily up to two hundred or more, while others seem incapable of counting to twenty without blundering and repeated mistakes, like a stupid, slow-witted child. At every mistake made by such persons they are compelled to return and commence at one again, being unable to hold the numbers clearly enough in mind to take them ui) at intermediate points. Not feven the most intelligent among them seem capable of counting readily beyond the number of his fingers and toes without the aid of objects directly before him. For this purpose I usually i^rovided gun caps or matches, which served very conveniently as markers. In counting such small objects they commonly placed them in groups of five, and as four of these were completed they were swept into a single large group of twenty; in this way successive twenties were completed and kept separately. When making twenty the person would sometimes count the fives, commencing each time at one, but the most intelligent usually counted on to twenty, using the numerals of the regular series as given in the list. When an Eskimo was asked to count up to twenty without using fingers or toes, his eyes would seek, involuntarily, for something with which to tally, and even when asked to count five his eyes would turn at once to one of his hands, though he might make no visible use of his fingers. In using the fingers and toes for counting, the closed hands are held m front of the waist, palms down, and thumbs near together. Commenc ing with the little finger of the right hand, as one, they pass to the left, opening or extending each finger in succession as its number is called NELSON] SYSTEM OF NUMERATION 237 until the ri^ht tbumb, or number five, is reached. Passing thence to the little finger of the left hand for six, the fingers of this hand are opened successively until the left thumb and ten are reached. As ten is said the two hands, thumbs near together and fingers all outstretched, palms down, are extended a little from the body. Then the right foot is advanced a little and the right forefinger points at the little toe of that foot as the counter says iit-lxhalch'-tok. This word ordinarily means "it goes down," and is used here both to indicate the descent iu counting from hands to feet as well as having, at times, an acquired meaning in this connection of eleven. The toes are counted from right to left until the right great toe is reached, when both hands with open fingers, palms down, are extended toward the right foot, which is advanced a little more as the counter announces fifteen. The counter then lets the left hand fall by the side and points at the left great toe, saying, gukh'-tokj meaning "it goes over," and sometimes conveying in this connection the acquired meaning of sixteen, as well as the going "over" of the count from one side of the body to the other. The other toes of the left foot are then enumerated from right to left, and as the small toe is reached, if the person be sitting, he extends both feet in front of him, doing the same with his hands, palms down, and says twenty; if he be standing, then the open hands are extended downward with a slight motion and the number is spoken. The use of (it-Mal-h'-toJc and gulcJi'-tdli for numerals, as given above, is not uncommon among the intelligent people who are able to count readily up to twenty in a single series of numerals. Among the igno- rant and slow-witted twenty is reached by making up four series of num- bers running from one to five. In cases of this kind these two words are used between ten and eleven and fifteen and sixteen, simply to convey their regTilar meaning. They are most commonly used in count- ing the fingers and toes, when their application is quite natural; but often they are used iu counting various other objects, and seem to be in a transitional state toward becoming the regularly recognized numer- als. When used as numerals, as noted above, their meaning iu that sense seems to be recognized by everyone. Two is usually mal'-u-ghuJc, but it is often replaced by ai'-pa, which means second, or a pair. This latter word is used commonly to desig- nate one of a pair, such, for instance, as in speaking of the close friend of another person, who is referred to as his ai'-pd. The name for the right arm and hand taken together is tii-hUJc'-ptlc. The term for five is ta-hli'-mik. The right hand alone is called ta-hlW-ptm ai'-hi {ai'-Ml- = hand, either right or left). Nine is Tco'-lino-gho-tai'-Un-un, from Tco-lin', ten, and tai'-tuk^ not, or lacking; i. e., ten lacking one. Ko-Un', ten, is from Jco-hli', the upper half or the upper part of the body, or the count of the fingers. The word half is ko'-Mn. Twenty is yu-i'-imk, from yuk, man, and means "a man completed." 238 THE ESKIMO A150UT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 When the person reaches twenty he will very often say yu-i-iiaM'-tdk, meaning "the man is finished." If he is asked how many fingers and toes he has counted he will reply "j/i/-i'-w»A-." When forty is reached a singular change takes place in the naming of the twenties. For instance, forty is niHl'-u-ghu-i'-phal; from miil'-u- ghiiJcj two, and i'-jn-cik, a set of animal's legs and paws, with the toes, this last coming from i'-pik, the name given to the combined leg, foot, and toes of any mammal. Thus forty becomes "two sets of animal's paws." In this way each succeeding twenty is designated by combin- ing one of the cardinal numbers with i'-pi-iih up to four hundred. At this point a change occurs, and the idea of a man is combined with that of the animal, as follows: Four hundred is yu-i'-niim yum ipi'. This may be analyzed as follows: yu-i'-nmn, twenty; ywm, of a man's; i-jii', sets of paws; or, "twenty sets of man's paws," this meaning twenty times twenty. The following tables of Unalit numerals, with explanatory notes and the facts already given, will render plain tlieir system of counting. The first column in the first table gives the numerals as commonly used when counting the fingers and toes; the second column gives the forms used in counting exterior objects or to express a complete num- ber. These two sets of numbers are sometimes interchangeably used, so that no invariable custom defines their usage. 1. d-tau'-tsik d-iaii'-tsik. 2. miil'-u -ghuk, or ai'-pa miil-ii-ghilk, or ai'-pd. 3. pttl-a'-shu-uk pin-ai'-ijun. 4. sta'-viik sta'-miin, 5. tU-h li'-mik tii-hli'-mun. 6. a-gtiu-btn' -ghiik a-gh u-bin'-lign. 7. miil-u-ghun' -lign miil-il-ghun' -Ugn. S. pin-ai-yun'-lign pin-ai-yini'-lign. 9. ko' -lin-o-gho-tai' -liii-iin ko' lin-o-gho-tai' -liil-un. 10. ko-lin' ko-lin'. 11. iit-khakh'-tok, or d-tau'-taik ko-ld' d-tau'-tai-muk chV-pt-tok. 12. ai'-pa, or miil'-ii-ghuk , . . . ko-ld' mdl-u-gu'-nik cM'-pi-tok. 13. pin-a'-shu-uk ko-ld' pin-ai'-yun-ik cM'-pi-tuk. 14. sia'-mik ko-ld' sta'-min-ik chi-pi-tok. 15. ii-ki'-mi-dk, or td-hW-rtuk ko-ld' td-hli-viun-ik cht-pi-tok. 16. giikh'-tok ko-ld' a-ghu-hin' -lUjn-ik cM-pi-tok. 17. ai'-pd, or viUl'-il-ghuk ko-ld' mdl-il-ghun'- Ugn- ik chi-pt-tok. 18. pin-a'shu-iik ko-ld' pin-ai' -yun-lign-ik cln-pi-tok. 19. Rta'-mik ko-ld' ko-VnV -o-gho-iai' -Im-dg' -a-g'uk. 20. yu-i'-niik, or td-hli'-mtk yu-i'-nuk. 21. d-tau'-taik yu-i'-nuk ii-tau' -isi-miik clilp'-hlu-ku, 22. ai'-pd, or miil'-u-ghuk yu-i'-nuk miil-u-ghun' -ik chip'-hlu-kn. 23. pin-a' -8Ti%i-uk yu-i'-niik pin-ai-yun-ik chip'-hlu-ku, 24. sta'-mik yu-i'-niik 8ta' -mm-xk ch ip'-hlu-ku. 25. td-hli'mik yu-i'-nuk id-lili' -min-ik chip'-hlu-ku. 26. a-ghu-biu-ghiik yu-i'-niik a-ghu-bin' -lign-ik chip' -hlu-ku. 27. miil'-ii-ghun' -lign yu-i'-nuk miil-ii-ghun' -Ugn-ik chip'-hlu-ku. 28. pxh-ai-yun' -I'tgn yu-i'-nuk plii-ai-yun' -Ugn-ik chip'-hlu-ku. NELSON] SYSTEM OF NUMERATION 239 29. Tco' -liu-o-gho-tai' -lifi-iin yu-i'-niik ko-Hn-o-f)l>o-fai'-lin-og'-fi'g'uk chip'- hlu-ku. 30. ko-lni' yu-i'-niik ko-Uv'-ik chtp-hlii-ku. 40. vidl'-u-ghii-i'-pi-ak. 50. mal'-ii-ghu-i'-jn-dk ko-Un'-ik cMp'-i-hlit'-ku. 60. pin-ai'-yiin i'-pi-dk. 70. pin-ai'-yun i'-pi-dk ko-lin'-ik cMp'-i-hlu'-ku. 80. sta'-mun i'-pi-dk. 90. sta'-mun i'-pi-dk ko-lin'-ik chip'-i-hlu'-ku. 100. td-hli'-mun i'-pi-dk. 400. yu-i'-ndm yum i-pi'. It will be noted that numerals above ten in the second column have the verb cM'-pi-td1c, signifying " it is added," or " additional." Thus Ico-ld' d-tau' -tsi-muh cM'-pi-toJc means, literally, " to ten one is added." Above twenty the verb chtp'-hlu-Txii, or chip'4-hlu-ku, is used, meaning " is added of the next." Thus yii-i' nulc d-tau' -tsi-muJc cMp'-hlu-ku means, literally, " twenty, and one is added of the next." The ordinal numbers are as follows : First chi-ok'-h lik. Second kiii-ok'-h lik. Third piii-a'-sh u-iit. Fourth sta'-mit. Fifth td-hU'-mit. Sixth d-ghu-Mn'-ghut. Seventh mdV -u-ghun' -U-ghut. Eighth piii-ai-yun'-li-ghut. Ninth ko'-lin-o-gho-tai'-lin-o-ut. Tenth ko' -Un-o-ut' . Eleventh ko-lim' chip'-nu-gha. Twelfth ko'-lin mdl-u-ghu'-gil-nik chtp'-nin-ut. . Thirteenth ko'-lin pin-ai'-yu-nik ch ip'-nin-ut. Fourteenth ko'-lin sta'-mdn-ik chip' -nin-ut. Fifteenth d-ki'-mi-a'-ghdt. Sixteenth d-ki'-mi-agm' chip'-nu-gha. Seventeenth d-ki'-mi-dk mdl-u-ghu' -gii-nik chip'-nin-tit. Eighteenth d-ki'-mi-dk pin-ai'-yu-nik chip' -nin-ut. Nineteenth d-ki'-mi-dk ata'-mdn-ik chip' -nin-ut. Twentieth d-ki'-mi-dk td-h li'-mdn-ik chip'-nin-uf, or yu-i'-ndt. Thirtieth yu-i'-niik ko'-lin-lk chip' -niii-uk. Fortieth mdl-u-ghuk' i'-pi-a'-ghut. Fiftieth mdl-ii-ghuk' i'pi-dk ko'-li-mtik chip'-niii-uk. The numerals of repetition are: Once d-tau' -tsikh ku'-muk. Twice mdl'-u-ghiikh ku'-gu-nik. Three times pin-ai'-yiikh ku'-nik. Fonr times sta'-vmkh ku'-nik. Five times td-hli'-mUkh ku'-nik. Six times d-ghu-Mn'-Iukh ku'-nik. Seven times mdl-u-ghun' -liikh ku'-nik. Eight times pin-ai-yun' -lukh ku'-nik. Nine times ko' -Hn-o-gho-tai' -lin-okh ku'-nik. Ten times ko'-Uii-okh ku'-nik. 240 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18 Eleven times Ico'-ld a tau'-tsikh ku'-vik. Twelve times ko'-ld inal'-u-ghukh kii'-iiik. Thirteen times ko'-hl pih-ai'-yukh ku'-vik. Fourteen times ko'-ld ata'-mukh kii'-ntk. Fifteen times ko'-ld tii-hW -mukh ku'-nik. Sixteen times ko'-ld d-ghu-bin-lukh ku'-mk. Seventeen times ko' -Id mdl-Ci-yhun' -liikh. kn'-nik. Eighteen times ko'-ld jnfi-ai-yun' -I iikh ku'-iitk. Nineteen times ko'-ld lco-lin-o- The people of the lower Yukon' have a tradition that there formerly existed below Ikogmut a village that contained thirty- five kashims; at present there are many villages in which there are two of these buildings. IVINOOtV V- • Fio. 74 — Plan of house at St Michael. / Snow houses, so common among the Eskimo of Greenland aiul other eastern regions, are known in Alaska only as temporary shelters erected by hunters when out on short excursions from their village during winter; they are termed an-i-gu-yu]c' , and their use is familiar to all of \ the Eskimo, although they are so rarely constructed. ^-^On Kowak river there are villages in which the Eskimo have adopted from their Tinne neighbors the use of conical lodges for summer use, and it is worthy of note that the former appear to have adopted other customs from the same source. On Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers the contrary is the case; there the Tinne have adopted many of the Eskimo customs and usages, while the Eskimo appear to have derived very little from their Tinno neighbors. The Eskimo of the Kuskokwim and northward to the vicinity of Bering strait have summer villages, built in a more or less permanent manner, to which they resort during the fishing season. From Kotze- bue sound northward the people use tents or skin lodges while at their fishing stations in summer. ' This term is derived from the word kaj'-i-gim='' my kaf-i-gi." NELSOX] ST MICHAEL DWELLINGS 243 V A typical dwelling house used by the people of St Michael is con- structed by building a rectangular framework of logs, 8 or 9 feet high in the middle and 5 feet at the sides; this is covered with smaller logs or rude slabs, over which earth is thrown to a thickness of 3 or 4 feet. Eaised platforms occupy three sides of the single room and are used for sleeping places, commonly by a family on each side. The front of the room has a low, arched doorway leading in from the outer cov- ered entry, which is used only in summer, when a bearskin hangs over Fig. 75— Storehouse at St Michael. the doorway as a curtain; in winter this entrance is closed and an underground passage or tunnel leads from the outer end of the covered entry way to a point below the floor just inside the summer door. The place on each side of the door, or an unoccupied platform on one side of the room, is used for the storage of bags of seal oil, wooden dishes, tubs, or other domestic utensils, and of articles of food. Figure 74 is a 'Sec- tion plan of one of these houses. Each family has a small saucer-shape clay lamp burning near its platform. On the earthen floor directly 244 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18 under the smoke hole is a fireplace, where cooking is done; this usu- ally has a flat slab of stone set edgewise in the floor on the side toward the doorway to serve as a wind-break for preventing drafts from striking directly on the fiie. Many of the houses are built with a long, low, covered passageway, used both in winter and in summer, and the underground entrance is omitted; some houses are very narrow and have only one wide sleeping bench at the rear end, where one or two fjimiiies are accommodated. In some cases the entrance passage above ground is large enough to serve as a storeroom, but usually every household is the owner of a storehouse. Where timber is scarce, as in the country between Cape Vancouver and the mouth of the Kuskokwim, these are built of turf. At Point Barrow underground storerooms, with a trap in the roof, were seen. At St Michael storehouses are erected on four stout posts, made from drift logs, set firmly in the ground and projecting 10 or 12 feet, forming an equal-sided quadrangle. About 5 feet from the ground the hewed ends of timbers are inserted to form parallel stringers, on which are laid roughly hewed sticks for a floor, the ends projecting 2 or 3 feet on either side. To form the walls rough planks are fitted, with their ends locked by means of notches. The top is covered with sticks similar to the flooring, on Avhich is placed a grass thatch or sometimes a covering of earth. The doorway in front, 2i to 3 feet square, is framed beside one of the corner posts by a roughly hewed cap and Jamb; the door is of rough plank, on rawhide hinges, fastened by a stout cord. Outside on the projecting ends of the floor are laid the sledge, kaiak, and other objects belonging to the owner, while the inside serves as a receptacle for food supplies and other perishable articles. The accompanying illustration (figure 75) gives a good idea of a typical storehouse of this character. Where timber is abundant, as on the lower Yukon, these storehouses are more elaborately constructed, being raised from 6 to 8 feet above the ground, with the posts arranged and held in place in the same manner as in those at St Michael. The front and rear walls are made of well-hewed planks, set upright, with an oval door in the center of the front, access to which is gained by a notched log. The ends of the floor logs project in front far enough to support separate cross sticks, forming a narrow outside platform. On the sides, the planks forming the walls are placed horizontally. The roof has a double pitch, and is usually made of bark held in place by cross sticks or other weights. The u])right planks that form the front and rear of these structures are held in position by crosspieces extending between the corner posts, as shown in plate Lxxxi. In addition to the storehouses, every village has elevated frames upon which sledges and kaiaks maybe placed ; this is necessary, owing to the number of dogs in every village and the danger of their eating ■^^T^iTr"^- NELSON] KASHIM CONSTRUCTION 245 the rawhide covers of tlie kaiaks and the lashings of the sledges. These frames are formed usually of two horizontal, parallel poles, or small logs, raised on posts with forked ends or mortised into the timber, their size and strength depending on the abundance of neces- sary material. I^ashims are common everywhere among the Eskimo and have been adopted by the adjacent Tinne of lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. They vary in size according to the number of inhabitants in the village. The material used for these structures is driftwood, consisting of logs and poles which float down the rivers ia- spring and are strewn along their banks or carried to sea and scattered along the coast during the following summer. Spruce is the most cotomon variety. The logs are, usually deprived of their bark by friction and are seasoned by exi)osure. Logs 15 or 20 inches in diameter are not uncommon, and some are found reaching 30 feet in length; as a rule, however, the timbers are much smaller. In constructing a kashim the logs are laid in the form of a square to the height of 7 or 8 feet; from thence they are drawn in on every side, in alternate courses, until the last are short, and surround a square opening in the roof, directly over the middle of the room, and from 9 to 12 feet above the floor, forming a frame for the smoke hole, which is about 2 or 2 J feet in width. If the building is small, it is covered with a heavy layer of earth, but if large, a crib work is built around it, held together by a frame, so as to inclose the building and form a double wall, inside of which is thrown a heavy layer of earth. The floor is usually' of hewed planks laid close together, and occupies about one-third of the area of the room, in the shape of a square in the center; it is laid on sills at the end so that the planks can readily be taken up; below these there is a pit from 3 to 4 feet deep, in which the fire is built to heat the room for sweat baths, or at rare intervals in winter; but usually the heat from the bodies of the occupants keeps the temperature so high that they remain nude, or partly so, much of the time, even in winter. Other planks usually cover the ground back to the walls, although in many places, especially where wood is scarce, the floor of this portion of the room consists merely of the earth, beaten hard. The entrance consists of a long, roofed passage, built of logs and covered with earth; the outer end of this is faced with planks, over which is a square, round, or arched doorway leading into the room in summer, when it is closed only by a bearskin curtain. In winter this entrance, which is above the ground, is closed tightly, and a round hole in the floor near the outer end of the upper passage leads through a low tunnel, along which the people pass on their hands and knees to the fire pit, and thence through a circular or oval hole to the middle of the room. These rooms are from 12 to 25 feet square. Around the inside, about 4 feet from the floor, extends a bench, hewed from a single log, 15 to 18 246 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 inches wide and usually from 4 to 6 inclies in thickness, or left half rounded below; this heavy bench is supported by stout sticks placed diagonally across the corners of the room, and is used as a sleeping place, also as a seat during festivals and at other times. At the back of the room, supported on an upright post from 2 to 3 feet high, a lamp is kept burning, by public contribution, at all times when the kashim is gloomy. A gut-skin cover is used over the smoke hole at all times, except when the fire is burning in the pit, or when the heat becomes too oppressive. The accompanying illustration (figure 76) shows the outside pf the kashim at St Michael, with the long passageway of logs. A sectional plan of one of these buildings is given in figure 77. Jb lo. 7tj— Kiisliim at St Michael. Pikmiktalik was a very populous place in the days when reindeer were plentiful along this coast, some ten or fifteen years previously to my residence in this region; but in 1878 only two or three families remained, and the kashim and other houses were falling to pieces. Pastolik, near the Yukon mouth, is the southernmost settlement of the Unalit, and its buildings are typical. Ascending the Yukon and passing several unimportant little villages, the first characteristic settlement of the Yukon Eskimo is reached above Andreivsky. From that point up the river the towns are similar to oue another, consisting of winter houses and kashims built on the ordinary plan, and of large, loosely built summer houses of hewed planks on an inuer framework, with sloping roofs. •DNIVEHSITY wO/f CALlFQj NEfSoN] KASHIMS 247 The village of Starikwikhpak above Andreivsky, is built on a high bank of the Yukon in the midst of a thick growth" of tall alders and cottonwoods, and contains about forty people. Next above is Kazbinsky, containing some twenty-five houses and two kashims. It is the largest existing village of the Yukon Eskimo, and the only one seen that was arranged with any degree of regu- larity. There the winter and summer houses are built together, and the rude alignment of the summer houses is evidenced in the illustra- tion (plate Lxxxii). The summer houses front a small creek which flows into the Yukon at that point. Back of them, in a more regular arrangement, are most of the winter houses. : Near one end. of this row are two kashims, and immediately back of them is the graveyard, the latter forming a part of the village and becoming so offensive in summer that it is impossible at times for the fur traders to camp in the vicinity. The summer houses at this place and all along the Yukon up to Fig. 77— Section of kashim at St Micbaol. Paimut, the upper Eskimo village on the river, are alike built of heavy slabs and planks split and hewed from drift logs. Plate LXXXII, from a photograph, is a view taken at Eazbinsky in winter, showing the tops of some winter houses in the foreground and a row of plank summer houses in the background. The summer houses throughout this part of Alaska vary so slightly in the details of their construction that a description of those seen at Eazbinsky will serve as typical of all in that region. The front and rear ends are constructed of roughly hewed planks set upright; the sides are of horizontal timbers hewed and loosely fitted. About five feet from the ground a log extends from side to side of the structure, resting upon two posts in the middle, with braces at either end, hav- ing their ends set in the ground, and connected by similar logs which extend from front to rear along the eaves. In some houses the braces at the front and rear are replaced by two tall poles set in the ground midway between the corners, two or three /- \/ 248 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.akn. 18 yards apart and i^rojecting several feet above the top of the roof. Lengthwise over the top of the house extend hewed sticks which hold in position the upright posts and the logs that bind the upright planks. The use of crosspieces fastened at each end to the top of upright timbers is a common method adopted by the Eskimo of Norton sound and the lower Yukon for binding the framework of their structures. Braces, which fit into a notch in an upright i^ost with the other end planted in the ground, are also commonly used. Sometimes the walls of summer houses are built with ujH-ight sticks all around, as can be seen at Ikogmut, but more commonly the ends are formed of upright pieces and tlie sides of timbers laid horizontally. The inner frame- work is bound together by withes or wooden pins and held in place at the eaves by joists, across which are thrown poles or planks, forming an open attic or platform for the storage of dried fish and other arti- cles of food, nets, and various implements. The roof is double-pitched and covered with slabs or planks over which pieces of bark are laid. Along the sides of the room, at from one to three feet above the floor, are r broad sleeping platforms, which accommodate from one to three fami- lies. In the front, a foot or two above the ground, a semilunar piece J is cut from each of two adjoining planks, forming an oval doorway about three feet high. Small square or round windows, a few inches in diameter, are sometimes cut in the walls near the sleeping platforms. There is also plenty of ventilation from other directions, as very little effort is made to prevent the wind from circulating freely through the numerous cracks. Plate Lxxxi, which represents the storehouses at Ikogmut, shows also one of these summer houses in the background. In the winter of 1880 the people at Paimnt were found living in their summer houses on a high bank overlooking the Yukon, and I was told that their winter village on the island in the river had been swept away by high water the season before. At Chukwhiik, just above Ikogmut, the winter houses, as is usual in this district, were arranged with the sleeping platforms raised about V three feet from the ground, leaving si>ace below for storing supplies. The house at which I stopped was supplied with three of these plat- forms, each having its oil lamp on an upright post. Near one lamp a woman was making a pair of ornamented gloves, and by another lamp a woman was braiding a straw mat. At a village in the Big-lake district, lying in the strip of country between the two nearest points of lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, the houses were of the ordinary kind, except that they were rather smaller than on the Yukon and had extraordinarily long entrance passages. At the base of Kuslevak mountains the houses were made of smaller timbers, brought a long distance from the coast in boats, or of a light framework of short, crooked alder trunks covered with brush NELSON] DWELLINGS AND K A SHIMS 249 from the banks of the streams in the neighborhood. These houses were very small and depended for their strength partly upon the hard, frozen covering of earth. Igiogagainut, a village lyin^ between Kuslevak mountains and Cape Romanzof, consisted of several small hovels of this kind. Their interior plan was as near the usual type as the material would allow, as the rooms were only 4^ feet high to the small, square smoke holes, which were covered with sheets of clear ice about 4 inches thick instead of with the usual gut skin. From the smoke holes the walls sloped to the ground, making inclosures from 12 to 15 feet in diameter. These places were crowded with people. On the earthen floors were layers of soft, decaying garbage of every description, from which the heat arising from the crowded human bodies evolved a sickening odor. Kear Cape Romanof was a summer fishing village of four houses, which looked likq so many mounds, about 0 feet high. We found them to be built entirely above ground and of split drift logs, held uj) in the usual manner and covered with earth. A square opening 3 feet high in one wall served as a door, entering directly into the room, and the square smoke hole in the roof formed the only other aperture. Sleep- ing platforms were rudely made on the earthen floor. Askiuuk, south of Cape llomanzof, is built on the top of an earthen mound which rises about 15 feet above the level of the surrounding country. The present village covers nearly the entire top of this mound. The inhabitants say that this elevation has accumulated from the long occupancy of the spot by their people, and its present appearance would seem to justify the assertion. The houses are clustered together in the most irregular manner, and r the entrances to the passageways leading to the interiors open out in the most unexpected places. Sometimes one of these passages opens on the top of another house built lower down on the side of the mound, or, it may be, between two houses, or almost against the side of an adjoining one. Near by is a very extensive graveyard, which has some interesting burial places, but my visit was too brief to enable me to examine it carefully. The Askiuuk kashim is like those at the next village to the south, called Kushunuk. At this place there are two kashims, the smaller one being about 30 by 30 feet on the floor and '20 feet high at the smoke hole. The walls are of split logs placed vertically, with their plane faces inward and resting at their upper ends against the logs which form the framework of the roof; the floor is of heavy hewed planks. Extending around the room on the floor, and about 3^ feet from the walls, are small logs, serving to mark off the sleeping places of the men and at the same time as head rests, the sleepers lying with their heads toward the middle of the room. Three feet above and G inches nearer the walls other logs extend around the room, with planks between them and the sides, aflording a broad sleeping bench, sup- ported in the middle by upright posts and at each end inserted in the 250 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 wall of the structure. The roof is made by the usual arrangement of logs forming a rectaugular pyramid with a flat top, in the middle of which is the smoke *hole. The entrance passage is unusually high and roomy, opening directly into the kashim above ground by means of a round hole in the front of the wall. In winter the entrance is through a hole in the floor of the entrance passage, thence through the underground tunnel as usual to an exit hole, which has on each side a walrus tusk with the point and base sunk into the j)lank and the curve upward, affording convenient hand- rests when going in and out and preventing the necessity of placing the hands on the wet planks at the side of the hole. The plan of this kashim is shown in figure 78. In addition to the kashims, the village contained about twenty houses, accommodating about one hundred and twenty-five people. It Fig. 78 — Section of kashim at Ku.sbunuk. is built in a straggling manner on a slightly rising piece of ground, with elevated storehouses and raised frameworks for the boats and sledges. The entire area covered is about a quarter of a mile in length. Kearer the sea is the site of an ancient village that was occupied by the ancestors of these peo^^le. To the southward of this place the next village was Kaialigamut, which contained about one hundred people and two kashims. The houses and kashims were like those of the last two villages described, except that the kashims were smaller and were provided with a second and narrower shelf above the first sleeping benches, on which the men placed their clothing and other belongings. The early Eussian traders who visited this district say that the peo- ple in these large villages had underground passageways leading from the kashim to adjacent houses, for use in case of sudden attack by an enemy. A Russian told me that he once discovered a passage of this NELSON] HOUSES IN VARIOUS LOCALITIES 251 kind from the kashim to an ancient house and from there to another house. It was further stated that in those days the people made their houses larger, so that they could use their bows in them for repelling an attack by the enemy. The village of Ukagamut, near Mount Eobert Lincoln, contained about twenty people. The huts were extremely small, owing to the scar- city of wood. The interiors were excessively filthy and permeated with the stench of decaying animal matter. The smoke holes were covered with slabs of ice, and the floors were several inches deep with an oozy mass of refuse. The dried fish stored in the houses and used for food was covered with blue and green mold, and the entire place was the most miserable that I saw in that region. The inhabitants were suf- fering from skin diseases and from.the attacks of an ailment resembling epilepsy. Tununuk was a summer village on Cape Vancouver at the time of my visit in December, 1879. A few people were found wintering there. Wood was scarce and the houses were small and filthy. South of this point wood was so scarce that in several villages there was none for making elevated storehouses, and for that purpose small huts were built of turf cut into slabs and laid up in walls, which were frozen solid and covered with flat roofs of the same material. The doors, which were the only openings, consisted of slabs of frozen turf about 2|^ by 3 feet and 4 inches thick. At one village I saw about twenty of these huts, all of which were 4 or 5 feet high and from 6 to 8 feet in diameter. In the second village south of Cape Vancouver the houses were made of turf slabs laid up about the frail framework of small sticks and brush and covered with earth. This had been wet and frozen so that the walls were very firm, but the people stated that they would leave them early in the spring, for as soon as warm weather began the walls would melt and fall in. The smoke holes of the houses in all this district were covered with slabs of ice, from which the heat inside continually caused water to drop down the walls, rendering the floor a soft and sticky mass except in the coldest weather. From Cape Vancouver to the Kuskokwim the land is very low, and whenever the wind blows a gale in shore the coast villages are in dan- ger of being flooded. The day before my arrival at Chalitmut the sea flowed inland and rose to a depth of three feet over the floor of the kashim ; the people who were caught inside made a hole in the roof, to which they crept and stayed for hours, until the water had subsided. Every few years the ice sweeps away one or more villages in this district, causing loss of life. At Chichiiiagamut, in this district, a heavy rain fell during my stay, and the water came into the kashim from the surrounding drainage so that it was 18 inches deep in the tuun el-like entrance passage and had 252 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT ( ETH. ANN. 18 to be baled out twice a day. The kasbim was very small and low, with no floor except the beaten earth; the lire pit in the middle of the room was in the depression which began at the walls and sloped gradually toward the center. This central depression was full of water, and the entire floor was covered except for a narrow border about four feet wide aroiyid the sides. In this kashim two lamps were burning upon supports, one on each side of the room. These supports were rudely carved in the form of a human face, representing quite a different type from the countenances of the peoi)le, and constituted the only attempt at such work that I saw among the Eskimo (figure 79). When the Kuskokwim was reached the abundance of driftwood was shown by the larger size of the houses and kashims, and by the presence of ele- vated storehouses and frames for sleds and boats. From St Michael northward along the coast of the mainland there existed a much greater variety of houses than had been noted to the southward of that place. From St Michael to Uiiaktolik, in- cluding Kigiktauik,Unalaklit, and Shaktolik, with a few smaller places, the houses are of the typo general among the Unalit, as the people belong mainly to that group. Tup-hauikwa, north of Unalaklit, had in February, 1880, a single house, which was occupied by three families. The single room was 10 by 12 feet in dimension and about 5^ feet high. On the night of my visit sixteen adults slept on the earthen floor of this small room. At the villages of Atnuk and Nubviukh- chugaluk the houses were large, well made, and provided with a floor of hewed planks; the sleeping platforms were raised about 18 inches above the floor. In March, 1880, the village of Ignituk, near Cape Darby, contained about one hundred and fifty jjeople. It was built at the mouth of a small canyon leading down to the sea, and the lower houses were on the upper edge of an abrupt slope 40 or 50 feet above the beach, where were arranged on sleds the kaiaks of the villagers ready for seal hunting on the sea ice. The houses had plank floors and broad sleeping benches. They were built with a small, square anteroom, which was used as a storeroom for provisions, and from it a passage about 3 feet high and 10 to 20 feet in length led to the round hole giving access to the living room. This hole was either in the end of the passage opening through the wall of the room just above the floor, or through the floor inside the front wall. In the middle of the floor the iflanks were laid so that they could be taken up, as is done in the kashims. Close to the fire- Fk;. 79 — Carved lamp support. ^ VAKIOUvS FORMS OF HOUSES 253 place, between it and the door, was a large flat slab of stone placed on edge to protect the fire from the draft. Some of the houses had two sleeping platforms, one above the other, the lower one raised very little above the floor and the other about three feet above it. Plans of two of these houses are shown in figures 80 and 81. On the long strip of low, sandy coast, between Ignituk and Cape Nome, were located a number of small houses, which were used by the people while snaring marmots {Spermophilus parryi) in spring, or when salmon fishing in summer. These summer houses, or shelters, were conical lodges, made by standing up sticks of driftwood in a Fig. 80 — Section of house at Ijinituk. close circle, with their tops leaning together, forming a structure like an Indian tii)i; they were built by first lashing together three pieces of wood and setting them up like a tripod, the others being leaned against them to complete the rude structure. On the inside a rough sleeping platform was sui)ported on four corner stakes at the back of the room. A narrow vacant space between two of the logs, forming the wall, served as a doorway. In the village on the north side of Cape Nome the houses were built very much like those of Ignituk, but varied in some particulars. Fig. 81— Section of house at Ignituk. They were constructed of driftwood, with an outer storeroom, which was entered through a hole in the roof, access to which was gained by means of a notched ladder. From this storeroom was a passage about three feet high, which ended in a hole leading through the wall directly onto the plank floor of the living room, which had a sleeping bench about four feet from the floor, and below this the floor was usually occu- pied for the same purpose. Leading from the entrance storeroom were one or two other passages communicating with other living rooms, and on one side a short passage opened into a room about 8 by 10 feet in dimension and 6 or 7 feet in height, which served as a cooking room 254 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 for the group of families living iu the structure. Ko fires were ever lit in the living rooms. The sectional plan of one of these houses is shown in figure 82, and a ground plan in figure 83. On Sledge island the winter village was perched on a steep slope, facing the sea, and well above the water. The houses were set one Fig. 82— Section of house at Cape Nome. back of the other on the slope of the rocky talus that extends up to the Lop of the high bluff; they were built on the plan of those at Cape Nome, above described, except that the storeroom usually opened on a level with the ground in front, instead of through the roof. In July, 1881, this village was almost deserted, as the people were on the adja- cent mainland engaged in salmon fishing. In all the last-named villages elevated frameworks for boats and sledges were numerous; in those where the floors were made of hewed Fig. 83— Ground plan of house at Cape Nome. planks, long use had worn them smooth and the inmates were careful to keep them clean, sweeping them as often as necessary with a little wisp of twigs. King island, in Bering strait, is a rugged mass of granite rising sheer from the water for hundreds of feet on three sides, and on the NELSON] KING ISLAND SUMMER HOUSES 255 fourth side, where the village is located, it is very difficult to make a landing. In July, 1881, the Coricin anchored a few hundred yards off the shore; the rugged granite walls rose in sharp, serrated, angular slopes almost perpendicularly from the edge of the water to the village and thence upward to the high crest. Along the edge of the water great granite bowlders added to the difficulty of landing, thence up to the village a broken path zigzagged sharply up the jagged slope. From the vessel the village presented the appearance of a cluster of cliff-swallows' nests on the face of the island, the entrances to the houses looking like rounded black holes among the granite bowlders used for their walls. As the anchor chain went rattling out, the peo- ple, who had been watching us from the houses, gave a loud shout and ran down to the water, leaping from rock to rock and looking like pig- mies, so dwarfed were they by the gigantic background. The winter houses at this place were made by excavating the loose rocks, thus forming a deep niche in the steep slope, and by walling up the front and sides with stones placed over a driftwood framework. Access to these houses was gained by a long, arched stone passage- way, which sloped from the outer entrance in and nj) to a hole in the plank floor. The inside of the living rooms were arranged with plank floor and benches, just as on Sledge island, but there were no outer storerooms or cooking rooms in the passageway. Driftwood was abun- dant there, but the iirincipal material used for covering the houses was broken granite. The summer houses were remarkable structures ; they were square inclosures, made wholly of tanned walrus hide, with a slightly arched roof of walrus skins drawn snugly over the wooden framework and lashed firmly in place. The houses were elevated and held in place by a framework which consisted of two main poles standing upright with their bases fastened among the rocks and connected by a wooden crossbar lashed to them 10 or 20 feet from the ground. From this crossbar other bars extended on a level back to the slope of the hill, where they were made fast. The floor was of roughly hewed planks, and at the back rested against the face of the hill. From the hillside a plank extended to one of the corners of the house, aud a little plank walk passed thence around the side of the house to the front, being railed by a pole lashed, at about the height of a man's hand, to uprights set in the rocks. On the seaward side was a circular opening, which served as a combined door and window. Figure 84 represents one of these summer houses. In some of these houses one corner was walled off from the room with walrus hide as a square inclosure to serve as a sleeping room. In one of the houses the entire rear half was walled across and again subdi- vided by a walrus-skin partition, forming two sleeping rooms, entrance to which was given by a round hole cut in the skin. Each of these inner rooms served for a family, and contained their bedding and 256 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ETH. ANN. 18 various small possessions, the longer outer room being a general sit- ting and work room and a receptacle for dried fish and other stores. The translucent \yalrus hides rendered these houses very light, and they were kept quite clean. In summer fresh meat and fish were kept in a great cleft in the cliff close to the landing place, and accessible only from the water. There were various elevated frameworks here for storing the boats. On the larger Diomede island, in the middle of Bering strait, the vil- lages differed in several respects from those of the King islanders. ' I'l^f^^ /OM'"'' Fig. 84 — Walrus skin suiiinier house on King island. The summer houses were built among the winter dwellings, and were above ground, with stone walls and gravel covered roofs. An arched stone passage, similar to those of the winter houses, but shorter, led to the living room. With the exception of being less carefully built to exclude water, these summer houses were very similar to those used in winter. Kaised on four i^osts over or very near the entrance to each summer house was a storehouse, the supporting posts and framework of which were made from driftwood, and the sides and roofs of walrus hide, like the elevated houses on King island. NELSON] HOUSES AT EAST CAPE 257 At Cape Prince of Wales, on the American shore of Bering strait, there were two villages. One near the hill at the southern side of the cape was called the " hill village," and the other, located on the flat, was called the " spit village." They were separated by a space of about 75 yards. The houses were built of driftwood covered Avith earth, and were very similar to those of the Diomede islands. The people of these two villages had a standing feud that occasionally broke into open quarrels. Those of the "spit village" were the most aggressive, and were hated and feared by the others. Crossing the strait a large Eskimo village was found on the point of East cape, Siberia. This was built on a steep slope fronting the sea, and its dome-shape houses with small outer openings gave it the same appearance of being a cluster of clift' swallows' nests tluit we had Fig. 85 — Eskimo village at East cape, Siberia. noticed on our approach to King island. From tlie anchorage fifty-four occupied houses were counted; these must have contained over two hundred and fifty people. Just around the cape, to the north, was a village of equal size, which was not visited. The village on the point was built on a slope of loose granite fragments inclined at such an angle that there was space for only a narrow trail in front of most of the houses, and then a sharp descent of some yards. The houses consisted of a stone wall laid up two or three feet from the ground, in oval form, and continued in the shape of an arched or open-top entrance passage three or four yards long, as shown in figure 8o. Upon this stone wall was a framework of whale-ribs arched to a com- mon point over one side of the entrance, where they were met by the 18 ETH 17 258 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann 18 jawbone of a whale, the ui)per end of which was slightly curved inward to meet the ribs crossed on the top. The jawbone, held in place by lashings and heavy stones, was thus made to sustain the weight of the structure. Over this framework tanned walrus hides were laid and secured by lashings and heavy stones or whale vertebra; attached to the ends of cords. The front part of the room was used for storing various articles of food and property, and the rear part was supplied with pologs, or small rooms, made by sewing reindeer skins into the form of a cov- ered square or rectangular box without a bottom, about 7 or 8 by 10 or 12 feet square and about 4 feet high, which were held iu place by raw- hide ropes extending from each upper corner and the middle of the sides to the framework of the roof. In this way very close, warm rooms were made inside the house, in which, on a small raised platform of planks or beaten earth, the beds were placed. Each family had its own polog. Wood seemed to be very scarce among these people. The illustration shows the situation of the village and the position of the houses. The elevated platform on the right, for sleds and boats, is made of whales' jawbones (figure 85). Scattered along the hillside among the occui)ied houses were the remains of many ruined houses, which were similar in character to the dwellings seen on the ]J)iomede islands — partly underground, with external stone walls — and a very large number of pits showed the sites of still older houses. It was evident that in earlier times these people had used underground houses exclusively, but more recently had abandoned them and built their dwellings in the manner described. At Plover bay, on the same coast, the village consisted mainly of walrus-hide huts similar to those at East cape, except that they had no stone walls about the bases, and the frames were composed of driftwood instead of whale ribs 5 but the interior arrangement of deer- skin iwlogs was the same. The illustration (plate lxxxiii a), from a photograph, will give an idea of the exterior of these houses. A few small, half underground houses of driftwood and whalebones covered with earth in the regular Eskimo style, were found here. On the northern side of the mouth of the bay a zigzag path leads high up on the bluffs to a rock-walled shelter used as a lookout to watch for whales or for vessels at sea. This village is not very populous, and through the introduction of whisky and of various diseases by the M'halers, who call here every season, the Eskimo at this point are in a fair way to become extinct. The accompanying illustration (plate lxxxiv) represents two women from this locality. St Lawrence island had several large and populous villages jjrevious to the year ] 879. During the winter of 1879-'80 a famine, accompanied by disease, caused the death of at least two-thirds of the entire popu- lation of the island, and several villages were completely depopulated. During the summer of 1881 I visited these villages on the revenue or TH« UNIVERSITY ^''califob! NELSON] VILLAGES ON ST LAWRENCE ISLAND 259 cutter Corici7i, and found the tundra surrounding the village sites cov- ered with corpses of the inhabitants; and dozens of them were still lying where they had died in the houses. In two villages at the southwestern end of the island were several summer houses of walrus skin, like those used at Plover bay, and various winter houses. These latter, were framed with the jawbones and ribs of whales, which were planted in the ground, arching in at the top, forming an oval framework supporting the roof. The latter was made of similar bones with a little driftwood added, and the entire structure was covered with earth. Owing to the scarcity of material these houses were small and rude, but were very similar to buildings on the northern shore of Norton sound. Close by the winter houses were elevated storehouses, upheld on four jawbones of whales i)lanted upright in the ground. Most of the summer houses were framed of long strips of bone sawed lengthwise from whales' jaws, with one end ^plaruted in the ground and the other bent over toward a stout jawbone of a whale standing upright in the ground, on one sideof the oval area inclosed by the bone strips. Alternating with these strips were whale ribs, which also curved over toward the upright post. The frame pieces were planted very shallowly in the ground and were held steady by a rock weighing over 100 pounds, which was hung from the post-like jawbone which formed the main strength of the structure. An idea of these frames is given by the accom- panying sketch (figure 86). The interior of these summer houses measured about 20 feet in diameter, and were supplied with pologs made of reindeer skins sewed together and suspended from the roof, as is done on the Siberian coast. Exteriorly they were covered with walrus skins, which were lashed on and held in jdace by heavy weights of stone, driftwood, and bones, to prevent their being toppled over by the frequent gales. In a large village on the northern shore of the island, where all the inhabitants had perished, I found many similar summer houses, also some partly subterranean winter houses, differing from any others seen in this region. They were roofed with whalebones and driftwood, over which was the usual layer of earth. Overtheouter endof the passage- way was a roofed, stockaded shelter made of driftwood, with one side or a part of one side left open, facing away from the direction of the prevailing wind. These shelters were from 5 to 8 feet across and about 5 or 6 feet high. In the floor opened a square hole, giving access to the passageway, which was 2 or 3 feet high and from 50 to 75 feet in length and built wholly underground. In several instances they were curved Fia. 86 — House frame of Vrliale ribs and jawbone. 260 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [KTH. ANN. 18 laterally or turned at an angle, as if to cut off a draft; but it is possible this may have been caused by starting at both ends of the tunnel when excavating it and failing to meet in a direct line. The houses had two sets of broad sleeping benches on the right and left sides of the room. Over the center of the floor was a square hole in the roof; just back of Fig. 87 — Section of house on St Lawrence island. this a round opening had been made, in which was fitted a large ver- tebra of a whale hollowed out to form a short cylinder, serving as a smoke hole or ventilator, wbich could be left open during stormy weather when the larger opening was covered. The accompanying section of one of these houses (figure 87) explains the method of their constrnction. Fig. 88 — Summer camp at Hotham inlet. At Cape Espenberg, on Kotzebue sound, in July, 1881, we found a camp of traveling Malemut. They had several low, round-top tents, 3^ to 4 feet high and 6 to 7 feet wide, made of drilling drawn over slender poles crossed and bent, with their ends thrust into the ground. One conical lodge, also covered with drilling, was about 10 feet high and 8 feet in diameter on the ground. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXXIV WOMEN OF PLOVER BAY, SIBERIA uisriVERsiT : NELSON] SUMMER CAMP ON HOTHAM INLET 261 At HotLam iulet, near the bead of Kotzebue sound, on the loth of July of the same year, a large gathering of Eskimo from Kowak and Noatak rivers was seen. They were living in a row of conical lodges extending in a line for more than a mile along a low, sandy spit par- allel to the shore of the sound. Figure 88, from a photograph, illus- trates this camp for the season of 1881. This camp was arranged with almost military precision ; along the beach, above high- water mark, with their sterns to the sea, were ranged between sixty and seventy umiaks, turned with the bottom upward and toward the prevailing wind, tilted on one rail, the other being supported on two sticks 3J to 4 feet fong. Seventy-five yards back from the umiaks, in a line parallel to the beach, were ranged over two hundred kaiaks, suj^ported about three feet from the ground on low trestles made of branching stakes. Below each kaiak, supported on a rest 3 or 4 inches above the ground, was the set of spears, paddles, etc, belonging to the boat. The kaiaks were all of the long, slender pattern common at Kotze- bue sound, and were ranged parallel to each other, point- ing toward the sea, in a line with the umiaks. Fifty yards back from the kaiaks, and ranged in aline parallel with them, were the conical lodges occupied by the peo- j>le; they were framed by slender poles standing In a circle, with the upper ends meeting and held in place by a strong wooden hoop lashed to the poles with rawhide cord midway between the ground and the top. The accom- panying sketch (figure 89) shows the manner of arranging theframework. The frames were about 10 feet high and from 12 to 15 feet in diam- eter at the base; they were covered with untanned winter deerskins sewed into squares containing about six deerskins, which were thrown over the framework with the hair outward. Several of these squares were necessary for each lodge. In some cases the deerskins were cov- ered with a lavge sheet of drilling or calico, as shown in plate lxxxiit &. Behind the lodges were stakes to which each family had tied its dogs^ fastened so as to be just out of reach of each other. This was a summer trading camp of these people, and contained from six to eight hundred persons. Figure 90 shows the plan of the encampment. In size and methodical arrangement this camp presented a very striking appearance and was the only one I ever saw in which the Fig. 89— Frame for snmnier lod