ei eesies pane ere ee Sal Oo Vn ade Core Eatne a VE yad thet th ee teh ete Not ptt ete Ng ne melon tele ghee ns vine tee he Soke e 40th wo ¥ Ohobonrin d= em ahem toe Rencaenel Agtene wigiety eter en arnt betel — ieeirost ees See et ens cat Net ni aad 9 a\¥ys tas Nid PF eA AS pas. oe “Ay Lo | ata REN EUROPEAN Pee tiki blis AND MOTHS BASED UPON BERGE'S “SCHMETTERLINGSBUCH. BY x r r WB JOUR BY; ASSISTANT IN THE ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT, BRITISH MUSEUM ; AND SECRETARY TO THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Orci ek eTTER, GALPIN & Co.: LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E£.C. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 1882 Je IRS VEC ay, Tue present work is designed to provide entomologists and tourists with a compre- hensive illustrated guide to the study of European Macro-Lepidoptera, all previous works on the subject (with the exception of a small pocket manual including the Butterflies only, and now nearly out of print) relating solely to British species. After due consideration, it was determined to base the work upon Berge’s “ Schmet- terlingsbuch,” the best and most widely-used German book of this kind, which has already gone through five editions in Germany, and has had the advantage of the successive revision of several eminent entomologists of great experience. The German work being chiefly confined to the species of Central Europe, the plan of the English edition has been extended to include descriptions of the whole of the species inhabiting Europe proper, according to the catalogue published by Staudinger and Wocke in 1871, with additions bringing the subject down to the present time. Large additions have likewise been made to every part of the work, rendering it one of the most complete which has hitherto been published, either in England or on the Continent; and a series of additional plates has been added, in order to illustrate the Jacro-Lepidoptcra more fully. British species are marked with an asterisk. Tt has not been thought advisable to give more synonymy than seemed abso- lutely necessary; and English names, which are now but little used, are also only inserted occasionally. w PREFACE. The Aficro-Lepidoptera are unsuited to popular treatment, on account of their small size and great number. Had they been included in detail, the size of the book would have been doubled, simply by the addition of those groups of small moths in which many collectors take little or no interest. A brief account of some of the principal groups, illustrated by two plates, has, however, been given; and much general information with regard to them will also be found to be contained in the Introduction. W. Feb London, 1882. a CON Tae NES: INTRODUCTION . : - 2 c : THE PERFECT INSECT, OR IMAGO . 5 5 PECULIARITIES OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE Bopy . . 0 . 0 Head, Eyes, Antenne . z 6 : Labial Palpi, Maxillary Palpi . 5 . Tongue, Thorax, Abdomen, Legs . : 3 Wings . 6 2 0 ; : ° 0 Neuration of the Wings ; : : - Connecting Bristle, or Frenulum . Areas, Scales, and Pattern of the Wings Hermaphrodites_. . 0 : HIGGS) =: . 6 9 LARVE . ; b Shape and External Structure : : 0 Colour and Pattern of Larvze . 6 2 Moulting—Habits . : F : . Metamorphosis. : . 5 5 : PUPE . : : : 9 . , . . Form and Colour . 5 Qj : 3 9 Duration of the Pupa State—Development of the Perfect Insect a : : HABITS AND FUNCTIONS OF LEPIDOPTERA Flight—Position of the Wings at Rest— Food of Lef/idoptera—Reproduction . Habits— Duration of Life—Broods “ 6 Distribution . : Uses of Lepidopte a—Injurious Lepidoptera Enemies of Lepidoptera > 5 5 Diseases : : . : C : SYSTEMATIC REMARKS ‘ c c < - Species, Variety, Aberration — Hybrids — Classification . : é 3 . c TABLE OF THE GROUPS AND FAMILIES OF EUROPEAN LEPIDOPTERA - ON COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS IN THE PERFECY STATE . s Pins— Collecting-boxes, &c. , c : On the Use of the Net . 4 ; . Localities—M othing—Sugaring : On Searching for Lepidoptera at Rest . ON BREEDING LEPIDOPTERA . : 5 On Breeding from the Egg . ; c Larva-boxes . 2 = ° . 7 Searching for Larve ° . — + XXV XXV1 XXVil XXVili XXX XXX XXXil XXXi1 XXXil XXXill XXX1V Beating for Larve—Sweeping for Larve— Food-plants—Searching for Pup . Dress and Outfit of the Collector ON REARING LARVA AND PUPA General Remarks—Breeding-cages Wood-feeding Larvae — Breeding-cages for the Larvee of Micro-Lepidopltera . Necessary Precautions . 2 2 . Special Rules—Management of Larve on Emerging from the Egg—Situation of the Breeding-cages 0 c “ Hybernation of Larve . C ° 5 Rearing Larvee in the Open Air--Manage- ment of Pup. : c : 5 5 JOURNALS AND NOTE-BoOoKs ON PREPARING ZEP/DOP1ERA FOR THE CABINET f C A c . - Pinning, &c. . ° . c . Relaxing—Setting-boards . c C . Setting . : : 6 ; On Denuding the Wings of Lepidoptera ON THE ARRANGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF A COLLECTION . 5 Store-boxes Cabinets : : : 4 ; 2 On the Position of the Cabinet — On Arranging and Labelling a Collection . Preservation of the Collection— Grease . 4 ON PREPARING SPECIMENS OF EGGs, LARVA, AND PUP . . Q c c a ON EXCHANGING AND FORWARDING LEPs- DOPTERA $ = : : ON ‘THE SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF LEPIDOPTERA . : > EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 5 C : 2 RHOPALOCERA 7 2 : 5 1. Papilionidze DeBieride eens Ill. Nymphalide . . ° IV. Danaide . V. Satyride . S 5 “ VI. Libytheidze : : ‘ PAGE XXXVi XXXVil XXXViil XXXVIIL XXXiX xl xli xlil xliii xlv xlvi xlvi xIvii xlviil xlix xlix xlix 1 li hi li liv lv ve CONTENTS. PAGR PAGE VIL. Erycinide. ° : . - 4 43 VI. Xylinide . ; . ‘ 5 . 241 VIII. Lycenide . : o : c c 44 VII. Cleophanidie . 3 . + 2 IX. Hesperiidae a . . = : 60 VIII. Cucullide . A : 2 a A 248 HETEROCERA : e ; ‘ . s ; 67 IX. Eurhipide . ‘ - 5 - ‘ 254 SPHINGES : : , ;: : : < 67 X. Heliothide : c = A 254 I. Sphingide . 5 : ' 6 . 67 XI. Anartide . é 6 . - = 257 Il. Thyrididee . 5 é é 3 : 75 XII. Pluside . é 0 . : . 260 III. Sesiidee : . . ° ° 76 XIII. Calpide . c ° . . . 266 IV. Zygeenide . : S : ; 85 XIV. Acontide . 3 hawis . 3 267 V. Syntomidze 3 ; . ° . 93 XV. Ophiusidze : S is 6 4 268 BOMBYCES . : c “ o : é 5 95 XVI. Toxocampide . : 5 5 276 I. Lithosidee , Q fe ° : > 95 XVII. Noctuophaleenidie —. 5 : 5 278 II. Arctiide . - 5 . : : 99 XVIII. Deltoida . 2 5 0 . : 284 III. Liparide . 5 5 0 : : 107 | NYCTEOLID 6 2 a c 6 5 5 291 IV. Cosside . 3 . 6 d 5 112 | CHLOEPHORIDA . 5 * s 5 5 294 V. Cochliopodidie . . s . ; 114 | BREPHIDA . : 5 5 : c . 4 295 VI. Hepialide . 5 5 5 5 6 114 | GEOMETRIDA 6 5 F . E : . 297 VII. Heterogynide . 5 5 : . 116 I. Dendrometridze - - . . . 297 VIII. Psychide . 3 a 4 P 5 116 Il. Phvtemetridx . S : 5 - = 356 I. Psychine . : : ~ 117 2. Canephorinze 5 - Fi I2I ———__——__--- IX. Drepanulide . 4 0 : 123 X. Saturnidee C 5 é F : 125 | MICRO-LEPIPOPIERA . ‘. 4 0 - 5 410 XI. Lasiocampide . 4 4 ' 127 Pyrales . . 5 A fs 4 A 5 410 XII. Bombycidee ° “ . 5 . 133 Tortrices : . . ° . . . 412 XIII. Notodontide . - : 5 o 133 Tinee . : ne . ° ° . 413 XIV. Cymatophorice . c : d 143 Pterophori. . . . . . . 414 Nocrua& ; 5 5 . 2 a S . 146 Alucite . : ° : ° : . 5 415 I. Bombycoide . 0 . 5 146 II. Acronyctide . c ° C : 148 i el II]. Orthosidae “ ; . : 153 IV. Agrotide . 2 . : : : 187 | ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS . E A . 416 V. Hadenidze A : 5 Oi c 206 | ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF GENERA AND SPECIES 417 Anker, Assm, (Assmann and Assmuss). Bayle. Bell. (Bellier de la Chavignerie). Berce. Bergstr. (Bergstraesser). Bisch. (Bischoff ). Boeb. (Boeber). Boie. Boisd. (Boisduval). Bon. (Bonelli). Borkh. (Borkhausen). Brahm. Bruand. Bugn, (Bugnion). Butl. (Butler). Chard. (Chardiny). Chay. (Chavannes). Christoph. Cl. (Clerck). Const. (Constant). Costa. Cram. (Cramer). Crewe. Curt. (Curtis). Cyr, (Cyrilli). Dalm. (Dalman). Dard. (Dardoin), De Prunn. (De Prun- ner). De Vill. (De Villiers). Dietze. Don. (Donovan). Donz. (Donzel). Dorfm. (Dorfmeister). Doubl. (Doubleday). Eset ORS aU reO RS QUOTED: (WITH EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS.) Drury. Dup. (Duponchel). Esp. (Esper). Eversm. (Eversmann). Fabr. (Fabricius). Fall. (Fallou). Feisth. (Feisthamel). Fenn. Fisch. (Fischer von Roéslerstamm and Fischer von Wald- heim). Fonsc. (Fonscolombe). Forst. (Forster). Frey. Frey. (Freyer). Friv. (Frivaldszky). Fuessly. Géné, Gerh. (Gerhard). Germ. (Germar). Gey. (Geyer). Ghil. (Ghiliani). Giorna. Godt. (Godart). Goeze. Graells. Grasl. (Graslin). Gray. Gregs. (Gregson). Guén. (Guénée). Guér. (Guérin - Méné - ville). Harr. (Harris). Hatch. (Hatchett). Haw. (Haworth). Heeger. Hein.and Heinem. (Von Heinemann). Herbst. Hering. Herr.-Schaff. (Herrich- Schaffer). Heyd. (Heydenreich). Hoch. and Hochenw. (Hochenwarth). Hoffmannsegg. Hiibn. (Hubner). Hufn. (Hufnagel). Ill. (Illiger). Kirb. (Kirby). Klug. Knaggs. Knoch. Kol. (Kolenati). Koll. (Iollar). Kretschm.(Kretschmar). Lah. (De la Harpe). Lang. Lasp. (Laspeyres). Latr. (Latreille). Leach. Led. (Lederer). Lef. (Lefebvre). Lep. (Lepechin). Lew. (Lewin). Linn. (Linné). Luc. (Lucas). Mab. (Mabille). - Mann. Meig. (Meigen). Mén. and (Ménétriés). Ménétr. Metzn. (Metzner). Meyer. Mill. (Milliére). Miller. Méschl. (Méschler). Mill. (Miller). Murray. : Newm. (Newman). Nick. (Nickerl). Oberth, (Oberthiir). Ochs. (Ochsenheimer). Pall. (Pallas). Palmer. Panz. (Panzer). Payk. (Paykull). Petagna. Pierr. (Pierret). Pill. (Piller). Poda. Prunn, (De Prunner). Quens. (Quensel). Ramb. (Rambur). Reutti. Roem. (Roemer). Réssl. (Réssler). Rogenh. (Rogenhofer). Rossi. Rottemb, (Rottemburg). Rott. (Rottenburg). Say. Schmidt. Schneid. (Schneider). Schranck. Schulze. Scop. (Scopoli), Scriba. Sieb. (Siebold). Snell. (Snellen). Sodoffsky. Sparrm. (Sparrmann). Spey. (Speyer). Staint. (Stainton). Staud. (Staudinger). Steph. (Stephens). Stoll. Sulz. (Sulzer). Tausch. (Tauscher). Tengstr. (Tengstrém). Thunb, (Thunberg). Tr. (Treitschke). V. Hein. (Von Heine- mann). View. (Vieweg). Vill. (De Villers and De Villiers). Vogel. Waldersdorff. Waldh, (Fischer von Waldheim). Wallengr.(Wallengren). Werneb. (Werneburg). White. W. V. or Wien. Verz. (Wiener Verzeichnis). Wocke, Zell. (Zeller). Zett. (Zetterstedt). Zinck. (Zincken-Som- mer). T wan ant WN p fe) List To face Introduction, page ii Frontispiece ... Zo face page ” OF PLATES, Plate 32 ssl 34 35 36 ... 10 face page 144 148 160 188 204 220 238 248 266 270 282 300 316 314 Peer bewN At LON» OF PWwA PES. (The plants figured are indicated by capital letters.) PLATE TE. DETAILS OF THE PERFECT INSECT. (For full explanation, compare the Introduction, pages ii.—x.) PLATE II. PAPILIONIDA, Fig. 1, a—d@. Papilio Podalirius aE a Alexanor’” ... soe » 3, a—d, »> Machaon oy 4. Thais Hypermnestra a, Bp >» Rumina . “0 oo 5 ke Doritis Apollinus ... coc as A. Blackthorn, Prunus Spinosa. B. Caraway. Carum Carvi. PLATE III. PAPILIONIDA, Fig. 1, a—d. Parnassius Apollo .., ee tee “5 Boys a Pheebus ... 99. 3, @—e. a Mnemosyne on A. Orpine. Sedum Telephium, B. Musk Thistle. Carduus Nutans. PLATE IV. PIERIDA, Fig. 1, a—e. Leucophasia Sinapis coo am » 2,a—c. Aporia Crategi eve bod se » 3, 2 & Pieris Brassicze eee a ty CA op Reese ses rps Ab Sea pies eee sa (25 3, Daplidice » 7, @ 6 Euchloe Cardamines aA ie yi Eupheno es cae na Gb Gonepteryx Rhamni see ato A. Trefoil. Lotus Siliquosus. B, Rape. Brassica Napus. C. Hawthorn, Crateegus Oxyacanthus, PLATE VY. PIERIDA, Fig. 1. Colias Palzeno ace one one a ee », Phicomone sp ee CA », Hyale » 4 a—d. », Edusa 860 ene A. Sainfoin. Onobrychis Sativa. B. Coronilla Varia. C. Purple Clover. Trifolium Pratense. B PAGE PwWwWNNN Daw ITO HON I ° ouww PLATE VI. NYMPHALIDA. Fig. 1. Vanessa Atalanta 3, 2, a—e. 6 Antiopa ... » 3, a—-¢. ” To ry tls 9 Urticze eri ox 5. 3 “5 Polychloros wa A. Birch. Betula Alba. B. Stinging Nettle. Urtica Dioica. PLATE VII. NYMPHALIDA, Fig. I. Vanessa Xanthomelas oes +, 2, a—d. oF C-album ... ane 3 3, a—a. >> Cardui “ae ae “2h tH bn Prorsa Cirsium Lanceolatum. Urtica Dioica. A. Spear Thistle. B. Stinging Nettle. PLATE VIII. NYMPHALID&€. Fig. 1. Melitzea Maturna ... ses ay E », Cynthia 3 3, a—d. se Aurinia® 7... we op tb », Didyma ... x» 5, a—d. », Cinxia on 20 os0 son Ok », Dictynna ... nee sco 9. 7) a—t Athalia ane oD se ” », 8, a, 6, Argynnis Aphirape ... ee aS A. Heath. Calluna Vulgaris. B. Germander Speedwell. C. Wild Heart’s-ease. D. Scabious, Viola Tricolor. Scabiosa Succisa. PLATE IX. NYMPHALID&, Fig. 1. Argynnis Dia eas cf) Amathusia meh » Adippe 1 4, a—d. o Aglaia ay, ie > Lathonia ... bas >», 6, a—d, BS Paphia_ ... Hos A. Wild Heart’s-ease. Viola Tricolor. Veronica Chameedrys. PAGE If 12 12 12 12 12 13 5 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 17 PLATE NYMPHAL Fig. 1, a, 6. Neptis Lucilla 3» 2, a—e. Limenitis Sibylla A. Perfoliate Honeysuckle. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. X. IDA&. on - wee Lonicera Caprifolium. B. Common Honeysuckle. sy Xylosteum. PLATE XI. NyYMPHALID&—DANAID&. Fig. 1, a—d. Limenitis Populi * ove we »» 2,a—c. Apatura Iris nO a 285 ea 1H ot a llia, variety Clytie oct oF Te Charaxes Jasius are ae ee af 8 Danaus Chrysippus... eee oe AD A. Aspen. Populus Tremula. B. Sallow. Salix Caprea. PLATE XII. SATYRIDA, Fig. 1, a—c. Hipparchia Circe ase one ase oe oF Hermione 6 se oe my sh A Briseis ... » 4. ae Cordula » 5,a@—c. Erebia Medusa nef Rae ose Dae Sr: », Epiphron ... “06 = aos we » 4&thiops ae ny » Ligea ae an “5 Melanargia Galathea nen a aes + 10; A. Barren Brome. Satyrus Aigeria Bromus Sterilis. . nee wee PLATE XIII. SATYRID&—LIBYTHEIDZ—ERYCINID&. Fig. 1. Satyrus Meera ae aes 600 eee +9 2, A—C. Sate Deere mlce. eee An 3 Epinephile Hyperanthus ... an RUA + Janira ‘ sx 5° ae ‘Tithonus aah “ry GE Ccenonympha Iphis ne »» 7, a—t =A Arcania con sry CO nC Pamphilus “5 GE Libythea Celtis on LO: Nemeobius Lucina ... oe ose soe A, D. Wood Poa. Poa Glauca. B, C. Crested Dog’s-tail Grass. Cynosurus Cristatus, PACA Sol Ve LYCANIDA. Fig. 1. Polyommatus Euphemus ... exe See Ba 2 ids) Os oA Cyllarus nee con » 3: a5 Minima Pe al 45 Argiolus “ye on Damon » 6, a—et. “5, Corydon aye hy Bellargus », 8, a—d. 5 Icarus 3 Oe 3 Astrarche A tot of Argus 5008 a5 Argiades rp ee Lycena Hippothoe ria, as 0. " Dispar, variety Rutilus ... A. Coronilla Varia. B. Restharrow. Ononis Spino C. Whin. sa. Genista Germanica, 23 24 25 25 26 PLATE XV. Lyc@:NID&—HESPERIDA, Tig. 1, a—c. Lyczna Virgauree ... ove see . aaa Ci: a Phizeas aa = ye EE Thecla Rubi... aX oss 9 4, a—c. A std Se aoa wae » 5, 4, 6. Zephyrus Betule ... ess =D ss ea: ” Quercus ... axe » 7, 4, 6. Spilothyrus Alceze ... ee A Oe Hesperia Alveus ... ae » 9s » Malvee mos ea eee Pre keh Cyclopides Morpheus a th eee a iM ” Paleemon aco oe ve es Pamphila Comma ... aan ae wanxe ” Sylvanus ... mae ses ane ands rs Thaumas ... aoe cee ose A. Sheep’s Sorrel. Rumex Acetosella. B. Blackthorn, Prunus Spinosa. C. Golden Rod. Solidago Virgaurea. D. Dwarf Mallow. Malva Rotundifolia. PLATE XVI. SPHINGID. Fig. 1,a—c. Acherontia Atropos... sue on ose 99, 2s Cheerocampa Celerig eee aoe * 1 3) a—t. “5 Elpenor a5 aio oe oy CS AS Porcellus... eas A. Woody Nightshade. Solanum Dulcamara. B. Yellow Bedstraw. Galium Verum. C. Rose-bay Willow-herb. Epilobium Angustifolium, PLATE XVII. SPHINGIDA, Fig. 1, a, 2. Sphinx Pinastri ase Res oss ase ap 2h aA », Convolvuli ... een pot ctr 9» 3, a—« »» Ligustri sce “te wre ae A. Pine. Pinus Abies. B. Privet. Ligustrum Vulgare. C. Small Bindweed. Convolvulus Arvensis. PLATE XVIII. SPHINGIDA. Fig. 1, a, 4. Deilephila Euphorbize 7 ace a Pear het os Galiigy mrcee 200 see yy) 3, 4—c. Chcerocampa Nerii ... as Pterogon Proserpina -e = = A. Oleander. Nerium Olean ler. B. White Bedstraw. Galium Mollugo. C. Leafy-branched Spurge. Euphorbia Esula, PLATE XIX. SPHINGIDA. Fig. 1, a—c. Smerinthus Tilie ... oa ese ei: 7 Quercus Fe CAS on Populi ... oe eee Ay ay Gees Ay Ocellatus oe aks A. Apple. Pyrus Malus. B. Poplar. Populus Pyramidalis. C. Lime-tree. Tilia Parvifolia. 67 7! 72 72 68 68 7O 7o an EEXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE XX. SPHINGIDA—THYRIDIDZ—SESIIDA, Sa 99 2 9 3, @—6. 9 4 of bh CRE yes » 13. ej Hh »» 15. A. Red Currant. B. Common Honeysuckle. C. Goosegrass. 55) 2512s Os » 4, 4, b. 9 7) aC ”» 14. ” 15. A. Common Bird’s-foot Trefoil. B. Mountain Trefoil. C. Bush Vetch. D I SOE ONCE CAS ise »» 9 (upper fig.) ,, 9 9, &—¢, 3) 10. aa dle ayn aa Os eH CAA Macroglossa Stellatarum ... 200 53 Croatica Ilemaris Bombyliformis —... AS Fuciformis Thyris Fenestrella ... Trochilium Apiformis “A Crabroniformis Sesia Tipuliformis ... sas », Conopiformis », Asiliformis ... », Culiciformis ... 3, Stomoxyformis xy Formiczeformis Empiformis Bembec Hyliformis es toe Ribes Rubrum. Lonicera Xylosteum. Galium Aparine. PLATE XXI. ZYG-ENID-E—SYNTOMID. Aglaope Infausta ... 006 noe no Ino Globularize SSS ELUICe Sires Zygeena Minos a5 Scabiosz fa Achilleze oS Lonicerze aS Trifolii coc 500 ong os Meliloti ... " Filipendulze nec Ephialtes, variety Goren eee ” ” (type) a5 a variety Bencedant 3 Carniolica .,. ar Fausta “6 Leta Syntomis Phegea me con on Lotus Corniculatus. Vicia Sepium. Globularia Vulgaris. PLATE XXII. LirHosibD&£—ARCTIIDA. Nudaria Mundana ..,. Calligenia Miniata ... Setina Irrorella », Aurita one ny) »> Variety Ramosa s» Mesomella Lithosia Deplana ... ae a5 Sororcula ... Complana ... (Eonistis Quadra Gnophia Rubricollis .. Emydia Striata is Deiopeia Pulchella ., Euchelia Jacobea Trifolium Montanum. BoOOn > A, Ribwort Plantain, B. Bramble. C. Ground Ivy. oy 2, a—<. 7 3: 9 4, a—¢. ” 5» a—e. my Os (eh ” 7s a, 6. ee. A. Ling ; Heather. B, Pine. C. Lucerne. D. Oak. Fig. i, a—e, 9) 2, @a—C. ” 3: ” 4. ” 5, a, é. op ” 7- A. Five-stamened Willow. B. Dog Rose. Hornbeam. c, Fig. 1, a—«. Lichen. Lichen. Gromwell, Ragwort, Forget-me-not. a, a, b. é. a, 6, a—t, a—L, Parmelia Stellaris, Usnea Florida. Pulmonaria Officinalis. Senecio Jacobaea. Myosotis Palustris. Be eAC hs Beek se DD ks ARCTIIDA. Callimorpha Dominula a Hera... soe Pleretes Matronula ... Nemeophila Russula a5 Plantaginis ... Arctia Caja ... A as » Villica Bee oe », Purpurea nee soe »» Hebe. out Spilosoma Menthastri Rubus Polymorphus. Glechoma Hederacea. PLATE XXIV. LIPARIDA&—NOTODONTID. Orgyia Gonostigma ... », Antiqua eee Dasychira Selenitica a5 Fascelina sae os Pudibunda a Abietis Cnethocampa processionend Pygzera Anachoreta a0 vse Calluna Vulgaris. Pinus Picea. Trifolium Rubens. Quercus Pedunculata. PLATE XXV. LrpPARID&—BOMBYCOID&. Leucoma Salicis Ocneria Dispar PP Monacha Porthesia Chrysorrhcea =n Auriflua Laria V.-nigra soc ace Panthea Ccenobita ... Rosa Rubrifolia. PLATE XXVI. Plantago Teale Salix Pentandra. Carpinus Betulus. Xt 107 108 109 109 109 109 133 135 110 110 IIo IIt IIL IIl 147 Coss1pD42—COCHLIOPODID-E—HEPIALID-E—PSYCHID, Cossus Ligniperda 2, a, 6. Zeuzera Aésculi 3 Limacodes Testudo ... 4, a4, 6. Hepialus Huruli 5. a Lupulinus 6, a, HS Hectus 7, a, 6. Psyche Unicolor 8. » Viciella 9. Oreopsyche Muscella Dandelion. Leontodon Taraxacum. Sallow. Salix Caprea. Apple. Pyrus Malus. 112 113 114 115 116 116 117 118 120 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. ere PLATE XXVII. SATURNIIDA. Fig. 1, a—c. Endromis Versicolora 6 Pr * », 2, a, 6 Saturnia Pyri ate ee On san 1 3) @—e. A Carpini... see ose soe A. Pear. Pyrus Communis. B. Birch. Betula Alba. C. Dog Rose. Rosa Canina. PLATE XXVIII. LASIOCAMPIDA, Fig. 1, a—e. Gastropacha Quercifolia ... one oes ay 2 Lasiocampa Pruni ... 7a ste 9» 39 a—¢t - Eine Wee are oe A 9» 4, a—“ 45 Potatoria oe oe 5 Clisiocampa Populi ... 5 Acs A A Neustria 2» 7, a—e. oe Castrensis ree a3 oe » 8, a, d. Eriogaster Catax adi ae on A, JLeafy-branched Spurge. Euphorbia Esula. B. Plum. Prunus Domestica, C. Scotch Fir. Pinus Sylvestris. PRAT E, XxXoTxX: LASIOCAMPID&. Fig. 1, a—e. Lasiocampa Quercus 9» 2, a—e. is Rubi » 3, 4, 6 Eriogaster Rimicola ay Ag Gate oS Lanestris one cen see sores Crateronyx Dumeti ... mee eos A. Sloe; Blackthorn. Prunus Spinosa. B. Raspberry. Rubus Idzeus, C. Oak. Quercus Robur. PLATE XXX. DREPANULIDA—NOTODONTIDA. Fig. I. Cilix Glaucata saz 260 ners aoe ee Drepana Binaria_.... ead oF eee et Platypteryx Falcataria cae eee eee » 4,@—c. Cerura Vinula ves “cc eee fo GS x» Erminea SRmGs Ay sifida oe CON vee oes AS PRCA ER », Hybocampa Milhauseri... », 8,a@—c. Stauropus Fagi Pe 250 eee An GE Ptilophoro Plumigera oct a eee A. Oak. Quercus Pedunculata, B. Osier. Salix Viminalis. C. Hormbeam. Carpinus Betulus. PLATE XXXI. NOTODONTID&. Fig. 1. Phalera Bucephala ... vy 2 Pterostoma Palpina ... » 3,4, 4 Lophopteryx Camelina pe Odontosia Carmelita eds Microdonta Bicolora 73 0- Leiocampa Dictza ... ah Drymonia Chaonia ... Ay Notodanta Tritophus » 9, 2—d. 7 Ziczac A. Willow. Salix Pracox. LB. Birch. Betula Alba. C. Apple. Pyrus Malus, 128 128 129 129 130 131 131 132 130 130 131 132 132 135 138 139 139 140 140 141 142 143 A. B. Aspen. Cc D C. Scotch Fir. A B C. Wild Strawberry. D Fig. 1, a—e. A. Oxlip. B. Cuckoo-Pint. C. Ked Lamium. PLATE XXXII. CyMATOPHORIDA:—ACRONYCTIDA. Fig. 1, a, 4. Thyatira Batis 9,4, Taeniocampa Gothica 55 10. 7 Stabilis oy Le Orthosia Rufina GAs ye ale Mesogona Acetosellze on a9 pes Cosmia Affinis aa nee aes A. Oak. Quercus Robur. B. Broom. Sarothamnus Scoparia. Pinus Sylvestris. PLATE XXXIV. ORTHOSIDA, Fig. 1. Nonagria Arundinis on wen ee ny Cannze s» 3,4, Leucania Pallens ee “5 Obsoleta » 5,4, Gortyna Flavago 53, 16: Xanthia Fulvago » 7,4, 6, Oporina Croceago 5 op td Orrhodia Rubiginea... ae aoe aay nq ih >» Waccinii », 10, a, & Mecoptera Fragarie... “A 186 Amphipyra Pyramidea Red-berried Elder. © Sambucus Racemosa. Grass. Fragaria Fusca. Oak. Quercus Robur. PLATE XXXV. AGROTIDA Triphena Fimbria ... So 2a, ro: AA Ianthina ... nn Ry CLA 7 Comes eee ae Orbona » 5) a—¢ > Pronuba aq GF Hiria Linogrisea Primula Officinalis. Arum Maculatum. Lamium Purpureum. PAGE 144 144 145 145 149 149 149 15 150 148 151 152 152 154 165 170 171 172 173 175 177 179 155 155 159 160 181 182 183 183 184 185 186 187 187 188 188 188 188 oS Fig. 1. Agrotis Festiva pos », C.-nigrum sp. GH +» Sigma a OB te », Plecta oon 2» 5s », Putris ap (b oye ereecox re »,» Segetum rp GAL AIC Mamestra Persicarize op RACE 5 Brassice ... a5 LO. cA Nebulosa... rej thio ay Tincta... aoe cee Fo CAE oh Leucophzea ace aoe A. Wild Cabbage. Brassica Oleracea. B. Wild Cherry. Cichorium Intybus. C, Common Rose Persicaria. Polygonum Persicaria. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE XXXVI. AGROTIDA—HADENID&. PLATE XXXVII. OrTHOSID-E—HADENIDA, Fig. 1. Luperina Virens_... ons eee aa 25 Miselia Oxyacanthe... »» 3,4, Dichonia Aprilina He Polia Chi ap 9 5) @— Diantheecia Albimacula » 6, a—e os Compta an FAA Mamestra Dysodea ... ay eh A Dentina ... Os 69 Oleracea ... 33) 10; 2, 0. as Pisi Rs Hadena Monoglypha A. Meadow Vetchling. B. Wild Carnation. C. Lettuce. D. Bladder Campion. Lathyrus Pratensis. Dianthus Carthusianorum. Lactuca Sativa. Silene Inflata. E. ” ” ” ” A. Sloe; Blackthorn. B. Cc, D. Sweet Violet. Oak. 10. mite 12, a, 0. 13. Vetch. Grass. Quercus Pedunculata. PLATE XXXVIII. HADENIDA—XYLINIDA. Valeria Oleagina Chariptera Culta Hadena Didyma Ss) tnigilis)s) ee Dipterygia Pinastri ... Euplexia Lucipara ... Habryntis Suta a Meticulosa Rhizogramma Detersa Ercopus Purpureofasciatus ... Xylinia Ornithopus Calocampa Exoleta Xylomyges Conspicillaris Prunus Spinosa. Pisum Arvense. Viola Odorata. PLATE XXXIX. PAGE 190 192 192 194 195 199 204 227 227 228 228 229 171 214 215 219 220 221 224 225 227 227 232 OrvrHOsIDA—CLEOPHANID2—C UCULLID&—HELIOTHID.£— Fig. I. 2. ANARTID&—ACONTID&. Scoliopteryx Libatrix sen =o Calophasia Lunula ... ne tee Fig. 3, a—e 5 os Sh. nth », 6, a—e ”? 7° 8s ” 9. 510s 6a 205 A. Lettuce. B. Mullein. (cS Field Southernwood. PLusiD2—OPHIUSID4&—TOXOCAMPID. BCAA ” » C—C. 1 9 @, b. yy 10. A. Tufted Vetch. B. Yellow Lamium. (S Oak. HADENIDAZ—OPHIUSID— BREPHIDA. Fig. 1. mp 2b i SHA ” 4- a. Stale aOs ” 7> a, b, np Gb A. Oak. B. Osier. C. Sloe; Blackthorn. Cucullia Verbasci_ ... ace nc sy) Wanbratica <.. yy 6eactuce <.. oA », Argentea ... ree Heliothis Dipsacea ... Chariclea Delphinii... Heliaca Tenebrata ... ace Abrostola Triplasia ... Acontia Luctuosa onc Lactuca Sativa. Verbascum Thapsus. PLATE XL. Plusia Bractea net », Lota », Gamma », Hochenwarthi aoe Euclidia Glyphica ... 2 Sse Ute 2 Pseudophia Tirrhaea a Lunaris... Toxocampa Lusoria... n Cracce... an ore Vicia Cracca. Galeobdolon Luteum. Quercus Pedunculata. PLATE XLI. Mormo Maura Catephia Alchymista Catocala Fraxini C9 Nupta ni Sponsa a Electa es Paranympha Brephos Parthenias ... oo ae Quercus Pedunculata. Salix Viminalis. Prunus Spinosa. PLATE XLII. Artemisia Campestris. NocruorpHaL&NIDA—DEL?t01D4—CHLOEPHORID. Fig. & > WSs NCGS ES 1S 0 -) x3. 9> a—d. 9) 10, a—d. A. Beech. B. Small Bindweed. C. Oak. Fig. 1, a, 4. 99 2 @—c. 99 3) &—C. Erastria Deceptoria ... ane ac AA Fasciana Emmelia Trabealis ... Trothisa Respersa 5 Rosea ay Purpurina ... Herminia Tentacularia a Derivalis ... Halias Prasinana Chloephora Bicolorana Fagus Sylvatica. Convolvulus Arvensis. Quercus Pedunculata. PLATE XLIII. DENDROMETRID&, Metrocampa Margaritaria ... Eugonia Autumnaria Selenia Tetralunaria NNN N Nu MAorwa sas 0mMNN ROO YO 298 299 300 xt LEEXPLANATION OF PLATES. Fig. 4, a—c, Himera Pennaria ... ae see coe aye Macaria Notata eer a) 93, Oe Urapteryx Sambuesria te one x» 7,@—c. Amphidasis Betularia cea aco ove A. Alder. Almus Glutinosa. B. Birch, Betula Alba. C. Gooseberry. Ribes Grossularia, D. Beech. Fagus Sylvatica, PLATE XLIV. DENDROMETRID&,. Fig. 1, a, 8. Selenia Bilunaria_... oe non eae », 2,4@,6, RumiaCrategata ... one eae 3 »» 3,@—d. Angerona Prunaria .., a Soe ass Saas Hibernia Defoliaria .., ays », Aurantiaria oy GE », Leucophzaria .,.. eco Saya Timandra Amataria... én nr wos A. Hawthorn. Crataegus Oxyacantha. B. Broom, Sarothamnus Scoparia. C. Sloe; Blackthorn, Prunus Spinosa. PLATE XLV. DENDROMETRID&, Fig. 1. Venilia Macularia ..,. ores aaa a Bapta Bimaculata .,. . “py Abraxas Sylvata ape », Pantaria » 5) a—d, », Grossulariata »» 6, a—c. », Marginata ... rey Rhyparia Melanaria... act ne rp », 8,@, 6 Fidonia Piniaria on roe 2a »» Atomaria ,., pee Os Thamnonoma Wavaria__,,, aes oc nate Fidoniz Clathrata ... oe sca cs A. Red Currant. Ribes Rubrum. B. Hazel. Corylus Avellana PLATE XLVI. DENDROMETRID&. Fig. 1. Cabera Exanthemata ans ose eee aes Boarmia Cinctaria ... nf »» Secundaria.., Ay 25 », | Consortaria 1» 5) @—C. »» Roboraria ... ay »» Crepuscularia cpt Biston Strataria », 8, a—e. » Hirtaria py CRS », Pilosaria een 59 LOS 43° Pomonana. ~... enka », Zonaria eee A. Oak. Quercus Robur. B. Hawthorn. Cratzegus Oxyacantha. C. Alder. Alnus Incana, PLATE XLVII. DENDROMETRIDA—PHYTOMETRIDA. Fig. 1. Psodos Quadrifaria .., », 2,4, 6, Pseudoterpna Pruinata aes: Geometra Papilionaria »» 4,@—¢. Phorodesma Smaragdaria ... tee PAGE 301 304 305 332 300 305 395 315 315 316 354 303 312 313 313 314 314 316 319 319 318 320 312 326 327 328 329 329 331 331 331 331 332 Vig. 5. Nemoria Vernaria ... soe ewe Acidalia Humiliata ... aaa yy VAAL a Virgularia ... ti Hoes »» Aversata.... “ye (2h i Emarginata 738L Os AS Immutata ... ne atte Pellonia Vibicaria ... sea apne Zonosoma Trilinearia sselse Anisopteryx AZscularia 97) 14s Minoa Murinata_ ae 3315s Lythria Purpuraria ... oes 5, 16. Eupithecia Rectangulata ... A. Buckthorn. Rhamnus Frangula. B. Cytisus Nigricans. C. Yarrow. Achillea Millefolium, PLATE XEVIIE. PHYTOMETRID&. Fig. 1. Ortholitha Palumbaria .. Ses 55 Bipunctaria A » 3,4—c. Scotosia Certata ... nee 1» 9, @—C. ” 10 appl le oselze 9» 13, @, 3 >, 14, @, 8 A. Barberry. B. Elm. C. Dog Rose. on Undulata Larentia Fluctuata .., », Bilineata rp dheteie ae 55 Hastata’ -.. a5 «|S Derivatal ., », Berberata . 7 Fulvata ... », Viridaria Oporabia Dilutata Cheimatobia Brumata S50 Berberis Vulgaris. Ulmus Effusa. Rosa Canina. PLATE XLIX. DENDROMETRID&. Fig. 1, a, 6. Therapis Evonymaria », 2,4, Pericallia Syringaria » 3,4, Crocallis Elinguaria... »» 4,@,, Eurymene Dolabraria Awe Epione Advenaria ay 5, Apiciaria 55 Diastictis Artesiaria... Ps Ploseria Diversata ... Ay OS Scoria Lineata 33 10> Phasiane Petraria ees A. Honeysuckle. Lonicera Xylosteum. B. Spindle Tree. Evonymus Europzeus. C. Oak. Quercus Robur. PLATE L. DENDROMETRIDA—PHYTOMETRID... Fig. 1. Odontopera Bidentata », 2, a, 6. Hypoplectis Adspersaria .,. “oy BB Aspilates Gilvaria ... one ae vk Numeria Pulveraria... an is Gnophos Dilucidaria Os Tephronia Sepiaria ... tes ae: Pachycnemia Hippocastanaria eens Nemoria Fimbrialis... eo: Pr) Porrinata ... < E-XPLANATION PACE Tig. Io. Odezia Atrata on mee 357 ay ws Anaitis Plagiata 359 », 12, a, 5, Chesias Spartiata ... 360 1 aks », Farinata 360 tas Lobophora Sexalisata 362 », 15, a, Larentia Albicillata 6 381 A. Broom. Sarothamnus Bespada: B. Raspberry. Rubus Idzeus. C. Bird’s-foot Trefoil. Lotus Corniculatus, PLATE LI. RHOPALOCERA, Fig. 1. Thais Cerisyi one 580 a0 se 3 cp Genepteryx Cleopatra odd nt co RU ast Euchloe Belemia_... on ~ B. Whin. ° ” a Os A UBVE EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE LVIII. Noctua:—NYCcTEOL IDA. Spintherops Spectrum te os 58 Metoptria Monogramma Aventia Flexula Boletobia Fuliginaria Ophiusa Bifasciata ... Nola Togatulalis Metoponia Agatha . Bomolocha Fontis ... Paidia Mesogona Hypena Rostralis : Zanclognatha Tarsipennalis Madopa Salicalis Alamis Albidens ... nea on mae Polygonum Rosmarinum. Genista. PLATE LXIX. GEOMETRA Thamnonoma Vincularia ... Bee aod Collix Sparsaria... bo re Selidosema Plumaria Aplasta Ononaria Sterrha Sacraria... ae nel Sparta Paradoxaria ... Orthostixis Cribraria Proplepsis Ocellata ... Terpnomicta Trimaculata ... Siona Decussata 7 Fidonia Plumistaria tee see Eucrostis Indigenata wae eee eee Euphorba Spinosa, PLATE LX. GEOMETRA, Cleogene Peletieraria aes exe ses Gnophos Obfuscata... Scodiona Belgaria ... Cimelia Margarita *.., Pygmena Fusca_ Eusarca Badiaria_... nen eee Nychiodes Lividaria Hemerophila Abruptaria Eilicrinia Cordiariz ons Fc . Ligia Opacaria »> 11, @, 6. Chemerina Caliginearia A. Cistus. Helianthemum. 314 323 309 333 307 325 325 303 308 314 * Cimelia Margarita (Hiibn). is a South European species, which has been accidentally omitted in the text. It should follow the genus Ligva on page 308. a, b, ” 17. ay) Os) @y (Cs Water Lily. Viper’s Bugloss. Wild Rose. Nettle. A B (Ge D. Clover. E. F. Oak. 55 IOs seks Bae ” 13, a, b, »» 14. ” 15. 3 10; ” 17. se 18: »» 19. A. Scotch Fir, B. Spindle Tree. C. Apple. PLATE LXI. PYRALES—TORTRICES. Hydrocampa Nymphveata ... eee Odontia Dentalis .,. are ose mee Ennychia Nigrata Threnodes Pollinalis Pyrausta Purpuralis Botys Urticata Fa » Flavalis aoe s» Hyalinalis Crambus Selaselius rH Pinetellus Pempelia Semirubella Myelophila Cribrum Galleria Mellonella ... Aglossa Pinguinalis Pyralis Farinalis... Teras Caudana 50 Lozotznia Sorbiana Tortrix Viridana... “55 Nympheea, Echium Vulgare. Rosa Canina. Trifolium. Urtica Dioica. Quercus Robur. PLATE LXII. TORTRICES—TINEA:—PTEROPHORI. Penthina Salicella ... ae eee “0 Retinia Resinella_... ee on Sen Antithesia Pruniana a eae 50 Grapholitha Citrana oe ves Carpocapsa Pomonella Tinea Tapetzella mae Euplocamus Anthracinalis ... Incurvaria Muscalella one eee oe Nemophora Swammerdammella ... Adela Degeerella Cerostoma Dentella = tee Hyponomeuta Evonymella soe cre BS Cognatella ... Chimabacche Fagella a0 Psecadia Pusiella ... oe Bipunctella Pterophorus Pterodactylus “A Carphodactylus a p Pentadactylus ase wee Pinus Sylvestris. Evonymus Europzus. Pyrus Malus, 412 412 412 413 413 413 413 413 413 413 414 414 414 414 414 414 415 415 415 CAS SHEE Ss BOOK. OF EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. PNR KOs Ui Gal ON: BUTTERFLIES and Moths belong to the order Lepidoptera, or Scale-winged Insects, which forms part of the Class Zwsecfa, the largest and most important division of the sub-kingdom Articudata, or Jointed Animals. The Articulata have a symmetrically-formed body, consisting of a series of parts resembling each other called segments. They have no internal bony skeleton like that of vertebrate animals, but in its place an outer skin, generally like horn, but varying in hardness, to which the muscles are attached, and which is frequently called an external skeleton, because it thus supplies the place of the internal bony skeleton of the more highly organised animals. The nervous system consists of a double row of small nervous centres, or ganglia, which are connected together by two large nerve-cords running through the length of the body. Their blood is generally white, and circulates through a vessel running along the back, while the nervous system runs along the under portion of the body. They breathe by trachez when they live in air, and by gills when they live in water. The Class of Insects comprises all those articulated animals in which the body is composed of three distinct parts in the perfect state, which are called head, thorax, and abdomen. Every insect has also six legs when fully developed. They breathe by trachez, that is, by air-tubes, which run along the sides of the body, and which branch outwards in little openings called spiracles, and inwards into the interior of the body, and more or less pervade the whole of it. Insects are generally provided with wings, and pass through several changes or metamorphoses before arriving at the perfect state. Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera, or Glossata) are distinguished from other insects, in their perfect state, by the organs of the mouth being formed for sucking up their food, and by the presence of four membranous wings, covered with coloured scales on both sides. From these cha- racters they derive their scientific appellations: Lepidoptera, from emis, a scale, and rrepor, a wing; and Glossata, from yA@ooa, the tongue. Their metamorphoses are complete ; that is, they appear in three entirely different forms after leaving the egg: first as a soft-skinned caterpillar, or larva, more or less resembling a worm in shape, with jaws fitted for biting; next as a chrysalis, or pupa, enclosed in a horny case, and without any external organs adapted for locomotion or for taking nourishment ; and finally as the perfect butterfly or moth, provided with antennez, proboscis, legs, and wings, and fitted for flight and for the reproduction of its kind. They only grow in the larval state ; the pupa and the fully-developed insect never increase in size. The beautiful forms and colours of butterflies, the intricacy of their markings, and their al - il Evrorean Borrerrzrigs Anp Morus. graceful evolutions in the air and around flowers, have always caused them to be much admired by lovers of the beauties of Nature. Almost every boy has hunted butterflies through the woods and fields, or has reared silkworms or other moths, and been delighted to find the newly-emerged insect in the box along with the empty pupa-case. And how often has the remembrance of these youthful pleasures led elderly men to return to them, and cheer the evening of their lives by a more scientific study of their early favourites! The beauty and the wonderful transformations of butterflies and moths have attracted attention and pleased the fancy fram the most ancient times. Men have even reverently traced in them the symbol of the soul, and afterwards of immortality ; for there is a beautiful analogy between the graceful winged insect emerging from the dark, motionless pupa, and the spirit leaving its mortal body and winging its flight to higher regions. THE PERFECT INSECT, OR IMAGO. (Consult Plate 1.) Structure.—The body of a butterfly or moth consists of three parts, called the head, thorax, and abdomen, which are not always sharply separated. The head (Fig. 1, £) is attached to the front of the thorax by a narrow membranous neck, and is perfectly movable. It is rounded, and generally rather broader than long. The upper part is called the vertex (Fig. 2, sc), the more or less vertical part in front the face (Fig. 2, gs), and the part between these two the forehead (Fig. 2, s¢). The two large eyes (Figs. 1, 2, and 3,a@) are placed on the sides of the head. The feelers, or antenne, are placed in two hollows, generally near the margins of the eyes, and are probably organs of smell (Figs. 1 and 2, f). There are often two small, round, flat elevations, called simple eyes, or ocelli (Figs. I and 2, za), behind the antenne. The mouth is placed on the lower side of the face; its upper part consists of the scarcely distinguishable triangular upper lip, the labrum (Fig. 3, 0/), on the sides of which the small projecting mandibles (Fig. 3,0%) are placed. Under these lies the tongue, which consists of a hollow tube formed of two portions placed closely together, but separable, through which the insect imbibes its food (Fig. 3,2). When the tongue is not in use, it is rolled up in a spiral form close to the mouth. At its base are placed two small organs called maxillary palpi (Fig. 3,7). The mouth is terminated beneath by the lower lip, or labium (Fig. 3, #/), which is generally heart-shaped, and upon which two projecting organs called labial palpi, or simply palpi (Figs. 2 and 3, f/), are placed. These vary in length in different species, but always consist of three joints. The palpi enclose the tongue on both sides, and, added to the scales of the face, generally cover the other parts of the mouth, so that these cannot be examined until the palpi are removed. In many genera the maxillary palpi are the only other organs which are externally visible. The ¢horax properly forms the basis of the whole body, as the head is attached to it in front, the abdomen behind, the wings at the sides, and the legs beneath. It is more or less egg-shaped, and is often rather flattened above. Its lower side is called the fectws, or breast. The thorax consists of three parts, corresponding to the second, third, and fourth segments of the larva, which are called respectively the pro-thorax, meso-thorax (Fig. 1, mr), and meta-thorax (Fig. 1,42), which are separated by fine sutures. The pro-thorax is visible above like a narrow border to the meso-thorax, but becomes wider on the under surface, where the first pair of legs are attached to it. The meso-thorax is very large, and divided longitudinally above. The two fore-wings are attached beneath two thin plates called scapule (Fig. 1, sd), one on each side; and the middle pair of legs are attached to its under surface. The meta-thorax is short, and generally consists of five small plates above. The hind-wings are attached to its sides, and J pik RK Ree TH Ly ANSGAR WS UNIS INTRODUCTION. ill the last pair of legs beneath. There is another small plate above, between the meso-thorax and the meta-thorax, which is called the scwtellum (Fig. 1, sc). The abdomen (Fig. 2, 42) is cylindrical, and consists of nine movable segments ; the first pair of which, and often the last pair also, are united. The segments are arranged in such a manner that the hinder margin of every segment covers the base of the next. Each segment consists of two separate plates, joined at the sides. The last segment contains the anus and the sexual organs (Fig. 5). The male organ is enclosed by two small folds, and the oviduct in the female is sometimes produced into a conspicuous ovipositor. The whole body is densely clothed with hair or scales, so that its structure cannot be examined until this covering is removed. There are many other peculiatities connected with this clothing which we shall notice in their place. PECULIARITIES OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY. The ead is large or small, and has sometimes a horn-like projection on the forehead. This is cone-shaped, or smooth and truncated, or furnished with either one or three projecting points (Fig. 10), but is generally hidden by the scales. Its covering is hairy or scaly, either raised or flattened, and is sometimes divided by one or several furrows. At other times it forms a pointed and prominent frontal crest above the palpi (Figs. 9 and 13). The eves are prominent, and are either globular (Figs. 14 and 15), or form a rather long ‘ segment of a circle (Fig. 8). They are constructed of many small facets, each of which forms a small eye by itself, and this gives the surface a reticulated appearance. The entire surface is either covered with short hairs (Fig. 14), or is naked (Fig. 11). In the latter case, the borders of the eyes are often furnished with overhanging bristly eyelashes (Fig. 15). The antenne consist of a great number of small joints articulated together. There are gene- rally from forty to sixty, but there are sometimes less than thirty, and in other cases more than a hundred. Their length varies from one-third to three-fourths of the length of the body, but in -some cases they are longer or shorter than this. For example, the antenne are scarcely one-sixth of the length of the body in the genus Hepza/us, while in some genera of 77veina the antenne may be six times the length of the whole body. They vary much in shape, and are of great importance in classification. Those which are thread-like, and of equal thickness throughout, are called filiform (Fig. 1, f). Those which taper gradually at the end are called setiform (Fig. 2,7). In other species the antenne are gradually thickened towards the end into a club-shape, and are then called clavate (Fig. 16); and in others, again, they thicken suddenly into a knob at the end, which is generally more or less round, and often flattened: these are called capitate antenne (Fig. 17). Those which are thickest near the middle, and taper again towards the end like a spindle, are called fusiform (Fig. 19); and their club-shaped extremity is sometimes bent round like a hook (Fig. 18). The separate joints are either cylindrical, or round on one side and flat on the other, or with two or three angles, and the antenna consequently receives a round, half-rounded, or angulated form. The first joint is called the basal joint, and is generally (except in the butterflies and Sphznges) considerably longer and thicker than the succeeding joints. In some genera of 77neina the basal joint is expanded into a scale, which more or less covers the eye when at rest, and is called the eye-cap. The separate joints of the antenne are longer than broad in the butterflies, the Psychide, and in many Micro-Lepidoptera, at least till towards the end of the antennz. In the other groups they are broader than they are long, and often diminish in length towards the extremities. They _ have many additional peculiarities. They often form short angles at their ends, and widen into conspicuous projections either on one side or on both. The processes on the antenna can be iv EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. separated and raised, or laid flat’ to the shaft, at the will of the insect. In some ‘cases these processes are on the lower side of the antenna, and are then called lamella. They are, however, more frequently placed on the sides, and have received different names according to their structure. Those antennz in which the appendages are short and blunt are called dentated (Fig. 20) ; those in which they are longer than broad, and are pointed, are called serrated (Fig. 21); and when they are of regular thicknesses throughout like a comb, they are called pectinated (Fig. 22). The antenne are called plumose when the thread-like appendages are very long and‘slender, and give them the appearance of the feather of a bird (Fig. 23). The separate joints of the antenne have generally only one filament on each side, but we occasionally meet with two pectinations on the same joint, and sometimes even at both ends, where they unite closely with the pectination of the next joint, and form with this a single tooth, which can be separated throughout its entire length. It very frequently happens that all these appendages gradually increase in length from the base of the antenne, and decrease again on approaching the extremity; and thus dentated antenne may pass into serrated, and these, as well as lamellated, into pectinated, and vice versd. The antenne have often another special covering, consisting of hair or of adherent or raised scales. When the antenne are clothed with fine hairs they are called ciliated (Fig. 24), and when the hairs are unusually stout, bristly (Fig. 26). We sometimes meet with single hairs only, placed at the extremity of each joint of the antenne, or we find several arranged lengthways, or in clusters (Fig. 25). These hairs are so short and fine in many cases that they cannot be detected without the aid of a strong magnifying power. The above-mentioned processes are also frequently provided with a similar covering; and those of pectinated antennz have commonly longer or shorter hairs on both sides, which are sometimes so arranged that the ends of the hairs of each pectination touch those of the next. The sexes may often be distinguished by these appendages and their covering, for they are either present in the male only, or more fully developed in the male than in the female. The basal joint of the antennz has often a conspicuous tuft of hair (Fig. 18), or the antenna is thick at the base, and often clothed with woolly hair, while the longer terminal half is naked. When the insect is at rest, the antennae lie against the body, or are extended forward. The /abial palpi are rarely absent, but are often very small, although in some instances they are longer than the head and thorax together (Fig. 13). They are three-jointed, but the two first joints are generally so hidden by their hairy covering that they cannot be distinguished. They rise up more or less abruptly from the head (Fig. 8), and are sometimes curved upwards like a sickle (Fig. 11). Sometimes they stand out horizontally in front, and are then called porrected (Fig. 13); and are sometimes curved downwards, or hang down (Figs. 12 and 23). The two first joints are generally densely clothed with hair or scales beneath, which is often visible at one corner in front. The covering is often pressed together on the lower side into a kind of beak, and this is sometimes the case on the upper surface as well. The terminal joint is most frequently naked, though it is sometimes concealed under the hairy covering of the middle joint. It may be club-shaped, rounded, thread-like, or finely-pointed. The comparative length of the two last joints of the palpi is very variable. It has been observed that some Lefidoptera, such as the Skippers, sometimes lose one or both of their palpi during life. It is not unlikely that the missing organs may have been torn off in the struggles of the insect to escape from some adhesive flower ; for it is known that Sphingide and Noctue often lose a portion of their long spiral tongues in this manner. The maxillary palpi are wanting in all the MWacro-Lepidoptera, or are completely concealed under the other parts of the mouth, but they are present in many J/icro-Lepidoptera. They are generally two-jointed, and appear like short threads near or above the tongue. In a few genera of Tineina they consist of five or six joints, and are then very peculiar in shape; for they first rise up, INTRODUCTION. Vv and are then bent downwards, somewhat in the manner of a clasp-knife, and are called plicate. The ‘ougue is sometimes very strongly developed, especially in the Sphingide, in which it is often as long or longer than the body when extended. In some foreign species it measures little less than a foot in length. But in most of the Bomdbyces, in many Tineina, and in some species of other groups, it is only slightly developed, and sometimes only consists of two short and soft threads. In other cases it is horny, and perceptibly rolled. The ¢horax is oval or square, and is sometimes broader than it is long. It is smooth, or more or less convex, with the front angles or shoulders either rounded off (Fig. 4), obtusely angulated (Fig. 5), rectangular, or with projecting angles (Fig. 7). There is often a tuft of hair or scales on the thorax, behind the collar, especially in the Woctw@, which may be either smooth, raised, or divided by a longitudinal furrow (Fig. 5). It is sometimes pointed, and in this case it is often produced into a longitudinal ridge or crest (Fig. 7). We often find a truncated or divided tuft on the plate at the end of the thorax (Fig. 5), or the back of the thorax is raised like a sort of cushion, and is consequently often contracted longitudinally. The abdomen (Figs. 1 and 2, #2) is cylindrical or tapering (Fig. 6), arched (Fig. 5), or flattened (Figs. 4 and 7). It differs in length and thickness, and sometimes does not reach nearly so far as the hinder angle of the hind-wings, while in other cases it extends much beyond it. Like the thorax, the abdomen is frequently furnished with tufts of hair on the back, especially on the first segments. Sometimes these tufts extend to the extremity of the body (as in Fig. 5); and we occasionally find similar tufts on the sides and at the tip of the abdomen. The last is called the anal tuft. The /egs consist of three portions—the thigh (femur, Fig. 2,s%), the shank (¢bza, Fig. 2,57), and the foot (tarsus, Fig. 2,fs). The femur is united by a small connecting ring, called the trochanter (Fig. 2,57), to the hip-joint, or cora, which is jointed to the pectus. The tibia is jointed to its extremity, and the tarsus to that again. The femur and tibia consist of a single joint each, but the tarsus has five movable joints, the first of which is much longer than the others. At the end of the last joint are the claws (Fig. 2, £7), of which there are nearly always two. The comparative lengths of the different parts vary, but on the front pair of legs the tibia is generally considerably shorter, and the tarsus longer than the femur ; on the middle pair of legs the three parts are of equal length ; and on the hind pair of legs the femur and the tarsus are of nearly equal length, and the tibia is longer. There are, however, many exceptions to these proportions, and the length of the front tibia in particular is very variable. The femora are often thickened towards the ends, but rarely exhibit any other peculiarity. The front tibia have often a narrow linear appendage, varying in length, on the inside, at or above the middle, which stands out more or less (Fig. 27). They have sometimes a claw-like appendage at the extremity also (Fig. 28) called a spine. We generally find two thorn-like appendages called spurs at the extremity of the two hinder pairs of tibiae (Fig. 29, sf), and the hinder tibia have usually another pair of spines above them, generally just below the middle, but sometimes nearer the joint or the extremity. Their length is different, but the inner ones are always longer than the outer. Many butterflies and Voctue have one or several rows of fine parallel spines, either on all the tibiz or on the two hinder pairs (Fig. 29). The soles of the tarsi are also frequently furnished with very short and fine bristles, and with longer ones at their extremities. The claws are either simple or finely toothed, and there are sometimes appendages of different forms between them. In other respects the tarsi are always naked, but the femora and tibiz are often more or less densely clothed with hair. The hairy covering often forms a kind of tuft or flag on the back of the tibia. The front pair of legs are imperfect in many families of butterflies, b2 Vi EvroreaAn BurreErFlices AND Morus. either in both sexes or in the male only. In such cases the legs are rather smaller, and the tarsi are terminated with a simple horny hook instead of the usual pair of claws; or the tarsi are either not jointed at all, or only imperfectly (Fig. 30), when they often appear to be united with the tibiae into a densely hairy brush-like paw, or the fore-legs are reduced to very small three-jointed appendages. The hind-legs of the male are shortened in a few Hepialide and Geometre. The w#zgs consist of two larger fore-wings and two smaller hind-wings, so connected together that the hinder edge of the former laps over the front edge of the latter. There are two additional lobes at the base of the hind-wings above in the males of some Geometre, which makes them appear as if they had six wings, whereas the wings of the females of many moths are either absent or rudimentary. The wings are formed of a transparent or semi-transparent membrane, which is held expanded by hollow horny tubes called veins, nervures, or nervules, and are covered on both sides with coloured scales, and more rarely with hair-like scales. In some cases the wings are transparent in the centre, being only thinly clothed with scales on emerging from the pupa, which are lost almost immediately. The only European species which exhibit this phenomenon to any remarkable extent belong to the smaller Spézxgide@ and groups allied to them. The form of the wings is usually triangular, and there are therefore three borders—the front edge, or costa (Fig. 31, VR), nearest the head of the insect; the inner margin (Fig. 31, #2), which is opposite to it, and is parallel to the body in the hind-wings ; and the hind margin, or border (Fig. 31,S7), which lies furthest from the body, and unites the costa with the inner margin. The point where the wings are attached to the body is called the base (Fig. 31,/V); the angle formed by the costa and the hind margin is called the tip, apex, or anterior angle (Fig. 31,5) ; and the angle formed by the hind margin and the inner margin is called the hinder angle (Fig. 31, #W), or, in the hind-wings, the anal angle (Fig. 31, A W). The shape of the wings depends on the comparative length of the margins. The costa is the longest margin of the fore-wings, and their breadth depends on the length of the hind and inner margins taken together. If the hind margin is short, the wing must be narrow ; and the shorter and more oblique it becomes, the narrower are the fore-wings, and the more obtuse is the hinder angle. Sometimes the latter is quite straight, and in some TZzneina especially the hind and inner margins pass into each other so gradually that they cannot be distinguished. The breadth of the hind-wings depends chiefly on the length of the inner margin, which generally extends as far as the abdomen, or beyond it in broad-winged species such as Butterflies, Bombyces, and many Geometre. In the other groups it does not extend so far, sometimes only as far as the first segment of the abdomen, and in such cases, also, it generally passes imperceptibly into the hind margin. The triangular form of the wings is thus often converted into a long oval or lancet shape, especially in d/icro-Lepidoptera. The fore- wings are often widened close to the base by a strong curve in the marginal nervures, or the hind margin of the hind-wings is considerably curved beyond the middle. In this case the wings assume, more or less, the shape of a long quadrangle, truncated behind. In the Plume Moths, the wings are divided into distinct feathers almost from their base. In the ordinary Plume Moths (Prerophoride), the fore-wings are divided into two feathers, and the hind-wings into three. In the Twenty-plume Moths (A/ucitide), each wing is split up into six distinct feathers. The costa and hind margin seldom exhibit anything remarkable. The former is generally somewhat curved in the fore-wings, and sometimes more strongly at the base. It is frequently flattened or curved upwards in the middle, and in a few Zortrices, called ‘“ Notch-Wings,” it is more or less excavated. The middle of the inner margin of the fore-wings is furnished with a INTRODUCTION. Vil projecting fold. There are several variations to be noticed in the hind margin. As regards its general shape, it is called straight on the fore-wings when it runs in a nearly straight line from the tip to the hinder angle (Fig. 31, Sm); arched when it is curved outwards (compare the right fore-wing in Fig. 1); or sinuated when it is curved inwards at any point (see the fore- wing in Fig. 2); angulated when its outline forms distinct angles; and indented when it has large and deep indentations. It is also called entire when it forms a simple, curved, or sinuated line (Figs. 31 and 32); undulated when it curves slightly outwards at the end of each nervure, and thus forms a sort of wavy outline (see the right fore-wing in Fig. 1); dentated when it consists of small roundish indentations, meeting in sharp angles at the ends of the nervures (compare the left fore-wing in Fig. 1); and lobed when it consists of rounded projections which meet towards the base in acute angles between the nervures (as in the left hind-wing in Fig. 1). Neuration of the wings—The arrangement of the nervures of the wings is very important, not only for the purposes of classification, but to enable us to point out any particular part of the wing with as much exactness as possible. The nervures either rise from the base of the wing, or from other nervures; and, in the latter case, generally in consequence of one nervure dividing into several. All nervures which do not rise from the base are called branches, or nervules. The first nervure running from the base forms the costa itself, and does not require any special name. Two nervures rise close together from the middle of the base, and diverge from each other, throwing off several branches. They are generally united at or beyond the middle of the wing by two, or, in the Papilionide, three, short transverse nervules called the disco-cellular nervules (Fig. 1, ga). The first of these diverging nervures is called the sub-costal nervure (Fig. 1,vmr), and that nearest the inner margin the median nervure (Fig. 1,/r). These names apply as far as the disco-cellular nervules. Another nervure rises from the base, between the costa and the sub-costal nervure, which finally unites with the costa, and is called the costal nervure (Fig. 1, R12 and R8). In the hind-wings it often touches the sub-costal nervure near its origin, or is united with this for a short distance, or it may be absent altogether (as in Fig. 32). In many species, especially those in which the hind-wings are not folded when at rest, there are one or more nervures, which are generally short and curved, at the base of ‘the hind-wings, close to the costa. There are also from one to three nervures running between the median nervure and the inner margin, which run from the base either to the anal angle, or the inner margin, or the hinder part of the hind margin. These are called the sub-median nervures, and there is generally only one on the fore-wings (Fig. 1, R1), which is often forked near the base, and more rarely near the hind margin (Fig. 33, Rt). Sometimes there is a second between this and the median nervure (Fig. 31, 1@ and 14), which is generally conspicuous only near the hind margin, and passes into a mere seam towards the base. In the hind-wings there are generally two sub-median nervures (Fig. 1, t@ and 16). “In many genera, especially among the Jicro- Lepidopiera, there are three (Fig. 31, ta, 1, and tc), the second of which often forms a short fork near the base; and there is seldom only one on the hind-wings. We often find one or two more fine nervures between the sub-costal and median nervures, which run from the base to the disco-cellular nervules, and are frequently only visible at their extremities (Figs. 31, 4, and 33, tr). The different nervules branch either from the sub-costal or median nervure, or from the disco-cellular nervules. In the former case they often do not rise from the. nervure itself, but from one of its branches. The sub-costal nervure of the fore-wings generally throws off six branches in this manner, and that of the hind-wings two, which run to the costa and hind margin. Viil E[UROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. These branches are called sub-costal nervules. The median nervure divides into three branches, which mostly run to the hind margin, and are called median nervules; and one branch runs from the disco-cellular nervules, which is called the discoidal nervule: it is sometimes fainter than the others, or is absent. There are two discoidal nervules on the fore-wings of the Papilionide. It happens exceptionally that one or two branches run from the disco-cellular nervules instead of from the sub-costal or median nervures, or the discoidal nervule itself rises from the median nervure. The, neuration of the hind-wings is almost identical with that of the fore-wings in the Hefialide (Fig. 34, which represents a hind-wing). The rami- fications of the sub-costal nervure are very various, as its branches often sub-divide or touch one another, thus forming net-like patterns. One nervule or another is sometimes wanting on the hind-wings (Fig. 32). The separate nervules are indicated by numbers, and are always counted from above down- wards, 7.¢, in the direction from the costa towards the inner margin, and not vice versdé. This is the English and French notation. The German is somewhat different, and is shown in Fig. 1 (left side). According to this system, the nervures and nervules are counted in the opposite direction, or from below upwards, ze., from the inner margin towards the costa. This system is very simple. All the nervures and nervules which run to the inner margin are numbered ta, 10, &c. ; and those which run to the hind margin are numbered 2, 3, 4, &c. These are numbered from 2 to II on the fore-wings, and from 2 to 7 on the hind-wings. The discoidal nervule is always numbered 5 ; and the sub-costal nervure is numbered 12 on the fore-wings, and (generally) 8 on the hind-wingss and they retain these numbers, even when some of the nervules are absent. I have thought it necessary to explain this notation in full, because it is continually employed by German authors ; and unless it is clearly understood from the outset, those who may wish to refer to German entomological works would often find them unintelligible. The space enclosed by the sub-costal and median nervures is called the discoidal cell (Fig. 1, #2), and the space between this and the hind margin is called the disc. When the disco-cellular nervules are perfectly formed, the discoidal cell is said to be closed; but when they are absent, or imperfectly formed, it is said to be open, or imperfectly closed. The intermediate spaces between the nervures and nervules are called cellules ; and as there is no complete English or French classification of them, I think it well to add the German notation for these also, which is very full and satisfactory. When the discoidal cell is divided longitudinally by one or two fine nervures, the divisions are called the front, middle, and hind discoidal cell respectively. When portions of the discoidal cell are divided from it by nervules, or if two nervures run together or are united by a transverse nervule, the spaces thus enclosed are called accessory cellules. The accessory cellules are divided into intrusive cells when they lie before the disco-cellular nervules, and are bounded by these and by dividing lines which unite towards the base (Fig. 31, ez); and appendicular cellules when they are formed by the junction or crossing of nervules beyond the discoidal cell (Fig. 1,@2). Each marginal cellule is indicated by the nervure or nervule which lies below it, ze, on the side of the inner margin. Thus the cellule between t@ and 14 (or the first and second sub-median nervures) would be called cell 1a; that between 11 and 12 (or the costal and the first sub-costal nervules) would be called cell 11, and so on. (The cellules are numbered on the left side of Fig. 1.) When the wings are imperfectly developed, the neuration is also modified, especially by the absence of certain nervures. The neuration is also simpler in the narrow-winged 7Zzeina, in which the discoidal cell is inconspicuous or disappears altogether, and only a few nervures remain, some of which are branched. The connecting bristle.—We must now mention another structure which is connected with the INTRODUCTION. ix neuration. Most Lesidoptera which do not fold the hind-wings together when at rest have one or more short nervures at the base of the latter, between the median nervure and the costa. But in those species which fold the hind-wings, these nervures generally appear as one or more compressed elastic bristles, extending from the membrane of the wing to beyond the costa, and lie behind a border of erected hairy scales on the under side of the fore-wings near the base, so that they serve to unfold the hind-wings when the wings are extended, and to hold them connected with the fore-wings during flight. This bristle is called the frenulum (Fig. 2, 2b), and is always single in the male, whereas the female possesses two or more minute and slender bristles. Sometimes the frenulum is present in the male and absent in the female, in which case the latter is unfitted for flight. This strycture is only found in the Moths, with the rarest exceptions (the only exception is perhaps an Australian butterfly, allied to the /Yesperid@, which possesses it), so that it is considered to form one of the most weighty characters by which we separate Lepidoptera into the two main sections of Moths and Butterflies. Areas of the Wings.—The wings of Lepidoptera may be conveniently divided into three areas, or spaces. The first, the basal area (Fig. 1, zv/), occupies the basal third of the wing ; the second, the central area, extends from this to the end of the discoidal cell (Fig. 1, #zf); and the third, or marginal area, extends from the extremity of the discoidal cell to the hind margin (Fig. 1, s/f). These areas are often separated by transverse lines, the position of which determines their extent ; in which case the basal area generally appears to be the smallest, and the marginal area the largest. The central and marginal areas are generally broader on the costa than at the inner margin. The Scales of the Wings—The colour and pattern of the wings are due to the scales. In some genera, such as Sesza, the scales are wanting over a large portion of the wings, which are then colourless or translucent. These scales appear to the naked eye like a fine dust, and their form only becomes visible under a microscope. They are small discs, composed of two, or perhaps three, layers of exceedingly fine membrane, and are attached to the wing by a short stalk, so that they lie over each other in rows, like the slates on a roof, and cover the roots of the next row with their ends. They generally lie flat in one direction, with their ends turned towards the hind margin ; but they are sometimes erect in certain parts of the wing, or opposed to each other, forming small raised patches. Their forms are very different, both according to the species and according to the particular position of the scales. They may vary, from being comparatively broad to very narrow and linear, so as to pass into the form of hairs. One particular kind of scales, called plumules, is only found in certain parts of the wings of some male butterflies (Lycenid@ in particular), mixed with the ordinary scales. The scales on the hind margin are often more or less deeply toothed. They are not only placed on the surface of the wing, but are also placed on one or more parts of the border, when they are called fringes, or cé/éa (Fig. 1, fr). In the Wicro- Lepidoptera, the fringes are often composed -of fine hairs. The Pattern of the Wings—The colours and patterns of Lepidoptera are very numerous ; and it is only markings of frequent occurrence which have received special names. Among these are lines (4ine@), stripes (strige), bands (vitte), and fascie, which are distinguished by their different breadths, the fascia being the broadest. When they run towards the hind margin they are called longitudinal or basal lines, &c.; when they run from the costa to the inner margin they are called transverse lines ; or costal lines when they only run a short distance from the costa. When they run more or less obliquely they are called oblique lines. A curved transverse line running through the middle of the wing is called an arched line or stripe (/inea arcuata). When a thick band is not sharply bounded it is termed suffused. Short longitudinal lines are called streaks. The lines and c3 x LE,VUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. streaks are either simple, or form several curves. They are called waved, or undulating, when they form short rounded curves inwards and outwards ; and dentated when they consist of small curves meeting in acute angles. They may also be straight, curved, sinuated, &c. Among the spots, we must pay attention to the lunules, which are crescent-shaped spots.” There is often one at the extremity of the discoidal cell (Fig. 1, 7). Round spots, enclosed by rings of different colours, are termed ocelli, eye-spots, or eyes. They have generally a pale dot in the centre, which is called the pupil ; when there are two, the spot is termed a bipupilled eye ; and when the pupil is absent, the eye is termed blind. The hind margin and fringes frequently have various peculiar markings. The hind margin is often marked with a single or double line, which runs parallel to all its curves ; or with spots, called marginal spots, or points; or with lunules, of which there are sometimes more than one row. These are often placed on the intermediate spaces between the nervures, which are called the incisions, when the wings are scalloped. The fringes are frequently intersected by one or more dark lines running parallel to the hind margin, or are chequered with pale and dark, interrupted by light markings, or marked with lunules also. Particular attention must be paid to the special pattern of the fore-wings which is found in most Noctue (Fig. 1, right fore-wing). It consists of three pale transverse lines, generally bordered with darker, or of single or double dark stripes. The first is near the base, and runs from the costa about as far as the median nervure, and is called the half-line (strigu/a, Fig. 1, 2s); the second and third are called the inner (Fig. 1, vst) and elbowed lines (Fig. 1, 4s?) respectively, and enclose between them the central area, upon which is often a less distinct broader line called the central shade (Fig. 1, 7s), Between the elbowed line and the hind margin, and more or less parallel to the latter, is another pale line, which is either undulated or dentated, and rarely straight, called the sub-terminal line (Fig. 1, w/). It is sometimes so strongly indented that the ends of the teeth touch the hind margin in some places. The space between this and the elbowed line is generally pale, and is shown at Fig. 1, gé. Upon this we frequently find long pointed black spots behind the nervules, resting on the sub-terminal line and pointing towards the base, which are called sagittate spots (Fig. 1,f/). There are three spots, called stigmata, on the central area. That nearest the base stands in the discoidal cell, and is round or oval; it is called the orbicular stigma (Fig. 1,7). The second is a larger kidney-shaped spot at the extremity of the discoidal cell, and is called the reniform stigma (Fig. 1, ov). Beneath this is frequently a wedge-shaped spot called the claviform stigma (Fig. 1, 2#). The orbicular and reniform stigmata are often connected by a dark space, or by a sharply-defined square black spot, which is sometimes continued in a point above the orbicular stigma towards the base, and is then called the pyramidal stigma. Some of these markings are often wanting, but the ordinary pattern of the octwe@ is considered to be present if we find the inner, elbowed, and sub-terminal lines, and the orbicular and reniform ‘stigmata. These stigmata, as well as the transverse lines, are often found in other families besides the Woctwe, and are then known by the same names. The hind-wings and the under surface of all the wings are often as brightly coloured as the upper side of the fore-wings, in butterflies. In many moths, the hind-wings and the under side are inconspicuously coloured, and are often nearly uniform pale grey, though their examination is sometimes an important aid to the determination of a species. Hermaphrodites—Fully-developed Lepidoptera are fitted to reproduce their species. The sexes are sometimes alike or nearly so in outward appearance, but in other cases they are more or less unlike, either on the whole, or in the structure of certain parts. The females are frequently larger than .the males, and their abdomen is thicker. They are seldom so brightly coloured as the males, their colours being better adapted for concealment ; and the remarkable phenomenon INTRODUCTION. XI known as mimicry, or protective resemblance, in which one insect resembles another with which it has no real affinity, but which enjoys some special immunity from the attacks of birds or other enemies, is always seen in the greatest perfection in the female, to which sex it is indeed often confined. The sexual differences presented by the antenn, frenulum, and front legs, &c., have been already noticed. Specimens are occasionally met with in which the characters of the two sexes are combined in one individual. In some cases the opposite sides of the body present all the characteristics of the two sexes, the wings, legs, antennz, &c., being male on one side, and female on the other, These are called hermaphrodites, or gynandromorphous specimens. In other cases, different parts of the insect combine the colour or structure of the sexes to a greater or less extent. Any specimen combining the characters of both sexes in any degree is a rarity which must on no account be passed over; and if, by rare chance, the captor happens to reside in the same neighbourhood as an entomologist who studies the anatomy of insects, the specimen should be submitted to his examination immediately, while still quite fresh. I may add that perfect hermaphrodites are confined to those animals in which the sexes are not separated ; and that when the sexes are combined in an individual of a species in which they are normally separated, such individuals are always imperfect hermaphrodites, however completely the sexes may appear to be combined, and are generally incapable of fulfilling the functions of either sex. Ei GiGise The eggs of Lepidoptera are small bodies, covered with a hard shell, and filled with fluid, containing the germ of the larva, and the nourishment required for its preliminary development. They are very interesting objects for examination with a microscope of low power, for their shapes are very varied, and are often remarkable. Some are globular, others egg-shaped, bowl-shaped, cylindrical, barrel-shaped, cheese-shaped, turban-shaped, &c.; and they are often truncated orhollowed at the ends. Their surface is either flat, or covered with impressed or raised points, and there are often furrows or deeper stripes running along the sides from the middle of the upper end, like the meridian lines on a globe; the intermediate spaces between these stripes are generally rounded, and raised, with fine transverse stripes, and the intermediate spaces between these are often again still more finely ribbed. The colours of the eggs are also very various: they may be brown, blue, green, red, or yellow, but are most frequently greenish or greenish-white, and are often spotted, striped, or marked with net-like or other patterns. The eggs of nearly-allied species have generally a particular definite shape, especially in sharply-characterised groups. The eggs are laid by the female insects in places where the future larve can easily find their food, and most frequently on the plant on which they are to feed. They are either laid singly or in numbers, and sometimes the whole mass is laid at once. They sometimes form an irregular heap, often covered with hair or wool taken from the body of the mother, and are sometimes arranged in several rings, set close together, around a twig, or are attached to a flat surface, generally that of a leaf. After a few days, fertilised eggs generally become slightly depressed and change colour, and unfertile eggs shrivel up. Unfertilised eggs produce no larve, except among some genera of small moths, and, in very rare cases, among large moths. Among silk- worms, for instance, the development of unfertilised eggs has frequently been observed. This phenomenon is called Parthenogenesis, from crap6évos, a virgin, and yéveots, birth. The period required for the formation of the germ in the egg previous to its hatching varies according to the time when the egg is laid, and the season when the larva will find food. In summer the development is more rapid, and in autumn and winter it takes place more slowly. xil EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. The higher or lower temperature of the season is also not without some influence. In those species whose larve will find nourishment during the same year, the period of development is generally from eight days to four weeks; but in those species which lay their eggs so late in the season that the food-plant of the larvae would have died down or shed its leaves by the time that they were hatched, if their development was as rapid as in the other case, the eggs do not hatch until the following spring, at the time when the food-plant is also unfolding itself. When the period for hatching has arrived, the young larva bores through the shell, in which it has previously lain coiled up, and enlarges the opening by gnawing it away till it can creep out, when it not unfrequently completes its task by devouring the empty egg-shell before tasting any other food. LARVE. Size and External Structure—The body of the larva resembles a long cylinder, flattened off on the under surface. It is, on the whole, of equal thickness throughout, but frequently becomes rather thinner at each extremity. A few larvee are egg-shaped or woodlouse shaped (PI. 14, Fig. 2, a); and those of the small moths, which mine in the substance of leaves, are generally quite flat. A larva consists of thirteen joints, one behind another, separated by more or less perceptible divisions, and sometimes by deep incisions. The joints are called segments, aud the first forms the head. Continental entomologists reckon twelve segments only, counting the head separately. The head (caput) is always conspicuous, and is formed of a horny substance, but differs very much in size and shape. It is seldom small and contracted, but is generally distinctly separated from the next segment. Its shape is generally roundish, but is sometimes flattened, truncated, or triangular. In the larve of Geometre it is often produced into two angles at the sides; and in the genus Afazura it is provided with two triangular horns (PI. 11, Fig. 2, a). It consists of two lobes, generally hemispherical in shape, which are separated above by a longitu- dinal division, and divide in front near the mouth, where they enclose the basal portion of the head, or clypeus. These lobes have frequently been called “eyes,” but cannot be regarded in this light. The true eyes (ocel/?) are merely small, shining, roundish elevations on each lobe, six of which are arranged in a semi-circle on each side of the mouth; and they can only be distinctly seen with a magnifying-glass. The clypeus is bounded beneath by the upper lip (abrum), under which the horny jaws (sandibles) are placed on each side, which serve for biting. At the base of the latter are placed the feelers (aztenn@), two small, pointed, movable projections, generally four-jointed ; and beneath the mandibles the membranous lower lip (/abiam) is united above with the lower jaws (maxil/@) and with two small four-jointed organs called ‘maxillary palpi,” and underneath on the inside with the two-jointed “labial palpi.” At the extremity of the lower lip is a horny, perforated projection called the spinneret, from which issue the silken threads which form the cocoon. The rest of the body of the larva is covered with a soft and often wrinkled skin, and is capable of being moved in any direction. The three segments after the head correspond to the thorax of the fully-developed insect; the first corresponds to the pro-thorax; the second to the meso-thorax ; and the third to the meta-thorax. These are called thoracic segments, and the remainder, abdominal segments ; the last is called the terminal segment. The segment behind the head is often covered with a horny plate, the scutellum; but the remaining segments only exhibit a similar structure in a few genera. The last segment has a triangular or crescent-shaped flap above the anus, called the abdominal fold, which is also horny in many species. Besides this, INTRODUCTIGN. Xiil each segment, except the first, third, fourth, and last, is provided with a small opening on each side, above the feet, which is surrounded with a horny margin, and through which the larva breathes. These air-holes are the spiracles, already mentioned, and are often placed on round coloured spots called stigmata. The spiracles placed on the second and twelfth segments are generally larger than the others. The larve of the typical Papzliontde have a fleshy retractile fork on the second segment. Every Lepidopterous larva has a pair of legs (fedes) on each of the three thoracic segments. These consist of three cylindrical joints, covered by a more or less horny skin, and are terminated by aclaw. They are thickest at the base, and taper towards the extremities. These are the true legs, which correspond.to those of the perfect insect;* and in the larva of the Lobster Moth (Stauropus Fagi, Pl. 30, Fig. 8, a) they are of extraordinary length. In addition to these, most larve are furnished with four pairs of false legs, or “prolegs,” on the seventh to the tenth segments ; and another pair called “claspers,” which terminate the last segment. These prolegs consist of two fleshy joints, and their extremities are either rough, very movable, and adapted for climbing, and fur- nished on the outer sidé with hooks directed inwards (fedes seimt-coronati); or else they are smooth, shaped like a bolster, and not adapted for grasping any object, but furnished with a continuous or nearly continuous circle of small hooks, directed outwards (fedes coronati). Legs constructed for climbing are only met with among the larve of MJacro-Lepidoptera ; but some of these have legs of the other description. This is especially the case with those which feed in the interior of plants, orincases. None of the larvae of Wicro-L epidoptera have climbing legs. Several larve belonging to the families Motodontide and Drepanulide have no claspers, because the terminal segment ends, in the former, in two long slender processes (as in the larva of the Puss Moth, Pl. 30, Fig. 4, a); and in the latter, it terminates in a point. The larve of the Geometre have generally only one pair of prolegs on the tenth segment (Looper Caterpillars, like that of Exnomos Alniaria, Pl. 43, Fig. 2, a), but in some genera we find a pair on the ninth segment also (as in the larva of the Light Emerald Moth, Pl. 43, Fig. 1, a); while in the larve of several genera of Moctue, the prolegs are wanting, or rudimentary on the seventh, and sometimes also on the eighth segment, as may be seen in the larva of Agrophila Sulphuralis (Pl. 42, Fig. 3, a). The larve of these aberrant Moctwe are called “ half-loopers.” In other larve the front prolegs are smaller and less fully developed than the hind ones. The larve of the Psychide@, which live in cases, and the tortoise-shaped larve of the Coclopodide, are indeed furnished with prolegs, but these are all very short. Those larve which are provided with the full number of legs crawl along. Those of the Macro-Lepidoptera creep slowly, but the movements of the larvee of the AZicro-Lepidopitera are generally very rapid ; and the latter can run backwards as well as forwards. Looper larva have a very peculiar mode of walking ; they fix themselves firmly by their true legs, and then draw the prolegs and claspers up to them by strongly arching their body. They then attach themselves by their prolegs and claspers, stretch out their body, and fix themselves as before with their true legs. The motion of the half-loopers is more crawling, but they likewise arch their bodies in the middle, more or less, when walking. Many larvee exhibit other structural peculiarities. These consist chiefly of fleshy excrescences or appendages, which may occur on the middle line of the back, or in pairs, or in a regular series ; * The thoracic legs are absent in the larve of the genus Weff/icu/a (which contains the smallest of all known moths), which are furnished instead with nine pairs of undeveloped prolegs, without claws, on segments 3 to 11; as well as in the entirely footless larva of Gelechia Inopella, which lives in the seeds of the common Flea-bane (/nu/a dysenterica); and also in the footless larva of the genus /’arasia, which live in the heads of different composite plants. a* XIV EvroreAn Burrverrliés AND MorHs. or some of the limbs may be much thicker than usual, &c. These excrescences often form regular humps on the back, as in the hump-backed larva of Notedonta Ziczac (P1. 31, Fig. 9, a); or fleshy peg-like processes, as in the larva of the Common Dagger Moth (PI. 32, Fig. 7, a); or a pyramidal elevation on one of the last segments, as in that of the Kentish Glory (PI. 27, Fig. 1, a). Other larvae have short fleshy spines on the back, arranged in pairs, like that of Lophopteryx Camelina (Pl. 31, Fig. 3, @); or two horizontal projections behind the terminal segment, as in that of Hipparchia Circe (Pl. 12, Fig. 1, @), and in most of those of the Satyride. Other larve are furnished with longitudinal rows of hard branching spines on the back and sides, like that of the Camberwell Beauty (PI. 6, Fig. 2, @) ; or with rows of thorn-like, cylindrical, fleshy spines, covered with short hair, like that of the Glanville Fritillary (Pl. 8, Fig. 5, a); or are covered with bud- like prominences, like that of Saturnia Pyri (P\. 27, Fig. 2, a). The larvee of the Sphingide have a fleshy horn on the last segment but one (see Pl. 16, &c.), which is generally curved backwards, and has sometimes a small horny plate behind it. The sides of many larvae are studded beneath with a row of short fleshy filaments, as in that of the Clifden Nonpareil (PI. 41, Fig. 3, a). The skin of larve is either naked or hairy. In the former case it may either be smooth (as in Panolis Piniperda, P\. 33, Fig. 8, @) or rough (as in the Eyed Hawk Moth, Pl. 19, Fig. 4, @), or furnished with small, separate, and regularly-arranged warty processes, covered with a very fine and scarcely visible down (as in Gortyna Flavago, P|. 34, Fig. 5, a). We class these among the naked larvae on account of the fineness of the down. In hairy larvae the body is either thinly covered with soft hairs (as in Eviogaster Lanestris, Pl. 29, Fig. 4, a), or with short hair placed close together (as in the Oak Eggar, Pl. 20, Fig. 1, a) or in tufts; or the hairs stand on large warts, and are arranged either like stars or rays (as in the Jersey Tiger, Ple23) Kick 2a) or else they are stiff and long, so that the star-like arrangement is no longer perceptible, at least on the back (as in the Tiger Moth, Pl. 23, Fig. 6, a). Other larve are provided, in addition to the ordinary covering of hair, with truncated tufts of hair on the back (as in Dasychira Fascelina, P\. 24, Fig. 4, 2), or with long pencils of hair on the back or sides (as in the Vapourer Moth, Pl. 24, Fig. 2, @). The hairs themselves are either bristly or thread-like, and more rarely lanceolate. In the Processionary larve they are covered with exceedingly fine recurved hooks, and with small openings, which discharge a fine dust, which causes an inflammatory irritation on the human skin. Colour and Pattern of Larve.—The colours and patterns of both the naked and hairy larve are very various. The markings consist of longitudinal lines, or bands of variable breadth ; oblique lines and stripes, which generally converge towards the back; transverse bands ; large or small spots, &c. There is often a longitudinal line, frequently bordered with darker, running along the middle of the back (the dorsal line or streak) ; and sometimes another line lower down on each side (the sub-dorsal line); or one lower still, near the spiracles; or else a broader pale streak (the lateral line or streak). The oblique streaks generally run forwards from the back, and more rarely run backwards along the sides. The dorsal line is sometimes double, or divided by a narrow line throughout its length. The various forms of the lateral streak may be compared in the larva of Hipparchia Fanira (Pl. 13, Fig. 4, a), Mamestra Pisi (Pl. 37, Fig. 10, a), and Panolis Piniperda (Pl. 33, Fig. 8, a). In that of the Poplar Hawk Moth (PI. 19, Fig. 3, @) it is combined with oblique streaks on the sides. Other larve have an angular pattern on the back, sometimes forming open or closed squares, like that of Mamestra Albimacula (P\. 37, Fig. 5, a). Others have two parallel stripes on the back of the hinder segments, which often unite behind, forming a mark resembling a horse-shoe, as in the larve of some of the Yellow Underwings (Pl. 35, Figs. 3, a, and 5, @). The larva of the Cinnabar Moth (Pl. 22, Fig. 13, @) has transverse bands INTRODUCTION. XV on the segments ; other larve have rows of transverse spots between the first segments, or are covered with large or small spots, varying in number, and often arranged in rows or in transverse bands (compare the larve figured on Pl. 39). Moulting.—As the outer skin of the larva does not expand with its growth, it is cast off when it becomes too narrow. This phenomenon is called moulting. It takes place at more or less regular intervals, usually after from six days to a fortnight, but sometimes at much longer intervals, especially in cases when hybernation intervenes. Some larve moult twice only, others seven times, but the greater number four or five times. During the time of moulting the larva appears to be ill. It ceases to eat, and fixes itself firmly with the prolegs and claspers. The old skin becomes dry and shrivelled ; a new and larger head appears behind the old head; and at last the old skin splits down the back behind the head, and the larva, clothed in a new skin, extricates itself gradually from the old one. The empty shell of the old head generally remains sticking to the mouth of the new head for a little while, till it is rubbed off. In hairy and spiny larve the hairs and spines are thrown off with the old skin, under which the new hairs and spines lie close to the body in a limp condition, and stiffen and become dry after the old skin is thrown off. All the other parts slip out of the old skin, in which they are enclosed. Even the lining of the intestines and breathing tubes is thrown off with the old skin, according to some writers. The colour and pattern of the larva, and in some cases even its shape, are liable to considerable alteration after moulting. Thus the larvee of Ag/ia Tau lose the small spines which they possess on first quitting the egg; and the larve of many Woctwe, which have the first pair of prolegs imperfect in their earlier stages, and consequently walk somewhat like loopers, acquire perfectly developed prolegs after the two first moults. Hlabits—The food of larve consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances, though the larvee of some Micro-Lepidoptera form an exception, as they live upon animal substances, such as hair, feathers, wool, &c., or on animal products, such as grease, the wax in the nests of bees and humble-bees, &c. The larve of some Noctwe and Geometre, for instance, those of the genus Cosmia, and of Scopelosoma Satellitia and Crocallis Elinguaria, will devour other larve which may happen to be in their company. It is even doubtful whether the larva of Senta Maritima does not feed exclusively on other insects. Most of the larve which feed on plants live on the softer portions, such as the leaves and flowers ; but there are many which feed on other parts : some on the buds, fruits, or seeds, and others live in the interior of the stem, or in the bark, wood, and roots, often burrowing in the solid wood. Thus the larve of the Seszd@ live and feed in or under the bark and in the wood of trees, or in the roots of herbaceous plants ; the larve of the genera Cossus and Zeuzera also live in the trunks of trees; those of Phragmatecia, Hydracia, Gortyna, Helotropha, Nonagria, and Calamia feed in the stems of plants, and sometimes creep down into the roots, while those of the genus Dianthecia live in the seed-capsules of plants allied to the pink. The larve of the genus Agvotis, &c., live on or just beneath the surface of the ground, and frequently do great injury by eating through the roots of cultivated plants—a habit which has led to their being called “ cut-worms” in America. Several other larvae besides those which we have mentioned above feed in the interior of plants. These chiefly belong to the Micro-Lepidoptera ; and a great number of them burrow in the leaves of plants, and are called mining larve. These live between the upper and under cuticle of leaves, and feed upon the green substance called chlorophyl, thus forming colourless spots or galleries in the leaf. Such mines are formed by most larve belonging to the families Elachistide, Lithocolletide, Lyonetide, Nepticulide,and Coleophoride. The last have the additional peculiarity of living in cases, from which they stretch out their heads to eat into the leaf, while the hinder part of their body remains in the case, and thus they hold xvi EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. themselves firm. But we must not conclude that every mine is the work of one of these larve, for the larva of some flies and beetles mine in leaves in a similar manner. There are only a few mining larvae known among the JZacro-Lepidoptera. We may mention those of the genus /zo, and that of Cidaria Incultaria. The latter mines in the leaves of Primula Auricula. Most of the larvee of ATacro-Lepidoptera which do not feed in the interior of plants live exposed, but others live in webs, or between leaves which they have spun together. Others live in sack-like cases, covered externally with portions of the food-plant, which they carry about with them. Most of the larve of A/icro-L epidoptera which are not miners also live in webs, or in leaves spun together, turned over, or rolled up; or in silken tubes; or else in cases. Many of the larve of J/acro- Lepidoptera which live exposed, especially among the Woctw@, hide themselves during the day on or in the earth, under plants, in dry leaves or moss, or in the crevices of bark, &c., and only come out to feed at night. Many larve live in company, either exposed or in a common web. They generally separate while feeding, and assemble together again to rest, or when about to undergo their moults. The larve of the genus Crethocampa are particularly deserving of notice. They always keep together in great numbers, and march forward to eat in a regular procession, either in a long train, one behind the other, or else one goes first and others follow; and thus the train becomes gradually broader, remains for a time of equal breadth, and towards the hinder end again becomes narrow. After they have finished eating, they return in similar order. They have acquired the name of Processionary Caterpillars from these regularly-arranged trains. The duration of the larva state is very variable. It generally lasts two or three months, and only extends to ten months when the larva passes the winter in that state. In several genera of Tineina the larve require only a few days before they assume the pupa state; and the growth of the larve of some J/acro-Lepidoptera is also very rapid. Larve of Cucullia Chamomille, bred from the eggs, have been known to reach their full growth in fourteen days. On the other hand, the larvee of the genus Cossws, many Sesitd@, and generally those also of Pleretes Matronula, require two or three years to reach their full growth. The growth of larve is accelerated by warmth, and retarded by cold. Many larva hybernate: some when they are very young, and even previous to the first moult ; and it is remarkable that in this case many, like those of the Zygene, leave off eating long before they commence their actual winter sleep, and remain without food for months before winter. Others hybernate when they are full grown, and some of these live far into the summer without taking food; but this has only been observed in the case of Jltcro-Lepidoptera. But the greater number hybernate when half grown, and feed till late in the autumn. The larve of many Voctwe perhaps feed even in winter during mild weather, and as soon as their food-plant grows up in spring they at once begin to feed upon it again. Many of these moult before they re-commence feeding, and others very soon afterwards. Many species, such as those of the genus Melitea, live in company till winter, pass the winter in a common web, but disperse in spring, and lead a solitary life afterwards. Metamorphosis—When the larva has reached its full size, the last moult, called “ pupation,” takes place. This change also is attended with very various circumstances. The larvae of many butterflies, as well as those of the Plume Moths and of some other JZicro-Lepidoptera, attach themselves by the tail to a twig or some other object, and undergo their transformations suspended freely in the air. The larvae of many other butterflies, as well as those of the genus E/achista, are fastened with a fine thread, which they draw round the body or over the mouth. Other larvae prepare themselves a more or less hidden or protected place of safety called a cocoon. This is composed of threads, in which hairy caterpillars generally weave their hairs, as well as fragments of leaves, moss, or wood-shavings. These cocoons are of different consistencies; sometimes quite INTRODUCTION. XVii loose, something like a firm felty substance ; others are very hard and firm, especially if shavings have been used in their construction ; and sometimes they are quite smooth and parchment-like. The cocoons are generally placed in hidden or protected situations, some in corners, in crevices of trees, in the ground, or under moss, and the outside is often difficult to distinguish from surrounding substances. Cocoons attached to the trunks of trees are often very skilfully constructed, and covered with pieces of bark and lichen so as perfectly to resemble a natural excrescence of the bark. The form of the cocoon is generally egg-shaped, but some are spindle- shaped, pear-shaped, or boat-shaped. Others resemble a bottle with a short neck, and have a valve-like partition at the base inside, and others are closed by a kind of lid. The larvae which feed in the interior of the hard portions of plants prepare a path by which the moth can escape, before they assume the pupa state. This generally consists of a tube or passage from the place where the pupa rests, to the outer wall, where it is closed by the outermost skin of the plant. Case-bearing larve do not prepare a special cocoon, but fasten the upper end of the case to some object, and then turn round inside before assuming the pupa state. The moth afterwards emerges from the hinder end. Larve which live between leaves which they have spun together generally make no regular cocoon, but change to pupa between the leaves where they have lived, or else go into the ground for the purpose. Most of the naked larvae of MJacro-Lepidoptera, except those of the butterflies, undergo their transformation in or on the surface of the ground, sometimes without any preparation. Some of those which change on the surface of the ground do so between two leaves, which they draw together around them ; and others which change beneath the surface construct a sort of cocoon of agglutinated grains of earth, which may be either loose or firm, and is generally lined with silk. The transformation to a pupa is effected by the swelling of the front segments till the skin of the larva splits at the back of the neck, and is shuffled off behind by continuous movements of the pupa. When the pupa first appears it is often soft and pale, but soon acquires its proper colour and consistency. The larger and more complicated cocoons frequently require a day or more for their completion. PUP. e Form and Colour.—The shape of the pupa is generally cylindrical, becoming narrower behind, either gradually or suddenly. It is surrounded with a horny skin varying in hardness, and is divided into the thorax, corresponding to the thoracic segments of the larva; and the abdomen, which consists of nine movable rings jointed together. The separate parts of the future butterfly may be plainly noticed on the outside of the thorax of the pupa, in the seams by which the cover- ing is divided. The head is indicated by a slight swelling in front. It is pressed downwards, and the eyes are visible on each side. Behind and above this is a narrow segment, the pro-thorax ; then the large and broad meso-thorax, and behind this the short meta-thorax. The lower joints of the two first pairs of legs are placed on the under side in front, on the side of the head, while their thighs and the last pair of legs are concealed, except that the extremities of the latter are visible behind the other legs. The antennz pass round the eyes, and run backwards outside the middle pair of legs, which they thus enclose. The cases of the fore-wings rise on the sides of the meso-thorax, and run backwards and beneath, bordering the antenna, and meet towards the ends, or are separated by the legs, antenna, and tongue, according to the length of these organs. The hind-wings are attached to the meta-thorax, but there is only a small part of their base visible, because they are hidden under the fore-wings. The wing-cases usually extend at least as far as the middle of the pupa, and are always conspicuous beyond the meta-thorax. They sometimes reach as far as the end (5) XVill EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. of the pupa. The cases of the legs, antennae, and tongue are also longer or shorter, and that of the tongue often forms a knob-like projection at the end, or a separate tube, close to the breast or separated from it, and sometimes convoluted. The abdomen becomes gradually or suddenly narrow towards the end, and its segments represent the nine last’ segments, or the abdomen of the butterfly. The four first are generally hidden by the wing-cases on the under surface, and the others entirely enclose the body. The last segment has a short, longitudinal impression beneath, and there are two small hooks, separated by an indentation, on the last segment but one in the male sex. The last segment is either rounded or terminated by an obtuse angle, or by a process which has often two or more points, called the “cremaster.” There are spiracles, or breathing- holes between the pro-thorax and the meso-thorax, and on all the segments of the abdomen, except the first and last. There are many variations in the form and covering of pupa. Many butterflies have two sharp projections in front on the head, or a hatchet-shaped or nose-like pro- jection on the middle of the back, and short spines on the upper surface of the abdomen; while the pup of other groups exhibit no such peculiarities, except that the head is prolonged into a point in some few genera. In the case of species which live in the interior of plants in their larva state, and assume the pupa state there, the abdominal segments have transverse series of short spines or hooks on the upper side, by means of which they push themselves forward when the moth is ready to emerge. The last segment of the abdomen and the cremaster are also generally covered with spines or hooks, or with a varying number of bristles. The pupa is very seldom covered with soft hair or with fine dust. Most pup are dark-coloured, and without any markings. They are seldom pale-coloured ; but the pupz of some butterflies exhibit spots which have often a metallic lustre. Duration of the Pupa State—This is variable. Pupz from which the insect emerges in the same year during which the pupa has been formed usually require from two to six weeks. In warm weather, butterflies frequently emerge from the pupa in ten days; but many Lepidoptera require a longer time than six weeks before the perfect insect is matured. Hybernating pupa require from six to nine months, and it occasionally happens that some pupz, chiefly those of Sphingide, do not develop the moth for two or three years. The most remarkable instance of long life in the pupa state is, however, afforded by the Small Eggar (E7togaster Lanestris), one of the Lasiocampide. If a broad of this insect be reared, some of the moths will emerge from the cocoons every year for eight or ten years, if a large number of cocoons be kept in the first place, and if they be retained so long. Development of the Perfect Insect—A few days before the appearance of the butterfly or moth, the pupa generally becomes less lively, and loses its colour so much that the colour and pattern of the énclosed insect are often visible through the wing-cases, At last the pupa-skin splits down the back, and the insect squeezes the fore part of its body out. At the same time it gradually draws its antenne, legs, and wings out of their cases, and lastly the abdomen, with the help of its legs, and clings to the pupa-case or some other object in such a position as to let the wings hang down from the back. These are very small, and like wet flaps at first, but they expand so fast that they may almost be seen to grow; and after they have acquired their full size, they soon become stiff and firm. In pupe which are enclosed in a cocoon, or lie underground, the moth has to break through the former, or to work its way out of the ground. Those pupz which are found in the interior of plants, such as those of the Seszid@, Cosside, and larve which live in reeds, &c., push themselves along through the gallery which they have previously prepared, by means of the fringe of hooks on the segments, and push the fore part of the pupa through the outer opening. INTRODUCTION. XIX HABITS AND FUNCTIONS OF ZEPIDOPTERA. Flight—The character of the flight of Lepidoptera depends upon the strength and structure of the wings. In the larger butterflies it is generally sailing, but in the smaller butterflies, as well as in the Geometre, and in many Bombyces and Micro-Lepidoptera, it is more fluttering. In the Sphingesand Noctue it is rushing. In some species it is direct, and sometimes dancing, jerking, or hovering. The flight may be quick or slow, and is sometimes long sustained. Several of the larger Sphinges are only occasional visitors in Central Europe, to which they extend their flight in warm seasons from the shores of the Mediterranean. Among these may be mentioned Chwrocampa Nerit and Celerto, and Deilephila Livornica, which can scarcely be regarded as indigenous insects with us, although they are met with both as larve and as perfect insects. Acherontia Atropos and other insects not unfrequently fly on board vessels sailing at a distance of hundreds of miles from land. On the other hand, the females of many Bomédyces and Geometre, even those which have fully-developed wings, fly with difficulty or not at all, although the males of the same species are more active. The Position of the wings at rest is very various. Most butterflies and many Geometre hold their wings erect and almost touching each other. Among the other Lepidoptera, some of the Bombyces and Geometre spread their wings out flat, so that the hind-wings are but little covered by the fore-wings. In the great majority of the moths the fore-wings lie close to the body and cover the hind-wings completely, or so far that only the costa of the hind-wings projects beyond them. The hind-wings are then generally folded together, but the fore-wings either slope, roof-like, on both sides, more or less steeply; or they lie together almost in the same plane; or they are pressed together flat, with the inner margins lapped over each other; or they are folded round the body to some extent. The body generally rests flat on the surface when the insect sits, but the thorax or abdomen is sometimes raised. The antenne are often laid backwards against the body under the wings, and are seldom extended, except in butterflies. The food of Lepidoptera consists of the honey of flowers, or the moisture exuding from trees and plants, or fruits, or, in some rare cases, from putrid or excrementitious substances. They also frequently imbibe moisture from damp ground. They feed solely on liquid sub- stances, which they suck up through their spiral tongue. Most species feed at rest, but the Sphinges and many Noctwe hover over flowers without alighting. They are sometimes captured by adhesive or by insect-feeding plants; or leave a portion of their tongue fixed in a flower in their struggles to escape, as already mentioned. Many moths, especially Bombyces and Tineina, require no nourishment at all, when the tongue is either absent or very slightly developed ; and these only live a few hours. But even tongueless Lepidoptera will occasionally visit sugared trees, &c, and probably derive either nourishment or pleasure from the surrounding odour. Reproduction —Butterflies generally pair while flying in the sunshine, but moths pair while at rest; and united couples are frequently met with. The males seek out the females; and as many of the latter are incapable of flight, or fly but little, the males have a peculiar power, not yet perfectly understood, of discovering virgin females at a great distance. The readiest way of obtaining the males of many Bombyces is to carry an unfertilised female in your pocket to the place where the insect occurs, when the males will often swarm round you, and some- times even endeavour to creep into your pocket. But the moment a meeting is permitted the attraction ceases, and the males disappear at once. This method of collecting is called “assembling,” and succeeds admirably with such species as the Oak Eggar, Kentish Glory, &c. XxX EvrorEAN BUrreRFliEs AND Morus. The union of the sexes varies in duration, according to the species. Sometimes it lasts several seconds, and sometimes several hours. The female generally begins to lay her eggs soon after pairing; but some MVoctwe, and, probably, also some butterflies and Sphingid@e, which appear in autumn, do not begin to lay till after hybernation. In many species the male dies soon after pairing, and the female soon after she. has laid her eggs. Eggs laid by unfertilised females are generally sterile; we have already noticed the exceptions to this rule (p. xi.), but may here add that in Solenobia, a genus of Tineina, the wingless females of which live in cases, the unfertilised eggs produce larvae which produce only females, and the males only appear as the result of fertilised eggs, and are frequently of very rare occurrence, whereas the unfertilised females are abundant. This phase of Parthenogenesis is found occasionally among other insects, and is best known among the Aphides, or Plant-lice. Habits—Many Lepidoptera fly by day as long as the sun continues high. They do not appear much before the dew is dried off the grass, and generally go to rest at or before sunset. Among these are all the butterflies, Sescde, Zygenide, and Psychide, many Bombyces, a few Sphinges and Noctue, and many Micro-Lepidoptera. They fly about in the sunshine with more or less activity, visiting flowers, or fulfilling the various functions of their lives; but in dull and rainy weather they fly very little, hiding themselves in sheltered situations. The Micro-Lepidoptera are most active towards evening, extending their gambols into the twilight. Many Sphinges and Noctue appear at twilight, buzzing round flowers, but disappear again when it begins to grow darker. The greater part of the Bomdyces, Noctue, and Geometre do not appear till twilight has given place to darkness. They fly till morning twilight, when they seek their hiding-places, and the twilight-loving species re-appear for a short time. Many nocturnal species may be seen in the daytime, when disturbed from their resting-places, but they only fly hastily and irregularly, and look for a fresh hiding-place as soon as they can. This is especially the case with Geometre, which are more easily disturbed by day than most other moths, as they do not seek such retired hiding-places and are more easily alarmed; but the sleep of many Lomdbyces and Noctue is so profound that they may often be transfixed with a pin without being roused. The duration of life of Lepidoptera varies. We have already said that many species die immediately after pairing or laying. Many males, as, for instance, among the Psychide, only live a few hours, even when they have had no opportunity of pairing. Most species live a few days or a few weeks; and, in general, the longer they live, the longer is pairing deferred; and they seldom live very long afterwards. Other species, among which are many small and delicate insects, live a long time, emerging from the pupa in summer or autumn, and awakening to new life in the spring, after having lived through the winter. This is the case with many species of Vanessa among the butterflies, which often retire to their winter quarters quite early in autumn, as well as with the genera Orthosia, Xylina, Calocampa, &c., among the Noctue, and also many Tineina, especially those of the genus Depressaria, which generally appear in July and August, and live till April or May. Most of these hybernating Lepidoptera do not lay their eggs till spring, and perhaps do not pair till then. Lroods.—Most Lepidoptera appear only once a year. Those that have passed the winter in the pupa state generally appear from March to May; those that have hybernated as larve, from June to August; and those which only quitted the egg in spring, in autumn. Many species, however, complete the whole cycle of their lives twice in the year, or are double- brooded. For instance, the pupa hybernates, the perfect insect appears in May, the larva in June, the perfect insect again in August, and the larva again in September and October; those INTRODUCTION. Xx1 of the second brood passing the winter in the pupa state. It often happens that these two broods are so dissimilar that no one would imagine them to belong to the same species, unless they had been bred. Among the most striking instances are the broods of Avaschnia Levana among the butterflies, and those of the genus Selenia among the Geometre. Many species which are usually single-brooded may develop a second brood in an unusually fine season, or a double-brooded species may produce a third generation; but, on the other hand, when the season is unfavourable, a species which is usually double-brooded may appear only once. But notwithstanding this, it always happens that the perfect insect and the larva appear at the usual time. Many species are double-brooded in the south, or in the plains, which are single- brooded further north, or in the mountains. Distribution —L epidoptera are distributed over the whole surface of the globe, but not in equal numbers. They are dependant upon vegetation, and are most numerous where the vegeta- tion is most luxuriant or most varied. In Europe the latter is the case; and the countries lying around the great central mountain ranges possess by far the richest Lepidopterous fauna. On their southern slopes we find most of the species belonging to the Mediterranean fauna; on their northern slopes most of the species of Central Europe; and on their summits many of the species which occur in the extreme north of Europe, just as we find many northern plants on the Alps, mingled with others peculiar to themselves. North and south of the Alps the number of species rapidly diminishes, till it reaches its minimum on the shores of the Arctic Ocean in one direction, and on the outskirts of the Sahara on the other. Even beautiful and fertile Andalusia scarcely produces more butterflies than Sweden; for the Alpine species of Central Europe have nearly all disappeared in the former country, and many of our most familiar insects are exclusively confined to the mountains, so far to the south. As regards the vertical distribution of Lepidoptera, five regions have been defined by the Messrs. Speyer, in their work on the Geographical Distribution of German and Swiss Lepidoptera. The first is the lower region, and is bounded by the limit above which the walnut-tree ceases to grow. In Central Germany this is about 450 metres above the sea; in the northern lime- stone Alps, about 750 metres; and in the Southern Alps, about 900 metres. Next to this is the hill region, to the limit of the beech-tree, which reaches a height of 900 metres in Central Germany, and 1,200 in the Alps. Next to this is the lower Alpine region, to the limit of the pine-tree, Pinus Picea, from 900 to 1,350 metres in Germany, and from 1,200 to 1,800 metres in the Alps. Above this is the upper Alpine region, extending above the region of the forests to a height of from 2,100 to 2,250 metres ; and, finally, the snow region, from this to the snow line, and beyond. We give here a table, showing the comparative number of Central European species of various families found in each of these regions respectively :— ti oy iliercado | gio) ee S ay WS aylile sae seis E 2 eee 3 | ws abe ae ea 3 a et al, ue S i) Sp 2 i og 2 Theesit g BS 5 ee) ae) =) Ss ce hone | bade FI | zs Ey SETH E ES laa 3 bp iy a | ar 1) oe 4 a ie ) oN = 3} uv [a5 cal = nea =f 3 M 5 ao) fo} % a B a wt} <4 a a a A se Zz Zz I 165 21 32 24 42 17 21 6 7 19 36 52 II 122 13 13 iy) eee 10 10 3 3 12 17 281 Ill 85 25 | iy 5 | 12 I 4 Vite — 5 — 96 IV, 54 - > = 4 8 2 — Bal = 27 Vv 20 _ — | 3 5 8 We XXil EvrorPeAN Bvurrerruies AND Morus. The character of the soil also determines that of the Lepidoptera of a locality as well as that of the plants. Moist and dry districts, and sandy or limestone soils, each have species of Lepidoptera peculiar to them. Many species are only found inland, while others are peculiar to the sea-coast. But many causes combine to render a species rare or common, apart from out- ward conditions, even where its food-plant is abundant, and the locality apparently favourable. While many species are abundant almost everywhere, others are confined to particular localities, frequently without our being able to discover any reason for this difference. The number of individuals of different species is also various. While many species are common in the localities which they frequent, others are scarcer, or are only to be met with more commonly in years which are peculiarly favourable to their development. Many species which are common in the larva state are considered great rarities as perfect insects. A species which has formerly been common often disappears from a locality almost entirely, and re-appears, perhaps, years afterwards, at first singly, and then more abundantly, tiil it becomes as common as before. This is, no doubt, due to the influence of unusual seasons. The disap- pearance of many of the English fen insects is believed to be due as much to the larve or pup having been destroyed by unusually high floods as to the actual drainage of the fens, both causes having combined for their extermination at about the same time. As we advance towards the high north, or to the summits of the highest mountains, we find the number of individuals greatly diminished, as well as that of species. The fewest species are to be met with in flat cultivated districts. Many Lepidoptera are found only in woods, generally in flowery places, or flying round bushes. Others frequent road- sides, others meadows, some prefer barren hill-sides, and often settle on the bare rocks, while others select low flowery places. Uses of Lepidopteraa—The Lepidoptera which are most directly useful to man are the Silk- worms. These are the larve of various moths belonging to the families Bombycide and Saturnid@, which spin a thick cocoon, from which we obtain the valuable material called silk. The best known and most useful species is the Mulberry Silkworm (Gombyx Mori, Linn.), a native of China. Its eggs were brought to Constantinople during the reign of Justinian (A.D. 550) by two missionaries, who concealed them in hollow canes. Since that time the insect has been reared throughout Southern Europe for the sake of its silk, but is only reared as a curiosity in the north. Attempts have lately been made to introduce other silkworms into Europe. The best known is the Ailanthus Silkworm (A¢tacus Cynthia, Drury), common throughout the East Indies, which feeds on the Atlanthus Glandulosa, a tree which is often grown for shade and ornament. It is hardy and easily reared, and has become naturalised in several parts of England and France, as well as in the United States and Australia ; but it yields a small cocoon of doubtful quality, which is very difficult to unwind. The Japanese and North Chinese Oak-feeding Silkworms (Antherea YVama-mai and Pernyi, Guér.) yield large cocoons of excellent quality, which are easily unwound ; but they are only reared with great difficulty and uncertainty, and rapidly degenerate in Europe ; so that Bombyx Mori is still the only silkworm of any economic value which is reared on this Continent. Larve, pup, and even moths, form an important article of food among those savages who live partly on insects, especially in Australia. Like other insects which frequent flowers, Lepidoptera probably contribute largely to the fertilisation of the latter by conveying the pollen from one flower to another. Injurious Lepidoptera —As the larve of most Lepidoptera feed on plants, many of them cause great damage to our fields, gardens, and forests. They are generally injurious only when in great numbers, though, in the case of larva which attack the roots and stems, a very few may INTRODUCTION. XXlii suffice to kill a plant. Our forests suffer little from the attacks of insects compared with those of the Continent, where it sometimes happens that large tracts of forest are completely destroyed. One reason of our immunity is that extensive pine forests like those of the Continent are rarely met with in England, and that this tree is subject to the attacks of the larvae of many moths which are either very rare or wholly unknown amongst us. When there is an extraordinary appearance of destruc- tive larve, their ravages sometimes continue for one season only, but more frequently for. several seasons, during which their numbers continue to increase ; but after a few years, they frequently disappear almost suddenly, in consequence either of disease, or from the abundance of their parasites ; for, as each infected larva usually furnishes food for many ichneumon larve, the latter naturally tend to increase at a much greater ratio than those of their prey. It thus frequently happens that after any particular larva has been unusually abundant during one year, it may be difficult to find one which is not ichneumoned during the following season. Among the larve which thus increase to a devastating extent at intervals on the Continent, we may mention those of Eutricha Pint and Psilura Monacha. The former is a doubtful British species, and the latter is by no means a generally abundant insect with us. During the years 1863 to 1865, the larve of a Tortrix (Grapholitha Pinicolana) increased to such an extent that all the larch forests in the Upper Engadine were stripped of their leaves in July, 1865, and it seemed as if their very existence would be endangered if the larve continued their ravages for another year. But, numerous as the larve were, they nearly all sickened, perhaps on account of their food failing them, and either died without becoming pupz, or died in the pupa state, so that very few moths arrived at maturity. Next year there were very few larvae to be seen. For several years previous to 1875, one of the small Ermine Moths (Hyponomeuta Malinella) had been very destructive to the fruit-trees in various parts of France, but in 1875 the larvae of Clistocampa Neustria and Liparis Dispar, which appear earlier in the year, were beforehand with it, and stripped the trees of their leaves by the time the fy ponomeuta \arvee appeared. The latter consequently found no food, and were actually starved out by other larve, larger and as voracious as themselves. The nature of the injury caused to plants by the larvae of Lepidoptera depends on the habits of the latter. Some, which feed inside the trunks and roots of trees, impede their growth, and may perhaps cause their death. Among these may be mentioned the larve of Cossus Liguiperda and Zeusera Aésculi, which are met with in trees of various kinds, and those of Trochilium Apiformis, and Sesia Myopiformis, and Tipuliformis, which attack the poplar, apple, and currant respectively. Those which feed on the leaves of trees likewise impede their growth, and often destroy them by continued attacks. Among these we may mention the larvz of the Brown and Gold-tail Moths, the Lackey Moth, the Small Ermine Moths; and on the Continent, those of the Black-veined White Butterfly, as particularly destructive to fruit- trees. Other larvae may be mentioned as only occasionally destructive, such as the White Satin Moth to willows ; Dasychira Pudibunda to beech; the Processionary Caterpillars (on the Continent) to oak and fir; /7donza Piniaria to pine; the green TJortrix to oaks, &c. Much havoc is wrought in our gardens almost every year by the larve of the White Cabbage Butterflies and of the Cabbage Moths. Many Zortrices live in and destroy the young shoots of trees, while others live in various fruits and seeds. The larve of the winter moths, of Lupithecia Rectangulata and Laverna Atra, destroy the buds of fruit-trees. The roots of grass and corn are destroyed by many insects, among which are the larve of the Ghost Moth and of Chare@as Graminis. Much mischief is often caused to the Continental vineyards by the larva of Conchylis Roserana, which is double-brooded, and destroys the buds in spring, and the half-ripe grapes in autumn. Nor do all Lepidopterous larve content themselves with fresh vegetable food. Many of the smaller Lepidoptera live in our outhouses and storehouses, and their larva feed on dried products. XXIV EvROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. Thus, those of the genus E/phestia live on dried fruits, and those of Pyralis Farinalis, Tinea Granella, Gelechia Cerealella, and several others on corn, &c. That of the Tabby Moth (Ag/ossa Pinguinalis) lives on fatty matters. The Clothes Moths, which chiefly belong to the genus 7zxea, infest our dwellings, and destroy textures of all kinds, both animal and vegetable, but chiefly the former, such as cloth, horsehair, feathers, &c. There is one small family of moths, the Ga/leride, whose larvee feed on wax, and often commit great ravages in bee-hives by devouring the combs. A few larvee are directly injurious to man. We have no European species which are furnished with a regular stinging apparatus ; but the hairs of many larve belonging to the Bombyces, such as those of Laszocampa Rudi,and the Brown and Gold-tail Moths, are capable of giving rise to painful itching and irritation on the human skin. But this is not to be compared with that caused by the hairs of the Processionary larve, which are very loosely attached and studded with exceedingly fine and recurved hooks, and cause violent inflammation on the skin of men and animals, partly by thus adhering to it, and partly in consequence of a fine dust with which they are covered. On this account the neighbourhood of the nests of these larve, which are intermingled with these hairs, is dangerous, for the surrounding air is filled with loose hairs and dust, which are liable to be inhaled, and to give rise to internal inflammation and swellings, which have sometimes caused death. The inflammation caused by the hairs of larva may be relieved or averted by rubbing the skin with oil. The larve of Aglossa Pinguinalis, mentioned in the last paragraph, have occasionally been swallowed, and have proved a highly injurious casual parasite. The enemies of Lepidoptera and their larve are very numerous, and they are exposed to many dangers. Insectivorous birds destroy immense numbers; and one reason why our crops suffer much less than those of the Continent from the attacks of insects is due to small birds being more numerous with us than in countries where they are destroyed wholesale for food, as is the case in Italy, for example. The mischief caused by birds to the farmer and gardener is insignificant compared with the service which they render him in this manner. But Lepidoptera have many enemies even among other insects. Spiders and dragon-flies prey upon them in the perfect state, and the large carnivorous beetles devour their larvae. But there are many ichneumon flies and two-winged flies which are still more destructive to them. These either lay their eggs in the larve of Lepidoptera by means of an ovipositor, or attach them to their skin. Some even lay their eggs in those of butterflies or moths. When the parasitical larva emerge from their eggs they pierce the skin of their prey, if not already safely lodged beneath it, and begin to feed upon the fatty portions, out of which the perfect insect is to be developed, avoiding the vital portions of the larva, which either lives till it is about to assume the pupa state, and then dies, or dies as a pupa. The parasites either change to pupz within the empty skin, or emerge from it and spin their own small cocoons round it. Some of these parasites deposit but one egg in a larva, while others lay a considerable number; and it sometimes happens that when a larva only nourishes one or two of those of an ichneumon, which usually infests it in numbers, it may nevertheless arrive at maturity, though more or less crippled. Thus, a case is on record where a specimen of Pzeris Brassice was bred, with two of the small cocoons of an ichneumon fly rolled up in its wings. Ichneumons are, however, not the only Hymenoptera which destroy the larvae of butterflies and moths. Various species of sand wasps provision their nests with them, first crippling them in such a manner with their sting as to render them unable to move, while they continue to live in this torpid state till the eggs which have been deposited with them hatch, and they are devoured by the larve of the wasps. The countercheck of such enemies is usually sufficient to keep the ravages of Lepidopterous larve within bounds, and to set a limit to their further increase whenever they become inordinately numerous. INTRODUCTION. XXV Diseases.—Larve are subject to many diseases, among which is diarrhoea, which destroys great numbers. They are also subject to a kind of low fever, and to the attacks of fungi and other low vegetable parasites, Sick larve are generally sluggish, flabby, and sometimes discoloured with spots or blotches. Many are also destroyed by vicissitudes of the seasons, especially when moulting, which is always a critical period. A continuance of cold wet weather in spring is peculiarly fatal to them; on the other hand, larvae and pupz bear the cold of winter very well. During Ross’s second Arctic Expedition several larvae were collected, which revived at once when brought into the cabin, though previously frozen so stiff that some of them had been snapped like glass. SYSTEMATIC REMARKS. Species, Variety, Aberration—A species is an assemblage of individuals, consisting of two sexes, male and female, which pair, and produce offspring similar to themselves. But the individuals of the same species vary within certain limits, independently of the ordinary sexual differences, in size, colour, markings, and outline, without ceasing to be recognised as belonging to it. All these differences, when unimportant, are classed under the idea of the typical form of the species. But we meet with other variations which are more unlike the usual form, and are often quite dissimilar. When these appear occasionally in single individuals among those of the typical form, they are called aberrations; but when they are of frequent occurrence, they are called varieties... These are often confined to special localities, as when we find a dark form of a species on mountains or in a more northerly locality, while those found on the plains or further south are brighter coloured. Such forms are called local varieties; and when they are both peculiarly well marked, and also isolated, as is the case with many insects which are peculiar to Corsica and Sardinia, they may justly be termed sub-species. Lastly, when two different forms of the same insect appear at different times of the year, the phenomenon is called seasonal dimorphism, and the varieties are called broods. Hybrids—Ilt sometimes happens that nearly allied, though truly distinct species pair, and produce offspring which resemble neither of their parents, but combine the characters of both species in varying proportions. It is more than doubtful whether these varieties can perpetuate themselves ; and, in many cases, the resulting insects are hermaphrodites, in which the sexes are mixed as well as the species. Many broods of hybrids die in the larva state, and most of those known were bred in confinement. A true hybrid is very rarely produced in a state of nature. Classification.—An assemblage of species which agree in certain peculiarities which are exclusively confined to them in the same combination, forms a genus. The name of a species is composed of the name of the species combined with that of the genus, Allied genera are classed in families, and families are again combined in groups. The characters of the genera and families are chiefly taken from the antenne, palpi, legs, and wings, and the arrangement of the nervures of the wings is also of considerable importance. Linnzus divided the Lepidoptera into three genera only: Papilio, Sphinx, and Phalena, or Butterflies, Hawk Moths, and Moths. He sub-divided Phalena into Attacus, Bombyx, Noctua, Geometra, Pyralis, Tortrix, Tinea, and Alucita. These sections were again sub-divided by later authors, and various modifications proposed; but the classification of the Lepidoptera is an exceedingly difficult study, and we have none which can be considered quite satisfactory at present. It would be out of place to enter into the various systems of classification in detail in an elementary work like this; and the classification which we have adopted is based upon the system of Herrich-Schaffer, with some modifications by Lederer, Speyer, and others. The gi Xxvi EvroPeaN BurverF“Liges AND Morus. groups of Linnzeus are still retained, with the exception of Adtacus, for the names of the main groups. In the system of Guénée, which is much used in England, the Sphinges are united with the Bombyces, under the name of Nocturni; and the Geometre are placed after this group, followed by the Drepanulide and Notodontide; and the Geometre and Tortrices are divided into a number of small families. The Psychid@ are transferred to the 77vee@,; and there are several other differences of minor importance. The Butterflies are frequently called Rhopalocera, from their club-shaped antenne; and the Moths are called Heterocera. The Butterflies; Hawk Moths, and Moths used to be called Diurnal, Crepuscular, and Nocturnal Lepidoptera respectively, in allusion to their times of flight ; but as large numbers of the two latter groups fly by day, these terms are now abandoned as too loose to be retained at all. The groups from the Butterflies to the Geometre inclusive are frequently termed J/acro-Lepidoptera, because most of the species which they include are of large or moderate size; and the remaining groups are called J7icro-Lepidoptera, because most of the species belonging to them are of small size. Although this distinction is not absolutely correct (for many of the J/tcro-Lepidoptera are larger than many of the MWacro-Lepidoptera), it is sufficiently so to form a rough division. Many writers divide the Pyrales into two groups, Pyrales and Crambi, the second division including all but the two first families. In this case the Pyrales are generally included with the JZacro-Lepidoptera, and the Crambi with the AZicro-Lepidoptera. We give below, for convenience of reference, a list of the groups and families of the European Lepidoptera, arranged on the system which we shall employ in the present work :— TABLE OF THE GROUPS AND FAMILIES OF EUROPEAN LEPIDOPTERA. (Those which include no British spectes are marked with an asterisk.) Macro-LeEPipoPreERA. 8. Psychide. 3. Chloephoride. g. Acrolepide. . Drepanulide. 4. Brephide. h. Hyponomeutide. A.—RHOPALOCERA. a States 3 Se aa 1. Papilionide. 11. Lasiocampide. E.—GEOMETR&. Jj. Orthotelidee. 2. Pieridae. *12. Bombycide. 1. Dendrometride. k&. Chimabacchide. 3. Nymphalidae. 13. Notodontide. 2. Phytometride. Z. Gelechide. *4. Danaide. 14. Cymatophoride. m. Glyphipterygide. 5. Satyride. / ‘ a. Chauliodide. *6, Libytheide. D.—NocrTu&. MACK OTE DAO o. Lavernide. 7. Erycinide. 1. Noctuidal F.—PYRALES. p. Butalide. 8. Lyceenide. a. Bombycoide. 1. Pyralide. g. Elachistide. 9. Hesperiida. é. Acronyctida. 2. Botyde. 7. Douglaside. Dl Onhosen 3. Chilonide. s. Heliozelide. B.—SPHINGES. d. Agrotide. 4. Crambide. z. nS 7 : oe : 5. Phycide. u. Cosmopterygide. i aging : Se 6. Galleride. v. Batrachedre. Na eke ci a “a. w. Augasmide. 3. Sesiidee. . gear G.—TorTRICEs. x. Coleophoride. 4. Zygeenide. Co GINOUIN ee Graclanides 5. Syntomide. “2. Eurhipide. a : a: - 7. Heliothidee. H.—TINE#. a. Argyresthide. %. Anartide. 1. Choreutide. aa. Lithocolletide. C.—BoMBYCES. 2 Plisidek #2. Atychide. 66. Lyonetidee. 1. Lithoside. *m. Calpide. 3. Tineide. ae Phyllocnistide. 2. Arctiidae. nm. Acontide. a. Taleporide. dd. Nepticulidee. 3. Liparide. o. Ophiusidee. 6. Lypuside. 4. Micropterygide. 4. Cosside. p. Toxocampide. c. Tineidee. 5. Cocliopodide. g- Noctuophaleenide. d. Adelide. I,—PTEROPHORI. 6. Hepialide. r. Deltoide. e. Ochsenheimeride. *7. Heterogynide. 2. Nycteolidz. J. Teichobiide. J.—ALUCITA. INTRODUCTION. XXvil The main groups are frequently called Sphingina, Bombycina, Noctuina, Geometrina, Pyralidina, Tortricina, Tineina, Pterophorina, and Alucitina. Number of Species.—It is almost impossible to give an exact estimate of the number of species of Lepidoptera existing in the world: 100,000 has been suggested, and may ultimately prove to be below rather than above the mark; but at present there are probably about 40,000 species of Lepidoptera described in various works from different parts of the world. The following table gives the number of species known to inhabit Europe, Great Britain, and Germany and Switzerland respectively, according to the catalogues of Staudinger and Wocke (1871), Stainton (1859), and Herrich-Schaffer (1862). To make these lists quite accurate, the additional species since discovered should be added; but the numbers given are sufficiently close for the present purpose :— Germany and Groups. : Europe. Britain. Switzerland. Rhopalocera 506 coc 289 66 203 Sphingina ... we 666 132 36 82 Bombycina ... ae Ac 295 IOI 196 Noctuina ... aa B53 883 294 546 Geometrina... J eo 2683 274 418 Pyralidina ... 266 ine 542 157 260 Tortricina ... tea see 635 301 42 Tineina eee nee ooo 1,728 645 1,050 Pterophorina see Bor 88 2 } é Alucitina... 5 poo 9 I 55 5,284 1,904 3,234 ON COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS IN THE PERFECT STATE. Nets are indispensable for capturing insects on the wing. There are several different kinds, but those most commonly used in England are the ring-net and the umbrella-net. The former consists of a light iron ring, jointed so that it can be folded up and put into the pocket. It may be constructed to screw on the top of a common walking-stick, to which a cap is fitted, which can be screwed on in its place whenever the net is not mounted, to keep out the dirt. The ring itself should be nearly a foot in diameter, and may, of course, be fitted to a stick of any length as well as to a walking-stick ; but a very long stick is both inconvenient and unwieldy, and is rarely required, for there are not very many species which habitually fly at a great distance from the ground. The net should be made of green gauze, and should not be attached to the ring, but sewn on to a strip of some stronger material less liable to tear, which should be sewn loosely round the ring, so that it can be slipped off and on. The gauze itself is liable to wear out too soon if sewn upon the ring. The net should be made gradually tapering, but the end must be rounded, so that there are no corners into which the insect can creep and damage its wings. It should be about three times as long as the breadth of the ring ; or, more definitely, it must be long enough to lap round the ring or stick when an insect is captured, so as to enclose it till the collector can take the net in his hand, and yet not long enough to be inconvenient in use. The umbrella-net is similar to the ring-net, but is much larger—generally about two feet in diameter. The framework is made of whalebone, or of some equally flexible material, and the stick runs through the centre, upon which the rim is constructed to slide up and down, exactly on the principle of an umbrella. When the net is not in use, it is rolled round the closed frame and slipped into an ordinary umbrella-case. This is an exceedingly portable form of net, but it is considerably more expensive than the other. Besides, it is much shorter, and will often be XXVIil Evrorean Burverriies AND Morus. found inconvenient on this account. Another disadvantage is, that in striking at a flying insect we run the risk of hitting it with the stick, which, it will be remembered, passes through the middle of the net; in which case we are very liable either to spoil or to lose our prize. On the whole, the ring-net is perhaps to be preferred. Before speaking of the practical use of the net, it will be better to consider the necessary adjuncts of boxes and pins. Pins.—The pins used for butterflies and moths must be proportioned to the size of the insects for which they are intended. A large insect on a slender pin is very inconvenient, and a small insect may be utterly destroyed by using too large a pin. Ordinary pins are too short and thick for convenient use, and long slender pins, which may be purchased from the dealers in objects of natural history under the name of ‘entomological pins,’ are employed for the purpose. They are often gilt, to diminish their liability to corrosion; and, being long and slender, they are sometimes liable to bend, and require care in their use. Many entomologists use a curved pair of entomological pliers (which must be ridged in such a direction as to grasp the pin firmly, without slipping) to remove pinned insects from one box to another. This instrument will be found very useful at home (after you have learned to handle it), but is not much needed for field work. The Continental and American entomologists generally use very long pins, and set the insects high up, whereas most English entomologists set them rather low down on the pin, as we shall explain when we come to speak of setting. Some collectors carry a pincushion fastened to their button-hole or hung round their neck with a string, and others simply stick pins in their collecting-boxes. Collecting-boxes, &c.—Many moths and small butterflies will sit quiet till you get home, if enclosed in a pill-box, and can then be killed and set at leisure. Jor this purpose we must carry a supply of well-fitting chip or pasteboard boxes, sufficiently strong to avoid breakage, and of different sizes. Dr. Knaggs recommends that the chip boxes should be carefully covered at the ends with a small piece of calico attached with shoemaker’s paste, and drawn down all round below the lid, so as to prevent the lid coming out. Others brush round the inside edges with liquid glue for the same purpose. These boxes may either be carried in two large outside pockets, or in a satchel of any convenient construction, divided into at least two compartments; for when a box is filled it must be at once transferred to another compartment. The full and empty boxes must on no account be mixed together, and only one insect must be put into each box. But many insects must be killed when caught, such as all the largest species, including Butterflies, Sphingide, and all Lombyces, except Lithostde, and any other very active insects, which do not sit still in a box, but are liable to knock themselves about in it and spoil their plumage. These require to be killed and pinned on the spot. In the case of slender-bodied insects, a practised hand can kill them with a sharp nip under the wings, or, in the case of small insects, a touch with a finger-nail; but, unless done carefully, this rough mode is liable to damage them, and it will not answer at all for thick-bodied insects. To kill these, some use chloroform, and others a bottle prepared with cyanide of potassium; while others, again, employ a solution of oxalic acid or oil of tobacco, and prick the insect with a pin dipped in the liquid. Tobacco-smoke, ammonia, and sulphur matches are also used by some entomologists ; but ammonia and sulphur are liable to discolour many insects, especially green ones, and cyanide of potassium and oxalic acid are both deadly poisons, and even chloroform should be used with caution. Another objection to chloroform is that, although it will soon stupefy an insect, it is liable soon to recover from the fumes ; while if it receives an over-dose it may become too stiff to be set afterwards. But supposing the insect killed, we choose a pin proportioned to its size; and, if it is an insect of sufficient size, we take it between the finger and thumb of the left hand, and insert the pin as straight as possible through the middle of the thorax. Small INTRODUCTION. XxXIx insects are more conveniently pinned lying flat on the hand, or when resting between two fingers of the open hand. When pinned, the specimen should be transferred to the collecting- box, which should be of a convenient size for the pocket, and must be lined at the top and bottom with cork. It should be deep enough to avoid the risk of the insects pinned on opposite sides coming in contact when the box is shut, and it should never be closed without the collector making sure that there is no such danger. Collecting-boxes may be made of wood or zinc. The latter will keep the insects fresher and in better condition for setting, especially if the cork be damped occasionally. Collectors in foreign countries generally employ “papers” instead of boxes. These are prepared of square pieces of paper, which are folded diagonally and doubled over at the side, leaving a sort of triangular envelope open at one end. When an insect is caught and killed, the wings are closed over the back, and it is dropped into one of these, and the end is doubled over. Insects in papers will keep very well packed in a tin box, with a little cotton-wool laid over to prevent their shaking about. Of course, the box should contain a little camphor, to keep away mites. The specimens can then be relaxed and set at leisure. The greater number of exotic insects sent home by collectors abroad are packed in this manner, as a great many can be packed in a very small compass, and there is no danger of a heavy insect getting loose and smashing everything else, as often happens when insects are sent home pinned in boxcs. But this method, though very convenient when proper apparatus cannot be obtained or carried, is not to be recommended when other means can be adopted, for it is always better to set an insect when fresh than to relax it afterwards; and insects which are left long unset become dry and brittle, and are apt to lose their legs and antenne with the slightest touch or pressure. As in the case of boxes, the papers used should be proportioned to the size of the insects, and only one specimen should be put into each paper. On the Use of the Net.—Many small butterflies and moths fly gently near the ground, and may be caught without the slightest difficulty. In the case of strongly-flying insects, some may be run down, but with many this is almost impossible. An insect resting on a flower or on a twig may be struck at sideways, but it is generally better to approach the net as close to the insect as possible without alarming it, and then to strike suddenly. Even the Humming-bird Hawk Moth may easily be captured in this manner. As soon as the stroke is delivered, the net must be thrown round the stick with a twist of the wrist, and the collector should then seize it with his left hand, above the point where the insect is fluttering, when he can proceed either to transfer it alive to a pill-box, or to kill and pin it on the spot. If it isa species which is not required, or in too bad condition for the cabinet, the net should be inverted, and the insect shaken out. It is a great pity to destroy any more specimens than you require for yourself or your friends. Among the most difficult insects to deal with are perhaps those which are in the habit of settling on the flowers of the bramble (the Silver-washed Fritillary, for instance), as the net is very likely to be entangled and probably torn by the thorns. But it is still more difficult to catch those insects which are in the habit of flying low and settling on the bare ground, or those which settle on the bole of a tree. In some cases we can lay the ring over them and hold up the net, when they will fly into it; but it more frequently happens that they take fright and fly away before we can do this, and escape in the opposite direction. _ When an insect is flying low, or settled on the ground, the best chance isa side stroke of the net, held as near the ground as possible without actually touching it; and if the insect is seated on the bole of a tree, we must make a sweep at it as it flies up. In neither case is a direct stroke to be recommended, as it would probably break either the ring or the stick, without securing the insect. hs OO Evrorean Borrerriizs AND Morus. Localities —Different species of butterflies and moths are found in dierent tocaistes. Generally speaking, any particular insect is likely to bé met with in the neighbourhood of the food-plant of the larva. Butterflies and day-flying moths frequent heaths, meadows, gardens, and especially open places in woods. Many settle on walls, and are more easily captured than those which settle on the trunks of trees. But many moths may be found asleep on the trunks of trees, walls, palings, &c., in the daytime, especially in the morning, and may easily be swept off into the net, or enclosed in a pill-box, or even transfixed with a pin as they sit. Our remarks above as to the difficulty of catching insects resting on tree-trunks apply to strongly-flying insects which choose them as a temporary resting-place, and not to those which sleep in such situations. Many butterflies when disturbed will return to the resting-place from which they have been driven, so that it does not always follow that we have lost an insect because it has escaped us once. This habit is most noticeable in the Wymphalide. Many insects, chiefly Geometre and small species, may be disturbed in the daytime by beating a hedge, taking care to keep to the windward. Some use a stick in one hand and the net in the other; but it answers just as well to use a ring-net attached to a longer and stronger pole than usual, which may be held in the middle, and used to beat the hedge with the butt end, while it may be at once turned to capture anything which may fly out. Mothing—Many moths may be taken at twilight hovering over flowers; and this mode of collecting is termed “ mothing.” The large Sphznges frequent honeysuckle, petunia, &c.; and among the most attractive flowers to Moctue, &c., may be mentioned valerian, heliotrope, clover, and in general any strongly-scented flowers. The blossoms of the lime, the sallow, and the ivy are also peculiarly attractive. Bombyces either fly by day, or later in the evening than the Sphinges. They are rarely met with at flowers, but fly in search of the females at the edges of woods, or on heaths or meadows. The Geometre fly in the evening or at night, among weeds and bushes, but often come to flowers. Many species may be disturbed by beating, or found at rest in the daytime. Day-flying Noctwe are generally found on heaths, meadows, or clover-fields ; but many nocturnal species of Agrotis, &c., may be found clinging to the flowers of thistles and similar plants in the daytime, especially in the mountains. But most of the Moctwe fly at dusk or at night. Many rare species of Dianthacia, &c., may be collected at the flowers of the white campions (Sz/ene inflata and maritima), which are common on many parts of the sea-coast, and are most attractive in June. In August the flowers of the rag-weed attract many species of Agrotis, &c. Many moths, especially Moctu@, may also be attracted by a light placed at an open window, especially if the latter overlooks a garden or a meadow. ; Sugaring—Many years ago the Brothers Doubleday discovered that the empty sugar- hogsheads thrown out into their yard at Epping were visited by moths at night, for the sake of the sugar still adhering to the inside. This hint was soon improved upon; and the trunks of the trees along Mr. Doubleday’s field are (or were lately) entirely blackened in many places with the sweet mixture daubed over them night after night for years. Sugar-hogsheads having soon been abandoned, a sweet mixture brushed over the trunks of trees was used instead, and this mode of collecting is called “sugaring,” and is found particularly efficacious for attracting Woctue. The compound generally used in England is a mixture of coarse brown sugar and beer, boiled down thick enough to adhere to the trees, but not so thick as to be inconvenient in use. It must be applied to the trunks of trees with a common paint-brush. Tins are sold for this purpose with a brush fixed in the lid; but any one can use what apparatus suits him best. When it gets dusk the sugared trees must be examined with a lantern as carefully as possible, to avoid disturbing the moths. If they take fright, they fly away or fall down; and it is usual to add a few drops of rum to the sugar, which stupefies them, and renders them more sluggish. INTRODUCTION. XXX1 Some also flavour the compound with various essential oils, to render it more attractive. In many cases moths may be boxed directly off the sugar; but before turning on the lantern, we must hold the net underneath, to endeavour to catch any which may fall down; and we should also be on the look-out to net any which fly away. When there are no trees near, we can sugar walls, fences, &c., and many collectors even sugar flowers. As a last resource, rags soaked in the sugar, and stuck on the ends of sticks, will answer very well. Some entomologists use putrid soap-suds or paste to attract Voctue@,; and others recommend sliced apples. To prepare these, choose apples with a strong odour, peel, core, and cut them into slices, according to the size. String them on a thread, taking care that they do not touch one another (as otherwise they are very likely to decay), and hang them in a sunny place where there is a thorough draught. It will take from three to five days, according to the heat and dryness of the air, before the apples are ready for use, which we can tell by their strong smell. They must not be allowed to dry too much, but must be tied in strings of eight or ten, and preserved in a close vessel. These strings must be hung up on the collecting-ground in any convenient spot, which may be marked, if necessary, with a piece of white paper. They must not be placed too near together; and when it is dark they must be examined with a lantern, the net being held under as before, to catch any moths which may fall down. The moths generally sit quiet till boxed, or drop into the net ; but when there are a great number together, they become more restless and are more difficult to secure. These modes of collecting succeed best on dark nights, and on clear nights shaded spots should be selected for sugaring, or hanging up dried apples. Moths fly all through the night, from evening to morning twilight, but some appear later than others, and we should therefore return to our sugar at intervals, as late or as early as we like to continue to collect. When trees are frequently sugared they become more attractive, so that it is well, when we have an opportunity, to sugar the same trees constantly. The apples may be most conveniently carried in a botanical collecting-box. If by exposure to damp air they have lost their attractive power, they should be hung up for a day to dry again. Freshly-prepared apples can be used for two or three weeks, after which time they gradually lose their smell and cease to be attractive. If we wish to keep them good longer, they require more careful preparation. We must first take care that they do not become too dry, and that they do not get mouldy. This object may be attained by sprinkling the apples with sugar before drying them, which will help to preserve them, and will also increase the attractive powers of inferior apples. When the apples are dry, they must be kept tied tightly up in a linen bag, and hung in a dry room or in a garret. When they are to be used, they must be again sprinkled with sugar, or rubbed over with some sweet preparation, and sprinkled with some apple-flavouring, to renew the odour which they have lost. We have been particular in describing this mode of collecting with apples, because it is but little known or practised in this country. The best evenings for attracting moths with sweets are calm, warm, cloudy evenings, especially when a thunderstorm is threatening. Moonlight and dewy evenings are generally unfavourable, although there are exceptions. Sometimes we find few or no Moctuwe when the weather appears most favourable; and on other evenings, when the moon is bright and the dew is heavy, the baits are covered with them. These exceptions are doubtless due to atmospheric influences which escape our obsérvation. A cool wind and light rain is not unfavourable, only then the Voctwe fly more under the shelter of the trees. The most favourable seasons for sugaring are March and April, when the hybernated and early spring Moctue may be attracted ; and again from August to the end of October. Collectors often sugar all the year round; but there is almost nothing abroad in the depth of winter; and our artificial attractions are naturally less XXXIl EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. appreciated by the moths in the height of summer, when so many flowers are in bloom, than at other times of the year when there are fewer. Some genera of Noctua, especially those which fly by day or at early twilight, are seldom or never attracted by sugar; among these we may mention Monagria, Cucullia, Plusia, &c. Most of the moths which are attracted by sugar are Noctue ; but it is also visited by many Geometre and Micro-Lepidoptera, and occasionally even by a stray Bombyx. Nor do Lepidoptera alone visit the sugared trees; for ants, earwigs, beetles, &c., may frequently be seen enjoying the sweets intended for moths. On Searching for Lepidoptera at Rest.—Many moths may be found at rest on walls, fences, tree-trunks, and stones and rocks, especially in dark corners. They may also be found between boards or behind ‘window-shutters, especially when these are seldom opened. We have already spoken of beating bushes, but moths may often be beaten or shaken from overhanging trees, thatch, &c. The hybernating butterflies may often be found in outhouses, faggot-stacks, &c., in winter; and in dull weather small butterflies may often be found at rest, sitting on the tops of long grass or rushes. Voctue@ and Tinee@ which are hidden among tufts of grass and weeds may be induced to creep out or fly up by gently shaking the tuft from below with a stick, and repeating the shake as often as necessary. The moths are disturbed and creep up to the ends of the grass, and are then easily captured. They may also be driven out by tobacco-smoke blown into the grass or bushes where they are hidden. If the material of our net be sufficiently strong, we may sweep the grass and bushes for small moths, as coleopterists do for beetles. ON BREEDING LEPIDOPTERA. By breeding Lefidoptera we obtain perfectly fresh and unblemished specimens, in better condition than any caught specimens which can be found. Besides, we may often obtain many species in abundance by breeding which can only be found casually and sparingly in any other way. Many species, especially among the J/ccro-Lepidopiera, have never yet been met with at large in their perfect state, and therefore cannot be procured at all except in this manner. There is another great advantage in rearing Lefidopéera, as it makes us acquainted with their appearance and habits in all stages. In many of the more obscure genera, too, a knowledge of the transformations is almost indispensable to their identification, for caught specimens cannot always be determined, partly because they are not always in sufficiently good condition, and partly because allied species are sometimes so similar in their perfect state that they can only be separated by a knowledge of their previous individual transformations. These remarks will apply to such genera as Eupithecia and Nepticula, for instance. Although the rearing of Lepidoptera is much more troublesome, and not so attractive, perhaps, as the pursuit of the perfect insects, it must on no account be neglected, and will ultimately be found worth all the care and attention that the collector can bestow upon it. As he pursues this part of the study, he will not only find it becoming more and more attractive and profitable as he proceeds, but he may perhaps be able to make important additions to our scientific knowledge. Lepidoptera may be reared from the egg, or from the partly-grown larve or pupz which we may meet with. On Breeding from the Egg—The eggs of Lepidoptera are deposited in various situations: sometimes in a ring around a twig, sometimes in a cluster, or singly on a plane surface, and frequently on or under the surface of a leaf. Some species lay their eggs in flowers or in the chinks of bark. Those eggs which are laid in clusters are frequently covered with down; and apterous females often lay their eggs in or upon their old cocoon, When we discover eggs, we INTRODUCTION. XXNUl should secure them without disturbance, by cutting away the twig or leaf to which they are attached. We can sometimes discover the eggs of butterflies by watching the females laying ; and the larvae of several species, the transformations of which were previously unknown, have been discovered in this manner. The females of butterflies generally lay their eggs on warm sunny days, generally between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. They generally flit from one plant to another, staying a little while at each, without settling on the flowers themselves. We must carefully note the plants, and examine them after the butterfly has flown away, when we shall probably discover the eggs after a sufficiently thorough search. Many Lombyces, Noctue, and Geometre will lay their eggs in confinement, and, in many instances, even when they are pinned or set. But to ensure this, it is better to bring home the fertilised female (which we may know by her thicker abdomen) and put her in a good-sized box covered over with gauze, and containing a glass of strongly-scented flowers, among which we should put some of the food-plant, if it can be obtained. The box should then be set in the open air, or at an open window, in the twilight, when moths begin to fly ; and after a day or two we may very likely find the eggs, either on the plants, or on the gauze, or on the sides of the box. When the moth does not lay immediately, it is necessary to feed her, especially if she is a Voctwa, for which purpose a sponge moistened with honey and water should be given to her to sip from. By this means we shall generally obtain our end. When the young larve appear, we must transfer them carefully to the breeding-cage with the end of a feather, but they must be sharply looked after, for fear some of them may have hidden themselves. It is better to line the box with paper, and to tie finely-perforated tissue-paper over the top, in place of a lid, after which we can cut out any portions upon which eggs may have been laid, and transfer them to tightly-fitting pasteboard boxes, from which the larva cannot escape ; but the eggs must be carefully watched, especially when they show signs of hatching, or the larve may be starved for want of food. In the interim they should be gently sprinkled with rain-water now and then, and those of butterflies must be sometimes placed in the sun. One advantage of breeding insects from the egg is that they are not likely to be infested with parasites, as many of the larvae which we meet with in a state of nature are. By rearing large numbers of a species, too, we are sure to rear on some occasions very curious and interesting varieties; but it must be added that bred specimens are not unfrequently dwarfed or crippled, probably from some error in management. It will require time and experience for a novice to rear large broods successfully, and it would perhaps be better for him to confine himself to rearing such half-grown larva as he may happen to meet with at first, till he has learned how to manage them successfully, before he attempts to rear specimens from the egg. Larva-boxes.—Larve may be found either by searching for them, or by beating, shaking, or sweeping them from the plants on which they feed. They may either be brought home in pill- boxes, like those used to put the perfect insects in, or in small tin boxes, freely perforated at top and bottom to allow of a free current of air. In wooden or pasteboard boxes the food dries very rapidly, on which account most collectors prefer tin ones. The boxes must fit very closely, and may have a lid which screws on. We can either use a number of small boxes, and keep each larva, or at least each species, separate, or can use several larger ones. putting together all those species which feed on the same plant. In the latter case the tins should have a narrow neck, so that we can put a new-comer in without risk of our former captures taking the opportunity to creep out. The beginner must also learn as soon as possible to recognise the cannibal larvae, which will destroy their companions, and always keep these by themselves. The worst larvae of all in this respect are those of Cosma Trapesina, Scopelosoma Satellitia, and Crocallis Elinguaria. The latter is figured at Pl. 49, Fig. 3,@. The larve of the Lobster Moth (PI. 30, Fig. 8, a) will also 14) XXXIV EvroreAn Bvurrerryices AnD Morus. sometimes bite each other's long legs off. In securing larva it is advisable to avoid touching them; it is better to cut off the leaf or the twig on which they are resting, and to transfer it bodily to the box. Very small larvae should not be mixed with the larger ones, but must be put in small boxes separately. This is especially necessary with those of A/icro-Lepidoptera, such as the Tine@. Any rare or unknown larve should also be kept separate; and naked larvae with unusually large jaws should be looked upon with suspicion, lest they may prove to possess cannibal tendencies, and they should not be mixed with others without due precautions. Searching for Larve—In looking for larvae, we must begin by searching for indications of their presence, such as partly-eaten leaves. Those which are eaten at the sides have generally been fed upon by a Lepidopterous larva; but many young larvae, as well as those of AZicro-Lepidoptera, eat holes in the middle, or devour the epidermis on one side only. We must not overlook discoloured spots on the leaves, as the mines or blotches often contain the mining larve of small Tinee ; or the cases of Coleophore may be attached to the leaves, which contain larvae which mine in the leaves from their cases. If we notice that a leaf appears to have been recently attacked by larvee of any kind, we must carefully examine the adjoining leaves and twigs, as well as the plants near, from all sides, when we shall probably discover the larva. Nocturnal feeders often conceal themselves at or near the roots of the plants on which they feed during the day—a point which must not be overlooked. When two or more leaves are spun together, they often contain larvae; so do leaves which have been folded over or rolled up, and undeveloped shoots. This may be ascertained by opening them a little, or, when only two leaves are spun together, by holding them up to the light. Such larve are to be put into the box along with the leaves which they inhabit; but as the larve are often very active, the net should be held underneath when the leaves are gathered, to catch the larva if it attempts to escape. Any flowers or buds which have an unusual appearance, or are drawn together or distorted in any way, should be carefully examined, as well as the catkins of sallows, willows, and alders, the heads of thistles and other Composite, the flowers of umbelliferous plants, &c. Such plants often contain larve without any external traces of their presence being visible. Apples, plums, acorns, beech-nuts, &c., which fall off before they are ripe often contain Zortrix larvae, but must be examined as soon as possible after they have fallen, as the larvae soon creep out, in order to spin their cocoons. Other Zor¢rix larve live in the fruit of the wild rose, where their presence may be known by a black spot beneath the flower; and others in peas, vetches, Dipsacus sylvestris, &c. The larvee of the genus Dianthecia live in the seed-capsules of plants allied to the carnation, and betray their presence by their ejected dung. The presence of larva in the stem or roots of a plant may be recognised by its withered or dried-up appearance, especially in the upper leaves, and by swellings or excrescences on the stem. We generally find an opening in the stem, too, through which the dung is ejected. The plants which most require such examination are reed-like plants, especially Zypa, in which the larve of Nonagria and several other allied genera of Moctwe live, and the pithy stalks of burdock, thistle, cow-parsnip (in which the larva of Dasypolia Templi feeds), Petasites, &c. When we find a larva in a stem, the stem should be cut off at some distance above and below the opening ; and roots containing larvae should be pulled up. The presence of larve in the branches of shrubs is often indicated by sweilings on them, or by the unnatural appearance of the bark, or by openings through which the larva in the interior discharges its excrement. Such branches should be cut off, the bark peeled, and the piece of wood containing the larva cut out, if possible, without disturbing the larva itself. Among such larve we INTRODUCTION. XXXV must mention the Sesi@, which live in the bark of trees, and especially in stumps which have been left in the ground after a tree has been felled. They also live in the stems or roots of herbaceous plants. The larve of the Coss¢d@ live when young under the bark and afterwards in the trunks of trees, and may be detected by their unpleasant smell. If we notice webs of different sizes on trees, bushes, or herbs, they should be examined, as they often contain larve, or even colonies of larve. When these are worth rearing, the whole web is to be taken away with the larve. Larve often drop down from the trees on which they are feeding, by a single thread, by which they remain suspended. We can often discover the presence of larve from noticing their cast-off skins or heaps of excrement, especially when the latter is lying, freshly fallen, under the plant on which the larva is feeding. Sphinx larvee, which feed on low plants, are particularly liable to betray themselves in this manner. We can often trace a larva in its wanderings from one plant to another from the tracks it has left behind it, when the soil is loose and sandy, and by following up this clue we can discover the place where the larva is hidden, which is frequently under the surface of the ground, or at the root of a plant. . Many larvee resemble portions of their food-plant, and are thus liable to be overlooked. Some resemble leaves, or leaf-stalks, or small dry twigs, like many Geometre, and others resemble the bark, such as several species of Gastropacha and Catocala, which are still more likely to escape notice, because this resemblance is increased by their habit of clinging closely to the trunks and branches of trees. The larvae which feed exposed on flowers are often coloured like flowers, as is the case with most larvee of Cucullia. While many larve feed and rest on plants openly, others hide themselves when not feeding, either in the crevices of the bark of a tree, or under the leaves at the root of broad-leaved plants, in or under dry leaves, in the hollow stems of dried plants, especially reeds, under stones, in the grass, under the ground, or elsewhere, and must be looked for in their hiding-places. In order to discover the larvee among fallen leaves, we must take a strong umbrella turned upside down, or a sweeping net, and after filling it with leaves, shake them vigorously about, and take them out carefully, when we shall find the larve lying underneath. This mode of collecting is particularly productive when the dry leaves are lying among freshly-budding plants at the edges of woods, especially when they face the south, under hedges, or in similar situations. The hybernating larve will thus be met with at the beginning of spring, and even in winter when there is no snow on the ground. Larve also like to hide themselves under haycocks and shocks of corn; and as they are often carried away with them, and fall out when the waggons are unloaded, they may generally be met with in great numbers when such an opportunity presents itself. As a great number of larve, especially those belonging to the family Voctuzd@, only feed at night, and hide themselves by day, they must be sought for on their food-plants at night with the aid of a lantern. They generally drop down at once as soon as the light falls on them, so that, if possible, a net should be held under the plant we are examining to receive them. In early spring, when several rainy days have been followed by warm nights, and the air is full of moisture, the hybernated larve leave their winter quarters at twilight and creep up the dry stems of trees and plants, or creep about on the surface of fallen leaves, or anywhere where they may enjoy the soft air. A rich harvest may be reaped, with the aid of a lantern, on such nights, especially in open places in woods where plants abound, on hedges and palings, thatched roofs, &c. Many larve hybernate in the hollow stems of plants, and may be found there in early spring. The larvae which feed by day may be searched for on their food-plants at any time. The hairy larve of the Bombyces prefer the morning, but those of most Woectwe appear after sunset, and again in early morning, when the leaves and grass are covered with dew. XXXVI EvuroPEAN Borrerrtirts AND Morus, Beating for Larve.—The larve which feed on trees, shrubs, and tall plants may be obtained by beating either with a thick stick or with a mallet. The latter should be of a size which can be conveniently held in the hand, but with a rather long handle, and must either be made of heavy wood, or loaded with lead, and the striking part should be covered with leather or gutta-percha, to avoid damaging the trees. The whole mallet might be covered with gutta-percha, but it is then very liable to split. This instrument is used to strike the stems of young trees, or such branches of taller ones as may grow within reach, while an inverted umbrella, a sheet, or a large sweeping-net is spread below to catch any larvae which may be dislodged. At the same time, we must be on the look-out for any larva which have let themselves down by a thread upon being disturbed. The higher branches should be jerked suddenly and violently with a hooked pole. Bushes and slender branches and plants may be beaten over an umbrella with a common stick. A sheet is more inconvenient than an umbrella, but is more productive, and is particularly useful when hedges or large trees are beaten, or when trees are shaken with the hooked pole. The best time to beat for larve is at twilight, for the larvae of many Woctve do not leave their hiding-places to feed till then. For instance, the larvee of the genus Va/eria can only be obtained by beating after dark, and those of Catocala can then be most easily procured. Sweeping for Larve—Larve which feed on grass and herbs are to be obtained most readily and in most abundance by means of a sweeping-net similar to that used by coleopterists when collecting beetles. This is a ring-net with a stronger ring, the edge of which is sharp instead of rounded, and the net is composed of stout linen instead of green gauze. As the collector walks slowly forwards he brushes the grass and bushes sharply in opposite directions alternately, and now and then examines the contents, and transfers the larvae which may have been captured to his boxes. Larva may also be swept off any trees which are sufficiently low for the net to reach. The most productive time for sweeping for Voctwa larve is after sunset, and the best localities are openings in woods, level heaths, grassy slopes, meadows, and moors, and, in general, anywhere where the vegetation is thick or varied. In sweeping after dark, the collector must either use a lantern, to enable him to sort his captures on the spot, or else turn the whole contents of the sweeping-net into a well-secured bag, to be examined on reaching home, which can best be done by turning a small portion at a time into a white dish, and sorting it over. Sweeping for larve may be pursued at any time of year when vegetation is sufficiently advanced, but it is most productive in May and June, and again in autumn. Food-plants.—There is no difficulty about the food of larvae which we discover feeding or beat from any particular plant, but there may be some uncertainty about those which we discover in their hiding-places or sweep up. Fortunately, most Moctwa larve which are obtained in this manner are not particular about their food, but will eat grass, primrose, lettuce, chickweed, plantain, heath, bilberry, or any other low plants. But it is true that many are confined to a particular food- plant, and will die if they cannot obtain it. We must therefore note carefully what plants grow on the spot where we have found any particular larva, and offer it these, if it will not eat the food we have given it in the first instance. We should always take a supply of food home with us for the larvae we capture, which can be most conveniently carried in a botanist’s vasculum, which will keep it fresh. An entomologist who wishes to do any good with breeding insects should possess some knowledge of botany, or should at any rate be able to recognise our common plants at sight. Searching for Pupe.—The pupe of Lepidoptera are found in the places where the larva have undergone their transformations. Those of the butterflies are generally fixed to branches, the trunks of trees, or walls ; those of the Zygenide, most Bombyces, many Geometre, and many Aicro- Lepidoptera are formed in cocoons, or between leaves which they have spun together ; and those of INTRODUCTION. XXXVII most Sphingide, Noctue, and Geometre are formed on or under the ground, frequently under their food-plant; under stones; among moss; or at the roots of trees. On entomological excursions the search for pupe should not be neglected. Many suspended pupz, and some of those in cocoons, may be found with ease, while others require a careful and laborious search. This is especially the case with cocoons like those of Cerura, &c., which are attached to the trunks of trees, and so carefully covered with fragments of bark and lichen that they look deceptively like a small excrescence on the trunk, and can only be recognised by a very practised eye. Many pupe may be found in the crevices of the bark of trees; under loose bark; or among the moss on the trunks and roots of trees, or on rocks. Others may be found in the stems of their food-plants, like the pupe of the Vonagria, which may be found in the stems of the reeds and the reed-mace, where they may be detected by the withering of the plant, and by the holes made by the larva which inhabits it. Pupe are also to be looked for in spring in the dry stems of last year’s plants. These are chiefly those of Tortrices, and their presence cannot be detected by any external sign; but if we split the stem down, we may conclude that it contains a pupa, if it contains the excrement of larve. The pupe which are formed on the surface of the ground must be looked for under moss and stones, among the turf. In order to obtain the pup which are constructed underground, we must turn up the ground in likely localities with a flat trowel, which is preferable to a rounded one. The most productive spots are round the trunks of trees standing by themselves, or in rows. When we have turned up a trowelful of earth, we must carefully search through it for any pupe which it may contain ; and if we have uncovered any roots, they should be carefully examined, for pupe are often attached to or placed in the forks formed by the roots of trees. Pupa-digging may be practised throughout the year, but is generally carried on from autumn to spring, when there is less work on hand for the lepidopterist than at other times. In consequence, however, of the numerous accidents to which pupz are exposed, the best authorities consider autumn or early winter to be the most productive season for this mode of collecting. The pupe must be carried home in a box loosely filled with cotton-wool or moss, and must be shaken as little as possible. | When we find a suspended pupa, we should cut away the leaf or twig to which it is attached without injuring the threads by which it is fixed, ard place it in the breeding- cage in the position in which we found it, or we shall obtain nothing but a crippled specimen. Dress and Outfit of the Collector.—\t will be seen from the foregoing remarks that the apparatus which a fully-equipped collector would require is too multifarious and cumbrous to be conveniently carried about everywhere. It is therefore better not to attempt too much, but to set before us some definite purpose upon each excursion. We may collect perfect insects at one time, beat for larve at another, sweep for them, or hunt for them among dry leaves at other times, &c. But we may meet with larve unexpectedly while collecting perfect insects, or vice versd, and it is always advisable to carry a net, box and pins, &c., when looking for larvae, and to carry a few larva-boxes in our pockets when collecting perfect insects. By this means we shall be enabled to secure anything of special value without inconveniently encumbering ourselves with apparatus, although we may be more specially looking for insects in another stage. When collecting, a small satchel or knapsack will be necessary to hold our boxes, &c., or we should provide ourselves with a shooting-jacket containing a sufficient number of pockets. As the pursuits of the entomologist frequently lead him into thorny brakes and marshy places, good strong substantial clothing and a good pair of boots are to be recommended. In searching for larve in wet places, a piece of waterproof stuff should be carried, on which the collector can kneel when he wishes to examine the ground closely. In some places, and especially when we wish to examine water-plants, a pair of wading-boots will be found very useful. R 10 XXXVIil EvrRoPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. ON REARING LARV/AZ AND PUP. General Remarks—The first point to be observed in rearing larve is to keep them as far as possible in the same condition as if they were at liberty. As this is very different with different species, our treatment of larva must vary accordingly. In general we may depend on the following rule: we must take note of the conditions under which we -have found a larva, and endeavour to imitate them. It must be provided with fresh air, light, sunshine or shadow, as well as hiding-places, and must be kept damp or dry according to the nature of the locality ; but above all things it must be supplied with plenty of fresh food. The food may be kept fresh in a small narrow-necked glass, filled with water, the mouth of which must be stopped up with cotton, or some other substance, to prevent the larva creeping into the water. The food will thus keep fresh for four or five days, but should then be renewed, and the water should also be changed at the same time. But there are many larve which cannot be fed on food kept fresh in this manner. They will eat and grow, but afterwards become weak and sickly, and die. This is particularly liable to happen with larvae which feed on plants which are not very juicy, or on those which grow in a poor and dry soil. These larvee must either be reared on growing plants, or be supplied with fresh food every day. It will help to retard the withering of a plant a little if we cover the stalk with wax when we have cut it off. We must never offer larva wet food. All the larvae which live in the ground, or hide themselves there during the day, require both earth and moisture. As many other larve which feed exposed on plants form their pupe on or in the ground, it is advisable to cover the bottom of all larva-cages with dry sifted earth, mixed with sand. The soil must be moistened with rain-water from time to time, especially in dry weather, which is best done by sprinkling it with a brush which has been dipped in water. The larva which live in the ground should often be sprinkled in the same way, and the others only occasionally, to replace the rain and dew to which they are exposed in the open air. When larvae are reared in a damp place, such as a cellar, it is unnecessary to sprinkle them. Breeding-cages.—A great variety of different contrivances for rearing larvae are in use, of which we shall only mention a few of the simplest and most convenient. Among these is a large box, a foot and a half long, a foot broad, and two feet high, in which to place larvee which we know already, and which do not require separate breeding-cages. The box must be well made and nailed together, so that it will not come to pieces from damp. It must be made in two parts, which are fitted together at two-thirds of their height, so that the upper part can be lifted off. A considerable portion of the lid should be cut away, and the opening closed with wire gauze or perforated zinc. Six inches above the bottom of the cage is a shelf with openings, in which the glasses containing the food may be placed. The space between this board and the side is to be filled on one side with earth, as already mentioned, which should first be baked, to destroy any creatures which might be injurious to the larve. This is to be covered with moss at the sides, and some flat stones should also be laid upon it. On the other side, instead of earth, moss, dry leaves, and soft wood, turf or cork should be laid. The glasses with the food should be laid obliquely in the openings, so that some of the leaves hang down to the board, enabling any larva which may fall down to creep up again. If we have no larve in the cage except such as feed on grass, we may cover the bottom of the cage with earth, and lay a sod of turf upon it, which will then only require to be kept fresh. The larva may be left in this cage till they are full-grown and have become pup. It is convenient to rear those larvae which feed on trees and shrubs, and those which feed on low plants, in different cages. Such cages provide the larve with all that they require in the way of air, hiding-places, and INTRODUCTION. XXKIX materials for forming their cocoons, &c. The necessary moisture is to be supplied by sprinkling with a brush dipped in rain-water, which can best be done early in the morning, to replace the falling dew. The earth must be kept tolerably damp, especially in dry weather. Unknown larve, or those which, like cannibals, must be reared separately, may be reared in small cages of the same construction, but only six inches long and broad, and eight inches deep. We cannot put a perforated shelf into these, but the glass containing the food must be put in a corner, and propped up with a piece of stick. Instead of small cages, many collectors use a jam- pot, covered with earth at the bottom, and with gauze tied over the top. This is somctimes replaced by a cover of tin or ground glass. A simpler apparatus than we have described may be constructed of a large wooden box, partly filled with earth, the lid of which is formed of wire gauze. But if we use a box which opens and shuts with a hinge, instead of being made to lift off, we shall run the risk of crushing some of the larvae when it is opened or shut. In all cases'we must see that our larva-cages close so tightly that it is impossible for the larvae to creep out and escape. Flower-pots may be conveniently used for rearing larve, and one advantage is that the larve can thus be reared on living plants. The pot should be half filled with earth, and the food-plant should be planted in it. If it is a low plant, which will not reach above the top of the flower-pot, the latter may be closed by tying a piece of strong muslin or gauze over it. But it is always better, especially when the plant overtops the pot, to place over it a raised cover of wire gauze, which will leave the plant room to grow, and which must be tightened round the edge of the pot, or otherwise firmly secured. The same end may be reached by sticking two bent twigs, crossing each other, into the pot, and tying a covering of gauze over them; but in this case the larvee are very likely to hide in the folds of the gauze, and escape when it is untied. Of course the enclosed plant must be supplied with sufficient moisture to keep it fresh, either by sprinkling the earth, or by setting the flower-pot in a saucer full of water. The amount of moisture required by the plant will also be found suitable to the larvae which feed on it. The hole at the bottom of the flower-pot must be stopped up sufficiently to prevent any larva which may burrow in the ground to form its cocoon escaping through it. Bell-glasses may also be used, set over a deep round dish or pan filled with earth, and offer great facilities for observing the enclosed larve. Wood-feeding larve, \ike those of the Goat Moth, and those which prepare their cocoons with fragments of wood, like the Votodontide, &c., cannot be kept in wooden cages, but must be reared in stone jars or jam-pots covered with wire gauze. The larve of many Noctuwe, &c., will gnaw holes in gauze or muslin, so that wire gauze is much to be preferred as a covering for larva-cages under all circumstances. Breeding-cages for the Larve of Micro-Lepidoptera—The different larva-cages which we have been describing are too large for most Micro-Lepidopterous larve, which would be lost in them. We must therefore provide them with smaller dwellings, and tumblers or jam-pots partly filled with earth and sand, and covered with a lid of ground glass, may be recommended. The food cannot be placed in water in such small receptacles, and must be kept as fresh as possible by other means. The glass cover will retard its drying, by keeping out the external air; and if the cage is set in a cool shady place, the exclusion of the air and the dampness of the ground will prevent the food from drying up for several days. But mildew is very likely to appear in closed glasses of this kind, if they are not well looked after. One advantage in rearing the larve of MWicro-Lepidoptera is that many of them feed up very rapidly, especially in the summer. xl F-vroPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. If the breeding-cages are kept in a cellar, the food can be kept eatable for a longer time, and there is less liability to mould, but in this case the cages must not be covered with glass; and as many of the smaller larve will gnaw holes in gauze or muslin, and thus escape, fine and flexible wire gauze will be found preferable to either for a covering. | Another kind of cage for the larvae of AZicro-Lepidoptera, in which likewise the food may be kept fresh by excluding the external air, may be formed of a flower-pot with a glass inverted into it, of such a size as to fit the inside exactly. The bottom of the pot must be covered with earth, but not high enough to reach so far up the sides as to where the glass rests, or else there is danger that the larve might spin up on the ground where it touches the glass, and be destroyed when the slass is lifted off. But if we attempt to rear very small larve in such a contrivance, and fear that they might escape between the glass and the flower-pot, we must press the former down into the ground, and heap the earth up a little round the edges. Instead of the glasses, we may cover the flower-pots with very fine wire gauze, and put them in a cellar. The glasses with covers are more suitable for larvae which form their pupz on or in the ground, and the flower-pots for those which spin up above ground. The latter like to make their cocoons on the edge of the cage, and the inverted glass is a safer place for them than the cover of glass or wire gauze. Most larve of MWicro-Lepidoptera, and especially those which do not feed exposed on plants, do very well in these closed glasses, especially in a cellar. Others, such as the case-bearing Coleophore, cannot be reared in this manner. They require as much fresh air as possible, and glass covers cannot be used, and must be replaced with fine wire gauze when flower-pots are used. As the food-plant cannot well be kept in water, the bottom of the flower-pot should be covered with damp sand, and it should be stuck into this to keep it fresh. In the case of mining larva, which mostly grow to their full size in the same leaf, which must therefore be kept fresh till they are full-grown, it is always best to keep the cages in the cellar; and if the stalk of the leaf or of the plant on which the larva is feeding is stuck in damp earth, it will keep fresh longer. There are some larve which cannot be prevented from escaping by any of these contrivances, as they can squeeze themselves through the smallest crevice, especially before spinning up. Among these are several TYortrix larve which inhabit fruits, such as Grapholitha Roseticolana in hips, G. Pallifrontana in the pods of Lotus corniculatus, as well as some mining larva, such as those of the genus Cosmopteryx, Gelechia Subdecurtella,.&c. These can only be reared in wide-mouthed glass bottles with tightly-fitting glass stoppers or corks, which must nevertheless be opened daily in order to give them fresh air. Necessary Precautions.—It is advisable in all cases to avoid putting too many larve into one cage, and the cages must be kept as clean as possible, and the excrements of the larve carefully removed. If there are too many larve in one cage, they disturb each other, which is particularly injurious when they are moulting, and is frequently the cause of epidemics, which destroy many larve. Accumulations of the excrements of larve are injurious from their smell, and more especially because they often give rise to mould. It can most easily be removed by means of a small metal shovel. But when doing this, or when removing old food, or putting in fresh, it is necessary to avoid disturbing the larvae, especially when they are moulting or changing. In giving them fresh food, they are not to be taken from the old, but the fresh is to be laid near them till they creep upon it themselves. When we find leaves spun together, or cocoons among the old food, they must be left undisturbed in the cage until the larva which is hidden among them is likely to have completed its change; or if this is inconvenient, the plant and the cocoon must be removed, without opening the latter, to another cage. It often happens that larvae about to change INTRODUCTION. xli to pup, or preparing to hybernate, fasten some leaves of the food-plant to the roof or walls, or they spin their cocoons on the surface of the ground under the food-plant, and attach it to some leaves of the latter. In such cases the leaves which are attached to the cocoon should be carefully separated with a pair of scissors, and left where they are, when the rest of the stale food is removed. Special rules must be observed in rearing larve when there is anything unusual in their habits. Fruits and seeds which contain larvae only require to be laid on the ground, which should be occasionally damped. In the case of larve which feed in the stems of plants, the stalk should be stuck into damp sand after it has been cut off, and when the stalk appears to be eaten out or withered, a fresh stalk must be stuck close to it into which the larva can eat its way. If it neglects to do this, a hole should be bored in the upper part of a fresh stalk, and the larva should be allowed to creep in, when it will soon make itself at home there. It is more difficult to rear larve which live in the branches of trees and shrubs, especially when they are still small, as the branches will seldom remain fresh in water or in damp sand till the larve are ready to assume the pupa state. It is therefore advisable to defer bringing home such larve till they are nearly full-fed. Otherwise nothing more can be done than to cut a branch or sapling from a living tree of the same kind, to bore a hole from above into the stump, and to allow the larva to creep in, after it has been carefully removed from its old dwelling. The hole must then be stopped with a wooden plug, and not touched until the larva is likely to have become a pupa, when the portion of the stump which contains it must be cut off, and brought in-doors. This is the best way of rearing those Sesz@ which live in the slender branches of trees. Those which live in the bark or the trunks of trees must be treated in a similar manner. A hole must be bored for these in a piece of fresh bark, into which they must be plugged as already directed, and the bark must then be laid on damp sand. It is still better if the piece of bark containing the larva can be removed without disturbing the latter. Larva which feed in the substance of the wood itself should be cut out with the piece of wood containing them, and laid on damp sand in the same way. In the case of the larvee of Cossus, it is sufficient to provide them with a quantity of rotten wood, in which they can make their home comfortably. Larvae which feed in the roots of plants must be transplanted with the roots and surrounding earth. Other larve which feed on roots should also be moved into flower-pots containing their food-plant, or the roots or tubers on which they feed (such as potatoes or turnips) should be placed on or in loose earth. In the case of lichen-feeders, it is best to put a piece of stone or bark with the food growing on it into the breeding-cage, and to renew it from time to time. Besides, such lichens require to be frequently damped. Management of Larve on emerging from the Egg.—These larve are generally so small that many of them would be lost, even in cages intended for the larvae of MJucro-Lepidoptera. They must first be reared in small glasses or pasteboard boxes without earth, and kept in the cellar till they have at least passed through their first moult. The food requires renewing frequently. Most larvae which feed on low plants can be fed at first on young lettuces, and the tenderest leaves must always be selected for very young larve. The young larve of Noctue which have hybernated, or which emerge from the egg in early spring, often appear before the trees on which they feed have come into leaf. In such cases we must supply them with the buds, into which they will immediately eat, or with willow catkins. After the first moult we can remove the young larve to the ordinary breeding-cages. Situation of the Breeding-cages—In general, the breeding-cages with the larve should be kept in places where there is plenty of fresh air; and if they are kept in a room, the window Xi xiii EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. should be frequently opened. The morning or evening sun is good for larvae, or at least not injurious, but they should not be exposed to the hot rays of the sun by day. Heavy rain is also injurious to them, for although they generally like a certain amount of moisture, the damp which heavy rain leaves behind in the breeding-cages renders the atmosphere too moist, and also spoils the food. When breeding-cages are kept out of doors, the best situation is the north-east or north-west side of a building, or they may be placed in an outhouse. Small cages for the larve of Micro-Lepidoptera may be kept without hesitation in a room, or in a cellar. FHybernation of Larve—tLarve which pass the winter in the larva state require special management. Although there are many which hybernate well enough under favourable circum- stances, yet there are others which are so difficult to bring through it, that we may consider ourselves fortunate if we can succeed in keeping only a few alive out of a large number. Larve hybernate best, as a rule, when they are about half-grown ; hybernation is more precarious when they are either quite young or nearly full-grown. In general, larve will hybernate best under conditions as nearly as possible resembling those to which they are exposed in a natural condition ; but it cannot always be said that more larve die in captivity than in the open air during hybernation, for there is no doubt that unfavourable weather in winter, or, more especially, long-continued cold and rainy weather in spring, destroys great numbers of larve; and the larvae in our breeding-cages are at least protected from such vicissitudes of the season. The larvee of MWacro-Lepidoptera which have already passed through several moults in the autumn may be put in boxes about eighteen inches long, ten or twelve inches broad, and ten inches deep. These must be well made, and nailed together outside ; the lid must be provided with a large opening covered with wire gauze, and it is advisable to have a similar network on the upper part of one of the sides also. The bottom should be covered, two inches deep, with very fine earth mixed with sand, on the surface of which should be laid flat stones and pieces of bark, which should all be covered with an inch or two of moss, pressed down rather tightly, on the top of which dry leaves should be laid. The larvee should be moved into these cages about the end of October, and a few leaves of their food-plant should be put with them at first, in case they still require food. If possible, the cages should be set on the ground in the open air, but in a sheltered situation, where they are not immediately exposed to rain and snow. They should then be covered loosely with dry leaves or straw, over which a board should be laid crosswise to prevent the covering being blown away. If there is no place protected by a projecting roof, it is easy to nail two boards together in a sloping position, and put them over the larva-cages for a roof. If the winter is severe, with much frost and snow, it is a good plan to cover the breeding-cages entirely with snow; but needful precautions must. be taken to prevent too much water leaking into them in case of a thaw, and, if necessary, to remove the snow in time. When the weather is only moderately cold, the snow covering is not only unnécessary, but rather injurious. When the winter is past, nothing more remains to be done for the larvae but to take care that the moss in the cages does not become dry during a continuance of fine mild weather, and to sprinkle it with water if necessary. The larve can generally be kept healthy in this manner till the end of January, or when there is a long frost till a thaw sets in; but then comes the time when they generally begin to get sickly, probably from too much moisture and too close an atmosphere. The boxes and their contents should then be moved into a room without a fire, without disturbing them in any other way, but they must then be kept sufficiently moist by frequent sprinkling. When the food-plant grows up, it must be put into the cages, and afterwards, when the larve have fairly left their winter quarters, they must be moved into the ordinary breeding-cages; but we must not forget to look for any INTRODUCTION. xlili that may be hidden among the dead leaves or moss. When they have been moved, it is well to sprinkle them freely with rain-water once or twice, which seems to be useful in helping them to recover themselves after their long winter’s fast. Many larva do not eat fresh food immediately after hybernation, but withered leaves of the year before, which should therefore always be put with them. With this exception, most larvee which have hybernated will eat sorrel, dead-nettle, plantain, chickweed, grass, &c. Larve may also be kept through the winter in flower-pots in which their food-plant is growing. The earth must be covered with moss and dry leaves, and the pot must be covered with muslin or gauze. Larva which feed on grass may be put into boxes or pots in which a sod of turf has been planted. Larve which are already full-grown in autumn may be left undisturbed in the breeding-cages, for many of them will spin up in the course of the autumn. Larve which are still very small, as well as all larvae of Jicro-Lepidopiera, should be kept through the winter in glasses covered with muslin or wire gauze, or in jam-pots, in which earth and sand, as well as moss and a few dead leaves, must be placed. If the larve have already spun themselves up in autumn for hybernation at the sides of the breeding-cage, or between the leaves of the food-plant, or, like many species of the genus Conchylis, spun themselves up in the stalks, they must be left there till they come out of their own accord in spring. Many of these larve will become pupe in such webs. During the winter they must be exposed to the cold in a room without a fire, and must be moderately sprinkled with water from time to time, except during frosty weather. Rearing Larve in the Open Air—The foregoing instructions chiefly apply to rearing larve within doors; but if the collector possesses a garden or greenhouse, he may find it more con- venient and less troublesome to rear the larve of Macro-Lepidoptera on the growing plant. The food-plant must be transplanted into the garden, if it does not grow there already, and placed in a sheltered situation, not too much exposed to wind and rain. In the case of larvee which feed on trees or shrubs, a sheltered bough full of leaf should be chosen, to which the larvee must be trans- ferred, and then a large muslin bag must be slipped over the whole, and tied tightly below the larvez. When the leaves within the bag are all devoured, the bag and the larve must either be transferred to another branch, or else the bag must be untied and fresh twigs slipped into it. The latter plan is better when the larve are clinging to the branches, as it will disturb them less; but when they are clinging to the bag, or to stalks of leaves with which they can readily be removed, the former is preferable. The dirt should be carefully shaken out of the bag every time it is untied. In the case of larve which feed on low plants, the food-plant may be covered with a sieve, which can easily be constructed deep enough for the purpose; the sieve should be pressed tightly down, and the sides should be heaped up a little with earth to prevent the larvae escaping. When these larve or those on the trees are nearly ready to change, they should be transferred to an ordinary breeding-cage. This mode of rearing is best adapted for large broods of larva belonging to large and common species: for even with the precautions we have mentioned, larvae reared in the open air are exposed to various dangers, from which those under our immediate supervision are more exempt ; and rare larvae, or those of which we have only a few specimens, should never be exposed to any unnecessary risk. Management of Pupe—Al\ suspended pupz must be suffered to remain in the same position as that in which they have attached themselves, as they generally produce crippled specimens if their position is altered. Pupze in cocoons may be left as they are, and those among moss or between leaves may be carefully lifted out and cut away from any redundant substances xliv LISUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND MIOTHS. which may be casually attached to them, but without interfering with any part of the cocoon. They may then be removed to another box, and will require no further attention. Pupze which are constructed underground should also be removed, but, if possible, without breaking the cell in which they are generally enclosed. Many larva of Mocfue remain unchanged in these cells for a long time, some throughout the whole winter, and others from May to August ; and special care is necessary not to take them out of the ground too soon. All pupze which are constructed on or under ground require particular attention, and especially a certain amount of moisture. It is often difficult to regulate this exactly ; if the pupa are kept too dry they generally dry up, and if they are kept too damp they are liable to rot. The bottom of the pupa-cage should be strewn several inches deep with earth or sand, covered with a layer of moss, on which the pupe and cocoons should be laid. These should be again loosely covered with moss, and the ground must be moistened with rain-water occasionally by means of a funnel, and the covering of moss should be sprinkled at the same time. Or the pup may be laid on a layer of blotting-paper, and covered over with another layer consisting of four or five thicknesses, and the topmost sheet should be occasionally dipped in water, which will soak down to the lower ones and keep the pupe sufficiently damp. Or the pupa-cage may be so arranged that we can put a flat plate into it containing a little water, and stretch some loose stuff over to lay the pupz on, when the vapour of the water will save the necessity of damping the pupz themselves. When the weather is dry the pupe will generally require to be kept damper, and when the weather is damp they will not need much attention. Hybernating pupz should be placed in an unheated room, at least at first, where they will be exposed to the cold, for the hardest frost will not hurt them, and it appears as if they require a certain amount of cold for their development. As long as it freezes they ought not to be damped. If we wish to “force” the pupa, or to make the perfect insects appear sooner, we must wait till they have been fully exposed to the frost for a day or two, and then bring them into a warm room, setting them at first in the coolest place, and afterwards nearer the fire. When pupe are being forced in a warm room, frequent damping with tepid water is necessary. Forcing is strongly recommended by Dr. Knaggs in the case of insects which appear to be originally natives of warm climates, and which are not thoroughly acclimatised in our own, as is the case with many of the rarer Sphingide. There should be a free current of air through the pupa-cage to prevent mould. Two opposite sides should have large openings in them covered with muslin, or the greater part of the lid should be open and covered with muslin, as well as the roof and inside walls, so that when the insects appear they may be able to climb up it, and suspend themselves in the position most suitable for their proper development. The pupe of MZicro-Lepidoptera can be kept best in the breeding-cages, and allowed to develop themselves there. Frequent damping with water is necessary for these also, especially when they are kept in warm rooms. Dr. Knaggs, in his handbook on the practical rearing and collecting of Lepzdoptera, decidedly condemns damping, except in the case of forcing pupz. But much will, no doubt, depend on climate and situation, which vary considerably even within the limits of the British Islands ; and whereas damping may be absolutely necessary in some cases in a dry locality or during dry weather, it may be positively injurious when these conditions are reversed. But the young collector will learn more from his own experience—if possible guided, in the first instance, by the practical instruction of a friend already versed in these matters— than from any amount of written directions. INTRODUCTION. xlv JOURNALS AND NOTE-BOOKS. We have already said that rearing Lefzdoptera is important as a means by which we may obtain an insight into their life-history and habits. But for this purpose it is necessary to be quite sure which insect is the perfect state of each larva, as well as to record our observations on the larva and its habits in writing. For this purpose a journal must be kept, in which every- thing of importance should be noted at the time, especially the change in the larva at each moult, and any circumstances which will make our observations reliable, and prevent our falling into mistakes and confusing one larva with another. The following hints may be useful. Each larva or pupa cage may be designated by a certain number, and all larvae with the natural history of which we are not fully acquainted, or from which we do not know what insect will result, should be kept separate. The pupz obtained from such larve should also be kept separate, if possible; and if not, they should be put into a particular part of the pupa-cage and marked with a separate number. Then we must note in the journal the number of the breeding-cage in which the larva, and subsequently the pupa, is placed, as well as the number of the pupa, the day, the locality, and the plant where the larva was found, the dates when it moulted and when it became a pupa, as well as the date of the appearance of the perfect insect. Besides this, a precise description must be made of all unknown larve, and of all those which do not exactly agree with a description or figure before us. Larve which alter their appearance after moulting must be carefully described in each stage. If the collector can draw, a careful drawing of the larva would also be very desirable. When we think we recognise a larva from a figure or description, this may also be referred to in the journal. When the perfect insect appears, its name should be added to the description of the larva. The diary can be best kept in a quarto manuscript book, ruled with columns for the number and name of the larva and pupa, descriptions and citations, locality, food-plant, moultings, dates of the larva becoming a pupa and of the appearance of the perfect insect, and remarks, It will, however, save much space to have a separate book for detailed descriptions, and keep the first for dates and short memoranda, as aforesaid. All larvae which the collector has not already bred should be entered in this journal, but he need not enter those with which he is already fully acquainted, except when they do not agree with his former observations respecting food-plant, times of appearance, &c. It is very desirable that the journal should also contain observations on the state of the weather, especially the temperature, the forwardness or backwardness of the season, &c. All these conditions influence the times of appearance of larve and perfect insects, and the different observations will in time be useful to form a table, according to which the appearance of certain insects can be definitely expected at a certain time every year, according to the weather. Nothing has yet been done to compare the times of appearance of the same species in different parts of Europe, which often differ very much. Such entries, however, could be more conveniently entered in an ordinary diary than in the journal of which we have been speaking. The nature of the season, whether forward or otherwise, and the progress of vegetation on which insect life depends, may be indicated by noting the date at which common and well-known plants are observed in blossom, such as the wood-anemone, the starwort, the gooseberry, the lilac, the apple, the blackthorn, the hawthorn, the sallows, the heaths, &c. The average temperature, as well as the highest and lowest on each day, the number of sunny and rainy days, and the direction of the wind, should also be noticed, 712 xvi EvrorEAN BurrERFLIES AND Morus. The journals should be provided with indexes, so that their contents can easily be referred to, and should contain notices of insects seen or caught, with localities, the time and place where pup were met with, and the date of the appearance of the perfect insect. Every specimen in the collection, or at least any of any rarity, should bear a number corresponding to one in a ledger, showing where, when, and how it was obtained. Generally speaking, all species captured on the same excursion, or at least all found under the same circumstances or derived from the same source, may bear the same number. ON PREPARING LEPIDOPTERA FOR THE CABINET. Any perfect insects which we bring home alive, or those which are bred from the pupa, should be killed and pinned as soon as possible, unless we wish to breed from them. It is generally better to box all bred specimens before attempting to kill them. We have already spoken of the various modes of killing Lepidoptera. It is necessary to be very careful to pin all specimens exactly through the middle of the thorax, and some collectors use a lens when pinning Jicro-Lepidoptera, for if they happen not to be pinned quite straight, we shall find it very difficult, and often impossible, to set them afterwards. Insects of large or moderate size may be pinned in the hand, as already directed, but very small ones can be better pinned if laid on white blotting-paper. When chloroform, sulphuric ether, ammonia, or any other strong volatile substance has been dropped into a pill-box, it is always necessary afterwards to leave the box open till the smell has entirely evaporated before using it for any other purpose. When the sun is bright and hot, the readiest way of killing an insect is to put it in a box without a lid, and press the box against the glass of a window on which the sun is shining, when the insect will speedily die. ; Pinning, &c—In removing insects, great care is necessary in drawing the pin from the cork, especially when it is tightly fixed or very slender. It must then be drawn up with a slow, steady motion, and quite straight, so as not to jerk when finally drawn from the surface. A sudden jerk, caused either by the pliers slipping, or the elastic pin springing when drawn from its place, is often enough to shake a delicate specimen to pieces. All the insects in the collection should be set at a uniform height and in a uniform manner. English collectors usually set their insects with the wings somewhat sloping, and rather low down on the pin, so as almost to rest on the paper of the cabinet, which, however, the specimens should never be allowed to touch. The mode generally practised on the Continent and in America is to use very long pins, and set the insects, with the wings expanded flat, a good half inch or more from the surface of the drawer. This method has many advantages; but perhaps the chief disadvantage is that long pins require much deeper drawers and boxes than are commonly used in England. Some collectors pin their J7Zzcro- Lepidoptera to one end of a narrow strip of cork or pith, through the other end of which a pin is run to fix it in the drawer. The end of the pin should be touched with gum to fasten it in the pith. The advantage of this plan is that it allows the specimens to be moved without either difficulty or danger, to which the smaller J/zcros, which must necessarily be pinned with the finest pins which can possibly be obtained, would otherwise be exposed whenever it was necessary to touch them. We have already spoken of the necessity of all the specimens being set alike ; and this is necessary, not only because the symmetry of a collection is destroyed, even if the specimens are well set, if they are set at different heights on the pin, or if the wings of some are more expanded than those of others, but because it is difficult to compare specimens satisfactorily when the setting is not uniform, Lepidoptera require to be set, or to have their wings expanded to INTRODUCTION. xvii the best effect for display, on frames called setting-boards or saddles, which we shall presently proceed to describe; but if this operation is not performed immediately after death, we shall find that the insect cannot be set, in consequence of its fluids having dried up, which renders it stiff and brittle. Specimens in this condition require to be relaxed before they can be set. Relaxing —This may be effected in various ways, but insects which are undergoing this process must be examined every day, and set as soon as they are sufficiently soft for the wings to be fully opened out without more pressure than would be required to open the wings of a recently dead specimen. If left longer they are liable to become mouldy or rotten. For relaxing insects, some collectors use a wide-mouthed glass-stoppered bottle half filled with chopped laurel-leaves (which may also be used for killing insects), lined with cork on the upper part, on which the insects are pinned; but it is simpler to relax them with water. For this purpose a piece of cork, with the insects stuck upon it, may be floated in a basin of water, over which a cloth is tied to prevent the vapour from escaping. Another convenient method is to use a tin box, partly filled with damp sand or sawdust, on which some clean white blotting-paper is laid, and to place the insects on this. The box should then be put on the chimney-piece, and left there till the specimens are sufficiently relaxed. The water should not be allowed to touch the insects, or it will be liable to injure their colours; and white, blue, green, or metallic colours are more liable to suffer in this way than any others. Some collectors touch large insects with alcohol to facilitate their relaxing, applying it to the under side of the thorax, and the roots of the wings beneath. If an imsect requires re-pinning, it can sometimes (if large) be slipped off the old pin without difficulty ; but if it is too tightly fixed upon it, it must be put into the relaxing -box for a short time. The thorax may be damped with a camel’s-hair brush dipped in diluted alcohol till the pin is sufficiently loosened; but it is perhaps better to relax the insect altogether, and, if necessary, to re-set it. If it is loose on the new pin, a slight touch of gum on the lower side, just where the pin is inserted, will be sufficient to fix it. Setting-boards are made of long strips of deal, varying in width, according to the size of the insects which are intended to be expanded on them. There must always be a groove in the middle, lined at the bottom with cork, to receive the body of the insect; and the sides are frequently also constructed of cork, which is absolutely necessary when the specimens are to be set with braces. English setting-boards are generally made with sloping sides, so as to give the insect a rounded appearance when set. The sides are frequently covered with unsized paper; and some collectors rule them across with transverse lines, to assist the eye in getting the wings exactly even on both sides. They may be of any convenient length, say about a foot, and are often made to slide into a frame called a setting-house, which has a handle at the top to allow of its being carried about, a door fitted with a sheet of perforated zinc to admit the air, and. a drawer at the bottom divided into several compartments for pins and braces. This is sometimes combined with a store-box, or is constructed to serve at once as a setting-house and a receptacle for the various articles required for the outfit of the collector. A number of setting-boards will be required, varying in width from half an inch to six inches. This will be amply sufficient for even the largest European species, for neither the Death’s Head nor the Great Peacock Moth exceed six inches in expanse at the utmost; but collectors who receive unset specimens from abroad will occasionally require setting-boards of larger size, even up to a foot in breadth. Flat setting-boards may easily be made by cutting a groove of any required depth down the middle of a piece of wood, and gluing a strip of cork along the bottom of the groove; and the smallest moths cannot well be set on xl viii Evroresan BourrerrlreEs AND Morus. ordinary sctting-boards. It is better to set these on a very smooth sheet of cork (elder pith is often used on the Continent instead), in which very’small grooves have been scored to receive the bodies. Setting is usually effected on sloping boards by means of braces, which may be constructed either of cardboard or paper. In the former case the cardboard must be cut into long, narrow, pointed strips, through the thick end of which a pin is driven. Then, having selected a board proportioned to the size of the subject, we pin the insect exactly in the middle of the groove, keeping its body quite straight, and bringing its wings into such a position that when expanded they will rest upon the cork sides of the setting-board. The wings are then to be brought into such a position on each side that a straight line drawn from tip to tip would pass just in front of the head of the specimen, and the card braces are then to be pinned down over the wings with sufficient firmness to keep them in their places, but not so tightly as to damage them. The wings may be drawn into their places with a very fine needle pressed against the costa; but great care must be taken not to pierce or tear the wing. It often happens that several braces on each side are required to keep the wings in position, though it can sometimes be managed with one long one only. The position of the hind-wings must not be neglected, and they should be placed as nearly as possible in a natural position, with the inner margin of the fore-wings lapping over the costa of the hind-wings. This rule will not apply, however, to Mccro-Lepidoptera with very narrow hind-wings, which sometimes stand off at an angle from the fore-wings, and should be set in that position. Stiff paper braces may be used for setting small and delicate insects, for which cardboard would be too coarse; and in the case of large insects, strips of paper pinned down at both ends will be found nearly as convenient and efficacious as cardboard braces. Some collectors set their insects by twisting thread over the wings, round and round the ends of the setting-boards; but this method requires much practice to manage it successfully, and is more likely to damage the specimens in unskilful hands than the ordinary method. When flat setting-boards are used, braces and threads may be dispensed with, and the wings may be kept in position by the weight of bits of thin glass laid over them. The width of the setting-board must in all cases exceed that of the expanded wings of the insects set upon it; but there is no harm in setting a small insect on a large board, especially if the body is large in proportion to the wings. Whenever possible, each insect should be set on a board the groove of which is proportioned to the size of its body, for no insect can be properly set unless the groove is large enough to receive its whole body easily ; and, on the other hand, it is very awkward to set a slender-bodied insect on a setting-board the groove of which is much too wide for it. If the antennz or abdomen be not in a symmetrical position when the insect is set, a couple of slender pins must be crossed over each to secure them. The insects must be left on the setting-boards till they are thoroughly dry and the wings are firmly fixed in their position. For greater security, some collectors touch the roots of the wings beneath with liquid glue when they remove them from the setting-boards. If any signs of mites, Psocide, or other parasites show themselves on the boards, which will sometimes happen, the boards must be washed over with some preparation to destroy the intruders. To diminish the risk of their presence, it is necessary to keep the boards scrupulously clean, and not to allow any broken fragments of legs, &c., to remain upon them, and, above all, not to allow a forgotten or worthless specimen to remain on the boards after the others have been removed. The setting-house must be kept in a dry place where it will be safe from the visits of mice, cockroaches, or ants, and where it will not be exposed to dust. When the house is infested with ants, the setting-house should either be suspended by a cord, or put on a stand of some kind, the legs of which are placed in cups of water. INTRODUCTION. xlix On Denuding the Wings of Lepidoptera —lt is often necessary to remove the scales from the wings of Lepidoptera in order to study the arrangement of the nervures. There is no difficulty about this in the case of the larger and more strongly-built species. The scales can be easily removed, even without detaching the wings from the body, by means of a soft and blunt camel’s- hair brush, and specimens may be thus obtained which show the complete scaling of the wings on one side, and on the other the naked membranes. It is more difficult to denude the wings of small and delicate species, which is effected in the following manner :—The wing is carefully removed at the base, and placed between two thin plates of glass, such as those used for microscopic slides, which are then gently rubbed together: this will be sufficient to remove some of the scales. Then breathe upon one of the plates, lay the wing on the place, breathe on the other plate, lay it over the wing, and rub the plates together as before. Continue this process until the wing is nearly clean, wiping the scales now and then from the glass on which the wing is not resting, and then transferring the wing to this while the lower glass is rubbed. If there still remain scales on the wing which cannot be removed in this manner, breathe again on one of the glasses, press the wing firmly down upon it with a dry, clean glass, and rub the scales off with a fine, soft brush; then breathe on the other glass, press it down till the wing adheres to it, and then clean the other side with the brush in the same manner. When the membrane is perfectly clean, lift it up with a moistened brush and gum it upon another glass plate, over which another plate is to be fastened by gumming the edges, in order to preserve the specimen. The other pair of wings, with the scales attached, as well as the antenne, palpi, legs, and other portions of the insect, may also be placed between the glasses, in order that all important parts of the insect may be examined with a microscope or lens. It is absolutely necessary that the name of the insect should be attached to all such preparations the moment they are completed, unless the undenuded wings accompany them. Attempts have also been made to obtain impressions of the wings of Lepidoptera by pressing them down upon gummed paper, when the membrane of the wing can be removed, leaving the scales attached to the paper. The body can then be painted in between. But these latter preparations serve no purpose which cannot be better answered either by real specimens, or by carefully-executed drawings or good engravings; whereas the denuded wings and microscopic preparations mentioned in the last paragraph have a real scientific value, and should not be neglected by any entomologist who possesses a microscope; for though he will probably not be inclined to sacrifice rare specimens for anatomical or microscopic purposes, he will easily procure a sufficient number of common or broken insects to employ him for a very long time, if he has any taste for such researches. ON THE ARRANGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF A COLLECTION. Store-boxes are made of various sizes, but should be constructed of light wood, and lined with cork at the top and bottom. They are used for carrying specimens from place to place when we wish to compare a number with a collection at a distance, or to bring home a larger supply from a long excursion than the setting-house or collecting-boxes will hold. They are also used for sending duplicates to our correspondents, when the specimens must be pinned in very tightly, and cross-pins put over the bodies of all heavy-bodied moths. The box or boxes must then be packed in an outer case, with hay, tow, shavings, or other soft packing material all round, to prevent their being jarred, or allowed to touch the outer case at any point; and the lid of the case had better be screwed down than nailed down. In sending insects abroad, it is better to pack them in single m 13 | EvroreaAn Bourrerryizs AND Morus. boxes which are not corked at the top, but have a piece of strong glass let into the lid to allow the customs officers to examine the contents without opening the boxes, over the edges of which a strip of paper or calico should be pasted to keep out dust. When insects are sent away in single boxes, they should be marked “ This side up.” Store-boxes are also used for keeping surplus specimens, which may be useful to give away or to exchange. A small muslin bag filled with camphor should always be pinned in one corner. Boxes that are corked top and bottom must always be deep enough to prevent the insects which they contain coming into collision. Practically, however, there is seldom any risk of this with insects set low down on the pin in the English fashion. Some collectors use store-boxes instead of a cabinet for keeping their collections. In this case the boxes are generally made of better construction, and are covered with green cloth, and frequently lettered on the back to resemble books. They are also sometimes fitted with movable glass lids, like cabinet drawers, and can be ranged upright on shelves, like books. Some collectors use small single boxes, labelled and piled upon one another, instead of book-boxes; but this arrangement is not convenient for the larger Lepidoptera. It may, however, be used for the AZtcro-Lepidoptera. Insects must never on any account be kept in uncovered glass cases, as they soon fade when exposed to light, especially to the direct rays of the sun. Cabinets may be made to contain any number of drawers, which may be arranged in one, two, or three tiers. They are usually constructed to contain from twenty to fifty drawers, in a double tier. They must on no account be made of cedar or any other resinous wood. The drawers should be about eighteen inches square, and made of thoroughly seasoned wood. They are lined at the bottom with sound cork, and are fitted with glass lids to keep out the dust. A partition of thin wood runs along either the front of the drawers, the two sides, or all round. This is perforated here and there with holes about the size of a shilling. Perhaps the commonest arrangement is to have a partition along each side, with two openings opposite each other in each partition. The bottom of the drawer and the inside of the partitions are covered with white unsized paper, and holes are pricked through the paper covering the openings in the partitions, to allow the vapour of camphor, with which the camphor cells should be freely supplied, to escape into the drawers. Another arrangement, sometimes used on the Continent, is to use drawers constructed with glass bottoms as well as glass tops, upon which the insects are fixed by pinning them on thin strips of cork, which may either be gummed in their places, or made to fit into grooves in the frame. The advantages of this plan are that the collection is less liable to the attacks of mites, and that the whole drawer may be turned upside down, to show the under sides of the insects. But the last purpose may be better served by having a sufficient series of specimens to show under sides as well. Although it is tolerably easy to arrange a cabinet to accommodate a limited Fauna, such as that of the British Islands, which only contain about 2,000 species of Lepidoptera, many of which are very small, yet, if we extend our collection to European or foreign species, it will be impossible to calculate beforehand what space will be required for each group, and the cabinet or cabinets will then require re-arranging from time to time. J/¢ és therefore indispensably necessary that every drawer, not only in the same cabinet, but in every cabinet belonging to the same collector, should be interchangeable; and the larger the collection, the more important this becomes. If the old cabinet gets too full, and a new one is procured, it will probably be found that in a cabinet of, say, twenty drawers, fifteen will require no alteration whatever, while the remaining five can well be spread out into fifteen or twenty. If the drawers are made interchangeable, new drawers can easily be intercalated to any extent wherever they are required, and the end drawers transferred to a new cabinet; but if they are only made to fit in the INTRODUCTION. li same places, almost every insect in the old cabinet will require to be shifted, perhaps two or three times, and re-arrangement will become a work involving a vast amount of absolutely useless labour, and considerable risk to the specimens ; for specimens cannot be constantly shifted, even with the greatest care, without a certain amount of deterioration, and the risk of an occasional accident. No cabinet-maker ought to be trusted to make a cabinet who will not undertake to make the drawers interchangeable. When examining insects contained in large and heavy cabinet drawers, it is sometimes convenient to place the drawer on a pad, sufficiently large to keep it steady, but which allows of the drawer being turned, as on a pivot, in any required direction. On the Position of the Cabinet—Cabinets should be kept in a dry room where there is a fire burning in damp or cold weather, and should not be placed against an outside wall, but either against a partition wall, or back to back. If it should be necessary to place a cabinet against an outside wall, it should not be pushed close up to it, but there should be a space left between to prevent the immediate contact of the cabinet with any damp from the wall. The cabinet should also be constructed either with short legs or a small stand, to avoid direct contact with the floor, and to allow of a free current of air beneath it, as well as at the back. When the cabinet has been standing in an unheated room, and the drawers are brought into a warm room, they must be allowed to stand for a considerable time till they are warmed through; for if they are opened without this precaution, the enclosed specimens will be very liable to contract damp. On Arranging and Labelling a Collection—In order to study our collection properly, it is necessary to have a sufficiently large number of each species to exhibit it in all its forms. In species where the sexes and under sides vary, we should place in our cabinets at least four specimens —that is, a male and female exhibiting the upper surface of the wings, and another pair set to display the under surface. In cases where the sexes differ little, and where the under sides are not remarkable, one or two specimens may serve to represent the species. Each specimen should be ticketed with a small piece of paper attached to its pin beneath, bearing a number corresponding with our journal, which will give us its complete history. Or the date, locality, &c., may be written on a piece of paper and pinned under the insect in the same way; but it is difficult to write so much on a label without its being often too large to be concealed by the specimen, and the collection would then look untidy. And if the paper has to be folded, it will be much more troublesome to examine than if we have merely to turn up the insect and glance at it. Continental entomologists often write the names of their insects on small oblong pieces of card, which are pinned through a long strip projecting from the middle; but this plan is only applicable to insects set in the Continental fashion, nor does it look so tidy as the method we are about to describe. . Specimens should be arranged in parallel columns, one beneath another, commencing with the left-hand top corner of the first drawer in the cabinet. They must also be arranged and labelled in systematic order, according to some book or catalogue. The names of the families and genera are placed at the top of each, and the name of each species is placed beneath it. When a genus fills more than one drawer, and part of it has to be arranged in a second, its name should be repeated at the beginning of the second drawer. The names may either be written, or cut from a printed list, and may either be fixed in their places with a touch of gum or paste, or by pins; in the latter case, many entomologists use pin-points. There are several lists of British Lepidoptera arranged for this purpose by Doubleday, Stainton, and others ; for European Lefidopéera, a small edition of Staudinger and Wocke’s catalogue may be used; or for European butterflies only, Kirby’s “Synonymic List.” As we have said, the specimens must be arranged in parallel lines, and lii EvuroreAn Bourrerrlies AND Morus. for this purpose each drawer must be spaced out for the insects it is intended to contain, either by ruled lines or by black paper or thread. First of all, measure with a pair of compasses the different widths which will be required for the insects, which must in all cases go well within the lines, and having carefully noted the exact points for the dividing lines at the top, turn the drawer upside down, and measure off the other end of the lines at the bottom so as exactly to correspond with those at the top. After this, you may rule lines with a pen or pencil between each of the opposite points; but the disadvantage of this is that if the drawer requires re- arranging, it will also require re-papering, as the lines cannot easily be obliterated so as to look well. This may be avoided by using narrow strips of black paper cut to fit the drawer, and secured by pin-points; or by threading, which is perhaps the most convenient and neatest plan of all. To thread a drawer, you have only to stick a short strong pin, sloping a little towards the wood, at the end of each of the lines which you have already marked with the compasses. Then tie a piece of black thread round the pin at the left-hand top corner, bring it down to the bottom of the drawer, and pass it round the two pins nearest to the left-hand bottom corner of the drawer; bring the thread up to the top again, pass it round the second and third pins at the top; bring it down again, and pass it round the third and fourth pins at the bottom; carry it up again to the top, and so on, till you arrive at the last pin, round which you fasten off the thread. The smaller Micro-Lepidoptera are generally arranged in double instead of single rows. The specimens must be pinned exactly in the middle between these lines, placing the males first and the females after. If possible, a sufficiently long series of each species must be placed in the cabinet to show the limits of its variation. Locality labels may also be pinned under or on one side of the specimens, if the collector wishes to show the locality of each specimen without the necessity of referring to a journal. Although no one who values his collection from a scientific point of view would reject a bad specimen of a species when he has not a good one, yet the beauty of a collection depends so much upon the perfection of the specimens which it contains that no opportunity should be lost of replacing broken, faded, or worn specimens with better. Preservation of the Collection—If the directions previously given about the situation of the cabinet, &c., have been followed, the collection will not be much exposed to be injured by light, dust, mould, or damp; or even from the larger parasites which destroy collections, such as the larvee of some small beetles and moths. But the most tightly-fitting drawers are no security against the two worst of the enemies against which we have to contend—mites and grease. The most usual preservative from the former is camphor, and it -is so far effectual that it will prevent any clean specimens from being attacked by mites ; but if, by any mischance, they should be introduced into the drawers with specimens from the setting-boards, or in any other way, it will not be sufficient to destroy them. Some wash the inside of the drawer before using it with pure carbolic acid diluted with water. Essential oil of cajeput or benzole, dropped on a piece of cotton-wool, and put into an infected drawer, will prove useful, but are liable to grease the drawers ; and both camphor and benzole are accused of attracting grease to the specimens themselves. Dusty specimens may be carefully cleaned with a soft camel’s-hair brush ; for the older the specimens, the less likely are the scales to be rubbed off, whereas in fresh specimens the least touch is often sufficient to remove them. Mouldy specimens may be cleaned with a brush dipped in sulphuric ether; and if the application of the fluid does not entirely remove it, the brush must also be employed, taking great care not to injure the fringes. Grease is peculiarly liable to attack moths which have lived in the larva state in the stems or trunks of plants or trees—that is to say, all those known as internal feeders. It generally begins by exuding from the abdomen of a specimen, and gradually spreads all over it, soaking into and INTRODUCTION. liti discolouring even the paper and cork below the insect. If the collector possesses sufficient dexterity, all such moths may be stuffed while fresh, by removing the contents of the abdomen, and filling it with cotton-wool. But this is a difmcult operation, and almost impracticable with small insects. If this is not done, and any signs of grease show themselves, the greasy specimen must be attended to at once; for the longer the grease is neglected, the more it will spread, and the more difficult will be its removal. If the specimen be small, the greasy portions may be thoroughly soaked with benzole or rectified spirits of turpentine by means of a camel’s-hair brush, or may even be sunk in the liquid for several days, and then thickly covered with French chalk or powdered magnesia till they are thoroughly dry, when the powder can easily be blown away or carefully dusted off. If the insect be large, and the abdomen only be attacked, the abdomen should be carefully broken off, and put into a mixture of five parts of highly rectified alcohol and one part of sulphuric ether. It must then be boiled in the fluid on a water-bath. It might be done in a test-tube over a flame, but this is too dangerous a plan to be recommended. The abdomen must then be allowed to dry, covered as before with the white powder, and when thoroughly dry must be put into clean sulphuric ether for a short time, to remove the last traces of grease. Both liquids can be used several times, as directed, before they are rendered unfit for further use. If several bodies are operated on at the same time, it is necessary to attach a number to each, to avoid any mistake in replacing them. When verdigris appears on the pins, it may be removed, with care, by the point of a penknife. © If the pin becomes otherwise corroded, or breaks, it is better to re-pin the specimen. Some collectors, especially on the Continent, pour liquid mercury into their drawers to destroy mites ; but besides other inconveniences, and the inapplicability of this method to collections set on low pins, the mercury is very liable to corrode the pins themselves. When antennz, wings, abdomens, &c., are broken off, they may be replaced with a little gum, which should be thick enough to retain the broken part in its place at once. The wing or abdomen must, if necessary, be supported in its place till it is fixed by means of a prop of card- board, fixed on a pin, and placed at the necessary height. Some collectors re-set a broken specimen, and attach the loose member to it while the whole insect is supported on the setting- board. ON PREPARING SPECIMENS OF EGGS, LARVA, AND PUP. To preserve the eggs of Lepidoptera, they should first be killed, by exposing them to heat or by placing them in spirits, and should then be gummed on bits of cardboard stuck on pins. If the eggs are arranged in a particular manner, such as those of the Lackey Moth, which are placed ina ring round a twig, they must be kept in their natural position, and the twig or other object to which they are attached must be preserved. It is more difficult to preserve larve in such a manner that they shall retain their shape and colour. The simplest though, nevertheless, very defective method is as follows :—The larva must be killed by immersion in spirits of wine, and a small vertical opening must then be made with a fine, sharply-pointed pair of scissors at the anus, The larva must then be laid between two layers of several thicknesses of soft blotting-paper, and the soft contents of the body must then be carefully squeezed from the head of the larva to the tail, and out through the opening that has already been made for the purpose. After the skin is completely emptied, the tube of a small blow-pipe must be inserted in the opening, and the skin tied tightly round it with a thread. The skin must then be gradually inflated by means of the blow-pipe till it has re-assumed the shape of the larva. It must then be dried as quickly as possible before a fire or over a spirit-lamp, continuing to keep it inflated by blowing through the blow-pipe till it is dry. Then the larva must be untied from the blow-pipe, and the nit liv EvroPean BurveRrLies AND Morus. prolegs gummed to a twig or to a card. A hollow grass stem may be substituted for the blow- pipe, and when the larva is dry the stalk may ‘be cut off short near the point of insertion, and a pin stuck through the end to fix it in the cabinet. The inflation must be performed with great care, and the heat applied must not be too great. While some recommend that the larva should be dried as rapidly as possible, others consider it indispensable to dry it as slowly as possible. The skin must not be inflated too rapidly or violently, lest it should be unduly distended, or even burst during the operation. One disadvantage of this method is that the larva loses more or less of its colour during the process. Other means have, therefore, been attempted in order to preserve the colours better. After the larva-skin has been emptied, as previously directed, it may be filled with fine sand or sawdust through a small funnel inserted in the opening through which the contents have been removed, till the skin has resumed the shape of the living larva. The stuffing must be well dried; and if sawdust be used, it should be previously tinted with a colouring matter corresponding to the ground colour of the living larva ; and after the stuffed skin has been brought to the required condition, it should be dried slowly at a moderately warm temperature, and then attached to some suitable object. When larvee differ at different moults, a series of specimens should be prepared, showing them in all their stages. Pupz should be killed by immersion in spirit, and should then be dried in a strong heat, when they may either be pinned or gummed on a piece of card. In preserving suspended pupa, they should, if possible, be allowed to remain attached to a portion of the object to which they were found fixed, and the same with cocoons attached to twigs, &c. Eggs, larva, pupa, and the cocoons belonging to them, may be kept in separate boxes or drawers, with the names attached. It is, however, a very pleasing and practical method to exhibit all the stages of the species at once, by grouping together the egg, the various stages of the larva, the pupa, and the cocoon, and the moth or butterfly which emerges from it, as well as specimens of any ichneumons or other parasites by which the species is liable to be attacked. The early stages may be attached to an artificial representation of the plant upon which the insect feeds, or else a carefully coloured drawing should be placed with it. ON EXCHANGING AND FORWARDING LEPIDOPTERA. If we confine our collection to the specimens we are able to procure ourselves, it will be limited to the species found in our own immediate neighbourhood, or to those which we may obtain casually while travelling ; but we shall find it necessary to add to our specimens by purchase or exchange, if we wish to bring together anything like a tolerably complete collection. It is, of course, unnecessary to buy any specimens which we are likely to have an opportunity of procuring for ourselves, or which we can easily procure by exchange, unless we happen to want them for some special purpose at a time when we have no immediate opportunity of procuring them otherwise. In exchanging insects, always make it an absolute rule never to send away any but absolutely perfect specimens ; and require the same from your correspondents. The only departure from this rule that should be admitted is in the case of positively rare species, and it is then necessary that both correspondents should perfectly understand each other about the condition of the specimens beforehand. Most collectors have an opportunity of procuring numerous specimens of some local species for which those living in other places will be glad to exchange the species of their own neighbourhood. Before exchanging, it is always better to exchange lists of duplicates and desiderata first, and then arrange as fair an exchange as possible by letter, The young collector INTRODUCTION. lv should beware, on the one hand, of driving too hard a bargain, and of carrying on exchange in too mercenary a spirit ; and on the other, of distributing species wholesale for little or no return, and perhaps occasionally allowing himself to be imposed upon. But the medium will be learned by experience ; and in the meantime let every one resolve to deal fairly and honourably towards all his correspondents to the best of his power, and he will not ultimately find himself a loser by it. In purchasing insects, buy only perfect specimens, unless it is a species you require very much, and which you may never have an opportunity of procuring again. But these cases are very rare exceptions. And if you confine your collection to British insects, do not pay high prices for professedly British specimens of rarities. Most of the rarest British species are abundant on the Continent, and may be had for a mere trifle; and the few varieties which are really peculiar to Britain are (with the exception of the extinct or nearly extinct fen insects, such as Lycena Dispar and Agrotzs Subrosea, for instance) tolerably common where they are to be met with. In buying insects, it is much better to see the specimens yourself; and, in general, it is better never to undertake a commission to buy insects for another, nor to commission any one else to buy for you, as the result is usually unsatisfactory to both parties. We have already given directions for packing up insects to be sent away (see p. xlix.), and will therefore only add a few additional remarks here. If they are on long pins, it is well to cover the whole bottom of the box with cotton-wool ; but when they are pinned low, as English-set insects generally are, this cannot be done. When only a few specimens require to be sent, they may be sent by post, packed in small boxes, sold by the dealers in entomological apparatus as postal boxes, and made specially strong for the purpose. These should be tightly wrapped up in several thicknesses of cotton-wool or tow, and either enclosed in an outer covering of thick paper, and then tied round firmly with string, or enclosed in a network of string so carefully that it cannot possibly slip off. The address and stamps must on no account be placed on the box itself, but on an ordinary parchment luggage-label, which must be carefully tied on the box, so that the post-marks may all be attached to the label ; and thus any risk of accidental injury to the box in the process of stamping at the post-office may be avoided. ON THE SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF LEPIDOPTERA. Before Linnzeus succeeded in establishing a definite system of nomenclature for natural objects, it was almost impossible for the study of natural history to be pursued to advan- tage; and hence it is not surprising that naturalists were formerly looked upon as triflers, or ‘worse. Indeed, such was the contempt with which the pursuit of entomology was regarded, that about two hundred years ago an action-at-law was taken to set aside the will of Lady Glanville on the ground of insanity; and the chief, if not the only, evidence relied on by the plaintiffs was her fondness for collecting insects. But Time brings about strange reverses; and the Glanville Fritillary,* named after this lady, has carried down her name to our own times, and will probably perpetuate her memory for many succeeding generations. At present the study of butterflies, so far from being despised, is regarded by many of our leading naturalists as of great importance in helping to elucidate many of the problems of modern science. The variation of the same species in different localities, or on account of change of food; the extraordinary resemblance of whole groups to others, to which they have no * Melitea Cinxia (vide p. 15). lvi EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. real affinity, but which possess some special means of protection, in the advantage of which the imitating species are supposed to share; and the> distribution of the various families and genera over the earth, are all questions which, though only beginning to be investigated, already throw great light on the laws by which a constant equilibrium is maintained among the various competing forms of life on the earth, while it likewise serves to illustrate, to some extent, its past history. Unfortunately, fossil butterflies are very rare, and their affinities are frequently doubtful; but they serve to confirm the results arrived at by the study of other groups, the remains of which are better known, as to the affinity of the early European Fauna and Flora with the present productions of tropical countries. This deficiency in fossil remains is compensated for, to a certain extent, by the study of the distribution of existing species. It is now believed that the north of the Old World was the spot where most of the principal forms of animal and vegetable life originated, and that those which were not exterminated at the time of the Glacial Epoch were driven southwards. Some of these returned to their old localities slowly after the retreat of the cold, while others, finding their return prevented by insurmountable barriers, or by permanent changes of climate, only survive at the present day in tropical countries, to which they were formerly strangers. Many Arctic plants and insects are found at the summits of the Alps, and other high mountain ranges ; and it is thought that they retreated up the mountains and towards the poles at the end of the Glacial Period, and became isolated in these localities. The colours of larve are also very interesting. Bright-coloured and conspicuous larve are rarely attacked by birds, and frequently feed on poisonous plants, and are therefore, doubtless, themselves unwholesome; but all larve which are specially protected by their brown or green colour, or by their resemblance to twigs, are greedily eaten by birds. Similar observations may be made by almost any one; and there are, no doubt, innumerable other interesting and important discoveries to be made relative to Lepidoptera, which are at present wholly unsuspected, but which may serve to throw a clearer light on many of the perplexing scientific problems which we desire to unravel. EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. THE Rhopalocera, or Butterflies, are divided into several families, differing considerably in appearance, but may always be easily distinguished from the Moths by many important characters. Their wings are broad, and are nearly always brightly coloured on both sides, and the under surface is frequently of a very different pattern to the upper, especially on the hind- wings. When in repose they hold the wings erect, or else opened to the fullest extent, sometimes fanning them up and down. It is only in some of the Hesferide, or Skippers, the family which comes nearest to the Moths, that we find the fore-wings covering a small portion of the hind- wings when at rest ; and the hind-wings of butterflies are never folded like a fan, as is the case with many moths. The body is nearly always small in comparison with the wings, and is thicker in proportion in the Skippers than in any other family. The position which these insects assume when at rest has clearly a reference to the comparative thickness of their bodies; for the Geometre, or Looper Moths, in which the body is not larger in proportion than in the butterflies, often sit with their wings erected when at rest like the latter. The antenne, or feelers, are generally more than half as long as the fore-wings, and are always more or less thickened or knobbed, and sometimes slightly hooked at the tip. _ In moths, the antennze are of various shapes; but even the transparent winged Hawk Moths, and the Barnet Moths (Pls. 20 and 21), which most resemble butterflies in this respect, have such differently shaped antenne that this character would be alone amply sufficient to prevent their being mistaken for them. There is no European moth which has antenne sufficiently resembling those of a butterfly to allow of its being mistaken for one. All European butterflies fly by day only, and seldom make their appearance in the morning till the sun has dried the dew off the grass. They never fly in the rain, and very little when the sun is obscured. In hot countries, on the contrary, many species, especially of dark colours, fly chiefly at dusk. The larvae, or caterpillars, of butterflies have sixteen legs; the first six are horny, and correspond to those of the perfect insect, and the others are fleshy, and are called “ pro-legs.” The caterpillars are cylindrical, spindle-shaped, or short and thick like a woodlouse, and are sometimes smooth, and sometimes covered with fine short hair, or else with spines, or fleshy warts covered with hair. They generally live on plants, often in company, without any covering ; but some species live between leaves, which they spin together. The pup, or chrysalides, are suspended by the tail, and are often fastened by a girth round the body as well. They are more rarely enclosed in a loose web, or formed on or under the ground. FAMILY I.—PAPILIONIDE. To this family belong the great Ornzthoptera, or Bird-winged Butterflies, of the East Indies, some of which measure nearly a foot across the expanded wings, and are the largest of all butterflies, surpassing even the great Blue and Owl-eyed Butterflies of South America (JZorpho ul 2 EvROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND. Morus. and Ca/igo). It also includes the greater part of the Swallow-tailed Butterflies, which are so numerous and so handsome in all tropical countries. In cold countries we only find a few species of this family, but they are, nevertheless, among the largest and finest of our indigenous butterflies. All our European Papzliontde are white or yellow, with black markings and red or blue spots; but every shade of colouring may be found among exotic species. The larve have a fleshy fork behind the head, which they thrust out when alarmed. The butterflies are generally found in open places, fly low, and settle frequently on flowers or in damp places, and are therefore not difficult to capture, although capable of a high and rapid flight. GENUS I—PAPILIO (LINN.). — Large and strong butterflies, with broad, triangular fore-wings and dentated hind-wings; a long tail before the anal angle. The colour is yellow, with black spots and stripes, and a large eye-like spot at the anal angle of the hind-wings. The larve are naked, with a small round head, and there are two or three broods in the year. The pupz are angular, with two projecting points in front, and are attached to plants by the tail, and a thread round the body. I. P. Podalirius (Linn.), (Scarce Swallow-tail)—Wings pale yellow, with black transverse bands, the intermediate ones on the fore-wings shorter; hind-wings with a black border marked with several blue crescents. They have also a long tail, and the eye-spot is orange in front, and black, dusted with blue, behind. Expands from 2% to 34 inches. It is met with in open places near woods, especially in hilly districts, in May and July, and is common in Southern and Central Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia as far as Persia and the Altai. It appears to have formerly inhabited England, but is now extinct. It varies in size, intensity of colour, and the length of the tails; the variety Meésthameliz (Dup.) is much whiter; and the variety Zancleus (Zell.) has a white abdomen in the male. Both these occur in South Europe; the variety Virgatus (Butl.), from Damascus, is smaller than the type, and the tails are very long in proportion. The larva is thick, shaped somewhat like a woodlouse, and contracted behind. It is green, with yellow lines on the back and sides, and with yellow transverse lines spotted with red. It turns yellow when about to change into a pupa. It lives on almond, sloe, plum, apple, pear, and oak from June to August, and may be obtained by shaking sloe-bushes over an inverted umbrella. Figured in all stages at Pl. 2, Fig. 1, a—d. 2. P. Alexanor (Esp.)—Wings yellow above, with black transverse stripes, of which the second and third on the fore-wings are short, and the fourth is dusted with yellow. The sub-marginal band of the hind-wings is dusted with blue, and dentated externally. The eye-spot is yellowish-red, bordered in. front with black, dusted with blue. Expands from 2} to 3 inches. It is found in May, June, and July, in the Alpine meadows of Southern Europe, but is not very common, although its range extends from the Pyrenees to Persia. The larva is green, with black stripes, and rows of black and yellow spots on the sides. It feeds on different species of Alpine umbelliferous plants in July. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 2, Fig. 2. *3. P. Machaon (Linn.), (Szwallow-tail)—Wings sulphur-yellow, fore-wings black at the base, and with black veins. They have also black spots on the costa, and a broad black sub-marginal band dusted with yellow. The hind-wings are broadly black, dusted with blue, before the hind margin, and the eye-spot is red, bordered in front with black and blue. All the wings with yellow lunules before the hind margins. Expands from 3 to 4 inches. It is found throughout * British species are throughout this work distinguished by an asterisk. THAIS. 3 the summer in Europe, North Africa, Asia as far south as the Himalayas, and Western North America. A closely-allied species (P. Hospiton, Géné), which is smaller and darker, with a shorter tail, and scarcely any eye-spot on the hind-wings, is found in Corsica and Sardinia. Its larva feeds on Ferula Communis. In England P. Machaon is almost confined to the fens of the south-eastern counties; but on the Continent it is common in meadows, clover-fields, open places in woods, gardens, &c. The larva is cylindrical, green, with transverse black stripes on the sides, spotted -with orange. It lives on many umbelliferous plants throughout the summer, and is often found in gardens, feeding on the common carrot. It will also eat pimpernel. Figured in all stages at Pl. 2, Fig. 3, a—d. GENUS IJ.—THAIS (FABR.). Middle-sized butterflies, with very short antenne ; the wings are yellow, with black markings and red spots. Fore-wings rounded at the tips, hind-wings dentated. Larva with several rows of fleshy tubercles, with stiff bristles at the extremity. They feed on species of Aristolochia, and the pupz are attached by the tail, and a thread round the body. The few known species are confined to the countries bordering on the Mediterranean and Black Seas. 1. 7. Hypermnestra (Scop.), (Polyxena, W. V.).—Wings above pale yellow, fore-wings with black spots and veins, and a rather broad black band towards the hind margin, followed by a much waved yellow line, edged by a black one. The intermediate spaces on the extreme edge yellow. Hind-wings dentated, the sub-marginal yellow line less deeply indented, and followed by a row of blue and then of red spots. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. Common in Europe, south of the Alps, from February to May, according to the season. “It is of very short duration, and very sluggish, frequenting marshy grounds, where it flies lazily from flower to flower, settling with expanded wings” (Rev. D. C. Timins), The larva varies from yellowish to grey, with rusty brown warts, red at the ends, and is to be met with in summer. The butterfly is figured at Biles hice: 2. T. Rumina (Linn.)—Varies from pale yellow (JZedesicaste, Ill., South France) to ochre yellow (Rumina, L., Spain and North Africa), veined and spotted with black. Fore-wings with black borders, spotted in the middle and on the outer edge with yellow. They have also five red spots, and a transparent spot near the tip. Hind-wings dentated, with a dentated sub- marginal black line, within which is a row of red spots, and another red spot near the base. In the variety Honnorati (Boisd.), occasionally found at Digne, the red spots are so much extended as to cover a great part of the wings. Expands from 1} to 24 inches. Found in April and May. It is a more active insect than the last, and “frequents localities where the beautiful rose-coloured Czstws grows. , . . Medesicaste seldom flies after two. or three P.M., while Cassandra [Hypermmnestra, var.| is partial to the afternoon sunshine, and may be seen on the wing till four P.M. or even later” (Timins). Mr. G. F. Mathew found Raxiza common on the Rock of Gibraltar, at the end of February. All the varieties, except //onnorati?, appear to be common where they are met with. The larva is greyish or reddish, with six rows of short reddish spines. It is found in March and April.. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 2, Fig. 5. 3. L. Cerisyt (Godt.).—Yellowish-white, with short black streaks on the costa, and black spots near the margins of all the wings, followed on the hind-wings by an inner row of red ones. Hind-wings irregularly dentated, forming one or more short tails. Found in January, February, and May, in Turkey in Europe and Asia Minor. Larva blackish-grey, with yellow stripes on the back and sides, and a short red spine on each segment. Found in August. 4 EvrorPeEAN BurrerFiizs AND Morus. GENUS III.—DORITIS-(FABR.). May be distinguished from the following genus, to which it is closely allied, by the shorter palpi, the curved club of the antenne, and the absence of a horny pouch in the female. The only species, D. Afollinus (Herbst.), measures about 2 or 2} inches across the fore-wings, which are semi-transparent, and whitish, dusted with dark grey; there are two large black spots on the costa. Hind-wings rounded, yellowish, with a marginal row of black eye-spots- with blue centres, and an inner row of red lunules. The larva is black, spotted with red, and lives on Aristolochia in April. The butterfly, which is figured at Pl. 2, Fig. 6, is found in the mountains of Asia Minor, and in some of the Greek Islands, in February and March. GENUS IV.—PARNASSIUS (LATR.). Large white or yellow butterflies, with rounded wings, semi-transparent at the edges, nearly always with at least two black spots on the costa of the fore-wings, and two round red spots on the hind-wings. The palpi are hairy, and longer than in Dorités; the antenne are short, with a straight club; the body is stout and hairy, and the abdomen of the female is furnished with a singular horny pouch. The larve are covered with fine down, and are all very much alike, being black, with red, orange, or yellow spots, and the pupz are enclosed in a slight cocoon. They feed on different species of Saxifrage. There are nearly thirty species known, inhabiting the mountains of Europe, except the north-west ; Asia, to the Himalayas and Japan; and Western North America, from Alaska to California; but many species are very rare in collections. 1. P. Apollo (Linn.).—White, fore-wings with several large black spots, one of which is placed near the inner margin. Hind-wings with two large red eye-spots, white in the centre and enclosed in black rings; under-side with several more red spots; antenne whitish. Expands from 2 to 4 inches. The largest specimens come from Siberia. Common in the mountains of Europe and Northern Asia. It has been reputed British, but is believed not to occur in Britain, nor in the adjacent portion of North-Western Europe, the nearest known locality being Scandinavia, in one direction, and the mountains of the lower Moselle in another. It is found all over Spain ; but no insects belonging to the mountain fauna of Europe are met with in the mountains of North Africa. Attempts to introduce it in localities where it is not indigenous have hitherto failed, though the food-plant (Sedum telephium) was plentiful. It is found in June, July, and August, and its flight is low and somewhat heavy. At a short distance it much resembles the Black-veined White Butterfly on the wing. The larva is found in May and June. The insect is figured in all stages at Pl. 3, Fig. 1, a—d. 2. P. Phebus (Fabr.), (Delius, Esp.).—WVery like the last, but smaller, measuring from 2} to 24 inches across. The black spots of the fore-wings are smaller, and one or more are often marked with red; that on the inner margin is frequently absent in the male. The antennz are ringed with black and white. Found in the Alps at a much greater elevation than Afo//o in July. It is also found throughout Northern Asia; and some of the Himalayan and Californian Parnassti have been considered varieties of this insect. In Europe it is a much scarcer and more local insect than Afol//o, and the larva, which may also be found in July, appears to be almost amphibious, frequenting very wet places; and the pupa must be liable to long-continued immersion in water. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 3, Fig. 2. P. Mordmanni (Ménétr.), found in the Caucasus, differs from this in having only two black spots on the fore- wings above, and no red spots at the base of the hind-wings beneath. a) oO. LEVCOPHASIA—EUCHLOE. 5 3. P. Mnemosyne (Linn.).—Wings white, fore-wings dusky at the tips, and with two black spots near the costa, but no red spots. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. It is found in Scandinavia, Eastern and Central Europe, and in Asia Minor, chiefly in the mountains. It is an extremely local insect in the Alps, though common where it occurs, in a few damp Alpine valleys. It has been reputed British, but on no reliable authority. The butterfly is found in June and July, and the larva, which feeds on Corydalis Halleri, and conceals itself during the daytime, may be looked for in April and May. Figured in all stages at Pl. 3, Fig. 3, a—c. FAMILY II.—PIERID#. This family differs essentially from the last in the inner margin of the hind-wings not being concave. It contains a number of middle-sized white or yellow butterflies, generally with black borders, and the wings are never dentated, though with angular projections in one genus. The larvee are slender, thinly covered with fine hairs, and have no protrusile fork on the neck, The pupz are all attached by the tail, and by a thread round the body. The butterflies frequent gardens, fields, and open places in or near woods. Among the foreign species the prevailing colours are also white and yellow, though some are beautifully marked on the under surface of the wings. With few exceptions, they do not greatly surpass our native species in size. GENUS I.—LEUCOPHASIA (STEPH.). White, delicately formed butterflies, with no spot in the centre of the fore-wings ; abdomen very slender, reaching beyond the hind-wings, Pupa with a projection in front, giving it a boat- shaped appearance. The few species of this genus are found in Europe and Northern Asia. *1. L. Sinapis (Linn.), (Wood White)—Wings white, fore-wings (except in variety Erysznz, Borkh.) with a rounded ash-coloured spot at the tip. Expands about 1} inches. It is found from May to August in shady woods, and its «flight is very weak. Abundant in most parts of Europe, and in Northern and Western Asia. It is very local in England, Ireland, Holland, and the Lower Rhine district generally ; and in many localities extremely rare. The larva is green, with yellow stripes on the sides; it lives in June and September on vetch and trefoil. Figured in all stages at Pl. 4, Fig. 1, a—c. (L. Duponcheli, Staud., from South France, has a triangular spot at the tip of the fore-wings, generally extending to the inner margin, and the base of the wings yellowish.) GENUS II—EUCHLOE (HUBN.). Fore-wings rounded at the tip, which is generally marked with an orange blotch in the male ; hind-wings green beneath, chequered with white or yellow, or with silvery-white streaks or spots. Antenne slender and rather short; abdomen slender. The larve feed on many cruciferous plants. Pupa boat-shaped. This genus is found throughout Europe, Asia, North Africa, and Western North America. “Orange Tips,” belonging to other genera, are numerous in Africa and in the East Indies; some of those from the East Indies, belonging to the genus Hebomoza (Hiibn.), are the largest of all the Pzeride, measuring 5 or 6 inches across the wings. 1. E. Belemia (Esp.).—White, fore-wings with a large black spot in the middle of the costa; the tip greenish-black with white spots. Under side of hind-wings and tip of fore-wings green, with silvery or (in variety G/auce, Hiibn.) with white streaks. Expands about 1} inches. Found in meadows in South Spain and North Africa, from December to May. Larva yellow, with rose-red streaks on the back and sides. 2 6 EvroPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. 2. Ausonia (Hiibn.), (Stnplonia, Freyer)—Upper side as in the last species; under side of hind-wings green, mixed with yellow in variety Hsferi (Kirb.), Ausonia (Ochs.), and spotted with white, or in variety Crameri (Butl.), Belia (Cram.), with silvery white. A double-brooded insect, found from March to June in South Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor. The typical form is found in the Alps and Altai in June and July; the others are broods of the same species, which are found on level ground, as far north as Paris. They vary from 1} to 1? inches in expanse, the spring brood, Crameri, being the smallest. The larva resembles that of Be/emia, but the streaks are blue. It passes one winter, and sometimes two, in the pupa state. 3. £. Tagis (Hiibn.).—Smaller than the last, measuring from 1 inch to 1} inches across, but greatly resembling variety Cyamerz. The under side of the hind-wings is more greyish-green, sometimes slightly washed with yellow, and the spots are white, rarely silvery, and never yellowish, nor are the nervures yellowish. Found from February to May in South France, Spain, Corsica, and South Russia. The larva, which feeds on J/éberis pinnata in June, is green, with a white stripe on each side, and a bright red one above it. * 4. E. Cardamines (Linn.), (Orange Tip).—White, fore-wings with the tip blackish, and a black spot at the end of the cell, the intermediate space bright orange in the male. Hind-wings and tip of fore-wings chequered with green and white beneath. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. The female is much scarcer and varies more in size than the male. Common throughout Europe and Western Asia from April to June. The larva is green, with a white stripe on each side; it feeds on various cruciferous plants, including the common garden rocket. The butterfly often sits with its wings raised, on the flowers of umbelliferous plants, to which the colouring of the under side perfectly corresponds. The sexes are figured at Pl. 4, Fig. 7, a, 6. 5. £. Turritis (Ochs.), from Italy, has generally been considered a variety of this; but Mr. J. Watson, who has given so much attention to the scales of butterflies, informs me that it has a different plumule. It is smaller, with the black spot of the male on the edge of the orange portion of the fore-wing, instead of distinctly within it. 6. E. Gruneri (Herr. Schaff.) differs from Cardamines in its smaller size, measuring less than 14 inches across the wings. The white ground-colour is often tinged with yellow, and the inside of the orange spot of the male is bordered by a short dusky line, sometimes broken into two spots. The under side of the hind-wings is green, with yellowish markings and distinct white spots. Inhabits Greece and Turkey. (£. Pyrothoe, Eversm., found in South Russia in April, is about the same size, but may be distinguished from any other white Ewch/oe with an orange tip by the hind-wings, which are green beneath, with large white oblong spots. It is very scarce in collections.) , 7. £. Eupheno (Esp.) resembles Cardamines above, but the male is sulphur-yellow, and the orange spot is bordered within by a black line. The female is white, with a large discoidal spot, and the tip brownish-yellow. Under side of hind-wings yellow, with three distinct green streaks, which are all connected. Expands about 1} inches. Found in April and May in South France, Spain, and Italy, where it is common in waste places. A smaller but closely-allied species (Z. Gelia, Linn.), with narrower streaks on the under side of the hind-wings, inhabits Algeria and Morocco. The larva of £. Eupheno is yellow, with a white stripe on each side, bordered above with blue, and separated from a yellow streak below it by a row of black dots. It feeds on Biscutella didyma in July. The male butterfly is figured on Pl. 4, Fig. 8. 8. E. Damone (Feisth.), which inhabits Turkey and Greece in March and April, is yellow in the male, with an orange spot, and white in the female; but may be distinguished from any other species by the under side of the hind-wings, which is mottled irregularly with green and yellow. ZEGRIS—PIERIS. 7 GENUS III.—ZEGRIS (RAMB.). Antenne very short, abdomen rather short and stout, thorax stout, very hairy; pupa with a short, obtuse spike in front, and a sort of arched tail behind. The only species is 7. Hupheme (Esp.), which is white, with a large black lunule at the end of the cell of the fore-wings, which are green or grey at the tip, and marked with an oblong orange streak, bordered with black on the inside. The hind-wings are yellow beneath, with greenish streaks, and several white spots. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. It is common in meadows from April to June in Spain, South Russia, and Asia Minor, but is always scarce in collections. Specimens from these different localities vary a little, but are probably not distinct, though they have received different names. The larva is yellow, with a white stripe and three rows of white spots on each side. It feeds on Stnapis tncana. GENUS IV.—PIERIS (SCHRANK). This genus contains the White Cabbage Butterflies, three species of which are abundant everywhere. The antenne are rather long and slender, with a distinct knob at the end, and the wings are white, with black tips and spots. The pupz are not pointed. *1. P. Daplidice (Linn.), (Bath White)—Wings white above, with a large black spot in the middle of the costa of the fore-wings, which are more or less bordered with blackish markings, enclosing distinct white spots. The markings of the under side show slightly through on the hind-wings, which have blackish marks near the edges in the female. The hind-wings are green beneath, with two rows of broad white spots beyond the middle and on the margin. It is found in spring and autumn, the butterflies of the autumn brood being the largest and commonest. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. It is common in most parts of South and Central Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, but is a great rarity in the south of England. In Germany I have usually taken it in stubble fields in autumn, and its flight is low and heavy. The larva, which is greyish-green, with yellow stripes on the back and sides, lives on cabbage, weld, &c., in June and September. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 4, Fig. 6. (P. Chloridice, Hiibn., a scarce insect found in various parts of Russia and Turkey, resembles this, but the dark markings on the hind margin are much less extensive in both sexes, and there is much more white on the hind-wings beneath.) 2. P. Callidice (Esp.)—White, the hind margins more or less bordered with black, and a black spot at the end of the discoidal cell of the fore-wings. Hind-wings green beneath, with whitish spots shaped like arrow-heads. Size of Daplidice. Found in July and August on high mountains, up to the snow-line along all the central ranges from the Pyrenees to the Himalaya. Larva deep greyish-blue, with white stripes. Feeds on Alpine Crucifere in August and September. 3. P. Krueperi (Staud.)—White, fore-wings with some black spots on the hind margin, a black spot on the costa near the tip, and a second below it, at about half the breadth of the wing. Hind-wings with a black spot on the costa. Under side of fore-wings white, yellowish at the tip, with only the two spots marked: the first is greenish, and the second black, larger than above. Under side of hind-wings dull green, with the outer third of the wing and a very large blotch near the costa paler. Expands 2 inches. It inhabits the mountains of Greece and Asia Minor, It is not a variety of the Indian P. Canidia (Sparrm.), as some writers have supposed. * 4. P. Napi (Linn.), (Green-veined White)—White, fore-wings with the tip dusky, and with one black spot in the male, and two, and a black dash on the inner margin, in the female. Hind-wings with a spot on the costa above; beneath yellowish, with very broad greenish veins. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. Common from April to August throughout Europe and Northern 8 EvroPeAN BuTTeERFLIES AND MOorHs. and Western Asia, in fields and open woods. In the Arctic regions and the Alps, a brownish variety of the fernale (Bvyonie, Hiibn.) is met with. Some writers consider that this butterfly is a survivor of the Glacial epoch, and that Bryonze represents the form of the species which was then in existence. The larva is dull green, paler on the sides. It lives on rape, &c., in June and September. The under surface of the butterfly is shown on PI. 4, Fig. 5. *s5. P. Rape (Linn.), (Small Cabbage White) —Fore-wings white, with a small brownish spot at the tip, the male with or without a black spot in the middle, and the female with two, and a dash on the inner margin. Hind-wings, above with a black spot on the costa, beneath yellowish. Expands from 1} to 2} inches. It is found throughout the year in gardens in Europe, North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia. Its reported occurrence in West Africa requires confirmation. The larva is dull green, with a yellow stripe on the back, and yellow dots on the sides. It lives on cabbages, &c., in June and September, eating into the heart of the cabbage. This insect has lately been introduced into North America, and is spreading rapidly throughout the United States and Canada. It has already become a very destructive insect; but what is more remarkable is, that a yellow variety, scarcely known in Europe, has appeared in America, and it will be very interesting to see if it will become the normal American form of the species. Small varieties of P. Rape, called Mannii (Meyer) and Ergane (Geyer), are found in South-Eastern Europe; the latter has only one black spot in the female, and the under side of the hind-wings is paler yellow than in P. Rape, the female butterfly of which is figured, with the larva, at Pl. 4, Fig. 4, a, 6. * 6. P. Brassice (Linn.), (Large Cabbage White)—White, fore-wings with the tip black, the colour extending along more than half the hind margin; the male with a black spot on the costa of the hind-wings, and the female with two on the fore-wings, and a black dash on the inner margin. Hind-wings and tips of fore-wings yellowish beneath, dusted with black. Closely resembles P. Rape, but considerably larger, generally measuring about 2} inches across, and with the dark mark at the tip of the fore-wings much larger and darker. Abounds in fields and gardens in Europe, Northern and Western Asia as far as the Himalayas, and North Africa, but does not occur in the extreme north of Europe or Asia. In the Canary Islands it is replaced by a form with very large black spots (P. Chetranthi, Hiibn.), and the intermediate variety found in Madeira is said to be identical with the North Indian variety Mepalensis (Gray). This is extremely interesting, because another butterfly, Pyvamezs Indica (Herbst.), is found only in the East Indies and the Canaries, but in’no intermediate locality. There are several broods of this butterfly throughout the year; at Gibraltar it appears as early as February. The larva is bluish-green, with yellow streaks, and lives on cabbages in June and September. The pupa is common on walls and palings, and is often surrounded by the little yellow cocoons of an ichneumon fly, which lays its eggs in the body of the larva, which hatch into grubs that feed upon it, and eventually destroy its life. The male butterfly and the larva are represented on Pl. 4, Fig. 3, a, . GENUS V.—APORIA (HUBN.). Antenne longer and thicker than in Pzeris, with the club more gradually formed ; veins of the wings very strongly marked. Pupa not pointed. *1. A. Crategi (Linn.), (Black-veined White)—Wings white, semi-transparent in the female, with black nervures. Expands from 2} to 2} inches, Abundant in most parts of Europe and Western Asia, but somewhat uncertain in appearance. Pallas saw them in such numbers in Siberia as to look like snow-flakes. It is a very local insect in the south of England and 4 nl ‘ya j Cites ae Reyes (1 S— ie T . i yet eins : ft ale: CN aaa a da F veered Py aa Oe ea" ia a, ) bP {pla De ee " as iy Gtr ae : ys Mn aadges beat Manes j + - i ; What (ao| opti ee ' ; cha) Mle a cal hes nae iy ‘le Soa COLIAS. 9 Wales, and is not known to occur in Scotland, though not unlikely to be found in the south- east of Ireland. It flies in fields and gardens from May to July; there is but a single brood in the year, which lasts a very short time, the flight being generally quite over within a month after the appearance of the first specimens. The larva is ashy grey, the back black, with two reddish-yellow stripes. It lives from autumn to May on hawthorn, sloe, and various fruit-trees, and is often very destructive to orchards on the Continent, in seasons when it happens to be abundant. The insect is figured in all stages at Pl. 4, Fig. 2, a—c. GENUS VI.—COLIAS (FABR.). Middle-sized yellow butterflies, with rounded wings, the black borders of which are often veined or spotted with yellow. Fore-wings with a black spot in the middle on both sides, hind-wings beneath with a whitish central spot surrounded with darker, which has often a small dark spot close by it, forming together a figure of 8. Antenne with a gradually thickened club. The larve feed on clover and other leguminous plants, and the pupe have a prominent ridge on the back. E 1. C. Paleno (Linn.).—Wings sulphur-yellow in the male, and greenish-white in the female, with a broad unspotted black border; the fringes rose-colour. Under side greenish, dusted with black on the hind-wings, which have a small white spot in the middle, surrounded with brown. Expands from 14 to 1} inches. This species, as well as the closely-allied North American C. Philodiie (Godt.), have been erroneously reputed British. C. Paleno is found on moors and mountains in Northern and Central Europe, and Siberia, but is very local, and appears to be absent from South Europe, and the British Islands, and the adjacent parts of the Continent. Its reputed occurrence in Greenland, Iceland, North America, and the Neilgherries requires confirmation, as other species may have been mistaken for it. The northern varieties of Paleno are paler, with a narrower border, and like most Polar Co/zas, of a darker green beneath. The butterfly is found in June and July; and the larva, which is green, with yellow stripes and black dots, feeds on Vaccinium uliginosum in Germany, in May, and on Coronilla in Sweden, in August and September. Male figured Pl. 5, Fig. 1. (C. Wastes, Boisd., variety Werdandz, Zett., is smaller than this, with a narrower and paler black border, composed of confluent spots, which sometimes does not extend beyond the middle of the hind-wings. It is found in Lapland.) 2. C. Phicomone (Esp.).—Wings greenish-yellow above in the male, and greenish-white in the female, with the nervures dusted with blackish, and an ill-defined blackish border, spotted with yellow. Fore-wings with a black spot in the middle, and hind-wings with a yellow one. Hind- wings beneath with a whitish spot in the middle, which is broadly surrounded with rose-colour, and is sometimes double. The fringes of all the wings are rose-colour. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. Common in the Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpathians in July and August, at an elevation of 3,000 fee: and upwards. The larva is dark green, with a white stripe on the sides, spotted with yeilow beneath.. It lives on vetches in May and June. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 5, Fig. 2. * 3. C. Hyale (Linn.), (Pale Clouded Vellow).—Wings sulphur-yellow in the male, and greenish- white in the female, with a blackish-brown border spotted with pale yellow, which does not extend fully to the hinder angle of the fore-wings, and is much narrower on the hind-wings. A black spot in the middle of the fore-wings, and a yellow spot on the hind-wings, the latter replaced beaeath by a double silvery spot, surrounded by two brown lines. Expands from 14 to 2 inches. This butterfly used to be a great rarity in the south-eastern counties of England, but like C. Edusa it is now extending its range all over the British Isles, along with the increasing cultivation of 3 10 EvrovEAN BorreRrlies AND Morus. the various kinds of clover on which the larva feeds. It is double-brooded, but is commonest in Central Europe in autumn, though in the south it may be found throughout the year, and has been noticed in Malta as early as March. It is one of the most widely distributed of all butterflies, inhabiting the whole of Central and Southern Europe and Asia, as far as Japan and the Himalayas, and South as well as North Africa. It is generally one of the very commonest autumn butterflies in fields and meadows on the Continent, and its flight is much less rapid than that of Edusa. The larva, which is green, with yellow longitudinal stripes, may be found in June and July. It is figured, with the butterfly, at Pl. 5, Fig. 3, @, 6. (C. Erate, Esp., found in South Russia and India, is yellow, with a broad black border to all the wings, which is spotted with yellow in the female.) 4. C. Chrysotheme (Esp.).—Wings yellow above, suffused with orange, with a blackish-brown border, veined with yellow in the male, and spotted with pale yellow in the female. Hind-wings with a reddish-yellow central spot, represented beneath by a double silvery-white spot, surrounded by two brown lines. Extremely local in Austria in July and August. It also inhabits some parts of Western Asia. The C. Chrysotheme and Myrmidone of British authors are only varieties of C. Edusa. * 5. C. Edusa (Fabr.), (Clouded Yellow)—Uniform bright orange, with a broad black border, veined with yellow in the male, and spotted with pale yellow in the female. Hind-wings with a reddish-yellow central spot, represented below by a double silvery-white one, surrounded by two brown lines. C. Helice (Hiibn.) is a white form of the female, a variation which is liable to occur in the females of most of the orange species of Co/ias. Expands from 1} to 2} inches. Its range is co-extensive with that of C. Hya/e, except that it is replaced in South Africa by the closely- allied C. Electra (Linn.). It may be found throughout the year on the Continent, even as early as February at Malta, but is rarely seen in England before August. It is a much commoner insect than C. Hyale in the British Islands, though rarer on the Continent, and is also somewhat irregular in appearance. It was particularly abundant in Britain in 1877, but by no means so elsewhere. The larva is dark green, with a white stripe spotted with yellow on the sides. It is found in June and July on several leguminous plants. The butterfly is found in clover-fields, and its flight, though low, is more rapid than that of almost any other butterfly, so that it is no easy matter to capture it except when resting on a flower. Both sexes are represented, with the larva and pupa, at Pl. 5, Fig. 4,a—d. (C. Hecla, Lef., found in Iceland, Lapland, and Greenland, as far north as the Polar expeditions have penetrated, resembles this, but is smaller and duller in colouring, with a long and narrow black spot, instead of a round one, on the fore-wings, and with the hind- wings very dark green beneath. C. Aurorina, Herr. Schaff., var. Heldreicht, Staud., found in the mountains of Greece, is another species closely allied to C. Edusa, but much larger, and the male is magnificently shot with purple.) 6. C. Myrmidone (Esp.).—Closely resembles C. Edusa, but the black border is rather narrower, rarely with orange veins in the male, and the ground colour of the wings above is deep reddish- orange, often suffused with purple. Expands from 14 to 1} inches. Ranges from Eastern Germany to the Altai and Himalayas. It is found in meadows in summer and autumn. The larva is green, with a dark-green streak on the back, and light-green streaks on the sides. It is found in March, April, and October, on Cytisus biflorus. GENUS VII.—GONEPTERYX (LEACH). Wings with no black border, but each with a short broad projection. Antenne short and thick, body very hairy. The common Brimstone Butterfly (*G. Riamni, Linn.) is one of the most = & ee | a VANESSA. II conspicuous of our native insects, and as it hybernates and re-appears very early in the spring, it may be found nearly all the year round, and is nearly always in fine condition. Expands from Ii to 1} inches; the male is sulphur-yellow, and the female whitish-yellow, and there is a small orange spot in the middle of each wing. The butterfly abounds in and near woods in most parts of Europe, Asia, and North Africa; but though common in the south of England, it is unknown in Scotland, and the only certain locality in Ireland is Killarney, though it is also said to have been taken occasionally in Wicklow. The larva is dull green, paler on the sides, with a dull white stripe on each side. It feeds on buckthorn from May to July. The male butterfly is represented at Pl. 4, Fig. 9. G. Cleopatra (Linn.), found on the shores of the Mediterranean, has the wings rather less angulated, and the fore-wings of the male are orange, except on the margins. G. Cleobule (Hiibn.), found in the Canaries, has the whole of the fore-wings orange. Some writers consider G. Cleopatra to be a variety of G. Rhamni, but Rambur states that they present anatomical differences. FAMILY III.—NYMPHALID£. Middle-sized or large butterflies, generally brightly coloured. The fore-legs of the male are quite rudimentary, consisting of a roughly-haired paw of apparently only two joints; in the female the separate portions are present, but small. The larve are spiny, or have fleshy warts covered with hair, or horns on the head. The pupe are suspended by the tail. GENUS I.—VANESSA (FABR.). Brightly-coloured butterflies, with broad, dentated wings, nearly always with angular projections. Larve warty, with long, branching spines; the second segment without spines. Some species have spines on the head also. Some are gregarious, and others solitary, sometimes living between leaves which they have spun together. The pupe have a double point on the head, and a nose-shaped projection on the back. They are generally metallic-spotted. The butterflies are found in gardens, fields, and woods, and are very fond of sucking the honey from thistles and other tall flowers. They may also be observed at fruit, or sucking the sap oozing from the trunks of trees. Most of the species are very common; and as they are generally double-brooded, and the second brood passes the winter in the perfect state, re-appearing on the first fine days of early spring, they may be found almost throughout the year. There is no month during which V. Urtice; for instance, may not be occasionally observed on the wing, even in the south of England. *1. V. Atalanta (Linn.), (Red. Admiral) —Velvety black, with an orange-red band across the fore-wings and bordering the hind-wings; in the latter it contains a row of black dots, and a larger blue spot at the anal angle. The tip of the fore-wings is spotted with white, and is bordered on the outside by a bluish line; the fringes of all the wings are also spotted with white. Expands from 2 to 3 inches. Common in gardens throughout Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. Larva pale yellow, brown, or black, with a dark-grey head, a yellow stripe on the sides, and yellow spines. Lives on nettles, between leaves which it has spun together, in May and June. It is single-brooded, and the butterfly is rarely seen till summer and autumn in Northern Europe. It is figured on Pl. 6, Fig. 1. (V. /udica, Herbst., which has a broader, paler, and indented orange stripe on the fore-wings, is found in the East Indies and the Canaries, and has lately been introduced into Spain and Portugal.) 12 EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. * 2. V. Antiopa (Linn.), (Camberwell Beauty).—Chocolate-brown, with a broad white or yellow border, and two spots of the same colour on the costa of the fore-wings. Within the border is a row of blue spots. Under side black, with white borders. Expands from 24 to 3} inches, Common during most of the year in the greater part of Europe, North Africa, Northern and Western Asia, and North America; the last-named specimens are larger and darker than European. It is absent from the steppes of South Russia, and is very scarce and uncertain in appearance in Britain, and in some of the adjacent parts of Europe. The yellow variety prevails on the Continent, but is scarcely ever found in Britain. The larva is black, with black spines and large rust-coloured spots on the back. The legs are of the same colour. It lives gregariously on birch and willow from June to August. Figured in all stages, Pl. 6, Fig. 2, a—c. * 3. V. Zo (Linn.), (Peacock Butterfly).—Dark red, with brown borders. Fore-wings with two black blotches on the costa, separated by a small yellow spot. Outside these markings and the border the wing is varied with yellow, black, blue, red and white; below these markings are two white spots. Hind-wings with a very large black spot in a buff ring at the front angle, marked with several blue spots. A large black crescent-shaped spot on the front edge of the wing, just within the buff ring. Common throughout the year in Central and Southern Europe, and Western and Northern Asia as far as Japan. In Northern Europe (including Scotland) it is rare ; and it is said to be absent from Andalusia and Sicily. Expands from 2 to 3 inches. The larva is black, dotted with white, and lives gregariously on nettle from June to August. The insect is represented in all stages on Pl. 6, Fig. 3, a—c. * 4. V. Urtice (Linn.), (Small Tortoiseshell).—Reddish-orange, hind margin black, spotted with blue on all the wings. Three large black spots divided by yellow ones, and with a smaller white spot beyond the outermost, on the costa of the fore-wings. Another large black spot near their inner margin, and two smaller ones near the middle of the wing. Hind-wings broadly black at the base. Expands from 1} to 2} inches. (V. /cinusa, Bon., from Corsica and Sardinia, wants the small ‘black spots on the fore-wings. V. Caschmirensis, Koll., from. North India, is larger and darker.) V. Urtice is common everywhere throughout Europe and Western Asia in gardens and weedy places. The larva, which lives gregariously on nettles in June and July, is striped with blackish and dull brownish-yellow. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 6, Fig. 4. 5. V. Xanthomelas (Esp.).—Very like V. Polychloros, but redder, the wings shorter and more dentated; the first black spot on the costa is divided into two round spots, and there is a whiter spot outside the last; the legs, too, are pale yellow, whereas they are brownish in Polychloros. Expands from 2 to 24 inches. A local insect in Eastern Europe, generally found near rivers, as the larva, which is bluish-black, dotted with white, with whitish stripes on the back and sides, and black spines, lives gregariously from May to July on smooth-leaved willows. The butterfly may be found from July to September, and is figured at PI. 7, Fig. 1. *6. V. Polychloros (Linn.), (Large Tortotseshell)—Deep fulvous, the hind margins rather broadly black, spotted with blue on the hind-wings only. Fore-wings with three black blotches on the costa, separated by pale yellow spots; three black spots in the centre of each wing, and a fourth near the hinder angle. Hind-wings with a large black blotch in the centre of the costa, bounded exteriorly by a pale yellow blotch. Expands from 1} to 2} inches. Common during most of the year in Southern and Central Europe, including the south of England, and in Northern and Western Asia. The larva is greyish-brown, with dull, rusty-yellow stripes on the back and sides, and rusty-yellow spines. It feeds gregariously on elms and cherry-tregs from May to August, and is sometimes sufficiently abundant to be considered an injurious insect on the Continent. The butterfly is represented at Pl. 6, Fig. 5. Lo oe VANESSA. ite 7. V. V-album (W. V.).—Markings similar to those of Polychloros, but the ground colour deeper, and no blue lunules on the borders of the wings. The tip of the fore-wings is black, with a large white triangular spot on the inside. A large white blotch on the costa of the hind- wings, and a row of yellowish spots within their black hind margin. On the under side they are marked with a small white spot in the middle. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. Very local in Eastern Germany and Russia in September. The larva is brown, with ochre-yellow stripes on the back and sides, and yellow spines tipped with black on the head and body. It lives gregariously on aspen in July and August. * 8. V. C-album (Linn.), (Comma)—Deep fulvous, with dark-brown spots and borders, the latter marked with yellow lunules. Wings beneath brown, more or less varied with greenish, yellowish, and whitish; hind-wings with a white mark like a C in the middle. All the wings are very strongly dentated, and the longest projection is on the middle of the border of the hind-wings. The inner margin of the fore-wings is concave. Expands from 1} to 2} inches. Common during most of the summer in Europe, and in Northern and Western Asia, along hedges and the borders of woods. It is a local insect in England and Wales. Many species closely allied to this are found in North America. The larva is brown and spiny, and the back is reddish, yellow in front, and white behind. There are two short spines on the head. It is a solitary feeder, and lives in June and July on elm, hop, gooseberry, currant, &c. The insect is represented in all stages at Pl. 7, Fig. 2, a—d. 9. V. Egea (Cram.), Triangulum (Fabr.)—Very similar to the last species, but paler, and with smaller dark spots. The wings are less strongly dentated, and the inner margin of the fore-wings is only slightly concave. The under side of the hind-wings is varied with yellow and violet-grey, and has a small white mark in the middle shaped like an acute angle. Expands from I} to 2 inches. Frequents gardens and sunny walls in Europe, south of the Alps; it is also found in Asia Minor and Persia. It appears in April, May, June, and September. The larva is pale blue, with black and yellow transverse stripes on the second segment. The other segments have strong spines. It lives on Parietaria officinalis. * 10. V. Cardui (Linn.), (Painted Lady)—Brick-red, with black spots. Fore-wings with the tip and hind margin broadly black, the tip spotted with white. Under side of hind-wings yellowish-grey, marbled with different colours; a large whitish triangular spot in the centre. A bluish line on the border hardly divided into spots, within which are four black eye- spots in pale rings. Hind margin of fore-wings slightly excavated; that of hind-wings rounded and dentated. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. Common throughout the summer over nearly the whole world, except South America. Frequents waste and weedy places; I have often met with it on the tops of hills, in company with V. A7za/anta. Larva dark grey, with yellow stripes on the back and sides, and with yellow spots; the spines yellow or grey. It lives singly on nettles, thistles, &c., the leaves of which it spins together, and may be found, like the perfect insect, throughout the summer. Figured in all stages on Pl. 7, Fig. 3, a—a. (V. Tonia, Eversm., placed here in my “Manual of European Butterflies,’ is omitted, as it is not a European species, but confined to Asia Minor. V. Vérginiensis, Drury, is sometimes included among the British butterflies under the name of V’. Huntera, Fabr., or the Scarce Painted Lady. It is very like V. Carduz, but the black markings are less extensive, and the under side of the hind-wings is reticulated with brown and white, and there are two large eye-spots near the hind margin. It is a common insect in North America, and as it has become naturalised in the Azores and Madeira, and has several times been taken in England, it is not unlikely to become ultimately established in the latter country. The larva feeds on Guaphalium obtusifolium.) 4 14 Evropean Burrerryies AND Mores. 11. V. Levana (Linn.)—The smallest species of the genus, expanding under 1} inches. The hind margins of the fore-wings have two slight projections, and the hind-wings have a projection in the middle, making the outer margin nearly rectangular. The first brood, found in April and May, is fulvous with black spots; there are three white spots near the tip of the fore-wings, and rows of black spots across all the wings. Under side brownish-red, mixed with violet and pale yellow, with pale yellow veins and transverse lines. The second brood (lV. Prorsa, Linn.), found in July and August, is black, with a red marginal line, and a white transverse band, interrupted on the fore-wings. The under side is similar to V. Levana, but redder; and the yellow markings are replaced by white. Intermediate varieties (V. Porima, Ochs.) are also occasionally met with. It has been erroneously reputed British, and is local in damp woods throughout Southern and Central Europe, and Northern and Western Asia. Larva black, sometimes striped with brown, with black or brown spines, and with spines on the head. Lives gregariously on nettles in June and September. V. Prorsa is figured, with its larva, at Pl: 7, Fig. 4, a, & GENUS II.—MELITA (FABR.). These butterflies are rather below the middle size, and their wings may be described either as fulvous above, with rows of black spots, or blackish, with rows of fulvous spots ; beneath, the fore-wings are paler, with fewer dark markings, and the hind-wings are brown or red, with three pale bands edged with black; of which those at the base and on the border are often broken into spots. The larve are thickly covered with spiny tubercles, and live in autumn under a common web. After hybernation they disperse, and may be found under dry leaves. The pupe are thick, and obtuse in front. The butterflies are found in summer in flowery places and meadows near ’ woods. They are generally called “ Fritillaries” in England, and differ from the “ Fritillaries” of the following genus by the absence of silvery markings on the under surface of the wings. This genus is found throughout Europe, North Africa, the greater part of Asia, and the west of North America. In other parts of North and South America it is represented by the allied genus Phyciodes, The species allied to 17. A¢halia form the most difficult group of this genus, and are not yet perfectly understood. 1. MW. Maturna (Linn.)—Dark brown, with rows of reddish spots, with whitish ones between them. Hind-wings beneath orange, with four spots near the base and another outside them, a central band divided by a black line, and a row of small crescents before the border, all pale yellow ; no black spots between the border and the central band. Expands from 1} to 1? inches. Erroneously reputed British. It is found throughout Central Europe and Asia, from Paris to the Altai, but is always very local. It is found in May and June in open glades and flowery slopes in the neighbourhood of woods. Larva black, with black spines and rows of yellow spots, the uppermost divided by a black line. Lives on young ash-trees, snowball-tree, sallow, plantain, and scabious in May. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 8, Fig. 1. 2. M. Cynthia (W. V.).—Wings of the male black, spotted and banded with white; a row of red spots near the border of the hind-wings, and one or two red spots on the fore-wings. Female brownish-yellow, with black transverse stripes ; under side of hind-wings as in J/a¢urna, but much duller, and there is a row of black dots before the marginal lunules. Expands about 1} inches. Common in Alpine meadows in July and August, generally above the tree limit. The larva is black, with yellow rings, and a row of yellow streaks on the sides; spines black. It feeds on plantain and violet in June. The male butterfly is represented at Pl. 8, Fig. 2. (JZ. /duna, f MELITAA. 15 Dalm., found in Lapland, differs from the male of Cyzthza in having more and paler spots on the wings, arranged in rows, and no white spots at the base of the fore-wings above.) * 3. M. Aurinia (Rott.), (Greasy Fritillary).—Fulvous, tesselated with black, and spotted with pale yellow. The outer fulvous band of the hind-wings contains a row of black dots. Hind- wings beneath pale brick-red, rather shining, with spots at the base, as in J/aturna, a central band, edged on both sides with a black line, and marginal spots all pale yellow; before the last is a row of black spots in pale rings. Expands from 1% to 1} inches. It is local in Britain, frequenting marshy meadows from May to August. It is common in most parts of the Continent, North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia. The local varieties of several species of JZelitea are very numerous; among those of J. Aurinia we may notice the Alpine form, JZ. WWerope (De Prunn.), which is smaller, paler above, and dusted with blackish ; and the South European varieties, M. Provincialis (Dup.), larger and more suffused; and JZ. Desfontainii (Godt.), which is dark reddish-brown. The larva of JZ. Aurinia is black, with rows of white dots; spines yellowish, black at the tips; head black; legs reddish-brown. Feeds on scabious, plantain, speedwell, foxglove, &c., in April, May, July, and September. Figured in all stages at Pl. 8, Fig. 3, a—d. (MZ. Betica, Ramb., from Andalusia, resembles JZ. Aurinia, var. Desfontainii, but the outer yellow band of the under side of the fore-wings is edged with black dashes.) 4. M. Didyma (Esp.)—Reddish fulvous, with marginal and central rows of black spots, and others more scattered. Hind-wings beneath sulphur-yellow, with large black spots, and two reddish-yellow bands. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Very variable; locally abundant in Central and Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western and Central Asia. A specimen was recently taken in Scotland. Frequents open places near woods, especially on a dry soil. I have found it on the high flowery slopes overhanging the Rhine, above the vineyards. It flies from June to August, and thus later in the summer than most of the smaller Fritillaries. Larva bluish, dotted with white, with black transverse bands, and a yellowish line on each side. Back and sides whitish-yellow ; head and spines brownish-yellow. Lives on plantain, &c., from April to June. The butterfly is represented at Pl. 8, Fig. 4. 5. WZ. Trivia (W. V.).—Very similar to 17. Didyma, but generally rather smaller, and duller in colour; the black spots before the margin are more distinctly crescent-shaped, and are connected with each other as well as with the margin, thus enclosing marginal fulvous lunules. The bands on the under side of the hind-wings are of a paler reddish-yellow, and the black spots on: their edges run more together. Found from June to August in Eastern Europe and Northern and Western Asia. Larva ashy-grey, with bluish spots, a blackish stripe on the back, pale yellow spines, white at the tips, head reddish-brown, and legs whitish. Feeds on different species of mullein in June. *6. MZ. Cinxia (Linn.), (Glanville Fritillary).—Wings fulvous, with several rows of black lines, the last row of fulvous spots but one dotted with black on the hind-wings. Hind-wings beneath straw-colour, with two rust-coloured bands edged with black, and with black spots in the outer band and before the margin. Expands from 14 to 2 inches. Common in meadows in May and June throughout the greater part of Europe, and Western and Northern Asia. It is an extremely local insect in England, and is met with most commonly on waste ground near the coast, in the Isle of Wight. Larva black, dotted with white, the head and feet reddish, and the spines short and black. Feeds on plantain, speedwell, &c., in April, May, August, and September. Figured in all stages at Pl. 8, Fig. 5, a—d@. (MM. Arduinna, Esp., found in South-Eastern Europe, resembles J7. Cinxia, but there are several yellow bands on the under side of the hind-wings, much broader than in C?zrza, which always enclose black dots.) 16 EvrorPeaAn BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. 7. M. Phebe (Knoch.).—Wings above fulvous, more broadly reticulated with black than in M. Cinxia, the under side of the hind-wings greenish-white, with reddish bands bordered with black, behind which are sharply-defined black crescents and rust-coloured spots. There are also narrow and less deeply indented black crescents on the border. The variety 2therie (Htibn.) is more uniform in colour, and less reticulated. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. It is found from May to August in Central and Southern Europe, North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia, but is a local insect. The larva is blackish-grey, dotted with white, and with the sides whitish. There are three blackish lines on the back, and the spines are reddish-yellow ; those on the sides are whitish. It feeds on Centaurea jacea from May to September. 8. M. Dictynna (Esp.).—Wings blackish-brown, with rows of fulvous spots, but smaller and fewer than in any other species, especially on the hind-wings, which are cinnamon-brown beneath, with the spots at the base, the middle band (which is divided into spots by dark lines) and the crescent-shaped spots on the hind margin straw-colour ; a row of black dots is placed before the double row of pale marginal crescents. Expands from 14 to 1} inches. Common in June and July in meadows in many parts of Central and Southern Europe and Western Asia, though somewhat local. Larva dark grey, dotted with pale blue; a black line on the back. Spines short, rust-coloured, or sulphur-yellow. Head black, marked with blue. Feeds on speedwell in May and June. The butterfly is figured at PI. 8, Fig. 6. * 9, MW. Athalia (Esp.), (Pearl-bordered Likeness Fritillary).—Blackish-brown, with rows of fulvous spots; under side of the hind-wings yellowish-brown, with the spots at the base, the broad central band (which is divided by a black line), and a row of crescents before the border, as well as the space behind, pale yellow ; before the crescents are black arches filled with brownish- red. The palpi are pale yellow, and only occasionally reddish at the tips. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. It is perhaps the commonest species of the genus, frequenting heaths and meadows throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia from May to August. It is a very local insect in the south of England and Ireland, but is abundant wherever it occurs. Larva black, dotted with white, with pale brown spines. Feeds on plantain, &c., in May and September. The insect is figured in all stages at Pl. 8, Fig. 7, a—c. 10. MW. Britomartis (Assm.).—Resembles Athalia, but the ground colour of the under side of the hind-wings is darker rust-brown, and the central band is darker yellow before the dividing line than behind. The essential distinctions are that the border is brownish-yellow as far as the spots, and considerably darker than these, and that the spots at the base and those in the band opposite are shining whitish. Palpi as in Atha/ia. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Found in May and June from Eastern Germany to the Altai, but is either very local, or has been overlooked from its resemblance to A¢halia. Larva pearly white, with rusty-yellow spots, and white spines ; head black. Feeds on toadflax, speedwell, &c., in May. 11. MZ. Aurelia (Nick)—Also very similar to JZ. Athalia, but generally smaller, with the under side of the hind-wings more brownish, and the inside of the central band rather darker than the outside. Most easily recognised by the palpi, which are reddish-yellow on the outer side, and pale yellow at the base only. Found in Eastern Germany in August. Larva black, dotted with white, with small pale yellow spots on the sides, and black spines with whitish hairs. Feeds on Melampyrum in June. 12. M. Parthenie (Borkh.).—Smaller than 17. Azhalia, the upper side is not so black, and therefore appears fulvous, with narrow blackish-brown transverse lines. The third row of fulvous spots from the border is much broader than in A/¢halia, especially towards the front edge of the hind-wings; and the separate spots between the nervures are at least twice as long as oe i Wevek ie ind ‘i ARGYNNES. 17 broad; under side of the hind-wings and the palpi as in A¢halia. Expands rather less than 1} inches. The Alpine variety, Varia (Bisch.), is smaller. The upper side of the male most -resembles Parthenie, and that of the female Az¢dala, and is dusted with black, especially on the hird-wings. On the under side of the hind-wings, the spots at the base, and the middle band behind the dividing line are white. Local in Central and Southern Europe, and found in meadows from May to August. The larva is black, with very small white dots, some fine white hairs, and a series of indistinct yellow blotches on the sides. It feeds on plan- tain. (JZ. Dezone, Gey., a scarce species found in the south of France and Spain, closely resembles J7. Parthenie above, but the black lines are more numerous and distinct, and it is more fulvous at the base of all the wings. On the under side of the hind-wings it is ‘more like J/7. A¢halia, but paler, and the reddish bands are narrower. The larva feeds on Linaria.) 13. J. Asteria (Freyer)—The smallest species of the genus, not measuring more than an inch across the wings. Upper side as in J/. Athalia, but much dusted with blackish ; the rows of spots in the female are very pale. The best distinction is that the pale marginal spots on the under side of the hind-wings stand upon the hind margin itself, without being separated from it by any black line, as is the case in the other species. A scarce and local insect, inhabiting the high Alps of Eastern Switzerland and Austria in July and August. GENUS III—ARGYNNIS (FABR.). ‘Large or middle-sized butterflies, upper side fulvous with the following black markings : some transverse stripes in the discoidal cell, a curved row of connected and generally more angular spots on the middle, beyond which is a row of rounder spots, and another series of spots on the border, often hatchet-shaped. Fore-wings beneath rather paler and with duller markings than above; hind-wings beneath with some pale yellow spots at the base, and a broad band of the same colour before the middle; behind this is generally a paler transverse stripe, or else a series of larger and paler spots; then follow a series of black dots, or small spots with pale centres, and a series of pale lunules on the margin. The pale spots are generally more or less silvery, and are replaced in some of the larger species by silvery streaks. The larve are cylindrical, and are furnished with six rows of hairy spines ; they generally pass the winter as larva, and do not assume the pupa state till May. Most of them feed on violets, especially the dog-violet and the wild pansy. They may be found in spring on their food-plants, or under fallen leaves. The pupz are angular, with a hollow on the back. The butterflies frequent meadows, heaths, and open woods, and are fond of settling on flowers. The smaller species are double-brooded, and fly in spring and autumn; the larger ones are single-brooded, and appear in summer; the latter have a very strong flight. As the upper side is very similar in most species, we have given a general description above, and_ shall therefore in most cases confine ourselves to noticing the differences of the under surface of the hind-wings. The genus Argynnis is found throughout Europe, Asia, North ‘Africa, and North America; perhaps the finest species is A. Childreni (Gray), from the Himalayas, in which the whole surface of the under side is covered with a network of broad silver stripes. Several of the smaller species are circumpolar, and have been found as far north as our explorers have yet penetrated. 1. A. Aphirape (Hiibn.). lunules on all the wings. Hind-wings beneath reddish-yellow, varied with straw-colour on the 5 Fulvous, reticulated with black ; a row of spots near the marginal, 18 EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. outer half; the middle band, a row of spots in black rings, and a series of triangular marginal spots, straw-colour or whitish, with a faint silvery lustre in the female. The northern variety, A. Ossianus (Herbst.), is smaller, darker above, and with white or silvery spots below. A, Aphirape expands about 13 inches, and is found in marshy meadows about the end of June in Central Europe and Western Asia, but is always very local. A. Ossianus is found in Northern Europe and Asia. The larva of Aphirape is silvery grey, with paler lines on the back, a white streak on the sides, and short whitish spines. It feeds on Polygonum bistorta and marsh violet. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 8, Fig. 8, a, 0. *2. A. Selene (W. V.), (Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary)—Under side of hind-wings rust- colour, varied with straw-colour beyond the middle. There is a row of silvery and straw- coloured spots at the base; one in the centre of the wings, beyond this a narrower one,’ of which only the ends are distinct, and outside this a marginal row of triangular silvery spots. Between this and the incomplete band is a row of small black spots, and there is a larger one, edged with yellow, between the large silver spot in the middle of the broad central band and the base. Expands from 14 to 1} inches. It is common in open woods in spring and autumn throughout Europe, except in the extreme south, and is also found in Northern and Western Asia. The Lapland variety, He/a (Staud.), is smaller and darker above. The larva is black, with a whitish stripe on the back divided with black, and short pale brown spines. There are also two slender black spines on the head, which are not branching. It lives on dog-violet in June and September. 3. A. Selenis (Eversm.).—Very similar to A. Se/ene, but the darker portions of the under side of the hind-wings are light red instead of rust-colour. There are four rows of silvery spots across the wings, the two inner rows mixed with straw-coloured spots. The black spot near the base is also surrounded with silvery. The under side of the fore-wings has also a marginal row of silvery spots, not seen in any allied species. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Inhabits the south of Russia and Siberia. * 4. A. Euphrosyne (Linn.), (Pearl-bordered Fritillary).—A\so very like Selene, but the darker portion of the under side of the hind-wings is brick-red, and the only silvery spots except the marginal ones are one large one in the middle of the central band and one or two smaller ones at the base; the black spot between these is also bordered with silver. The Lapland variety, A. Fingal (Herbst.), has darker spots on the upper surface than the type, which are often united to form bands. In size, habits, times of appearance, and distribution in Europe and Asia, it agrees almost entirely with Se/ene; but, except that it occurs in mountainous countries at a greater elevation than the latter, is perhaps the scarcer insect of the two. The larva is black, with a bluish-white stripe on the sides, and short black or yellow spines. It lives on violets in April, June, and September. 5. A. Dia (Linn.), (Weaver's Fritillary)—Al\so resembles Se/ene, but the darker portion of the under side of the hind-wings is purplish, and the interrupted spots are replaced by a violet streak ; there are two basal rows of silvery and yellow spots, as in Se/exe, and the next row is still more rudimentary ; and the middle spot of the row of black spots, as well as that nearer the base, has a silvery centre. The black spots of the upper side of the wings are also larger than in the allied species, although Ya is generally smaller, rarely measuring as much as 1} inches in expanse. It is common in woods in spring and autumn throughout Central and Southern Europe and Western Asia, and has also been captured several times in the south of England, though not yet regularly placed on our lists as a British species. Larva dark grey, with a whitish streak on the back divided with black, near which are black spots; a double A RGYNNIS. 19 rust-coloured line on the sidés; and yellow spines, whitish at the tips. Found from April to September on violets. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 9, Fig. 1. 6. A. Amathusia (Esp.).—The under side of the hind-wings is similar to A. Dia, but most of the silvery spots are replaced with yellow, and there is no yellow spot in a black ring towards the base. The marginal line is double, and the marginal spots are shaped like large black arrow- heads, filled with silvery spots behind. The pale central band is composed of whitish spots, dusted with brown, and irregularly dentated ; the next band is replaced by a violet streak, with a faint silvery lustre; and the outer round spots are dark brown. Expands from 1} to 1? inches, Found throughout the Alpine ranges, at a moderate elevation, in June and July; also in the plains throughout Russia, and the adjacent parts of Eastern Europe. Larva blackish, with darker stripes on the back and sides, and yellow spines, longest on the second segment. — Lives in May on Polygonum bistorta. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 9, Fig. 2. (A. Chariclea, Schneid., from Lapland, Greenland, and Labrador, resembles A. Amathusia, but the dull yellow of the central band and marginal spots is replaced with silvery white. A. Polaris, Boisd., another Polar species, has the under side of the hind-wings ferruginous brown, with white spots and transverse fascia, and marginal lunules in the form of a T. There is a milk-white spot towards the base. dA. Freya, Thunb., is a commoner and more widely-distributed circumpolar species, which differs from Po/aris by the dull reddish-brown colour of the under side of the hind-wings. The spot near the base is white, with a black pupil; and the marginal and central rows of spots are whitish. These three species are always brought from Greenland by our Polar expeditions; and as they also occur in Lapland and Labrador, are probably to be found in Iceland. Some of them have indéed been recorded from that country; but although about six species of butterflies in all are said by various writers to have been collected there, naturalists who have recently visited Iceland have met with various moths, but have seen no butterflies; and it is beginning to be seriously doubted whether any species of butterfly is really indigenous to the island.) 7. A. Thore (Hiibn.).—Inner margin of the fore-wings and the basal half of the hind-wings blackish above; hind-wings beneath brownish-yellow, with the yellow spots at the base very small ; the central band is also pale yellow, and does not extend quite across the wing; the next is represented by an ill-defined violet-grey line, and the small and inconspicuous marginal spots are of the same colour. The round spots are brown, with obscure pale centres. It expands about 14 inches, and is a local and somewhat scarce insect found in Alpine meadows in Switzerland, &c., from May to July. The paler variety, Borealis (Staud.), inhabits Scandinavia and Northern Asia. (Another circumpolar Argynnis, A. Frigga, Thunb. is very similar to this, but has yellowish or silvery spots at the base of the hind-wings beneath, and a band of yellow or silvery spots across the middle. There are no traces of an outer pale-band, though there is a row of brown spots with whitish centres beyond the central band.) 8. A. Pales (Linn.).—Hind-wings beneath pale yellow, varied with rust-colour, and often with greenish. Some spots at the base, and in the middle band, silvery, the marginal spots and the intermediate interrupted stripe also silvery. There are two forms of this insect, which used to be considered distinct species. The true Pa/es is paler above, with finer black markings; the hind- wings are somewhat angulated, and are more varied with rusty yellow. There is a female variety of this, A. /szs (Hiibn.), in which the upper side is dusted with blackish, and the under side of the hind-wings is dusted with greenish. In the second form, Arsé/ache (Schneid.), the upper side is brighter coloured, with brosider black markings, which often run together. The border of the hind- wings is rounded, and the ander side is conspicuously mixed with rust-red. The northern variety, . 20 EvroPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. Lapponica (Staud.), is intermediate between these. Expands from r} to 14 inches. - This butterfly inhabits damp mountain meadows and moors. /a/es is confined in Southern Europe to the Alpine ranges; but is also found in the plains of the north of Europe and Asia. Arszlache is found at a lower elevation, and is local in Germany, Switzerland, Northern Europe, and Northern and Western Asia. The butterfly appears in July and August; and the larva, which is brownish- grey, with a sulphur-coloured streak on the back intersected with a fine line, and has black warts and short flesh-coloured spines, feeds on Vola montana in early summer. 9. A. Hecate (W.V.).—Hind-wings beneath brownish-yellow, with pale yellow basal and central bands; no marginal lunules, and the intermediate band obscured, but with two rows of black spots on a pale ground before the hind margin. Expands 14 inches. It is found in June and July in Southern and South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia, frequenting meadows in hilly districts. 10. A. Daphne (W. V.).—Hind-wings beneath greenish-yellow, varied with violet-red towards the margins. There is no silver, but the middle band is followed by a row of dusky spots with pale centres, between which and the hind margin is another row of obscure dusky marks. The upper side has separate square black marginal spots, placed obliquely on the nervures. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. Another somewhat scarce and local insect, found in June and July in Southern and Eastern Europe and Western Asia. The larva, which feeds on violets and rasp- berries in May, is blackish-brown, with dark yellow spines, and yellow stripes on the back and sides, that on the back divided by a dusky line. 11. A. Zno (Rottemb.).—Closely allied to A. Daphne, but smaller (expands 1} to 14 inches) ;— the hind-wings beneath are dusted with brown towards the margins, and are only faintly clouded with violet; the middle band is bordered with brown. The dark marginal spots on the upper side are connected with each other and with the border.. Common in many parts of Europe and Northern and Western Asia in damp meadows in June and July. Absent from the north-west and the extreme south of Europe. The larva is whitish-yellow or yellowish-brown; the back brown, with a double pale yellow line. A brown stripe, bordered with yellow beneath, on the sides; spines yellowish. Feeds on Sanguisorba officinalis, Spirea uruncus, and Urtica wrens in May. 12. A. Niobe (Linn.)—Hind-wings beneath pale yellow, dusted with greenish and rust-red, with large pale yellow (var. Eris, Meig.) or silvery spots at the base, two rows of similar spots across the middle, and another marginal row. Outside the third row is a series of small rusi- coloured spots with silvery centres. On the upper side of the fore-wings the nervures are not thickened in the male, and the female has whitish spots before the tip. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. This has long been a reputed British species, and has lately been said, on good authority, to have been taken not uncommonly in Kent; but there is a difference of opinion among those entomologists who have examined the specimens as to whether they may not belong to the next species. It is common in woods in June and July throughout the greater part of Europe and Western Asia. The larva is brown, with a white stripe on the back, bordered with blackish, next to which is a row of triangular white spots; spines reddish-white. Feeds on violets in May. , * 13. A. Adippe (Linn.), (High Brown Fritillary).—Very like A. Niobe, but the wings are brighter coloured above, and two of the nervures of the fore-wings are thickened before the middle in the male; the female has no pale spots at the tip. The hind-wings are yellowish beneath, and are not dusted with rust-colour, or (except in some varieties, such as Chlorodippe, Herr, Schaff.) with greenish. The spots are silvery in the type; in the variety C/codova (Ochs.) 9. A RGYNNIS. 21 they are pale greenish-yellow, and almost lost in the ground colour, the centres of the small round spots only being silvery. Expands from 1? to 2} inches. Common in most parts of Europe (including England) and Western Asia in July, but it is a rarer and less generally- distributed insect on the Continent than A. Vole, It frequents woods and heaths, especially in hilly districts. Larva dark grey, with interrupted whitish lines on the back, under which are blackish transverse stripes. Spines rusty brown. Feeds on violet and wild pansy from May to July. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 9, Fig. 3. * 14. A. Aglaia (Linn.), (Dark Green Fritilary).—Hind-wings beneath green, mixed with pale yellow towards the hind margins, with silvery spots at the base, two rows across the middle of the wing, and another marginal row of silvery spots. There are no reddish spots with silvery centres, as in the last two species; and there are no silvery spots on the under side of the fore- wings. Expands from 2} to 2} inches. It is the commonest of the large Fritillaries throughout Europe (including the British Isles) and Northern and Western Asia, frequenting meadows and heaths in July and August. Some of the Californian species of Avgynnis are very closely allied to this, and may perhaps prove identical with it when the variations of A. Ag/aza have been traced round throughout Northern Asia. The larva is yellow, with a double white line on the back, and red spots on the sides; the spines are black. It lives on dog-violet in May and June. The insect is figured in all stages on Pl. 9, Fig. 4, a—d. (A. Elisa, Godt., which occurs in the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, is allied to this, but has fewer and smaller black spots above, and smaller and more numerous silvery spots below. A. Alexandra, Ménétr., from the Caucasus, is another allied species, but the marginal spots of the under side of the hind-wings are green, and not silvery. These species are both rather smaller than A. Aglaia. Two American species, A. Cybele, Fabr., and A. Aphrodite, Fabr., have been introduced into some works on British Lesédoptera as having been taken in England. The former is much larger than A. Ag/aza, and the latter about the same:size. A. Cybele is darker above and paler below than A. Aphrodite. The under side of the hind-wings of Aphrodite is dull reddish, where that of Ag/aza is green; the silvery spots are similar, and the marginal row is edged within with pale yellow.) * 15. A. Lathonia (Linn.), (Queen of Spain Fritillary).—Hind-wings beneath brownish-yellow, with very large oval silvery spots, between which are some small ones. Within the marginal spots is a row of seven small brown spots with silvery centres. There are also several silvery spots at the tip of the fore-wings beneath. Expands from 13 to a little over 2 inches. Found throughout Europe, Northern and Western Asia to the Himalayas (the Indian variety has been named /ss@a, Gray, but hardly differs from the European), and North Africa. It frequents lanes and roads in woods, and its flight resembles that of W7pparchia Megera, but is more rapid. It sometimes settles on the pathway, and has also been seen in clover-fields. It is found in early summer, and again in autumn. It is very rare in the south of England, and has once been taken at Killarney. The larva lives on heartsease, &c., in April and July; it is blackish-grey, with a whitish stripe on the back, and brownish-yellow lines on the sides. The spines are short and brick-red. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 9, Fig. 5. (A. Eugenia, Eversm., should not be included among European butterflies; it is a Siberian species.) * 16. A. Paphia (Linn.), (Szlver-washed Fritillary)—Hind-wings beneath green, with a silvery streak across the middle, and two shorter ones running from the costa nearer the base; the hind margin is also bordered with silvery. The male is brighter coloured than the female, and has four nervures of the fore-wings rather broadly black in the middle. There is a variety of the female, Valesina (Esp.), which is greenish-brown above, with some pale spots towards the costa 6 22 EvrorPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. of the fore-wings. Expands from 2} to 3 inches. Common in July and August throughout Europe and Western Asia, frequenting open places in and near woods, where it settles on the bramble, and other flowers which grow at a moderate elevation. The insect appears to be scarce in Scotland, and the dark variety Valesiva is not common in Northern Europe. In Corsica and Western Asia we find another variety, Avzargyra (Staud.), in which the silvery markings of the under side are absent. Larva blackish-brown, with a broad, pale yellow streak on the back, divided and bordered with dusky; spines very long, especially those on the second segment- It feeds on dog-violet and wild raspberry in May and June. The typical female and the transformations are figured at Pl. 9, Fig. 6, a—d. 17, A. Maia (Cram.).—Hind-wings beneath green, with a marginal silvery streak (sometimes scarcely visible), and two others across the centre. This species is greener fulvous above than A. Paphia, var. Valesina, which it otherwise much resembles, and two of the nervures of the fore-wings are thickened in the male. The under side of the fore-wings is rose-colour, instead of fulvous, with the costa, tip, and hind margin broadly yellowish-green. Expands from 2} to 3 inches. Inhabits Europe, south of the Alps, and the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It frequents bushy places in June and July. The larva is purplish-brown, with black transverse marks on the back; it feeds on heartsease. 18. A. Laodice (Pall.)—Hind-wings beneath yellowish towards the base, with two short irregular reddish lines, the outer portion varied with greenish and pale iridescent pink ; on this are two rows of obscure greenish spots. The two portions of the wing are divided by a silvery line, broken into irregular spots. Two of the nervures of the fore-wings are thickened on the upper side in the male. The under side has a general resemblance to that of A. Daphne; but the latter is a smaller insect, and has no silvery line. Expands from 2 to 24 inches. It inhabits glades in woods in June and July, and is found in Eastern Europe and Northern and Western Asia. The most westerly localities are East Prussia and Livonia. GENUS IV.—NEPTIS (FABR.). This genus, and the following, contain middle-sized or large butterflies. The few European species are all of dark colours, and have a white band across all the wings, broken into detached spots on the fore-wings and divided by the nervures on the hind-wings. The under side is tawny or yellowish, mixed with black, with the white markings of the upper side. The margins of the wings are slightly dentated. The larve are cylindrical, with excrescences or branching spines on the back. They hybernate when young, and reach their full growth in May. The butterflies appear in woods in June and July, and sometimes settle in damp places and on ordure. Vepftis may be distinguished from Lémenitis by its rather long fore-wings, with a short rounded border. The discoidal cell is open behind, and there is a white streak running from the base. The larve have hump-like excrescences. The species are all very similar, and are either black with white markings, or tawny with black markings. They are very numerous in the East Indies, and a few inhabit other portions of the Old World. 1. NV. Aceris (Lep.).—Black, fore-wings with a white basal streak interrupted behind, an interrupted row of large white spots, and a marginal row of small ones. Hind-wings with two white bands, the outer one narrower. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. Found throughout Asia and South-Eastern Europe, as far west as Salzburg, but is local and generally scarce in Europe. It is said to frequent woody slopes and shady river banks. The larva is dark green on the sides, and white and greyish-green on the back. There are two spiny excrescences on each of the 3rd, 10. SS Ty = aS ( LImMENITIS. 22 4th, and 11th segments. There are two broods: one in the spring, after hybernation, and another in July. It feeds on Orobus vernus. The butterfly appears in June and August. 2. N. Lucilla (W. V.).—Size and colour of Aceris, but the basal streak is narrow, and broken into spots. The white central bands are broader, and the small marginal spots of the fore-wings, and the narrow outer band of the hind-wings, are entirely absent on the upper side. Found in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia in June and July. The extremities of its western range are Bohemia on the north and Piedmont on the south. It is not,considered a very common insect. Larva reddish-brown, with two thick peg-like processes on each of the 3rd, Ath, 6th, and 12th segments. Lives in May on Sfirea salicifolia. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 10, Fig. 1, a, 0. GENUS V.—LIMENITIS (FABR.). This genus differs from Meptis chiefly in the fore-wings. The hind margin is broad, long, and curved, and the discoidal cell is closed. There is no white stripe from the base. The larve have branching spines, or fleshy humps covered with spines. Many handsome species of Lzmenttis are found in the East Indies and North America, but the genus scarcely appears to reach either of the southern Continents. *1, L. Sibylla (Linn.), (White Admiral).—Blackish-brown, with an interrupted row of white spots on the fore-wings, and a white band on the hind-wings. Under side varied with tawny, with two rows of black spots before the hind margin. Inner margin of the hind-wings bluish. Expands from 1} to 2} inches. It is found in most parts of Central Europe, including the south of England, in June and July, but is somewhat local. Its elegant sailing flight through the forest glades has long been celebrated. It frequents bushy places in or on the edges of woods, and is generally found in the neighbourhood of water. The larva is green, with a white streak on each side, and two rows of rust-coloured spines on the back. The head is red, with two white stripes. It lives in May on honeysuckle in shady places, and prefers those plants which creep on the ground. The butterfly is figured in all stages at Pl. 10, Fig. 2, a—e. 2. L. Camilla (W. V.).—Size and pattern of Szdyl/a, but bluish-black, with a row of pale blue dots round all the wings. The fore-wings have a conspicuous white spot in the middle, which is scarcely marked on the upper side in Szdy//a. The under side is varied with brown and reddish, instead of tawny, and there is only one row of black spots before the hind margin. Common in many parts of Southern and Central Europe and Western Asia, but does not appear to extend much further north than the fifty-first parallel of latitude. It is nevertheless somewhat local and scarcer than Szby//a, and appears rather later in the summer (July and August), frequenting more open places, such as hedges and bushes in the neighbourhood of woods, especially in hilly districts. It has been erroneously reputed British, owing to the names of this and the former species having been confused by many of the older writers. The larva is very similar to that of Szdyl/a, and likewise feeds on honeysuckle in April, May, and July. It is green, with the belly and legs red. The head is also red, finely spotted with white, instead of striped. The tubercles are large and green, with the tips red. 3. L. Populi (Linn.), (Poplar Butterfly).—Dark brown, fore-wings with white spots, .and hind-wings with a white band. Hind-wings with a marginal row of red lunules, of which traces may also be seen on the upper part of the border of the fore-wings. In the male the white markings are generally dusted with brown; and in the variety Zvemule (Esp.), the white band is absent above. Wings beneath tawny, the pale markings greenish, especially 24 EvrorEAN BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. on the hind-wings. Expands from 2} to 3 inches. Erroneously reputed British, but generally distributed in Central and Northern Europe, except the north-west; it is also said to occur in the Altai. It is common in some seasons and in some localities, but is generally rather scarce. It is found in woods in June, where it settles on wet paths, &c., in the morning, before ten o'clock, and again in the evening, to suck up the moisture. It also settles on the dung of animals, and may be attracted by strongly-smelling cheese. In the middle of the day the butterfly flies round the tops of the trees, and settles on high branches, like Apatura Iris. The female is rarer than the male, because she descends less frequently from the tops of the trees. Larva green, darker and paler mixed, with two rows of short fleshy humps covered with hair. Those on the second segment are large and club-shaped. It feeds on white poplar and aspen in May. The young larve pass the winter between dry rolled- up leaves of the food-plant, and are easily to be found in this situation in winter or early spring. The transformations are figured on PI. 11, Fig. 1, a—d. GENUS VI.—APATURA (FABR.). Large butterflies, of a blackish-brown colour above, shot with purple or violet in the males. The fore-wings have large white or yellow spots, and the hind-wings a band of the same colour beyond the middle; and the border of the former is slightly concave. There is a large eye-spot near the hinder angle of the fore-wings, and a small one in a similar position on the hind-wings, at least on the under surface. The larva is stout, and attenuated behind, with a forked tail, and two large triangular horns on the head. It hybernates when small, and is full grown in May. The pupa has also two projections from the head. The butterflies are found in woods in June and July, and resemble Limenztis Populi in their habits. The genus Apatura, though not very numerous in species, has representatives in all parts of the world except Africa and Australia; but, as is usually the case when the same genera have an extensive range, the tropical species of Afatura rarely surpass our own in either size or beauty, and are often much inferior to them in both respects. * 1. A. Iris (Linn.), (Purple Emperor)—Blackish-brown above, shot with rich purple in the male. Fore-wings spotted with white, hind-wings with a white band, nearly straight inside and with a short projection on the middle outside. There is a black eye-spot in an orange ring, with a very small white dot in the centre, near the hinder angle of the hind-wings. Under side varied with different shades of grey, brown, black, and tawny, the white markings as above. A black eye-spot with a large blue pupil in a tawny ring near the hinder angle of each wing; that on the fore-wings is very large, and two of the white spots are placed upon the outer curve of the tawny ring; the eye on the hind-wings is small, and the outer ring is not marked with white. In the variety Jo/e (W. V.) the white markings of the upper side are obsolete. Expands from 2 to 3} inches. Appears to be confined to Central Europe (including the south-eastern counties of England, as far north as the Humber), and in many localities common, but difficult to capture, as it frequents the tops of the loftiest forest-trees. It sometimes descends to the ground in wet places, to imbibe the moisture; and a German entomologist has lately recorded that, when collecting in Russia on a very hot day, when he was covered with perspiration, numbers of A. J/ris flew round him, and settled on his clothes. It is also attracted by dung and carrion. The latter substance is generally employed by English collectors as a bait, with great success. The variety fole is always rare, and occurs only singly. The male /7és is much more frequently seen and taken than the female, which is more retired in her habits. The larva is green, shagreened with IL. Re | in BD i ee) | i My Hh ag fll: a NN)" Srl 2 Ly, a a Un : QRS TRAYS COUR REAQARRS CHARAXES. 25 whitish ; it has a yellow lateral stripe in front, and yellow oblique stripes in the middle; the horns are bluish in front. It lives on poplar, aspen, and sallow, in May and June; and, contrary to the habits of the perfect insect, it prefers low stunted bushes, where it may be found resting on the upper side of the leaves. The transformations are figured at Pl. 11, Fig. 2, a—c. 2. A. Ilia (W. V.).—Closely resembles A. /ris, but the black eye-spot near the hinder angle of the fore-wings is always placed in an orange-tawny ring on the upper side, and the white band on the hind-wings is considerably excavated on the inner side, and wants the projecting tooth on the outside. It is a variable insect, and the white markings are replaced by ochre- yellow in the variety Clytie (W. V.). The under side is brownish-grey, and the pale band on the hind-wings beneath is not nearly so conspicuous as in A. /y7s. Expands from 1? to 2} inches. It is much more widely distributed than A. /rzs, being found over the greater part of Europe, from Finland to Italy, and throughout Western and Northern Asia to Japan. It appears, however, to be absent from Spain, Scandinavia, and the greater part of North-Western Europe. Larva very like that of A. /7zs, but the horns are bordered with blackish in front, and the yellow streaks are bordered with reddish. It lives on aspen and other species of poplar and sallow in May and June. The variety C7Zytze is figured at Pl. 11, Fig. 3. GENUS VII.—CHARAXES (OCHS.). Large and robust butterflies, with the border of the fore-wings deeply excavated, and the hind-wings dentated, with two rather long tails. Larva with a forked tail, and with four horns on the head. This fine genus is found in Africa and India, but the single European species belongs to one of the African groups. It is common round the Mediterranean, including South France, wherever the strawberry-tree (Arvéutus unedo) grows wild. The larva feeds on this tree, and as the Arbutus is common in the south of Ireland, and the butterfly is one of those southern forms which occur much further north in France than in the other parts of Europe, where the mountain ranges form an insurmountable barrier to their northward extension, some have suggested the possibility of its being found in Ireland. Although it is not unlikely that the insect might thrive if once introduced, I cannot conceive it possible that so large and conspicuous a butterfly could have escaped the notice of the many botanists and entomologists who have visited the districts where it ought to be found, if it were really an inhabitant of that country. 1. C. Fasius (Linn.).—Dark brown, bordered with deep orange, shading off into straw-colour at the anal angle of the hind-wings. A second row of orange spots on the fore-wings, and four small bluish-spots just within the border on the hinder half of the hind-wings. Under side red, with a broad white stripe across both wings, within which are a number of irregular black spots bordered with buff, most of which are oval. Outside the white band, on the fore-wings, are two orange bands, divided into spots by the nervures. Between these is a row of black spots on a buff ground. On the hind-wings the white band is bordered outside by a row of large red spots, outside which is a row of small bluish spots on a buff ground, and edged outside with black. The marginal orange band as on the fore-wings, but paler. The fringes and the tails are edged, with black on the hind-wings both above and below; on the fore-wings the black edging is scarcely visible. Expands from 2} to over 3 inches. It is common where it occurs, at the end of May, and again in August and September, the first brood being the most numerous. It has a sailing flight, and is fond of settling on rotten fruit. Mr. W. F. De V. Kane has kindly supplied the following notes on its habits at Hyéres, from information furnished by a local collector :—It appears in that neighbourhood about the end of June, and continues on the wing till about the 7 20 Evrorean Borrerriieés AND Morus. middle of August. Its flight is very powerful and rapid, turning about like a swallow to avoid the net or any obstacle. It is very shy, and almost impossible to approach when settled. It generally rests high on the trees, and delights in the hottest localities, avoiding the shade of deep woods. It is most common on dry hills and in the dry beds of torrents,;up and down which it careers without stopping to rest; and in such localities it may be captured on the wing. Like other Nymphalide, it has a great preference for the same spot or twig, and you may find it day after day, when at rest, on its favourite twig or branch. The larva is green, with a yellow stripe on the sides and two green ocellated spots with blue pupils on the 7th and 9th segments. Horns yellowish, tipped with reddish. It may be found throughout the spring and summer. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 11, Fig. 4. FAMILY IV.—DANAIDE. Rather large butterflies, chiefly inhabiting the warmer regions of the earth. The front pair of legs are rudimentary in both sexes; the club of the antenne is gradually formed; and the inner margin of the hind-wings is not grooved. The larva is tolerably stout, smooth, and cylindrical, and is furnished with one or more pairs of long, slender, fleshy filaments. The pupa is suspended by the tail only. These butterflies are distasteful to birds, and their tissues are exceedingly tough and elastic, in consequence of which they are not only abundant wherever they occur, but are frequently “mimicked,” as it is called, by butterflies or moths which are destitute of a similar protection. This is especially the case with Danaus Chrysippus, the markings of which are closely copied by those of five or six African or Indian butterflies belonging to different groups. In most cases it is the female only which resembles D. Chrysippus, while the male is utterly different. The larvae of the only species which we need notice feed on shrubs of the genus Asclepias GENUS I.—DANAUS (LINN.). Large butterflies, with the wings slightly dentated and moderately long and broad. The costa of the fore-wings is arched, and the hind margin is slightly curved. The hind-wings are rounded, and rather shorter than the fore-wings. They are generally of pale colours (often fulvous), with black borders, which are often spotted with white. The genus Danaus is found on all the Continents, but is absent from the greater part of Europe and Northern and Central Asia, except Japan, where the Indian Fauna curves round to the north, east of the central ranges, just as the South European Fauna. curves round into France, west of the Alps, at the other extremity of the great continent of Asia-Europe. 1. D. Chrysippus (Linn.)—Pale reddish or tawny, with the tip of the fore-wings broadly black, crossed by a band of large white spots. The borders of the wings are also edged with black and dotted with white, and there are four black spots about the middle of the hind-wings. The nervures of the hind-wings are narrowly bordered with white beneath. The variety Alcippus (Cram.) has white hind-wings, bordered with orange within the black borders; and D. Doriptus (Klug) wants the black and white markings at the tip of the fore-wings. Expands from 2} to 34 inches. D. Chrysippus occurs throughout Africa, Western Asia, the Ieast Indies, and Greece. It was formerly taken in Italy, but was probably introduced, and has not succeeded in establishing itself. DD. A/cifpus is common in Africa and Western Asia; ‘and D. Dorippus in North Africa and Western Asia; but I have never seen Indian specimens FT IPPARCHTA. 27 of either, although I believe that D. Adcippus has been taken in Europe. The larva, which feeds on Asclepias* fruticosa, is pale violet, with black and yellow transverse stripes. The 3rd, 6th, and 12th segments are furnished with a pair of black elastic filaments on the back. They are crimson at their base, and the front pair is the longest. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 11, Fig. 5. (D. Erippus, Cram., var. Archippus, Fabr., measures 4 inches or more across. The tip of the fore wings is less broadly black, and is irregularly spotted with fulvous, or white in the typical A77zfpus, instead of being crossed by a white band. ‘The colour is deeper fulvous than in D. Chrysippus, and the veins of the wings are more or less broadly black, both above and beneath. D. Lrzppus is South American, and the variety Archippus is one of the commonest butterflies in North America. We notice it here, because it has not only spread over almost all the Pacific Islands, from the Sandwich Islands to Java, within the last few years, but no less than three specimens were taken in England in 1877, so that it is highly probable that it may become naturalised in Europe in a very short time, if the larva is capable of feeding on any indigenous plant. The larva is whitish, transversely fasciated with black and yellow, and has two pairs of blackish fleshy processes, situated on the 3rd and 12th segments, of which the first are the longest. It feeds on American species of Asclepzas.) FAMILY V.—SATYRDIZ. Large or small butterflies, generally black, brown, or tawny, and occasionally white. They have nearly always black eye-spots with white pupils before the hind margins, which are often placed on a pale band, or upon pale spots. The wings are rounded, and the hind margins are either entire or scalloped. The palpi are short, and bristly beneath ; and the front pair of legs are very small and rudimentary. The larvae are clothed with fine, short hair; the tail ends in a small fork, and the head is round. They live chiefly on grasses. The pupz are thick and truncated, and are either suspended by the tail, or are formed on, or in, the ground. GENUS I.—HIPPARCHIA (FABR.). Middle-sized or large butterflies, with broad wings. The upper side is brown or black, and there is generally a white or yellow band near the hind margin. There is a moderately large eye near the tip of the fore-wings, and frequently a second towards the hinder angle, often with two white dots between them; and a very small eye towards the anal angle of the hind-wings. The ~ hind-wings are dentated, and are marbled beneath with pale and dark. The antenne are gradually thickened, or terminate in a distinct club. The larve are thick in the middle, and tapering at both ends, with pale and dark longitudinal streaks. They hybernate, and live till June in a very retired manner. The pupz are formed in a hollow on the surface of the ground, or under stones. The butterflies are found more in Central and Southern Europe than in the north. They appear in July and August, and generally settle on the ground, or on the trunks of trees. 1. H. Circe (Fabr.)—Dark brown, with a broad white band near the margins, which is broken into spots on the fore-wings. A round black spot, with a small white pupil on the under side, stands on the extremity of the band near the tip of the fore-wings, and there is sometimes a smaller one on the third white spot below the first. On the under side the band is more continuous, being only interrupted beneath the eye. There are two white spots near the costa of the fore-wings, and another on the costa of the hind-wings (which are dusted with grey), and a 28 EvrorraAn BurrerrzwiEs AND Morus. curved white streak runs from the latter to the median nervure. The fringes are also spotted with white. Expands from 2} to 3 inches. Common in Southern Europe and Western Asia, frequenting bare hill-sides. It is also found in many localities in Eastern France and Southern Germany, but it there becomes very local. The larva is brown, with two white lines on the back and a stripe on the sides, which is whitish above and yellowish below. It feeds on grass in May, and hides itself under stones and leaves in the daytime. The transformations are figured at Pl. 12, Fig. 1, a—e. 2. H. Hermione (Linn.).—Brown, with a continuous dull white band near the hind margins, on which is placed a black eye with a white pupil towards the tip of the fore-wings, and a smaller one (not ocellated, nor always visible below) nearer the hinder angle. There is also a small eye near the anal angle of the hind-wings. The ground colour is reddish-brown in the female, and the band on the fore-wings is clouded with this colour, instead of with dusky. On the under side the band is pale yellow on the fore-wings, and white on the hind-wings; on the latter it is suffused, and not sharply bounded on the outside. Expands from 2} to over 2} inches. Its range is similar to that of H/. Circe, but, though local, it is much commoner and more widely distributed in Central Europe. It flies in open places in woods, and likes to settle on the trunks of trees, with which the colouring of its under surface assimilates very well. The larva is reddish-grey, with a double brown streak on the back, and a broad streak of ashy-grey, bordered with a black and white line, on each side. The male butterfly is figured at Pl. 12, Fig. 2. 3. H. Alcyone (W. V.).—Smaller than Hermione (expands from 2 to 2} inches), generally with two eyes on the fore wings (more rarely one near the tip only), and with none at the anal angle of the hind-wings above. The pale band is narrower and darker above; and that of the hind-wings is white, scarcely dusted with brown, and well defined. The dark basal portion of the wing projects into it, almost in a right angle, about the middle, but forms no other prominent projections. Common in Southern and many parts of Central Europe, but absent in the north- west. Inthe north it frequents sandy pine-forests; but in the south it prefers the sunny slopes of hills. The larva feeds on Holcus lanestris, &c. 4. H. Briseis (Linn.)—Brown, the costa yellowish. Fore-wings with a row of rather long white spots near the hind margin, marked with two more or less distinct black eye-spots. Hind- wings with a rather broad whitish band across the centre. Under side of fore-wings whitish, with the margins brown, and one or two black spots on the costa within the eye. Hind-wings dark brown at the base, and paler on the borders; a yellowish-grey band between, the middle of which sends off a projection towards the base. The under side of the female is much paler, and the markings of the hind-wings are very ill-defined. In the female variety, Pzvata (Hiibn.), the pale markings of the upper side are dull yellow; the under side of the fore-wings has a tawny band towards the hind margin, bordered on both sides with grey, deepening into dark brown towards the inner margin; base pale yellow, intersected by a black lunule. Hind-wings light brown, varied with grey, nearly as in the typical female. Expands from 1} to 2} inches. Common in many parts of Central and Southern Europe and Western Asia in dry grassy places, especially on a limestone soil. Absent in Northern and North-Western Europe, though a specimen was once bred in England from a larva which had probably been accidentally introduced. The variety Pirata is confined to Southern Europe. The larva is yellowish-grey, with dark lines on the back, and a pale grey streak on the sides. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 12, Fig. 3. (A. Prieur, Pierr., which some writers consider another variety of Srisezs, is found in North Africa and Spain. It has a more broken white band on the fore-wings, and that on the hind-wings is smaller and angular.) LT IPPARCHIA. 29 5. H. Persephone (Hiibn.), Anthe (Ochs.)—Brown, fore-wings with two large eye-spots scarcely ocellated, placed on a broad whitish band, which entirely surrounds the second eye. There is no white spot above the eye nearest the tip, but the spot within it is produced to the costa. Hind- wings with a white suffused band, angulated in the female, and with a black spot in a yellow ring near the anal angle beneath. There is a variety of this species also with the pale markings tinged with ochre-yellow. Expands 24 inches. The under side of the hind-wings is brown, varied with grey. Frequents the mountainous regions of South Russia and Western Asia, and is not very commen in collections. (H. Autonoce, Esp., from the steppes of Russia, is generally smaller than this, and has a duller coloured band, which is much narrower, especially on the hind-wings, where it is scarcely more than a broad angulated line. The pupils of the eyes of the fore-wings are distinctly marked, and there is often a third eye at the anal angle of the hind-wings, which are varied with white lines beneath.) * 6. H. Semele (Linn.), (Grayling).—Brown, fore-wings with two well-marked eyes, placed on a tawny band. Hind-wings with a darker sub-marginal band, and an eye at the anal angle. In the male, which is considerably smaller than the female, the pale markings of the fore-wings are much obscured, and there is an oblique dark patch in the middle of each fore-wing. Under side of fore-wings tawny, the base darker in the female; hind margin brown. Hind-wings beneath brown, mottled with grey, the basal portion darker in the male, and bordered by a distinct irregular white band, suffused on the outside. Varies somewhat according to locality; the variety Aristeus (Bon.), from Corsica and Sardinia, has the pale markings more suffused, and the variety Mersina (Staud.), from Asia Minor, has the hind-wings beneath unicolorous grey. Madeiran specimens before me are much darker than European, though the only Algerian specimen I possess is paler. The commonest and most widely-distributed species of the genus. It is found throughout Europe and Western Asia on dry heaths and hill-sides, and is fond of settling on stones and tree-trunks, where the colouring of the under surface secures it from observation. It is considered a local insect in Britain; but this is most likely only because the country is so highly cultivated. Expands from 1? to 23 inches. Larva brownish, with a darker line on the back, and two grey lines on each side, of which the uppermost is the palest. 7. H. Pelopea (Klug.), var. Greca (Staud.), is brown, with a red sub-marginal band in the male, and a white one in the female, containing two black eyes on the fore-wings, with white spots between them, at least on the under side; there are also one or two white spots at the anal angle of the hind-wings. Under side brown, much mixed with whitish. Expands about 2 inches. Found in the mountains of Greece, where it represents in Europe the variable 7. Pelopea of Western Asia. 8. H. Telephassa (Hiibn.), var. Amalthea (Friv.)—Brown, with a large black basal streak on the fore-wings of the male. A broad sub-marginal white band, edged with yellow, on both wings, containing two eyes on the fore-wings, and an anal eye on the hind-wings. (In some females the white band is much obscured on the hind-wings, and edged with smoky brown instead of yellow. Expands about 2 inches. Common in the mountains of Greece and Southern Turkey. (In the typical Ze/ephassa from Syria, which is larger, the bands are fulvous in both sexes; in the variety Anthelea, Hiibn., from Asia Minor, the band is white in the male, and fulvous in the female. Neither of these forms is found in Europe.) 9. H. Hippolyte (Esp.)—Light brown, with a continuous yellow band near the hind margin, containing two black eyes with very small white pupils on the fore-wings; and there is also a small eye at the anal angle of the hind-wings. Hind-wings grey, with the veins whiter, and some obscure white transverse lines. Expands nearly 2 inches, It inhabits the mountains of 8 30 EvroreEAN Burrerrwiés AND Morus. Andalusia and South Russia. (77. Beroe, Freyer, found in Turkey and Greece, is pale brown, with a very obscure band, two eyes on the fore-wings, indistinctly pupilled, and a small anal eye on the hind-wings, which are varied beneath with grey, and marked with a narrow transverse white band, although they are not white along the nervures. It expands about 2 inches.) 10. /f, Neomiris (Godt.), Zodaus (Bon.).—Dark brown, with an eye at the tip of the fore-wings, and another at the anal angle of the hind-wings. There is a broad, bright fulvous band on the hind-wings, and on the hinder half of the fore-wings, which is not divided by the nervures, except slightly on the fore-wings above, and is broader and redder on the under side of the fore-wings. The hind-wings are dark brown beneath, with a very distinct whitish transverse band. Expands I} inches. ‘This species is confined to the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia. 11. 7H. Arethusa (W. V.).—Brown, with an eye, blind above, at the tip of the fore-wings, and a very small one at the anal angle of the hind-wings. A broad, tawny, sub-marginal band on all the wings, though frequently less distinct on the hind-wings. It is divided into spots by the nervures, and surrounds the eyes more or less completely. Under side of fore-wings fulvous, with brown borders; hind-wings beneath brown, with a narrow, curved, transverse grey band across the centre. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. Common in South Europe, but also found in many parts of France and South-Western Germany. It frequents rocky places in woods, and often settles upon stones. 12. H. Statilinus (Hiibn.).—Dark brown, the fringes spotted with dirty white; two black eyes with two white dots between them on the fore-wings, and one eye on the hind-wings. Eyes of the fore-wings surrounded with yellow rings on the under side, where a black line bordered outside with whitish runs within them. Hind-wings beneath varied with violet-grey; a crooked black line across the centre, bordered outside by a suffused pale band. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. Common in many parts of Southern and Central Europe, frequenting sandy places near fir woods in the plains, and rocky places in the mountains. (The South European variety, Altionia, Fabr., is larger and rather darker. H. Fatua, Freyer, from Greece, which is probably another variety, has a dark line near the hind margin of all the wings above, and the hind-wings are more uniformly coloured, and darker beneath.) 13. H. Fdia (Linn.).—Very similar to the last, but the white spots on the fore-wings are larger, and the fringes are pure white, spotted with brown on the fore-wings. Under side of hind-wings pale grey, varied with brown towards the hind margins, and within the black angulated line which crosses the centre. A short black line runs from the costa near the base. Expands from 1? to 2 inches. Common in South Europe. The larva is yellow, with black stripes on the back and sides. 14. H. Dryas (Scop.), Phedra (Linn.).—Dark brown, with two black eyes on the fore-wings ~ with large blue pupils, and surrounded with yellow rings, which are most distinct on the under side. Expands from 1} to 3} inches. Common in many parts of Southern and Central Europe (except the north-west), and throughout Asia to Japan. It is a local insect, and is generally found on damp moors and heaths, although it also occurs in dry, hilly districts. Larva yellowish- grey, with several dark longitudinal lines. It feeds on Avena elatior. 15. Hf. Actea (Fabr.)—A very variable species. The male much resembles H. Dryas, but the eyes are smaller, and there are two white spots between them. The second eye on the fore- wings is sometimes absent in the male. The female is yellowish-brown, sometimes with a dull tawny, sub-marginal band; and the eyes are surrounded with yellow rings above. There are generally two or three small eyes at the anal angle of the hind-wings beneath, and the CENEIS. air fore-wings are fulvous beneath in the female. A. Cordula (Fabr.), Podarce (Ochs.), Pwas and Bryce (Hiibn.), and Verbiws (Herr. Schaff.), are varieties of this species, which is common in Southern Europe and Western Asia, including the southern slopes of the Alps, where it frequents dry, rocky places. It expands from 1} to 24 inches. The male of H. Cordula is figured at Pl. 12, Fig. 4. GENUS II.—C:NEIS (HUBN.), CHIONOBAS (BOISD.). Middle-sized butterflies, with the nervures of the fore-wings very little dilated at the base. The ground colour is brown, tinged with tawny, with a tawny sub-marginal band containing a variable number of eyes. The hind-wings are rounded and almost entire; they are sprinkled with white and brown beneath, and the nervures are often whitish. The antennz are very short, and the club is gradually formed. With the exception of @. Zarfeza, which inhabits the steppes of South Russia, this genus is circumpolar, or occurs only at a great elevation in the Alps, Himalayas, Mount Washington, and California, the Californian species being the largest of the genus. The perfect insects may all be looked for in June and July. The only known larva is that of @, Semidea (Say), which feeds on lichens near the summit of Mount Washington in North America. We enumerate below only those species which are indubitably European ; several others, formerly said to have been taken in Lapland, are now asserted to be only found in Labrador. 1. @. Futta (Hiibn.).—Brown, male with a broad black oblique streak on the fore-wings. A sub-marginal tawny band, divided into spots by the nervures, generally containing three blind eyes on the fore-wings, and one or two near the anal angle of the hind-wings. The band is frequently so narrow and so much divided, especially on the fore-wings, that it might often be called a series of spots. Under side of hind-wings brown, varied with grey, an angulated darker band across the middle, which is scarcely visible in the female. A circumpolar insect, frequenting peat marshes in the extreme north of Europe, Asia, and America, in company with Eredia Emébla. It expands nearly 2 inches. 2. G. Aello (Hiibn.)—Brown, slightly dusted with tawny, a pale tawny marginal band, suffused on the inner side, containing from two to four black spots on the fore-wings, which are sometimes ocellated, and an anal eye, and sometimes a second spot on the hind-wings, which are marked beneath with very distinct white nervures. Expands from 14 to 2 inches. Found ata great elevation in the Alps, frequenting rocky places and meadows above the forest region. Not very common, and, according to some writers, only to be found in alternate years. 3. GZ. Tarpeta (Pall.).— Tawny, with about four sub-marginal spots on each wing. Expands from 14 to 1 inches. Inhabits the steppes of Southern Russia and Siberia. 4. G2. Norna (Thunb.).—Brown, tinged with tawny. Marginal band fulvous, with two eyes on the fore-wings, and one on the hind-wings. The eyes of the fore-wings are sometimes blind, and are sometimes absent, or only one is present. It may be distinguished from G2. ¥u/éea, with which it agrees in having a darker band across the hind-wings beneath, by the suffused sub-marginal band, which is reddish rather than yellowish, and is not divided into spots on the hind-wings. It expands from 14 to 1} inches, and inhabits Lapland and Siberia. 5. G. Bore (Schneid.).—Fore-wings pale greyish tawny, sometimes with a row of black dots near the hind margin. Hind-wings brown, tinged with tawny, sometimes with a sub-marginal tawny band. Under side of hind-wings greyish-brown, with some obscure whitish lines (banded with pale lines in var. Zaygete, Hiibn.). Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Circumpolar; in Europe it occurs in Lapland. 32 EvroreAn Borrerrtizs anpd Morus. GENUS III.—EREBIA (DALM.). Small or middle-sized butterflies, nearly always of a dark brown colour, with a sub-marginal rust-coloured band, marked with eyes. The band on the fore-wings is broadest, and generally contains one or two eyes near the tip, and another lower down. On the hind-wings the band is narrower, and often broken into spots; and the eyes are smaller. The under side is paler; but the basal half of the hind-wings is often dark. The hind-wings are generally entire in the smaller species, and slightly dentated in the larger. The palpi are covered with long bristly hairs, and the antenne are slender, with a rather long club. None of the nervures of the fore-wings are much dilated at the base, except the sub-costal nervure. The larve are narrow behind, with very fine scattered hairs. They conceal themselves closely, and very few are known. The pupz are formed on the surface of the ground. The butterflies are found almost exclusively in mountainous regions, except in the extreme north, Even the few species which descend to the plains in Central Europe appear to be confined to hilly districts. They inhabit the mountains of Europe, Asia, and North America; but very few species extend to the extreme south of Europe, and none are recorded from the mountains of North Africa, though, strange to say, the genus re-appears in those of South Africa. They have a black appearance on the wing, so that they can be easily recognised when flying. 1. E. Medusa (W. V.).—Wings on both sides dark brown, with black eyes pupilled with white placed on rust-coloured spots, and of equal size both below and above. The number of eyes varies; there are generally from two to six on the fore-wings, of which the two nearest the tip are the largest. In the East European variety, Psodea (Hiibn.), the spots are larger and more numerous; the northern variety, Po/aris (Staud.), is smaller and darker, with the band not so well marked beneath. Common in Central and Eastern Europe, and Northern and Western Asia. It occurs in Lapland and Finland, but is absent from other parts of Northern and North-Western Europe. It is found in open places and meadows near woods in May and June; south of the Alps it occurs exclusively in the mountains. The larva is pale green, with darker longitudinal lines bordered with white. It feeds on Panicum sanguinale in autumn and spring. The butterfly and larva are figured at Pl. 12, Fig. 5, a, & 2. E, Gme (Esp.).—Blackish-brown, with black eyes pupilled with white placed on round rust-coloured spots. Under side of the hind-wings paler, with the eyes larger than above. The fore-wings have only two small eyes near the tip in the type; but the Austrian variety, Spodia (Staud.), has from three to five eyes, which are larger, and are placed on large red contiguous spots. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Widely distributed throughout the Alpine ranges, but local, and frequenting luxuriant meadows and damp places in June and July at a considerable elevation. It prefers a limestone soil. 3. E. Ceto (Hiibn,)—Dark brown above; both sides with long narrow rust-coloured spots, generally divided by the nervures, containing small black eyes with white pupils. In the variety Phoreys (Freyer), there are white spots with brown eyes on the under side of the hind-wings. Expands about 1} inches. It is found in July in grassy places in the Southern Alps. 4. E. Pyrrha (W. V.).—Dark brown above; both sides with a series of rust-coloured spots, which are rather long on the fore-wings. The spots on the under side of the hind-wings are yellow, and there are often others at the base. The middle spot extends further towards the hind margin than above, and the eyes are blind or absent. Extends about 1} inches. Common, and widely distributed in the Alps in July and August. 5. £. Melampus (Fuessly).—Dark brown, rather paler beneath, with a rust-coloured band, EREBIA. Gia which is mostly divided into spots, at least on the hind-wings, and is marked with black dots. The hind margin of the hind-wings is perfectly rounded. (In the variety Eviphyle, Freyer, the middle red spot on the under side of the hind-wings is placed further towards the base than the others.) Expands from 1} to 1} inches. One of the commonest species in the Alps, Pyrenees, &c., in July, frequenting grassy places from a moderate elevation upwards. Zriphyle is more local, and is only found at a considerable height. *6. E. Epiphron (Knoch.), (Mountain Ringlet)—Dark brown on both sides, fore-wings with a rust-coloured band or row of spots, and hind-wings with round rust-coloured spots, on which blind or ocellated eyes are placed. The hind margin of the hind-wings projects into a very slight angle in the middle. The variety Casszope (Fabr.) has black dots instead of eyes. Expands from 1} to th inches. Inhabits many of the mountain ranges of Central Europe, including some of those of Scotland, the north of Ireland, and the English lake district; but from other ranges, such as the Riesengebirge, Black Forest, and Jura, it is entirely absent. It is met with in June and July in swampy places at a considerable height, varying with the locality, and the particular variety of the species. The larva is green, with darker green lines, and a white stripe on the sides. It feeds on Poa annua and Festuca ovina. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 12, Fig. 6. 7. &£. Arete (Fabr.).—Wings blackish-brown above, with a rust-coloured band, which is divided into spots on the hind-wings.. The hind-wings have a row of white spots before the hind margin on the under side, and sometimes also above. Their hind margin is dark reddish-brown beneath in the male, and they are wholly greenish-grey in the female. Expands 1} inches. After this local insect had been described, eighty years elapsed before its re-discovery in the mountains of Carinthia. 8. £. Pharte (Esp.).—Wings above dark brown, with a rust-coloured band divided into round spots on the hind-wings, without black dots. Under side of the male dark brown; and of the female dark brown, dusted with greyish-yellow. Expands from 1} to 44 inches. Widely distributed in the Alps, occurring in grassy meadows in July and August at a great elevation. 9g. &. Mnestra (Esp.).—Wings above dark brown, with a reddish or rust-coloured band, sometimes containing two black dots, or small eyes, towards the tip of the fore-wings. Fore-wings beneath reddish or rust-colour, with dark borders ; hind-wings beneath uniform dark brown in the male. In the female they are pale brown, dusted with whitish, and with a pale grey band. Expands about 1} inches. A local insect, but found throughout the Alpine ranges, on slopes above the highest meadows, in July. It appears to be commonest in the French Alps, but is said to be difficult to capture. to. &. Alecto (Hiibn.).—A very variable species, black or blackish-brown above, sometimes without any markings, or with a faint rust-coloured band; occasionally with two small eyes, generally blind, near the tip of the fore-wings. Fore-wings beneath unicolorous dark brown ; or with a rust-coloured band; or brownish-red with a dark border. Hind-wings beneath dark brown, and without markings in the male; in the female they are dusted with grey, and have generally a paler sub-marginal band. Expands about 14 inches. Widely distributed in the Alps from June to August, but nowhere common, and only found in rocky places above the tree-limit. 11. &. Scifio (Hiibn.).—Wings brown, fore-wings with a rust-coloured band divided by the nervures, and marked with two confluent black eyes pupilled with white near the tip. There are often one or two smaller ones separated from these, especially in the female. The band is narrower and more divided into spots on the hind-wings, with or without two or three eyes. Under side of the fore-wings reddish, with the margins brown, and the eyes as above; under side of the hind-wings uniform brownish-black in the male, with or without eyes. In the female it is uniform ashy-grey, 9 34 EvroreaAn Borrerriies AND Morus. sometimes with some black spots without pupils. Found only in the mountains of the south of France (Basses-Alpes) in July. 12. £. Epistygne (Hiibn.).—Fore-wings brown, with the discoidal cell more or less filled with yellowish ; marginal band yellowish, with five or six eyes ocellated above and below, the three nearest the tip contiguous. Hind-wings with the band fulvous, and marked with five or six small eyes. Under side of fore-wings with the band redder; hind-wings beneath brown, mixed with whitish, with the eyes very small and scarcely visible. Expands about 1} inches. Found in March and July in the mountains of the south of France (Departments of Var and Basses-Alpes). 13. &. Afer (Esp.).— Brown, tip of fore-wings paler, a marginal row of black eyes with blue or white pupils placed in yellowish or fulvous rings. There are about six on each wing. The eye nearest the tip is very small, and next to this are two contiguous eyes much nearer the base than any of the others. Under side of fore-wings with the eyes as above; hind-wings beneath with broad whitish veins. Expands about 1} inches. It is found in South Russia, and perhaps also in Dalmatia, in June and July. (The Siberian #. Parmenio, Boeb., which has been said to occur in Styria, has also white veins on the under side of the hind-wings beneath; but it is a very large brown species, with a large black eye bipupilled with white and enclosed in a yellowish ring near the tip of the fore-wings, beneath which, and on the hind-wings, are several smaller eyes with single pupils.) 14. £, JZanto (W.V.).—Wings above blackish-brown, the fore-wings with a rust-coloured band containing from two to five black dots, and the hind-wings with or without black dots placed in red rings. Under side of fore-wings reddish-brown, with violet-grey margins; hind-wings beneath marbled with violet-grey, with two dark zigzag lines. Expands from 1} to 1? inches. One of the most widely-distributed species. It is common throughout the Alpine ranges above the tree- limit from June to August, and is also common all over Scandinavia and in the Altai. It has never been reputed British, but is not unlikely to inhabit some of the mountain districts in the north of Scotland. (2£. Ocnus, Eversm., is perhaps a Siberian variety without black spots above.) 15. £. Tyndarus (Esp.)—Wings above dark brown, with a green lustre; fore-wings with a short rust-coloured band, consisting of rather long spots, with two black eyes near the tip, generally pupilled with white, and sometimes contiguous; hind-wings with or without three or four eyes surrounded with fulvous. Under side of fore-wings brownish-red, with the tip violet-grey ; hind- wings suffused violet-grey, with some zigzag dark lines. It varies considerably; the variety Cacodromus (Guén.) has no eyes, and the variety Dvomus (Herr. Schaff.) has very large ones. Expands about 1} inches. It is one of the commonest butterflies throughout the Alpine ranges in June and July, and likewise occurs on all the mountains of South Europe and Western Asia. 16. /. Gorge (Esp.).—Dark brown, with a rust-coloured band containing two small eyes near the tip of the fore-wings, and sometimes three on the hind-wings. Under side of fore-wings dark brown, marbled at the tips in the male, or reddish, with brown borders, in the female ; hind-wings beneath marbled with dark brown and whitish, with a dark line, strongly and regularly dentated. The hind-wings of this species are rather long. The variety Exynzs (Esp.) has no eyes; the variety Triopes (Spey.) has a third eye on the fore-wings, and the variety Gorgone (Boisd.), found in the Pyrenees, is a little larger, often with more eyes than Gorge ; the male is unicolorous beneath, and the female has the nervures whitish. Expands about 1} inches. Widely distributed in the Alps and Pyrenees in July and August, frequenting rocky places not much below the snow-line. It is somewhat local, and partly owing to this, and partly to the elevation at which it flies, it is not considered one of the commonest species, although sometimes met with abundantly, i Ua ar ~ it 2: ——— Sa = 8 i @ a if 200 “Oi ee peal EREBIA. 35 17. £. Goante (Esp.).—Very like Gorge, but larger. Expands about 1f inches. The band is brighter coloured and better defined, and the eyes are larger and pupilled below. The hind-wings are not so much produced, but regularly rounded, and are darker on the basal half, which forms irregularly rounded projections behind. Widely distributed throughout the Alpine ranges in July, though somewhat local. It flies at a considerable elevation, and is more frequent towards the south side of the ranges. 18. £. Pronoé (Esp.).—Dark brown, with a rust-coloured band containing eyes. The fore- wings are reddish-brown beneath ; hind-wings beneath with a paler band, which is sharply bounded towards the base. The hind-wings and tips of fore-wings are dusted with violet-grey beneath; the former have a paler band towards the hind margin. The variety Pztho (Hiibn.) is darker, with’ the red band more or less obliterated. Expands from 1} to rf inches. One of the commonest species throughout the Alpine ranges in July and August, where it frequents the meadows of the forest region. The male is much more abundant than the female. It also extends to the mountains of Asia Minor and the Caucasus. 19. £. Neoridas (Boisd.).—Brown, with a fulvous marginal band containing at least three eyes on each wing. The two nearest the tip of the fore-wings are the largest, and are often confluent. The hind-wings are somewhat oval, and are brown beneath, varied with darker, and paler towards the margins, but without eyes. It expands nearly 1} inches. Common in August at a moderate elevation in some parts of South France and Spain. * 20. E. dithiops (Esp.), Medea (Hiibn.), Blandina (Fabr.), (Scotch Argus)—Upper side nearly as in WVeoridas, but the band is of a darker red, more rust-colour, and the hind-wings are more rounded, and slightly dentated. The bands are sharply defined on both sides of the fore-wings, but are rather paler below. Hind-wings of the male brown beneath, with a band near the hind margin dusted with whitish, and containing white dots; in the female they have a greenish tinge, and are banded with greenish-yellow. Expands from 14 to 1? inches. In- habits the greater part of Central and Southern Europe, and Northern and Western Asia, but is wanting in the north-western plains of Europe, and in Silesia. It is common in many places in Scotland and the north of England, frequenting open places in woods from July to September. The larva is pale green, with a dark green or brownish stripe on the back, and two white stripes bordered with darker on each side. Lives on different species of Poa in October, May, and June. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 12, Fig. 7. 21. &. Nerine (Freyer)—Wings above dark brown, with a rust-coloured band containing eyes, the two nearest to the tip of the fore-wings placed obliquely. Under side of fore-wings reddish-brown ; paler towards the hind margins. Hind-wings beneath dark brown, faintly dusted with whitish, with a slightly paler band in the male; greenish-grey, with a pale yellow band in the female. In the variety Rezchlinz (Herr. ‘chaff. ), the eyes are smaller; the fore-wings are darker beneath, and the band on the under side of the hind-wings is less dentated towards the base. Expands nearly 2 inches. A very local species, found only in the forest region of the South- Eastern Alps in July. 22. E£. Stygne (Ochs.).—Upper side nearly as in &. Nerine,; fore-wings beneath dark brown, as far as the sharply defined rust-coloured band. Hind-wings beneath almost uniform blackish in the male, and brownish-yellow, with an indistinct paler band, in the female. Expands from 1} to 14 inches. Common in the Alps, and in all the mountains of South-Western Europe at a moderate elevation, in June and July. 23. &. Evias (Godt.).—Dark brown, with a rust-coloured band enclosing eyes, three of which, near the tip of the fore-wings, are placed in a s‘raight line. Under side of the fore-wings dark 36 European Borrerriies AND Morus. brown, within the band; hind-wings beneath brown, dusted with whitish, and with a paler band near the hind margin, enclosing small eyes. Expands from 1} to 1? inches. Found in July in rocky places covered with weeds in the Southern Alps, and the mountains of South France and Spain. It is considered one of the rarer species. 24. &. Melas (Herbst.).—Male very variable, ground colour dark brown or blackish, often with a bluish shade, and generally with at least three eyes on all the wings. The two nearest the tip are confluent, and are sometimes united into one bipupilled eye. Fore-wings beneath sometimes with traces of a fulvous band. Under side of hind-wings unicolorous brownish-black, sometimes with an inconspicuous paler band towards the hind margin, enclosing eyes. The female is paler, with about four eyes on all the wings, which are placed on a rust-coloured band, visible on both sides of the fore-wings. Hind-wings beneath ashy-grey, with blackish wavy lines, and blackish atoms. A broad paler dentated band, on which eyes are placed, before the hind margin. Expands about 14 inches. Found in the mountains of South-Eastern Europe, Spain, and the Pyrenees, in June and July. 25. E&. Ligea (Linn.), (Arran Brown).—Dark brown, with rust-coloured bands containing eyes or spots on all the wings; the fringes spotted with white. Under side of fore-wings with the band well defined (at least in the males) and paler; hind-wings dentated, under side brown, with a broad pale band near the hind margin, which is strongly indented on the basal side, and spotted with white; towards the hind margin it encloses eyes surrounded with yellow rings. Expands about 1} inches. The variety Ewryale (Esp.) is smaller (expands only 1} inches), and the band on the hind-wings beneath is more yellowish. We find only faint traces of it in variety Adyte (Hiibn.); and in the variety P/i/omela (Hiibn.), the whole under side is dusted with whitish. One of the commonest species at a moderate elevation in the mountainous or hilly parts of almost all Europe and Northern Asia. It is a species very likely to be found in Scotland, and was said, some years ago, to have been taken in the Isle of Arran. The perfect insect is found in June and July; and the larva, which is pale yellowish-green, with a broad stripe on the back, bordered with paler, and has whitish lines on the sides, feeds on grass in spring and autumn. The under side of the butterfly is figured at Pl. 12, Fig. 8. 26. E. Embla (Thunb.).—Dark brown, fore-wings with a large bipupilled eye near the tip, and smaller ones beneath it with single pupils. _Hind-wings with a variable number of small eyes. All the eyes enclosed in fulvous rings. Wings beneath dark brown; fore-wings marked as above; hind-wings generally with a white spot on the costa, and another near the middle of the wing, and two black dots towards the anal angle. Expands from 1? to 2 inches. Found in marshes from June to August throughout the extreme north of Europe and Asia. 27. E. Disa (Thunb.).—Very like Z. Emb/a, but the eyes are generally blind. Hind-wings unspotted above; on the under side they are ashy-grey, with a broad dentated brown band in the middle. It is found in Lapland in July. GENUS IV.—MELANARGIA (MEIG). Middle-sized butterflies, with the wings rounded and slightly scalloped. The ground colour is white, more or less marbled with black; the under side of the hind-wings is duller, with a row of about six eyes with bluish pupils, interrupted between the second and third, and sometimes slightly visible above. The two eyes nearest the anal angle are generally small and contiguous, and there are also one or two eyes at the tip of the fore-wings beneath. The antennz are long, with a slender and gradually formed club, and the front pair of legs are unusually small. The larve MELANARGIA. 37 are stout and spindle-shaped, with a round head, and are thinly covered with fine hair. They hybernate young, and live concealed in spring. They feed on grass, and conceal themselves during the day. The pupa are placed on the surface of the ground. There are not many species of this genus known, but it appears to be met with throughout Central and Southern Europe, North Africa, and part of Central and Western Asia. The majority of the species are found on the shores of the Mediterranean, and only one is met with north of the Alps. *1. WM. Galathea (Linn.), (Marbled White).—Creamy white, marbled with black; base black; hind margins blackish, and spotted with white lunules on all the wings. A large square spot in the middle of the costa of the fore-wings. Under side of fore-wings with one eye at the tip; hind- wings beneath white in the male, and yellowish in the female. There is a marginal row of six black eyes, and a greyish band across the centre, always interrupted in the middle. Expands from I? to 2} inches. A very variable insect; specimens have occurred almost perfectly white, and others almost black; the latter are most common in Southern Europe. The paler varieties have been called Lescomelas (Esp.), which has the hind-wings unicolorous cream-colour beneath, and Gadene (Ochs.); the dark forms, which are more constant, are Procida (Herbst.) and Turcica (Boisd.). JAZ. Galathea is one of the most abundant insects in Central and Southern Europe; in England it is common where it occurs, but very local. It frequents meadows and open places in woods from June to August. The larva is yellowish-green, with red lines on the back and sides, and may be found in April and May. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 12, Fig. 9. 2. M. Lachesis (Hiibn.).—White, with black borders spotted with white. A large irregular black spot, deeply excavated on both sides, at the end of the cell of the fore-wings. There isa more or less distinct square black spot on the inner margin at the base, but the costal half of the base is white. The under side is similar to that of J7. Galathea, and two or three of the eyes are visible on the upper side of the hind-wings. Expands about 2} inches. It is found in South- Western Europe in May and June. The larva is flesh-colour, with pale carmine lines. 3. MW. Larissa (Hiibn.) resembles the last two species; base of all the wings dusky. The discoidal markings on the fore-wings are composed of two square black spots, forming a sort of right angle. Under side of hind-wings with an uninterrupted central row of white spots edged on both sides with black, and six eyes, with violet pupiis, and enclosed in distinct black rings. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. It inhabits South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia in June. 4. M. Tapygia (Cyr.)—White, with black spots and nervures; an indented black line enclosing white spots on the hind margins. Eyes of the hind-wings visible above; they are yellow below, and pupilled with blue. The base of the wings is often dusky above, without being very distinctly black. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. It inhabits the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas in June and July. The larva is pubescent ; its colour is citron-yellow, with a slight greenish tint, and a brighter line on the back, and yellowish ones on the sides. 5. AZ. Syllius (Herbst.), Psyche (Hiibn.).—White, an irregular black fascia spotted with white at the end of the cell of the fore-wings; all the hind margins black, spotted with white, especially at the tip of the fore-wings, where there is a double row of spots. There are one or two eyes at the tip of the fore-wings, visible on both sides; and five on the hind-wings beneath, some of which are also visible above. The eyes are reddish, with blue pupils, and are enclosed in yellowish rings. The nervures of the hind-wings, and those at the tip of the fore-wings, are broadly reddish beneath. In this and all the following species the hind-wings are edged with a double black line, instead of a single one. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. Common in the south of Europe in June and July. It flies rapidly, and is not easy to catch, except in the morning. It frequents bare hill-sides and waste places. The larva is yellowish flesh-colour, with a light brown line on the back, bordered 10 38 Evrorean Bourrerriies and Morus. with whitish on both sides; and a yellow sub-dorsal line, bordered with dark green. A common variety is green, with a dark line on the back. It feeds.on Brachypodium piniatum in spring. 6. M. Pherusa (Boisd.) resembles JZ. Syllius, but the black spot at the end of the discoidal cell is round, enclosing a white spot, and from its extremity runs a black streak as far as the second nervure below. Nearer the base a short black streak runs across the cell. The base of all the wings is dusky above, and there are two eyes on each side at the tip of the fore-wings. The nervures of the hind-wings are narrowly edged with pale reddish-brown beneath. Expands about 2 inches. It is found in Sicily in June. The larva is yellowish-white, with darker lines on the back, and feeds on Sfivetwm in March. 7. M. Arge (Sulz.).—White, marbled with black towards the hind margins; fore-wings with two eyes, and hind-wings with five, which are reddish beneath. Expands 2 inches. It is found in Calabria in June. (JZ. Thetds, Hiibn., found in Spain from April to June, is similar to this, but much darker above, especially on the margins, where the eyes of the upper side are almost lost in the dark border.) GENUS V.—SATYRUS (LATR.). Middle-sized butterflies, with hairy eyes. The antenne are straight, with a distinct club, except in the last species, in which they are gradually thickened. The middle pair of tibie are scarcely longer than half the length of the tarsi, and the hind-wings are more or less denticulated. The larvae are spindle-shaped, with a small round head. They are green, and covered with thin short hair, and may be obtained by sweeping. The pupa are suspended, except, perhaps, that of Egeria. The butterflies are brown, varied with tawny, and have always an eye at the tip of the fore-wings, and a sub-marginal row of eyes on both surfaces of the hind-wings. 1. S. Rovelana (Cram.).—Brown, fore-wings with a large fulvous blotch in the centre, and the apical eye blind; hind-wings with from three to five marginal eyes in yellowish rings. On the under side the apical eye on the fore-wings is ocellated, and there is a row of five large eyes and two or three small ones on the hind-wings. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. 2. S. Clymene (Esp.) is smaller; the eyes are blind above, and the under side of the hind- wings has a continuous row of seven small black dots in fulvous rings. Both this species and S. Rovelana are found only in South-Eastern Europe in June and July. The larva of Clymene is green, with indistinct lines, and a large round head, surmounted by two points. 3. S. Mera (Linn.)—Wings brown in the male, with a fulvous marginal band, divided into spots by the nervures on the fore-wings, at the tip of which is a large black eye, containing one or two white pupils, and a small eye near it. Hind-wings with two or three eyes. The female has the fore-wings fulvous, with brown transverse streaks. Under side of hind-wings grey, with a marginal row of six black eyes with white pupils, enclosed by several black and yellow rings; the eye at the anal angle is double, and very small. In the variety Advasta (Hiibn.) the marginal fulvous band is more distinct than in the typical M/era. Expands about 1} inches. Widely distributed in Europe, except the north-west, in spring and autumn, being double-brooded. It is chiefly met with in hilly districts, and is fond of settling on rocks. Larva pale green, with a dark line on the back, and pale lines on the sides. It feeds on grass in July, and again from September to May. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 13, Fig. 1. 4. S. Hera (Hiibn.).—Smaller and darker than S. J7@ra, the eye at the tip of the fore-wings is smaller, with a single pupil, and there is a distinct black transverse line on the dark portion of the hind-wings, between the base and the eyes. Under side of hind-wings dark grey, with the eyes rather small and indistinct. Expands about 1} inches, It is found at a moderate elevation EPINEPHILE. 39 in the Alps, and other mountains of Southern Europe and Western Asia, from May to August ; and also in Scandinavia. The larva is undescribed, but is believed to feed on Poa pratensis. *5. S. Megera (Linn.), (Wall Brown).—Tawny, with transverse brown lines; the male with a broad oblique stripe on the fore-wings. The eye at the tip of the fore-wings has only one pupil, and there is another very small eye near it ; the under side is yellowish-grey. Otherwise similar to Mera. The females are difficult to define by description, when the eye of J7@ra is not bipupilled ; but the ground colour of Megera is paler, and the tawny markings of the hind-wings are more extensive. The variety Lyssa (Boisd.), from South-Eastern Europe, has grey hind-wings beneath ; and the variety 77zge/zus (Bon.), from Corsica and Sardinia, is smaller and darker fulvous than the typical M/egera. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. Abundant in all parts of Europe and Western Asia throughout the fine season; it appears as early as February in the extreme south of Europe. It flies along road-sides, frequently settling on the road, or on flowers growing by the wayside; and very frequently on sunny walls, whence its popular name. The larva is green, with pale stripes, and may, like the butterfly, be found throughout the year. The transformations are figured at Pl. 13, Fig. 2, a—c. *6. S. 4egeria (Linn.), (Speckled Wood, or Wood Argus)—Brown, spotted with tawny or (var. Egerides, Staud.) with pale yellow. Fore-wings with an eye near the tip, and hind-wings with three marginal eyes. Hind-wings beneath purplish-grey, the eyes reduced to white dots surrounded with brown.- Expands from 1? to 2 inches. Abundant in shady woods, during all the fine season, throughout the greater part of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. The form 4égeria is found only in the South, and Egerzdes only in Northern and Central Europe. The larva is green, with white stripes, and is found throughout the year. The form Lgerides is figured at Pls 12) Bice 10: 7. S. Achine (Scop.), Dejanira (Linn.).—Pale brown, with a marginal row of large black eyes in yellow rings on all the wings, ocellated only on the under side, which is paler, with a white sub-marginal band, on which the eyes are placed. Expands from 1? to 2 inches. Found in shady woods in June in Northern and Central Europe and Asia; but is generally a scarce and local insect, and is absent from a great portion of North-Western Europe. The larva is dull green, with a darker line on the back, and white lines on the sides; the forked tail is also white. Feeds on Lolium perenne in April. GENUS VI.—EPINEPHILE (HUBN.). Middle-sized butterflies, the fore-wings with an eye near the tip, and generally fulvous beneath; the male with a broad black streak on the fore-wings above (except in Hyperanthus), which is either oblique or transverse. Hind-wings slightly dentated. The antenne gradually clubbed, and the middle pair of tibia nearly as long as the tarsi. The butterflies are found in meadows, at the edges of woods, &c., from June to August. The larve are spindle-shaped, and covered with fine hair; they hybernate, and may be obtained by sweeping in spring. The pupe are suspended, except that of AYyperanthus, which is placed on the surface of the ground. * 1. £. Hyperanthus (Linn.), (Ringlet)—Dark brown, paler beneath ; fringes grey. A variable number of eyes on the wings, ringed with yellow beneath, and slightly also on the upper side in the female. It is a variable insect, and in the variety Avefe (Miill.) the eyes of the under side are represented only by their white pupils. I have a specimen, taken in Germany, in which the outer half of the fore-wings and the edges of the hind-wings are grey instead of brown; and a similar variety of &. Fanira, in which some portions of the margins on the right side only are grey. Expands from 1$ to 1} inches. Abundant in woods throughout the greater part of Europe and 40 Evrorean Bourrerrtirs AND Morus. Northern and Western Asia. Larva grey, with a blackish line on the back, and pale lines on the sides. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 13, Fig. 3. 2. E. Lycaon (Rott.).—Brown ; male with an eye at the tip of the fore-wings, which are tawny in the female, except at the edges, and have two eyes on the outer portion, within which is a brown line. Hind-wings: beneath brown, with no traces of eyes. Common in many parts of Southern and Eastern Europe, though entirely absent in the north-west ; also met with throughout Northern and Western Asia. It frequents sandy openings in woods, and the slopes of limestone hills. Expands about 14 inches. Larva green, with two fine white lines on the back, and a yellow streak on the sides, bordered above with reddish. (£. Naricu, Hiibn., from the Kirghis Steppes, has fulvous fore-wings, with one eye in the male and two in the female, and the under side of the hind-wings is varied with white.) * 3. E. Fanira (Linn.), (Meadow Brown).—Brown; fore-wings with the centre, or at least a sub-marginal band, fulvous in the female. An eye at the tip in both sexes, sometimes bipupilled in the female. Hind-wings beneath greyish-brown, with a paler band towards the hind margins, which is marked with two black dots in the male. The South European variety, Y7spud/a (Esp.), is larger, and much more suffused with fulvous on both the fore and hind wings. It expands from 1} to 2 inches. Abundant everywhere in grassy places throughout Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. The larva is yellowish-green, with a darker line on the back, and a yellowish-white stripe on the sides. The female and the larva are figured at Pl. 13, Fig. 4, a,6. (The Algerian £. Fantroides, Herr. Schiff., which is said to occur also in Spain, has a row of small brown dots in yellow rings on the hind-wings beneath; in the Corsican £. Nurag, Ghil., the male is brown, with a fulvous blotch on each wing, and the apical eye surrounded with fulvous; and the female is fulvous. The under side of the hind-wings is uniformly brown, without paler markings or black dots.) * 4. E. Tithonus (Linn.), (Large Heath).—Centre of the wings fulvous; the margins of the fore- wings and the margins and basal portion of the hind-wings brown. Fore-wings with a bipupilled eye at the tip, and, in the male, a large brown blotch running from their inner margin nearly across the fulvous part. Under side of hind-wings light brown, with several white dots surrounded with brown, and an irregular buff or yellowish band towards the hind margin. Expands about 14 inches. The little group to which this and the two following species belong is principally located in South- Western Europe. This species is the commonest and most widely distributed over Europe and Western Asia, but is absent from Scandinavia, as well as the greater part of Eastern Europe. It is common in bushy places wherever it occurs. The larva is green or brownish, with a dark reddish line on the back, two white lines beneath it, and a yellow stripe on the sides. The male butterfly is figured at Plate 13, Fig. 5. 5. £. Ida (lsp.).—Very similar to the last, but the average size is rather smaller, and the black blotch on the fore-wings of the male is smaller, more square, and better defined. The under side of the hind-wings is pale grey, without eyes, but with a whitish central band bifurcated towards the costa. The larva is whitish-grey, with a black line on the back, and whitish lines on the sides. It inhabits the shores of the Mediterranean, and is found as far north as the southern slopes of the Tyrolese and Austrian Alps. 6. E. Pasiphaé (Esp.).—Brown; fore-wings with the centre fulvous in the female, and with a fulvous marginal band in the male; a black bipupilled eye nearthe tip. Hind-wings with a marginal fulvous band, containing three or four black eyes. Under side of hind-wings brown, with a central yellowish-white streak, and five marginal eyes. Expands from 1} to 1? inches. It inhabits South- Western Europe and Algeria, frequenting stony places covered with bushes. The larva is rather short ; clay-colour, with many fine reddish-brown lines, and a broader dark brown line on the back. C@NONYMPHA. 41 GENUS VII.—CCGNONYMPIIA (HUBN,). Small brown or tawny butterflies, with rounded wings, and a row of eyes on the hind-wings beneath. All the three nervures of the fore-wings are dilated at the base, and the antennz are slender, with a long and fusiform club. The middle pair of tibia are as long as the tarsi. The larvee are slender, with fine hair. They are green, with a small head, and generally hybernate. The pupe are suspended, and the butterflies, some of which are double-brooded, are found in meadows and at the edges of woods, 1. C. Gdipus (Fabr.)—Dark brown above, sometimes shot with purple. Under side olive- brown; the hind-wings with a marginal row of black eyes, with white pupils in pale yellow rings, and bordered outside with a broad lead-coloured line. There are occasionally eyes on the upper side, and on the under side of the fore-wings. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Found in May and June in marshy meadows, but is very local along a narrow strip of country running from the south of France along the Alps and Altai to Pekin and the Amoor, The larva is green, with a darker stripe on the back, and a yellowish-white streak on the sides. It lives on /ris pseudacorus from July to September. 2. C. Hero (Linn.).—Dull brown, olive-brown beneath, with a lead-coloured marginal line on all the wings. Hind-wings beneath with a row of large black eyes with white pupils, in rust- coloured rings, bordered within by a somewhat irregular white stripe. The upper side, and the under side of the fore-wings, are also occasionally marked with eyes. Expands a little over 1 inch. Common in many parts of Central Europe in open woods in May and June, but absent from many districts. It has been reputed British, but no doubt erroneously. 3. C. Iphis (W. V.).—Brown, tinged with tawny ; female tawny ; hind-wings darker, with an orange line at the anal angle, and often with a row of eyes within it. Under side of fore-wings tawny, with a small eye at the tip ; hind-wings with a row of small black eyes, pupilled with white and ringed with pale yellow. There is a narrow lead-coloured line on the hind margin, edged internally with an orange spot, and an irregular and interrupted whitish band nearer the middle of the wing. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Found in open woods in Eastern and Southern Europe and Western Asia in June and July. It is absent from Scandinavia and North-Western Europe. Larva green, with a dark line on the back, and a narrow white line on the sides. Head dark green; stigmata and anal fork reddish. Feeds on grass in April and May. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 13, Fig. 6. 4. C. Arcania (Linn.).—Fore-wings reddish-tawny, with a broad dark brown border ; hind- wings dark brown, sometimes with a few marginal eyes. Under side of fore-wings with a smal eye at the tip; hind-wings beneath pale brown, within which is a black eye on the costa with a white pupil, and surrounded with a. yellow ring. Hind margin reddish, intersected by a broad lead-coloured line, and there are three or four small eyes within it, placed on a broad whitish or yellowish band. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Common in open woods, in June and July, in most parts of Europe and Western Asia; it has been erroneously reputed British. Larva green, with a dark green line on the back, and yellow lines on the sides. Mouth reddish, and the anal fork reddish at the ends. Lives on grass in May. The transformations are figured at Pl. 13, Fig. 7, a—c. 5. C. Philea (Hiibn.), Satyrion (Esp.), resembles C. /fhis above, but the under side of the hind-wings is olive-green, with a distinct central white band, always continuous, of equal width throughout, on which the eyes are placed. There is also a red marginal band, intersected by a thick lead-coloured line. Ixpands a little over 1 inch. It is found in damp meadows in July, il 42 EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. in the Alps and in the mountains of South France, and is now believed to be an Alpine variety of C. Arcania. 6. C. Leander (Esp.).—Male brown, fore-wings suffused with tawny; an orange band at the anal angle of the hind-wings. Female with tawny fore-wings, brown hind margins, and sometimes with one or two marginal eyes ; hind-wings with a paler band than in the male, four black dots, and sometimes a black line. Under side of fore-wings yellow, with an eye at the tip. Hind-wings beneath greenish-yellow, hind margin dusky. A marginal orange band, with six eyes. All the wings with a narrow sub-marginal lead-coloured line. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. It inhabits South-Eastern Europe in June. 7. C. Dorus (Esp.).—Fore-wings brown in the male and fulvous in the female; hind-wings brown, with the centre and a marginal line fulvous. A black eye at tip of fore-wings, and a curved row across the hind-wings. These are surrounded by fulvous rings, and are generally blind above ; the eye of the fore-wings stands on a pale marginal band, sharply bordered on both sides, and shading into the ground colour towards the inner margin. Under side of hind-wings very similar to that of C. Arcanza, but with a much narrower pale band across the centre. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Inhabits South France, Spain, and Italy in July. 8. C. Corinna (Hiibn.)—Reddish fulvous ; hind margins brown. Fore-wings with a black eye on both sides. A silvery sub-marginal line on all the wings beneath ; hind-wings beneath dull fulvous, tinged with green at the base; a narrow irregular central white band, with a large eye on the costa within it, and three or four smaller ones on the outside. Double-brooded, frequenting dry places in June and August in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and probably Italy. The larva is green, with greenish and yellowish lines. It feeds on grass in spring and autumn. 9. C. Amaryllis (Cram.).—Tawny ; fore-wings with indistinct traces of marginal eyes. Under side of fore-wings tawny ; hind-wings greenish. All the wings with grey hind margins, bordered within with traces of a silvery line, within which is a row of black eyes with large silvery pupils and yellow rings; on the hind-wings there are traces of an outer reddish ring, and within the eyes are one or two pale spots, Expands from 1 to 14 inches. Inhabits Eastern Russia and Siberia in June and July. 10. C. Thyrsis (Freyer).—Fulvous, with the margins brown, a fulvous streak at the anal angle of the hind-wings. A black eye at the tip of the fore-wings, and three on the outer part of the fulvous portion of the hind-wings, ocellated only below. Under side of fore-wings with a black line within the eye, and a pale fulvous one on the brown hind margin. Hind-wings yellowish- grey, with a central pale yellowish band, and traces of several eyes besides the three principal ones. The marginal line is stone-coloured and indented. Expands 1} inches. Common in May in the island of Crete: * 11. C. Pamphilus (Linn.), (Small Heath)—Tawny, a black dot at the tip of the fore-wings, represented below by a black eye in a buff ring. Hind-wings beneath greenish-grey, paler towards the margins, and an irregular and interrupted white band across the middle. There are occa- sional faint traces of marginal eyes, especially in the large South European variety Ly//us (Esp.). Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Abundant everywhere throughout Europe, North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia, during all the fine season. The larva is green, with two white stripes on the back, and a yellowish stripe on the sides. It feeds on grass, and there is a succession of broods throughout the year. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 13, Fig. 8. * 12. C. Typhon (Rott.), Davus (Fabr.), (Zarsh Ringlet).—Very variable; ochre-yellow or brownish-yellow, sometimes with black eyes on the hind margins in yellow rings, and ocellated only below ; sometimes with no eyes above, and mere traces of them below. Fore-wings beneath TRIPHYSA. 43 with a pale line within the eyes; hind-wings brown, tinged with green at the base, with an inter- rupted white band, broken into spots, within the eyes. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Common, though somewhat local, on moors and mosses in Northern and Central Europe, including Ireland, Scotland, and the north of England. It has also been met with in North Wales, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and it is said in Ashdown Forest, in Sussex. It is found in July; and the larva, which feeds on cotton grass near the roots in May, is green, with white longitudinal lines; and the pupa, which is suspended by the tail, is also green. GENUS VIII.—TRIPHYSA (ZELL). Wings entire; the three principal nervures of the fore-wings much dilated at the base in the male, but only the two first in the female. Club of the antennz round and flat. The only European species, 7. Phryne (Pall.), is found in South Russia and Siberia, and there are one or two other species in Northern Asia, among which is 7. Swndecca (Eversm.). 7. Phryne expands from I to 1} inches; the male is brown, with whitish hind margins, and the female is dirty white. The under side of all the wings is brown, with the nervures and a marginal line on all the wings white, and a marginal row of black eyes with white pupils. It is found in meadows in May and June. FAMILY VI.—LIBYTHEID. Fore-wings broadly truncated at the tip, with a prominent angle below it; hind-wings strongly dentated ; the discoidal cell open. The antennz are moderately long, and gradually thickened to the extremity; the palpi are very long, and contiguous throughout their whole length, forming a kind of beak, nearly as in the Crambide. The front legs are rudimentary in the male, and perfect in the female. The larve are cylindrical, with a few fine hairs and a smooth rounded head. The pupa is suspended by the tail. This family is now generally treated as a section of either the Nymphalide or the Erycinide. It contains but one genus, Lzbythea (Fabr.), which is represented in most parts of the world by a very few species, closely resembling the European ZL. Ce/tis (Esp.), which is brown, with a fulvous basal streak on the fore-wings, beyond which, and on the hind- wings, are several large fulvous blotches. Near the tip are one or two white spots. Expands about 1} inches. It is found in Europe, south of the Alps, and in Western Asia, in March, June, and July, wherever its food-plant, Celtis Australis, grows wild. The larva is green, with black dots, and with whitish stripes on the back and sides. It is found in April, May, and July. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 13, Fig. 9. FAMILY VII—ERYCINID:, The palpi generally very small, the antenne long, and the hind-wings slightly grooved. The front legs are rudimentary in the male, and perfect in the female. The pupa is suspended by the tail and a girth round the body. The larve resemble those of the Lycenide, of which some entomologists regard the Evycinid@ as a section. There must now be nearly a thousand species of Erycinide described, but, except a few found in the East Indies and North America, they are exclusively confined to tropical America. The single European species is likewise the only species of its genus, and has much resemblance to a small A/e/itea. 44 E-vrROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. GENUS NEMEOBIUS (STEPH.). Head small, eyes hairy, antenne slender, with an abrupt and compressed club, Fore-wings short and triangular, the costa and hind margin nearly straight, hind-wings rounded and dentated The only species, *V. Lacina (Linn.), expands from 1 to 1} inches ; it is brown, with three rows of dull orange spots on the fore-wings, and two on the hind-wings, the outer rows enclosing black dots. Under side reddish-brown, with black marginal dots, and two rows of whitish spots on the hind-wings. It is common in woods in many parts of Southern and Western Europe (including the south of England) in May, June, and August. The larva is pale olive-brown, with a darker stripe on the back, dotted with blackish, and a paler line on the sides. It lives on primroses and sorrel from June to September. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 13, Fig. ro. FAMILY VIII—LYCENIDE, This family comprises most of our smaller butterflies, except the Skippers. They are blue, copper-red, or brown, often with a short tail; and the under side is generally marked either with black eyes enclosed in pale rings, or with pale transverse lines. The antenne have a rather long club; the palpi are hairy, with the last joint naked; and the front legs of the male are rather smaller than those of the female, and the last joint of the tarsi terminates in a simple hook. There are ten or eleven nervules on the fore-wings, and the disco-cellular nervules are perpendicular, with the fifth nervule rising between them. The larva are wood-louse shaped, and covered with fine short hair; the head is small and retractile. This family is well represented in all parts of the world, especially in the northern hemisphere and in South America, but the number of distinctly-defined genera is small; and while some are inclined to sub-divide them, others would prefer still further to reduce the number of genera, by placing the Blues and Coppers, and perhaps even the Hair-Streaks, in the same genus. GENUS I—POLYOMMATUS (LATR.). The antennz are slender, with the club abrupt and elongated; the palpi are rather long, and the eyes are sometimes hairy and sometimes naked. The upper side is more or less blue in the male, seldom brown; but the female is generally brown, though often dusted with blue. There are nearly always eyes towards the base of the hind-wings beneath, and often on the fore- wings also. In the latter case there is never more than one in the discoidal cell, and an eye-like spot or streak at its extremity; and the hind-wings have often a black transverse streak at the end of the cell, surrounded with white, and there are often one or two rows of eye-like spots near the hind margin, sometimes with reddish spots between. Some species have pale transverse lines on the under side instead of eyes; and these, and one or two others, have short and slender tails on the hind-wings. These streaked species are sometimes placed in another genus, under the name of Lampides (Hiibn.). The fore-wings have eleven nervules, the seventh and eighth nervule rising from a common stem, and the sixth nervule separate. The larvee are short and arched, and generally live on the flowers and seeds of leguminous plants. Some hide themselves during the day, and most of them hybernate, and may be obtained in spring or summer either by sweeping or by searching for them on their food-plants. The butterflies frequent open flowery places, especially on a chalk or limestone soil. A few species are Alpine or Polar, and the genus is POLVOMMATUS. 45 tolerably well represented in all parts of the world, though there are fewer species in Africa and South America than elsewhere. The only butterfly yet described from the Galapagos Islands, which are remarkable for the poverty of their fauna and flora, though lying directly under the equator, is a species of this genus (P. Parrhasioides, Wallengr.). Although our species are small insects, few of the tropical species surpass them in size and beauty, and many are small and insignificant in comparison ; and the largest known species (P. Pryeri, Murray), which is found in Japan, does not expand more than 2 inches, and is therefore not much larger than the European P. Lolas (Ochs.), which it resembles on the upper side. 1. P. Arcas (Rott.).—Wings dark brown above, dusted with dark blue towards the base in the male, which has a row of indistinct elongated spots running across the middle of the wings above. Under side uniform brown, with a row of small eyes, waved on the fore-wings and strongly arched on the hind-wings, but with no other spots or markings, except the narrow discoidal lunules. Expands about 14 inches. Frequents marshy meadows in Central Europe, but is absent from the north-west ; it is also found in the Altai. It flies in July and August, but is not generally very common. The young larva lives in the pods of Sanguisorba officinalis in August and September. * 2. P. Arion (Linn.); (Large Blue).—Blue, with black hind margins, fore-wings with a black lunule in the discoidal cell, and a row of oval black spots beyond it; under side ashy grey, with a much waved row of eyes across all the wings, and two marginal rows of spots. There are also discoidal lunules on all the wings, and one small spot nearer the base on the fore-wings, and several on the hind-wings, which latter are dusted with pale blue at the base. Expands from 1} to 14 inches. Common on heaths and meadows in a great part of Europe and Western Asia from May to July. It is a very local insect in England, being restricted to a few localities in Northampton- shire, Devonshire, &c. The larva feeds exposed on the blossoms of the wild thyme. 3. P. Euphemus (Hiibn.).—Very close to Arion, but with a row of black spots on the upper side of the hind-wings in the female. Under side with no basal eye on the fore-wings, and only two on the hind-wings. The central row of eyes is less curved, and the base of the hind-wings is less blue. Expands about 1} inches. It is common, but local, in various parts of Central Europe in July, frequenting damp meadows. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 1. 4. P. Alcon (Fabr.).—Male purplish-blue, unspotted ; female brown, dusted with blue at the base. Under side similar to Euphemus, but browner, and the middle row of spots is much curved. Expands about 1} inches. Found on moors and meadows, near woods, in June and July in many parts of Central and Southern Europe, and in the Altai, but is seldom common, and appears to be almost absent from North-Eastern Germany. It has been erroneously reputed British, 5. P. Lolas (Ochs.).—Male purplish-blue, with a narrow brown border, and the costa of the hind- wings brown ; in the female the hind margin of the fore-wings and the costa of the hind-wings are very broadly brown. The under side is silvery grey, with discoidal lunules, and a row of eyes which are not much curved on the hind-wings, and are nearly straight, and parallel to the hind margin on the fore-wings. There are two basal eyes on the hind-wings (which are dusted with blue at the base), but none on the fore-wings. There is a rowof marginal spots on all the wings beneath, which are very indistinct, except towards the anal angle of the hind-wings. Expands from 1} to 14 inches. Inhabits Europe south of the Alps, but is a rather scarce insect. It appears in June and July. The larva is greenish-brown, with a black line on the back, and a broad pale band on the sides. It lives in the pods of Co/utea arborescens. This insect attains a larger size than any other European species of the genus. 6. P. Melanops (Boisd.).—Male purplish-blue, with a narrow black border ; female brown, with the base blue. Under side grey, green at the base, with discoidal lunules, and one or two basal 12 46 EvropPeAN Burrerryies anv. Morus. eyes on the hind-wings ; none on the fore-wings. The central row of black eyes on the fore-wings is much larger and more distinct than that on the hind-wings. Expands about 1 inch. Inhabits South France, Spain, and Algeria in April and May. Larva bluish-grey, sometimes apple-green, with glaucous green longitudinal lines. Lives on Dorycnium at the end of May and in June. 7. P. CGrllarus (Hiibn.).—Male sky-blue; female brown, blue at base. Under side as in Melanops, but the hind-wings are powdered with brilliant coppery green from the base to beyond the discoidal lunule, which is lost in it. Common in flowery slopes and glades on the edges of woods from May to August, in the greater part of Europe and Northern Asia. In the north- eastern plains of Germany it is very local, and it is wholly absent from the north-western plain of Europe (including England and the Low Countries, &c.). The larva is yellowish-green, with a reddish line on the back, dark green oblique stripes, and a black head. Feeds on various Papilionacee in June and July. The butterfly and the larva are figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 2, a, 3. (P. Celestina, Eversm., from the south of France, and Russia, differs from Cy//arus in the uniform size of the central row of eyes on the fore and hind wings beneath.) *8. P. Semiargus (Rott.), P. Acis (Fabr.), (Maszarine Blue).—Male dark purplish-blue, with a moderately large black border ; female uniform brown. Under side dull ash-colour, green at the base, the central row of eyes of uniform size on the fore and hind wings, and with discoidal lunules. Fore-wings with basal eyes. There are several varieties found in South-Eastern Europe and Asia Minor with red marginal spots on the under side. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Common in meadows throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia. A local insect in England, where it has lately been so rare that it seemed to be becoming extinct. It is found from May to August. The larva is covered with fine yellowish-green hair, with darker stripes on the back and sides. The head, feet, and stigmata are dark brown. It lives on Axthyllis vulneraria in August and September. 9. P. Sebrus (Boisd.).—Male violet-blue, with a narrow black border; female dark brown, dusted with violet-blue at the base. Fringes very white. Under side grey, more or less bluish at the base, and with discoidal lunules; the central row of eyes rather small, and of uniform size. Fore-wings with the eyes nearly straight, and near the hind margin, but with no basal eyes. Hind-wings with two basal eyes; the eyes of the hind-wings in an irregular series, twice interrupted, and commencing with a single detached eye on the costa. Expands about 1 inch. It inhabits dry places in mountainous districts in Europe, south of the Alps, and in Western Asia from May to July. *10. P. Minima (Fuessly), Adsus (W. V.), (Bedford Blue).—Brown, faintly dusted with silvery blue in the male. Under side similar to Sedvus, but less tinged with blue at the base. The eyes are much larger, and the central row of the hind-wings commences with two contiguous spots on the costa. Expands a little under 1 inch. Common throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia from May to August. It is chiefly confined to chalk and limestone districts in Britain. Larva dirty green, with a reddish stripe bordered with yellow on the back, and similar oblique streaks and a yellowish line on the sides. It lives in June and August on Coronilla varia, Astrogalus cicer, and Melilotus. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 3. * 11. P. Argiolus (Linn.), (Azure Blue)—Blue; female with the hind margin of the fore-wings and the costa of the hind-wings broadly black, and with a black discoidal spot on the fore-wings, and black marginal dots on the hind-wings. Under side pale blue, with a central row of black spots scarcely ocellated, and with black marginal spots which are indistinct except towards the anal angle of the hind-wings. Discoidal lunules very slender; no basal spots on the fore-wings. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. It is common, but seldom very abundant, in open woods POLYOMMATUS. 47 throughout Europe, Northern and Western Asia, and North Africa; and very closely allied species are found in the Himalayas and North America. It is double-brooded, occurring from April to August, and thus appears earlier in the year than any of our other Blues. The larva ' is dull dark satiny green, with a dark green line on the back, and a black head. It feeds on the flowers of holly, buckthorn and ivy in early summer, and again in autumn. The upper and under sides of the butterfly are figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 4, a, 0. 12. P. Donzelii (Boisd.).—Brown, basal half of all the wings pale blue in the male. Under side similar to that of P. Damon, but the eyes of the fore-wings beneath are not much larger than those of the hind-wings, and the white longitudinal streak on the under side of the hind- wings (which often have marginal orange spots, as well as indistinct marginal dark spots) is shorter, broader behind, and less distinct than in P. Damon. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. It is found in the high mountains of South France, the Southern Alps, and the Altai in June and July, but is met with in the plains in some parts of Russia and Sweden. 13. P. Damon (W. V.).—Male pale blue, with rather broad brown hind margins; female brown, sometimes bluish at the base; fringes white. Under side greyish or reddish brown, with a row of eyes which are much larger on the fore-wings than on the hind-wings. Fore- wings with no basal eyes; hind-wings with a broad white longitudinal streak running from the base almost to the hind margin. In the variety Damone (Eversm.), from the Ural, the male is blue, with a narrow black border, and the basal streak on the hind-wings beneath is narrower and whiter. Expands from 1 to 14 inches. Common from June to August in many parts of South Europe and Western Asia, though somewhat local. It frequents sunny flowery slopes, especially on a limestone soil, in fields of Oxobrychis sativa, on which the larva, which is yellowish- green, with a dark green stripe on the back, and a paler stripe, bordered with white, on the sides, may be found in May and June. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 5. 14. P. Admetus (Esp.)—Dark brown, with brownish fringes, hind-wings often with traces of marginal orange spots in the female. Under side pale grey; fore-wings with a black discoidal lunule surrounded with white, but without basal spots; hind-wings with two basal spots. There is a central row of eyes on all the wings, and a double row of brown ante-marginal lunules, which are slightly tinged with orange in the female. Inhabits South-Eastern Europe, Western Asia, and perhaps South France, in June. The variety Rzpartic (Freyer) is more widely distributed, occurring also in the Southern Alps in June and July. It may be distinguished from Advmetus by its smaller size, and by possessing a white basal streak on the under side of the hind-wings. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. 15. 2. Dolus (Hiibn.)—Male very pale blue, almost white, base greenish-blue, centre of the wings light brown, veins brown, hind margins darker. Female dark brown, faintly bluish-green at the base, with a large black discoidal spot on the fore-wings. Under side yellowish-grey, with the usual row of eyes, and one on the costa of the hind-wings near the base. The female has a faint basal streak (more distinct in the Turkish variety JZenalcas, Freyer, the male of which is less brown). PP. Dolws is not uncommon in South France and Piedmont from June to August. The larva, which feeds on Oxobrychis sativa in May, is green, with slightly oblique yellowish dorsal streaks, separated by more conspicuous green lines, violet at the sides, and bounded by a yellowish line. This species is probably only another variety of Admmetus, as is also doubtless the Syrian Hopffert (Herr. Schaff.), which appears to be intermediate between Admetus and Menalcas. 16. P. Daphnis (W. V.).—Wings dentated, slightly in the male, but with two strong projections before the anal angle of the hind-wings in the female. Male blue, female duller, with black nervures, a black discoidal spot surrounded with whitish, and broad blackish borders, with a 48 EvroreEAN BurreERFLigs AND Morus. marginal row of orange spots, often partly surrounded with white, on the hind-wings. Under side pale grey, with the usual row of eyes, and indistinct marginal orange spots; one basal eye in the cell of the fore-wings. Inthe variety S¢eevenz (Treitschke), from South-Eastern Europe, the male has a distinct black border, and the female is brown. Very local, and seldom common in Southern and Eastern Europe and Western Asia, frequenting sunny, flowery places in June and July. It expands ‘about 1} inches. 17. P. Dorylas (W. V.).—Male bright blue, with a narrow black border; female brown, with a small discoidal spot on the fore-wings, and traces of a marginal row of orange spots on the hind- wings. Fringes white, unspotted. Under side reddish-grey, with a row of eyes, which are largest on the fore-wings. Fore-wings with no basal eyes, but with marginal orange spots edged inside with black ones ; hind-wings with a white heart-shaped spot in the middle. Opposite to this is a faint white streak, intersecting the hind margin. The marginal orange spots on the hind-wings are edged outside with black ones. Expands from 1 to 14 inches. It is found from May to August in many parts of Europe, but is local and not very common, frequenting grassy woods and hills, especially on a limestone soil. It is almost absent from the plains of Northern Germany, and although it has long been reputed to occur in the south of England, its occurrence in Britain has not yet been fully confirmed. The larva is dark green, with a darker line on the back, anda yellow streak on the sides; between these runs a row of yellow streaks: head black. It lives on the flowers of AZelilotus officinalis in spring and autumn, being double-brooded. * 18. P. Corydon (Poda.), (Chalk-hill Blue)—Male pale blue, with rather broad black hind margins ; female brown. Fringes white, distinctly spotted with black. Under side of fore-wings whitish in the male, and brownish-grey in the female, with basal eyes; hind-wings beneath brown, with a whitish heart-shaped discoidal spot, and a white dash before the red marginal spots. All the wings with a row of eyes, but the three first basal eyes on the hind-wings do not form with the others a vegular curve round the discoidal spot. Common in Southern and Central Europe on chalk and limestone from May to August. It generally appears about the end of July in its localities in the south of England. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Larva green, with yellow lines on the back and sides. It lives on Coronilla varia, &c., in May and June. The male and the larva and pupa are figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 6, a—c. * 19. P. Bellargus (Rott.), Adonis (Hiibn.), (Clifden Blue)—Male sky-blue ; female brown, but with fewer marginal orange spots than P. Corydon. It is dusted with blue towards the base, and is wholly blue in var. Ceronus (Esp.). The fringes are white, spotted with black. Under side as in P. Corydon, but darker in the male, and the basal eyes of the fore-wings are occasionally wanting. The three first basal eyes of the hind-wings are arranged so as to form nearly a circle round the discoidal spot with those of the central row. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. It is double- brooded, appearing both in spring and autumn, and is very common in many parts of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, especially on chalk or limestone. In North-Eastern and North- Western Europe it is much more local than in the south. The larva is green or pale brown, with a darker line on the back, and a yellow line on the sides. Between these is a row of triangular reddish-yellow spots; head blackish-brown. It lives on Trifolium, Genista, Lotus, Hippocrepis, &c., in May and June, and again in autumn. The male butterfly is figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 7. *20. P. Icarus (Rott.), Alexis (W. V.), (Common Blue).—Male lilac-blue, narrowly edged with black ; fringes white, unspotted. The female varies from blue to brown, and has a marginal row of red spots. Under side with marginal red spots, bordered with black ones, and a central row of eyes. Fore-wings brownish-grey, with two basal spots, except in var. /carinus (Scriba.). Hind- wings yellowish-brown, with basal spots; and a white dash in the centre of the hind margin. Base PoLyvomaMaTUs. 49 bluish on fore-wings, and greenish on hind-wings. Expands from two-thirds of an inch to an inch and a half. Both the perfect insect and the larva are abundant everywhere during all the fine season throughout Europe, Northern and Western Asia, as far as the Himalayas, and North Africa. The larva is green, with a dark line bordered with paler, dull white transverse streaks, and a yellow stripe on the sides; head black. It feeds on grass, clover, &c. 21. P. Evos (Ochs.).—Very similar to /carws, but the male is shining pale blue, with broader black borders, and the female brown; fringes unspotted. Under side paler, fore-wings with basal eyes, hind-wings with smaller and duller-coloured marginal spots. The fore-wings, too, are more pointed, and the fringes longer. The variety Evozdes (Friv.) is larger, the male darker blue above, and the under side purer grey, with larger eyes. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Local and not very common on Alpine meadows and slopes in the Pyrenees, Alps, Altai, and the mountains of Western Asia from June to August. It is said to occur on the plains of the middle and lower Volga. The variety 4voides is met with more to the north-east; in South Russia, East Prussia, &c. 22. P. Anteros (Freyer).—Male pale whitish-blue, with a moderately broad brown border ; fore- wings with a black discoidal spot, and hind-wings with traces of black dots surrounded with orange. Female brown, with a marginal row of large orange spots enclosing black dots on the hind-wings. Under side brownish, with a marginal row of orange spots. The row of eyes on the fore-wings is rather large, and there is one small basal spot within the discoidal spot. Hind-wings with two rows of spots much mixed with white, and a spot at the base. Expands from two-thirds of an inch to aninch. Inhabits South-Eastern Europe and Asia Minor from May to July. 23. P. Escheri (Hiibn.), Agestor (Godt.).—Very close to /carus, but generally larger (from 1 to 1} inches). The male is a little darker, with silvery white nervures, and the black border is a little broader, and more sharply defined. The female is brown, with marginal orange spots, which fade away gradually towards the tips of the fore-wings. Under side brighter-coloured, with larger eyes, but with no basal eyes on the fore-wings, and the row of eyes before the hind margin is less curved. Found in the Southern Alps, and other mountains of South Europe, from May to July. 24. P. Amandus (Schneid.), /carius (Esp.)—Wings above purplish-blue in the male, fore- wings with a broad suffused black border, and hind-wings with a narrower one; fringes white, unspotted. Female like that of /carus above. Under side with the central row of eyes nearly uniform in size (in the female, those of the fore-wings are the largest) ; fore-wings with no basal eyes, hind-wings with a long and narrow black discoidal spot surrounded with white, and with orange marginal spots. There is no white blotch in the middle, but sometimes a white longitudinal streak running from the marginal orange spots to the discoidal spot. Expands from I to 1} inches. Local in Eastern and Southern Europe and Northern Asia from June to August. It frequents hilly districts, and is confined to the mountains in South-Western Europe ; it is unknown in the north-west. 25. P. Chiron (Rott.), Eumedon (Esp.).—Brown, with a black discoidal spot on the fore-wings, and a marginal row of orange spots on the hind-wings in the female ; fringes white, unspotted. Under side brownish-grey, with the central row of eyes larger on the fore-wings than on the hind- wings, and with marginal orange spots. No basal spots on the fore-wings ; the discoidal spot of the hind-wings surrounded with white, and with a broad white streak running from it to the eyes. Expands from I to 1} inches. It is found from June to August in damp meadows, and its range is similar to that of the last species, except that it occurs in Western Asia also. In the Alps and the south of Europe it appears to be exclusively a mountain insect. 26. P. [das (Ramb.).—Brown ; fore-wings with a black discoidal lunule sometimes marked 13 50 FEvropean Burrerrries AND Morus. with white ; hind-wings with from two to four marginal black dots marked with orange. Under side with reddish-brown eyes, hind margins whitish-yellow, with yellowish fulvous lunules ; fore- wings with the marginal spot nearest to the anal angle white, and the other marginal spots often wanting ; hind-wings with a large white triangular discoidal spot. The eyes of the central row are rather irregular; the first two eyes of the fore-wings and the second on the hind-wings are widely separated from the others. It inhabits the mountains of Andalusia in June. *27. P. Astrarche (Bergstr.), Medon (Esp.), Agestis (Hiibn.), (Brown Argus).—Brown, with a marginal row of very distinct orange spots, except in variety A//ous (Hiibn.), on all the wings, both above and below, resting on black dots on the hind-wings. Under side with rather large eyes, fore-wings with no basal spots, hind-wings with the first two spots of the middle band placed close together and widely separated from the next; a white blotch in the middle, within the red spots, to which runs a narrow white line from the second of the three basal eyes. In the variety called the Scotch Argus (Artaverres, Fabr.) the discoidal spot on the fore-wings above is white instead of black, and the eyes of the under side are almost entirely filled up with white. This is connected with the ordinary Astrarche by the intermediate variety called the Durham Argus (Salmacis, Steph.), found in the north of England. Expands rather under 1} inches. It is found throughout Europe, North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia to the Himalayas, from May to August, frequenting dry, sunny places, especially on chalk or limestone. In the Alps it is found nearly to the tree-limit. A//ows is the second brood in the south of Europe; and Artaxerxes is exclusively confined to Scotland. The larva of the last form is pale bluish-green, with a dark green line on the back, and a pinkish one on each side ; the head is glossy black. It lives on Helianthemum vulgare in May. P. Astrarche is figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 9. 28. P. Orbitulus (De Prunn.).—Wings above dark brown, with a black discoidal lunule, and dusted with pale bluish-grey, especially towards the base, in the male; fringes white, unspotted. Under side pale grey in the male, and brownish in the female ; fore-wings with a double basal eye, and the usual row of eyes; hind-wings with a white heart-shaped discoidal spot ; hind margins broadly whitish, with some blackish dots and markings in the male, and some orange spots towards the anal angle; the central row of eyes represented only by two contiguous spots resembling a white figure of 8 filled up with black, in the middle of the costa. Expands rather under 1 inch. Locally abundant in the Alps, Pyrenees, and the mountains of Asia Minor in June and July, especially on a limestone soil. The variety Agzz/o (Boisd.), which is smaller and bluer, is probably circumpolar. 29. P. Pheretes (Hiibn.).—Male blue, with a narrow black border; female brown, fringes white, unspotted. Under side greenish-grey; fore-wings with the usual row of eyes, but with no basal eye; hind-wings with two oblique rows of large round white spots. Expands about 1 inch. Locally abundant in June and July at a great elevation in the French and Swiss Alps. It also occurs in the mountains of Scandinavia and Siberia. 30. P. Psylorita (Freyer)—Pale brown, with a marginal row of orange-yellow spots. Under side white or silvery grey, all the usual rows of eyes reduced to simple dots, and very indistinct ; marginal band pale yellow, frequently almost obliterated. Expands nearly 1 inch. It occurs on Mount Ida in June, nearly at the snow-line. 31. P. Rhymnus (Eversm.).—Brown, base dusted with greenish-purple. _ Under side dark brown, with a slight greenish tinge, and speckled all over with white spots. Expands three- quarters of aninch. It is found on mountains in South Russia and the Altai in May and June. 32. P. Lysimon (Hiibn.).—Brown, male blue at the base; fringes brown. Under side pale grey, with discoidal lunules and basal eyes, a double row of black marginal spots, and an POLYOMMATUS. 51 angulated central row of black dots. There is an eye on the costa of the fore-wings above the discoidal lunule. Expands two-thirds of an inch. It is found in meadows in the south of France, Spain, the greater part of Africa, Western Asia, and the East Indies in July. 33. P. Penope (Eversm.).—Brown, blue in the centre and towards the base in the male, fringes spotted with black and white. Under side greyish-brown, with black discoidal lunules, outside which is a curved row of black eyes, and a double row of submarginal black dots; hind-wings with three or four basal eyes. All the eyes, except the marginal dots, are rather large, and surrounded with white. Expands about 1 inch. It inhabits the marshy steppes of the Lower Ural, and is one of the rarest of the Russian species. 34. P. Hylas (W. V.).—Male blue, with black dots towards the anal angle of the hind-wings ; female brown, blue at the base, and with a marginal row of bluish-white lunules, partly enclosing the black spots of the hind-wings. Fringes spotted with black and white; fore-wings with a large discoidal lunule. Under side bluish-grey, with the usual central row of eyes; fore-wings with a second smaller eye in the cell within the discoidal lunule, and a marginal row of small black spots ; the eyes of the fore-wings are much larger than those on the hind-wings. Hind-wings with a double marginal row of small black spots, between which is a row of orange spots. Widely distributed on the shores of the Mediterranean, and in France, South Germany, and Northern Asia. It is double-brooded, and is found in dry, sunny places from May to August. The larva feeds on different species of thyme. 35. LP. Orion (Pall.), Battus (Hiibn.).—Brown, purplish-blue at the base; fore-wings with a black discoidal lunule, and a row of violet-blue lunules towards the hind margin ; hind-wings with a marginal row of large black spots in violet-blue rings. Fringes very distinctly spotted with black and white. Under side whitish, with large black spots instead of eyes; fore-wings with basal spots and a discoidal lunule, beyond which are two rows of large and almost confluent spots, and a third row of smaller separated spots nearer the hind margin; hind-wings with a discoidal spot, and four basal spots; outside these is an orange band, edged within with black lunules, on each side of which is a row of large round black spots. Expands about 1 inch. It is common, though local, in many parts of Southern and Central Europe (except the north-west) and Southern and Western Asia from May to July, generally frequenting rocky places. The larva is sea-green, with a black head, and a dark violet line on the back. It feeds on Sedum telephium in July and August. 36. P. Bavius (Eversm.).—Male purplish-blue, with a rather broad black border, and three or four black eyes in orange rings at the anal angle of the hind-wings. Female dark brown, slightly orange at the base, with a marginal row of orange spots on the hind-wings. The fringes are spotted with black and white. Under side of the fore-wings with the spots much larger than on the hind-wings. There is a double row of eyes, the innermost much curved, and two spots in the discoidal cell, that nearest the base double. Hind-wings beneath with a marginal row of orange spots, edged outside with black spots and inside with black lunules, within which the central row of eyes curves round the discoidal lunule; and there are also four basal spots. It expands about 1} inches, and is found in South Russia and Western Asia. 37. P. Pylaon (Waldh.)—Male purplish-blue, with a very narrow black border, and white fringes; the hind-wings with some black dots occasionally marked with orange near the anal angle, and slight traces of an inner whitish line within the black border. Female brown, with marginal orange spots, which diminish as they recede from the hinder angles of all the wings; and nearly always with bluish-white streaks or spots before the marginal line. Under side silvery grey, with a submarginal row of orange spots on all the wings, edged on both sides with black ones. The 52 Evrorran Bourrerryies AND Torus. discoidal lunules are large and black; fore-wings with no basal eyes, but with a curved row of six basal spots, of which the fifth is placed nearer the base, and the sixth in a line with the others, but very small. Hind-wings with the central row consisting of eight rather large spots, the sixth placed nearer the base than the others, and three basal spots within the discoidal lunule. The outer black spots on the under side of the hind-wings are rarely dusted with green scales. Expands about 1 inch. Inhabits the steppes of South Russia in May. (P. Cyane, Eversm., which Staudinger considers a variety of this, is larger, and the female has marginal white spots, and is blue at the base. It is also a South Russian species.) 38. P. Zephyrus (Friv.).—Very similar to Pylaon, which may be only a variety, but is rather larger. Male purplish-blue in the type, and greenish-blue in variety esferica (Ramb.). Female brown. Anal angle of hind-wings with about three black dots, marked with orange in the female, but rarely with whitish or bluish. Spots of the under side rather smaller than in Py/aon, and those nearest the hind margin of the hind-wings generally very slightly marked with green scales. Found from May to July in Turkey, Greece, and Asia Minor; Hesferica occurs in Andalusia. 39. P. Optilete (Knoch.).—Male dark purple, with a narrow black border; female brown, purplish at the base, hind-wings with an orange spot at the anal angle. Under side grey, fore- wings with no basal eyes; the central row of eyes near the hind margin. All the wings with a double row of marginal black spots; the outermost spots towards the anal angle of the hind-wings are dusted with brilliant blue, and marked with one or two orange spots. Expands about 1 inch. Common in Northern, Eastern, and Alpine Europe, but absent from the north-west. It occurs on peat bogs in June and July, but is a mountain insect in the Alps. The variety Cyparissus (Hiibn.) which is found in Lapland, is smaller, with the under side paler. Larva pale green, with short reddish hairs, and a white stripe on the sides bordered with white ; head blackish-brown. It feeds on Vaccinium oryococcus from autumn to May. * 40. P. dégon (W. V.), (Szlver-studded Blie)—Male blue, with a brown border; female brown, with the base blue, and marginal red spots on the hind-wings. Under side bluish-grey in the male, or brown, with the base bluish, in the female. A marginal row of large orange spots, and three rows of black eyes, the outermost dusted with metallic blue on the hind-wings. The front pair of tibiee have a short spine at the ends. Expands about 1 inch. Common in most parts of Europe and Asia Minor from May to August, on heaths, meadows, &c. Larva slender, green or brown, with a reddish-brown line on the back, bordered with lighter, and a white streak on the sides; head black. It feeds on clover, vetch, &c., in May and June. 41. P. Argus (Linn.).—Very like Zgon, but generally a little larger, with the black border narrower in the male; female bluer, and with less distinct orange spots. Under side generally less blue at the base and with smaller spots; but both species are variable, and the only certain distinction between them is the want of spines at the end of the front tibia in Avgws. Its range is similar to that of gon, but it is scarcer and more local, especially in North-Western Europe, and it is not found in Britain. It frequents similar localities in June and July. The larva is green, with a dark stripe on the back bordered with paler, a reddish-brown streak and white oblique stripes on the sides, and a blackish head. It feeds on broom, clover, &c., in May and June. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 10. 42. P. Trochilus (Freyer).— Brown; hind-wings with two or three black spots, partially surrounded with orange, near the anal angle. Under side pale grey, with the usual row of eyes; fore-wings with no basal spot; hind-wings with three or four black marginal eyes towards the anal angle, surrounded with orange, and brilliantly dusted with gold outside. There are several white lines on the outside of all the wings. Inhabits Turkey and Asia Minor in July and POLYOMMATUS. 53 August ; it is also found in South Africa. This is the smallest butterfly known to occur in Europe, not expanding much more than half an inch. 43. P. Fischeri (Eversm.).—Brown, with white fringes. Fore-wings with a black discoidal spot; hind-wings very slightly dentated, and often with one or two black dots near the anal angle. Under side greyish, with a double row of black marginal spots. Hind-wings with a row of orange spots between these, and the outermost black spots dusted with metallic green. The central row of spots is rather large ; fore-wings with no basal spots. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. It inhabits the steppes of Russia in July. 44. P. Argiades (Pall.), Tirestas (Rott.).—Male lilac-blue; female brown, with two orange spots at the anal angle of the hind-wings, which have a short slender tail. Under side bluish-white, with small eyes; fore-wings with no basal eyes; hind-wings with orange marginal spots, bordered with black, before the anal angle. The spring brood, Polysperchon (Ochs.), is much smaller than the summer brood, and the variety Coretas (Ochs.) has no orange spots. Expands from three- quarters of an inch to an inch. Common in Southern and Central Europe (except Spain and Britain) and a great part of Asia. It frequents open flowery places in woods and mountain meadows from May to August. The larva is pale green, with a dark stripe on the back, and dull, dark wavy lines below, as well as with brown and whitish spots. It feeds on Lotus, Trifolium, &c., in June, and again from August to April. The butterfly is figured at Pir, Bigs vr. 45. P. Balcanica (Freyer)—Male pale violet-blue, with several black spots on the fore-wings. Female brown, with indistinct greyish and whitish markings. | Hind-wings with a short tail. Under side white, with very numerous black lines and spots; hind-wings with a marginal row of metallic green spots. Inhabits Turkey and Asia Minor in July and August. 46. P. Telicanus (Lang.)—NMale violet-blue, with small black spots at the anal angle of the hind-wings ; female brown, blue at the base, with some faint black markings outside the blue portion of the wings. Hind-wings with a long slender tail. Under side brownish-grey, covered with waved whitish transverse lines; hind-wings with two black dots dusted with silver, and enclosed in orange rings, at the anal angle. It inhabits the shores of the Mediterranean through- out the fine season, and is met with occasionally in Germany in July and August, and, like P. Trochilus, is also found in South Africa. Expands about 1 inch. The larva is purplish-red, with a dark line on the back and brownish oblique streaks. It lives on the flowers of Lythrum salicaria in August and September. 47. P. Beticus (Linn.).—Male violet-blue, with two large black spots at the anal angle of the hind-wings; female brown, blue only at the base of the fore-wings and at the inner margin of the hind-wings. Under side pale brown, with numerous nearly straight white streaks, which are shorter on the basal part of the fore-wings, not extending beyond the discoidal cell; hind-wings with a much broader submarginal white band than in Ze/écanus, outside of which are two large black spots at the anal angle, edged below with metallic green, and broadly surrounded with orange. Expands about 1} inches. It is met with in June and July, and its range is even more extensive than that of Ze/icanus, as it is found everywhere in Europe south of the Alps, and all over Africa, Western Asia, and the East Indies. On the other hand, it is scarcely ever found north of the Alps, except in France, though it occasionally extends its range as far as the Channel Islands, and has even been met with once or twice on the south coast of England. Larva green or dark reddish-brown, with a dark line on the back. There are also a pale line and pale oblique streaks on the sides. It lives in the pods of peas, of Colutea arborescens, and other leguminous plants, in June and July. 14 54 EUROPEAN BorrerFiices AND: Morus. GENUS II.—LYC/ENA (FA BR.). Upper side in the males brilliant orange or coppery red, often shot with purple, or brown ; the females vary from copper-colour to dark brown, with a copper band on the hind margins bordered with black spots. The females (and in some cases the males) are usually marked with black spots on the fore-wings, and sometimes on the hind-wings also, corresponding in situation to the eyes of the under side. The under side of the fore-wings is coppery, and that of the hind- wings is generally brownish-ashy, with black eyes placed in white rings. There are three eyes, placed in a straight line between the base and the extremity of the discoidal cell; beyond this is a row of eyes, which are often arranged in pairs, and a single or double row of marginal spots. Hind-wings with eyes at the base and two or three in the middle, beyond which is a row of eyes and a double row of marginal black spots, between which is a coppery band. Fringes white at the extremity, and unspotted. The hind-wings are slightly dentated, and are sometimes furnished with a short tail. The eyes are naked, and the palpi are rather long; the antennz are long, and terminated by an abrupt fusiform club. The neuration of the wings is the same as that of Polyommatus. The larvee are elongated, and are covered with short, fine, reddish hair. They feed on various low plants, especially dock and sorrel (Rwmex), and conceal themselves during the day ; and many of the species form their pupz on the surface of the ground. The species of this genus are generally called “Coppers” by collectors, on account of their brilliant colour. There are several aliied genera found in different parts of the world, but the genus Zycena is the most brilliant of all the group; and the European species are fully equal to any others, though the genus is well represented, without being very numerous in species, in most parts of the world. 1. L. Helle (W. V.).—Fore-wings coppery, with black spots; hind-wings black, with a coppery submarginal band. The upper side is shot with blue in the male, and the spots are partly bordered with blue in the female. Under side of the fore-wings coppery, with an additional basal eye above the inner margin; hind-wings beneath brownish. Expands 1 inch or under. Widely distributed in Northern and Central Europe (absent in the north-west), and in Western and Northern Asia. It is found from May to August in swampy meadows; in the more southern parts of its range it is a mountain insect, but though often abundant it is very local. The larva is green, yellowish above, with a dark green line on the back and a pale stripe on the sides; head reddish-yellow. It feeds on sorrel and Polygonum bistorta from June to September. 2. L. Dorilis (Hufn.), Circe (W. V.).—Male dark brown, spotted with black, and with a marginal row of black spots bordered within by connected orange lunules ; female with the fore- wings copper, and the hind-wings dark brown, both spotted with black. Hind-wings with a submarginal copper band, bordered outside with black spots. Under side greenish-yellow (fore- wings coppery in the female) spotted with black, and with a pale orange marginal band (except in the variety Swbalpina, Spey.). The hind-wings are emarginate before the anal angle. Common throughout the fine season in Central and Southern Europe (except Britain and the extreme south of Europe), and in Western Asia and the Altai; frequenting meadows, especially at the edges of woods. The larva is uniform pale green, dotted with white, and covered with pale red, or brownish-yellow bristles. It feeds on Rumer acetosa, and there is a succession of broods throughout the year. (ZL. Hypoxanthe is probably not distinct from this.) 3. L. Thersamon (Esp.).—Male coppery, with a slight bluish lustre, and spotted with black ; the female more distinctly spotted, and with the hind-wings brown above, with a marginal copper band. Under side of fore-wings yellowish-copper, with the eyes arranged in pairs, and a double row of black spots before the hind margin; hind-wings beneath slate-colour, with a marginal 1h. LYCENA. 55 copper band. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Found in South-Eastern Europe, Italy, and Western and Central Asia from May to July, but not very common. The summer brood has short tails in Syria. The larva feeds on Spartium scoparium. 4. L. Alciphron (Rott.).—Wings above spotted with black; male copper, strongly suffused with blue ; female dark brown, with a marginal copper band, which is often bordered with blue in front. Under side of the fore-wings pale copper, with the principal row of eyes arranged in pairs, and generally with only one row of black marginal spots; hind-wings ashy-grey, with a marginal copper band. The variety Gordius (Sulz.) is coppery in both sexes; the male strongly tinged with blue at the base, and the black spots are much larger and more conspicuous. Expands from 1} to I} inches. Found in damp meadows in Eastern and Southern Europe, and in Western Asia, in June and July; the variety Gordius is met with only south of the Alps. The larva is dull green, with brown lines on the back and sides; head brown. Feeds on sorrel from April to June. *5. L. Hippothoe (Linn.), Eurydice (Rott.), Chrysets (Ochs.), (Purple-edged Copper).—Male bright copper-red, with a black spot at the end of the discoidal cell of the fore-wings ; the margins rather broadly brown, and suffused with purple. The female is dark brown, tinged with copper on the fore- wings, and spotted with black ; hind-wings with a copper band, spotted outside with black. Under side of fore-wings coppery, with ashy-grey margins, and with an irregular row of eyes, not arranged in pairs, and a single row of marginal spots ; hind-wings ashy-grey, with a marginal copper band. The Alpine variety Earybia (Ochs.) is smaller, the male paler, and with the margins scarcely tinged with purple; the female is almost uniform brown, very faintly suffused with copper, and the under side is uniform brownish-grey, the fore-wings slightly tinged with copper in the female. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Common throughout a great part of Europe and Western Asia from June to August, though somewhat local, frequenting damp meadows near woods and in the mountains. It appears to have formerly inhabited the south of England, but is probably now extinct. Epping Forest, and Ashdown Forest in Sussex, are mentioned as its localities. The former is very doubtful; and the latter, though said to have produced many rarities in former times, has been little visited lately by entomologists. I have also seen a pair in the collection of the late Mr. T. Marshall, of Leicester, who told me that he picked them out of a quantity of Z. Dzspar received from Cambridgeshire at a time when the latter insect was selling for threepence a specimen; and I therefore see no reason to doubt the British origin of the specimens of //zpfothoe also. The larva is green, with whitish incisions, and a brown head. There is a dark line on the back and two white lines on the sides. The male butterfly is figured at Pl. 14, Fig. 12. *6. L. Dispar (Haw.), (Large Copper).—Male brilliant copper, with rather narrow black borders, and two spots in the discoidal cell of the fore-wings ; female with the fore-wings copper, with three discoidal spots, and an outer row of large black spots; hind-wings dark brown, with black spots, and a submarginal copper band. Underside of fore-wings copper; hind-wings, except the marginal copper band and the hind margin of the fore-wings, bluish-grey. The variety Aec/z/us (Werneb.), Hippothoe (Hiibn.), (Dark Under-winged Copper), is smaller and duller-coloured, with much smaller spots, and only two discoidal spots in the female and one in the male, and the under side is ashy- grey rather than bluish. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. JZ. Dispar was formerly abundant in the fens of the south-eastern counties of England, but has not been seen alive for the last quarter of a century, and is believed to have become quite extinct in consequence of the draining of the fens. The variety Rzztilus, which has been reputed British on insufficient authority, is a very local insect in Central Europe. In Eastern Europe and Northern and Western Asia it appears to be commoner. It is found in damp meadows from June to August. I have an indistinct recollection of having heard or read, many years ago, that the true Dzspar was found in Nubia; but I have never since been 56 EvrorPEAN Burrerrlies AND Morus. able to discover the authority for the statement, and merely mention it here for what it is worth. Scarcely anything of any value has yet been published on the Lepidoptera of Egypt, which are likely to be very interesting, though not numerous. The larva of LZ. Dispar is somewhat hairy, bright green, with innumerable white dots, and feeds upon the great water-dock. That of Rwtilus is dark green, with a pale stripe on the sides, and a brown head. It feeds on Polygonum and sorrel in June. The sexes of Z. Ruti/us are figured at Pl. 14, Figs. 13, a, 0. 7. L. Virgauree (Linn.), (Scarce Copper).—Male brilliant copper-red, unspotted, with a rather narrow black border. Female dull copper, with many black spots. Under side of fore-wings copper, with the central row of eyes arranged in pairs; hind-wings greenish-grey, the spots small, and partly bordered outside with white spots. In the southern variety J7eg7z (Vogel) the male has black spots above, and the female is paler; in the variety Zermattensis (Fallou) the female is darker, and the white spots are slightly visible above. Widely distributed in Europe and Western Asia, frequenting dry, flowery glades and slopes from May to August. It is a scarce and local insect in the north-west of Europe, and is said to have formerly inhabited the fens of Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, and to frequent the flowers of the golden rod in August. It is now excluded from our British lists, but there seems little reason to doubt that it formerly inhabited this country, although in all probability it has long been extinct. The larva is dark green, with yellowish lines on the back and sides, and a black head. It lives on golden rod, sorrel, &c., in June and September. Both sexes of the butterfly, and the larva, are figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 1, a—c. 8. L. Ottomanus (Lef.).—Brilliant copper-red, with brown hind margins; fore-wings with three black spots in the discoidal cell, and an outer row of black spots, all small and indistinct ; hind- wings unspotted. Under side of fore-wings pale copper-yellow, with the markings more distinct, _ and an outer row of marginal black spots. Hind-wings greenish or yellowish grey ; hind margin brown, with a row of orange spots edged inside with black ones, and many small black eyes nearer the base. Expands a little over 1 inch. It inhabits Turkey, Greece, and Asia Minor in March and June. g. L. Thetis (Klug.).—Brilliant copper-red ; the tips of the fore-wings narrowly black ; hind margins narrowly black, and marked with triangular black spots. Hind-wings emarginate at the anal angle, near which are two detached black dots. Under side ashy; fore-wings tinged with copper, with three discoidal spots, and two rows of spots nearer the hind margin. Hind-wings ashy-grey, with a marginal copper band, edged on each side with indistinct black dots. Nearer the base are two rows of grey eyes in black rings, six in the first row and three in the second. Expands about 1} inches. It inhabits the mountains of Greece and Asia Minor. *1o. L. Phleas (Linn.), (Common Cofper).—Fore-wings bright copper-red, with broad black hind margins, and large square black spots, two in the discoidal cell, a third on the under side, and an irregular outer row. Hind-wings black, with a marginal copper band. Under side of fore- wings paler copper, the margins grey, edged within with a row of black spots towards the hinder angle, and the others ocellated ; hind-wings grey, with small black dots, and traces of a marginal copper band. The southern variety //eus (Fabr.) has short tails, and is darker above. Accidental varieties have also been met with in which either the black or the copper of the wings was replaced with milk-white. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. There is a succession of broods of this butterfly throughout the fine season of the year. It abounds almost everywhere in dry, sunny, flowery places, and is found throughout Europe, North Africa, Northern and Western Asia to the Himalayas, and even over the greater part of North America. The larva is green, with red lines on the back and sides, and may be found on sorrel throughout the year. The butterfly and larva are figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 2, a, 0. L Z£0S0FIS. 57 GENUS III.—THESTOR (HUBN.). Brown butterflies, more or less marked with orange or reddish, but rarely with the brilliant coppery lustre of Lycena. The club of the antenne is distinct and rather thick; the eyes are hairy, the palpi short, and the hind-wings are rounded, not emarginate before the anal angle, and without a tail. The few known species inhabit the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. 1. ZT. Ballus (Hiibn.)—Male brown; fore-wings with the spots of the under side showing through, and hind-wings with traces of a marginal orange band at the anal angle. Female with the fore-wings orange, the costa and hind margin broadly brown. Hind-wings brown, the outer half with a very broad orange band. Fore-wings beneath brown, tinged with copper, with two rows of large black eyes in the discoidal cell, and two curving transverse rows nearer the hind margin. Hind-wings beneath green, the hind margins broadly brown. Expands about 1 inch. Common in South France, Spain, Morocco, and Algeria in February and March. The larva is yellowish-white, with a row of reddish spots on the back, which are bordered with brownish-red and bisected by a blue line; there are also violet-red oblique streaks, and a longitudinal line on the sides. The head is brown, and the first two or three segments are washed with whitish. It feeds on Lotus hispidus in May. 2. T. Nogelliz (Herr. Schaff.)—Dark brown, tinged with copper; fore-wings of the male with a large orange blotch in the centre ; there is also a short orange band at the anal angle of the hind- wings. The underside of the hind-wings is slaty-grey, with the base greenish, and two rows of square orange spots, edged on both sides with black ones. Nearer the base are four similar spots, forming an imperfect third band. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Inhabits Turkey in Europe and Asia. 3. I. Callimachus (Eversm.)—Fore-wings red, with the costa and hind margin brown; hind- wings brown, with a large oval orange blotch on the hind margin towards the anal angle. Under side of the fore-wings red; the costa greyish-white, with large connected spots; there is also a large pure white spot in the centre of the costa, with a black lunule on each side. Hind-wings beneath grey, varied with brown towards the margins and between the three double rows of small black dots. Expands nearly 1 inch. It inhabits South Russia and Western Asia in May. GENUS IV.—LZOSOPIS (RAMB.). The only species of this genus, Z. Rodoris (Esp.), resembles Zephyrus Quercus in appearance, but the eyes are naked, the hind-wings are not scalloped at the anal angle, and are destitute of a tail. The male has purplish fore-wings, with the tip and hind margin broadly, and the costa narrowly, brown; the hind-wings are brown, with the base purple, and some purple marginal spots. The female is brown; the fore-wings have three purplish-blue streaks at the base, of which the middle one is the shortest ; the hind-wings are brown, with six purplish-blue marginal spots. The under side is grey, with a marginal row of orange spots, edged internally with a row of white ones, and externally by a silvery-blue line, most conspicuous on the hind-wings. Between the white and orange spots is a row of black dots, Expands about I} inches. It is found in woods in Spain, South France, and at Botzen, in the Tyrol, in May and June, and is particularly fond of privet blossom. The larva is dull brown, with a black streak on the back, bordered with obscure yellowish markings. It feeds on the oak. We do not know if any exotic species are congeneric with this. i5 58 Evrorean Borrerrties AnD Morus. GENUS V.—ZEPHYRUS (DALM.). The species of this genus are not very numerous, and are confined to Europe, Asia, and California. They agree with the true 7/ec/e in their generally hairy eyes, the short tail towards the anal angle of the hind-wings, and the pale lines of the under surface, which has given rise to their English name of “ Hair-Streaks.” The larve of both genera have an arched back, and are smoother and narrower behind. The Zephyri differ from Thec/a in their rather thick antenna, with a very gradually-formed club; and more especially in the neuration of the fore-wings, which have eleven nervures, the subcostal nervure emitting two branches before the extremity of the discoidal cell, and a third beyond, which is bifurcated. The European species of Zephyrus are rather larger than those of Thec/a. *1. Z. Betule (Linn.), (Brown Hair-Streak)—Male dark brown; fore-wings with a black discoidal spot, having a pale mark on the outside; hind-wings with the tail and anal angle orange ; fringes white. Female similar, with a broad transverse orange band upon the fore-wings. Under side dull orange, with a deeper-coloured marginal line; fore-wings with one, and hind-wings with two, distinct white lines, edged on one side with blackish, and a black streak edged with white at the end of the cell of the fore-wings. Expands from 1} to 1? inches. It is found flying along hedges and about bushes from July to September, and is common throughout the greater part of Central Europe and Northern Asia. It is a local rather than a rare insect in the south of England and Ireland. The larva is green, with yellow longitudinal lines and oblique streaks on the back and sides; the head is brown. It feeds on birch, sloe, plum, &c. Both surfaces of the female butterfly are figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 5, a, 4, *2. Z. Quercus (Linn.), (Purple Hair-Streak).—The male is purplish-blue, with black hind margins, and the female is brown, with a rich purple blotch on the fore-wings, reaching half across the wing in front and nearly to the hinder angle behind. The under side is silvery-grey, with a white line towards the hind margin, and with indistinct white marginal lunules. There are also some orange markings, adjoining or enclosing black spots, towards the hinder angles of all the wings. The Hungarian variety Be//us (Gerh.) has a yellow spot on the upper side of the fore- wings. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Common throughout Europe, except the extreme north and south; it also occurs in Asia Minor, It is found in oak-woods from June to August, but is not very difficult to capture, as it generally flies round bushes and low trees within reach of the net. The larva is reddish-grey, with triangular yellowish spots on the back, and a yellowish stripe on the sides; the head is brown. It feeds on oak, and occasionally on sallow, in May and June. The female butterfly is figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 6. GENUS VI.—THECLA (FABR.). The species of Thecla are rather smaller than those of Zephyrus, and the wings are brown above and generally marked with a very distinct white line beneath; the hind-wings are nearly always tailed. The club of the antennz is more suddenly formed than in Zefphyrus, and the fore- wings have only ten nervures, the subcostal nervure emitting three unforked branches before the extremity of the discoidal cell, and none afterwards. This genus is exceedingly extensive, between 500 and 600 species being described as belonging to it; but there can be no doubt that it requires subdivision. The vast majority of the species are South American, and most of the North American species resemble the European. The genus is not represented in Africa, except on the Mediterranean coast. The true type of Zhecla is the European TZ. Spini. THECLA. 59 *1. T. Rubi (Linn.), (Green Hair-Streak).—This, the smallest of the European species, is rather unlike any of the others. It has no tail, and is uniform brown above and uniform green below, with a row of white dots on the under side of the hind-wings. It expands from 1 to 1} inches. It is abundant throughout Europe, North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia as far as Persia, occurring in open places in woods in April and May, flying about and settling upon bushes. There is a closely-allied butterfly in California (Z. Dzmmetorum, Boisd.) which is perhaps only a variety of this. The larva is green, with a yellow line on the back, bordered with darker, and followed by a row of pale triangular spots, and a yellow line on the sides. It lives on bramble, broom, &c., in July and August. The under side of the butterfly is figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 3. * 2. T. Pruni (Linn.), (Black Hair-Streak).—Dark brown; the hind-wings, and sometimes the fore-wings also, with a marginal orange band towards the anal angle. Hind-wings with a short tail, as in all the following species. Under side with an interrupted bluish-white line, and the marginal orange band bordered inside with a row of round black spots, edged with bluish-white. The hind margin of the hind-wings is also edged with a bluish-white line, and there are two or three additional black spots at the anal angle, outside the band. Expands from 1 to 11 inches, It is found throughout the greater part of Central Europe in June, Aying about bushes, but is somewhat local, and not a very abundant insect; it is also met with in the Altai. In the south of England it is one of the most local of all our species, though generally abundant where it occurs. The larva is green, with a whitish line on the back, and whitish oblique lines; the head is yellow. It lives on sloe, oak, &c.,in May. The transformations are figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 4, a 3. T. Llicis (Esp.), (Evergreen-oak Hair-Streak\.—Dark brown ; female with a large dull orange transverse blotch on the fore-wings before the hind margins; the anal angle of the hind-wings Ce marked with a small orange spot in both sexes. Under side not much paler, with the transverse white line broken into irregular spots, of which the last but one on the hind-wings forms an acute angle. Hind-wings with a row of marginal orange spots, bordered within with black triangular Spots or crescents, scarcely marked with white; the fringes black, edged within with a white line. In the variety scu/¢ (Hiibn.) the white line is wanting or inconspicuous on the fore-wings. Expands about 1} inches. Common throughout Central and Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, but erroneously reputed British. It is found in woods from May to July. The variety scu/i seems to be commonest in the south. The larva is pale green, with a row of yellow spots on the back, and a yellow line and row of transverse streaks on the sides. It lives on oak and evergreen-oak in May. 4. T. Acacte (Fabr.).—Very like //ic?s, but with no orange blotch on the fore-wings in the female ; anal angle of the hind-wings with from two to four small orange spots. Under side paler, greyish-brown ; the white line of the fore-wings is only visible in the female, and that of the hind- wings is more regular than in //cis; the last spot but one forms no angle. The red spots are crescent-shaped, and the largest, nearest the anal angle, is bordered with a black lunule dusted with blue, which fills up the hollow as far as the white marginal line. The next spot is marked with a black dot outside. The tail is deep black in the female. Expands about 1 inch. It inhabits the south of France and Germany, South-Eastern Europe, and Western Asia, but appears to be a local, and often a scarce, insect. It generally frequents hilly districts from May to July; and the larva feeds on sloe in May. *5. 2. W-album (Knoch.), (White Letter Hair-Streak) —Brown ; fore-wings of the male with a patch of grey scales in the middle; hind-wings with an orange spot at the anal angle. Under side with the white line nearly continuous, and forming a very distinct white W near the anal 60 EvroreAn BvurrERFLies AND Morus. angle of the hind-wings. Hind-wings with a marginal orange band, edged inside with an indented Llack line, within which is a whitish one. Hind margins intersected with a white line, between which and the orange band are several large black spots towards the anal angle. Expands from I to 1} inches. Inhabits a great part of Europe (including England) and Northern and Western Asia; but seems to be everywhere confined to very restricted localities, and to be of somewhat uncertain appearance. It is found in woods, or flying about elms, sometimes at a great height, in June and July. The larva is green, with two rows of whitish humps on the back. The belly is paler, spotted with dark red, and the head is yellowish-brown. It feeds on elm in May. 6. T. Spini (W. V.).—Brown, generally with orange spots towards the anal angle of the hind- wings ; tail tipped with white, and the hind margin between this and the anal angle intersected with a short white line. Under side grey; the white line very distinct, and not much broken ; hind- wings with a large blue spot at the anal angle, above which is a marginal row of orange spots, edged within with black ones slightly marked with white. Hind margin intersected with a narrow white line. The orange spots on each side of the blue spot have a black spot on each side, and the one which stands between it and the anal angle is much marked with white also. Expands from 1 to I} inches, It inhabits Southern and Central Europe, except the north-west (its reputed occurrence in England being doubtless an error), and Northern and Western Asia. It prefers warm sunny slopes covered with bushes, especially on a limestone formation; but is not generally common, though widely distributed. It flies from June to August. The larva is green, with three yellowish lines on the back, and a whitish line and transverse streaks on the sides; the head is black. It lives on hawthorn and blackthorn in May and June. FAMILY IX.—HESPERIIDZ. These are small and generally rather thick-bodied butterflies, with short wings. The fore- wings are triangular, and the hind-wings are rounded, and rarely dentated. They are either dark- coloured, with pale spots and markings, or tawny. The head is broad and hairy, the eyes are semi-circular and naked, and the palpi are covered with bristly hairs. The antennz are short, with a rather long club, which is frequently hooked at the tip; they are placed widely apart on each side of the broad head, and have a tuft of hair at the base. The legs are perfect in both sexes, and the hind tibiz have four spurs, or, more rarely, spurs at the end only. The fore-wings have twelve diverging nervures; nervule 5 of the hind-wings, and the disco-cellular nervule, are very slightly developed ; and the discoidal cell is quite straight behind. The larve are tapering at both ends, and are short, covered with fine thin hair, and have a round head. They generally live between leaves loosely spun together, and undergo their transformations in the same situation in a slight cocoon. These butterflies are generally called Skippers, from their short jerking flight. They are fairly represented in most parts of the world, but the great majority of both genera and species are South American. There is no direct affinity between this and any of the other families of butterflies; and they appear to be more closely allied to some groups of Australian and American moths than to any other insects. If, therefore, the distinction generally made between butterflies and moths is worth retaining, it might, perhaps, be better to consider them rather as the first family of moths than as the last family of butterflies, which Duncan and some other writers have actually proposed. PP aT ih ee ae a 4 is oon ae a > FLESPERIA. 6I GENUS I.—SPILOTHYRUS (DUP.). The club of the antenne is thick and straight; the hind tibie are not furnished with a tuft of hair; the fore-wings have transparent spots, and the hind-wings are dentated. The fringes are spotted with pale and dark. The butterflies frequent weedy slopes, and are double-brooded, appearing in spring and autumn. 1. S. Akce (Esp.), Malvarum (Hoffmannsegg).—Wings reddish-grey, with blackish bands ; fore-wings with small transparent dots in the middle, before the tips, and in cells 2 and 3; hind- wings with pale spots beneath, but with no conspicuously paler spot in the middle above. Expands from I to 1} inches. Common throughout Southern and Central Europe (except the north-west), North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia. The larva is reddish-grey, spotted with yellow on the 2nd segment, with a dark line on the back and a pale stripe on the sides. Lives in June and autumn in the folded leaves of different species of mallow, and the autumn brood hybernates. The butterfly and larva are figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 7, a, 0. 2. S. Althee (Hiibn.).—Very like Alege, but slightly larger on an average. The upper side shades into green or violet-grey, the transparent spots in cells 2 and 3 of the fore-wings are larger and crescent-shaped, and there is a white spot in the middle of the hind-wings, which are rather more distinctly spotted than in Adee. The fore-wings of the male have a stiff tuft of flock-like hair on the under side at the base. It is met with in Southern Europe and Western Asia, as well as in the southern half of France and Germany. The Spanish variety Marrubii (Ramb.) is smaller than the type, and yellowish-grey, and the larva is reddish or yellowish grey, with brownish stripes on the back and sides. It feeds on MWarrubium hispanicum in spring and autumn. 3. S. Lavatere (Esp.).—Wings above pale greyish-green, with dark bands, the transparent spots of the fore-wings larger than in the other species, and those in cells 2 and 3 nearly square; hind-wings with a whitish spot at the base, and two rows of whitish spots beyond the middle. The under side of all the wings is uniform pale grey. Expands about 1} inches. Its range is similar to that of A/‘hee ; but it is a very local insect, and does not appear to be very common anywhere. The larva is bluish-grey, with a blackish line on the back, two blackish stripes on each side, and two pale yellow ones beneath them. It feeds on Stachys recta in spring. GENUS II—HESPERIA (FABR.). The club of the antennz is thick and straight ; the hind tibia are furnished with a tuft of hairs, except in the last three species, and there are no transparent spots on the fore-wings, nor are the hind-wings dentated. The wings are dark brown above, with white spots, which are generally angular, and the fringes are spotted. The fore-wings have a transverse spot in the middle, and a row of spots beyond, which is generally strongly curved and set backwards below the costa, so that the spots which stand close to the costa are placed much nearer to the base than that which follows ; and the hind-wings have a more or less distinct central band, and a row of spots before the hind margin, which are sometimes very indistinct, or absent. The under side is paler, and the hind-wings are greenish-grey or brownish, with a white central band and row of spots, as well as spots at the base. The species are either very variable, or else there are many closely-allied ones. This has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained, and we shall here omit several forms described by no one but Rambur, and most of which are probably mere varieties of other species. Rambur, and subsequently some American entomologists, have attempted to employ the structure of the abdominal appendages as a character to separate the species of Hesperiide; but though this is 62 EvroreAN Borrerryies AND Morus. found a very important aid to the study of the Caddis Flies, which are closely allied to Lepidoptera, it appears to be unreliable in the case of the latter Order- 1. H. Proto (Esp.).—Greenish-brown ; fore-wings with an interrupted central row of dull white spots; hind-wings with a distinct central band of pale spots, and one basal spot ; there are also faint traces of a marginal row of pale markings on all the wings. Under side of all the wings brownish-yellow, with two yellowish bands, and a row of marginal lunules; inner margin yellow. Expands about 1 inch. Inhabits South Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia in June and July. The larva, which feeds on Phlomis Iychnitis in May, is yellowish-grey, with a red line on the back, and two red spots on the head. 2. H. Tessellum (Hiibn.)—Resembles Proto above, but the row of marginal white dots is as distinct as the central row. Fore-wings with a large black spot in the discoidal cell, edged within with a nearly square white one,°and outside by a white lunule. Under side of fore-wings chequered with dark green and white; hind-wings beneath yellowish-green, with a band of greenish-white spots across the centre, and white marginal and basal spots. Expands 1} inches. It inhabits South-Eastern Europe, Siberia, and Western Asia in May and August. (/. Cribrelium, Eversm., found in South Russia and Siberia in May, is rather smaller, with the green of the under side of the fore-wings shading into blackish; the hind-wings are of a yellower green beneath, and the pale spots are pure white. HA. Cyzare, Ramb., from South Russia and Western and Northern Asia, may be distinguished from the foregoing species by the under side of the hind- wings, which is white, with two very broad reddish-brown bands slightly tinged with greenish, which do not extend to the inner margin.) 3. H. Side (Esp.).—Fore-wings brown, with a square white spot in the discoidal cell, edged with black on both sides, and the outermost black spot edged again with whitish. The central row of spots is continued along the costa of the fore-wings towards the base, as far as the large white discoidal spot. The marginal spots are most distinct on the hind-wings, and the central band on the fore-wings; and there is also a white spot towards the base on the inner margin of the fore-wings, opposite to another on the costa of the hind-wings. Under side of hind-wings white, with two orange bands, and an orange spot on the costa nearer the base, all edged with black lines. There is also a distinct black line on all the wings before the fringes. Expands about 1} inches. It inhabits South Europe and Northern and Western Asia in June, but is not a common species. 4. H. Carthami (Hiibn.).—The upper side is very similar to Szd@; the under surface more resembles that of the following species, but Carthami differs as follows:—The hind margins of all the wings are distinctly bordered with whitish before the fringes, and between this and the central row of spots are placed whitish longitudinal streaks on a dark ground on the fore-wings, and dark spots towards the anal angle of the hind-wings; and the fringes are distinctly spotted with black and white to their base, and are pure white towards the anal angle of the hind-wings. Expands nearly 1} inches. Common over a great part of Southern and Central Europe, except the north-west, frequenting dry, sunny, open places and hill-sides from May to August. 5. H. Andromede (Wallengr.).—Very similar to Cacalie, with which it agrees also in the outline of the hind-wings and in the shape of the large white spot beyond the discoidal cell of the under side of the hind-wings, but differs from it in the much larger and better-defined spots of the upper side, the much brighter colour of the under side, and especially in the fringes, which are distinctly chequered with black and white as far as the base, without any indication of an intersecting line. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. It is found in the mountains of Scandinavia and the South-Eastern Alps in June and July. (P. Coxyse, Guén., found in mountain meadows in Savoy, resembles Carthami above, and Centauree below, but is no larger than AZa/ve.) ITESPERIA. 63 6. H. Cacalie (Ramb.).—Larger than Alweus ; the spots of the upper side are smaller, more like dots, and more scattered ; the hind-wings are of a unicolorous dark colour, regularly rounded, and not produced at the anal angle. The under side is more unicolorous than in A/vexs, and is brownish-grey; the spots of the hind-wings are duller and not sharply bordered; the central band is interrupted in cells 2 and 3, and the large spot beyond and above the discoidal cell is placed nearer the base. The fringes are obscured at their base, and are intersected by a dull line. Inhabits the Alps and Pyrenees in July and August. 7. H. Alveus (Hiibn.).—The white spots of the upper side are variable in size and distinctness, and are generally indistinct on the hind-wings, the anal angle of which is distinctly produced. The under side of the fore-wings is brownish-grey, the hind margin only slightly and incon- spicuously lighter; hind-wings beneath greenish-grey, with the spot of the central band beyond the discoidal cell truncated on the basal side; the fringes are obscured at their base, and inter- sected by a dull line. Expands about 1 inch. Inthe variety /vtz//wm (Hiibn.) the under side of the hind-wings is rusty-yellow, with white nervures; and in the varieties Servatu/e (Ramb.) and Cecus (Freyer) the spots of the upper side are small, and the spots of the central band on the under side of the hind-wings are punctiform in cells 2 and 3. The upper side of C@cus is scaled with yellow, and the fringes are also yellowish. This species (or some of its numerous varieties) appears to occur in all parts of Europe, except the north-west, as well as in Northern and Western Asia and in North Africa, from May to August, frequenting glades in woods and sunny slopes. It is commoner in the mountains than in the plains, The larva feeds on Polygala Chamebuxus. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 8. 8. H. Centauree (Wallengr.)—Brown, with the base darker; fore-wings with two cream- coloured discoidal spots, a much angulated row of cream-coloured spots of moderate size, and a single spot on the inner margin; hind-wings with two indistinct rows of pale spots. Under side pale grey, the white markings more or less conspicuous and suffused. Expands nearly 1 inch. Inhabits Scandinavia and Labrador in June and July. *9. H. Malve (Linn.), Alveolus (Hiibn.), (Grizzled Skipper). —Brown, the spots of the upper side sharply defined, and of about equal size on all the wings, except the central band of the hind- wings, which is generally indicated on the costa only, though sometimes complete ; under side of the fore-wings blackish-grey, with white longitudinal streaks on the hind margin; hind-wings beneath dark olive-green or cinnamon-brown, with brownish-yellow nervures. In the variety Taras (Bergstr.) the white spots of the fore-wings run together into a broad white band. Expands about 1 inch. Common throvghout the fine season in all parts of Europe, except Ireland, and in Northern and Western Asia, in the glades of woods, heaths, hill-sides, &c. The larva is brownish-yellow, with brownish-red streaks, bordered with yellow, on the back and sides. It feeds on wild raspberry and strawberry in June and autumn. The butterfly is figured at PEs, Big: o: 10. H. Phlomidis (Herr. Schaff.)—Fore-wings dull brownish-grey, with the usual three white spots on the costa, followed by two or three small spots and two discoidal spots, below which are two or three larger ones ; hind-wings darker, with a central white band, a white discoidal spot, and an ill-defined marginal line. All the wings with a row of small marginal spots. Under side of fore-wings blackish, with the spots of the upper side; hind-wings beneath yellowish-green, with the basal spot and two transverse bands white and well defined. Expands about 1 inch. It is found in Turkey and Asia Minor in June and July. 11. 47. Sao (Hiibn.)—Black; fore wings with a row of small whitish dots before the hind margin on both sides; the other spots are small on the upper side, but sharply defined, and the 64 Evrorean Burrerryies AnD Morus. central row is often interrupted. The central band on the upper side of the hind-wings is absent above, but is represented by from one to three small spots in the middle. The under side of the hind-wings is cinnamon-brown, with paler nervures and pearly-white spots. The first spot of the central row is very large, the others are small, and that beyond the discoidal cell is angular. The variety Ezcrate (Ochs.), from South Europe, is smaller and paler beneath; and the variety Therapne (Ramb.), from Corsica and Sardinia, is smaller, with darker spots. Expands nearly 1 inch, Common in Southern and Central Europe, except the north-west, but local, frequenting sunny, weedy slopes, especially on a limestone soil, from May to July. 12. H. Orbifer (Hiibn.).—Very like Sao above, but the hind-wings are olive-green beneath, and rarely brownish, with the spots of the central band rounded and more of equal size. Expands about 1 inch, It inhabits South Europe and Northern and Western Asia in May and June. GENUS IIIL—NISONIADES (HUBN.). The antenne are short, but longer and more slender than in Hesferia, and the club is slender and curved, but not hooked. The hind tibia have no tuft of hair; the wings are not chequered, and the fringes are unicolorous. *1. NV. Tages (Linn.), (Dingy Skipper)—Dull brown, with marginal rows of small pale dots. Two obscure greyish bands on the fore-wings, and one on the hind-wings. The under side is paler, with a row of indistinct spots. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Common throughout Europe, except the extreme north, during all the fine season, in dry, sunny places, especially along roads in woods, and on the borders of woods. It also occurs in Northern and Western Asia. The larva is pale green, with yellow lines on the back and sides. It feeds on Eryngium campestris and Lotus corniculatus in June and autumn. 2. VV. Marloyi (Boisd.).—Unicolorous dark brown; fore-wings with two rather narrow transverse blackish bands above, and one or two white dots on the costa near the tip, visible both above and below. It inhabits South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia in July. GENUS IV.—CYCLOPIDES (HUBN.). The antenne are not hooked at the tip, and the body is rather slender. The sexes are similar in colour, and the males have no oblique patch of scales on the fore-wings, which are long and pointed; the hind-wings are short, and not emarginate. This genus, though not numerous in species, has representatives in most parts of the world. 1. C. Morpheus (Pall.), Steropes (W. V.), Speculum (Rott.).—Wings dark olive-brown above, with one or two large yellowish or whitish spots near the tip of the fore-wings ; hind-wings yellow beneath, with large round white spots in black rings, one near the base and the others arranged in two rows outside it. Expands nearly 1} inches. Common in Central Europe (except the north- west) in June and July, but local. It also occurs in Western and Northern Asia. In the north it inhabits marshy meadows, and in the south hill-sides. The larva is dirty white, with a darker line on the back and white lines on the sides; head brown. It feeds on grass in May and June. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 15, Fig. ro. *2. C. Palemon (Pall.), Paniscus (Fabr.), (Chequered Skipper) —Wings above blackish-brown, with angular tawny spots on the fore-wings, and round ones on the hind-wings. The hind-wings are yellowish beneath, with paler yellow spots, not distinctly bordered with black, but arranged nearly as in Morpheus. It expands a little more than 1 inch, and is common over a great part of Europe and Northern and Western Asia in May and June. In the north-west of Europe, including —— PAMPHILA. 65 England, it is a very local insect, and is met with in grassy openings in woods. The larva, which hybernates, and lives on grass in spring, is blackish-grey, with a broad yellow stripe on the sides. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 11. 3. C. Silvius (Knoch.).—Fore-wings yellowish tawny, with a row of small black spots before the hind margin, and with four spots nearer the base, which are small in the male, and large and nearly contiguous in the female. Hind-wings suffused with tawny, with a basal spot, and two outer rows of nearly contiguous tawny spots. The spots on the under side are yellower than in Palemon, of which Sz/vzws was formerly considered a variety. The two species are of the same size, and appear at the same time. S7/vzus is a local insect in North Germany and Scandinavia, frequenting open places in damp woods, but is commoner in Eastern Europe and Northern and Western Asia generally. The Jarva is dirty bone-colour, with reddish lines on the back and sides, and a brownish- yellow head. It feeds on grass. GENUS V.—PAMPHILA (FABR.). The head and thorax are broad, and the abdomen is as long as the hind-wings, which are slightly sinuated at the anal angle. The males have generally an oblique velvety patch of scales on the disc of the fore-wings. In the first three species the club of the antenne is pointed and hooked at the tip, and in the others it is obtusely rounded. The species of the first section are very numerous, and form one of the most typical groups of the Hesperizd@ ; those of the second belong to the genus 7ymelicus (Hiibn.). The larve are narrowed behind the head, and the abdominal fold extends beyond the claspers. They live on grass, and hybernate; and the butterflies frequent grassy places and openings in woods in summer. 1. P. Nostrodamus (Fabr.).—Dark brown, base smoky black; inner margin of the hind-wings paler than the ground colour, and a few white dots on the fore-wings in the female. Under side pale brown, with some obscure white spots towards the tip of the fore-wings, and, in the female, at the hind margin of the hind-wings also. Expands a little over 1 inch. It inhabits South Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia in August, and is found in dry places. (P. 4¢na, Boisd., formerly supposed to be found in Sicily, is a North American species.) *2. P. Comma (Linn.), (Pearl Skipper)—Male fulvous, with dark brown borders, and a large black oblique streak in the middle of the fore-wings enclosing a narrow silvery line. The female is brown, marked with fulvous towards the base, and spotted with paler towards the hind margins. The under side of the hind-wings and the tips of the fore-wings are green, marked with square white spots. Expands about 1} inches. Found throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia in July and August, on heaths, downs, &c. It is a very local insect in the south of England, where it occurs on the chalk. The larva is blackish-grey, varied with rust-colour, with a double black line on the sides. It lives on Coronilla varia and other papilionaceous plants in early summer. The male butterfly is figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 12. *3. P. Sylvanus (Esp.), (Large Skipper)—Very like P. Comma in size and markings; but the oblique black streak of the male is not marked with silver, and the fulvous markings are richer and more uniformly coloured, and not paler toward the margins. The under side of the hind- wings is greenish-yellow, with indistinct pale spots not differing much from the ground colour. It is an abundant insect, and its range is nearly coextensive with that of Comma, though it is not found in the extreme north of Europe. On the other hand, it is generally distributed in Britain. It is double-brooded, occurring in spring and autumn, and is most abundant at the edges of woods. The larva, which is dirty green, with a dark line on the back and a yellow stripe on the sides, lives on grass in May. The male butterfly is figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 13. 16 66 EvROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. *4. P. Acteon (Esp.), (Lulworth Skipper).—Brown, tinged with tawny ; male with a slender and rather curved oblique black streak on the fore-wings. A curved row of paler tawny spots running from the costa beyond the discoidal cell of the fore-wings in both sexes. Under side of hind-wings dull greenish-grey, yellowish towards the inner margin. Expands about 1 inch. It is a very local species, though abundant where it occurs; and is found in Central and Southern Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor from June to August, frequenting sunny, weedy places, especially on a limestone soil. In Britain it is exclusively confined, so far as is known, to one or two very restricted localities on the south-west coast, chiefly in Dorsetshire. The larva is pale green, with a darker line on the back, edged with a yellowish line on each side, and divided by a pale central line; there are also two yellow lines on the sides. It feeds on Calamagrostis epigejos in June. *5. P. Thaumas (Hufn.), Linea (W. V.), (Small Skipper)—Uniform fulvous or tawny, with brown borders ; the male with a slender and rather curved oblique stripe on the fore-wings. Hind- wings beneath unicolorous greenish-ash, except the inner margin, which is fulvous. The tip of the antennz is yellow beneath to the extremity, and blackish above. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Common throughout Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, from June to September, in meadows and glades in woods. The larva, which is pale green, with two white lines on the back and a yellow line on the sides, lives on grass in spring. The butterfly is figured at Pl. 15, Fig. 14. 6. P. Lineola (Ochs.).—Resembles 7hawmas in size and colour, but the club of the antennze is yellow, with a black tip, and the hind-wings are unicolorous beneath, instead of the inner margin being fulvous. The black streak on the fore-wings of the male above is shorter and quite straight, and is sometimes wanting. The range of this species is more extensive than that of Thaumas, as it is found throughout Northern Asia as well as Europe and the Mediterranean district ; but it is absent in Britain. It occurs in meadows, &c., in July and August; and we have generally found it commonest along paths by the side of corn-fields. The larva is yellowish- green, with four yellowish lines on the back and a yellow line on the sides. It lives on grass in spring. A CHERONTIA. 67 Se THLN GES: FIVE very distinct families are included under this name, and as they have but few characters in common, we shall discuss them separately. FAMILY I.—SPHINGID. This family includes the true Hawk-moths, which are large or middle-sized insects, with large thick bodies and strong wings. The fore-wings are long, with a long oblique hind margin, and the hind-wings are slighter, much shorter, and narrow, and when extended do not reach beyond the middle of the abdomen. The antenne are short, and each joint is furnished with an oblique row of short bristles beneath in the male. © The palpi, which are placed close to the antenna, are short and densely scaled. The tongue is generally strong, spiral, and very long; and rarely short and soft. The front tibiz are furnished with a leaf-like process, and the hind tibia have generally two pairs of spurs. The fore-wings have eleven or twelve nervures, and have only one submedian nervure, which is not angulated towards the base; nervules 7 and 8 rise from one stalk. The hind-wings are generally furnished with a frenulum, two submedian nervures, and seven other nervures; the costal and subcostal nervures are connected near the base by a short transverse nervule. The under side is duller coloured and with duller markings. The larve are cylindrical, naked, generally finely granulated, and with a horn or small elevation on the 12th segment. The moths have a powerful rushing flight, and hover over flowers, sucking the honey on the wing. Most of them fly at twilight and at night, and are widely distributed, nearly all those which occur north of the Alps ranging over the greater part of Europe. GENUS I.—ACHERONTIA (HUBN,). Body very thick, head and eyes large, antenne short and thick, terminating in a slender bristle ; thorax with pale markings on the back, resembling a skull ; abdomen thick and cylindrical ; and the hind margins of the wings not dentated. When the insect is at rest, the wings lie sloping close to the body, and the hind-wings are folded. The larva has a flat egg-shaped head, and a strongly granulated horn, bent into an S-shape. It forms its pupa in a cell underground. The moths have the power of uttering a kind of squeak, something like that of a mouse—a peculiarity only recorded of one other species of the family not belonging to this genus. There has been much discussion about the origin of this sound, which some think is produced by the friction of the short strong proboscis when rolled up, because it ceases immediately if this is unrolled and stretched out with a pin. The European species is found over the whole of Europe, Africa, and Western Asia, but is represented in Eastern Asia by other closely-allied species. The genus does not appear to occur in America. A. AZropos is, however, generally rather scarce in Europe, or is only common in favourable years, It flies late at night, and does not suck the honey of flowers, but the exuding sap of trees. It is fond of honey, and sometimes enters beehives; and it is also attra.ced by light. Few insects have a more powerful and sustained flight than this, which is often met with at sea, many miles from the nearest land. *A. A/ropos, Linn. (the Death's-head Hawk-moth), has dark brown fore-wings, varied with black zigzag lines, and with irregular whitish and rusty brown markings; in the middle is a round whitish dot. The hind-wings are yellow, with two black bands towards the hind margins. The head and thorax are black, marked 68 European Borrerryies AND. Morus. with a pale yellow skull; the abdomen is orange, with the incisions black, and a_ broad bluish-black longitudinal stripe on the back. The antenne are black, tipped with white. It expands 4 or 5 inches, and is the largest Lepidopterous insect found in Britain, or, except Saturnia Pyri, in Europe. It occurs from August to October, and hybernated specimens, or specimens from hybernated pupa, are sometimes found in June. The larva is yellow or greenish, and those which feed on buckthorn are blackish. It has broad transverse stripes from the 5th to the 12th segments, which meet in an angle on the back, and are blue on the back and blackish on the sides. One variety is dark brown, and yellow above on the 3rd and 4th segments, with two waved black lines on the back. It lives in summer and autumn on potatoes, thorn-apple, jasmine, buckthorn, tea-tree, &c. It has been suggested that the green larve are designed to simulate green stalks, and the brown ones withered stalks. It is not a sufficiently abundant insect to do any real damage, but the larva has not unfrequently been mistaken for the dreaded Colorado Beetle, to which it has much less resemblance than a dog to a mouse. Hybernating pupa must be kept in a warm room from the beginning, and kept moderately damp. The transformations are figured at Pl. 16, Fig. 1, a—e. GENUS II.—SPHINX (LINN.). Antenne longer and more slender than in Acherontia, terminating in a slender bristle. Body slenderer than in Acherontia and cylindrical, wings entire, fore-wings long and pointed, with the hind margin slightly convex. The tongue is very long, sometimes longer than the body, and is enclosed in a separate sheath in the pupa. The upper surface of the abdomen has pale and dark bands on the sides. The wings are less sloped than in Acherontia when at rest, and the hind-wings are less folded. The larve are provided with a strong smooth horn, which is only slightly curved, and are marked with longitudinal or transverse streaks. They construct their pupee underground. The male moths of S. Lzgustri and Convolvuli emit a musky odour when alive. * 1. S. Pinastri (Linn.), (Pine Hawk-moth)—Fore-wings ashy-grey, with two rather indistinct reddish-brown bands running from the costa, and sharply angulated about the middle ; the inner- most turning inwards to the base, and the outermost running to the inner margin. Between these are two or three short longitudinal black dashes, and another at the tip. Hind-wings dark grey, lighter at the base; abdomen banded with black and greyish-white. Expands rather under 3 inches. Common throughout the greater part of Europe, except the extreme south, but is at all times a great rarity in Britain. It is most frequently observed on honeysuckle flowers in the evening, or resting on the trunks of poplars and other trees in the daytime. The moth appears from May to July. The larva is green, with white longitudinal lines, and an irregular reddish- brown stripe on the back. It feeds on pine and fir, especially on Pzuus sylvestris, in August and September. The tongue-sheath is attached to the pupa. The moth and larva are figured ap elowiys iowel, ayia. *2. S. Convolvuli (Linn.), (Convolvulus Hawk-moth).—Fore-wings dark grey, varied with paler and darker, and with two narrow black streaks in the middle and another at the tip. Hind- wings pale grey, with four black bands; the two middle ones close together and scarcely separated. Abdomen banded with black and flesh-colour ; the latter colour edged in from with whitish. Expands about 4 or 5 inches. Common throughout the Old World, except the north, in August and September; and occasionally, from hybernated pupe, in May and June. In Central Europe it is only found abundantly in favourable years, and is most frequently captured in gardens, hovering over flowers at dusk, The larva is yellowish-brown or green, bh SSeTT TE alg % % ee >> ll | Ss, 2 = = = e a thy, “Ny Oa DEILEPHILA. 69 with oblique ochre-yellow stripes, edged above with dark brown. It lives on the small bindweed, the wild balsam, &c., in summer, and hides itself on or in the ground during the day. The pupa is furnished with a long projecting convoluted sheath for the proboscis, which is longer in this insect than in any other European species. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 17, Fig. 2, a, 0. * 3. S. Ligustri (Linn.), (Privet Hawk-moth).—Fore-wings brown, broadly paler towards the costa and hind margin, and with several short black longitudinal streaks in the middle. Hind- wings pale pink, with three black transverse bands; abdomen banded with black and rosy. Expands from 34 to 44 inches. Common in most parts of Europe, except the extreme north, and in North Africa and Northern and Western Asia, from May to July. It is most frequently observed in the larva state, and is therefore generally obtained by breeding from the larva, which is green, with oblique white streaks on the sides beyond the 4th segment, which are edged with lilac above. Its attitude in repose has been thought to resemble that of the Egyptian Sphinx, and hence this name was first applied to the larva, then to the moth, and subsequently to the whole group of which it forms the type. It feeds on privet, lilac, ash, holly, &c., in autumn. The tongue-sheath is attached to the pupa. This species is represented in all stages at Pl 17, Fig. 3, a—e, GENUS III.—DEILEPHILA (OCHS.). Antenne rather short, terminating in a bristle; wings entire; tongue much shorter than in Sphinx ; abdomen thick, and diminishing rather suddenly to a point. The larve are cylindrical, with the first segments not retractile, and with pale spots on the sides. The pupz of this and the following genus have no separate case for the proboscis. They are generally constructed on the surface of the ground, between leaves loosely spun together, and the perfect insects sometimes do not emerge till after they have passed two or even three winters in the pupa state. They are not easily reared unless the pupe are forced. The genus Det/ephi/a is found in all parts of the world, but the species are not very numerous, and the greatest variety is perhaps to be met with in Southern Europe. 1. D. Vespertiiio (Esp.).—Fore-wings unicolorous slaty-grey, with an indistinct darker line running from the inner margin towards the tip; hind-wings flesh-colour, black at the base, and with a marginal black band, very narrowly bordered outside with flesh-colour. Abdomen with black and white spots on the sides of the first segments. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. Inhabits the southern slopes of the Alps and the shores of the Mediterranean in September; and some- times emerges from hybernated pupe in May and June. The larva is brownish-grey, or ashy- grey, with reddish or whitish square spots on both sides of the back. It feeds on different species of Epilobium from June to September. 2. D. Hippophaes (Esp.).—Fore-wings pale grey, shading into dark olive-green on the costa; hind margin dark olive-green from the tip to the middle of the inner margin; hind-wings rose- colour, with the base black, and a black band before the hind margin. The thorax has a white streak on each side, and the first segments of the abdomen are spotted with black and white on the sides ; the hinder segments have no white margin. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. Confined to Europe south of the Alps, to the warm southern valleys of which its range extends. It is found at the same seasons as D. Vesfertilio, with which it is said occasionally to form hybrids. The larva is either silvery-grey, with an interrupted black stripe on the back, and black transverse streaks spotted with red and yellow, or is green, with a whitish streak on the sides, and two yellowish oblique stripes on the back, beyond the 4th segment. It lives in autumn on the sea-buckthorn ; 70 Evrorean Burrerriues anp Morus. but beyond the mere fact of the food-plant being found in England, we can find no reason to consider this insect as a probable British species, as some authors have suggested. 3. D. Zygophylli (Ochs.).—Fore-wings yellowish-green, with a narrow yellowish-white band running from the base of the inner margin to the tip, emitting one or two short branches towards the costa; hind margin yellowish. Hind-wings crimson, with the base and a narrow marginal line black. Expands 2} inches. A scarce insect, confined to South-Eastern Russia. The larva feeds on Zygophyllum Fabago. *4. D. Euphorbie (Linn.).—Fore-wings grey, suffused with rosy, with a large olive-green spot at the base, and another about the middle of the costa, generally followed by a smaller one. A broad olive-green band rises from the outer half of the inner margin, and tapers obliquely to the tip. Hind-wings red, with the base and a moderately broad stripe towards the hind margin black; the hind margin itself is flesh-colour. Under side red, with a black spot in the middle of the fore-wings. Body olive-green; the thorax with a white line on each side; the abdomen spotted with black and white on the first segments, and the hinder ones bordered with white ; antenne white. Expands about 2} inches. Common in June and July in most parts of Central and Southern Europe and in Asia Minor. It is a very rare insect in England, and is only found on some portions of the southern and eastern coasts. The larva is black, dotted with yellow, with a red stripe on the back, a red stripe spotted with yellow on the sides, and an intermediate row of yellow spots. It feeds on spurge (Ezphorbia Paralias and Cyparissias) from July to September, and is very conspicuous, feeding quite exposed on plants growing near the sea-shore, or at the edges of fields and paths. The larva is seldom attacked by birds, to some at least of which it appears to be poisonous. The moth and its larva are figured at Pl. 18, Fig. 1, a, d. 5. D. Nicea (De Prunn.).—Very similar to Evphorbie, but much larger. Expands from 3} to 3} inches. Fore-wings grey, rarely suffused with rosy ; base white, next to which is a dark green band slightly bordered with white. Near the centre of the costa is a large dark green spot, and nearer the tip are one or two other costal markings; near the hinder angle is a large dark green band, which narrows suddenly, and branches off at almost a right angle to the tip. Hind-wings black, with a central flesh-coloured band, having a white spot at the anal angle ; hind margin broadly pale flesh-colour. Under side tinged with olive, and but slightly with rosy. It is met with in South France and Piedmont in June and September, but is not a very common species. The larva is pale rose-colour, with two contiguous eyes on the back of each of the last ten segments ; the rings are black, and the pupils orange. There is also a lateral row of orange spots, bordered by two black ones. The head is rosy grey, the legs and horn black. It lives solitarily on various species of Euphorbia, especially £. esula, from July to September. *6, D. Gali (Rottemb.), (Wadder Hawk-moth).—Dark olive-green, the hind margin not much paler. A rather narrow whitish stripe runs from the inner margin near the base to the tip. It is irregular on the costal side, and throws off one or two short branches. Hind-wings as in Euphorbia, but the red band is paler and much mixed with whitish, and the outer margin is narrowly whitish, intersected by the black nervures. The under side is grey, with the principal markings of the upper side indicated; and the antenne are dusky, tipped with white. The body nearly as in Euphorbie, with which this species agrees in size. It is common ina great part of Europe and in Western and Northern Asia, but is a rarity in England, though the commonest of our three British species. It is generally obtained by rearing from the larve, which may be found at various parts of the south coast. The larva is green, with a yellow stripe on the back, and large round yellow spots on the sides surrounded with black. It feeds on bed-straw, willow-herb, and fuchsia from July to September, and may be looked for especially on plants growing on coast ay Se Nad CH@ROCAMPA, 71 sand-hills, in gardens, and in clearings in woods. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 18, Fig. 2, a, 8. 7. D. Dahlit (Geyer).—Much resembles Ga/zz, but the pale band of the fore-wings is whitish- grey, and suffused internally ; the pale hind margin is much better defined, and the green space between them is generally slightly veined with whitish. The hind-wings are black, with a central flesh-coloured band, a narrow marginal one, and a white spot towards the anal angle. Fringes of all the wings white. Expands from 2} to 2 inches. It is found in June and September in Corsica and Sardinia. The larva is slaty-grey, dotted with white, with alternate red and yellow stripes on the back, and a yellow streak on the sides. There are two large white spots and three smaller ones, all surrounded with black, on the side of each segment. The horn, legs, and spiracles are red. It feeds on Euphorbia. * 8. D. Livornica (Esp.).—Fore-wings olive-brown, with white veins. The hind margin is ashy, and a yellowish streak runs from near the base of the inner margin to the tip. Hind-wings rose-colour, with the base black, and a rather broad black band very near the hind margin; fringes whitish. There is a white stripe on each side of the thorax, and two others in the middle. The abdomen has a row of white dots in the middle, and the front segments are spotted with black and white on the sides. Expands from 3 to 3} inches. This species is found in August and September, and sometimes emerges from hybernated pupz in May. It is very widely distributed, occurring throughout Southern and Central Europe, including England and Ireland, as well as throughout Africa, and over the whole of the southern half of Asia. Indian specimens are generally smaller than European. In North America it is represented by the closely-allied D. Lineata (Fabr.), which is distinguished by having two additional pale lines on the thorax. D. Livornica is rare everywhere in Central Europe, and appears rather to be a regular visitor during warm seasons than a permanent resident north of the Alps. It is generally captured in gardens in the evening, in company with the much more abundant Sphinx Convolvuli. The larva has a rosy streak on the back and a yellow one on the sides, with an intermediate row of black and rosy spots. It lives on a great variety of plants, among which we may mention sorrel, toadflax, bed-straw, fuchsia, and vine, and may be looked for in June and July. GENUS IV.—CHGROCAMPA (DUP.). The perfect insect resembles Dez/ephila, but the fore-wings are rather narrower and more pointed, owing to the costa being more strongly arched, and the hind margin generally a little concave. The abdomen is longer and more tapering. The larve are generally green or brown, with the front segments tapering and retractile, and eye-like spots on the sides of the 4th, 5th, or 6th segments, The peculiar structure of the larve has led to their being thought to resemble an elephant’s trunk or a hog’s snout, whence the moths derive their name of Elephant Hawk-moths, or Cherocampa, from xotpos, a hog, and kay, a bending. This genus, which may be divided into several sections, is very widely distributed, and has representatives in all parts of the world. *1. C. Celerio (Linn.), (Sharp-winged Hawk-moth).—Fore-wings olive-brown, with short black and silvery longitudinal lines, and a shining silvery wavy streak, divided by two fine brownish lines, running from the base of the inner margin to the tip, below which are whitish longitudinal lines running along the hind margin. A little below the middle of the costa is a black spot in a pale ring. The hind-wings are rose-colour, with the hind margins and a central streak broadly black. The intermediate rosy band is also divided by black veins. Expands about 3 inches. It is found in May and June, and again in autumn, and its distribution is similar to that of Deilephila 72 European Borrerriits AND Morus. Livornica. The larva is green or brown, with black eyes on the 5th and 6th segments, with white pupils nearly in the middle, and enclosed in slender yellow rings. The horn is slender, and long and straight. It lives in August and September on vine; and when the perfect insect does not appear the same autumn, the pupa seldom survives the winter in Central Europe. The moth is figured at Pl. 16, Fig. 2. (C. Osyris, Dalm., an African species, which occasionally visits Spain, is a little larger than Ce/erio, the markings of the fore-wings are less silvery, and there is a con- tinuous line parallel to the costa running from the middle of the base to the tip, where it joins the usual oblique stripe. On the hind-wings there is a longitudinal black streak near the end of the innermost black stripe. There isa double pink band on the back of the abdomen, and two interrupted black bands on the sides of the first segments.) 2. C. Alccto (Linn.).—Fore-wings brown, with several black transverse lines, the most distinct running from the middle of the inner margin to the tip. There is a distinct black dot in the middle of the wing. Hind-wings red, blackish at the base and along the hind margin; a pale pinkish-white blotch at the anal angle. The head and body are greenish-brown, with a broad white stripe along each side of the head and thorax, and a black spot on each side at the base of the abdomen. Expands from 2} to 3} inches. A common East Indian species, the range of which extends to South-Eastern Europe. The moth is found in May. The larva is purplish-brown, dotted with white, and with a broad flesh-coloured streak on the sides, upon which is a row of seven white rings, bordered below with black, and enclosing large spots, black above and flesh-coloured below. It feeds on vine. (C. Boisduvalii, Bugnion, has brown fore-wings, with a green band near the costa running from the base to the tip, where it nearly touches a narrow green streak running from the hind margin to the inner margin; hind-wings black, with an oval white spot slightly tinged with pink at the anal angle. This species, which has been confounded with C. Adecto under the name of C. Cretica, Boisd., is said to occur in Turkey and Greece. Many closely-allied species occur in the East Indies, and C. Boisduvalii may possibly be identical with one of these.) * 3. C. Elpenor (Linn), (Elephant Hawk-moth)—Fore-wings olive-green, with the costa, hind margin, and two oblique bands rosy ; hind-wings rosy, with the base black ; body olive-green, with rosy stripes, the abdomen with a black spot on each side at the base. Expands about 2} inches. Common in Europe and Northern and Western Asia in May and June; in Japan it is replaced by a closely-allied species (C. Lezw#si?, Butl.), the larva of which is entirely different. The larva is green or brown, finely streaked with darker; a pale streak on the sides of the front segments, and round black eye-spots on segments 4 to 6, the last two of which enclose a brown lunule bordered with white. The horn is short, broad, and curved. It feeds on willow-herb, bed-straw, fuchsia, and vine from July to September. Figured in all stages at Pl. 16, Fig. 3, a—e. *4. C. Porcellus (Linn.), (Small Elephant Hawk-moth).—Fore-wings yellowish, with rosy spots on the costa, and the hind margin broadly rosy. Hind-wings black on the costa, and rosy on the hind margin, with a broad yellowish streak in the middle. Body rosy. Expands about 2 inches. Common in the greater part of Europe and in Northern and Western Asia in May and June, frequenting flowers in gardens, hedges, &c., in the evening. The larva is very similar to that of Elpenor, but has no horn. It feeds on bed-straw in July and August. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 16, Fig. 4, a, 6. *5. C. Nerii (Linn.), (Oleander Hawk-moth).—Fore-wings beautiful grass-green, varied with dark green, whitish, pink, and violet stripes and spots ; hind-wings violet-grey, with wavy whitish transverse lines ; abdomen with a white band on the ist segment. Expands from 4 to 4} inches. Common throughout Africa and Southern Asia and Europe ; a casual visitor north of the Alps in June, July, and October, and always a great rarity in Central Europe, though occasionally met SWERINTHUS. 73 with in the south of England. The larva is green, and more rarely ochre-yellow, with a white stripe on the sides of all the segments beyond the 4th; the front segments yellow, with a large black eye with two large blue pupils on the sides of the 4th segment. The horn is short and depressed. It lives gregariously from July to September on oleander, preferring the flowers, and has also been found on periwinkle. The transformations are figured at Pl. 18, Fig. 3, a—c. GENUS V.—SMERINTHUS (LATR.). Head and eyes small, the antenne of nearly uniform thickness, and not terminating in a bristle ; wings comparatively broad and more or less dentated. The species differ considerably in structure, each representing a distinct group of the genus, The hind tibiz of 77/@ have four spurs, and those of the other species have only two. 7Z7z/@ has a strong frenulum, the males of Quercus and Ocellatus a slight one, and the females of the last two and both sexes of Populi have none. The position of the wings at rest is the same as in the last two genera, but the moths fly later in the evening, The larve are granulated, with a strong anal horn. They are green, with a pointed head, and with red or white oblique stripes on the sides. They feed in August and September, change to pup in the ground, and the perfect insects appear from May to July. As the proboscis is very short in this genus (and actually wanting in Quercus), the pupe are not furnished with a separate sheath for it. *1. S. Tite (Linn.), (Lime Hawk-moth).—¥ore-wings with the hind margin irregularly dentated, ground colour whitish-grey, lilac-grey, or brick-red; hind margin pale green, with a whitish blotch near the tip; a dark green band across the centre, generally formed of two irregularly-shaped spots ; hind-wings yellowish or reddish, with a dark band beyond the middle. Expands from 24 to 3 inches. Common in Europe, except the north and the extreme south, and in Siberia. The larva is green, with oblique stripes on all the segments beyond the 4th, which are reddish above and yellow beneath. It has a granulated plate beneath the horn, which is generally red. It feeds on lime. The transformations are figured at Pl. 19, Fig. 1, a—c. 2. S. Quercus (W. V.).—Fore-wings with the hind margin irregularly dentated, pale ochre-yellow, with several darker transverse lines ; the hind margin, the outside of the third line, and the inside of the second suffused with brown towards the costa. Hind-wings fawn-colour, with a large white blotch towards the anal angle. Two small reddish-brown spots near the hinder angle of all the wings. Expands from 34 to 3} inches. A scarce species in South Europe and Asia Minor. The larva, which feeds on young oaks, is very similar to that of S. Populi, but the oblique stripes are alternately broad and narrow; the horn is pale blue, and the head is bordered with orange-yellow. The moth is figured at Pl. 19, Fig. 2. *3. S. Populi (Linn.), (Poplar Hawk-moth).—Wings regularly dentated, brownish, purplish, or yellowish-grey ; fore-wings with a short white mark at the end of the cell, and with several irregular dark transverse lines. The middle area of the fore-wings and the hind margin of all the wings are more or less clouded with darker. Hind-wings with a large reddish blotch at the base, and with one or two dark lines beyond it. Expands from 2} to 3} inches. When the insect is at rest, the front portion of the hind-wings stands considerably out beyond the costa of the fore-wings. This insect is one of the commonest species of the family throughout Europe, except the extreme north and south, and Northern and Western Asia. ‘The larva is very like that of S. Ocellatus, but is more slender in front and of a more yellowish-green, often with brownish-red spots on the sides; the horn is green, and is shorter and straighter. It feeds on various trees, especially poplars and willows. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 19, Fig. 3, a, 2. 17 74 Evrorean BorrerrLits AND Morus. (S. Tremule, Fisch., a very rare species, confined to Central and Northern Russia, much resembles this, but is greener, less striped, and with no red basal blotch on the hind-wings. The larva is green, striped with pale blue, and feeds on aspen.) *4. S. Ocellatus (Linn.), (Eyed Hawk-moth)—Fore-wings with the hind margin waved; brown, clouded with darker in the centre and on the hind margins, with two transverse dark lines, within the outermost of which is a dark spot. Hind-wings rose-colour, with a large round black spot near the anal angle, enclosing a blue ring. Expands from 2} to 3} inches. Common throughout Europe and Northern Asia. Hybrids of this and the preceding species have been obtained in captivity. Larva bluish-green, with a white longitudinal streak on the first segments, behind which are broad white oblique streaks, and sometimes reddish-brown spots on the sides ; horn blue. It feeds on willow, apple, &c. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 19, Fig. 4, a, 0. GENUS VIL—PTEROGON (BOISD.). This and the following genera are sometimes classed as a separate family, distinguished by their smaller size, shorter wings, and tufted abdomen, but are more frequently treated merely as a section of the true Sphingide. Pterogon has the body thickly covered with woolly hair, the abdomen with tufts of hair on the sides and at the extremity, the wings thickly covered with scales, and the hind margins dentated. The moths fly at twilight, and appear in May and June. 1. P. Proserpina (Pall.), Gnothere (W. V.).—Fore-wings green, with a darker transverse band across the centre, dusted externally with whitish. The hind margins are also darker. Hind-wings orange, with a broad blackish border. Antennz black, with a white hook at the tip. Expands from 1} to rh inches. Common in South Europe; in the southern half of Central Europe it is scarce and local. Larva dark green or brownish-grey, with dark streaks and lines, and a waved black macular line on the sides, under which it is yellowish; the horn is replaced by a brownish- yellow anal spot, with a black centre. The young larva is pale green, with no anal spot, and resembles the larva of a butterfly. It feeds on different species of Zpz/odcwm in July and August, and hides itself under stones in the daytime. The moth is figured at Pl. 18, Fig. 4. (P. Gor- goniades, Hiibn., found in South Russia, has grey fore-wings, mixed with brown, and brownish hind-wings, with several obscure greyish lines. It is a scarce insect in collections, and expands only 1 inch. The larva is dull dark red, with brilliant white longitudinal lines, and an anal horn. feeds on Galium.) GENUS VII.—MACROGLOSSA (OCHS.). Small species ; the body covered with flattened scales, the abdomen with a tuft of hair at the sides and tip; the wings not dentated, and densely clothed with scales. The species fly by day as well as at twilight with great rapidity, sucking the honey from flowers on the wing. M. Stellatarum has the habit of flying along walls and banks of earth, perhaps for the sake of concealment ; and is sometimes attracted by artificial or painted flowers. When at rest, the species of this and the following genus hold their wings sloping. The larve are granulated, with a round head and an anal horn; they change to pupe between loosely-folded leaves, and the pupe have no separate sheath for the proboscis. *1. M. Stellatarum (Linn.), (Humming-Bird Hawk-moth).—Fore-wings dark brown, with two black transverse lines. There is a black spot near the costa between the lines, and another towards the tip. Hind-wings tawny, with the base and hind margin brown. Abdomen spotted with black and white on the sides. Expands about 2 inches, Common throughout the greater 19. FTEMARIS. 75 part of Europe, North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia to the Himalayas, flying over flowers in gardens, &c., during all the fine season. The larva is green or reddish-brown, with a white longitudinal stripe, and a yellowish stripe under the spiracles. It lives on bed-straw in June, and again in autumn. The transformations are figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 1, a—c. 2. M. Croatica (Esp.).—Fore-wings green, the hind margins broadly reddish-brown ; hind- wings red. Body olive-green; abdomen with a broad reddish belt, behind which it is yellow; anal tuft blackish. Expands nearly 1} inches. It is common in South-Eastern Europe and Asia Minor in June and August. The larva is bright green, speckled with white. There are two darker lines on the back and a pale yellow streak on the sides; the stigmata are red, bordered with pale yellow ; and the legs and horn are orange. It feeds on scabious in July. The moth is figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 2. GENUS VII.—HEMARIS (DALM.). Characters of Macroglossa, but the entire discs of the wings are covered with very loose scales on first emerging from the pupa, which are lost almost immediately, when the wings appear transparent, except at the margins. The body is covered with loose downy scales, giving the insects the appearance of humble-bees, which they also somewhat resemble in colour. They are found in May and June, hovering over flowers in open places in woods, and fly only in the daytime. Their flight is much less rapid than that of JJacroglossa Stellatarum. * 1. H. Bombyliformis (Ochs.), (Broad-bordered Bee Hawk-moth)—Wings nearly transparent ; the hind margins broadly and the costa of the fore-wings narrowly bordered with reddish- brown; the discoidal cell of the fore-wings divided by a nervure, and with an oval dark spot at the extremity. The body is yellowish-olive, and there is a broad reddish-brown belt on the abdomen. Expands about 1? inches. Common throughout Europe, except the extreme north and south, and in Northern and Western Asia. It is particularly fond of the flowers of the elder and the meadow sage. The larva is pale green, with two yellow lines on the back, and a curved horn. It feeds on honeysuckle in July and August. The transformations are figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 3, a—e. * 2, H. Fuciformis (Linn.), (Narrow-bordered Bee Hawk-moth).—Very like the last species, but a little smaller, with narrower brownish-black borders, the base greenish, the discoidal cell of the fore-wings not divided by a nervure, and with no spot at the extremity. The body is darker, and the abdomen has a black belt. It is found in open places at the blossoms of wild sage, &c.; and is as widely distributed as the last species. The larva is bluish-green, with two white lines, and the horn nearly straight. It lives on scabious in July and August. The moth is figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 4. FAMILY Il.—THYRIDIDA. Small moths with stout bodies ; the wings short and triangular, with transparent spots ; the hind margins waved. Eyes naked ; antennz simple, very slightly thickened in the middle, and with a thickened basal joint. Palpi short, with the last joint pointed; proboscis strong; front tibiz with a leaf-like appendage; hind tibiae with four spurs. All the nervures separated; the fore- wings with twelve nervures, nervule 1 angulated towards the base. Larve with sixteen legs, thick, with warty processes and scattered hairs on the back. They live in leaves rolled into a funnel- shape, and change to pupe in a slight cocoon. The moths fly over flowers in the daytime, and are very active. When at rest, they hold the fore-wings half erected. The few species known are 76 Evropean Borrerrries AND Morus. either European, North Asiatic, or North American. There being only one European genus, it is unnecessary to characterise it. GENUS THYRIS (ILL.). 1. 7. Fenestrella (Scop.).—Wings dark brown, with many small, transverse, golden-yellow spots; fore-wings with two white transparent spots beyond the middle, and hind-wings with a trans- parent band before the middle ; abdomen with narrow white bands above and broad ones below. Expands a little over half an inch. It is found throughout Southern Europe and Northern and Western Asia; it is local in the southern half of Central Europe, frequenting sunny slopes where the clematis grows. The moth appears in June and July. The larva is brown, with darker warts ; the head, a plate on the back of the neck, and the anal fold are dark shining brown. It feeds on Clematis vitalba in July and August. The moth is figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 5. (7. Diaphana, Staud., which occurs in Sicily, is rather larger, the head, thorax, and fringes are golden-yellow, and the ground colour of the wings is more strongly mixed with yellow; the fore-wings have only one small transparent spot, and the hind-wings a transparent stripe, divided into two spots by one of the nervures. The abdomen is marked with three yellow belts.) FAMILY III.—SESIID/. Rather small moths, resembling different species of /Zymenoptera in appearance. The fore-wings are generally, and the hind-wings are always, more or less transparent. The abdomen is very long, extending far beyond the hind-wings, and is generally adorned with red, white, or yellow belts. It is composed of seven segments in the male, and six in the female. The fore-wings are very long and rounded at the extremities, and are furnished with eleven or twelve nervures. The submedian nervure runs close to the inner margin, or is absent; the hind-wings are triangular, with two or three submedian nervures. The eyes are large and naked ; the antenne spindle-shaped, terminating in a slender tuft of hairs in the males, and are rarely pectinated. Palpi stout, porrected, with the terminal joint naked; legs strong ; the front tibia short, with a leaf-like appendage ; hind tibize with four spurs. Many of the moths fly very rapidly in the sunshine, and may be captured resting on flowers, especially those of flowering bushes, or may be found in the morning freshly emerged, and resting on the stems of their food-plants. The larve are naked, only covered with fine scattered hairs, and are yellowish-white, with the head and a plate on the back of the neck horny and generally dark-coloured, with sixteen legs, the ten hinder ones coronated. They live in the trunks, branches, and roots of trees, shrubs, or herbs, and after passing one or two winters in the larva state, change to pupz in spring in the interior of the food- plant, in a cocoon mixed with fragments of wood. The pupz are slender, and the abdominal segments are provided with rows of small spines, by which they are able to work themselves along ; and the moths appear in summer. This family is represented all over the world, but the species are very liable to be overlooked ; and partly from this cause, and partly from the difficulty of rearing them, many species are seldom met with. The larve are very similar, and we shall generally confine ourselves to noticing their food-plants. Mr. Butler has lately proposed to remove this family to the J/scro-Lepidoptera, placing it between the Pyra/es and the Gelechide. GENUS I.—TROCHILIUM (SCOP.). These moths resemble hornets; the fore-wings are quite transparent, the twelve nervures and the costa only being thickly scaled. The antenna are short and thick, with short lamelle or SESIA, 77 pectinations in the males. The hind tibiz are thickly covered with dense hair, and the abdomen is thick, with a short tuft at the extremity in the males only. The larve live two years, and the moths appear in June and July. *1. T. Apiformis (Linn.), (Hornet Clearwing).—Dark brown; the head, palpi, two spots in front of the thorax and the base of the two first segments of the abdomen and the three last yellow ; wings transparent; the nervures and the costa of the fore-wings rust-colour; hind margins darker. In the variety Szreciformis (Esp.) the last segments are brown. Expands about r} inches. Common throughout the greater part of Europe and Northern and Western Asia, resting on the trunks of poplars near the roots in the daytime. The larva is whitish-yellow, with a darker line on the back, and a blackish head. It lives in the roots and in the lower part of the trunks of poplars. The moth is figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 6. *2. T. Crabroniformis (Lew.), Benbeciformis (Hiibn.).—More slender than the last species; the thorax unicolorous dark brown, with a yellow collar; the streak at the end of the discoidal cell of the fore-wings much narrower. The larva lives in the stems of the sallow. A very scarce and local insect in Central Europe, though not uncommon in England. The moth is figured at Pi20, Hiss 7. 3. 7. Melanocephala (Dalm.).—Body bluish-black, collar and sides of the thorax bordered with yellow, abdomen with narrow yellow rings; wings transparent, fore-wings rust-colour on the costa, and dusted with dark grey; antennz of the male pectinated. Expands about 1} inches. A very scarce and local species, confined to Sweden and some parts of North-Eastern Germany. The larva is to be found in the trunk and branches of the aspen on which it feeds. GENUS IT.—SCIAPTERON (STAUD.). Characters of Sesza, but the antennz of the male are furnished with long, slender lamellz, like the teeth of a comb, and the whole surface of the fore-wings is opaque and densely scaled, only showing faint traces of transparency towards the base. *1. S. Tabaniformis (Rott.), Asiliformis (W. V.).—Body bluish-black, abdomen in the male with four and in the female with three yellow rings. Besides these there is a narrow ring behind the head, a spot on the front of the thorax, and a dot at the base of the fore-wings yellow ; the eye- caps are silvery-white in front. The fore-wings are brown, slightly transparent towards the base, and the hind-wings are transparent, with brown borders. The perfect insect appears in June and July, and the larva may be found in the branches and roots of the black poplar and aspen in April. The southern variety Rhingieformis (Hiibn.) has the antennz and fore-wings dusted with ochre-yellow, the segments of the abdomen are all belted with yellow, and the front of the eye-caps is also yellow. The larva lives on sallow. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Appears to be distributed very generally throughout Europe (Rhingieformis in South Europe and Western Asia), but is common in some localities and very rare in others. Although formerly taken in the neighbourhood of London, it has lately become exceedingly rare in England. GENUS III.—SESIA (FABR.). Body slender; the abdomen with red, white, or yellow belts, and tufted at the extremity in both sexes. Fore-wings with twelve nervures, with the margins densely scaled, and a densely- scaled transverse band beyond the middle, so that there are three transparent spaces—one in the discoidal cell, one above the inner margin, and a round spot divided by the dark nervures between 78 FvroreEAn Borrerrries AND Morus. the transverse band and the hind margin. The two latter transparent areas are often more or less obliterated with darker. This genus may be divided into two sections. A. The transparent space on the inner margin of the fore-wings extends at least as far as the dark band, and is perfectly transparent. The larve live in the trunks and branches of trees and shrubs. *1. S. Scolieformis (Borkh.).—Body, as well as the costa, the broad heart-shaped band, and the hind margin of the fore-wings, bluish-black ; the sides of the shoulders and the 2nd and 4th segments of the abdomen narrowly bordered with yellow; the 4th segment whitish-yellow beneath ; anal tuft orange, with a black triangle above in the male ; the last half of the antennz is whitish in the female. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. A scarce and local insect, found throughout Europe (the south excepted) in July. In Britain it has occurred near Llangollen, in North Wales, and traces of the larva are believed to have been noticed at Killarney. The larva lives for two years in old birch-trees, between the trunk and the bark. *2. S. Spheciformis (W. V.).—The body and anal tuft, as well as the costa, the band, which is of uniform breadth, and the hind margin of the fore-wings, bluish-black ; the shoulders, and the 2nd segment of the abdomen above and the 4th below, narrowly bordered with pale yellow; antenne broadly whitish at the tip. Expands about 1 inch. Widely distributed throughout Europe and Northern Asia in May and June, but nowhere common, and in many places, as in England, a great rarity. The larva lives for two years in the stems of the alder. 3. S. MWesieformis (Herr. Schaff.)—Body and anal tuft, as well as the costa, band, and hind margins of the fore-wings, and a stripe on the disc of the hind-wings, black ; the shoulders edged with yellow, and the abdomen with two yellow belts; legs yellow, with the femora and the extremities of the tibiae black; the antennz with the apical half yellow in the male, and with a white fascia in the female. It occurs at Sarepta. *4. S. Andreneformis (Lasp.).—Body, costa, the uniformly broad band and hind margin of the fore-wings, bluish-black; the 2nd and 4th segments of the abdomen bordered above with pale yellow; the 4th, and sometimes also the 3rd and 5th, pure white below; the anal tuft mixed with yellow. Expands rather under 1 inch. A very scarce species, though widely distributed, occurring in England, Austria, South Russia, and perhaps in Spain. 5. S. Cephiformis (Ochs.).—Very close to Tzpuliformis, but the hind margin of the fore-wings is unicolorous bluish-black, and not dusted with yellow, and the anal tuft is yellow at the extremity in the male, and almost entirely so in the female. Expands rather less than 1 inch. A scarce insect in Germany and South-Eastern Europe in June; it has been found as far westward as Alsace. The larva lives in the trunks of Pzvws Adzes, and in excrescences on the twigs of the juniper. *6. S. Tipuliformis (Clerck.), (Currant Clearwing)—Body, anal tuft, costa, and uniformly broad band of the fore-wings bluish-black ; the hind margin golden-yellow between the nervures ; the abdomen with four narrow pale yellow belts in the male, and three in the female. Expands rather less than 1 inch. Common throughout Europe and Western Asia in May and June. The larva lives for one season only solitarily in the shoots of the red and black currant, where it feeds on the pith in winter and early spring. This insect has lately been introduced into both North America and New Zealand with currant-bushes. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 8, a, 0. 7. S. Conopiformis (Esp.).—Very like TZzpuliformis, but rather larger; there is a double yellow spot at the back of the thorax, the outer transparent space is rather broader and nearer to the hind margin, and the marginal band is yellowish-red between the nervures. Expands about SESIA. 79 1 inch. Common in some localities in Central Europe, but not British. The moth appears from June to August, and may be found resting on the dead branches of oaks. The larva feeds in the bark of this tree. The moth is figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 9. *8. S. Asiliformis (Rottemb.), Cynipiformis (Esp.)—Body bluish-black, with a pale yellow double spot at the back of the thorax, and three or four yellow belts on the abdomen; anal tuft black, a little mixed with yellow in the male, and almost entirely yellow in the female; the narrow crescent-shaped band of the fore-wings saffron-yellow, the costa and hind margin often dusted with reddish-yellow. (The variety MWelliniformis, Lasp., is smaller, with the yellow spot on the thorax scarcely marked.) | Expands from three-quarters of an inch to an inch. Widely distributed throughout Central and Southern Europe and Western Asia in June and July, without being generally very abundant. The larva lives for two years in or under the bark of oaks, in old shoots or diseased excrescences of the tree, and forms its cocoon either in the bark, or under lichens or moss. The moth is figured at Pl. 20, Fig. Io. *9, S. Myopeformis (Borkh.).—Body, anal tuft, costa, band, and hind margin of the fore-wings bluish-black ; sides of the breast orange; the 4th segment of the abdomen with a broad red belt on the upper side in the male, and both above and below in the female. In the male the palpi are white beneath, segments 4 to 6 of the abdomen are white on the under side, and the anal tuft is whitish-yellow in the middle beneath. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. Widely distri- buted throughout Central and Southern Europe from May to July. The larva lives for two years under the bark of apple and pear trees, forming long galleries in the soft wood of the tree, especially near decaying portions, where branches have been lopped off or the bark has become partially detached. It forms its cocoon in a cavity in the bark. S. Zyphieformis (Borkh.) is probably a variety in which the red of the upper side and the white of the under side is limited to the borders of the segments. It occurs in South Europe. The variety Greca (Staud.) has two red rings on the abdomen. (S. Crwentata, Mann, from Sicily, may be another variety ; the abdomen has blood-red scales, which do not form distinct bands, but cover nearly the whole sides of the 2nd and 3rd segments, but scarcely cover the hinder margins above, and are very little marked on segments 4 to 6; the white on the under side of the abdomen is likewise absent.) *10. S. Culiciformis (Linn.).—Very like the female of Myopeformis, but larger. The palpi are orange beneath, and the entire 4th segment of the abdomen is yellowish-red in both sexes, and sometimes segments 5 and 6 on the under side ; the hind margin of the fore-wings is dusted with orange in front. A white-belted variety occurs in the proportion of about one specimen in twenty- five. Another variety, Zhynniformis (Lasp.), has a yellow collar, and all the segments of the abdomen bordered with yellow. Expands about 1 inch. Widely distributed and often common throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia in May and June. The larva lives for one season in the trunks and branches of the birch, forming a long passage in the wood of the tree. It is occasionally found in the alder, and, according to some writers, in fruit-trees also. The moth may be found among flowers, or flying round and settling upon tree-stumps. It is figured at PI. 20, Fig. 11. (S. Polaris, Staud., from Lapland, may be distinguished from this by the absence of any coloured belt on the abdomen, and by the apical transparent spot, which is long and narrow.) 11. S. Stomoxyformis (Hiibn.)—Body, palpi, and anal tuft blackish-green ; the 4th segment of the abdomen red above, and this and the two following segments reddish-yellow beneath ; the breast without the orange spots of Cxliciformis; and the costa, band, and hind margin of the fore-wings more blackish-blue. Expands a little more than 1 inch. It occurs in Southern and Eastern Europe and Western Asia, but is not a very common species. Figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 12. So EvroreANn Borrerreies AND MOTHS. * 12. S. Formiceformis (Esp.).—Body bluish-black ; the under side of the palpi, the entire 4th segment of the abdomen, and sometimes the under side of the 5th and 6th segments red ; the broad hind margin of the fore-wings is also red. Expands about 1 inch. Widely distributed throughout Southern and Central Europe from June to August, but local, and rarely common. The larva lives for one or two winters in the trunks and roots of willows, living first in the tender parts, and then in the wood and the recent shoots of the roots. The moth is figured at PI. 20, Fig. 13. B. The transparent space on the inner margin of the fore-wings docs not extend so far as the transverse band, and is generally more or less densely scaled, especially in the female, sometimes so much so that the transparency entirely disappears. The larve live in the roots of low plants. The moths may be captured among their food-plants by sweeping. * 13. S. Ichneumoniformis (Fabr.).—Body black ; the segments of the abdomen pretty uniformly bordered with golden-yellow; the antennze suffused with rust-colour beneath and broadly yellowish before the tips in the female ; costa of the fore-wings dark brown ; inner margin and hind margin tinged with saffron-yellow ; a saffron-yellow spot behind the band. S$. Wegz/keformis (Hiibn.) is perhaps an aberration, in which only segments 2, 4, and 6 are bordered with yellow. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. Widely distributed in Europe, North Africa, and in Northern and Western Asia. It is found in flowery places in woods in July and August, but is not very common. The larva lives in the roots of Oxonts sativa. 14. S. Uroceriformis (Tr.)—Resembles the last species; but the 2nd, 4th, and 6th segments of the abdomen are broadly, and the others very narrowly, bordered with pale lemon-yellow ; the yellow portions of the fore-wings are paler, and golden-yellow rather than saffron-yellow; and the transparent space on the inner margin is smaller, and entirely covered with yellow scales in the female. Expands about 1 inch. Inhabits Southern Europe in June, but is not common. (S. Hymenopteriformis, Bell., from Sicily, resembles this, but the fore-wings are much darker—brownish fulvous, with two transparent spaces, in the male, and dark brown, only rather lighter in the discoidal cell, in the female. The abdomen in the male is reddish-brown, with white bands on the 2nd, 4th, and 5th segments, and the anal tuft is blackish, white beneath and at the sides. In the female the abdomen is shining black, belted with white, and with the anal tuft bluish-black.) 15. S. Himmighoffent (Staud.).—Antenne, thorax, and the opaque portion of the fore-wings bluish-black ; the transparent portion of the latter tinged with yellow. Head and legs yellow; thorax with three yellow stripes ; abdomen yellow, black at the base, and with six narrow black stripes arranged in pairs, the two middle ones widest apart, and the two last at the root of the anal tuft, which is black, with the centre yellow. Expands three-quarters of an inch. It is found flying over flowers near Barcelona in May. 16. S. Masariformis (Ochs.).—Body bluish-black ; thorax with two yellow longitudinal stripes ; abdomen dusted with yellow; segments 2, 4, and 6 with broad bright yellow belts; anal tuft bright yellow, not much mixed with black; the base of the palpi and the front cox white ; the margins and bands of the fore-wings black, the latter finely veined with pale yellow; the nervures in the outer transparent area, and the intermediate cells before the hind margin, pale yellow. The transverse nervule of the hind-wings attenuated behind. Expands rather under 1} inches. This species varies considerably in the colour and breadth of the bands, the rings of the under surface, and the anal tuft; and the next species is still more variable. Found throughout Southern Europe, as far north as Austro-Hungary, and in Western Asia. 17. S. Annellata (Zell.).—Bluish-black ; segments 2, 4, and 6 of the abdomen (and also SESIA. 81 segment 7 in the male) bordered with yellow above; on the under surface segment 2 is quite white, and segment 4, at least, is bordered with yellow. Wings suffused with yellow externally; front coxee white or yellow; the broad band and the margins of the fore-wings blackish-brown, the latter dusted with pale yellow; the disco-cellular nervule of the hind-wings is thick, uniformly broad, and scaled with blackish. Expands nearly three-quarters of an inch. It inhabits South- Eastern Europe, as far as Bavaria, and Asia Minor. 18. S. Empiformis (Esp.).—Bluish-black ; thorax with three yellow longitudinal stripes, the eye-caps dark in front, the antennz suffused with yellow at the sides, the abdomen more or less dusted with yellow, and segments 2, 4, and 6 (as well as 7 in the male) bordered with whitish above ; front cox pale yellow ; the middle band of the fore-wings black; and the hind margin blackish in front, and golden-yellow behind between the nervures; hind-wings with the disco-cellular nervule broadly black as far as nervule 5, and finely scaled with yellow beyond ; the space between the inner margin and nervule 14 forms a long square. Expands nearly three-quarters of an inch. Common throughout Eastern and Central Europe (except England) and Western Asia from June to August. The larva lives for two winters in the roots of the cypress spurge, entering them through broken stalks, The moth is figured at Pl. 20, Fig. 14. 19. S. Astatiformis (Herr. Schaff.).—Very like Empiformis; the male brownish-black, and the female bluish-black ; the middle line on the thorax is wanting in both, and the eye-caps are yellow in front. In the female the abdomen is not dusted with yellow, and the black anal tuft is only slightly mixed with yellow. The front coxz are whitish, and the hind margin of the fore-wings is pale yellow ; the disco-cellular nervule of the hind-wings is densely scaled to beyond nervule 5, and the space between their inner margin and nervure 14 forms a shallow segment of a circle. Expands rather under three-quarters of an inch. Inhabits South-Eastern Europe and the Altai in June and July. The larva lives in the roots of spurge. (S. Monspeliensis, Staud., is probably a variety of this. It is darker; and the hind-legs, which are unicolorous in Astatiformis, are ringed with black. It expands about three-quarters of an inch, and is found in South France and Spain in May, flying over the flowers of Ezphorbia, on the roots of which its larva is supposed to feed.) 20. S. Triannuliformis (Freyer).—Resembles Eipiformis, but the antennz are not suffused with yellowish, the front of the eye-caps and the front coxe are white, and the abdomen has a row of small yellow spots on the back, but is otherwise not dusted with yellow. There are distinct white borders to segments 2, 4, and 6, which widen into large triangular spots on the sides in the female; the anal tuft is but little mixed with yellow. Hind-wings as in Astatiformis, but the segment of a circle on the inner margin is wider and more strongly rounded. A little smaller than Astatiformis. It inhabits Eastern Europe ; and the larva lives for one year in the roots of Rumex acetosella. 21. S. Doleriformis (Herr. Schiff.) —Brownish-black ; the hind margin of the fore-wings with dull yellow stripes ; and dull yellow spots on the hinder segments of the abdomen in the male, which are nearly obsolete in the female. Segments 4 and 6 in the male, and segment 2 in the female, are bordered behind with white. Anal tuft with two dull yellow stripes. This species may easily be distinguished from its allies by the densely hairy hind tibia. Expands rather under 1 inch. Inhabits Turkey and Greece. 22. S. Umbrifera (Staud.)—Smoky brown ; hind margin of the fore-wings with dull yellow stripes ; fore-wings beneath and spots on the back of the abdomen dull yellow; hind-wings transparent, with the hind margin and the transverse stripe in the middle broadly brown; segment 4 of the abdomen belted with white behind. Expands about 1 inch. It appears to be not uncommon at Corfu. 18 82 EvroPpEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. 23. S. Stelidiformis (Freyer).—Blackish-brown ; thorax with three longitudinal yellowish stripes ; hind margin of the fore-wings streaked with yellowish; the 4th segment of the abdomen bordered behind with a white belt, which covers the segment almost completely in the middle and at the sides. It varies considerably in colour, as well as in size, expanding from three-quarters to one and a quarter inches. Common in Southern and Eastern Europe. 24. S. Ramburii (Staud.)—Brownish-black ; the outside of the antennz scaled with ochre- yellow, hind margins of the fore-wings with obscure yellowish stripes ; abdomen, with segments 2, 4, and 6 in the female (as well as 4 in the male), belted with white. It is nearly allied to S. Doleriformis, but is more slender, and the forehead, coxz, and abdomen are darker, although the general colouring of this species is whiter. Expands about 1 inch. It is found in Andalusia in June. 25. S. Lanipfes (Led.).—Allied to Doleriformis, but whiter, and with the tibie still more densely tufted. The body and fore-wings are dull blackish-brown, and appear to be covered with fine whitish atoms. Segments 2, 4,and 6 of the abdomen are bordered with white behind, and the remaining segments have only obscure narrow yellowish-brown hind borders. The anal tuft is blackish-brown above, and white below and at the sides. Expands nearly 1 inch. It inhabits the mountains of Bulgaria. 26. S. Agdistiformis (Staud.).—Brownish-grey ; the wings not hyaline; fore-wings with whitish stripes towards the tip, and whitish spots in the middle; hind-wings whitish, with the broad hind margins and the nervures smoky; abdomen unicolorous and very slender; anal tuft whitish beneath and at the sides. Expands 1 inch. It is found at Sarepta. 27. S. Bibioniformis (Esp.)—Much resembles the following species, but the antenne are suffused with yellowish on the outside, and the disco-cellular nervule of the hind-wings is uniformly thick, and almost equally broadly scaled. The palpi and front coxz are pure white, and the abdomen has generally a series of small whitish spots in addition to the yellow scaling. The anal tuft is mixed with white, and the three longitudinal stripes of the thorax are yellowish- white. On the under side the white coloration is predominant. Expands three-quarters of an inch. It inhabits South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia. 28. * S. Musceformis (View.), Philanthiformis (Lasp.)—Brownish-black ; the thorax with three yellow longitudinal stripes, the front of the eye-caps and segments 2, 4, and 6 of the abdomen white, the palpi and coxa white or yellowish, and the abdomen above dusted with yellow, often so as to form a series of small spots; anal tuft mixed with yellow. The band and margins of the fore-wings are dark brown, the latter dusted with yellow; the disco-cellular nervule of the hind-wings is broadly scaled with blackish above, and is narrow behind. The antennz are not suffused with yellowish, but are whitish before the tips in the female. Expands three-quarters of an inch. Appears to be widely distributed in Central Europe in June and July. It is a very local insect on the coast of England, where the larva lives for one season in the upper part of the roots of the sea-thrift. It has been found at Torquay and in the Isle of Man. (S. Lencomelena, Zell., is of a smaller average size, and has the palpi and front coxz beneath, and only segments 4 and 6 of the abdomen, bordered behind with snow-white ; the transparent space at the tip of the fore-wings is nearly always composed of five cells. It occurs in Turkey. S. Corsica, Staud., is another form closely allied to this, which is distinguished by the very small transparent spaces of the fore-wings, the outermost composed of three cells only. It is found in Corsica, and is of the size of Lencomelena. Both these forms are perhaps only southern varieties of Musceformis.) 29. S. Affinis (Staud.).—Very like Musceformis, but the middle yellow line on the thorax is SESIA. 83 wanting, and the edge of the 2nd segment of the abdomen and the antenne are unicolorous bluish-black in both sexes. The margins of the fore-wings and the band are very broad, the latter at least as broad as it is long; the hind margin only slightly suffused with yellowish-white. The transparent spaces are small, and the outermost is roundish. Expands nearly three-quarters of aninch. It is found in Europe, south of the Alps, in May, flying over Helianthemum vulgare. 30. S. A¢rifrons (Zell.).—Brownish-black; the forehead bronzy; the outer transparent space on the fore-wings composed of three cells only; palpi and front coxz white beneath ; segments 4 and 6 of the abdomen bordered with white behind ; thorax with two broad yellow stripes. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. It is not uncommon in Southern Europe, and, according to Berce, it is found flying over flowering Rumer in the south of France ; but as his description is not sufficiently precise, and his figure differs from Staudinger’s description in having three yellow stripes on the thorax, and in other less important particulars, it is somewhat uncertain whether the insect Berce describes as 4rifrons is really that species. 31. S. Leucopsiformis (Esp.).—Brownish-black ; the thorax with three pale ochre-yellow longitudinal stripes, abdomen above with one similar stripe and with white interrupted stripes on the sides and belly, and segments 2 and 4 narrowly bordered with white; eye-caps dark ; antenne slightly tinged with rusty-yellow. The transparent spaces of the fore-wings are very small, the outermost consisting of three cells only; hind margins with two yellowish streaks. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. A very local species, only found near Berlin and in Hungary in August and September. The larva lives for one season in the roots of the spurge. 32. S. Alysoniformis (Herr. Schiaff.).—Violet-black ; thorax with three longitudinal stripes, and segments 2, 4, and 6 of the abdomen bordered with yellow behind, both above and below; no longitudinal transparent space on the fore-wings, and the other spaces very small and often partly covered with yellow scales. Expands a little over half an inch. It inhabits Bulgaria and Asia Minor. 33. S. Osmieformis (Herr. Schaff.)—Rather stout and compressed ; cinnamon-brown, with a yellow dot at the base of the fore-wings. The band very broad, and the outer transparent space contracted at the sides. Hinder edge of the 4th segment of the abdomen with a whitish belt, which is a little widened in the middle and on the sides; abdominal tuft yellowish-brown, with some paler hairs, Expands three-quarters ofan inch. Inhabits Sicily and Calabria in May and June, 34. S. Anthraciformis (Ramb.).—Uniform bluish-black, without belts; the outer transparent area of the fore-wings composed of three cells. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. A Corsican insect, and one of the rarest of the genus. 35. S. Doryliformis (Ochs.).—Greenish-black, wings brownish, the outer area of the fore- wings contracted, and segments 2, 4, and 6 of the abdomen very narrowly bordered with white behind. In the male the back of the head, two lines on the thorax, and the hind tibiz are yellow. The anal tuft is yellow in the middle and at the sides, and the abdomen is spotted with yellow. In the female the back of the head, two lines on the thorax, the belts on segments 4 and 6 of the abdomen, and more or less of the abdominal tuft are red. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. It is found in South Europe and North Africa. * 36. S. Chrysidiformis (Esp.).—Body greenish-black ; the face, and the edges of the 4th and 6th segments of the abdomen, white ; fore-wings broadly orange-red along the inner margin and before the hind margin ; the transparent spaces small, the outermost almost filled up with orange- red; hind tibia reddish-yellow. Expands rather less than 1 inch. It inhabits Southern and Western Europe (including England, where it is a rarity) from May to July. The larva is said to live in the roots of Artemisia campestris, Elychrysum, and Rumex crispus ; and the moth frequents 84 European Borrerrzries AND Morus. the flowers of the sorrel and of umbelliferous plants. The variety Chalcocnemis (Staud.), from Spain and South France, has the face dark bronze-colour, and the wings scaled with brownish. Only the spurs of the hind tibize are yellowish, and only the 4th segment of the abdomen is bordered with white. The variety Minianiformis (Freyer), from Turkey, has yellowish longi- tudinal lines on the thorax; and the hinder edge of the thorax, and segments 2, 4, and 6 of the abdomen (and in the male, segment 7 also), are belted with yellow. (S. Oxysstformts, Herr. Schaff., from Sicily, is probably a variety either of Chrystdiformis or Dolertformis ; it is black, with the front and sides of the thorax and the hinder half of the abdomen red ; the legs are yellow, with black femora ; the wings are bordered with brown, and the fore-wings are red, with a transparent band, crossed by the black central stripe.) 37. S. Chalcidiformis (Hiibn.).—Very like Chrysidiformis, but the face is dark, the abdomen is not belted with white, and the anal tuft is orange-red in the middle. The hind tibiz are blackish- blue at the base and at the ends. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. It is found in South Europe, as far north as French Switzerland, and in Western Asia. In the variety Schmidti (Led.), from Dalmatia and Sicily, the 4th segment of the abdomen is narrowly bordered with white behind. 38. S. Keniformis (Herr. Schaff.)—Black or bronzed ; fore-wings (except along the costa), segments 4 to 6 of the abdomen, and the hinder portion of the anal tuft, red or orange. Segment 4 has a complete reddish belt, bordered behind with white. Expands about 1 inch. A rare and little known Sicilian species. GENUS IV.—BEMBECIA (HUBN.). Antenne of the male pectinated. Eyes and palpi small ; anal tuft truncated ; fore-wings very . narrow, with ten nervures, and with very small transparent spaces. The moths fly by night, and fold their wings close together when at rest. The larva lives for one season only. The only species is 4B. Hyleiformis (Lasp.), which is bluish-black ; abdomen with broad yellow belts ; fore- wings brown, with narrow transparent spaces in the discoidal cell and along the inner margin ; the apical transparent spot is small, consisting of only three cells. Expands a little more than 1inch. It is widely distributed in Central Europe (England and Holland excepted) from June to August. The larva lives solitarily in the roots and the lower parts of the stem of the raspberry. It may be found by gently breaking off the old stems just above the root, when both the stem and the root must be examined, as it may be concealed in either. The moth is figured at Pl 20; Fie. 15. GENUS V.—PARANTHRENE (HUBN.). Antenne scarcely thickened, and tapering to a point ; palpi very long and hairy ; fore-wings opaque and very narrow ; legs very hairy. 1. P. Tinetformis (Esp.).—Brown ; fore-wings and abdomen more or less varied with luteous ; hind-wings transparent, with the hind margins brown. The hind tibia are yellowish on the inside and in the middle. In the variety Brosiformis (Herr. Schiff.) the two first segments of the abdomen are white in the female, and the first is bordered in front with white in the male. Expands nearly three-quarters of an inch. It is found throughout Southern Europe in June and July ; the variety Brosiformis is commoner from South-Eastern Europe and Asia Minor. 2. P. Myrmoseformis (Herr. Schaff.)—Bronzy black ; fore-wings reddish-brown ; hind tibia luteous, with the extremities bluish-black. Expands nearly 1 inch. Inhabits Turkey, Greece, and Asia Minor in May and June. The variety Cingu/ata (Staud.), from Greece, has yellow belts on the abdomen. A GLAaoPE—INo. 85 FAMILY IV.—ZYG/ENID/E. Rather small moths, with thick bodies and long fore-wings ; the latter are rounded behind, and are either unicolorous green or blackish, or very dark blue or green, spotted or striped with red, yellow, or white ; the hind-wings form a rather long triangle, rounded at the apex, and are either of the colour of the fore-wings, or grey, or red, with black hind margins; the abdomen extends beyond the anal angle. The antenne are generally thickened suddenly before the tip, and are rarely pointed. The eyes are naked, and the palpi are short and pointed. The fore-wings have two internal nervures, the first of which is angulated towards the base, and eleven other nervures. The hind-wings have eight nervures, and the costal and subcostal nervures either unite or are connected by a small oblique nervule. The legs are short, with flattened scales, and the front tibia are provided with a leaf-like appendage. The moths fly heavily by day, and hold their wings sloping when at rest. They are found during the summer months in open glades, in meadows, or on flowery slopes near the sea or a river, and settle on the heads of composite flowers, such as thistles, scabious, &c. Many species are found only on a limestone soil ; and they are all very local and gregarious, swarming in one spot, while in another close by, and apparently quite as attractive, scarcely a specimen is to be found. They are generally abundant wherever they occur; and it is no uncommon thing to see half a dozen on the same flower-head, along with various other insects. The larve have sixteen legs, and are thick and short, shaped like a woodlouse, and covered with fine satiny hair. They have a very small head and small legs, and hybernate when young. In spring they undergo their transformations in a thick parchment-like cocoon, of a shining white or yellow colour. GENUS I.—AGLAOPE (LATR.). Antenne of the male with two rows of pectinations ; the hind tibiz have spurs at the end only. The larva is covered with small warts, which are clothed with bristly hairs, and the cocoon is egg-shaped. The only species, A. /xfausta (Linn.), is black, with a red collar, the wings thinly scaled, and the hind-wings broadly blood-red at the base and along the inner margin. Expands 1 inch. Inhabits France, Italy, and Spain, but does not extend to Britain; and is confined in Germany to a few localities in Rhenish Bavaria, Nassau, and the adjacent parts of Rhenish Prussia. It is found in July. The larva is violet; the upper part brown, with a yellow stripe on the back divided with darker, and a whitish stripe on the sides. It may be found in May, feeding on sloe, &c., and is very injurious to fruit-trees in some parts of France. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 1. GENUS II.—INO (LEACH). Wings unspotted ; fore-wings green, blue, or brown ; the hind-wings grey or blackish; antenne of the male with two rows of pectinations, which are thickened at the ends and placed obliquely forwards ; hind tibiz with spurs at the end only. The larva as in Ag/aoge; the cocoon rather long. The genus may be divided into two sections, according to the shape of the antenne. A. The shafts of the antenne pointed towards the tip. 1. L. Ampelophaga (Bayle).—Fore-wings umber-brown and narrow; hind-wings blackish, very short, not more than two-thirds of the length of the fore-wings ; body covered with shining bluish-green scales; antennz very long, with long pectinations in the male and short ones in 86 EvroPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. the female. Expands about 1 inch. It is found in Italy and the south-east of Europe and in Asia Minor in June and August. The larva is ashy-grey with blackish warts, and is yellowish-white beneath. It lives on vine in June and July, and is often very destructive in vineyards. 2. I, Prunit (W. V.).—Dark blackish-grey ; the thorax and fore-wings thinly scaled with blue or greenish ; the hind-wings three-quarters of the length of the fore-wings. The antenne are shorter than in the last species, with short pectinations in the male, and are serrated in the female. Expands rather less than 1 inch. Common in most parts of Europe, except Britain and the south-east, and in Northern Asia, from June to August. The larva is blackish-grey, with an orange streak on the back, enclosing a black cross on each segment. It feeds on heath in the north and on sloe in the south, and is much commoner than the perfect insect. It may be obtained by beating sloe-bushes into an umbrella in May. 3. L. Chloros (Hiibn.).—This species and 7. Yenuzcornis (Zell.) may be distinguished from any of the following by their narrow fore-wings, which are of nearly uniform breadth; the antenne of the male in Ch/oros are long and thickly pectinated, and the length of the pectinations is rather suddenly reduced towards the extremity. Those of the female are slightly pectinated for two- thirds of their length only. The fore-wings are unicolorous yellowish-green (or bronzy-brown in the variety Sepzwm, Boisd.), except at the base, which, as well as the thorax, is of a beautiful shining blue. Expands rather less than 1 inch. It appears to be confined to South-Eastern Europe. 4. I. Tenuicornis (Zell.) is a little larger than Ch/oros, and the fore-wings and thorax are of a more or less greenish-blue. The antennz of the male are thickly and densely pectinated, and end in an obtuse point ; they are much thicker than in G/odu/arie@ and its allies. Those of the female, which are only very slightly serrated towards the extremity, are also thicker and less pointed than in the following species. It is confined to South-Eastern Europe and Asia Minor. *5. L. Globularie (Hiibn.), (Scarce Green Forester) —In this and the remaining species with pointed antennz, the fore-wings widen outwards considerably from the base. The pectinations of the antenna are more slender, and diminish in length gradually, so that the antenne appear more pointed than those of the previous group. The thorax and fore-wings of Globularie@ are shining green or blue. The fore-wings are broad and thinly scaled, and are rounded at the tips ; the hind-wings are grey, and are long and broad behind and very obtusely rounded at the tip. In the female, which is always smaller than the male, the wings are often very short. The pectina- tions of the antenne of the male are not very long, and lie close together; towards the ends they become very gradually shorter. In the female the antennz are very slightly serrated for about two-thirds of their length. The variety (?) Motata (Zell.) is more shining, often with a golden lustre ; and the shaft of the antenne is more slender, with shorter pectinations, which are often placed quite close together. Expands from three-quarters to one and a quarter inches. This species appears to be found throughout Central Europe and Western Asia ; Wotata is con- fined to South Europe, and perhaps France. G/obu/arie is an extremely local insect in the south of England, but it occurs abundantly in a few localities on the chalk, in company with Geryon, The larva is green, with reddish warts, and two zigzag straw-coloured lines on the back. It mines in the leaves of Centaurea Scabiosa when young, and may be found feeding exposed in May and June. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 2, a, 6. 6. I. Cognata (Ramb.).—Fore-wings much less shining than in Globu/arie or Notata, with a dull golden lustre. Only the thorax and a very small part of the base of the fore-wings are brilliant green, and the hind-wings are darker than in Globularie. The pectinations of the ZYGENA., 87 antenne of the male are nearly twice as long as in Nofata, and not placed so closely together ; the antennz of the female are strongly serrated for their entire length. Expands 1} inches, It is found in Andalusia in June and July. The variety Subsolana (Staud.), from South-Eastern Europe, is dark greenish-blue, with no traces of golden-yellow. (/. Budensis, Speyer, from Hungary, Sarepta, and Armenia, has very short antenne ; those of the male formed nearly as in Cognata, and those of the female scarcely serrated at all.) B. The antenne thickened into a club at the extremity ; the pectinations on those of the male become shorter towards the club, and there cease. *7. I. Statices (Linn.), (Green Forester).—Fore-wings broad and triangular, rather thickly scaled, and shining green ; hind-wings grey ; body shining green, and abdomen sometimes golden- red; antenna short, only extending as far as the middle of the costa of the fore-wings; the pectinations very oblique on the antenne of the male, and close together. The female is much smaller than the male. The bluish variety Mannii (Led.) is found in South Europe, and the var. Crassicornis (Staud.), with thicker body and much thicker antenne, is found in Greece. Expands from 1 to 12 inches, The commonest species of the genus, occurring in meadows and flowery glades throughout Europe from June to August. It is local in Britain, but is found in many localities in England and Ireland, and at Oban in Scotland. The larva is ashy-grey, with a row of triangular black spots on the back and a reddish stripe on the sides, bordered above with white. It feeds on sorrel, mining in both sides of the leaf when young; when nearly full-grown, it may be found hidden under the leaves in May and June. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 3. 8. 1. Heydenreichit (Led.).—Larger than Statices, the wings still more densely scaled ; the fore-wings rather narrower, shining bluish-green; the hind-wings blackish. Head and thorax fine blue, abdomen dark green ; the antennz long, reaching as far as two-thirds of the length of the costa. Expands about 1¢ inches. It inhabits South-Eastern Europe, and is perhaps not sufficiently distinct from Statices. *9. I. Geryon (Hiibn.)—Very like Statices, but smaller (expands rather less than 1 inch), and the two sexes are of equal size. The fore-wings are narrower and of more equal breadth, and are thickly scaled. They are green, more or less golden, but never blue. The hind-wings are blacker, being more opaque. The antennz are shorter and thicker. This species has been overlooked, but appears to be widely distributed in Central and Western Europe in June and July, It frequents the short grass of dry hill-sides and similar localities ; and the larva, which feeds on Helianthemum vulgare, is a miner when young. 10. f. Chrysocephala (Nick.)—Also very like Statices, but the pectinations of the antenna of the male are less oblique and are separated. Both sexes are of the size of Geryon. The head is golden-red, and the fore-wings are very thinly scaled, and duller coloured than in the allied species. This insect is found in the high Alps in July, and may be an Alpine variety of either Svatices or Geryon. GENUS IIlL—ZYGANA (FABR), Body and fore-wings blackish-blue or green, with bright red, white, or, more rarely, yellow spots, arranged in pairs as follows:—Two spots at the base, the first (spot I) close to the costa, and the second (spot 2) just below it; one spot before the middle below the costa (spot 3); one below and rather behind it, nearly in the middle of the wing, but nearer to the inner margin (spot 4); one spot below the costa, placed at three-quarters of the length of the wing upon the disco-cellular nervule (spot 5) ; and often another before the middle of the hind margin 88 EvuRoPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. (spot 6). Spots 2 and 4, and spots 3 and 5, often coalesce into two longitudinal streaks, the last of which is axe-shaped when spot 6 is united with it; or the spots which stand in pairs may coalesce; or all the spots may be united, and leave only a few traces of the dark ground colour visible. Occasionally the spots are bordered with white, black, or yellow. The hind-wings are generally red, bordered with black, and are seldom of the colour of the fore-wings. The abdomen has sometimes a broad red or yellow ring beyond the middle. The antenne are not pectinated, but thickened considerably towards the extremity, which is sometimes pointed and sometimes obtuse. The hind tibia are sometimes entirely without spurs, and have sometimes only one spur at the end, but they have often two spurs at the end, and either one or two in the middle. The species are very variable, and are occasionally liable to have the red markings replaced with yellow. They are most numerous in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean and Black Seas, but are also found throughout Europe and Asia, as far as the Himalayas, and in South Africa. One species has been recorded from America, but probably in error. The larve are rather long, and live till May or June on low plants, especially Leguminose, and may be looked for on their food-plants, or captured by sweeping. The cocoons are boat-shaped, and may often be found attached to a blade of grass. As the moths all appear between June and August, we need not specify their times of appearance separately. 1. Z. Erythrus (Hiibn.).—Fore-wings dark blue or green, with three elongated red streaks, and the inner margin also red; the hinder streak is scarcely axe-shaped. The hind-wings are red, bordered with black; and the collar and shoulders are yellowish. One of the largest species of the genus, expanding about 1} inches. It appears to be confined to Italy and South France, and some of the varieties of the next species closely resemble it. The larva is greenish-yellow above and lemon-yellow beneath; it feeds on Thymus Serpyllum. * 2, Z. Minos (W. V.).—Fore-wings dark bluish or greenish-grey, with three elongated red streaks, the hinder one distinctly axe-shaped and rather pointed behind. The spots are distinctly separated, and the inner margin is not red in the type. Hind-wings red, the fringes narrowly black. The antennz terminate in an obtuse club. In the variety Pé/wto (Ochs.) the hind spot is not axe-shaped, but rounded; the variety Polyga/e (Esp.) has confluent spots, and the Italian var. Rudbicundus (Hiibn.) has entirely red fore-wings, with only the costa narrowly blue. The var. Madbzgena (Led.) has the body more hairy, and the wings slightly transparent. Expands about 1} inches. The larva is bluish-white or pale yellow, with two rows of large black spots on the back. It feeds on clover, trefoil, pimpernel, &c. The true A/znos is found throughout the greater part of Europe, including the west of Ireland, and Northern and Western Asia. The varieties are found chiefly in the south of Europe. The variety Wudigena is common in the high Alps and on the west coast of Ireland; it has also been met with on the west coast of Scotland. This variety is the ordinary J/zvos of British collectors, the type being much less common with us; its reputed occurrence on the east coast of Scotland was an error. The true Minos and its larva are figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 4, a, 0. 3. Z. Brise (Esp.) resembles J/inos, but the hinder spot is rounded, as in JMZznos, var. Pluto, instead of being axe-shaped, and the hind margins of the hind-wings are rather broadly suffused with blackish, Expands about 1 inch. It inhabits Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia. 4. Z. Scabiose (Esp.).—Fore-wings thinly scaled; blackish-blue, with three crimson longitudinal streaks, of which the hindermost is narrow and widens into a round spot at the end, before which it is contracted, but rarely interrupted. Hind-wings crimson, with the hind margin narrowly blackish. The club of the antennz is long and slender, and pointed at the extremity. Expands ZYGANA. 89 about I} inches. Local in woods in the greater part of Europe, except the north-west, and in Northern and Western Asia. In the south it appears to be confined to the mountains. The larva is golden-yellow, with whitish hairs, and three rows of black spots on the back, and a black head. It feeds on clover, but attaches its cocoon to tree-trunks ; and if the cocoons are removed, the surrounding bark must be taken with them, or the moths will not be successfully reared. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 5. 5. Z. Romeo (Dup.).—Fore-wings black and densely scaled, with a broad longitudinal streak beyond the middle, which is thickened into a club behind; a shorter one on the costa, a small spot between both, and a larger round spot on the disco-cellular nervule. These markings, as well as the hind-wings, which have a broad blackish border, are dark carmine-red. The club of the antenne is long. Expands from 1 to I} inches. It seems to be common in Spain and throughout the Italian peninsula, from the Southern Alps to Sicily, but, strange to say, it does not appear in the French lists. 6. Z. Sarpedon (Hiibn.)—Wings bluish or greenish, almost transparent, with two red spots running from the base, of which the lower one is three times as long as the upper, and is often interrupted; and a round spot near the tip. There is often a fourth small spot at the bifurcation of the principal nervure. The hind-wings are more or less suffused with red at the base, and there is a red belt on the upper side of the abdomen near the tip. It expands 1 inch or under. The variety Balearica (Boisd.) is still paler, with larger spots, and the base of the inner margin is red. This species inhabits South France, Piedmont, and Spain, and the larva feeds on EAryngium campestre. (Z. Contaminez, Boisd., much resembles this, but is less transparent, and the red belt is almost or entirely absent. It expands 1} inches, and is found in the Pyrenees and in Spain. Its larva feeds on the same plant as that of Savgedon, from which Contaminet is perhaps not truly distinct.) 7. Z. Punctum (Ochs.)—Wings thinly scaled, blackish-grey, with carmine-red stripes, and spots arranged as in Romeo, which are generally suffused, and the spots are sometimes united by a narrow streak. The hind-wings are carmine, with the hind margin narrowly blackish ; the thorax has pale grey hairs, and the club of the antenne is thick and obtuse. Expands about 1 inch. It inhabits the south of Europe, except Spain, and Western Asia. 8. Z. Achillee (Esp.)—Fore-wings blackish-blue or greenish-grey, with five large carmine- red spots, the last of which is kidney-shaped and very large, being composed of spots 5 and 6 united ; the hind-wings are carmine-red, with a very narrow black border; the club of the antennz is short and obtuse, and the abdomen is sometimes marked with an indistinct red belt. Expands from I to I} inches. It is common in many parts of Southern and Central Europe, except Spain and the north-west, and in Northern and Western Asia, occurring in dry places, especially on a limestone soil. The larva is greenish-yellow, with a pale line on the back, and two small black dots at the front and back of each segment; head black. It feeds on Astragalus glycyphyllos and Coronilla varia. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 6. 9. Z. Cynare (Esp.).—Fore-wings thinly scaled, and blackish-blue or green, with brownish fringes, and five separated carmine-red spots; hind-wings carmine-red, with the tips blackish. The abdomen is marked with a broad red belt, and the club of the antenna is long and thick and rather obtuse. It expands nearly 1} inches, and inhabits South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia. (Z. Anthyllidis, Boisd., is a scarce species found in the high Pyrenees, with six large red spots more or less bordered with yellow, and a red b %~ on the upper side of the abdomen only. Expands 1} inches.) *1o. Z. Exulans (Hoch.):;—Fore-wings thinly scaled, of a greenish or bluish-grey, with five 19 90 EvroreaAn Burrerryizs AND Morus. crimson spots; hind-wings rounded behind, crimson-red, with a rather narrow blackish border ; the abdomen densely hairy, and the collar and legs pale whitish-yellow. The Lapland variety Vanadis (Dalm.), which occurs on the plains in Lapland, is still more thinly scaled, and not mixed with white ; and the var. Swbochracea (White), from the mountains near Braemar, is intermediate between this and the type, which occurs above the tree-limit in the Alps and Pyrenees. Expands rather over I inch. The larva is black, with the incisions yellowish, and a row of oval yellow spots on each side; the head is blackish-green. It feeds on Azalea procumbens. 11. Z. Corsica (Boisd.), from the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, is one of the smallest species, only expanding three-quarters of an inch. The fore-wings are blue and slightly trans- parent, and have five separate red spots above, which are suffused on the under side; the hind-wings are red, with a narrow dark border; and the antenne are thick and obtuse. * 12. Z. Lonicere (Esp.).—Fore-wings long and thickly scaled, of a shining blackish-blue or green, with five crimson spots, distinctly separated both above and below; hind-wings crimson, with a rather narrow blackish-blue border; antennz unusually long, with a long club, which is very gradually thickened, and pointed at the extremity. Expands nearly 1} inches. It is generally distributed, though somewhat local, throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia. The larva of the male is yellowish, with a row of long square black spots on the back and sides, and a black head ; that of the female is pale coppery-green, with white stripes on the back and sides, and black dots on the upper part of the sides. It feeds on clover, &c. The transformations are figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 7, a—c. *13. Z. Trifoli (Esp.) may be distinguished from Zoxicere by the shorter and _ thicker antennz, which have a very thick and less pointed club. The spots are larger, and nearly always more or less confluent; and the border of the hind-wings is broader. Expands about 1} inches. Widely distributed throughout Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. It is a rather local insect in Britain. The larva is pale yellow, with four rows of black dots and a black head. It lives on clover, &c. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 8. It is a very variable species. *14. Z. Meliloti (Esp.).—Also very like Lonicere, but smaller, the antenne and their clubs shorter and more slender, fore-wings with the tip rounder and less densely scaled; spot 3 is small and rather long; spot 4 is large and triangular, and there is sometimes a sixth spot also. In the variety Stentzi? (Freyer) the abdomen has a dull red belt. The larva is pale green, with whitish lines on the back and sides, and a row of black spots between them, placed in front of each segment; head black. Expands a little more than inch. It is found in woods throughout the greater part of Southern and Central Europe, and in Northern and Western Asia. It has long been reputed British, but it is only lately that its British origin has become established by its capture in some plenty in the New Forest, as well as by its having been bred from larve which agree with the description given above. This species seems either to be very local, or to have been overlooked in both France and England. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 9. (2. Charon, Hiibn., from the Southern Alps, is very similar to this, but the ground colour is more intense, and there are six cinnabar spots, the fifth and sixth generally connected; and the abdomen is belted with red.) 15. Z. Stechadis (Borkh.)—Wings blackish-blue or green; fore-wings generally with five spots, the outer ones small and separated ; sometimes there is a sixth spot, and sometimes there are only four, one of the outer ones being absent. The hind-wings are crimson at the base, always with a very broad border; and the crimson part is sometimes very small, and divided into two portions. Expands nearly 1} inches. It inhabits South Europe and Armenia, and a variety with yellow spots (Boisduvalit, Costa) is occasionally met with, The larva is rather long ee ZYGENA. gI and cylindrical ; greenish-yellow, with longitudinal rows of square black spots, and round ones below them, on each side. It feeds on Dorycnium. 16. Z, Angelice (Ochs.).—Fore-wings densely scaled, of a dark greenish-blue, with five, and more rarely six, carmine-red spots, which are united on the under side by a longitudinal streak dusted with red; the two spots in the middle are very oblique, separate, round, and of equal size; the hind-wings are dark carmine-red, with a broad blackish border, and the club of the antennz is long and pointed. Expandsa little over 1} inches. It inhabits Eastern and Southern Europe, except Spain. The larva, which feeds on Trifolium montanum, is yellow, with two rows of black spots on the back. 17. Z. Transalpina (Esp.) is perhaps only a variety of the last, but has always six red spots, which are narrowly bordered with black, and the colour of the spots and hind-wings is of a purer carmine-red. It inhabits the Southern Alps. 18. Z. Hippocrepidis (Hiibn.) is also very like the two last species, but the spots of the fore- wings are not surrounded with black ; the hind-wings have a narrow black border, and the red is of a bright cinnabar colour, with which the whole of the under side of the fore-wings is suffused as far as the dark borders. Expands about 1} inches. The larva has a blackish line on the back, and a yellow line on the sides, with triangular black spots between. It feeds on Astragalus shophyllos. This species is common in many parts of Central Europe, and has been reputed British, probably in error. It frequents dry, sunny localities. * 19. Z. Filipendule (Linn.), (Six-spot Burnet) —Fore-wings rather thickly scaled, blackish-blue or green, with six crimson spots, the two middle ones placed close together and a little obliquely ; on the under side the fore-wings are very slightly suffused with pale reddish-yellow ; hind-wings crimson, with a narrow black border; the club of the antennze long and thick. In the aberration Chrysanthemi (Borkh.), the crimson markings are replaced by coffee-brown; and in another aberration, which seems not to be very rare near Cambridge, they are replaced by rich yellow. The Alpine variety J/anuii is more thinly scaled, and all the colours are duller ; and in the variety Cytest (Hiibn.), and in the Greek variety Ramburii (Led.), the six spots run together into three large ones ; and in the latter the spots are more of an orange-red. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. This species is one of the commonest of the genus, and abounds throughout Europe (except South Spain and the Polar regions) and Western Asia, though not so common in some localities as Trifoli. It frequents meadows, flowery slopes, &c. The larva is golden-yellow, with two rows of black spots on the back, and a row of smaller ones on each side. It lives on clover and other low plants, and is figured, with the moth, at Pl. 21, Kiss TO; a a 20. Z. Ochsenheimeri (Zell.), Transalpina (Ochs.).—Fore-wings bluer than in Filipendule ; spot 6 divided by a black nervure, and the yellowish suffusion of the under surface fainter or absent. The hind margin of the hind-wings is more or less strongly blackish-blue, and is distinctly concave. Expands 1} inches. It‘is probably a large variety of Filipendule, and occurs in the Southern Alps. 21. Z. Ephialtes (Linn.).—Fore-wings blackish-blue, with five or six spots; the abdomen with a broad belt ; the club of the antennz slender and pointed, with the tip narrowly whitish. This species presents so many constant named variations in colour and markings that it will be necessary to describe them separately. In Coronille (W.V.) the fore-wings have six white spots, of which the two at the base are dusted with ochre-yellow. The hind-wings are black, with a round white spot towards the tip, and the abdomen is belted with yellow. It is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 11,@. The true Ep/ialtes (Fig. 11, 0) differs from this by having the basal spots of the fore- wings and the belt of the abdomen red instead of yellow. In Peucedani, Esp. (Fig. 11, 0), the six 92 European Borrerryies And Morus. spots of the fore-wings and the belt of the abdomen are carmine-red, and the hind-wings are of the same colour, with a broad black border; and Asacus (W.V.) differs from Peucedani in having all the red markings replaced with yellow. 77rigonelle (Esp.), Falcate (Hiibn.), and Athamanthe (Esp.) only differ from Coronille, Ephialtes, and Peucedani respectively in the absence of the sixth spot. Expands 1} inches, or under. It is common in many localities in Central and Southern Europe, except the north-west and south-west; and in Northern and Western Asia. Peucedani has been reputed British, probably in error. The larva is yellow or greenish, with a dark line on the back, on each side of which is a row of black spots; and two other rows of rather longer black spots on each side. It lives on clover, Coronzlla varia, Medicago falcata, &c. (Z. Doryenit, Ochs., is probably another variety from the Ural and Asia Minor, which differs from Peucedani in its shorter and more rounded wings, its antenna, which are bluish-black to the extremity, and in the red belt of the abdomen, which is only visible on the upper side.) 22. Z. Lavandule (Esp.).—Shining greenish or purplish-blue, with five red spots slightly bordered with black on the fore-wings, and one or two red spots on the hind-wings, the base of which is also frequently red; collar white. Expands nearly 1} inches. Common in South France and Spain. The larva feeds on Lavandula and Dorycnium. 23. Z. Rhadamanthus (Esp.).—Fore-wings greyish-blue, with six red spots distinctly bordered with black, except the sixth and the inside of the basal ones. Hind-wings red, with a narrow dark blue border. Expands about 1} inches. It inhabits South France and Spain, and the larva feeds on Dorycnium suffruticosum. In the variety Cimgulata (Led.) the abdomen has a red belt, and in the variety Avesenwwetteri (Herr. Schiff.) the fore-wings are bluer, and the hind-wings are only red at the base. (Z. Oxytropis, Boisd., is an Italian species, expanding only 1 inch; the third spot is smaller than the fourth, and the fifth and sixth are connected, and bordered, like the others, with black; the hind-wings are more rounded and with a rather broader border than in Rhadamanthus.) 24. Z. Carniolica (Scop.), Onobrychis (W. V.).—Fore-wings dark shining green, with six red spots, bordered (except in variety Berolinensis, Staud.) with white; the sixth spot forms a long crescent within the hind margin; hind-wings red, with a narrow black border, abdomen generally with a red belt. In variety //aveo/a (Esp.) the red markings are replaced with yellow. Expands rather more than 1 inch. Common in Southern and some parts of Central Europe, and in Northern and Western Asia. The larva is pale green, with a whitish line on the back, beneath which are triangular black spots, and a pale streak on the sides marked with yellow spots. It feeds on Onobrychis sativa and Astragalus glycyphyllos. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 12. (Z. Sedi, Fabr., from South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia, formerly considered a variety of this, has three spots, formed of the usual six united in pairs ; and the hind-wings are truncated instead of rounded. In Z. Occttamia, Vill, from Spain and South France, the spots of the fore-wings are more broadly surrounded with white than in Onobrychis, and the sixth is replaced by a white crescent, not marked with red.) 25. Z. Fausta (Linn.).—Fore-wings black, with the base and spots orange-red ; the latter are bordered with yellowish, and all connected together ; the last spot is long and crescent-shaped ; the hind-wings, collar, and (generally) a broad belt on the abdomen are orange-red; the club of the antenne is thick and obtuse, and the thorax has two whitish lines. In the Spanish variety Faustina (Ochs.) the spots at the base and in the middle are separated ; and in the variety NVicea (Staud.) the spots are not bordered with yellow. Expands about 1 inch. Inhabits a great part of Southern and South-Central Europe, chiefly occurring in mountainous districts on a limestone soil, The larva is pale green, with a brown line on the back and a white one on the sides, SYNTOMIS. 93 the latter marked with a large and small black spot on each segment; head red. It feeds on Ornithopus perpusillus and Coronilla minima. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 13. (Z. Betica, Ramb., from Andalusia, differs from Fausta, in wanting the pale lines on the thorax and in the narrower red belt of the abdomen. It appears in April and September, and the larva feeds on Coronilla juncea. Z. Hilaris, Ochs., from South France and Spain, has a white instead of a red collar, and the white lines on the thorax and the red ring round the abdomen are wanting.) 26. Z. Leta (Hiibn.).—Wings, collar, and abdomen orange-red ; fore-wings with the hind margin and the outside of the inner margin bluish-black, and two spots of the same colour before and beyond the middle ; abdomen black at the base and tip ; the club of the antennz is rather long, and ends in a blunt point. In the variety Mannerhetmit (Chard.), from the Ural, the wings are almost wholly red. Expands about 1 inch. It is found in South-Eastern Europe as far north as Moravia. Larva bluish-white, with whitish stripes on the back and sides, and a row of white spots above the latter; head black. It feeds on Eryngium campestre. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 14. FAMILY V.—SYNTOMID. Rather small moths with slender bodies covered with scales, and broad triangular dark fore- wings with transparent spots, and small hind-wings ; the abdomen extends considerably beyond the latter. The antennz are long and thread-like, the palpi small, the eyes naked, and the tongue spiral. The legs are slender and free from hair; the front tibia are furnished with a leaf-like appendage, and the hind tibia have four spurs. The larve have sixteen legs, and are furnished with warts covered with tufts of hair. They hybernate as larve, and undergo their transforma- tions in a loose cocoon. The genus Syz¢omizs is very extensive, supplying the place of Zygena in the tropics of the Old World. The two commonest European species of this family, S. Phegea and Waclia Ancilla, have occasionally been taken in England; but it is still uncertain whether either of them can be considered truly indigenous. GENUS I.—SYNTOMIS (LATR.). Hind margin of the fore-wings longer than the inner margin; hind-wings with only one internal nervure; all the wings with white transparent spots. The commonest European species, S. Phegea (Linn.), is bluish-black, with one transparent spot at the base of the fore-wings, two in the middle, and three nearer the tip ; hind-wings with two or three spots ; abdomen with yellow belts at the base and in the middle; antennz black, with white tips. Varieties occur in which some or all the spots are absent. Expands 1} inches, or more. Common throughout Southern Europe (except Spain) and Northern and Western Asia. It appears in June and July in glades in woods, and likes to settle on the flowers of the thyme and lavender. It is widely distributed north of the Alps, but its distribution in Western Europe is very sporadic; Holland, Belgium, Brunswick, and Kreuznach may be mentioned as localities. In France it appears to be confined to the extreme south-east. The larva is black, with thick, feathery hair, of uniform length on the back. It feeds on dandelion, scabious, and other low plants in April and May. The moth is figured at Pl. 21, Fig. 15. S. Caspza (Staud.), from Astrachan, is smaller, with uni- colorous black antenne, and only one spot on the hind-wings; and a triangular yellow spot on the Ist segment of the abdomen; otherwise as in Phegea. In S. Antiochena (Led), from Syria and Eubcea, the male differs from that of Phegea in having only one large round spot on the hind-wings, which fills up the whole cell ; and the wings of the female are imperfectly developed. 94 EvrorpEAN Burrerrtirs AnD Morus. GENUS IIL—NACLIA (BOISD.). Hind margin of the fore-wings as long as the inner margin; hind-wings with two internal nervures, unspotted, with broad dark borders ; abdomen ochre-yellow, with dark spots on the back. The species are very closely allied, and vary from three-quarters of an inch to an inch in expanse, 1. NV. Ancilla (Linn.).—Fore-wings ochreous-brown, with three white transparent spots beyond the middle, and often another spot above the inner margin before the middle; hind-wings transparent, dusted with brown, in the male, and ochre-yellow in the female ; a broad brown border in both sexes. It is found in dry, flowery woods in June and July in Southern and Central Europe, but is rather local, and not very abundant. The larva is black, with yellow lines on the back and sides. It lives on lichens growing on trees and rocks, in spring. (MV. Punctata, Fabr., from South Europe and Western Asia, differs from the female of Axci//a in always having two distinct white spots before the middle. Its varieties are numerous ; JV. Servuda, Berce, is smaller, with unspotted fore-wings ; V. Famula, Freyer, resembles the male of Azcz//a, but the spots of the fore-wings are darker, and there are two spots before the middle of the fore-wings ; the hind-wings are nearly transparent, as also in the variety Myalina, Freyer, which has from two to four white spots on the fore-wings.) NvUDARIA. 95 BOM BY CES: THIRTEEN families are included under this heading; and the two last families of the Sphinges are very closely related to the two first of the Bomdyces. As before, we shall treat of the families of the Bombyces separately, as they differ widely, and to attempt to indicate common characters for them would be unsatisfactory. FAMILY I.—LITHOSID/E. Small or middle-sized moths with slender wings, of a yellow or grey colour, and occa- sionally black. The fore-wings are generally either without markings or dotted with black, and marked with zigzag transverse black lines in a few cases. The antenne are rather short and thread-like, ciliated in the male; the legs are slender, with depressed scales ; the front tibie are furnished with a leaf-like appendage, and the hind tibie have four spurs. The abdomen is sometimes shorter and sometimes a little longer than the hind-wings. The larvae have sixteen legs, hairy worts, and a small, round head. They feed on lichens, and change to a thick obtuse pupa, which is enclosed in a cocoon. In captivity they will eat withered lettuce-leaves. The moths mostly fly at night, though some fly at twilight or in the daytime. They may often be beaten from bushes or thickets, and generally simulate death in the net. GENUS I—NUDARIA (STEPH.). Very delicate species with thinly-scaled wings. Fore-wings rounded at the tip and hind margin; pale, with rows of dark spots or transverse stripes; hind-wings regularly rounded. The larve are rather flat, and covered with short hair. They hybernate when small, and change to pupz at the beginning of June. The moths (except M/urina) seldom expand much more than three-quarters of an inch. They appear in July, and sit with their wings spread out flat. * 1, WV. Senex (Hiibn.).—Fore-wings pale ochre-yellow, with a brown spot in the middle, two rows of brown spots, and dark spots on the hind margin; hind-wings paler, with a brown spot in the middle, and one row of spots beyond. Widely distributed in Northern and Central Europe and in the Alps, frequenting damp places in woods, but rarely common. The larva is dark ashy-grey, with a blackish-brown head. 2. NV. Murina (Esp.).—Fore-wings pale yellowish-grey, with two rows of brown spots ; hind- wings whitish, unspotted. Expands rather more than 1 inch. It is found throughout South Europe and Western Asia, but is very scarce and local north of the Alps, though found as far north as Frankfort, and in Holland. It often flies into lighted rooms. The larva is pale grey, with two rows of sulphur-coloured spots on the back, and yellowish-grey warts. It feeds on lichens growing on trees and rocks. * 3. MV. Mundana (Linn.).—Fore-wings semi-transparent ; dull yellowish-grey, with a brown spot in the middle, and two zigzag transverse stripes ; hind-wings without markings. Common in Western and South-Eastern Europe. The larva is pale grey, with two rows of yellow spots on the back, and a blackish transverse spot on the 7th segment. It feeds on lichens growing on walls, rocks, and trunks of trees; and the moth, which is figured at PI. 22, Fig. 1, may be found in similar places. 96 LvropEAN BurverrLizs AND Morus. GENUS II.—CALLIGENIA (DUP.). Wings more thickly scaled than in MWadaria, and the hind margins less rounded. Antenne of the male strongly ciliated. Wings spread out flat when at rest. The only species, * C. Miniata (Forst.), has ochre-yellow fore-wings, tinged with reddish, the costa and hind margin brick-red, and a black zigzag transverse line beyond the middle, outside which is a row of black spots ; hind-wings tinged with rosy. Expands about 1 inch. It is common, without being very abundant, in woods throughout Northern and Central Europe and Siberia in June and July. The larva is dull brown, with long black hairs, grey at the ends, and a reddish-brown head. It lives on lichens on trees in May, and when it becomes a pupa the hairs are loosely spun together so as to form a kind of cocoon. The transformations are figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 2, a—e. GENUS IJI.—SETINA (SCHRANK). Fore-wings rounded behind, and occasionally rectangular at the tips. They are yellow, and generally marked with three transverse rows of black spots, which are often connected, and then form black branching longitudinal lines on the nervures. Occasionally there are only two spots on the costa and inner margin. The antenne of the male are ciliated. Most of the species frequent mountains, and vary according to the height at which they are found. The larve are short and thick, and hybernate. They live on lichens growing on trees and rocks, and the moths appear from May to August, and mostly fly by day. When at rest they hold their wings considerably expanded, or else flat. * 1. S. Zrrorella (Linn.).—Body black ; collar, shoulders, tip of the abdomen, and fore-wings dull yellow, the latter rather thinly scaled, with three rows of black spots, but none at the base; under side blackish-grey in the middle. Hind-wings paler, often with blackish spots before the tip. Expands from three-quarters to one anda half inches. Common in the greater part of Europe and Asia Minor. It is a local insect in Britain, found in a few localities on the coast. The larva is black, with a row of sulphur-yellow spots on the back, and a narrower one on each side, below which is an interrupted stripe. The moth is figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 3. 2. S. Freyertt (Nick.).—Body and fore-wings as in /vrorel/a, but the latter with a black dot at the base, and the dots are longer. The fore-wings are thinly scaled, and wholly blackish on the under side. Hind-wings with blackish spots before the hind margin. In the variety Andereggii (Herr. Schaff.) the two front rows of spots are wanting, the nervures are blackish, with branches running out to a point, and the wings are paler yellow. These are probably both Alpine varieties of /rrorella. 3. S. Aurita (Esp.)—Body black, the collar (generally), the shoulders, extremity of the abdomen, and both sides of the wings dull yellow. Fore-wings thickly scaled, with a black dot at the base, and three transverse rows of large black dots ; hind-wings with black dots before the hind margin. Figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 4. The variety Ramosa, Fabr. (Fig. 5), has broad black nervures instead of the two first rows of dots. Expands 1} inches. Common in the Alps; but Ramosa only occurs above the tree-limit. 4. S. Kuhlweinii (Hiibn.).—Body, antenne, and wings rich yellow; fore-wings thickly scaled, with three transverse rows of black spots, but no basal spot ; hind-wings spotted with black before the hind margin. Varieties occur with blackish antenne, and others with the middle of the thorax and the base of the abdomen blackish. Size of Aurita. It inhabits the plains of Eastern Europe. The Alpine variety A/pestris (Zell.) only differs by its larger size and thicker antenne. The larva 22 LirxHosia. 97 is blackish, thickly sprinkled with pale yellow, coalescing into spots below the sulphur-coloured line on the back. There is also a much narrower stripe on the sides, composed of spots. It feeds on ground lichens. 5. S. Roscida (Hiibn.).—Body black; shoulders, tip of the abdomen, and wings dull pale yellow ; fore-wings with three rows of black spots, but no basal spot ; hind-wings spotted with black before the hind margin. Under side of fore-wings smoky, base of the costa black. Antenne strongly ciliated. Expands about 1 inch. It is common, though local, in Southern and Central Europe, except the north-west ; and in Northern and Western Asia. It flies in dry places in woods, and on hills ; and the larva does not differ from that of Kwhlweinttz. The Alpine variety Melanomos (Nick.) has the fore-wings suffused with grey, and the nervures and hind-wings are blackish towards the base. *6. S. Mesomella (Linn.).—Fore-wings with the tip rectangular, pale grey, with the costa and hind margin ochre-yellow, and with one black spot in the middle of the costa, and another in the middle of the inner margin. Hind-wings dark grey with yellow fringes. Expands about 1} inches. Common in woods throughout Europe, and in Northern and Western Asia. The larva is dark brown, with blackish hairs, and a shining yellowish brown head. It feeds on lichens growing on the trunks of trees. The moth is figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 6. GENUS IV.—LITHOSIA (FABR.). Fore-wings long and narrow, with a short hind margin. The fore-wings and body are yellow or grey, the former occasionally marked with a few black dots. The hind-wings are more than twice as broad, with the tip rather produced. The larve are dark, with rows of brightly-coloured spots, and thinly clothed with hair. They hybernate when young, and change to pupe in May or June. The moths appear in July and August, except Sororcula and Aureola, which may be found in June, and the former as early as May. The wings are folded round the body when at rest. They fly at dusk, and at intervals during the night. *1. L. Muscerda (Hiibn.).—Fore-wings ashy-grey, with the costa whitish, and a transverse row of black dots beyond the middle, and two dots above the middle of the inner margin ; hind-wings pale grey. Expands a little more than 1 inch. It is local in damp woods throughout Central Europe; in England it is confined to Horning Fen, in Norfolkshire. The larva is velvety blackish- brown, marbled with reddish-grey ; there are three black lines on the back, and a fine reddish-grey line on the sides; the 2nd and 13th segments are marked with two red spots on the back. It probably feeds on lichens growing on sallows and alders. *2. L. Griseola (Hiibn.)—Fore-wings leaden-grey, with the costa narrowly yellow; hind- wings pale grey; body grey, with the head, and tip of the abdomen pale yellow. The pale ochreous variety Flava, Haw. (Stramineola, Doubl.), appears to be confined to England. Expands nearly 14 inches. Common throughout Northern and Central Europe and Northern Asia. The larva is black, with red spots in front, and two red stripes on the back after the 3rd segment. Feeds on lichens growing on trees. * 3. L. Deplana (Esp.), Depressa (Esp.), Helveola (Ochs.).—Fore-wings of the male pale greyish- yellow, the costa ochre-yellow at the base; hind-wings still paler, with a broad ashy-grey border. Female reddish-grey, fore-wings with the costal streak dull yellow, growing narrower towards the tip ; head, tip of abdomen, and fringes dull yellow. Expands about 1} inches. Widely distributed throughout Central Europe ; common in some localities; in others (England, for example) rare. The larva is greenish-brown, with a yellow stripe on the back, which is bordered and dotted with 20 98 Evrorean Borrerryigs AND Morus. black, and marked with a white spot on the 9th segment. It lives on lichens growing on pines, firs, and other trees. The female is figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 7. *4. L. Lurideola (Zinck.), Complanula (Boisd.), (Common Footman).—Rather larger than Complana, the fore-wings broader behind, and of a darker leaden-grey, costal streak narrowing to a point behind; hind-wings brighter yellow. Common in woods throughout Southern and Central Europe and Western Asia. The larva is blackish-grey, with a black line on the back, and an interrupted reddish-yellow streak on the sides. It lives on lichens growing on trees. * 5. L. Complana (Linn.).—Fore-wings of nearly uniform breadth; pale leaden-grey, with a dull yellow costal streak, of uniform width to the tip; head and tip of the abdomen yellow. Size of Deplana. Common throughout Europe, but scarcer in Britain than ZLwrideola. Larva like that of Lurideola, but with two rows of round orange spots on each side. It feeds on lichens growing on trees. The moth is figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 9 (upper figure). *6. L. Sericea (Gregs.), Molybdeola (Guén.).—Shape of Complana, but the costal streak as in Lurideola, Hind-wings strongly tinged with grey at the inner margin, and sometimes over the whole surface. Larva like that of Complana, but with wedge-shaped spots, and with a narrower rust-coloured stripe on the sides, divided from a fine line of pale grey by a line of the ground colour. These markings are replaced in Complana by one broad rust-coloured stripe. A local insect, confined to the north of England. 7. L. Unita (Hiibn.).—Also very like Complana ; fore-wings of uniform breadth, yellowish- grey, with the costa nearly straight ; costal streak brighter yellow, of equal width to the tip; hind margins suffused with yellowish. Hind-wings pale yellow, with the costa broadly grey. The variety Arideola (Hiibn.) is darker grey on the fore-wings as far as the hind margin, and the hind-wings are brighter yellow, with a darker, definitely bounded costa; the variety MJorosina (Herr. Schaff.) is larger than this, with the inner margin of the fore-wings ochraceous at the base; the variety //aveola (Ramb.) has unicolorous hind-wings; variety Pad/eola (Hiibn.) has greyish-yellow fore-wings ; and variety V7tel/ina (Tr.) has all the wings unicolorous pale grey, with a very narrow costal stripe on the fore-wings. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Avrideo/a is found in dry places in North Germany, F/aveola in Spain, Morosina in Turkey, and the other varieties chiefly in South- Eastern Europe. The larva is dark grey, with a black line on the back, below which are orange spots; a black streak on the sides spotted with white, and an orange line below it. It feeds on lichens growing on trees. *8. L. Caniola (Hiibn.).—Fore-wings narrow, of almost uniform breadth, very pale grey, with a yellow costal line; hind-wings whitish, with the costa broadly pale grey; head and tip of abdomen yellow. Expands about 1} inches. It inhabits the south and west of Europe, where the larva feeds on lichens growing on old roofs. The most northerly locality is Howth, near Dublin, where the larva feeds at night on the flowers of Lotus corniculatus. It is also said to have been taken at Bolthead; we know of no other British localities. The larva is brown, with a narrow black line on the back, and a dusky line on the sides; on each side of the former is a row of cuneiform orange-red marks pointing backwards, and bordered on the side with similar black marks. (Z. Uniola, Ramb., from Spain, is a brilliant whitish or pearly species very closely resembling this, but with rather broader and less delicate fore-wings, the nervures of which are more divergent.) *9. L. Lutarella (Linn.).—Wings pale yellow, the fore-wings narrow and of uniform breadth, and somctimes suffused with grey, hind-wings with the costa broadly dark grey ; and sometimes almost wholly grey; head blackish in front. The variety Pal/ifrons (Zell.) is paler, the costa of the hind-wings is paler grey, and the head entirely yellow; in variety Pygme@ola (Doubl.) the fore- wings are pale greyish straw-colour. Expands about 1 inch. Common throughout Central and CE oNnISTIS—GNOPHRIA. 99 Southern Europe; ZLazarella in woods, Pallifrons on the Alps, and Pygimeola only in Holland and on the south coast of England; no other form has been taken in Britain. The larva is dark blue, with a yellow stripe on the sides, bordered below with a white one. It is said to feed on lichens growing among moss, (L. Marcida, Mann, from Sicily and Andalusia, differs from Pallifrons by its peculiar greyish-yellow and slightly shining fore-wings, somewhat resembling the colour of Griseola, but much paler; and by the unicolorous dull grey hind-wings, which are scarcely paler on the inner margin, but with paler fringes.) *1o, L. Sororcula (Hufn.), Aureola (Hiibn.).—Front of the body and fore-wings dull yellow, the latter broader behind, and with the costa much curved; hind-wings paler; abdomen grey. Expands a little over t inchh Common throughout Central Europe in woods. The larva is black, with two yellow stripes on the back, which are marked with red dots and white spots. It feeds on lichens growing on trees. The moth is figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 8. 11. Z. Cereola (Hiibn.).—Fore-wings wider behind, with the costa nearly straight ;_ ochre- yellow, with the centre grey, and semi-transparent ; hind-wings dull yellowish-white ; body dark grey, head, collar, and shoulders yellow. Size of Sororcula. It inhabits Northern and Eastern Europe. GENUS V.—CONISTIS (HUBN.). Fore-wings with an accessory cellule; without markings, or with two round spots; tongue thick. Hind-wings without nervule 5; nervules 3 and 4 on a long stalk. The common species, * @. Quadra, Linn. (the Large Footman), flies by night, but may often be met with on tree-trunks in the daytime in July. The fore-wings are pale greyish-yellow in the male, with the base orange edged with steel-blue on the costa; in the female they are ochre-yellow with a steel-blue spot on the middle of the costa, and another on the inner margin; hind-wings pale yellowish. Expands nearly 2 inches. It is found throughout Europe, and Northern and Western Asia, though commoner in some years and localities than in others. The larva is blackish-grey, the back yellowish, with three black spots in front, behind, and in the middle, and three fine dark lines on each side, on which stand orange-red spots. It feeds on lichens growing on trees and roofs, and may be found in May and June. Both sexes and the larva are figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 9, a—e (lower figs.). (C2. Bzpuncta, Hiibn., from Andalusia, which has been considered a variety of this, is perhaps.a true Li¢hosta; the fore-wings are ashy-grey, slightly tinged with rosy, with two spots placed as in the female of @. Quadra; the hind margin and body yellow, and the costa narrowly so; hind-wings pale yellowish, with the costa yellow.) GENUS VI.—GNOPHRIA (STEPH.). The chief structural difference from Conis¢is is in the hind-wings. Nervule 5 is present, and nervules 3, 4, and 5 are all separated. The only species, * G. Rubricollis (Linn.), is black, with the collar orange-red, and the extremity of the abdomen orange. It expands about I} inches. It is common in Europe and Northern Asia in woods in May and June. The larva is greenish-grey, dotted with red and white, with dark longitudinal lines, and feeds on lichens growing on rocks and trees in August and September. The moth is figured at Pl. 22, Fig. Io. FAMILY II.—ARCTIID#. Middle-sized or large moths with thick bodies, and generally adorned with bright colours and markings. The fore-wings form a rather long triangle, and the hind-wings are rather broad and 100 Evrorean Bourrerriirs AND Morus. rounded, capable of being folded, and extending as far as the extremity of the abdomen, or nearly so. The antennez are generally less than half the length of the fore-wings, and are usually pectinated in the male. The palpi are short, the eyes naked, the legs are short and often woolly, and the spurs of the tibize are very short. The larve are furnished with sixteen legs, and have generally warts covered with long stiff hair, and a small round head. They are very active, and generally hybernate, and may be found in spring, feeding on low plants on the sunny side of hedges and bushes in early morning ; some hide themselves during the day. They change to a thick obtuse pupa in a soft cocoon. The moths fly at night, and in some cases in the daytime, and rest with their wings sloping. They may be found at rest on rocks, trunks of trees, walls, &c.; and the day- flying species frequent open places in woods. This family comprises the Tiger Moths, the most brilliantly-coloured of all our native moths ; and they are not unfrequently called butterflies by those ignorant of entomology, though their thick bodies and the structure of their antenne at once show them to be true moths. The caterpillar of the common Tiger Moth is often called the ‘woolly bear,” in allusion to its shaggy coat. GENUS I.—EMYDIA (BOISD.). Fore-wings very long, pale-coloured, with black dots or longitudinal lines, hind-wings very broad, concave below the tip. Palpi very small, the tongue soft and short, the legs with flattened scales. Body rather slender. The moths appear in July, and the larve are to be found in spring, till May. * 1. &. Striata (Linn.), Grammica (Linn.).—Fore-wings pale ochre-yellow, with black longitudinal lines on the nervures in the male, and with short lines before the hind margin in the female. Hind-wings yellow, with broad black borders, and a black central lunule. Expands about 14 inches. Widely distributed in Europe and Western Asia, but very scarce in North- Western Europe, including England. It frequents warm, dry places, especially heaths. The larva is dark brown, with an orange streak on the back, and a white one on the sides, reddish-brown warts, covered with foxy-red hair, and reddish-brown prolegs. It lives on grass, heath, chicory, broom, &c., and hybernates when very small. The moth is figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 11. *2. E. Cribrum (Linn.).—Fore-wings white, with four transverse rows of black spots, almost connected into bands ; hind-wings dark grey. In the variety Cazdida (Cyr.) the black spots have more or less disappeared ; the variety Rzpfertii (Boisd.) has blackish wings; variety /nguinata (Ramb.), yellowish-white fore-wings ; and variety Chrysocephala (Hiibn.) has an ochre-yellow head, and the marginal spots of the fore-wings are almost wanting. Expands about I} inches. Widely distributed in Europe, but rarely common; the New Forest is the principal locality in England. The larva is greyish-brown, with the sides yellowish-brown, and three whitish lines on the back, with large black spots between them. It lives on heath and other low plants, and hides itself during the day under grass and dead leaves. 3. £. Bifasciata (Ramb.).—Resembles Cribrum, but with two transverse lines of black dots on the fore-wings, one in the middle and one near the base, which is also marked with some black dots. These lines are better defined and more angulated than in Cribrwm, and there is often a third irregular one before the hind margin, which is edged with a row of black dots. It occurs in Corsica. The larva is reddish-brown, with indistinct reddish lines on the back. GENUS II.—DEIOPEIA (CURT.). Fore-wings long and triangular, hind-wings very broad ; body, palpi, and legs with flattened scales, tongue horny. An accessory cellule is produced by the junction of nervules 7 and 10. FEUCHELIA—CALLIMORPIIA. 101 The only European species, *D. Pwlchella (Linn.), has yellowish-white fore-wings, with many transverse rows of small black spots, mixed with less numerous rows of larger triangular red spots ; hind-wings milk-white, with a broad indented black border, and often one or more black spots at the end of the cell. Expands about 14 inches. This species is abundant throughout Africa and the south of Asia and Europe in June and September, but is a very scarce insect in Central Europe, including England. The larva is dark grey, with a broad white stripe on the !ack, and reddish streaks on the sides. It lives in May and July on Plantago, Myosotis arvensis, Heliotropium Europeum, &c. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 12, a, 6. GENUS IIJ.—EUCHELIA (BOISD.). Fore-wings broad and triangular, hind-wings moderately broad and rounded; body, palpi, legs, and tongue as in Dezopeta. The accessory cellule is formed by a small transverse nervule between nervules 11 and 7. The larva has short, scattered hairs, but no warts. The only species, * FE. Facobee, Linn. (the Cinnabar Moth), has black fore-wings, with a blood-red stripe below the costa, and a shorter one along the inner margin. Two spots on the hind margin, and the hind- wings are of the same colour. Expands from 1} to 1? inches. It is abundant throughout the greater part of Europe, and in Northern and Western Asia, flying by day in weedy places in May and June. The larva is black, with broad orange-yellow rings; it lives gregariously on ragwort in July and August ; and a variety of the moth in which the red markings are replaced with yellow is occasionally met with, when large numbers are reared from the larva. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 22, Fig. 13, a, 6. GENUS IV.—CALLIMORPHA (LATR.). Large species, the fore-wings broad and triangular, dark-coloured, with pale spots or streaks ; hind-wings broad and red; body covered with flattened scales. The accessory cellule is formed by an oblique nervule between nervules 10 and 7. The larve have pale longitudinal lines and hairy warts, and live from August till May on nettles, raspberries, &c.,and may be captured by sweeping. The moths appear in June and July. * 1. C. Dominula (Linn.), (Scarlet Tiger) —Fore-wings greenish-black, with large yellowish- white spots, those nearest the base tinged with orange; hind-wings scarlet (yellow in variety Rossica, Kol., black in variety Persona, Hiibn.), with a broad marginal band broken into spots, and a large black spot in the middle ; thorax with two longitudinal orange streaks; abdomen scarlet, with a black stripe on the back. Expands from 2 to 24 inches. Common throughout Europe and Western Asia, frequenting damp woods. The larva is bluish-black, with pale blue warts, and three yellow longitudinal lines dotted with white. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 23, Fig. 1, a, 0. * 2. C. Hera (Linn.), (Fersey Tiger).—Fore-wings dark green, with oblique yellowish-white bands, and the inner margin yellowish; hind-wings and abdomen dark red (yellow in the variety Lutescens, Staud.), the former with large black spots, and the latter with a row of black dots on the back; thorax and scapule yellowish at the sides. Expands about 2 inches. Common throughout Southern and a great part of Central Europe (including the Channel Islands), and in Western Asia. It is a great rarity in the south of England. It frequents stony places covered with flowers, especially in hilly districts, and flies by day. The larva is brown or blackish, with a bright yellow stripe on the back, and a yellowish-white line on the sides. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 23, Fig. 2, a, d. 102 E-vrorPEAN BurrerRriits AND Morus. GENUS V.—PLERETES (LED.). This genus only contains one European species, but it is the largest*of the family. The abdomen is thick, and rounded behind, and the fore-wings are marked with pale spots, and the hind-wings with dark ones. The palpi are comparatively large and, like the legs, are covered with flattened scales. The larvee are covered with long hairy warts, and generally hybernate twice, changing to pup in spring, without eating anything after the second winter. The only species, P. Matronula (Linn.), has dark brown fore-wings, with four large yellow spots on the costa, and a small one towards the hinder angle; hind-wings orange, with large irregular black spots. The thorax is brown, with two red stripes on the back, and two yellow ones on the sides ; abdomen red, with a row of large black spots on the back. Expands 3} inches, It is found in woods throughout Central Europe, except the north-west, but is a scarce insect everywhere. The larva, which is more frequently met with than the moth, is whitish when young, and dark brown afterwards, with long reddish-brown hair. It hides itself during the day among stones and moss, and is very difficult to rear. Only a few must be reared in one cage, which should be kept in a shady place, and the larvze must be well sprinkled with water at frequent intervals, especially after hybernation. When young, the larva feeds on the leaves of trees (hazel, elm, &c.), and when half-grown, it feeds on low plants, such as Lonicera xylosteum. The moth is figured at Pl. 23, Fig. 3. GENUS VI.—EUPREPIA (HERR. SCHAFF.). Fore-wings with the tips more pointed than in Avctia; dark-coloured, with pale transverse bands, and an accessory cellule ; antenne of the male ciliated ; tongue quite imperceptible. The only species, Z. Pudica (Esp.), has brownish-black fore-wings, with pinkish-white interlacing stripes, which cover a large part of the wing, leaving only numerous angular spots of the dark ground colour visible ; hind-wings pinkish-white, with a variable number of black spots. Abdomen rose- colour, with a row of black spots on the back. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. It is found in the south of Europe and in North Africa in May and June, and produces a slight sound when flying. It flies at dusk. The larva hybernates, and is full-grown in April. It feeds on grass. GENUS VII.—NEMEOPHILA (STEPH.). The body of the male rather slender; the tongue horny; an accessory cellule in J. Plantaginis. The larve have long hairy warts, and are very active. They hybernate and live on various low plants from August to May, and that of Rwssu/a again in July. The perfect insects fly by day. . F * 1, N. Russula (Linn.).—Male with the fore-wings pale yellow, with the fringes, inner margin, and a large spot near the middle of the costa reddish ; hind-wings buff, with a brown spot in the middle, and a brown submarginal band; fringes red. The female is smaller, with rusty-yellow wings, the fore-wings with reddish nervures, and the hind-wings with the base, a spot in the middle, and the submarginal band blackish. Expands from 1} to 1inches. It is common throughout Europe and Northern Asia in June and August in glades in woods, and on heaths. The female is much less active than the male, and is consequently less frequently met with. The larva is blackish-brown, with a yellow streak on the back dotted with red, and foxy-red hairs. The male moth is figured at Pl. 23, Fig. 4. (4. Spurca, Ramb., supposed to be an Andalusian species, is reddish-yellow, without markings, but the hind-wings rather darker above; it only expands I inch.) ARCTIA. 103 * 2, N. Plantaginis (Linn.), (Wood Tiger).—Fore-wings black, with a longitudinal basal streak above the inner margin, two interlacing transverse stripes before the hind margin, and a spot below the middle of the costa, all pale yellow ; hind-wings in the male nearly orange, and in the female often reddish, with black streaks from the base, and black spots before the hind margin ; abdomen yellow in the male, and reddish in the female, with a broad black streak on the back. In some males the ground colour of the hind-wings is white (variety Hospzta, W. V.), or almost entirely black (variety Matronalis, Friv.). Expands from 14 to 13 inches. Common in woods throughout Europe and Northern Asia; in South Europe it occurs in the mountains. Only the type-form occurs in Britain. The larva is black, with the six middle segments brick-red. It is figured, with the red variety of the female, and the variety Hospita, at Pl. 23, Fig. 5, a—c. (NW. Metelkana, Led., a rare Hungarian species, has yellow fore-wings, and rosy hind-wings, spotted with black ; the fore-wings are also suffused with rosy beneath, and have two black spots in the cell. Expands 14 inches.) GENUS VIII.—ARCTIA (SCHRANK.). Body thick in both sexes, the tongue soft; the fore-wings dark-coloured, with white or yellow markings, or yellow, with dark markings; and the hind-wings red or yellow. The larve have long hairy warts, and are very active; they feed on many low plants, so that it will seldom be necessary to specify their food. They generally hybernate, and the moths appear in summer. * 1, A. Caja (Linn.), (Tiger Moth).—Fore-wings brown, with white interlacing bands crossing each other before the hind margin; hind-wings and abdomen dark red, with large bluish-black spots. Varieties occur in which the white borders of the fore-wings are absent, and the spots of the hind-wings are confluent. Expands from 2 to 3 inches. It is common throughout Europe (except the extreme south) in July and August. The North American A. Americana (Harr.) does not appear to differ from A. Caja by any constant characters. The larva is black, with white warts and long hair, which is rust-coloured on segments 2—4, and on the sides; but elsewhere black, tipped with white. It may be found late in autumn, and in spring till the beginning of June. Many varieties may be obtained by rearing larve on plants placed in salt-water; and specimens reared from larve which have been fed on walnut-leaves are unusually dark. The transformations are figured at Pl. 23, Fig. 6, a—c. 2. A. Flavia (Fuessly).—Fore-wings black, with white bands which cross each other obliquely before the hind margin, and a transverse band near the base, with which it is connected by a streak below the costa at nearly right angles; hind-wings pale ochre-yellow, with blackish spots before the hind margin ; abdomen rose-colour, with a black streak on the back. Expands from 2 to 24 inches. It is found at a great elevation in the Alps and Altai in July, but is always a much-prized rarity. The larva is dark brown, with warts of the same colour, and greenish-yellow hairs, with whitish tips. It lives through two winters, and undergoes its transformations in June. It feeds on Cotoneaster vulgaris, but on various low plants also, and hides itself in clefts of the rock during the day. * 3. A. Villica (Linn.), (Cream-spot Tiger) —Fore-wings black, with large oval white spots (yellow in variety Angelica, Boisd.); hind-wings yellow, irregularly bordered and spotted with black. Expands from 2 to 24 inches. Widely distributed throughout Europe (including the south of England) and Western Asia, but local. The larva is black, with pale brown hairs, and a reddish-brown head. The moth is figured at Pl. 23, Fig. 7. 4. A. Purpurea (Linn.).—Body and fore-wings yellow, the latter with many small brownish 104 European Borrerrries AND Morus. spots; hind-wings rose-colour (yellow in variety Flava, Staud.), with large round black spots. Expands 1} inches, Common in many parts of Central and Eastern Europe and Northern and Western Asia in June and July, frequenting warm, sunny, sandy places. It is, however, not a British species. The larva is black above, with foxy-red hair; the hairs on the sides and the lines on the back and sides are yellowish. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 23, Fig. 8, a, 0. 5. A. Fasciata (Esp.).—Fore-wings yellowish-white, with bluish-black spots and transverse bands, which are often interrupted. Hind-wings yellow, spotted with black ; hind margin scarlet. Abdomen rosy, with a row of black spots on the back. Expands 1} inches. It is common in South Europe in July. (Ad. Zhulea, Dalm., is black, with rows of white spots on the fore-wings, the inner ones interrupted; hind-wings red, with the base and an irregular submarginal band black. A. Festiva, Borkh., has dull brown fore-wings, with yellow spots and bands bordered with brown ; the hind-wings are brown at the base, and fulvous towards the hind margin, spotted with black. Both these species are found in Lapland.) 6. A, Hebe (Linn.).—Fore-wings black, with five white transverse bands narrowly bordered with orange, of which the two last are connected in the middle; hind-wings and abdomen blood- red, the former with large black spots, and the latter with a black streak on the back, and a black tip. Expands 2 inches. Common in Southern and some parts of Central Europe, except the north-west, and in Northern and Western Asia, in July. The larva is black, with greyish-black hairs, and rust-coloured ones on the sides. It lives till May on spurge and other low plants. The moth is figured at Pl. 23, Fig. 9. 7. A. Aulica (Linn.).—Fore-wings brown, with small pale yellow spots, hind-wings orange, with rows of broad black spots arranged in bands; abdomen black above, with the segments bordered with yellow. Expands rather more than I inch. Common in Eastern Europe, but not found further west than Treves and the Vosges. It is also met with in Northern and Western Asia, and is found in open places in fir-woods in May and June. The larva is black, with very long rust-coloured hair ; on the hinder segments the hair is black. 8. A. Curialis (Esp.)—Closely allied to Awlica, but larger, with larger spots on the fore- wings ; hind-wings suffused with scarlet towards the hind margins, and the central spot smaller. It inhabits the valleys of the Tyrol, Piedmont, and Italy, in May and June. The larva is black, with black hair, which is often rust-coloured on the first segments, and is very long on the hinder ones. (A. Dejeanit, Godt., from the mountains of Spain, has reddish-brown fore-wings, with a yellow wavy longitudinal streak, and five yellow spots ; hind-wings luteous, with six or seven black spots, and the hind margin reddish.) 9. A. Maculosa (W. V.).—Fore-wings brown, with three transverse rows of small angular black spots; hind-wings crimson, with a row of large black spots on the hind margin, and a spot nearer the middle. The variety Stmplonica (Boisd.) has darker fore-wings; expands about It inches. Inhabits Eastern Europe and Northern and Western Asia. It is also found in South France, and in the Alps, in July and August. The larva is black, with a yellowish line on the back. Its hair is black on the back, and rust-colour on the sides. It feeds on bedstraw, &c., till June, and hides itself under stones. 10. A. Casta (Esp.).—Body and fore-wings dark brown ; the latter with two broad white bands suffused with rosy, the outermost forming two angles behind; hind-wings whitish in the male, suffused with rosy ; and rosy in the female, with a brown interrupted marginal band. Expands about 1} inches. It inhabits the southern half of Central Europe in May, but is not a common species. The larva is blackish, with a paler line, and a row of oblong black spots on the back. It feeds on Galium and Asperula from July to September. AAO, ve Pra af! Bon B SPILOSOMA. 105 11. A. Kindermanni (Staud.).—Fore-wings black, with a white line from the base expanding into a large irregular dentated blotch, which throws off three teeth to the costa, one to the hind margin, and two shorter projections towards the inner margin. There is also a small white spot at the base of the inner margin, and the costa and fringes are narrowly white. Hind-wings yellow, the base, a central spot, and an interrupted submarginal band_ black. From the Ural. (A. Latrei/liz, Godt., from the mountains of Spain, is smaller than A. Casta, and has only one band on the fore-wings, joined to a cross near the base.) 12, A. Quenselit (Payk.).—Fore-wings black, with yellowish-white nervures, and many longitudinal and transverse stripes of the same colour, varying in width. Hind-wings blackish, with a zigzag whitish line in the male and an ochre-yellow one in the female before the hind margin ; body black, the thorax with yellowish longitudinal lines, and the segments of the abdomen bordered with yellow. In the variety Cervina (Fall.) the pattern of the fore-wings is more suffused ; the nervures are not so conspicuously paler, and the longitudinal streak is absent, but there are three indistinct pale transverse stripes; the zigzag line on the hind-wings is very indistinct. Expands nearly 1} inches. It is found in Lapland, Labrador, and in the high Alps. Cervina occurs on the Gornergrat in July. The larva is black, with an indistinct pale line on the back, and black hair, reddish on the sides, and longer behind. It feeds on low Alpine plants, hides itself under stones, and may be fed on the leaves of Lovicera xylosteum, dandelion, &c., in captivity. It appears to hybernate twice, but when brought down to the plains it becomes full-grown before the second winter, and the moth appears in September. When this and other high Alpine larve are reared in confinement, they must be fed on half-withered leaves that have been gathered from twelve to twenty-four hours before, or they will soon die. 13. A. Spectabilis (Tausch.)— White; fore-wings with four oblique fawn-coloured bands broken into spots ; hind-wings with four submarginal spots, and a row of dots of the same colour. In the female the dark markings are brown, and the hind-wings have a brown submarginal band, partly broken into spots, and brown marginal dots. Expands 14 inches. It is found in South Russia and in the Altai. The larva is dark brown, with tufts of yellowish bristles placed on orange- tubercles, and a yellowish-white line on the sides. It feeds on wormwood, &c. GENUS IX.—SPILOSOMA (STEPH.). Body very thick, the thorax with woolly hair, and the tongue quite imperceptible. Fore-wings with black dots or obscure transverse stripes, or else without markings ; abdomen with five rows of black dots. The larve resemble those of Avczéa in food and habits. * 1. S. Lubricipeda (Fabr.), (Buff Ermine).—Pale ochre-yellow ; fore-wings with small black dots, partly arranged in transverse rows; abdomen brighter yellow. In the variety Zatima (Cram.) the dots are replaced by transverse lines on the fore-wings. Expands from 1} to 1? inches. Common throughout Northern and Central Europe and Northern and Western Asia, as is also the following species. Both are abundant, even on the walls of London gardens, in June and July, and their larve are found in autumn. The larva of Ludricipeda is brownish-yellow, with a pale line on the back, and a white stripe on the sides. * 2. S. Menthastri (W.V.), (White Ermine Moth).—White ; fore-wings rather broad, with many black dots ; hind-wings with black spots in the middle and before the hind margin ; abdomen ochre-yellow above. In the variety Wadkeri (Curt.) the spots are united to form longitudinal streaks, The larva is dark brown, with a distinct yellow line on the back, and black hairs. The moth is figured at Pl. 23, Fig. 10. 21 106 EvrorPean Bourrerriiets AND Morus. *3. S. Urtice (Esp.).—Fore-wings rather longer than in J/enthastri, with only two dots beyond the middle, and occasionally a few towards the tip; hind-wings unspotted; the pec- tinations of the antenna of the male are much shorter than in Menthastri. Size of the last two species. Its range is similar, but it is a much scarcer insect, especially in England. The larva is dark brown, with a reddish-yellow head. * 4. S. Mendica (Linn.).—Body, abdomen, and wings ashy-grey in the male, and white in the female; the wings with scattered black spots. A white variety of the male (Rustica, Hiibn.) is said to occur in Hungary. Expands from 1} to 14 inches. Common throughout Europe and Northern Asia in June and July. The larva, which is brownish-green, with a slightly paler line on the back, reddish-brown hair, and a rust-coloured head, is found in autumn. 5. §. Sordida (Hiibn.)—Male dark grey, female yellowish-grey ; fore-wings with three ill-defined black transverse stripes, sometimes almost unicolorous. Expands rather more than 1 inch. Widely distributed in the Alps and Pyrenees in June and July, but scarce. The larva, which may be found in May and June, is bluish-white, with a white line on the back and a yellowish one on the sides. 6. S. Luctuosa (Hiibn.)—Sooty black; fore-wings with darker black spots, and the front tibia rosy. Size of Sordida. Inhabits South-Eastern Europe. 7. S. Luctifera (W. V.)—Black; the abdomen and anal angle of the hind-wings ochre- yellow, the former with a row of black spots on the back. Expands about 14 inches. Common in South Europe and Western Asia in May and July; it also occurs, though rarely, in Eastern Germany. The larva is black, with a reddish-yellow stripe on the back, and may be found in May and September. GENUS X.—PHRAGMATOBIA (STEPH.). Allied to Sfz/osoma, but the antenne are pectinated, and the tongue is thicker, and dis- tinctly spiral. * P. Fuliginosa, Linn. (the Ruby Tiger Moth), has brown fore-wings, with two black spots beyond the middle; hind-wings smoky-grey, with three black spots towards the costa, and the inner margin red; a black border ceasing before the anal angle, and red fringes; abdomen red, with three rows of black spots. Expands from 1} to 14 inches. Common throughout Europe, Northern and Western Asia, and North America from May to August, frequenting open places in woods. The larva is unicolorous pale grey, brownish-grey, or black. It feeds on low plants from October to April, and again in June and July. VP. Placida (Friv.), found in Turkey, has the abdomen purple above, and a purple spot in the middle of the fore- wings. PP. Pudens (Luc.), from Andalusia, has reddish fore-wings, with three transverse rows of small black spots, and greyish hind-wings, with a submarginal row of similar spots. . GENUS XI—OCNOGYNA (LED.). The wings of the female are imperfectly developed, especially the hind-wings, which are triangular and very narrow. The hind tibia have only one pair of spurs instead of two. 1. O. Zoraida (Grasl.)—Fore-wings pale brownish-grey, slightly tinged with rosy, a black basal spot, and four irregular ones on the costa, two on the inner margin, and some smaller ones towards the hind margin;. hind-wings paler, with a row of submarginal spots, and two spots on the costa. Expands rather less than 14 inches. It is found in the mountains of OrGyra. 107 Andalusia in May. The larva has reddish hairs on the sides. (O. Hemigena, Grasl., from the Pyrenees, appears to be only a northern variety in which the pectinations of the antennz are shorter, and the wings of the female are rudimentary. The larva is black, with a whitish line on the back, and an interrupted orange streak on the sides. It is full-grown in July and August, and the moth, which flies by day, appears in May.) 2. O. Parasita (Esp.).—Brownish-grey ; fore-wings of the male with two rows of long black triangular spots; hind-wings unspotted. Female with three rows of shorter and broader spots on the fore-wings, and with black marginal spots on all the wings. The male expands 1} inches, and the female three-quarters of an inch. Inhabits the Valais and South-Eastern Europe in March and April. The larva varies from yellowish to brown, with three light lines on the back, and rust-coloured or brown hair. It feeds on nettles, &c., in May and June. 3. O. Betica (Ramb.)—Antenne pectinated; body very hairy; fore-wings black, banded and spotted with reddish-white ; hind-wings with a spot at the base and an angulated submar- ginal band. The male flies by day, and the female has rudimentary wings. It inhabits Spain, and appears in September and October. The larva is gregarious, and is extremely variable. (In O. Corsica, Ramb., which inhabits Corsica and Sardinia, the fore-wings of the male are black, with yellowish-white bands and spots, and the hind-wings are fulvous, with the hind margin spotted with black. In the female the rudimentary wings are ochreous, spotted with brown. The larva feeds on grass, and the moth appears from March to May.) FAMILY III.—LIPARIDA., Moths of moderate size, with stout hairy bodies; the abdomen is more slender in the male than in the female. The tongue, palpi, and legs are short; the femora are hairy. The antenne are short, with long pectinations in the male; in the female the pectinations are shorter, or the antennze are simple. The hind-wings are broad and rounded, often reaching to the tip of the abdomen. They are more slender than the fore-wings, and can be folded ; nervule 5 rises near nervule 4, and is sometimes absent. The fore-wings are whitish-grey or brown, often with dark zigzag streaks; and the hind-wings are generally paler, and without markings. The larvee have sixteen legs, and are either provided with hairy warts or are covered with soft hair; they change to a thick hairy pupa in a cocoon. The position of the wings is sloping when at rest, and many of the species fly at night, while the males of others are active in the daytime. GENUS I—ORGYIA (OCHS.). Male with the body slender, the wings broad, and the hind-wings extending beyond tae abdo- men. The fore-wings are brown, generally with indistinct transverse lines, and a white spot near the hinder angle. The males fly by day in search of the females, which have thick bodies, and very short and rudimentary wings, and are perfectly incapable of flight. The larva have tufts of hair on segments 5 to 8; and two longer tufts of hair on the 2nd, and another on the 12th segment. They feed on trees and shrubs from autumn to June, and the moths appear from June to August. * 1, O. Gonostigma (Fabr.), (Scarce Vapourer Moth)—Fore-wings of the male olive-brown, with a marginal row of white spots, bordered inside with orange on the costa and inner margin ; fringes spotted with dusky ; hind-wings dark brown. Expands from 1} to 14 inches. The female is grey, wingless, and the antennz have one row of pectinations. Common in most parts of Europe and Siberia, but scarce in the south of England. The larva is black, streaked with rust-colour, 108 EvroreéeaAn BorrerrFligs AND Morus. with yellowish-brown tufts of hair and longer black ones. It feeds on most trees and shrubs. The male moth is figured at Pl. 24, Fig. 1. * 2, O. Antigua (Linn.), (Vapourer Moth).—Fore-wings of the male brownish-rusty, with dark transverse lines ; a round white spot near the hinder angle, and dark spotted fringes ; hind-wings rust-colour. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Female yellowish-grey, with rudimentary wings, and two rows of pectinations on the antennae. Abundant at the edges of woods, and flying about bushes throughout Europe. It also occurs in Armenia and North Africa. The larva is ash-coloured, striped with reddish-yellow and white ; the tufts are yellow or brown, and those on the 2nd and 12th segments, as well as two horizontal tufts on each side of the 5th and 6th segments, are black, with the ends of the hairs thicker. It feeds on all kinds of deciduous trees, and even on the laurel, which is attacked by very few insects. The male, female, and larva are figured at Pl. 24, Fig. 2, a—c. (O. Aurolimbata, Guén., from Spain and the Pyrenees, is of the size and shape of Antigua, but is of a uniform dull brown, with yellowish fulvous fringes. The female is completely apterous, with the head black and horny ; and the larva feeds on broom, &c. O. Rupestris, Ramb., from Corsica, more resembles Antigua ; the wings are brownish-rusty, and the fore-wings have three indistinct ashy transverse stripes, the last of which descends to the white spot at the hinder angle.) 3. O. Erice (Germ.).—Fore-wings of the male rusty-brown, paler towards the hind margin, with an indistinct whitish spot near the hinder angle, and unspotted fringes; hind-wings brownish ; female pale grey, wingless, with the antennz not pectinated. The male expands 1 inch. Widely distributed throughout Northern Germany and the adjacent parts of Russia, but exceedingly local, and generally rare. The larva is saffron-yellow, with black longitudinal stripes; the tufts are whitish-yellow, and the longer ones black. There are also raised yellow warts on segments 10 and 11. It lives on boggy heaths, feeding on AZyrica Gale, Andromeda pallida, &c. 4. O. Trigotephras (Boisd.).—Dark brown ; fore-wings with a very broad but rather ill-defined undulating transverse fascia; a triangular ashy spot in the middle, a roundish one at the tip, and a white one near the anal angle; hind-wings unicolorous. Female white, apterous. Inhabits South- Western Europe in June and July; the larva lives on various trees and shrubs in May and June. (O. Ramburii, Mab., is brown, the fore-vings spotted with darker, and with the usual white spot near the hinder angle; hind-wings paler towards the base. It inhabits Corsica in autumn, and the larva feeds on a species of broom. O. Ledereri, Mill., is a large dark brown species from Sicily, more like a Geometra than a Bombyx. It expands 1} inches. There are two transverse grey lines on the fore-wings, indistinctly bordered with black ; the outermost is very much dentated. The fringes are spotted with dirty white.) 5. O. Dubia (Tausch.).—Brown ; fore-wings with two black transverse stripes near the base, a spot in the middle, below the costa, and a spot or streak beyond. Sometimes the second and fourth of these markings extend nearly to the inner margin, meeting so as to form a black U, enclosing the subcostal spot. The fore-wings are more or less varied with tawny, and are sometimes almost entirely tawny, the basal streak being obliterated. Hind-wings either brown, tinged with tawny at the anal angle and inner margin, or tawny, with the costa and hind margin varied with ,brown or black. Expands about 1 inch. The female is apterous. It inhabits the south of Spain and Russia, and Asia Minor. GENUS Il.—PENTHOPHORA (GERM.). Body of the male slender, and the wings moderately broad and rounded; the female with rather thick body and narrow wings; the fore-wings are scarcely more than half as long as ! iii DASYCHIRA. 109 the body, and the hind-wings are one-third as long. The wings are without markings, and nervules 6 and 7 are wanting in the fore-wings of the female. The only species is P. Morio (Linn.). The male is blackish, with semi-transparent wings, and the female is yellowish-grey, with yellowish fringes. Expands from three-quarters of an inch to an inch. It is widely distributed in Southern Europe in June, but is commoner, and extends further north in the east than in the west. The larva is blackish-brown, with six rows of rust-coloured tubercles. GENUS IIL—DASYCHIRA (STEPH.). Body stout, especially in the female; the wings moderately broad, fore-wings with the hind margin oblique; grey, with dark transverse stripes; abdomen as long as the hind-wings in the male, and much longer in the female. The larve have four or five tufts on the 5th and the succeeding segments ; a longer tuft on the 12th, and generally two on the 2nd segment. When the moths are at rest, they stretch out their hairy fore-legs in front. 1. D. Selenitica (Esp.).—Fore-wings olive-grey, dusted with darker, in the male, and dark grey in the female, with a white lunule filled up with dark, and a white wavy line before the hind margin; hind-wings black. Expands 1} inches. Very local in Germany (except the north-west), and in Russia, in May. The larva is black, with five yellowish-grey tufts, black at the tips, and three longer black tufts of hair. It lives from July to April on low plants, such as Oxodrychis sativa and Lathyrus pratensis, and, local as it is, is often sufficiently abundant to be a destructive insect in the few localities where it occurs. The moth is figured at Pl. 24, Fig. 3. * 2. D. Fascelina (Linn.), (Dark Tussock).—Fore-wings ashy-grey, finely dusted with black, with two black transverse lines bordered with orange, a suffused whitish lunule, and unspotted fringes ; hind-wings pale brownish-grey. The Lapland variety Odscura (Zett.) is darker, and nearly unicolorous. Expands from 1} to 2 inches. Common in Europe and the Altai in June and July. The larva is grey, with five tufts, white below and black above, and three longer black tufts of hair. It feeds on various trees and plants from autumn to June. The transformations are figured at Pl. 24, Fig. 4, a—e. *3 D. Pudibunda (Linn.), (Pale Tussock)—Fore-wings pale grey, dusted with darker, and with three dark grey transverse stripes, of which the first and third are slightly dentated, and the second is quite straight ; fringes spotted with dusky ; hind-wings pale grey, with a suffused dark stripe before the hind margin. Expands from 1} to 2} inches. Common in most parts of Europe in May and June. The larva is greenish-yellow, with black incisions, yellow tufts, and a long rose- coloured tuft above the tail. It lives on various trees and plants in September and October. The male, female, and larva are figured at Pl. 24, Fig. 5, a—e. 4. D. Abietis (Esp.).—Fore-wings white, shaded with -pale brown, with a sharply-defined lunule in the middle surrounded with black, and three black transverse stripes, the middle one broad, and the others narrow, sharply dentated, the third with a long tooth extending to the lunule; the fringes spotted ; hind-wings brownish-grey in the male, and whitish in the female. Expands rather more than 1} inches. A very scarce species, found in Southern and Eastern Germany, South Sweden, and Russia in June and July. The larva is green, spotted with black and white, and with black incisions, with four brownish tufts, yellow on the sides ; two longer black tufts on the 2nd, and a yellow one on the 12th segment. It may be obtained from autumn to May by beating pines and firs (Pinus picea and Abies), The larva and moth are figured at Pl. 24, Fig. 6, a, 0. 110 EvroreaAn BorrerrlLizs AND Morus. GENUS IV.—LEUCOMA (STEPH). Body stout, the wings rather long, the fore-wings with the hind margin oblique ; hind-wings nearly as long as the body. The only species, * Z. Sadicis, Linn. (the White Satin Moth), is shining white; the antenna, tibia, and tarsi are black, the latter with white rings, Expands about 2 inches. It is common throughout Europe and Northern Asia, and is found on the trunks of poplars in June and July. The larva, which has hairy warts instead of tufts of hair, is black, with the sides yellowish, and a row of whitish spots on the back. It feeds on poplars and willows in May and June. The transformations are figured at Pl. 25, Fig. 1, a—e. GENUS V.—OCNERIA (HERR.-SCHAFF.,). The male is slender, with broad triangular fore-wings, and the female is stout, with rather narrower fore-wings ; hind-wings rounded. The fore-wings are white or grey, and are generally marked with sharply-dentated black transverse lines. The larve have a large head and large star-like rounded warts, covered with long hair. 1. O. Rubea (W. V.).—Fore-wings reddish-grey, with inconspicuous dark transverse stripes, and a pale central lunule surrounded with darker; the fringes unspotted. Expands nearly 1} inches. Inhabits Europe, south of the Alps, in July, but is not common. The larva is yellow, varied with brownish above, and with two blackish lines on the back. It feeds on oak in May. 2. O. Detrita (Esp.).—Fore-wings thinly scaled, brownish-grey, with a very indistinct dentated transverse stripe beyond the middle, and the fringes spotted with dusky ; hind-wings a little paler. Expands about 1 inch. Very scarce and local in South Europe and North Germany in June and July. The larva is bluish-grey, with a white line on the back, upon which stand round red warts on the roth and 11th segments, and with black and grey tufted warts, red on the sides. It lives on oak from autumn to May. (0. Terebinthi, Freyer, from Turkey, is grey, varied with brown; fore-wings with a row of brown lunules towards the hind margin, and some black dots towards the base ; the fore-wings are shaded with brown in the middle, and have a white central spot ; the fringes are spotted with white). * 3. O. Dispar (Linn.), (Gipsy Moth).—Wings brown in the male, and grey in the female; fore- wings generally with dark brown strongly-dentated transverse stripes, and the fringes spotted with dusky ; the body without markings. Expands from 1} to 2} inches. Abundant in most parts of Europe, and Northern and Western Asia, as far as Japan, but very scarce in England. The male may be seen flying about bushes and hedges throughout the day in July and August, and the female may be taken at rest on hedges or on the trunks of trees. The larva is grey, with three fine yellow lines on the back, and blue tubercles on the sides in front, and red ones behind. It lives on trees from April to July, and is a very destructive insect on the Continent. The male, female, and larva are figured at Pl. 25, Fig. 2, a—c. (O. Atlantica, Ramb., from Spain and Algeria, is reddish-brown, with the thorax, the centre of the fore-wings, upon which is a pale central lunule bordered with black, and the hind margin, darker; fringes spotted with paler ; abdomen slightly reddish above. Expands 1} inches. The sexes do not differ.) *4. O. Monacha (Linn.), (Black Arches)—Fore-wings white, with strongly-dentated black transverse lines; fringes and thorax spotted with black ; abdomen reddish, and furnished with a conspicuous ovipositor in the female. In the variety Evemita (Ochs.) the wings are dark brown, with black markings. Expands from 14 to 2 inches. A common and often destructive insect throughout Europe, but local in England. It appears in July and August. The larva Porr#estA—L aria—l ALIA. IIl is brownish-green, grey, or black, with blue and red warts, and a black spot on the 2nd segment, bordered behind with blue, and with whitish on the sides. It feeds on orchard and forest trees in May and June. The moth is figured at Pl. 25, Fig. 3. GENUS VI—PORTHESIA (STEPH.). Abdomen in the male rather short and slender; in the female it is thick, with a large anal tuft of coloured wool, which is used to cover the eggs after they are laid. The wings are broad and white, and the antenne are pectinated in the male, and ciliated in the female. The larve have short hairy warts, and a slight elevation on segments 5 and 12. They hyber- nate when young, and live till May or June on hawthorn and other trees, and are frequently very destructive when abundant. The moths appear from June to August, and are found sitting on hedges at dusk, when their white colour makes them very conspicuous. They expand from 1} to 1} inches. *1, P. Aurifiua (W. V.), (Gold-tail Moth).—White ; fore-wings with a black spot near the hinder angle; hind-wings with the 5th nervule absent; abdominal tuft yellow. Common in Southern and Central Europe and Northern and Western Asia. The larva has a double red line on the back, and an interrupted white line beneath, a red line on the sides, and white hairy warts on segments 5, 6, and 12. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 25, Fig. 5, a, 0. *2. P. Chrysorrhea (Linn.), (Brown-tail Moth).—Similar, but the black spot on the fore- wings is generally absent; nervule 5 is present on the hind-wings, and the abdominal tuft is brown, more or less tinged with golden-yellow. Common in Central and Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, but is a local insect in England. The larva is dark grey, with two reddish-brown lines on the back, beneath which is a row of whitish streaks. The moth is figured at Pl. 25, Fig. 4. GENUS VII.—LARIA (SCHRANR). Body rather stout ; fore-wings very broad, with a long hind margin, almost straight and very slightly oblique. The only species, *Z. V. xigra (Fabr.), is white, with a black V at the end of the discoidal cell of the fore-wings. It expands about 2 inches, and is widely distributed throughout Central Europe (including the south of England) from Finland to Piedmont, but is scarce everywhere, and in many localities very rare. The moth appears in June, and the larva is black, with the sides rusty-yellow, and long hair in front and behind. There are eight tufts of hair on the back: three of the middle ones are reddish-yellow, and the others white. It feeds on various trees, especially the lime, from autumn to April. The moth is fi Bl 25,) Bigs GO: rured at o > GENUS VIII—LALIA (STEPH.). Abdomen slender in the male and thick in the female, extending beyond the anal angle; the wings are moderately broad, and narrower in the female. In the only species, *Z. Cwnosa (Hiibn.), the male has light reddish-grey fore-wings, with a row of small indistinct dark spots before the hind margin; the hind-wings are greyish-white; and the legs are yellow. In the female the fore-wings are dirty white and without markings; the hind-wings are whiter. Expands rather more than 14 inches. Widely distributed throughout Central Europe in marshy places, but extremely local everywhere. The larva is yellowish-grey, with black stripes on the 112 Evrorean Borrerrires AND Morus. back and sides, four yellow tufts of hair on the back, and two longer black tufts on each of the 5th, s1th, and 12th segments. It lives on Cladinm Germanicum and other reeds in June and July. FAMILY IV.—COSSID/E. Body stout, or rather slender, and covered with flattened hair; abdomen long, extending for at least half its length beyond the anal angle. Wings thick, the fore-wings a little broader behind, generally rounded at the tip, with twelve nervures, a narrow discoidal cell, and an accessory cellule ; hind-wings short and rounded, with eight nervures. Head contracted, eyes naked, palpi small, antennze never more than one-third of the length of the fore-wings, with two rows of lamellz or pectinations in the male. The tongue is wanting; the legs are short, the thighs are hairy, and the tibia have a leaf-like appendage. The sixteen-legged larve are naked, with only a few scattered hairs; the jaws are strong, and, as they live in the interior of plants, the prolegs are coronated. They hybernate twice, and form a cocoon mixed with splinters in the interior of their food-plant, and change there into a pupa provided with spines on the hinder segments of the abdomen, by which they push the pupa half out of the plant before they quit it. The moths fly at night, hold their wings sloping when at rest, and may often be found on the trunk or stem of their food-plants after emerging. The presence of the larve may be discovered by the rejected sawdust and the exuding sap, and as they devour wood, they must be kept in earthen vessels closed with wire-gauze. The moths are very liable to become greasy in a collection. GENUS I.—COSSUS (FABR.). Large stout moths, with coarsely-scaled wings; the fore-wings grey, with black undulating lines; or white, with a dark band-like transverse spot. The larvae are smooth, with wrinkles on the sides, and a flat head. When young they live under the bark of trees, and afterwards eat into the wood. The moths appear in June and July, emerging from their cocoons towards evening. * 1. C. Ligniperda (Fabr.), (Goat Moth).—Fore-wings varied with greyish-brown and pale grey, with many black wavy transverse lines running into one another, of which three or four are thicker and more sharply defined ; hind-wings brownish-grey, the hind margin slightly suffused ; vertex and collar greyish-yellow. Expands from 3 to nearly 4 inches. Common in Europe and Western Asia. The larva is dirty flesh-colour, with the back dark red. It lives in trees, especially poplars and willows. The transformations are figured at Pl. 26, Fig. 1, a—c. (C. Terebra, W. V., has more pointed fore-wings, of a more uniform dark grey, with two broad transverse lines; head and thorax dark grey. A scarce species in Eastern Europe; the larva is dirty white, with the back yellowish, and lives in poplars. C. Balcanicus, Led., from Bulgaria, is somewhat intermediate between this species and the last, but is paler and more unicolorous than either, both above and below.) 2. C. Cestrum (Hiibn.).—Fore-wings with the tip nearly rectangular; whitish, with a large brownish transverse lunule beyond the middle, which is waved with blackish, and edged behind with little angular black spots; hind-wings brownish-grey. A scarce insect in South Europe and Armenia. (C. Thrips, Hiibn., from South Russia and Siberia, is fawn-colour, with obscure markings ; the fore-wings have the discal area brownish, and the abdomen and hind-wings are testaceous.) ZEUZERA—PHRAGMATACIA—STYGIA. 113 GENUS II.—ENDAGRIA (BOISD.). Small moths, with rather slender bodies, which are longest in the female ; the wings are short and broad; the fore-wings have pale spots, and their tips are nearly square. The palpi extend beyond the head. The commonest species, #. Pantherina (Hiibn.), has olive-grey fore- wings, with large angular white spots, more or less running into one another, and white borders ; the fringes are spotted with grey and white. Hind-wings brownish-grey, with whitish borders and spotted fringes. The larva is supposed to feed on the roots of plants. Expands nearly 1 inch. Common in South Europe and Western Asia; it is rare north of the Alps, but has been met with occasionally as far north as Kreuznach. The variety JZarmorata (Ramb.), from Andalusia, is paler, and nearly twice as large. #. Psychidion (Staud.), from Greece and Asia Minor, is of the size of a small Pantherina, and unicolorous smoky-brown; £. Sadlicicala (Eversm.), from South Russia, has greyish-white fore-wings, with three brown dots in the male, and brown hind-wings. GENUS III.—ZEUZERA (LATR.). Wings rather pointed, with the hind margin long ; palpi very short; abdomen of the female furnished with an ovipositor. The only European species, * 27. dsculi, Linn. (Wood Leopard Moth), is white, with many small round or egg-shaped steel-blue spots on the wings and thorax ; those on the hind-wings fainter. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. Widely distributed in Central Europe, and on the shores of the Mediterranean, but nowhere very common ; it occurs in July and August. The larva is cylindrical ; yellow, with the warts, head, thoracic shield, and anal fold black. It lives in the trunks and branches of ash, young apple-trees, &c. and would be a destructive insect in orchards, if it was commoner. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 26, Fig. 2, a, 6. GENUS IV.—PHRAGMATACIA (NEWM.). Fore-wings of nearly uniform breadth, with a short hind margin ; palpi very small, abdomen long and slender, especially in the female. The larva is cylindrical, and smooth beneath. The only European species, *P. Arundinis (Hiibn.), has yellowish-white fore-wings, dusted with blackish between the nervures, and dull whitish hind-wings. Expands from 1} to 1§ inches. It occurs in June and July in marshes throughout Central Europe, but is very local, and generally scarce. The larva is yellowish, with the back brownish, intersected with a whitish line; the head and thoracic shield are brown, It lives in the stems of the reed. - GENUS V.—STYGIA (LATR.). Wings rather pointed, with the hind margin long; antenne short and bipectinated in both sexes; body stout, covered with thick hair; abdomen rather long, crested at the sides, and tufted at the extremity. Tongue nearly obsolete; palpi stout, obtuse, and scaly, projecting a little beyond the head. The male of the commonest species, S. Australis (Latr.), has brownish fore- wings, varied with whitish-grey, and white hind-wings, bordered with blackish. The female has reddish-yellow fore-wings, more or less variegated with brownish, and the head, collar, and upper side of the thorax entirely fulvous. (In the male they are brownish.) Hind-wings black, with a large white spot on the disc. Expands about 1 inch. It is common in South France and Spain in June and July. In S. Colchica (Herr.-Schaff.), from South Russia and Asia Minor, 22 114 EvroreaAN Burrerriies AND Morus. the male is dark grey, with the wings (except the yellowish-grey costa and inner margin, and the dark-grey fringes) entirely transparent; the female is pale grey, thinly scaled, with darker fringes; and the upper side of the head and thorax, and the base, and part of the costa of the fore-wings are golden-yellow. The first four segments of the abdomen are also golden-yellow ; the extremity is black, and provided with a long ovipositor. FAMILY V.—COCHLIOPODID£E. Small moths, with moderately stout, hairy bodies ; the abdomen does not extend beyond the anal angle. Eyes naked, the antenna a little more than half the length of the fore-wings, the palpi small and slender, and the tongue consisting of two short soft threads. The legs are short, with hairy thighs. The fore-wings have no accessory cell, and are unicolorous, or marked with two dark transverse stripes. The larvae are thick and wood-louse shaped, and are furnished with small adhesive pads, instead of prolegs. They live in autumn on various forest-trees, and form a firm barrel-shaped cocoon among leaves, in which they change to a soft pupa, in which the limbs of the moth are visible in separate casings. The moths fly at night in woods, in summer, but may often be captured by beating during the day. They rest with their wings sloping. Only two species of this singular family occur in Europe ; the exotic species are often adorned with very bright colours. GENUS I.—LIMACODES (LATR.). Fore-wings with the tip somewhat rounded ; the antenne of the male obtusely serrated. * L. TLestudo (Fabr.) has ochre-yellow fore-wings, paler in the female, with two straight dark brown transverse lines, which diverge from each other towards the inner margin ; the intermediate space is dusted with brown in the male. Hind-wings darker, or blackish. Expands about 1 inch, Common in Central and Southern Europe and Western Asia in May and June. Larva green, with three rows of shining warts, and two whitish lines on the back, and a yellow streak on the sides. It lives in oak, &c. The moth is figured at Pl. 26, Fig. 3. GENUS Il.—HETEROGENEA (KNOCIL). Fore-wings with the tip rather pointed ; antenne simple. In * 7. Asellus (W. V.) the fore-wings are ochre-brown in the male, and ochre-yellow in the female ; hind-wings blackish ; all the fringes are paler. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. Widely distributed in Central Europe in June and July, but rather scarce. The larva is yellowish, suffused with red on the sides, and green on the belly ; a white line on the back. It feeds on beech, and other trees. FAMILY VI.—HEPIALID. Small or middle-sized moths, the head and thorax covered with woolly hair. The abdomen is very long, extending much beyond the hind-wings, and is clothed with flattened hair. The antennz are not longer than the thorax, and are simple, or occasionally with short lamella ; the palpi are small, the eyes are naked, and the tongue is absent, The legs are short and downy, and FIEPIALUS. 115 the tibia are without spurs. All the wings are rather long, with the hinder angle rounded ; the fore-wings are rather broader behind, and the hind-wings form a long oval. The neuration is very peculiar. All the wings have an intrusive cell extending to the base, and the fore-wings have also an appendicular cell, and small accessory cells at the base. In the hind-wings, the subcostal nervure throws off two or three branches to the costa. The fore-wings are generally marked with rows of pale spots, which converge towards the inner margin. The larve are slender, with sixteen legs, warts on which a few hairs are placed, and a shining head and thoracic shield. They live on the roots of low plants, form a cocoon, and change into a long pupa, with spines on the segments of the abdomen. The moths fly at twilight in woods and meadows, and rest with their wings sloping. The only European genus is HEPIALUS (FABR.). *1. H. Humiuli (Linn.), (Ghost Moth).—Wings of the male white above, unspotted ; borders and under side brown; female with the fore-wings dull yellow, with two oblique brick-red stripes, more or less broken into spots, before the hind margin; hind-wings dull reddish. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. Common in meadows throughout Central Europe in June and July ; the male has a peculiar hovering flight. The variety Heth/andica (Staud.), in which the hind-wings are very dark, and the colour and markings of the fore-wings are very variable, and interchangeable in both sexes, has only hitherto been found in the Shetlands, and in Holland. The larva is pale yellow, with a brown head and thoracic shield, and feeds on the roots of grass, hops, &c., from autumn to spring. The sexes are figured at Pl. 26, Fig. 4, a, 0. *2. H. Velleda (Esp.), (Beautiful Swift)—Fore-wings yellowish-brown, with a row of silvery- grey spots bordered by a dark double line filled up with brownish-yellow running from the tip to the inner margin, where it turns off at an obtuse angle to the base; hind-wings grey. In the variety Gallicus (Led.) the fore-wings are dull reddish. Expands from 1} to nearly 2 inches. It is widely distributed in Northern and Central Europe as far as the Pyrenees, and in the Altai, but is local, and in many places scarce. It is found in June and July, and is a mountain insect in the south. The larva is white, spotted with yellowish on the front segments; and the head is brownish-red. It feeds on the roots of the fern (Péeris aquzlina). 3. H. Cernus (Esp.).—Wings dark brown in the male, with two transverse bands of round brownish-black spots, bordered with yellow. There are also two similar spots on the middle of the costa, two at the tip, and one near the base, standing on a large white spot. The female has whitish fore-wings with brownish-red spots, bordered with yellow. Expands about 1} inches. A scarce Alpine species, found in July and August. 4. H. Pyrenaicus (Donz.) is dark brown; fore-wings with many irregular whitish spots ; fringe brown, preceded by a row of small whitish dots. Hind-wings brown; fringe white. The male expands 1} inches; the wings of the female are rudimentary. It is found in the Pyrences in July. * 5. H. Sylvinus (Linn.).—Fore-wings of the male reddish-yellow or cinnamon-brown (those of the female brownish-grey), with two white oblique lines bordered behind with dusky, which converge towards the inner margin at a right angle; hind-wings dark brown, the hind margin reddish in the male. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Not uncommon in Central Europe from July to September. The larva is greyish-white, with a dark line on the back, and a reddish- yellow head. It lives till June in the roots of dock and sorrel. (H. Amasinus, Herr.-Schaff., from Corfu and Asia Minor, resembles a small Sy/vinus, with very long fringes divided by two dark lines. Hind margin with light oval marks, filled up with dusky in cells 3 to6. The 116 EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. outer white transverse stripe is very sharply defined, and bordered outside with dark rusty brown, but the inner one is irregularly broken.) 6. H. Ganna (Hiibn.):—Fore-wings yellowish-brown, with an irregularly-widened silvery stripe running from the tip to the inner margin; a longitudinal stripe which is broader behind running from the base, and small silvery spots below this, and below the costa; the stripes are often broken into spots. Hind-wings ashy-brown, with the fringes reddish. Expands about 1} inches. Widely distributed in the Alps in July and August; it also occurs in Sweden and Finland, but is a scarce insect. *7, H. Lupulinus (Linn.), (Common Swift)—Fore-wings yellowish-brown or reddish-brown, with a whitish stripe running from the tip to the inner margin, another running from the base, and a long spot in the middle of the wing above it; hind-wings dark grey. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Common over a great part of Europe in May and June. The larva is yellowish- white with black warts and a brown head. It feeds on the roots of various plants from autumn to spring. Figured at Pl. 26, Fig. 5. *8. H. Hectus (Linn.), (Golden Swift)—Fore-wings yellowish-brown, dusted with ochre-yellow in the male, and with a pale oblique streak before the middle, and an oblique row of spots before the hind margin, which is bordered with black and white in the male, and is pale grey and broader in the female; hind-wings dark grey. Expands a little over I inch. Common throughout the greater part of Europe from May to July. The larva is dirty grey, with two black spots on each segment; head brownish-yellow. It lives on the roots of heath, &c., according to some writers; others say it feeds on the leaves of the dandelion. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 26, Fig. 6, a, 0. FAMILY VIJ.—HETEROGYNID/E. Closely allied to the Psychide, but the fore-wings have two internal nervures. The body is slender and downy; the antennz are half the length of the body, with moderately long, finely- ciliated pectinations ; the legs are short, and the hind tibiae have spurs at the end only. The wings are rounded behind, unicolorous, with hairy scales, and slightly transparent; the fore- wings form a rather long triangle, and the hind-wings are nearly as broad as long. The female is apterous and worm-like. The larve are short and wood-louse shaped, with fine hairs; they live exposed, and change to pupe in a rather long and loose cocoon. The commonest species, Heterogynis Pennella (Hibn.), has a brownish-black body and blackish wings; the pectinations of the antenne grow imperceptibly shorter towards the tips. It expands nearly 1 inch, and is common in July in Europe, south of the Alps, including their southern slopes; the larva feeds on different species of broom. H. Paradova (Ramb.), from Spain, is a little larger, more slender, and paler, and the pectinations of the antenne are shorter; it appears in August. FAMILY VIII.—PSYCHIDE. The males are small delicate moths, with hairy bodies, and generally with broad rounded wings, always of a uniform dark or grey colour, and often thinly scaled, and slightly trans- parent ; the discoidal cell is at least divided behind. The fore-wings have one internal nervure. The antenne have long or short delicately-ciliated pectinations ; the eyes are naked, and the o . y PSYCHE. i legs are short, with hairy thighs. The females are wingless, and are generally worm-like, and (except in Humea) are almost entirely destitute of antenna, legs, and palpi. The larva, which live in movable cases, are naked, with small warts bearing single hairs, and with horny plates on the back of segments 2 to 4; the prolegs are very short stumps, and coronated. They change to pup in the closed-up case; the male pupa is slender, and projects partly from the case when developed; the female pupa remains in the case, which the female itself never quits, even to pair, except in Fumea. The males flutter about in the daytime, but live a very short time, and die immediately after pairing. They are generally abundant in their special localities, and are sometimes obtained by sweeping, like the larve. Many writers class these insects among the Zixee@. There are two sub-families, SUB-FAMILY I.—PSYCHIN-. The internal nervure of the fore-wings not oaly forms a short fork towards the base, but also divides towards the border into two long curved branches, The wings are more or less transparent, though sometimes only slightly so, and the hind-wings are as broad as the fore-wings. The female is worm-like, with extremely small rudimentary legs and antennz, and has shining horny plates on segments 2 to 4, and never quits its case. The pupa of the female is rather long, rounded on both sides, and the outer skin is thin. GENUS I—PSYCHE (SCHRANK). Fore-wings triangular or rounded, hind-wings equally broad, but shorter, their discoidal cells divided into two cells to the base. The costal and subcostal hervures are connected by a short disco-cellular nervule, so as to form a third discoidal cell, which is often short. The antennze and pectinations are short. The larve generally hybernate twice, and the moths appear in May and June, and mostly emerge from the cocoon towards evening. 1. P. Unicolor (Hufn.), Graminella (W. V.).—Male blackish, the wings densely scaled, with the fringes whitish at the ends. The fore-wings are broad and triangular, with eleven nervures ; hind- wings with seven nervures ; body slender, Expands nearly 1} inches. The female is yellowish- white, with dark brown plates on the back; that on the 4th segment, and a horny spot on the Sth, are paler, with dark brown spots. In the male, the case is covered with large pieces of grass and leaves, laid on like scales, and projecting far behind ; in the female, these fragments are smaller, and laid close to the case. The larva is greyish-brown, the thoracic shields shining brown, with three yellow longitudinal lines. It lives till May on grass. The pupa of the female is brown, with the back darker. The male and the case are figured at Pl. 26, Fig. 7, a, 6. Common in Central and Eastern Europe ; absent from the north-west. *2. P. Villosella (Ochs.), Nigricans (Curt.).—Male reddish-grey, wings rather thinly scaled ; shape and neuration as in Unicolor , body stout. Expands about 1 inch. The female is whitish- yellow, with brown plates on the back, and an irregular spot on segment 5. It is found in Southern and some parts of Central Europe (including the New Forest) in June and July. The male case is formed of fragments of plants, and the female case of short stalks of grass and plants laid lengthways. The larva is dirty yellowish-brown, with two obscure dark lines on the back, and black plates on the thorax. It lives till May on heath, broom, &c. (P. Fedretta, Fonsc., is rather more fulvous and shining than Vi//ose//a, with the fringes always whiter and more shining; and 118 Evrorrean BurverrFties AND Morus. the pectinations of the anlennz are longer, thicker, and more hairy. The female is covered with a greyish-white down; and the larva feeds on a species of broom. It occurs in the mountains of South Europe. P. Echsteini; Led., from Hungary, also much resembles V2//ose//a, but is smaller and more slender, with nearly transparent wings, and shorter antennz, with rather longer pectinations.) 3. P. Victella (W.V.).—The male is dark yellowish-grey, the wings thinly clothed with hair- like scales; fore-wings rounded behind, with eleven nervures ; and hind-wings with eight nervures ; body stout. Expands nearly 1 inch, The female is very thick, and of a reddish-yellow, with dark yellow plates on the back. The variety S/e/¢incnsis (Herr.-Schaff.) is smaller and darker, generally with one nervule wanting on each wing. The variety Veadrina (Staud.) is also darker, and is blackish, instead of brown. Very local in Southern and some parts of Central Europe in June, but entirely absent in the west. The case is very thick, covered with grass-stems and leaf- stalks laid crosswise. The larva is olive-brown, striped and spotted with black, and feeds on grass; the female pupa is black, reddish-brown at both ends. The male moth is figured at Pl. 26, Fig. 8. 4. P. Constancella (Bruand).—Smaller than Viciella, body rather short, and very hairy, antenna with short pectinations, and obtuse ; wings blackish, semi-transparent. Female as in Victella, but smaller. The case is like that of Apzformis, but shorter, and the larva is stout, resembling that of Ca/vel/a, but with a head like Gramznella. Inhabits France. 5. P. Crassicornis (Staud.).—Black, semi-transparent at the base, and sometimes ashy ; abdomen very hairy, and the pectinations of the antenne very thick. Expands rather less than 1inch. Found in Greece in March and April. 6. P. Apiformis (Rossi).—Body long, thickly covered with black hair, the hair on the abdomen yellow; antennz yellowish, long, and pointed; wings sooty-brown, nearly transparent, with brown fringes. In the variety A/e/asoma (Staud.) the abdomen is quite black. Size of AZuscel/a. The case resembles that of P. Atribombycella, and is found on bramble. It inhabits Italy and Portugal in June. (P. Precellens, Staud., from the mountains of Castile, resembles Gvas/inella, but has smoky-brown semi-transparent wings, with sharply-defined yellowish-white basal streaks, filling the cells of all the wings, and extending further on the hind-wings.) 7. P. Graslinella (Boisd.).—Male blackish, the wings thinly covered with hair-like scales, and almost transparent ; fore-wings narrow and triangular, with twelve nervures, hind-wings with eight; body rather thick, with very long hair behind. Expands about 1 inch. Female dirty reddish-brown, with brown or yellowish plates on the back. The case is long and very thick, covered with the projecting stalks of plants, over which a slight web is spun; the male case terminates in a long whitish tube. The larva is greyish-brown, with dark triangular spots on the back. It lives on heath till April: The female pupa is black, with the ends pale brown. Local in some parts of France and Germany in May. * 8. P. Opacella (Herr.-Schiiff..—Smaller than Grastinel/a, with shorter hairs on the abdomen, and one nervule less in each wing; the female is yellowish, with dark brown plates on the back. Widely distributed in Northern and Central Europe in May. It frequents dry, sunny places, and emerges from the cocoon in the morning. The case is thin, composed of the stalks of plants arranged lengthways; that of the male ends in a whitish tube. The larva is dirty yellow, with the back dark brown, and the first segments deep black. It lives till April on grass; the female pupa is yellowish-brown, with the back darker. The variety Sevex (Staud.), from Bulgaria and Armenia, is transparent, with whitish hairs on the thorax and abdomen, and thicker antenne. (P. Uralensis, Freyer, has the neuration of Ofacel/a, but is much more slender, and the wings are shaped as in OREOPSYCHE. 1 fe) TTirsutella, It is ashy-grey, thinly scaled, the back and abdomen darker, with fine whitish wool, and the abdomen scarcely extends beyond the inner margin. Expands three-quarters of an inch. It inhabits South-Eastern Europe. P. Ze/leri, Mann, from Hungary and Dalmatia, has much shorter and rounder wings in the male than Oface//a, and the female is reddish-yellow.) GENUS II.—OREOPSYCHE (SPEY.). Wings with extremely fine, scattered hairs, fore-wings rounded behind, hind-wings rather narrower, with the discoidal cell simply divided ; fringes rather long. Antenne with very long and slender pectinations, lying irregularly over each other; head tufted in front, and abdomen with shaggy hair. Most of the species are mountain insects. This genus may be divided into two sections; in the first, comprising the bulk of the species, the body is stout, and the wings are nearly transparent ; and in the second, to which the four last species belong, the body is slender,’ with much shorter hair, and the wings are opaque. 1. O. Albida (Esp.).—Head and body black, covered with white silky hair; wings transparent with a whitish lustre; the veins and costa dark brown, the hind margin blackish. (A variable species ; variety Plmosella, Ramb., is blackish). Expands about three-quarters of an inch Female pale ochreous. The case is covered with fragments of moss, leaves, &c., and the perfect insect appears from March to June, according to the locality. It is common in France and Spain. (P. Tabanivicinella, Bruand, appears to be a variety from South France, with shorter antennze and yellowish-brown hairs on the body, diverging towards the tip of the abdomen. P. Pyrencella Herr.-Schaff,, is rather larger than A/dzda, and the body is densely covered with black hair; the antennze are black and very plumose, and the wings are smoky-brown, semi-transparent, with the costa and hind margin black, and the veins narrow.) 2. O. Vesubtiella (Mill.).—Wings vitreous, shining black, with the costa deep black, and the fringes narrow, and darker than the ground colour. Body wholly covered with long black hair, tinged with grey on the head and thorax. Antenne large, deep black, with very large lamella. Expands nearly 14 inches. The case resembles that of O. Atra. The larva, which must pass the winter under a thick covering of snow, is full-grown towards the end of July. It feeds on the scanty grass growing among the boulders in the bed of mountain torrents in the Valley of Lantosque; and the moth appears in August. (P. Leschenaultii, Staud., from the Pyrenees, closely resembles O. A/dzda, but the pectinations of the antennz are much shorter, and wider apart. The fore-wings are rounder, with the fringes and costa blackish, and the white hairs of the abdomen are much longer, especially those at the extremity. The case resembles that of the genus Efichnopteryx. O. Malvinella, Mill., found in Andulasia in January and February, resembles a small O. A/bzda, with very densely pectinated antenne. The fore-wings are much more reunded, white, but semi-transparent black towards the margins ; and sometimes with black nervures. Hind-wings with a dark border, and white fringes. The female is yellowish, with the front segments brown; and without either legs or wings. The larva feeds on various low plants ; and the case is formed of grains of sand, covered with different kinds of leaves, stalks, moss, &c., arranged lengthways. O. Rahri, Led., from South Italy and Sicily, resembles Pyrengel/a in shape and appearance, but the neuration and antennz are similar to those of A/bida. There is no whitish coloration on the wings or body.) : 3. O. Atra (Esp.)—Wings transparent, shining, with blackish fringes ; hind-wings much narrower than the fore-wings, with all the nervules separate; abdomen extending much beyond the anal angle of the hind-wings. Expands rather more than half an inch. The case is rather long, 120 EvroreEAN BorrerRFlLieEs AND MOorxHs. and covered with fragments of plants laid lengthways. It is found in the south of France and Germany. (Variety Sicolorel/a, Boisd., from the Pyrenees, is reddish at the base of the wings. O. Siculella, Bruand, from Sicily, is darker, with red palpi, but not red at the base of the wings.) 4. O. Muscella (W. V.).—Wings transparent, shining, with brownish fringes ; hind-wings a little narrower than the fore-wings ; all the nervules separate ; the abdomen scarcely reaching beyond the anal angle. Expands nearly three-quarters of an inch. The female is reddish-yellow, with brown plates on the back. The case is covered with fragments of grass and moss. The larva is dark grey, paler on the sides and belly, with black shining plates on the back, and lives on grass till April. The female pupa is pale brown, with the back darker. The moth is common in France, South Germany, and Armenia in May; and the male is figured at Pl. 26, Fig. 9. (O. Schiffer- miillert, Staud., found in the Austrian Alps in July, has a smaller head, and the palpi and wings are longer. The female is reddish, resembling that of Psyche Unicolor, but more slender ; the head and thoracic plates are blackish. The case is more slender than that of Unicolor, and covered with fragments of leaves, &c. O. Fulminella, Mill., resembles P/umosella, but is a little smaller; the fore-wings are less angular, and the hind-wings less rounded ; the body and wings are uniformly smoky, with no bluish reflection. The case is formed of a bunch of dry leaves of oak or box. It inhabits Castile. O. Sz/phella, Mill., resembles Fudminella and Leschenaulti, but the wings are longer, nearly opaque, and sooty-black ; the tip of the fore-wings is more pointed, and the fringes and nervures are broader, and of a deep opaque black; there is no trace of light hairs on the body. The female is greyish-white, with the plate flesh-colour. The case is clay-coloured, and long and cylindrical. The larva feeds on Plantago, Rumex, and Dorycnium,; and the moth appears at Cannes in April and May, in the evening. 5. O. Plumifera (Ochs.)—Smaller than JZuscella, the fore-wings not shining, and nervules 6 and 7 rising from a common stem; hind-wings narrower. The case is thickened, and covered with bits of moss and sand; the larva feeds on thyme. Common in the mountains of Southern and South Central Europe in May. (O. Mediterranea, Led., from South France and Italy, is smaller, with very long palpi, and semi-transparent wings. Female as in O. Atra. The case is covered with bits of wood. O. Gondebautella, Mill., found at Cannes in early spring, is larger than Plwmnifera, with much longer wings, and the case is composed of fragments of moss, laid one over another.) 6. O. Plumistrella (Hiibn.)—Male dark brown, fore-wings rounded, hind-wings rather long, of nearly uniform breadth, head with very long hair, abdomen extending to the anal angle. Size of Muscella. Widely distributed in the Alps. 7. O. Tenella (Spey.)—Male with brownish-grey wings, fore-wings broad and rounded, hind- wings broader behind, the head with shorter hair, and the abdomen extending as far as the anal angle. Expands about three-quarters of an inch. It is found in the high Alps in July. * 8. O. Hirsutella (Hiibn.), Fusca (Haw.), Calvella (Ochs.)—Body rather slender, thinly clothed with short yellow hairs, head small, eyes large, antennz with short pectinations, wings semi-transparent grey, with the nervures darker. Expands nearly 1 inch. Female short and worm-like. The case is constructed of transverse stalks and fragments of plants, irregularly arranged. The larva resembles that of O. A/éida. The moth is found throughout Central Europe in July. (O. Standfussi, Herr.-Schaff., from the mountains of Silesia, is paler, with seven nervures on the hind-wings instead of eight; and nervules 4 and 5, and 7 and 8 of the fore-wings rising from a common stalk.) F. PICHNOPTERYYX. 121 SUB-FAMILY II—CANEPHORID. The male with moderately broad wings, rounded behind, and the hind-wings as broad as the fore-wings ; body slender, with thin hairs, the abdomen extending to the anal angle; pectinations of the antenne rather short. GENUS I.—EPICHNOPTERYX (HUBN.). Wings semi-transparent, with hair-like scales, and short fringes ; fore-wings with ten or eleven nervures, and hind-wings with the discoidal cell divided, and seven nervures. The female is worm-like, but with rudiments of legs and antennz, which are sometimes jointed ; and some species are also provided with an ovipositor ; but they never quit their cases. The larve feed on grass. 1. E. Bombycella (W. V.).—Wings broad, pale ochre-yellow, fore-wings indistinctly reticulated with darker. Female dirty yellow, with shining yellowish-brown plates on the 2nd and 3rd segments, and a black one on the 4th. The antennz are articulated; and it possesses an Ovipositor. The variety Rotundella (Bruand), from France and Switzerland, is unicolorous, and not reticulated. The male expands three-quarters of an inch. It inhabits’ Southern and some parts of Central Europe in June. The case is cylindrical, and covered with stalks of grass, arranged lengthways. 2. £. Undulella (Rossl.).—Rather less than Z, Pulla y head brown; abdomen ochraceous ; antenna with slender yellow pectinations. Wings yellowish-white, tesselated with brown transverse lines, and with brown nervures. It inhabits Hungary and South Russia. 3. £. Reticulatella (Bruand).—Brownish-grey ; antenne with slender pectinations, wings rounded, shining, with brown borders, the fringes white and shining. Fore-wings pale whitish- grey, tesselated with transverse brown stripes ; hind-wings semi-transparent. It inhabits Dalmatia and Turkey. (£. Raiblensis, Mann, from Carinthia, is one-fourth larger, with longer and more thinly scaled, and paler fore-wings, finely and less sharply reticulated. It is found in June and July.) * 4. £. Reticella (Newm.).—Smaller than Reticulatella (expands under half an inch), and more transparent ; antennz with fewer pectinations ; wings whitish, reticulated with brown ; the veins spotted with brown at the extremity ; body black, clothed with white hair. Found in June in the south-eastern counties of England. 5. £. Pectinella (W. V.).—Wings broad, yellowish-grey, with shining yellowish fringes ; body blackish, abdomen with pale hairs at the tip ; the pectinations of the antennz short, It is found in Austria. (4. Surtens, Reutti, also from Austria, differs from Pectinella in the dark grey colour of the wings and abdomen, and in the much longer pectinations of the antenne.) 6. £. Plumella (Ochs.).—Wings rather long, brownish-grey, with shining yellowish fringes ; body black, the abdomen thinly clothed with grey hairs, and the pectinations of the antenne long. Expands about half an inch. Female reddish-white, slightly brownish above on the thoracic segments, with rudimentary legs and antenna, and an Ovipositor surrounded with white wool. It is found in sunny places in the south and centre of Trance and Germany from May to July. The case is tube-like, narrower behind, and is brown, covered with grains of earth and sand. 7. £. Nudella (Ochs.).—The wings are rather long; pale grey, with whitish shining fringes ; body black, and the pectinations of the antenne shorter. Size of Plumella. It inhabits South Germany. The case, which is slender and cylindrical, and narrow behind, is brown, covered with particles of earth. (Z. Nigrolucidella, Bruand, from France, is darker, with thicker nervures, and the antenne as in E. Pudla. E. Sappho, Mill. from Hungary, resembles O. Hirsutella in colour, but is darker; and in shape it resembles Z. Pectinella, though it is twice as large.) 23 122 EUROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND Morus. *8. E. Pulla (Esp.).—Wings black, with unicolorous fringes, thickly covered with hair-like scales; fore-wings with the tip but slightly rounded; hind-wings regularly rounded. The pectinations of the antenhe are long, and gradually become shorter towards the extremity. Expands about half an inch. The female is pale reddish-brown, with yellowish plates on segments 2 and 3; a very short ovipositor, surrounded with whitish wool. The case is covered with long stalks of grass; the larva is found in spring, and the perfect insect in May and June. It is common throughout Southern and Central Europe. In this and the following species, the fore- wings of the males have eleven nervures; in the preceding species there are ten. (P. Zaruierella, Bruand, from France, has yellowish-brown wings, with silky yellow fringes ; the body is stout, the palpi are short and hairy, and the pectinations of the antennz are thick, but not numerous ; the abdomen is thinly clothed with hair.. 4. Archia, Mann, expands only one-third of an inch; it is uniform black, the wings greyish-yellow, covered with fine long hair-like scales. The fringes are long, and are yellowish at the tips of the fore-wings ; the antennz are one-third of the length of the fore-wings, and the pectinations are wide apart. It inhabits the high Alps in July. £. AZentonella, Mill., found at Mentone in April, is perhaps a large variety of Pw//a; the fore-wings are less pointed at the tip, the antennz are unusually thick, and the wings are of a deeper uniform black.) 9. E. Sieboldii (Reutti)—Wings sooty-brown, fringes and hind margins shining yellowish, thinly clothed with hair-like scales; fore-wings rounded; hind-wings of uniform breadth, the pectinations of the antenne shorter than in Pw//a, gradually increasing in length towards the tip. Size of Pulla, which the female and case resemble ; but the former has four pale yellow plates on the back. It is found in France and Germany in May. In the variety Heringid (Heinem.), from North Germany, the hind-wings become gradually broader from the base to beyond the middle, and the pectinations of the antenne become suddenly short at the tip, so that the three or four last are quite short, and of equal length. (In &. Helix, Sieb., found in Germany, France, and Italy, the male is unicolorous dark grey. In &. Helicinella, Herr.-Schaff., from South-Western Europe and Sicily, the male is smoky-black, and semi-transparent. The cases in both these species are shaped like snail-shells, and the moths form the new genus Coch/ophanes, Staud.) GENUS II.—FUMEA (HAW.). Differs from Epichnopteryx by the dense scaling of the fore-wings, which is not hair-like, at least on the fore-wings, and the fringes are longer. The female has slender jointed legs and antennz ; eyes distinctly facetted ; a retractile ovipositor, and pale-coloured wool on the abdomen. The larve have horny plates on the thoracic segments, and, after hybernation, live till May. The moths appear in June, and the female quits the case before pairing. 1. /, Nitidella (Hiibn.).—Fore-wings broad, and rounded behind, shining bronzy-brown, with grey fringes, mostly paler at the ends; hind-wings thinly scaled, dark brownish-grey ; the antenne with about sixteen pectinations. Expands about 1 inch. The female is reddish-brown, with square dark spots on the back, and silvery-grey wool on the abdomen. Common in woods throughout the greater part of Europe. The case is covered with long slender stalks of grass. The larva feeds on grass, and also on various trees. (/. Jutermediella, Bruand, is probably the same as this.) 2. F. Betulina (Zell.) is a little larger than Nétidella ; the fore-wings are rather longer, more pointed, and darker, and the antenne have about eighteen slenderer pectinations. The female is reddish-brown, with white wool on the abdomen, and the case is covered with short stalks of grass and fragments of plants. The larva feeds on lichens growing on trees. Widely distributed in Central Europe, perhaps including England. CIEE. 123 3. F. Affinis (Reutti)—Wings shaped as in Setulina, fore-wings shining yellowish-brown ; hind-wings distinctly paler; grey, with hair-like scales; the antenne with twenty-one pectina- tions. Size of Befulina. Female yellowish-brown ; the first thoracic plate yellow, the two others spotted with dusky, and the abdomen clothed with yellowish wool. The case is covered with long coarse stalks of grass, projecting a little behind. The larva feeds on grass. This species is found in South Germany. (/. Crasstorella, Bruand, from South Europe, is probably the same as this. &. Comztella, Bruand, is described as smaller, with the wings a little shorter, and reticulated with darker towards the margin. The larva lives on lichens on old willows, along with that of Sadicicolella.) *4. F. Se@pium (Spey.).—Allied to Afinis, but the fore-wings are narrower and more pointed, and less widened behind. They are of a shining yellowish-grey or brownish-grey, with an indistinct dark spot beyond the middle; hind-wings paler yellowish-grey, with hair-like scales ; antennz with finer and shorter pectinations. Size of MWctidella. Female pale yellow, with grey wool on the abdomen. The case is thick and covered with fragments of lichens, and the larva feeds on lichens growing on trees and walls. This species is widely distributed in Central Europe, and has been found in England. * 5. F. Roboricolella (Bruand).—Shining brownish-black; wings rounded; expands half an inch ; female with white wool on the abdomen. The larva feeds on lichens growing on rocks and trees; and the species inhabits France, England, and Ireland. (* F. Salicicolella, Bruand, which occurs in France and England, has narrower and longer wings, and the larva lives on lichens growing on willows. The antenne are very slightly pectinated.) 6. Ff. Subflavella (Mill.).—Size of Rodoricolella, and colour of Comitella, but paler. Wings rather long, with the hind margin rounded ; sooty-black, or slightly reddish. The larva is bright yellow in front, and reddish behind. It inhabits South France in June, and the cases of the hybernated larve are found on walls in April. FAMILY IX.—DREPANULID&. Rather small moths, somewhat resembling Geometre, with which they were formerly classed. Their wings are broad and delicate, and their bodies are rather slender, clothed with flattened hair, and the abdomen does not extend to the anal angle of the hind-wings. The antenne of the male are bipectinated; the eyes naked, the palpi small, the tongue horny, and the legs slender. The wings are yellow or brown, and occasionally white; and are generally marked with dark transverse lines. The fore-wings have twelve nervures, and the hind-wings eight; nervule 5 is nearer to nervule 4 than to 6. The larve have only fourteen legs, the claspers being absent. They have scattered hairs and a hump on the 2nd segment ; the head is heart-shaped, and the tail terminates in a point. They are double-brooded, and feed on deciduous trees in June and autumn, and change to pupe in a loose cocoon. The moths appear in May and August, and rest with their wings sloping. They fly in the evening, but, like other slender- bodied moths, may also be obtained by beating hedges and bushes in the day-time. GENUS I.—CILIX (LEACH). The antennz of the male have short knobbed teeth to the extremity, and those of the female are simple ; the frenulum is absent in both sexes, and the wings are rounded. The only species, 124 EvroPeAn Bourrerryies and Morus. * C. Glaucata, Scop. (Spinula, W. V.), is white, fore-wings with a large brown spot, varied with leaden grey on the inner margin, and a pale grey spot above it, in which the nervures form a fine silvery pattern, resembling a stag’s horn. In repose it slopes its wings rather steeply. Expands a little under 1 inch. It is common in Southern and Central Europe, and is often disturbed by beating hedges, when it rushes down to the end of a twig, and sits there, its white colour making it look very conspicuous, notwithstanding its small size. The larva is brown, with a whitish spot on the back, and warty tubercles on the 3rd and 4th segments. The moth is figured at Pl. 30, Fig. 1. GENUS II.—PLATYPTERYX (LASP.). The species belonging to this and the following genus have the fore-wings more or less hooked, and are therefore frequently called “ Hook-tips.”. The wings are brown or yellowish, with transverse lines. In Platypteryx the antenne are ciliated to the extremity, the pectinations being shorter in the female, in which sex the frenulum is absent. The hind tibia have spurs at the end only. The hind margins of the wings are dentated in the first species. The larve are finely hairy, with warty tubercles. * 1. P. Lacertinaria (Linn.).—Fore-wings pale grey, dusted with brown, and with two transverse brown lines; hind-wings whitish. Expands from 1} to 14 inches. It is common throughout Europe, the south excepted. The larva is brown, with large wart-like tubercles on the 3rd and 4th segments, and small warts on the others. It feeds on birch and elder. *2. P. Falcataria (Linn.).—Pale yellow, with brown waved lines, fore-wings dusted with darker, with a grey egg-shaped spot, veined with black, in the middle. Size of Lacertinaria. Common in most parts of Europe and Western Asia. The larva is green, with fleshy points on segments 3 to 6; and reddish-brown on the hinder part of the back. It feeds on birch and elder. The moth is figured at Pl. 30, Fig. 3. 3. P. Curvatula (Borkh.).—Violet-brown, with dark brown wavy lines, the fore-wings with two oblique rows of black dots across the middle. Size of the last species. Inhabits the greater part of Central Europe, but is rather scarce, and is the only species of the family not found in Britain. The larva is brown, with fleshy points on the 4th and 5th segments, and lives on elm. GENUS III.—DREPANA (SCHRANK). Closely allied to Platypteryx, but the fore-wings are less pointed, except in Sicula, and therefore less distinctly hooked. The antenne of the male are not pectinated at the extremity, and those of the female are simple. The hind tibiae are furnished with four spurs. *1. D. Sicula (W. V.).—Fawn-colour, with brown zigzag lines, and an irregular brown blotch or band in the middle of the fore-wings, dotted with pale yellow; and with several oblique zigzag dusky lines. Expands about 1} inches. It is found throughout the greater part of Central Europe, but appears to be scarce everywhere. The larva is reddish-brown, varied with darker ; the back is lemon-yellow, with two tubercles on the 4th segment. It feeds on oak and birch. *2. D. Binaria (Hufn.), Hamula (W. V.).—Wings paler or darker rust-colour, suffused with violet-grey, with two pale transverse lines ; fore-wings with two large black dots in the middle. Expands from 1 to 1} inches. Widely distributed in Central and Southern Europe, but commoner in some localities than in others. The larva is brownish-yellow, and greenish-brown on the front segments, with two pale subdorsal lines. It lives on oak. The moth is figured at Pissoebic., 2: Ewpromis—A GLIA. 125 * 3. D. Cultraria (Fabr.), Unguicula (Hiibn.)—Ochre-yellow, with a broad brown central band bordered with paler. Size of Bivaria. It appears to be common throughout Europe wherever the beech grows. Its larva, which is pale brown, with a rosy spot on the back, feeds on this tree. FAMILY X—SATURNID&. To this family belong the Atlas and Emperor Moths, formerly placed by Linné in his sub-genus Aéfacus, and it therefore comprises the largest species of Bombyces, some of which are among the largest known moths, measuring nearly a foot from tip to tip of the fore-wings. To this family and the true Bombycide belong all the silkworms of any economic value. The Saturnide have thick, woolly bodies, a small retracted head, triangular fore-wings, and rounded hind-wings. The palpi and tongue are usually obsolete; the antennz of the male are plumose, and the legs are woolly. All the wings (except in Exdromis) are furnished with a coloured or transparent crescent-shaped, or angulated eye-spot in the middle; and the internal nervure of the hind-wings runs to the anal angle. The larve are thick and naked, but have generally warty tubercles covered with spines. They change into a thick obtuse pupa enclosed in a cocoon, and generally hybernate in this state. The males fly rapidly and unsteadily during the day, and the females sit quietly awaiting them. The former can frequently be taken in numbers by “assembling.” GENUS I.—ENDROMIS (OCHS.). The pectinations of the antenne moderately long and thick in the male, and small in the female; wings chequered, with no eye-spot. The abdomen extends a little beyond the anal angle of the hind-wings. The larva is smooth, with a pyramidal elevation on the 12th segment. The only species, *£. Versicolora, Linn. (the Kentish Glory), has brown fore-wings, chequered with whitish, with two brown transverse lines bordered with whitish, and an angulated brown streak on the hind-wings, which are rusty-yellowin the male, and whitish in the female. Expands from 2} to 2} inches. It seems to be found throughout Europe, except the south, frequenting woods in April, but is seldom common. In the morning the females sit at the ends of the birch-twigs, and may be beaten from them. About eleven o'clock the males begin to fly about in search of the females, which drop off the twigs after pairing, and are then difficult to find. The larva is green, with two white longitudinal streaks on the upper side of the front segments, and with white oblique streaks running upwards and forwards on the sides of the hinder ones. It feeds on birch and elder in May and June. The male, female, and larva are figured at Pl. 27, Fig. 1, a—e. GENUS II.—AGLIA (OCHS.). Antenne with long pectinations in the male, and serrated in the female; the wings with eye-spots with white centres; fore-wings rather pointed. The larva with protuberances on the back. The only species, 4. Tau, Linn. (the Tau Emperor), is ochre-yellow, with a brown streak edged with whitish before the hind margins (absent on the fore-wings in the female), and a blue eye in the middle of each wing, containing a white T-shaped spot, and surrounded with a black ring. Expands from 2} to 2} inches. It is common in many parts of Central Europe (except Britain) and Northern Asia. The moth appears from March to May, and the females are found sitting on the trunks of trees, or on the ground among dry leaves; and the males fly rapidly by ‘day. The larva is green, with five red spines when young, which it loses when full-grown. It has - 126 EivroreAN Burrerrriées AND Morus. yellowish-white oblique stripes on the sides, running upwards and forwards, and a yellowish line on the sides, which is broadest on the 4th segment. It feeds on beech, lime, and oak in June and July. GENUS III.—SATURNIA (SCHRANK). Antennz with long pectinations in the male, and short ones in the female; wings with dark zigzag lines, and an eye in each, surrounded with a dark or coloured ring. The abdomen rarely extends as far as the anal angle of the hind-wings. The larvae have large tubercles, bearing star-like clusters of short bristles. They construct a hard pear-shaped cocoon, which is closed at the thin end by elastic bristles like a weir. 1. S. Pyri (W.V.), (Great Peacock Moth)—Dark grey, with a marginal white band, brownish behind, and black eyes dusted with violet-blue, surrounded with black and fawn-coloured rings, between which is a white and red crescent on the basal side. It expands nearly 6 inches, and is the largest Lepidopterous insect found in Europe. Common in South Europe and Western Asia in May, and found as far north as Paris and Vienna. The larva is green, with blue warts studded with short hairs, among which are two longer ones, knobbed at the extremity. It lives on apple, sloe, &c., in July and August. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 27, Fig. 2, a, 0. 2. S. Spint (W. V.).—Both sexes are very similar to the female of S. Carpini, but the dark double zigzag line ends about the middle of the inner margin, and the pectinations of the antenne of the female are much longer. Expands from 2} to 3 inches. It inhabits South-Eastern Ikurope and Western Asia in May. The larva is black, with golden-yellow tubercles studded with short hair, and feeds on sloe, roses, &c., in June and July. * 3. S. Carpini (W. V.), (Emperor Moth).—Male with reddish-brown fore-wings and rusty- yellow hind-wings ; female with all the wings grey. The hind margins are white, tinged with dusky externally, and there is a double dark zigzag line which terminates on the inner margin of the fore-wings much beyond the middle, and a black central eye on each wing, which contains a white crescent, but is otherwise similar to that of S. Pyrz. Expands from 2} to 2$ inches. It is common throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia in May. The larva is green, with black transverse bands and reddish tubercles studded with short hair. It feeds on sloe, heath, &c., in July and August. Both sexes, and the transformations, are figured at Pl. 27, Fig. 3, a—e. 4. S. Cecigena (Esp.).—Ochre-yellow, suffused with rosy in the female, with two dark brown zigzag stripes, and a dark brown ring in the middle of each wing. Expands from 3 to 3} inches. It is found in South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia in September and October. The larva is greenish-yellow, or brown, with a yellowish stripe on the sides, reddish or dark brown bands, and yellow tubercles, covered with short hairs. It feeds on oak in June. GENUS IV.—ACTIAS (LEACH). The only European species, A. /sabe//e (Graells), is grass-green, with the hind margins paler, bordered, and on the fore-wings bisected, with dark lines, and the nervures broadly reddish. There is an eye in the middle of each wing, with an oval white pupil, bordered first with reddish- brown, and then with a ring dusky within and yellow without, and finally enclosed by a black ring. The hind-wings of the male terminate in a long tail, curving outwards, and those of the female in one much shorter and broader. Expands nearly 3} inches. This magnificent insect, which is not closely allied to any other known species, is confined to Spain. The few other species of the genus inhabit South-Eastern Asia, from India to the Amoor; North America; and South GASTROPACHA. 127 Africa. The larva is green, with a reddish-brown line bordered with white on the back, and transverse bands, alternately brown and white, on the sides, bearing white tubercles studded with short hair. It feeds on Pzxzus maritima in July, and the moth appears in the following May. GENUS V.—ATTACUS (LINN.). The fore-wings are deeply concave below the tip; the body is stout and very short; and the central spots are crescent-shaped instead of round. I include *A. Cynthia (Drury)—the well- known Ailanthus Silkworm—in the present work, because, although an East Indian insect, it is naturalised at Colchester, Paris, and probably other places in Europe. The moth is dull olive- green, with a black ocellus, edged internally with a white lunule, a little below the tip of the fore-wings. Both wings are traversed by a broad suffused pink band, edged internally with white and then black, which touches the extremity of a large transparent lunule, edged below with yellow. On the fore-wings the inner extremity of the lunule touches a white stripe running from the costa, which there meets a similar one running from the base. There is also a white transverse stripe towards the base of the hind-wings. Expands from 5 to 6 inches. The larva varies from yellow to greyish-blue and deep green, according to age; it is spotted with black, and studded with long white tubercles, which secrete a waxy powder. It feeds on Azlanthus glandulosa (a naturalised tree), but will also eat lilac, &c., and constructs a cocoon resembling course brownish paper, which is folded in a leaf of the tree. The insects pass the winter in the pupa state, and the moths emerge in early summer, when they lay eggs, which hatch within a fortnight. (The oak-feeding silkworms from China and Japan, Antherea Pernyi and Yama-Mai of Guérin- Ménéville, only require a passing notice here, as they are never likely to become naturalised in Europe. They are nearly of the shape and size of Saturnia Pyri, and are generally of a buff or yellow colour, with a large, round, perfectly transparent spot in the middle of each wing, and a pale line near the hind margins.) FAMILY XI.—LASIOCAMPIDE. Rather large or moderate-sized moths, with thick, hairy bodies, and strong wings, which are not large in comparison to the size of the insects. The antenne are short, pectinated in the male, and slightly so in the female. The legs are short and strong, the hind tibia have spurs at the end only, and the abdomen extends rather beyond the anal angle of the hind-wings. The fore- wings form a longer or shorter triangle, and are slightly pointed at the tips; the hind-wings are small and rounded, and are not folded in repose. All the wings have a short discoidal cell, and the hind-wings have generally an accessory cell at the base, from which nervule 7 and the costal nervure rise. The larve have sixteen legs, and are covered with soft hair or fur, and are some- times tufted. They change into a thick obtuse pupa, and the moths fly very rapidly by night or in the day-time, and hold their wings steeply sloping when at rest, so that the costa of the hind- wings often projects from under the fore-wings. The female is generally larger than the male, and of a much paler colour. GENUS I.—GASTROPACHA (OCHS.). The palpi project in a kind of beak, and the hind margins are dentated ; those of the fore- wings being very long and curved. The larve cling closely to the trunks and branches of trees. The cocoon is loose, and the pupa is dusted with whitish. 128 F.UROPEAN BUTTERFLIES AND AIOTUHS. 1. G. Betulifolia (Fabr.).—Wings reddish-brown, suffused with grey on the hind margins, and with white fringes spotted with brown; the fore-wings are marked with three rows of blackish lunules, and are deeply excavated at the hinder angle. Expands from 1} to nearly 2 inches. It occurs throughout the greater part of Central Europe and Northern Asia in May, but is scarce in most localities, and absent from Britain and Scandinavia. The larva is grey, with reddish-yellow transverse stripes on the 3rd and 4th segments, and a short tubercle on the last segment but one. The belly is rust-colour, spotted with brown. It lives on oak, birch, &c., in autumn. * 2. G. Ilicifolia (Linn.).—Very like the last species, but more suffused with grey; hind-wings almost entirely grey, with a paler band in the middle; a square greyish-white spot in the middle of the fore-wings. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. It seems to be found throughout Central Europe and Northern Asia in April and May, but is everywhere a scarce and local insect. The larva is rust-coloured, with a black stripe on the back, on which stand white dots; and with reddish- yellow transverse spots on the 3rd and 4th segments; or else it is grey, and the back white, with a broad black central stripe interrupted by rust-coloured spots dotted with black. It feeds on sallow and bilberry in July and August. 3. G. Suberifolia (Dup.).—Pale coffee-brown, with reddish fringes. It is of the size of the last two species, but the hind margins are less dentated, the hind-wings are more oblong, and the transverse lines are nearly obsolete. It is found in South France, Spain, and North Africa in August, but is a very scarce insect. The larva feeds on Quercus Suber in June. *4. G. Quercifolia (Linn.), (Lappet Moth).—Reddish-brown ; the fore-wings with three black lines, more or less dentated; but the inner margin is not concave. It varies much in depth of colouring ; the var. A/nifolia (Ochs.) is dark brown, and the var. called by the same name by Dahl is pale yellowish-grey, with the markings sharply defined. Expands from 2 to 3 inches. It is found throughout the greater part of Europe and Northern and Western Asia in June and July. The larva is brown or grey, with blue transverse spots on the 3rd and 4th segments, small hairy tubercles on the sides, and a tubercle on the last segment but one. It lives from autumn to May on fruit-trees, sloe, willow, &c., and is often met with in plantations of young trees. The transformations are figured at Pl. 28, Fig. 1, a—c. 5. G. Populifolia (W. V.).—Resembles the last species, but the wings are longer and paler, and the fore-wings are marked with five rows of dark lunules. A smaller and paler brood of both this species and the last is met with in warm summers. It is found throughout Central Europe (except England) in June, but appears to be scarce everywhere. The larva resembles that of Quercifolia, but the transverse spot on the 4th segment is reddish-yellow, bordered with dark grey. It lives on poplars and willows from autumn to May. GENUS IL—LASIOCAMPA (SCHRANK). Hind margins of the wings, or at least of the hind-wings, dentated or waved (except in L. Rubi), and shorter than the inner margin; fore-wings generally with a pale spot in the middle. The cocoon is rather loose. 1. L. Pruni (Linn.).—Reddish-orange; all the wings dentated; fore-wings with a whitish spot in the middle, and two dark transverse lines, the hinder one dentated, and reaching the costa much before the tip. Expands about 2} inches. Found throughout a great part of Central and Southern Europe (except Britain) in June and July, but is a scarce insect. The larva is bluish- grey, spotted with whitish, with yellowish longitudinal lines, a reddish-yellow transverse spot on the 4th segment, and a hairy tubercle on the last segment but one. It lives from autumn to May on forest-trees and fruit-trees. The moth is figured at Pl. 28, Fig. 2. ve? | - 7 } ae ~~ eae LASIOCAMPA., 129 2. £. Pini (Linn.).—Fore-wings with the hind margin waved, grey, but varying much in depth of colour, generally with a reddish-brown band at the base, and another beyond the middle; a white spot before the middle, and two or three dentated black transverse lines, the last of which forms large curves; the hind-wings are dark reddish-brown. Expands about 2} inches. It is common in pine-forests throughout Central Europe (except Britain) and Northern Asia from the end of June to August. The larva, which is often very destructive, is ashy-grey, with red hairs, and brown lozenge-shaped spots on the back, and brown stripes on the sides, blue transverse spots on the 3rd and 4th segments, and a tubercle on the last segment but one. It feeds on Pinus sylvestris from autumn to the beginning of June. The transformations are figured at Pl. 28, Fig. 3, a—c. *3. L. Potatoria (Linn.), (Drinker Moth).—Wings with the hind margins slightly waved, ochre- yellow, suffused with purplish-brown in the male, with two white spots before the middle, and a brown line running from the tip to the inner margin. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. Common throughout the greater part of Europe and Northern Asia in June and July. The larva is dark brown, with a yellow stripe broken into spots on the sides, and a black tuft of hair on the 3rd segment, and also on the last but one. It feeds on grass from autumn to June, and is one of the most frequently observed and easiest reared larve among our moths. The male, female, and young larva are figured at Pl. 28, Fig. 4, a—c. 4. L. Lunigera (Esp.), Lobulina (Esp.).—Hind margins dentated, and fringes chequered with black and white ; fore-wings dark grey, dusted with pale grey, with a white lunule in the middle, and two black transverse stripes bordered with whitish; hind-wings dark grey. Expands about 2 inches. It is found in Northern Europe and South Germany in August, but is a scarce and local insect. The larva has tufts of hair on the back, and longer ones on the 3rd segment and the last segment but one. It is blue or violet, with black spots on a yellow ground on the back, and oblique yellowish streaks on the sides. It lives on fir-trees from autumn to June. 5. L. Lineosa (De Vill.).—Fore-wings ashy-grey, with an oblique white band, bordered on both sides with black, and sinuated and angulated externally, running from the tip to near the base of the inner margin. There are two angulated black spots above it near the tip. The fringes are white, spotted with black, and the hind-wings are uniform dark ashy-grey. Expands about 2} inches. It is found in South France and Spain in June. The larva feeds on cypress. It hybernates, and arrives at maturity about the end of April. (ZL. Otus, Drury, from South- Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, is the largest species of the genus, expanding 44 inches. The wings are long and narrow, entire, and of a luteous-brown colour, the fore-wings with two denticu- lated black transverse lines, and a dark patch near the base.) *6. L. Trifolii (W. V.).—Wings with the hind margins waved, brownish-red, or reddish-grey ; fore-wings with a white central spot, and a curved whitish oblique streak behind. It is very variable ; the variety Medicaginis (Borkh.) has rusty-brown wings ; in variety Cocles (Hiibn.) the wings are reticulated with yellow; and the variety Retame (Herr.-Schiff.) has yellow fore-wings, with brown bands. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. It is widely distributed, and not uncommon in Southern and Central Europe and Western Asia in July and August. The larva is covered with thick brownish-yellow felty hair. It has dark blue incisions, dotted with white, a yellowish streak on the sides, and an orange-yellow head. It lives from autumn to June on grass and low plants. (ZL. Eversmanni, Eversm., from the Ural, is perhaps a variety of this. It is ochreous, with the hind-wings darker, and the fore-wings have the fringes, a waved stripe near the middle, and a ring in the middle brown. The larva is black, with yellow lines on the back, and yellow dashes on the sides. The 2nd segment, and a broad stripe above the dashes, are orange. It is said to feed either on scabious or on acacia.) 24 130 European Borrerriizs AND Morus. * 7. L. Quercus (Linn.), (Oak Eggar)—Hind margins scarcely waved ; wings chestnut-brown in the male, and ochre-yellow in the female, with a broad pale yellow transverse band, suffused externally, beyond the middle, and a white spot in the middle of the fore-wings. In the variety Callune (Palmer) the transverse stripe on the inner margin of the hind-wings is rather curved, and the ground-colour of the male is reddish-grey. Expands from 2} to 3 inches. Common throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia in July and August. The male flies very rapidly by day, and can scarcely be captured on the wing, except by “assembling.” It is easily bred from the larva, which resembles that of 7yifoliz, but the incisions are black, dotted with white, and the stripe on the sides is white. It feeds on trees, heath, and low plants from autumn to June. In mountainous districts the larva does not form its cocoon till July, and the pupa also hybernates, the moth appearing in the following June. Both sexes of the moth are figured, with their transformations, at Pl. 29, Fig. 1, a—e. *8. L. Rubi (Linn.), (For Moth)—Wings rounded, cinnamon-brown in the male, and greyish- brown in the female; fringes unspotted ; fore-wings with two nearly straight whitish tranverse stripes, but with no white central spot. Expands from 2 to 24 inches. It is common throughout Europe (except the extreme north and south) and in the Altai in May and June. The male flies on heaths towards evening. The larva, which smells of musk, has rather long hair; when young it is black, with reddish-yellow bands; and when full-grown it is brown, and the sides are black, with dark blue incisions. It lives chiefly on heath, and hybernates when full-grown, becoming a pupa in spring in its winter quarters. It is very difficult to keep alive through the winter. The larva and both sexes of the moth are figured at Pl. 29, Fig. 2, a—c. GENUS III.—CLISIOCAMPA (STEPH.). Wings rounded, the fore-wings with no pale spot in the middle; the palpi small, generally entirely concealed by the hair. The abdomen of the female is not tufted at the extremity. The cocoon is barrel-shaped. * 1. C. Crategi (Linn.).—Fore-wings pale grey, with the central area darker grey, and bordered by two black transverse lines, the hindermost of which forms two angles. The long fringes are regularly intersected with dusky, and the hind-wings are brownish. The colour varies from pale to dark, and the central area is sometimes scarcely darkened. Expands from 1} to 14 inches. It is found throughout Europe and Western Asia in September and October. The larva is clothed with thin hair, and is bluish-black, with brick-red hairy warts, white or yellow transverse bands, and a white line, broken into spots, on the sides. It lives on hawthorn, sloe, and willow in May and June. (C. /ic’s, Ramb., from Spain, resembles Crat@gi, but the transverse lines of the fore- wings are more sinuated and angular, and there is an additional line towards the hind margin. Its slender reddish larva feeds on oak in May.) * 2. C. Populi (Linn.).—Wings thinly scaled, with spotted fringes; fore-wings dark grey, with two pale yellow transverse stripes, one near the base and the other beyond the middle ; hind-wings pale grey. Expands from 14 to 1} inches. It is not uncommon throughout the greater part of Europe, appearing from September to December, according to the locality. The larva is thinly clothed with hair, and is grey, with a row of darker and often connected spots, and small reddish- yellow warts on the back, and a reddish-yellow transverse spot on the back of the neck. It feeds on various trees, and may be found on the trunks during the day in spring and early summer. The moth is figured at Pl. 28, Fig. 5. (C. /ntermedia, Mill., found at Cannes in December, resembles this, but is more densely scaled, the fore-wings are more varied, and the white basal line is replaced by a large dull fulvous spot surrounded with whitish.) ERIOGASTER. ee 3. C. Franconica (W. V.).—Wings thinly scaled, dark olive-brown in the male, with whitish irregularly-spotted fringes ; fore-wings with two indistinct pale yellow transverse stripes ; those of the female uniform brownish-red. The fore-wings form an obtuse angle below the tip. Expands about If inches. It is found in South Europe and Western Asia in July and August, and is also met with in some parts of South-Western Germany. The larva is bluish-black, with yellow hairs, and a blue stripe on the back followed by four yellowish-red lines. There is also a pale blue streak on the sides, and a reddish-yellow line below it. It feeds on various plants in May and June. (C. Aficola, Staud., found in the high Alps, is smaller, with more rounded and opaque wings. The fore-wings of the male are chocolate-brown, with a very broad oblique transverse band, and those of the female are dark reddish-brown, with an indistinct oblique line, but not paler in the centre. It appears from July to September, and the larva lives on different species of willow, and on Rosa pimpinellifolia.) *4. C. Neustria (Linn.), (Lackey Moth).—Fore-wings ochre-yellow, with two brown nearly straight transverse stripes; or brownish-red, with two pale yellow ones; the intermediate space is generally darker. The hind-wings are paler, and the fringes are irregularly spotted with brown. Expands from 1} to 1} inches. Common throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia in July and August. The larva is covered with soft, thin hair ; there is a white line on the back, and blue, red, and yellow longitudinal streaks. The eggs are laid closely together in a broad ring round a branch; the larve hatch in the following April, and live till June under a common web on forest and fruit trees. They are often destructive, but the eggs, or the nests with the young larve, are readily discovered and destroyed. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 28, Fig. 6, a, d. * 5. C. Castrensis (Linn.).—Fore-wings of the male pale yellow, with two brown transverse stripes connected in the middle and shaded with brown beyond ; those of the female are reddish- brown, with two indistinct pale yellow transverse stripes ; hind-wings brown, fringes irregularly spotted. The variety Taraxacoides (Bell.), from South France, has unicolorous straw-coloured wings. Size, times of appearance, distribution, &c., similar to Meustria, but Castrensis is a much scarcer species. The larva is orange on the back, and blue on the sides, with black streaks and spots, and a whitish line on the back bordered with blue. It lives on heath, spurge, &c., in May and June. The sexes and larva are figured at Pl. 28, Fig. 7,a—c. (C. Neogena, Waldh., is brown, with an ash- coloured spot in the middle of the fore-wings, and a double row of connected ashy lunules before the hind margin ; the hind-wings are also ashy. It occurs in South Russia and Western Asia.) GENUS IV.—ERIOGASTER (GERM.). Wings rounded; fore-wings with a white spot in the middle ; abdomen of the female with an anal tuft. The moths appear from August to October, except Lanestris, which is met with in February. The larve live gregariously under a web when young, and disperse when older. They may be looked for in May and June. The moths expand from r} to 13 inches. 1. E. Rimicola (W. V.).—Fore-wings reddish-grey, with the hind margins more thinly scaled, and with a white spot in the middle; hind-wings paler. Widely distributed in Central Europe, except the north-west. It has not hitherto been recorded as British, but it is quite possible that an insect which has been stated to appear a week before Lanestris, in Worcestershire, may really be Rimicola. The larva is thinly hairy, ashy-grey, with a blue stripe on the back, edged first with black and then with white, on each of which stand reddish-yellow warts. It feeds on oak, and is figured, with the moth, at Pl. 29, Fig. 3, a, 3, 132 European Bourrerriies AND Morus. 2. E. Catax (Linn.).—Fore-wings golden-yellow in the male, with a central white spot, and the hind margin reddish-grey ; and rust-red in the female, with a pale transverse stripe behind the white spot; hind-wings paler, without markings. Common in most parts of Central Europe, except Britain. The larva is yellowish-brown, with deep black incisions, bluish-black spots on the back, and blue spots on the sides, streaked and dotted with yellow. It feeds on sloe and birch. The sexes of the moth are figured at Pl. 28, Fig. 8, a, 0. *3. E. Lanestris (Linn.), (Small Eggar)—Fore-wings rusty-brown, often suffused with grey in the male, with a white spot at the base and another in the middle, and an oblique white stripe before the hind margin ; the hind-wings are paler, with a whitish streak in the middle. Common throughout Europe. The larva is dark blue, with two rows of large and densely-hairy reddish- yellow warts on the back, and white spots between them ; it lives on sloe, hawthorn, &c., and is figured, with the larva, at Pl. 29, Fig. 4, a, 6. (&. Lott, Ochs., from Spain, is reddish-brown in the male, and ash-colour in the female, with a white spot in the middle of the fore-wings, and a waved white line behind it. The larva lives on gum cistus. GENUS V.—CRATERONYX (DUP). Wings rounded, rather long; nervules 6 and 7 of the hind-wings rise from the front angle of the discoidal cell, and the costal nervure rises from the base. The pectinations of the antennze are very long in the male, and a little shorter in the female. The larve are covered with thin short hair, and with small warts ; they live on low plants in May and June, and hide themselves in the ground during the day. They change to pupe on the surface of the ground without forming a cocoon, and the moths appear in October. 1. C. Dumeti (Linn.).—Wings dark olive-brown, with a slightly-curved ochre-yellow transverse stripe, and an ochre-yellow spot in the middle of the fore-wings. Expands about 2 inches. It is found throughout the greater part of Europe, except Britain, but is considered a scarce insect, The larva is dark grey, with a row of deep black, oval, transverse spots on each side of the back; it feeds on Hzeracium, dandelion, &c. The moth is figured at Pl. 29, Fig. 5. (C. Balcanica, Herr.- Schaff., from Bulgaria and Armenia, is ochreous-grey in the male, and brownish-grey in the female, with a pale stripe near the middle of the wings, and a large brown spot in the middle of the fore- wings, surrounded with paler.) 2. C. Taraxaci (W. V.).—Ochre-yellow ; the female paler, with a small black dot before the middle of the fore-wings, and black hind-wings. Rather smaller than Dasetz. A local species in the southern half of Central Europe. The larva is orange on the back, and dark brown on the sides, with deep black spots on the sides of the back. It feeds on dandelion. GENUS VIL—MEGASOMA (BOISD.). Body thick, and extending considerably beyond the hind-wings; palpi stout, projecting beyond the head; antenna of the male deeply pectinated towards the base, and moderately towards the tip ; those of the female slightly pectinated. Wings long and rather narrow; hind margin of the fore-wings very oblique. The only European species, 17. Repanda (Hiibn.), is found in Spain and North Africa. It is reddish-brown, with two red spots on the thorax; fore-wings with a curved brown lunule, a waved white stripe, and a white spot at the base; hind-wings reddish-white. In the male the shoulders and the disc of the fore-wings are darker. Expands from 2 to 2} inches. The male is much smaller than the female. The larva lives on different species of Spartium. It is abundant at Cadiz, where there is a succession of broods throughout the year. ee oe —— v = CNETHOCAMPA. 133 FAMILY XII—BOMBYCIDA. The only European species is the well-known Silkworm (Lombyx Mori, Linn.), which is reared throughout Southern Europe (where its silk is a staple article of trade), and has become naturalised in many places, though it was originally a native of China. The palpi are very short, the body is large and thick, and the abdomen extends beyond the hind-wings. The antenne are deeply pectinated in both sexes, and the legs are stout and hairy. The wings, which have lost their power of flight in the domesticated races from disuse, expand from 1} to 2 inches, and are of a yellowish- white, with indistinct dusky transverse lines. The fore-wings are slightly falcate. The larva is creamy-white, with a hump on the last segment but one. Its real food is the white mulberry, but in England it is often fed on lettuce. It spins a small oval yellow or white cocoon, but is not reared for commercial purposes in England. I have been informed by an experienced silk- throwster of Dublin, that British-grown silk, although of excellent quality, is too short to be of any commercial value. FAMILY XIII—NOTODONTID#. Moderate-sized or rather large moths, generally with stout hairy bodies extending beyond the hind-wings. The wings are strong; the fore-wings long and triangular, often with a projecting tooth-like tuft of scales on the inner margin; the hind-wings slenderer, smaller, and folded in repose. The thorax is short, and the antennz of the male are pectinated, and those of the female are more slightly pectinated, serrated, or simply ciliated. The tongue and palpi are generally slightly developed ; the legs are short, and the thighs are densely woolly. Several species have ocelli. The larve are naked, or thinly clothed with hair, with sixteen legs, or fourteen when the claspers are absent ; and the pupe are generally thick and obtuse. The moths fly at night, but may often be found resting on tree-trunks, &c., in the day-time, with their wings sloping rather steeply, and the front pair of legs generally extended. Most of the species emerge from the cocoon in the evening. Though widely distributed, many species of this family seem to be rare everywhere. GENUS I.—CNETHOCAMPA (STEPH.). The moths resemble the smaller Lastocampide ; the fore-part of the body is densely woolly, and the fore-wings are broad, rounded, and triangular, with a dark central lunule, two or three dark transverse stripes, of which the hindermost is slightly dentated, and the fringes spotted with paler; the hind-wings are small, rounded, and whitish. The larve have sixteen legs, and are clothed with fine barbed hairs; they live in webs, and go to feed in a regularly-arranged order, whence they are called Processionary Caterpillars. They construct firm oval cocoons, mixed with hairs, which are enclosed in a large common web. The insects are not so common as might be supposed from their gregarious habits. The hairs of the larva, as well as the dust in the webs, are highly irritating to the skin; a property from which even the hairs of the moths are not wholly free. 1. C. Processionea (Linn.).—Fore-wings shining yellowish-grey, with dark grey transverse stripes and an indistinct central lunule; hind-wings with a dark transverse shade. Forehead hairy. Expands rather more than I inch, Common throughout a great part of Southern and Central Europe (except Britain), though somewhat local, in August and September. The larva is bluish- 134 EvroPean Borrerriies AND Morus. black on the back, and whitish on the sides, with two small reddish-yellow or grey warts on each segment. It lives on oak in May and June, and goes out to feed at night in a pyramidal procession, one larva at the head, then two behind, then three, four, five, &c., in a row. The moth and larva are figured at Pl. 24, Fig. 7, a, 0. 2. C. Pityocampa (W. V.).—Fore-wings varied with grey and whitish, with blackish, often indistinct transverse lines and central spot; hind-wings generally with a grey spot at the anal angle. The forehead is naked, with sharp transverse ridges, and the front tibia have a curved horny bristle at the extremity. Expands about 14 inches. It inhabits Southern and South Central Europe in May and June. The larva is bluish-black above, with a brownish-yellow transverse projection on each segment, and whitish beneath; it lives on fir-trees in July and August, and its habits are similar to those of the last species. (C. Pinivora, Tr., is only to be distinguished from P2tyocampa in the larva state. The larva has triangular black spots on the back, and brownish-red warts. It lives on Pinus sylvestris in North Germany, and always walks in single file, and the nests are constructed in the sand at the foot of the trees. The inflamma- tion caused by the hair is so severe as often to produce very obstinate itching eruptions of the skin, which are liable to return after a long interval, for years afterwards. C. (?) Herculeana, Ramb., from Andalusia, has whitish fore-wings, varied with yellowish, and four waved or indented transverse brown lines; the antenne and anal tuft are also yellowish in the male. The hind- wings are white, and all the fringes are spotted with brown. In the female the lines are sometimes confluent, and the fore-wings are sometimes entirely reddish-brown, with longitudinal white streaks towards the base, and the hind-wings are also tinged with brown. The larva is thick and blackish, and lives on different species of geranium.) GENUS II.—PYGRA (OCHS.). Thorax densely clothed with flattened hairs, and crested behind, with a dark longitudinal spot; the antenne are very short, and the wings are rounded. The fore-wings are grey, with three pale transverse stripes; and darker grey behind, or with a large dark spot at the tip; the hind-wings are brownish-grey, and the fringes unspotted. The abdomen of the male is long, with a bifurcated anal tuft, and the abdomen is raised when at rest. The larve have sixteen legs, and are thinly clothed with soft hair. They have long hairy warts on the sides, and hairy tubercles on the 5th and 12th segments. They live in June, and again in autumn, on poplars and willows, between leaves loosely spun together, and change to pupz in a soft hairy cocoon ; the moths appear in May, and again in July and August; but the May brood is the only one which is generally met with in Britain. ; 1. P. Timon (Hibn.).—Fore-wings violet-grey, varied with brown, and spotted with reddish- brown before the hind margin; the hindmost transverse stripe across the middle sharply dentated, forming a white lunule on the costa; hind-wings with two pale transverse stripes. Size of Anastomosis. Inhabits Eastern Europe and Northern Asia; found as far west as Moravia and East Prussia, where it is extremely rare. The Sarva is ashy-grey, with rose- coloured warts, and an additional tubercle on the 6th segment; head brown. It feeds on aspen. 2. P. Anastomosis (Linn.).—Fore-wings reddish violet-grey, varied with brown and orange beyond the middle, with the transverse stripes a little paler, and not indented ; hind-wings uniform greyish-brown. Expands a little over 1 inch. | Widely distributed in Europe, except the north-west and south, but not very common. It also inhabits Siberia, The larva is brown, PxALERA—CERURA. 135 black above, with two yellow stripes on the back, and warts covered with red hairs. It lives on aspen and willow. . * 3. P. Pigra (Hufn.), Reclusa (W. V.).—Wings of a paler grey than in Axastomosis; the dark marginal half of the fore-wings bordered with white in front, and the transverse lines whiter, especially the hindermost towards the costa, where it is broader and interrupted. Expands from one-third of an inch to an inch. It appears to be common throughout Europe and Western Asia. The larva is grey, yellow above, with blackish dots, and with yellow dots on the sides; the tubercles on the 5th and 12th segments are black. * 4. C. Anachoreta (W. V.).—Fore-wings brownish ashy-grey, greyish-black varied with yellow at the tip as far as the middle of the costa, and to beyond the middle of the hind margin, with whitish transverse stripes, and black spots above the inner margin. Expands about 1} inches. Not uncommon throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia; the only British locality is Folkestone. The larva is brown; the back is greyish, with interrupted blackish lines and black and yellow spots, and the tubercles are reddish-yellow. It lives on poplars and willows. The moth is figured at Pl. 24, Fig. 8. *5. P. Curtula (Linn.), (Chocolate Tip)—Resembles Anachoreta, but the fore-wings are paler, and of a more reddish-grey, and the brownish-red tip only extends as far as the hindmost transverse stripe. Expands about 1} inches. Common throughout the greater part of Europe. The larva is brownish-grey, with a reddish line on the back, and reddish-yellow spots on the sides ; or greenish-grey, with the sides blackish; or flesh-coloured, with two black lines on the back. The tubercles are always black, and that on the 5th segment is rather large. It lives on poplars and willows. GENUS IL—PHALERA (HUBN.). Thorax with short thick hair, projecting behind. It is yellowish-brown above, and grey at the back and sides. The fore-wings are rather long, with fringes waved at the edges. They are of a mixed silvery-white and silvery-grey colour, obscurely waved with darker, and with two dark brown double transverse lines, the hindermost of which borders a large, pale, ochre- yellow spot, varied with pale brown, which extends to the tip. The hind-wings are whitish- yellow, and the abdomen is long, and ochre-yellow. The larve have sixteen legs, and are thinly haired. They feed from July to September, and form their pupa in the ground. The moths appear in May and June. * 1, P. Bucephala (Linn.), (Duff-tip)—The fore-wings are silvery-grey, with a pale yellow spot at the tip extending to the middle of the hind margin, and a small yellowish spot in the middle. The abdomen is spotted with brown on the sides. Expands from 2} to 2} inches. Common in Europe and Northern and Western Asia. The larva is blackish, with longitudinal stripes on the back and sides. It feeds on oak, lime, &c., and the moth is figured at Pl. 31, Fig. 1. 2. P. Bucephaloides (Ochs.).—Resembles PBucephala, but the yellow spot at the tip of the fore-wings is much larger, and extends over two-thirds of the hind margin. The central spot is larger, and the abdomen is not spotted. It inhabits South Europe and Western Asia. The iarva is ashy-grey, with dull, dark, longitudinal stripes and small yellow warts. It feeds on oak. GENUS IV.—CERURA (SCHRANK). The whole body is woolly, and the wings are rounded, with very short fringes. The fore-wings have a long oblique hind margin, and are whitish or grey, with oblique rows of 136 European Burrerrires AND Morns. black dots towards the base and hind margin, and blackish transverse lines beyond the middle, which are much dentated. There is often a broad dark-grey transverse band, bordered with black and yellow, and the hind-wings are whitish. The larve have only fourteen legs. They are naked; green, with a large, smooth, retractile head, and a pyramidal elevation on the 4th segment, from which a triangular violet or brown spot bordered with white runs to the head, and an irregularly-broad streak of the same colour runs to the tail. The abdomen terminates in two long slender tubes, from which soft threads can be protruded. The larve live on trees from July to September, and change to pupe in a firm cocoon composed of fragments of wood, and the moths appear from May to July. *1. C. Vinula (Linn.), (Puss Moth).—Fore-wings white, suffused with greyish, with dull dark-grey transverse lines, which are much dentated. The thorax is spotted with black, and there are two rows of black spots on the abdomen. The Lapland variety Phantoma (Dalm.) is almost entirely black. Expands from 2} to 3 inches. Common throughout Europe and Northern and Western Asia. The larva is blackish when young, and pale green when full- grown; the head is bordered with red, and the spot behind it and the streak on the back are varied with greyish-brown or red; the streak is much widened in the middle, and varied with greenish. It feeds on poplars and willows. When irritated it discharges an acrid fluid from an opening in the throat. The transformations are figured at Pl. 30, Fig. 4, a—«. 2. C. Erminea (Esp.).—Resembles C. Vinula, but the fore-wings are of a purer white, with more distinct black zigzag lines, and the abdomen is black almost to the extremity, with a white stripe on the back. Size of Vinula. Widely distributed in Central and North-Eastern Europe, though generally rare, but absent in the north-west. The larva also resembles that of Vinula, but the streak on the back is bluish-grey and narrower, and a white transverse stripe runs from it to the legs on the 8th segment. It feeds on poplars and willows. The moth is figured at Pl. 30, Fig. 5. * 3. C. Bifida (Hiibn.).—Fore-wings white, suffused with grey, with dark zigzag transverse lines beyond, and a broad dark-grey transverse band before the middle, which is straight in front and slightly hollowed behind. The thorax is dark grey, varied with rusty-yellow. Expands about 1} inches. Widely distributed throughout Europe, and not scarce. The Spanish variety Uvocera (Boisd.) is darker and more uniform in colour. The larva is pale green, and the head is not bordered with red. The spot on the back of the neck is reddish- brown, and that on the back, which does not touch the other, is violet-brown; and the anal appendages are green, tipped with red. It feeds on poplars, and attaches its cocoon to the trunks. The moth is figured at Pl. 30, Fig. 6. *4. C. Furcula (Linn.)—Smaller than Bifida (expands from 1} to 14 inches); the fore- wings are greyer, and the grey transverse band is irregularly hollowed on the outside. Common in Northern and Central Europe. The larva resembles that of Sifda, but the spot on the neck and the dorsal stripe are connected. They are violet, spotted with red and yellow, and the hindmost is sometimes rose-coloured. The anal forks are ringed with brown and yellow. It lives on sallow and aspen. *5. C. Bicuspis (Borkh.)—Resembles the last two species, but the fore-wings are pure white, and the grey transverse band is much indented on both sides beyond the middle. Expands 1? inches. Widely distributed throughout Central Europe, but always scarce. The larva differs from those of its allies by the dorsal, streak, which widens as far as segment 8, where it touches the spiracles; the streak is reddish-brown, and is not connected with the spot on the neck, but terminates in a black plate. It feeds on birch, and sometimes beech Se a ee es eee K . WOU \ ih Wey NUS) H{vsocampa— Uropus—S TAUROPUS. 137 and alder. (C. Verbasci, Fabr., from South France, is pure white, with bluish-black spots on the fore-wings, which are mostly arranged in two interrupted bands; and three orange dots. Expands 1} inches. C. Juterrupta, Christoph, from Sarepta, is rather larger than Bifida; the fore-wings are chalky-white, spotted with black at the base and hind margin, with a black central band, broadly interrupted in the male, and sinuated on both sides in the female ; but with no reddish-yellow markings; hind-wings white. C.